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The Cervantes Encyclopedia
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The Cervantes Encyclopedia Volume II L–Z
Howard Mancing
GREENWOOD PRESS Westport, Connecticut • London
Page iv Library of Congress CataloginginPublication Data Mancing, Howard, 1941– The Cervantes encyclopedia/Howard Mancing. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Contents: v. 1. A–K—v. 2. L–Z. ISBN 0313306958 (set: alk. paper)—ISBN 0313328900 (v. 1: alk. paper)—ISBN 0313328919 (v. 2: alk. paper) 1. Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de, 1547–1616—Encyclopedias. I. Title. PQ6337.A2 2004 863'.3–dc21 2003054725 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available. Copyright © 2004 by Howard Mancing All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2003054725 ISBN: 0313306958 (set) 0313328900 (v.1) 0313328919 (v.2) First published in 2004 Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. www.greenwood.com Printed in the United States of America The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48–1984). 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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For Nancy, with love
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Contents
Introduction: Cervantes in Context
Abbreviations
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Chronology
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1
Cervantes Encyclopedia
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Selected Bibliography
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Index
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Introduction Cervantes in Context The goal of The Cervantes Encyclopedia is to place Miguel de Cervantes and his works in context—actually, in a series of contexts: historical, cultural, personal, literary, critical, textual, and intertextual. This work is intended for all readers of the works of Cervantes, whether they read in Spanish or in English. It is the first such work designed to be totally accessible to readers of English. In it, the reader will find entries of the following types: • brief commentary on all known works written by Cervantes and a fairly detailed plot summary of each; • virtually all the characters in Cervantes’s works; • historical personages of importance in the life and times of Cervantes; • places and items of interest in Cervantes’s life and works; • names from history, myth, and literary works cited or alluded to in Cervantes’s works; • concepts and terms important to understanding the life, times, and works of Cervantes; • most of the important episodes in Don Quixote and selected episodes from Cervantes’s other works; • authors and works of literature cited or alluded to in the works of Cervantes; • important theories and theorists of the novel; • many modern novelists and other writers inspired or influenced by Cervantes, especially by Don Quixote; • some artists and musicians similarly inspired or influenced by Cervantes, especially by Don Quixote; and • several of the more salient aspects of contemporary Cervantes scholarship and criticism. My aim has been for comprehensiveness, but it is not possible to include everything that might conceivably be of interest to all readers. No attempt has been made, for example, to note every reference to the pantheon of the Christian hierarchy: God, Jesus, the Virgin Mary, and so forth. Similarly, no attempt has been made to cite all references to Nature, Love, Heaven, Fortune, or other commonplace personifications and/or allusions. Some common names or epithets are identified only in very brief form. The coordination of English and Spanish has provided an interesting challenge. Since my own reading of all of Cervantes’s works has been in Spanish, it is the Spanish version of names, geographical locations, concepts, titles, and terms that seems most natural to me. But since many readers of this work will not know Spanish, and for them many of these names or terms would be incomprehensible or unclear, it has been necessary to settle on a method of citation that both maintains the Spanish and is accessible to English speakers. After trying out several models, the one I have chosen is the following: • All personal names that are Spanish in origin are kept in Spanish (with English versions provided in brackets when needed). Thus, for example, I cite Miguel, not Michael; Carlos, not Charles;
Page x and Juan de la Cruz, not John of the Cross. • Place names are cited in the form used in English (with Spanish versions provided in brackets when needed). Thus, I cite Algiers, not Argel; Castile, not Castilla; and Lisbon, not Lisboa. • Fictional characters are listed under their first names but historical characters are listed under their last names, a frequent practice in works of this kind. Thus, I cite Sancho Panza (not Panza, Sancho) but Alemán, Mateo (not Mateo Alemán). A few characters are listed by their title when it is an inseparable part of their identity: Don Quixote, Cide Hamete Benengeli, Maese Pedro. • Titles of works that are original in Spanish are cited in Spanish (with English translations in parentheses), whereas works from other languages are cited in their original (with English versions in parentheses when needed). Therefore, all the works of Cervantes are listed under their original Spanish title; for example, Novelas ejemplares, not Exemplary Novels. In every case, the English title is also listed separately, with a crossreference to the Spanish original. The abbreviations I use throughout are also derived from the Spanish originals: Fuerza (La fuerza de la sangre), not Power (The Power of Blood). • Common nouns and phrases are listed in English (with the Spanish provided in brackets and/or crossreferenced as necessary). So I have entries for honor, purity of blood, and romances of chivalry, with the Spanish terms (honra, limpieza de sangre, and libros de caballerías) crossreferenced. Because English translations vary in the way they treat names, titles, terms, and concepts, I have made no attempt to include every possible English version for a Spanish title, name, or term. The title of Don Quixote alone can be—and has been—rendered in various ways in English. It would have been folly to attempt to include every known version of titles, names, places, terms, and concepts that have appeared in English. Therefore, I have arbitrarily chosen one translation for each of Cervantes’s works (see final bibliography) to use as a reference for English versions: • the Ormsby, Jones, and Douglas translation of Don Quixote; • the Ife et al. translation of Novelas ejemplares; • the Weller and Colahan translation of Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda; • the Smith translation of the Entremeses; and • for the most part, my own translations for La Galatea and Cervantes’s theater and poetry, which tend not to be available in recent translations in English. Note, however, that passages of text from Cervantes’s works cited in English are not taken from these translations. No single translation always captures the precise nuances I want to stress, so all translations throughout this encyclopedia are my own and enclosed in single quotation marks, although I have also consulted various translations at various times. (Translations from English or published translations are enclosed in double quotation marks.) Spelling variants can also be a problem. Since there was no official standard for spelling in Renaissance Spain, names and terms often appeared in multiple variations: MexíaMejía, JoséJosefIosef, ValdivielsoValdivieso; and dijodixo, tasatassa, viajeviage. The name Cervantes is documented in the following forms: Cerbantes, Cervante, Cervantes, Serbantes, Servantes, Zervantes. Since certain forms of writing were regularized after Cervantes’s day, I have attempted consistently to use the modern form. Thus, for example, Cervantes wrote Quixote, pronounced keeshotay—which is why the French spelling is Quichotte and the Italian is Chisciotte, both closer in pronunciation (as is, for that matter, the English Quixote: Quicksot). But in the eighteenth century, the Royal Spanish Academy (founded
Page xi in 1714) determined that after the sibilant shift of the seventeenth century, in which the pronunciation of words with an x shifted to a harder j sound, all words with x would henceforth be written with a j. So, today in Spanish the correct form of the name is Quijote, pronounced keehotay. (This is also why many Spaniards write Méjico, whereas Mexicans, proudly asserting their independence by retaining the original spelling, insist on Mexico, even though the pronunciation is the same.) Titles and important concepts have also proven vexing. Titles such as don or cadí mean things in Spanish that no single equivalent word in English could convey; therefore, they have been maintained throughout, and each has a separate entry in which they are described and/ or defined in ways that I think will be helpful to non Spanish readers. Similarly, there are terms used throughout the works of Cervantes that have no simple, direct English equivalent. Examples are pícaro, hidalgo, and dueña. Spanish terms such as these are used throughout the body of the encyclopedia and also described in separate entries. Likewise, bibliographies have provided special challenges. I have included at the end of many entries a minimal bibliography of one or more (depending on the length of the entry and the quantity and quality of bibliography available) critical books and/or essays. Such a selection is, by definition, arbitrary (but not capricious), and I can only hope to give the reader an orientation in a search for more information about the entry. The same is true of the bibliography at the end of the encyclopedia; the works included there are but a selection of what is available. Over 100 scholarly studies are published each year on Cervantes and his works, and no attempt has been made to be inclusive. I have chosen to place emphasis on more recent works (sometimes at the expense of classic essays) and on works in English and Spanish (sometimes at the expense of important works in other languages). Because the production of Cervantes scholarship is so great, important new studies will have appeared while this work is in the process of being printed. Within a few years, the bibliographies included here will begin to appear deficient. Certainly within a decade or so, they will be dated and of limited use. One reason for the emphasis on English is that I assume that many users of this reference work will not know Spanish, and I have wanted to make the fruits of scholarship available to them. Anyone who speaks and reads Spanish and is consulting this work obviously also reads English, and thus has an advantage over the monolingual English speaker who needs more help. For this reason, I have attempted to provide both Spanish and English equivalents whenever possible, or to explain and/or translate important Spanish terms. Furthermore, there already exists an excellent Enciclopedia cervantina in Spanish, by Juan Bautista AvalleArce. The present work was conceived and begun about the time AvalleArce’s encyclopedia was published (1997), but I was not aware of his work until 2000, well after my project was underway. I have profited immensely from the availability of AvalleArce’s encyclopedia, consulting it on innumerable occasions to verify my own work and answer questions that had arisen. These two compilations are similar in several ways, but are also radically different in others. AvalleArce, for example, does not have to deal with problems of English translations; he cites far more frequently and extensively than I do from the texts of Cervantes’s works; he devotes more attention to detailed facets of Cervantes scholarship, especially the historical and textual, than I do, but he does not include bibliographies; he includes more information on works attributed to Cervantes than I do; he dedicates less space than I do to theorists of the novel and modern writers who have been influenced by Cervantes; he does not need to devote as much space to explanations of commonly known aspects of Spanish culture of the Renaissance—such as desengaño, hidalgo, and honra—as I do; he identifies and comments on all original poems and foreign phrases included within the prose works, whereas I do not; and he does not include entries for members of Cervantes’s family, friends, and associates, but I do. Other important reference works on Cervantes have
Page xii also proven valuable to me, none more than César Vidal’s Enciclopedia del Quijote (1999). Overall, the three encyclopedias complement each other, I believe, and provide readers with options not available just a short time ago. (After this encyclopedia had been completed and was in the early stages of production, I learned of the projected 2005 publication of a 10volume Gran enciclopedia cervantina [Great Cervantes Encyclopedia], a collaborative effort sponsored by the Centro de Estudios Cervantinos and directed by Carlos Alvar. This enormous work will undoubtedly enrich the resources available to both scholars and other interested readers of the works of Cervantes.) In addition to these specific Cervantes reference tools and others of a similar nature, I have drawn extensively from a large number of encyclopedias, dictionaries, and other reference works; annotated editions of Cervantes’s works; critical and interpretive books and essays on Cervantes; biographies of Cervantes; dictionaries and histories of literature; historical studies; and even maps and tourist guides. I have made no attempt to cite all of these works in the bibliography. It is important to call attention to a major theoretical assumption that I have employed in this work. I do not conceive of the elements of literature—authors, characters, and historical and geographical references—as mere signs and/or manifestations of language, nor do I treat the writings of Cervantes as selfreferential, free floating, decontextualized texts. In other words, I do not deal with Cervantes’s works as would most structuralists, semioticians, or poststructuralists. I believe that it is legitimate (even necessary) to consider authorial intentions (as best we can infer them) as being of interest and often helpful, but never as absolutely authoritative. I assume that texts often refer to versions of historical and social reality. Most importantly, I treat characters as versions of people rather than as sign systems. Throughout, I employ what in cognitive psychology is known as Theory of Mind (ToM): the folkpsychology assumption that other people have minds that function much as mine does; that people (including fictional versions of people) are motivated (they want, hope, remember, need, feel, and so forth) much as I would be in most situations; that authors (who have their own intentions and ToM) attribute a ToM to their characters and that readers must have such a theory in order to understand characters and plots. (For an introduction to the subject, see Sanjida O’Connell, Mindreading: An Investigation into How We Learn to Love and Lie [New York: Doubleday, 1998].) Finally, I have gone to considerable length in including entries for writers subsequent to Cervantes who have been influenced by, or found inspiration in, his work, or who have written works comparable in important ways to Don Quixote and other works by Cervantes. Such entries make up, I believe, the most original and innovative contribution of this encyclopedia. Thus, there are hundreds of entries for what I call quixotic novels—imitations of and sequels to Don Quixote, and novels with quixotic characters, themes, and techniques—along with a variety of recastings, versions, and adaptations of Don Quixote and other works by Cervantes. I have done this because I believe that this very large body of creative work is one of the most important testimonies to the continuing presence (often unrecognized or unappreciated, when not denied) of Cervantes in the world today. Although I hope that this is the most extensive compilation ever made of such works, it is very far from complete. Emphasis throughout has been placed on works written in Spanish and English, and on works of fiction (novels and short stories), as opposed to dramatic works and poetry (and with very few works written primarily for children, a subject that deserves separate study). Entries are of necessity brief and schematic, often pointing out only the obvious. I have also included entries for some artists and musicians who have made graphic and musical interpretations of Don Quixote and other Cervantes characters, but have only scratched the surface in these domains, where much work remains to be done. In many ways, the real beginning of this encyclopedia project was in the spring of 1974, when I first began to read extensively works of fiction from all times and places with the ex
Page xiii plicit aim of noting any possible similarities to Don Quixote. My notes from nearly three decades of such reading have proven invaluable in the current project. If readers of the works of Cervantes find this encyclopedia useful, it will have fulfilled its purpose. Certainly the labor of compiling it has proven of immense value to me, as I now appreciate Cervantes’s subtlety in ways that had previously escaped me. Finally, I want to thank the scholars, colleagues, students, and friends who have kindly and perceptively read parts of this encyclopedia and/or responded to my inquiries about specific details. Their generous assistance has been invaluable and has saved me from a number of embarrassing mistakes, inconsistencies, and ambiguities. Not all of them have agreed with some of my understandings of the works or my treatment of some of the material, and most often I have followed their suggestions, but occasionally have (at my own peril) ignored their comments and continued in my own way. All errors or inconsistencies, as well as dubious interpretations, that remain are entirely my own. Special thanks goes first of all to Charles Ganelin, who has accompanied me throughout this project, reading, commenting, correcting, advising, and encouraging. Charles is the sort of colleague and friend who makes life much richer. I am indebted to some students and colleagues who have given assistance on certain specific matters: Rachel Bauer, Heidi Herron, Richard King, Paula Levinger, and Dan Eisenberg. Kristyn Kapetanovic, a Dean’s Freshman Scholar, has worked with me on cataloguing hundreds of works written in the wake of Cervantes. Several of my Purdue colleagues have given me advice in areas of their special linguistic and cultural expertise: Zena Breschinsky, John Kirby, Herb Rowland, and Allen Wood. A number of Cervantes and Golden Age specialists read and commented on sections of an early version of the manuscript, and their corrections, comments, suggestions, questions, and recommendations have proven invaluable: David Castillo, Catherine Connor, Dominick Finello, Dian Fox, Bob Fiore, Ed Friedman, Charles Ganelin, Fred Jehle, Carolyn Nadeau, Theresa Rosenhagen, George Shipley, and Marcia Welles. Diana de Armas Wilson, as consultant reader for Greenwood Press, was the first person to read the entire manuscript; her corrections, comments, suggestions, and advice have also proven invaluable. Paul Dixon, head of the Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures at Purdue University, went out of his way to help with the printing and copying of this very long and complicated manuscript. A very special word of thanks goes to Suzanne Ward, head of Access Services, and other members of the Interlibrary Loan staff of the libraries of Purdue University. They managed to secure for me a surprisingly large number of the several hundred interlibrary loan requests I flooded them with; this encyclopedia would have been very different without their dedicated efforts. And, above all, thanks to Nancy—for her occasional help with reference and in proofreading, of course, but mostly for her loving support, infinite patience, and good humor throughout the long gestation of this book.
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Abbreviations Adjunta Amante Baños ca. Capitán Cardenio Casa Casamiento Celoso CHB Coloquio Comedias Cornelia Cueva Curioso Doncellas DQ DQ DQ I DQ II DQA DQA DT Elección Entretenida Española Fregona Fuerza Galatea Gallardo Gitanilla Guarda Juez Laberinto MC Novelas Numancia Parnaso Pedro Persiles Poesías Retablo Rinconete Rufián Semanas SP SPA Sultana Tía Tratos Vidriera Viejo Viudo Vizcaíno
Adjunta al Parnaso El amante liberal Los baños de Argel Circa; about El capitán cautivo; the autobiographical narrative of Ruy Pérez de Viedma in DQ I, 39–41 The complex story of Cardenio, Dorotea, Fernando, and Luscinda that occupies parts of DQ I, 23–36 La casa de los celos y selvas de Ardenia El casamiento engañoso El celoso extremeño Cide Hamete Benengeli El coloquio de los perros Ocho comedias y ocho entremeses La señora Cornelia La cueva de Salamanca El curioso impertinente (in DQ I, 33–35) Las dos doncellas Don Quijote, the character in DQ Don Quijote (Partes I+II) Don Quijote Parte I (1605) Don Quijote Parte II (1615) Don Quijote, the character in DQA Don Quijote, Avellaneda’s sequel to MC’s DQ I Dulcinea del Toboso La elección de los alcaldes de Daganzo La entretenida La española inglesa La ilustre fregona La fuerza de la sangre La Galatea El gallardo español La gitanilla La guarda cuidadosa El juez de los divorcios El laberinto de amor Miguel de Cervantes Novelas ejemplares La Numancia El viaje del Parnaso Pedro de Urdemalas Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda Poesías sueltas: 1–35 El retablo de las maravillas Rinconete y Cortadillo El rufián dichoso Semanas del jardín Sancho Panza, the character from DQ Sancho Panza, the character from DQA La gran sultana La tía fingida Los tratos de Argel El licenciado vidriera El viejo celoso El rufián viudo El vizcaíno fingido
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Chronology 1547 Sept. 29 (probable); Saint Michael’s day. MC, son of Rodrigo de Cervantes, a surgeon, and his wife Leonor de Cortinas, is born in Alcalá de Henares. Oct. 9. MC is baptized in the church of Santa María la Mayor in Alcalá. 1551 March or April. MC’s family moves to Valladolid. 1553 MC’s family, destitute, returns to Alcalá for a while before moving to Córdoba, home of MC’s grandfather Juan de Cervantes. 1564 MC’s family moves to Seville. 1566 MC’s family moves to Madrid. 1568 MC is a student in the school directed by Juan López de Hoyos. 1569 MC’s first published works, four poems, appear in a volume of poetry edited by López de Hoyos on the occasion of the death of Queen Isabel de Valois. September 15. A royal order is issued for the arrest of MC, last known to be in Seville, for having wounded one Antonio de Sigura in a clash of arms. MC is to be returned to Madrid and have his right hand severed; if he survives this punishment, he is to be banished from the kingdom for ten years. MC arrives in Rome late in the year. 1570 MC enters the personal service of Cardinal Giulio Acquaviva in Rome. 1570 or MC enlists in the Spanish army in Naples. 71 1571 Oct. 7. MC participates in the battle of Lepanto, where, in spite of being ill and having a high fever, he fights valiantly and receives three wounds, two in the chest and one that results in the loss (or crippling) of his left hand. 1572 MC participates in expeditions against the Turks in Navarinon and Modon. 1573 MC participates in a military expedition to Tunis and La Goleta. 1575 Sept. 26. Returning to Spain on the galley Sol, MC and his brother Rodrigo are taken prisoner by Barbary pirates and held for ransom in Algiers. 1576 MC makes his first unsuccessful attempt to escape captivity. 1577 Rodrigo is ransomed and returns to Spain. MC makes his second unsuccessful escape attempt. 1578 MC makes his third unsuccessful escape attempt. 1579 MC makes his fourth unsuccessful escape attempt. 1580 September 19. As MC is about to be taken to Constantinople, he is ransomed by Trinitarian friars for the sum of 500 escudos. October 10. MC has sworn statements taken from 12 witnesses about his conduct during his years in captivity. October 24. MC departs for Spain. He lives for a month in Valencia before going to the Court in Madrid to look for work.
Page xviii 1581MC is briefly in Lisbon and then carries out a diplomatic mission to Oran. MC initiates his career as a dramatist in Madrid. 1582February 17. MC applies for a position in New Spain (Mexico), but his application is denied. 1584MC’s love affair with Ana Franca de Rojas results in the birth of his only child, Isabel de Saavedra. MC receives some 1336 reales from book merchant Blas de Robles for the right to print Galatea. December 12. MC marries Catalina de Palacios in her home town of Esquivias. 1585The first (and only) part of Galatea is published. MC signs a contract with Gaspar de Porres to write two plays. June. MC’s father dies. 1586MC joins the Imitative Academy, the first literary salon in Madrid. 1587MC receives an appointment as a royal commissary in Andalusia requisitioning oil and grain for the upcoming expedition of the Armada against England. MC is excommunicated twice, in Ecija and Castro del Río. 1588MC writes his two poems on the subject of the Armada. 1590May 21. MC again applies for a position in America, either in Colombia, Guatemala, or Bolivia. June 6. His petition is denied. 1592MC is held under charges of fraud for his professional activities. He is jailed briefly in Castro del Río before being declared innocent and set free. September 15. MC signs a contract with Rodrigo Osorio to provide him with six plays. 1593MC’s mother dies. 1594MC returns to Madrid and soon assumes the position as tax collector in Andalusia. 1595MC deposits some tax monies with a businessman in Seville, but the man goes bankrupt and absconds with the funds; as a result, MC receives a legal citation and must exert considerable effort to clear his name. 1597MC is jailed in Seville for debts. 1598April. MC is released from jail. MC writes the sonnet to the tomb of Felipe II and recites it in the Cathedral of Seville, causing a scandal. 1600MC’s brother Rodrigo dies in battle in Flanders. 1604MC moves to Valladolid, where the Court now resides, to live with his wife Catalina, his daughter Isabel, his sisters Magdalena and Andrea, and his niece Constanza. MC finishes DQ I and begins the process of publication. 1605DQ I is published and receives wide recognition. June. Gaspar de Ezpeleta is murdered in the entryway of the building where MC and his family live. They are jailed for a day as part of the investigation of the murder. The records indicate that at least some of the women with whom MC is living have less than admirable reputations. 1606MC moves to Madrid when the Court is relocated there. 1609MC joins the Brotherhood of the Slaves of the Most Holy Sacrament, a religious order whose members also include Lope de Vega and Francisco de Quevedo. MC is not invited to accompany the newly appointed Count of Lemos and an illustrious group of writers to Naples. MC’s sister Andrea dies.
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1615 1616
1617
MC’s sister Magdalena dies. The first translation of DQ, Thomas Shelton’s version in English, is published. Novelas is published. MC joins the Third Order of Saint Francis. Parnaso is published. DQA is published. The first French translation of DQ, by César Oudin, is published. October. Comedias is published. November. DQ II is published. March. MC finishes Persiles. April 2. MC takes his final vows in the Third Order of Saint Francis. April 18. Last rites are administered to MC. April 23. MC dies of dropsy (diabetes) and is buried in the Trinitarian Monastery in Madrid. Persiles is published by MC’s widow.
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L La del mayo. *Amaranta o La del mayo, La.
La del Pafo. *Venus.
La Goleta. *Goleta, La.
La Herradura. *Herradura, La.
La Mancha. *Mancha, La.
La Pata. *AlBatha.
La Rochelle [La Rochela]. A port city in southwestern France. La Rochelle was a small independent republic until 1628. See DQ I, 41.
La Sauceda. *Sauceda, La.
Laberinto de amor, El (Laberinto); The Labyrinth of Love. Sixth play in Comedias. Laberinto is an extremely complicated tale of courtly love, possibly based on some events in Orlando Furioso. It may well be a reworking of MC’s lost play La confusa, which the author described in Parnaso 4 as his best dramatic work. The frequent repetition of the words confuso, confusión, and related terms in the text might support this hypothesis. Although some modern students, and even some MC experienced specialists, have expressed frustration when trying to keep track of the action, Laberinto has a tighter dramatic construction and more coherent (though complex) plot than works such as Baños, Casa, or Gallardo. Act I: Duke Federico of Novara is negotiating with an emissary from Duke Manfredo of Rosenda concerning the possible marriage of Manfredo with Rosamira, Federico’s daughter. Suddenly, however, Dagoberto, Duke of Utrino, bursts in and accuses Rosamira of carrying on an illicit relationship with an unnamed man. Dagoberto declares that he is prepared to back up this accusation with deeds, and he stands ready to defend the claim against any defender of Rosamira’s. Confused, Federico calls for his daughter to be brought to him. Rosamira appears, hears the charges against her, and says not a word, but faints. Federico interprets the silence as a likely admission of guilt, and orders Rosamira to be locked in a tower until the matter is settled. Also confused, the emissary for Manfredo breaks off negotiations and departs. Duke Anastasio, dressed in peasant clothing, encounters Dagoberto and hears of the charges against Manfredo. Anastasio’s noble bearing and speech convince two other common citizens with whom he has been talking that he is no simple farmer. Next on the scene are Julia (sister of Anastasio) and Porcia, daughter and niece respectively of the duke of Dorlán, dressed as male shepherds. The former has taken the name of Camilo and the latter that of Rutilio. Porcia is trying to get Julia to call her by her assumed name and arguing that she needs to swear in order to sound more like a man. Manfredo, out hunting, meets Julia and Porcia, and takes a liking to them. Manfredo’s emissary arrives and informs him of the accusations made against Rosamira by Dagoberto and of Rosamira’s implicit admission of guilt. Another emissary, this one from the duke of Dorlán, arrives and informs Manfredo that the duke’s daughter and niece have disappeared and Manfredo is suspected of having abducted them. Manfredo absolutely denies the charges, and is left bewildered by the fact that both he and the woman he had hoped to marry are under suspicion. As he heads for Novara, Manfredo invites the two young shepherd youths, JuliaCamilo and PorciaRutilio, to accompany
Page 418 him. Anastasio and his servant, Cornelio, have an encounter with two students, Tácito and Andronio, whose affected speech is difficult to understand. Then Julia and Porcia, now also dressed as students, have a similar discussion with the same students. After the students depart, Julia and Porcia are joined by Manfredo, now also in student dress. They have a talk with two local citizens who reiterate the charges against Rosamira, whose father has promised her hand in marriage to the man who successfully defends her. Manfredo suspects that just as the charges against him are false, so those against Rosamira might also not be true. In a brief final scene, Federico talks with the jailer, who informs him that Rosamira continues to remain silent in the face of the grave accusations against her. Act II: Anastasio discusses the situation with Cornelio and decides that he first needs to find out whether Rosamira is innocent or not, but, in the end, he has decided to defend her. Anastasio then talks with Porcia (still in disguise as Rutilio) and learns that Manfredo has been accused of having kidnapped Julia and Porcia. Porcia, who recognizes Anastasio, but who is not recognized by him, then tells him that she has been given to understand that Porcia loves Anastasio. Pleased by this young man’s bearing, Anastasio invites him (her) to accompany him. The two students Tácito and Andronio appear briefly and decide to go to the tower where Rosamira is being held prisoner. Porcia, now dressed as a peasant, talks with Julia, still dressed as a student, and tells her that she has decided to accompany Anastasio. In a complicated scene, Anastasio and Manfredo almost get into a duel, while Julia and Porcia simultaneously nearly get into a fight; cooler heads prevail, however, and violence is averted. Anastasio then asks his new friend (Porcia) to do him a favor: dress as a woman and, on the excuse of taking some fresh fruit and flowers to Rosamira, talk with her and learn the truth. Although reluctant, Porcia agrees. Meanwhile Julia talks with Manfredo, and invents a story in which Julia came to his (i.e., her—Camilo’s) room and revealed that she is in love with Manfredo. Manfredo is glad to know where Julia is, because he wants to send her back to her father and prove his innocence—an attitude that very much disappoints Julia. Porcia, now dressed as a peasant woman, approaches the jail where Rosamira is being held. After a brief scene with the two students, who steal some of her fruit, she gains admittance and talks with Rosamira. When Rosamira learns that Anastasio intends to defend her honor, she tells Julia that she will not marry him; the only one who can restore her honor is the one who has dishonored her. Act III: Manfredo wants to see Julia but Julia (Camilo) says that when he returned to the room where he had left Julia, she ran away. Meanwhile, Rosamira and Porcia have exchanged dresses, and Rosamira leaves the jail. The jailer comes to Porcia, thinking she is Rosamira, and gives her the tunic she is to wear the next day when her fate is to be decided. One half of the tunic is black, representing pain and sadness, and the other half green, representing joy and celebration. Rosamira, wearing Porcia’s dress, sees Anastasio, who, thinking it is his friend Rutilio (Porcia), asks her how things went in the jail. Anastasio, confused, at least wants the dress (now worn by Rosamira) back from the person who took it from Rutilio. But Rosamira goes off to talk alone with Dagoberto. Manfredo then comes to the jail to see Rosamira and talks with Porcia in her place, thinking he is talking with Rosamira. All Porcia does, however, is change the subject and talk to Manfredo about how wonderful Julia is. Confused, Manfredo leaves the jail. Anastasio then comes to talk to Porcia, thinking she is Rosamira. Porcia declares her love for Anastasio, and he accepts her hand in marriage, believing that it is that of Rosamira. Back at the inn, Julia tells Manfredo that Julia is there to see him. She has the innkeeper distract Anastasio with talk about weapons for the next day’s encounter, while she changes into her normal dress as herself. Manfredo admits her beauty, and Julia explains to him all the disguises she has used. He does not commit himself to her, but asks her to accompany him the next day in the encounter with Dagoberto. The day of proof arrives, and Porcia is brought on scene as Rosamira, dressed in the black and green tunic,
Page 419 flanked by a knifewielding executioner on one side and a young child with a laurel wreath on the other. Dagoberto and Rosamira are present, but disguised as pilgrims. Anastasio (his identity concealed) arrives to defend Rosamira, but Dagoberto has not shown up yet; Manfredo (his identity also concealed) arrives, but still Dagoberto is not there. Anastasio’s messenger arrives with a letter from Dagoberto, addressed to Federico, Rosamira’s father. The judge reads it aloud: when Federico made the sudden decision to marry Rosamira to Manfredo, Dagoberto, desperate, issued the challenge he did rather than risk losing Rosamira. He proposes to marry Rosamira if Federico will accept him as his son. In a series of revelations, everyone’s identity is made known, Manfredo is absolved of the abductions of Julia and Porcia, and the proper marriages are arranged: Rosamira with Dagoberto, Julia with Anastasio, and Porcia with Manfredo. Bibliography: Ellen M.Anderson, “Refashioning the Maze: The Interplay of Gender and Rank in Cervantes’s El laberinto de amor,” Bulletin of the Comediantes 46 (1994):165–85; María Soledad Carrasco Urgoiti, “Cervantes en su comedia El laberinto de amor,” Hispanic Review 48 (1980):77–90; Edward H.Friedman, “Double Vision: Self and Society in El laberinto de amor and La entretenida,” in Cervantes and the Renaissance, ed. Michael D. McGaha (Easton, PA: Juan de la Cuesta, 1980), 157–66; and Stanislav Zimic, “El laberinto y el lucero redentor: Estudio de El laberinto de amor de Cervantes,” Acta Neophilologica 13 (1980):31– 48.
Laberinto de Creta; Labyrinth of Crete. *Crete.
Labrador(es). *Peasant(s).
Labyrinth of Love, The. *Laberinto de amor, El.
Lacayos o palafreneros. *Lackeys or equerries.
Lackeys or equerries [Lacayos o palafreneros]. Two servants of the duke who help DQ dismount when he arrives at the country house in II, 31.
Lad for the field and marketplace [Mozo de campo y plaza]. In DQ I, 1, a servant who is never mentioned again in the novel.
Ladies’ dancing party [Sarao de damas]. In DQ II, 62, the dance held by the wife of Don *Antonio Moreno in Barcelona. Two of the women dance repeatedly with DQ until they exhaust and publicly humiliate him.
Ladislao. In Persiles I, 12, the husband of *Transila, who travels with *Mauricio and is reunited with his wife. See also Persiles I, 19; II, 11, 21.
Ladrones. *Robbers.
Lady, Ladies [Dama(s)]. 1. In Española, the ladies of the court of Queen Elizabeth I during the time Isabel lives in England, one of whom makes a snide comment about Isabel’s extravagant dress when she first appears in the court. 2. In Vidriera, the woman in Salamanca who falls in love with Tomás Rodaja, and, when he rejects her proposal, gives him a brew that causes his mental illness. 3. In Rufián 1, the married woman whose love for the protagonist is rejected and results in her husband’s closer vigilance of her activities. 4. *Ladies’ dancing party.
Lady [Madama]. A term used by DQ in II, 44, in reference to Maritornes, who he believed was a princess in I, 16.
Lady Cornelia. *Señora Cornelia, La.
Lafayette, Marie Madeleine Pioche de la Vergne, Comtesse de (1634–93). French novelist. Her romance La Princesse de Clèves (1678) is rightly considered the best French fiction of the seventeenth century. It has been suggested that elements of the plot (the spouse’s love for another man) are based on Celoso and/ or Curioso, but the argument is not a strong one. Lafayette’s Zayde, histoire espagnole (1670; Zayde, A Spanish Story) includes elements of the “lover’s test” that recalls Curioso. Bibliography: David Kaplan, “The Lover’s Test Theme in Cervantes and Madame de Lafayette,” French Review 26 (1953):285–90.
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Lafuente, Federico (1857–?). Spanish writer. Lafuente composed El Romancero del “Quijote” (1916; Song Book of “Don Quixote”), an ambitious rewriting of the novel in ballad form (eight syllable lines with assonant rhyme in the evennumbered lines). Bibliography: Federico Lafuente, El Romancero del “Quijote” (Madrid: Progreso Grafio, 1916).
Lagartija. 1. In Rufián 1, the youth who associates with Cristóbal de Lugo in the low life of Seville and then who accompanies him to Mexico and becomes Fray Antonio. 2. In Pedro 1, a local farmer who charges that Hornachuelos has cheated him, and who wins his case.
Lagartos. *Islands of Lizards.
Laginet, Jacques (seventeenth century). French artist. Laginet made a series of 38 engravings on the theme of DQ and SP, one of the earliest sets of graphic interpretations of the characters.
Lagoons of Ruidera [Lagunas de Ruidera]. A group of 15 freshwater lagoons, or lakes, with a characteristic and unusual light bluishgreen color, located in La Mancha directly east of the city of Manzanares, on the border between the provinces of Albacete and Ciudad Real. The lagoons form the heart of the Parque Nacional Lagunas de Ruidera, a popular recreation area and wildlife sanctuary. In DQ’s dreamvision in the *Cave of Montesinos in II, 23, it is revealed to him that this geographic formation had its origin when *Ruidera, Belerma’s dueña, and her seven daughters and two nieces were all turned into bodies of water because of their incessant weeping when Montesinos was killed. See also DQ II, 18, 22, 24, 61.
Lagos de Sodoma. *Dead Sea.
Lágrimas de Angélica, Las. *Barahona de Soto, Luis.
Lágrimas de San Pedro. *Tansilo, Luigi.
Laguna, Doctor Andrés (1499–1560). Spanish physician, translator, and humanist. A follower of Erasmus, Laguna taught at the University of Alcalá de Henares and was physician to Carlos V. He traveled throughout Europe and was a wellknown and influential figure during his time. In addition to his own medical treatises, Laguna’s bestknown work is his illustrated commentary and translation of the Greek physician Dioscorides under the title of Pedazio Dioscorides Anazarbeo (1555; Pedanius Dioscorides of Anazarbos), which is cited by DQ in I, 18. In addition, he translated works by Lucian, Aristotle, and Cicero. He has also been proposed as the author of the satirical dialogue Viaje de Turquía (unpublished Voyage to Turkey).
Laguna Estigia. *Styx.
Lagunas de Ruidera. *Lagoons of Ruidera.
Laida. Like *Flora and *Lamia, a notorious prostitute of antiquity, famously cited as such in Antonio de *Guevara’s Epístolas familiares and mentioned in the prologue to DQ I.
Laiglesia, Alvaro de (1922–). Popular Spanish novelist, shortstory writer, dramatist, and journalist. Laiglesia’s Fulanita, an ingenuous prostitute with a heart of gold and a sense of humor, was the protagonist of a series of bestselling novels in the 1960s and 1970s. One book in the series, Fulanita y sus menganos (1965; SoandSo and Her Johns), begins with the words, ‘In a place in La Mancha, whose name I don’t want to recall, I was born of my mother.’ She starts out this way because she has been told that the beginning of a book is always the hardest part to write, and that a very famous book—she can’t remember the title, but it began with the word Don—began with the same words as the first twothirds of her sentence. Learning that the author of the famous book was also a cripple, she imagines him writing it with his ballpoint pen in his mouth or even between his toes. The rest of the short introductory chapter consists of a series of silly comments about this famous book, which, after all, doesn’t contain anything sexy (the hero never even goes to bed with DT) or any suspense (we always know that the skinny hero will wind up beaten or stoned). Lighthearted
Page 421 and frivolous, like her life and her story, Fulanita’s literary musings set the tone for her tale. It may not be great literature, but no one who enjoys MC can resist at least a smile while reading this very lowbrow literary criticism. Bibliography: Alvaro Laiglesia, Fulanita y sus menganos (Barcelona: Planeta, 1965).
Laínez, Pedro (ca. 1538–1584). Chamberlain to Prince Don Carlos (son of Felipe II), whom MC recognized as a master in the arts of poetry. Laínez also was a soldier who participated in the battle of Lepanto and was a personal friend of MC’s. After his friend’s death, MC made a trip to *Esquivias to help his widow arrange for the publication of his last book. While there, MC met and married Catalina de Palacios. Laínez is generally considered to be represented in the character of Damón in Galatea. He is warmly praised at the very end of Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Laius [Layo]. In Greek myth, the king of Thebes and father of Oedipus. See Parnaso 8; but in this case the phrase “al del Layo” most probably is a misprint in a passage whose meaning is not clear.
Lamb [Cordero]. Christ, the Lamb of God. See Poesías 13.
Lamberto. 1. In Sultana, a Christian who has come to Constantinople in search of his beloved Clara. When he hides with Clara in the harem, he dresses as a woman and calls himself Zelinda. Although the sultan wants to have him put to death, he is persuaded by Doña Catalina not only to spare Lamberto but also to name him to an important administrative position. He is called Alberto (carelessness, error, typo?) once in the final act. 2. In Persiles III, 16, Count Lamberto of Scotland, a man murdered by a jealous rival, whose widow Ruperta vows vengeance on the killer’s family.
Lamberto de Oviedo. In Sultana, the father of the protagonist Catalina de Oviedo. He is mentioned only by his first name in the first act; in the second act he is identified only as a Christian (Cristiano); in the final act he is identified only as father (padre), but is referred to by others as Señor de Oviedo.
Lamia. In Greek myth, a beautiful queen of Lybia who was betrayed by Zeus, while Hera stole her children. Like *Flora and *Laida, she became known as a notorious prostitute, and as such is famously cited in Antonio de *Guevara’s Epístolas familiares and mentioned in the prologue to DQ I.
Lampedusa [Lampadosa]. Mediterranean island located south of Sicily and east of Tunisia. See Amante; Galatea 5.
Lampidio. In Persiles II, 14, the husband of Sulpicia who is killed by his servants.
Lancecarrying men. *Men on horseback.
Lancelot (of the Lake) [Lanzarote (del Lago)]. The greatest knight of King Arthur’s Round Table and lover of Queen Guinevere. In DQ I, 2, when DQ first arrives at the inn, he recites part of a popular ballad about Lancelot beginning ‘Never was a knight/by ladies so well served,’ but he inserts his own name in place of that of Lanzarote (each name is four syllables long, and therefore the substitution fits perfectly). The same poem is again recalled when DQ and SP arrive at the castle of the duke and duchess in II, 31. The identification with this, one of the greatest and most famous of knightserrant, is obviously one that pleases DQ. See also DQ I, 13, 49; DQ II, 19, 23. Bibliography: Luis A.Murillo, “Lanzarote and Don Quijote,” Folio: Papers on Foreign Languages and Literatures 10 (1977):55–68.
Lanceros. *Men on horseback.
Landero, Luis (1948–). Spanish novelist. Landero’s Juegos de la edad tardía (1989; Games Late in Life) reproduces the basic quixotic situation of a middleaged man who attempts to remake his life, to become the artist of his own life, in the image of literature and film. Gregorio Olías, middleaged functionary, takes on the identity of Augusto Faroni, young poet and rake. Throughout the novel, there are frequent references and allusions to literature
Page 422 (especially DQ) and film (particularly film noir and films of intrigue and espionage). Landero has stated that he conceived and began to write his novel without any thought of MC or DQ, but that midway through the work realized that there was a thematic parallel between the works. Bibliography: Luis Landero, Juegos de la edad tardía (Barcelona: Tusquets, 1989); and Alberto Rivas Yanes, “Lo quijotesco como principio estructural de Juegos de la edad tardía, de Luis Landero,” Anales Cervantinos 33 (1995–97):367–74.
Landlady [Huéspeda]. In Coloquio, the woman who runs the inn where a scandal is caused by the arrest and fleecing of the Breton by the dishonest constable and the prostitute La Colindres.
Lanfusa. The mother of the Spanish knight Ferrau in Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso. As in Ariosto, the name is often used in the oath “por vida de Lanfusa” (“[I swear] by Lanfusa”). See Parnaso 4.
Langguth, A.J. (1933–). American novelist. Langguth’s novel Jesus Christs (1968) consists of a series of largely unrelated, brief scenes involving Jesus Christ, both the biblical figure and variations on the theme. At one point, a character sees some wood carvings of Jesus and says to him, “Have you noticed? They always make you look like Don Quixote” (*Don Quixote and Christ).
Language and style in Cervantes. Much has been made of the elegance and sobriety of MC’s style, especially in DQ; Spanish is sometimes called “la lengua de Cervantes” (“the language of Cervantes”). Certainly MC’s works exhibit an extraordinarily wide range of stylistic register, much of which is inevitably lost in translation. In DQ, for example, one can identify several levels of style (basically *Bakhtin’s “speech genres”): 1) the general narrative style, elegant yet simple and straightforward, which sets the overall tone for the novel; 2) the rhetorical style of set pieces of oratory (DQ’s Golden Age speech in I, 11; Marcela’s harangue in I, 14); 3) a comparable rhetorical style in the more conventional romance narratives of certain characters (e.g., Cardenio in I, 27; Dorotea in I, 28; Curioso); 4) the low style of peasants such as SP or the shepherd Pedro (at least at the beginning of his discourse) in I, 12, exaggerated at times for comic effect (the speech of the peasant woman in II, 10); 5) DQ’s archaic, chivalric *fabla, sometimes imitated by others; 6) the comic broken Spanish of the Basque squire (I, 8); 7) the learned, academic style spoken by characters such as Sansón Carrasco and the canon of Toledo; 8) the slang of thieves and rogues, such as the galley slaves in I, 22; 9) the Arabicflavored style of the captain in Capitán; and 10) the Frankish dialect of the Morisco Ricote and his companions in II, 54. Overall, DQ provides an excellent illustration of some of Bakhtin’s major concepts: hybridization, the mixing of different linguistic consciousnesses in a single utterance; heteroglossia, the mutually interanimating of different languages and different speech genres; and polyphony, multiple discourses reflecting multiple consciousnesses. Bibliography: Anthony J.Cascardi, “Don Quijote and the Invention of the Novel,” in The Cambridge Companion to Cervantes, ed. Anthony J.Cascardi (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); 58–79; Juan Gutiérrez Cuadrado, “La lengua del Quijote: rasgos generales,” in Don Quijote de la Mancha, 2 vols., ed. Francisco Rico et al. (Barcelona: Instituto Cervantes, Crítica, 1998), vol. 2, 819–56; Helmut Hatzfeld, El “Quijote” como obra de arte del lenguaje, 2nd ed., refundida y aumentada (Madrid: C.S.I.C., 1966); and Angel Rosenblat, La lengua del “Quijote” (Madrid: Gredos, 1971).
Languedoc [Lenguadoc]. A former province in southern France, located between the Pyrenees Mountains and the Loire River. See Persiles III, 13.
Lansac, Baron. In Española, the name of the general, perhaps based on a historical figure, who dies a few days out to sea, leaving Ricaredo to command the ships of their expedition.
Lantern that served as a star; Lanterna que sirvió de estrella. *Lighthouse of Alexandria.
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Lanuza, Juan de. *Lanuza, Pedro de.
Lanuza, Pedro de (1560–?). The nobleman lover of MC’s niece Constanza in the 1590s. Pedro’s brother Juan was executed for his involvement in a government intrigue, and Pedro was also suspected of being involved. As soon as his name was cleared, he broke off relations with Constanza and left Madrid.
Lanzarote (del Lago). *Lancelot (of the Lake).
Lapdog [Perrilla de falda]. In Coloquio, a dog who takes refuge in his mistress’s lap while barking at Berganza.
Larache (AlAraich). Port city on the Atlantic Ocean in what is today Morocco in North Africa. See Española.
Laredo. *Cachopines de Laredo.
Largess [Dádiva]. In DQ II, 20, one of the eight nymphs who participates in the celebration of *Camacho’s wedding.
Lariseo. *Larsileo.
Larra, Mariano José de (1809–37). Spanish journalist and critic. Larra was the sharpest social critic of the romantic movement in Spain. His suicide at a very young age deprived the nation of one of its greatest voices. Larra’s historical novel El doncel de don Enrique el Doliente (1834; The Page of Don Enrique the Invalid) recalls MC throughout in its general style, as well as specific allusions, citations, and paraphrasing. One scene takes place in an inn that reminds the reader of the *inn of Juan Palomeque, complete with a Maritornes figure and an embedded Muslim narrative. Later there is even a talking head made of bronze, exactly like that in DQ II, 62.
Larra y Wetoret, Luis Mariano de (1830–1901). Spanish dramatist. Larra y Wetoret is the author of a zarzuela entitled La ínsula Barataria (1864; The Island Barataria).
Larraz, José (1904–). Spanish lawyer and novelist. Like Alphonse *Daudet, Larraz combines aspects of DQ and SP into a single character in ¡Don Quijancho, maestro!: Biografía fabulosa (1961; Don Quijancho, Teacher!: A Fabulous Biography). The protagonist, Roberto Núñez de los Godos, philosopher and teacher, who goes through a period of madness and recovery, adopts the name Don Quijancho in order to further his obsession with a DQSP synthesis. Throughout the novel there are class lectures, discussions, and letters in which this supposedly profound cultural ideal is put forth. Don Quijancho’s death in an automobile accident puts an end to his career. Bibliography: José Larraz, ¡Don Quijancho, maestro! (Madrid: Aguilar, 1961).
Larreta, Enrique (1875–1961). Argentine novelist. In Larreta’s La calle de la vida y de la muerte (1943; The Street of Life and Death) there is a brief evocation of the genesis of DQ in a sonnet entitled “Esquivias”: when MC marries Catalina de Palacios in the town of Esquivias, an uncle of hers opposes the marriage and takes an intense dislike to MC; in revenge, MC makes a parody of the uncle into DQ. In his book Historiales (1921; Stories), Larreta evokes his ‘venerated and incomparable maestro’ MC and romantically lauds his search for a ‘beautiful absolute ideal.’ But, above all, Larreta gained fame with the novel La gloria de Don Ramiro (1908; Don Ramiro’s Glory) set in the Spain of Saint Teresa. Larreta claimed a similarity of spirit between his novel and that of MC, but he also professed to be in awe of, and even afraid to reread, DQ, for the effect it might have on his own writing of a novel set in the same time period. Bibliography: Enrique Larreta, La calle de la vida y de la muerte (Buenos Aires: EspasaCalpe Argentina, 1943).
Larsileo (Lariseo, Lauriseo). In Galatea 4, a famous shepherd who is wellversed in the ways of the court and a friend of Lauso. It has been suggested that Larsileo represents either Mateo *Vázquez or Alonso de *Ercilla.
Las Algarrobillas. *Algarrobillas, Las.
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Las Casas, Bartolomé de (1474–1566). Dominican friar and author of the famous indictment of Spanish colonial practices entitled Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias (1552; Very Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies; translated, poorly, as The Tears of the Indians). His book was critical of *López de Gómara’s view of the conquest and became the subject of heated debate both in Spain and throughout Europe, where it contributed substantially to the creation and diffusion of the *Black Legend. Las Casas defended the humanity and dignity of the New World natives in a tense confrontation and debate in Valladolid in 1550–51, maintaining that the Indians were rational beings with souls and not inferior subhumans placed on earth to serve more enlightened races; their conversion, he held, should be solely by persuasion and peaceful means and should never involve force nor coercion. An ironic—and tragic—footnote to Las Casas’s (limited degree of) success was perhaps the encouragement of the practice of importing African slaves to the American colonies. Bibliography: Alvaro Huerga, Fray Bartolomé de las Casas, vida y obras (Madrid: Alianza, 1998); and Agustín Yáñez, Fray Bartolomé de las Casas: el conquistador conquistado (Mexico City: Planeta, 2001).
Lashes [Azotes], 3,300. In DQ II, 35, what SP must voluntarily administer to himself in order to disenchant DT.
Laso, Gabriel; Lasso de la Vega, Gabriel. *Lobo Laso de la Vega, Gabriel.
Lastra, Pedro (1932–). Chilean poet and literary critic. In Lastra’s Noticias del extranjero (1979; News from Abroad), there is one poem entitled “Don Quijote impugna a los comentadores de Cervantes por razones puramenete personales” (“Don Quixote Criticizes Cervantes’s Commentators for Purely Personal Reasons”), in which DQ maintains that none of those who have commented on MC’s novel have really understood him or his love for DT. Bibliography: Pedro Lastra, Noticias del extranjero (Mexico City: Premia, 1979).
Latino, Juan. *Juan Latino.
Latona. *Leto.
Latorre, Mariano (1886–1955). Chilean novelist and historian. One of Latorre’s most memorable creations is the title character of his story “On Panta,” the feature fiction in his book of the same name (1935), Don Pantaleón Letelier, a sort of modern Knight of the Lions, who hunts constantly for lions that exist only in his imagination. On Panta, as he is known locally, is obsessed with lions (actually, pumas) and has as a prize in his house the stuffed figure of a puma leaping to the attack. He tells stories of lions hunted and caught in his family and of the long line of lion hunters among his dogs. But there are no pumas in his part of the country, and the locals constantly ridicule him and his madness. At the end of the story, his dogs get loose and destroy his prize stuffed puma. They finally have a chance to hunt a lion. In several of the stories included in Hombres y zorros (1945; Men and Foxes), the figure of Juan Sapo is much like SP in his pragmatic and picaresque wiliness. Bibliography: Mariano Latorre, On Panta (Santiago, Chile: Ediciones Ercilla, 1935).
Laurcalco, señor de la Puente de Plata [Lord of the Silver Bridge]. In DQ I, 18, one of the participants in the battle (of sheep) as described by DQ. It is also a reference to the proverb “Al enemigo que huye, puente de plata” (‘If your enemy flees, [give him] a bridge of silver’). Bibliography: Juan Antonio Cavestany, “El valeroso Laurcaldo, Señor de la Puente de Plata,” Anales Cervantinos 10 (1971):191–97.
Laurencio. In Galatea 4, the wealthy father of Grisaldo.
Lauriseo. *Larsileo.
Lauso. 1. In Galatea 3–6, a shepherd from the banks of the Tagus River, good friend of Francenio and Damón, at first in love with Silena but later without love. He has traveled widely throughout Spain, Asia, and Europe. Lauso has
Page 425 been thought to represent MC himself in the game of disguises prominent in the romance, but others have suggested that he is based on Alonso de *Ercilla. 2. In Poesías 22 there is also a shepherd named Lauso and a shepherdess named Silena, which may be a reference to the same characters as those in Galatea. 3. In Casa, a shepherd in love with Clori in the pastoral scenes. 4. *Pastoral names.
Lautrec, Monsiur de. *Foix, Odet de.
Lavajos. A lagoon, known for its geese, in the province of Segovia. See DQ II, 49.
Lavapiés. A fountain in Madrid, located south of the Puerta del Sol in the neighborhood that bears that name. See DQ II, 22.
Lawns of Madama [Prados de Madama]. In Persiles IV, 3, the Villa Madama on the outskirts of Rome, so called for “Madama” Margarita of Austria, illegitimate daughter of Carlos V, who lived there. The gardens of the villa were designed by the famous artist Raphael.
Laybrother. *Widow.
Layo. *Laius.
Lazarillo de Tormes. The complete title of the anonymous *picaresque novel is La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes y de sus fortunas y adversidades (1554; The Life of Lazarillo de Tormes and of His Misfortunes and Adversities). It tells the story of the boy Lazarillo, whose thief of a father dies and whose mother (of loose virtue) gives him to a blind beggar as a guide. Lazarillo learns the ways of the world with this master of lies, deception, and hypocrisy. He then goes on to serve an avaricious priest, a penniless hidalgo, and a series of other masters. By the end of the novel the adult Lázaro is the town crier of Toledo, married to the mistress of an archpriest. Complacent in his moral degradation, Lázaro considers himself at the height of all good fortune. The novel is written in the form of a long selfjustifying epistle addressed to an anonymous ‘Your Grace,’ presumably an ecclesiastical figure of importance, who has inquired into the rumors of the sexual impropriety of Lázaro’s patron, the archpriest. Textual variants of the four editions published in 1554 in Burgos, Alcalá de Henares, Antwerp, and Medina del Campo suggest a lost original. The authorship question is likely never to be settled; among the names suggested as possible author are Fray Juan de Ortega, Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, Lope de Rueda, Hernán Núñez, Pedro de Rhúa, Juan and/or Alfonso de Valdés, Sebastián de Horozco, and Fernando de Rojas. Most informed readers believe that the author must have some sort of heterodox background, such as Erasmian, Lutheran, or, at least, converso. Though there are still defenders of a view that the novel is a relatively innocent, conventional social satire, the more common reading is that it is a corrosive, subversive, and devastating indictment of political, religious, and moral conventions. That a converso would be the author of such a work is a more consistent interpretation than its alternatives. Lazarillo was an object of censorship, as it was placed on the 1559 Index of Prohibited Books and in 1574 was published in a sanitized version as Lazarillo castigado (Lazarillo Chastised). An anonymous sequel, Segunda parte de Lazarillo de Tormes, was published in 1555. Though the sequel contains some sharp satiric and farcical scenes, overall it is a silly work, with little of the profundity or brilliance of the original. In it the protagonist is converted into a tuna and has a series of underwater adventures before reassuming human form. The Spanish Protestant Juan de *Luna, living in exile in Paris, also published a very good sequel entitled Segunda parte de la vida de Lazarillo de Tormes in 1620. Juan Cortés de Tolosa wrote a Lazarillo de Manzanares (1620), a weak narrative set in Madrid. Not literally a sequel, Cortés de Tolosa’s protagonist is a namesake of the original; his adventures offer little of interest. The original Lazarillo was immensely popular and influential in Spain in spite of the censorship, and it was incorporated quickly into popular culture. With Guzmán de Alfarache, it established the form and structure of the *picaresque novel. Lazarillo was also translated into French
Page 426 (1560), English (1576), Dutch (1579), German (1617), and Italian (1622), making it one of the most read, most imitated, and most influential works of fiction in Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. See DQ I, preliminary poems, 22. Bibliography: Crítica Hispánica 19 (1997): special issue devoted to Lazarillo de Tormes; A.D.Deyermond, “Lazarillo de Tormes”: A Critical Guide, 2nd ed. (London: Grant and Cutler, 1993); Robert L. Fiore, Lazarillo de Tormes (Boston: Twayne, 1984); Howard Mancing, “The Deceptiveness of Lazarillo de Tormes,” PMLA 90 (1975):426–32; George A. Shipley, “The Critic as Witness for the Prosecution: Making the Case against Lázaro de Tormes,” PMLA 97 (1982):179–94; and Harry Sieber, Language and Society in “La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes,” (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978).
Le Lorrain, Jacques (1856–1904). French dramatist. Le Lorrain wrote Le chevalier de la longe figure (Don Quichotte) (1906; The Knight of the Long Face [Don Quixote]), a heroic drama in four acts. This then became the basis for the famous opera Don Quichotte (1910) by Henri *Cain for which Jules Massenet (1842–1912) wrote the music.
Leaden box. *Old physician.
Leal, Francisco. *Ovando, Constanza de.
Leander [Leandro]. In Greek myth, the lover who swam the Hellespont (the ancient name of the Dardanelles, the strait linking the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara in Turkey) every night to visit his beloved Hero, who guided him with a torch on the opposite shore. One night a storm put out the light of the torch and Leander drowned at sea. Hero and Leander are symbols of passionate and sincere lovers. See Baños 2; Casa 2; Pedro 2.
Leandra. 1. In Galatea 3, a shepherdess mentioned as perhaps the love interest of Lauso but who takes no part in the action. 2. In DQ I, 51, the 16yearold heroine of the story told by Eugenio. She is impressed by the flashy exsoldier, Vicente de la Rosa, who arrives in town, and she elopes with him, only to be robbed and abandoned (but, she insists, not deflowered) by him. At the end of the story, she goes to a convent. This is the final embedded narrative in DQ I, but it is much shorter than Cardenio, Curioso, or Capitán, and it has no final resolution. See also DQ I, 52. Bibliography: Robert L.Hathaway, “Leandra and That Nagging Question,” Cervantes 15, no. 2 (1995): 58–74.
Leandra’s father [Padre de Leandra]. In DQ I, 51, a respected and welltodo member of his community (*peasantry). He is as concerned about his own honor, and that of his daughter, as any nobleman would be.
Lebanon, Mountain of. *Mountain of Lebanon.
Lecco, Alberto (1921–). Italian novelist. Lecco is the author of Un don Chisciotte in America (1979), the story of the experiences and adventures of Davide Moroni as he travels across the United States to California in search of his DT. Late in the book, the character of Judith Liederman calls Davide the ‘DQ in America’ (she admits she hasn’t read the book, but she has seen the film). Davide, however, has his doubts about his DQ status as he travels on a Pullman car, not a horse, toward Phoenix, Arizona, not some fabulous location, and with no SP. In fact, Davide is only mildly quixotic, but for the author the DQ parallel must have been essential. Bibliography: Alberto Lecco, Un don Chisciotte in America (Milan, Italy: Arnoldo Mondadori, 1979).
Lector amable. *Dear reader.
Ledesma, Alonso de (1562–1633). Spanish poet who spent most of his life in the city of Segovia, where he was one of the major civic figures in the community. MC praises Ledesma in Parnaso 3.
Ledesma Hernández, Antonio (1856–1937). Spanish novelist and essayist. Ledesma’s novel La nueva salida del valeroso caballero Don Quijote de la Mancha: Tercera parte de la obra de Cervantes (1905; The New Departure of the Brave Knight Don Quixote de
Page 427 la Mancha: Third Part of Cervantes’s Work) was published during the third centenary celebration of the publication of DQ I. In Argamasilla del Alba, DQ awakens from his catatonic state, induced by his drinking of the balm of Fierabrás, and decides to set out again. He recruits as his squire Juan Panza, greatgrandson of SP, promising him as a reward for his services the governorship of the territory of Andorra. DQ has the usual encounters with modern technology: a train, which he sees as a dragon; telephone poles, which are giants; and so forth. After he is jailed by the Civil Guard and then set free by a wealthy young widow, he goes to Madrid where he discuss the significance of MC’s DQ with the widow’s uncle, a Cervantophile. When he attends a performance of Shakespeare’s Othello, he interrupts the action in an attempt to rescue Desdemona. In Madrid, he is also introduced to the Veloz Club, whose members perpetrate a series of practical jokes on him with modern ‘magical’ devices such as the telephone and moving pictures. After traveling by hotair balloon to Urgel, on the border with France, he participates in an elaborate practical joke and is made to believe that he has defeated the bishop of Andorra and won that kingdom for his squire, who is joined there by his wife, Panza Alegre, and daughter, Pancica. All that, and more, in the first part of the novel. In the second part, his adventures become even more grandiose. Accompanied now by a new squire (in reality, the mayor of Argamasilla whose name is Pedro Bartola) called Tragaldabas, he meets DT at a bullfight in Zaragoza. She requires DQ to undertake three formidable enterprises: the political union of Spain and Portugal, the liberation of Gibraltar from the English, and the reintegration of (former) Spanish colonies in the world. He brings about the first two, and then during his travels throughout the United States (in New York he deciphers the riddle of the Sphinx; i.e., the Statue of Liberty) and Mexico, he speaks eloquently about and lobbies for the unification of the Iberoamerican world. Back home, and married in a bogus ceremony to a woman he has been led to believe is DT, makes a series of prophecies about the future, leaves a set of advice for his future son, and dies. This brief outline hardly gives an idea of the scope of this extravagant novel, perhaps the most ambitious of the sequels to DQ. Bibliography: Antonio Ledesma Hernández, La nueva salida del valeroso caballero Don Quijote de la Mancha: Tercera parte de la obra de Cervantes (Barcelona: Lezcano, 1905); Antonio José López Cruces, Introducción a la vida y obra de Antonio Ledesma Hernández (1856–1937) (Almería, Spain: Instituto de Estudios Almerienses, 1991); and José R.VallesCalatrava, “Hipertextualidad y conciencia nacional en el Quijote de Ledesma,” Anales Cervantinos 31 (1993):113–29.
Ledesma Ramos, Ramiro (1905–36). Spanish journalist. Ledesma was one of the intellectual leaders of Spanish fascism; he was executed in the early days of the Spanish Civil War. In his book El “Quijote” en nuestro tiempo (not published until 1971; “Don Quixote” in Our Time), he presents DQ as the symbol of traditional Spanish idealism, which is threatened by the pragmatism of the Sansón Carrascos of the world. What is interesting, however, are four dialogues spaced throughout the essay. In them, the author rides along with MC, following behind DQ and SP and commenting on their actions and on MC’s book in general. Ledesma’s interpretive essay is thus also an original critical metafiction that still retains a certain attractiveness. Bibliography: Ramiro Ledesma Ramos, El “Quijote” en nuestro tiempo (Madrid: Vassallo de Mumbert, 1971).
Leganitos. A fountain in Madrid, located on the street that still bears its name, near the modern Plaza de España. See DQ II, 22; Fregona.
Leiva, Don Alonso (Martínez) de (?– 1588). Soldier and poet who died in the expedition of the Invincible Armada. He is praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Leiva (Leyva), Don Sancho Martínez de, Conde de Baños. Spanish soldier and occasional poet. Leiva served with distinction in Flanders and was captain general of the Spanish fleet of Naples. Leiva commanded a small fleet of four vessels that left Italy for Spain in 1575.
Page 428 A storm separated the ships, but three reunited and managed to complete the trip; the fourth was the *Sol, in which MC and his brother Rodrigo were traveling, which was captured by pirates. He is mentioned as being equally famous for his sword and his pen in Parnaso 4. He is also mentioned in the story told by two students from Salamanca dressed as captives in Persiles III, 10.
Lela Marién (Lela María). In DQ I, 40–41, the Virgin Mary in the Arabized version of Zoraida in Capitán. The title lela is from the Arabic Lalla and is the approximate equivalent doña or señora in the sense of “lady.” The same term is used by the Great Turk in Sultana 2; in Baños 3, Zahara uses the variant Lela María.
Lela Zoraida. In DQ I, 37, the name Ruy Pérez de Viedma uses to refer to *Zoraida when the two of the first arrive at the inn of Juan Palomeque. She immediately corrects him and insists that she should be called María.
Lemoine, Randal (1913–). French dramatist. Lemoine wrote the libretto for a oneact opera entitled Pour un Don Quichotte (1961; For a Don Quixote), with music by JeanPierre Rivière. In this very short piece, SP and DT try to inspire a return to chivalric idealism in a thoroughly dejected and realistic DQ (he insists, for example, on calling DT Aldonza). They are briefly successful as the knight calls for his sword and exclaims the name of DT just before dying. Bibliography: Randal Lemoine and Jean Pierre Rivière, Pour un Don Quichotte (Milan, Italy: G. Ricordi, 1961).
Lemos, Count of. *Fernández de Castro y Osorio, Don Pedro, Conde de Lemos.
Lengua catalana. *Catalan.
Lengua de Noruega. *Norwegian.
Lenguadoc. *Languedoc.
Lenio. In Galatea, the shepherd who disdains and criticizes the concept of love, even engaging the famous Tirsi in a *debate on the subject. Late in the romance, he falls in love with the cold and disdainful Gelasia.
Lennox, Charlotte (1720–1804). American novelist, translator, and dramatist who lived and wrote in England. Lennox’s The Female Quixote; or, The Adventures of Arabella (1752) was one of the most popular fictions in the second half of the eighteenth and first decade of the nineteenth centuries in England and, in translation, in France, Germany, and Spain. The novel’s debt to MC is clear in the title of the very first chapter where it is stated that the idea has been “borrowed from Cervantes.” Arabella reads and perceives the world through French romances, especially those of Madeleine de Scudéry, while her SPlike maid Lucy, who becomes increasingly “Arabellized” (like SP is quixotized), provides comic relief with her errors with language and serves as reality instructor. Arabella even has her own equivalents of the priest Pero Pérez in the figures of the her father (who wants to burn her books) and her suitor Mr. Glanville, the friend who attempts to convince the protagonist of the reality of the world. And the unscrupulous wouldbe suitor Sir George corresponds in some aspects to the duke in DQ II in the sense that he is familiar with her world of fantasy and manipulates the heroine for his own purposes. As a noble, wealthy, and beautiful woman pursued by men, Arabella is both DQ and DT in Lennox’s romanticized novel (*romance [versus novel]). She expects to be courted and perhaps abducted; she believes that her word is gospel to the men who love and pine for her. Few novels ever written are more consistently or more consciously quixotic in intent, theme, and character. Interesting as Lennox’s heroine is, it is not until Jane *Austen’s Catherine Morland and, especially, Gustave *Flaubert’s Emma Bovary that we have the real prototypes of the female DQ. An “advertisement” to Angelica; or Quixote in Petticoats (1758) states that the play is “not only borrow’d, but entirely taken, from the female Quixote, of the ingenious Mrs. Lennox,” and the work is usually ascribed to Lennox. The very brief twoact play is a conventional tale of love, with a mild quixotic element in the pro
Page 429 tagonist, who conceives of the relationships among men and women as those of knights and ladies. Bibliography: Sally C.Hoople, “The Spanish, English, and American Quixotes,” Anales Cervantinos 22 (1984):119–42; Amy Pawl, “Feminine Transformations of the Quixote in EighteenthCentury England: Lennox’s Female Quixote and Her Sisters,” in Echoes and Inscriptions: Comparative Approaches to Early Modern Spanish Literatures, ed. Barbara A.Simerka and Christopher B.Weimer (Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 2000), 142–59; and Deborah Ross, “Mirror, Mirror: The Didactic Dilemma of the Female Quixote,” Studies in English Literature 1500–1900 27 (1987):455–73.
Lent [Cuaresma]. The period of 40 weekdays from Ash Wednesday to Easter Sunday. The period is observed by Christians by fasting and penitence in memory of Jesus’s fasting during his 40 days in the wilderness. See Viudo.
Leocadia. 1. In Galatea 1, a shepherdess from the Henares region who is loved by Eugenio. 2. In Fuerza, the protagonist, who is raped by Rodolfo, has a son from the encounter, and eventually marries her assailant.
Leocadia de Cárdenas, Doña. In Doncellas, the beautiful woman who dresses as a man in order to pursue her errant lover Marco Antonio, but in the end she marries Teodosia’s brother Rafael.
León. 1. A medieval kingdom on the Iberian Peninsula located north and west of Castile. Today it forms part of the autonomous community of CastillaLeón, and its capital is the city of León. Ruy Pérez de Viedma, the soldier who is the protagonist of Capitán (DQ I, 39–41), is from this region. See also DQ I, 42; DQ II, 12; Galatea 2. 2. One of the dogs accompanying Erastro when he first appears in Galatea 1. 3. *Lion. 4. *Gulf of the Lion.
León, Calle de. *Calle de León.
León de España. *Vecilla Castellanos, Pedro de la.
León, Don Manuel de. *Ponce de León, Don Manuel de .
León, Fray Luis de (1527–91). Spanish converso poet, theologian, humanist, essayist, and professor at the University of Salamanca. An Augustinian student of Hebrew and Greek biblical texts, Fray Luis was opposed by conservative (mostly Dominican) defenders of the authority of the Latin text and was denounced before the Inquisition. In spite of a brilliant defense, he spent several years in prison (1572–76), mostly in solitary confinement. His Platonic odes, influenced both by classical writers such as Horace and Pindar and contemporaries such as *Garcilaso de la Vega, are among the most beautiful poems written in the sixteenth century. His carefully crafted and styled didactic works La perfecta casada (1583; The Perfect Wife) and De los nombres de Cristo (1983; On the Names of Christ) are still read today with profit. He is praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6. Bibliography: Manuel Durán, Luis de León (New York: Twayne, 1971); and Alberto Navarro, “Cervantes y Fray Luis de León,” Anales Cervantinos 10 (1971):3–14.
León Hebreo. *Hebreo, León.
León manchado. *Manchegan lion.
León, Ricardo (1877–1943). Spanish poet and novelist. An elegant stylist and defender of traditional Spanish values, León’s novels all evoke, refer to, and glorify DQ. Especially noteworthy are his first novel, Casta de hidalgos (1908; A Son of the Hidalgos), and El amor de los amores (1911; Love of Loves, translated as The Wisdom of Sorrow). In the first, Jesús de Ceballos is a DQ figure, whose readings and quixotic adventures (also partly inspired in his reading of Gil Bias) make up the bulk of the story. His father, Juan Manuel de Ceballos, is an embodiment of traditional Spain, as seen in the nobility of MC and DQ. In the second, León creates a DQ *a lo divino in the figure of Fernando Villalaz. Both of these novels are steeped in DQ, with characters, themes, episodes, and
Page 430 even specific words and phrases that come from MC’s novel.
León y Ortiz, Eduardo (1846–?). Spanish writer. His novel Tiempos y tiempos: Ensueño con motivo del Don Quijote de la Mancha (1905; Times and Times: Dream Motivated by Don Quixote de la Mancha) deals with a new sally by DQ and SP in which they encounter modern inventions. One of the most interesting scenes takes place when they visit a daily newspaper in Barcelona named El Cide Hamete. Bibliography: Eduardo León y Ortiz, Tiempos y tiempos: Ensueño con motivo del Don Quijote de la Mancha (Madrid: Eduardo Arias, 1905).
Leonarda. 1. In Galatea 2, 4–5, a shepherdess from the Henares region, the virtual twin of Teolinda, in love with Galercio, but who marries his virtual twin Artidoro. 2. In Cueva, the unfaithful wife whose lover is the sacristan Reponce.
Leonardo. In Tratos 1, a Christian captive who talks with Saavedra about freedom.
Leonardo Adorno, Don. In Doncellas, the father of the wayward playboy Marco Antonio, who is about to do battle with the fathers of Teodosia and Leocadia in defense of his son’s actions when the happily married couples arrive home.
Leoncia. In Persiles II, 10–12, the ugly bride who loves the handsome Carino. She is one of the women abducted by pirates.
Leoncillo. In Coloquio, a former shepherd dog who is replaced by Berganza.
Leonela. Camila’s maid in Curioso (DQ I, 33–35). Once Leonela learns of Camila’s affair with Lotario, she becomes more brazen with her own lover and plays a major role in bringing about the destruction of the principal characters.
Leonero. *Lionkeeper.
Leones carniceros. *Bloodthirsty lions.
Leonese knights. *Spanish knights.
Leonicio. In Numancia, a soldier and good friend of Marandro, who dies in the attempt to steal bread from the Romans.
Leonida. In Galatea 1, the daughter of Parmindro and sister of Crisalvo. She is in love with Lisandro and is killed by her brother.
Leonisa Florencio. In Amante, the beautiful woman who must suffer through a long series of adventures, including being made a slave, before she can eventually marry Ricardo.
Leonisio. In Cueva, the friend of Pancracio.
Leonora. 1. In Celoso, the young wife of the jealous Felipo de Carrizales who is locked in her house after their marriage. 2. In DQ II, 60, the daughter of the wealthy Balvastro and the woman *Claudia Jerónimo believes her lover Vicente Torrellas is about to marry. 3. In Persiles III, 3, the maid and confidante of Feliciana de la Voz.
Leonora de Pereira. In Persiles I, 10, the intended bride of Manuel de Sosa Coitiño who instead chooses to take the veil.
Leonora’s parents [Padres de Leonora]. In Celoso, a noble but impoverished couple who marry their beautiful and innocent young daughter to the elderly but rich Carrizales.
Leopersia. In Galatea 4–5, a shepherdess from the same village as Grisalvo, whom she is to marry, but Grisalvo leaves her for Rosaura.
Leopoldio. In Persiles II, 13–14, the King of Dánea, whose wife betrays him and whom he brings back home, with her lover (his servant), both in chains. See also Persiles IV, 8.
Lepanto. The bay in the Gulf of Corinth, near Greece, where the decisive battle between the Turkish forces led by Ali Pasha and the combined allied forces of the *Holy League (i.e., Spain, Venice, and the Papacy) led by Don Juan de *Austria took place on October 7, 1571. The Turkish armada consisted of some
Page 431 200 galleys and many smaller vessels and carried an army of about 25,000 soldiers. The Christian forces also included about 200 warships (plus support vessels) and some 27,000 soldiers, mostly Spanish. In the threehour encounter, the Turkish force was virtually wiped out: nearly every Turkish ship was either destroyed or captured; over 20,000 Turks were killed or wounded, and thousands were taken prisoner; and over 10,000 Christian galley slaves were freed. Christian losses were also heavy (over 8,000 men), but the battle marked the end of Turkish domination in the Mediterranean and made impossible any thought of a Turkish advance on Europe in general. (The numbers of ships, fighting men, and casualties vary from one source to another.) Arguably, however, the greatest benefits that came from the battle were in the areas of public relations and propaganda: the Turkish reputation of invincibility was shattered; in Spain, confidence in the nation’s international and religious enterprise increased notably; elsewhere, the myth of Spanish invincibility both impressed political and religious rivals and made them more fearful. In 1573, Pope Pius V established the feast of Our Lady of Victory in commemoration of the battle of Lepanto. See DQ I, 39, 42; DQ II, prologue; Novelas prologue; Parnaso 1; Persiles III, 18; Poesías 8. Bibliography: Andrew Hess, “The Battle of Lepanto and Its Place in Mediterranean History,” Past and Present 57 (1962):55–73; and John Francis Guilmartin, Gunpowder and Galleys: Changing Technology and Mediterranean Warfare at Sea in the Sixteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974).
Lepolemo. *Salazar, Alonso de.
Lerma, Duque de. *Sandoval y Rojas, Don Francisco Gómez de.
Lernea. *Hydra.
Lesage, AlainRené (1668–1747). French novelist and dramatist. Lesage, probably the most important French novelist of the early eighteenth century, was steeped in Spanish literature and all of his prose works have deep and direct roots in Spain. Early in his career Lesage translated/adapted DQA as Nouvelles Aventures de l’admirable Don Quichotte (1704; New Adventures of the Admirable Don Quixote), and he considered SPA superior to SP. Certainly his best novel, the picaresque Gil Bias de Santillane (1715–35), demonstrates his debt to Spain, as it is in large part a translation/adaptation of Vicente *Espinel’s Marcos de Obregón, but it is also strongly influenced by DQ. The picaresque influence is also obvious his versions of a number of translations/free adaptations of Spanish picaresque novels Le Diable boiteux (1707; The Limping Devil), taken from Luis *Vélez de Guevara’s El diablo cojuelo; L’Histoire de Guzman d’Alfarache (1732), from Mateo *Alemán’s Guzmán de Alfarache; Estevanille Gonzales (1734), from Estebanillo González; and Le Bachelier de Salamanque (1736), from Alonso Jerónimo’s Bachiller Trapaza.
Leskov, Nikolai Semyonovich (1831–95). Russian novelist and shortstory writer. Although he first encountered DQ early in life, MC and his work only had an important influence on Leskov after he read *Turgenev’s essay on Hamlet and DQ. His stories “Odnodum” (“The Solitary Thinker”) and “Inzhenerybessrebreniki” (“The Disinterested Engineers”) also involve quixotic characters based on individuals and types he had observed in his travels. Leskov’s novel Nesmertel’nyi Golovan (1899; Three Men of God) has been suggested as a precursor of Graham *Greene’s Monsignor Quixote. The protagonist, the elderly prior Saweli Tuberosov (who may be a spokesman for the author himself), is one of the more obviously quixotic heroes in fiction. His SP is the subdeacon Ajila, and there is an ongoing mutual influence between the two of them in the course of their travels, adventures, and discussions. Tuberosov’s idealism and his determination to carry out his program through direct action lead to the inevitable clash with the powerful forces of reality and to defeat and death.
Leste, Conde de. *Devereux, Robert.
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Lethe [Leteo]. In myth, one of the five rivers of the underworld. Those who drank of its waters forgot everything; thus, it was supposed to prepare souls for return to life unencumbered by memories of past lives. See Galatea 6.
Leto [Latona]. In Greek myth, one of the Titans and mother (by Zeus) of the twins Apollo and Artemis. See Poesías 5; Rufián 2.
Letter to Dulcinea [Carta a Dulcinea]. In DQ I, 25, as DQ prepares to do his penance in Sierra Morena, he writes a love letter to DT in which he complains about her hardness. The letter is a parody of many comparable missives in the romances of chivalry and perfectly captures their style, complete with *fabla. When SP departs to deliver the letter, however, he forgets to take it with him. His attempt to remember what it said in I, 26, in the presence of the priest and the barber, is one of his most comic scenes. In I, 31, when DQ asks for an account of what happened when SP delivered the letter, the squire makes up an interview such as might have taken place between him and Aldonza, which DQ transforms into the sort of meeting between squire and princess as he would have wanted it. Bibliography: Mercedes Gracia Calvo, “La emabajada a Dulcinea: lectura bajtiniana,” Anales Cervantinos 23 (1985):97–114; and Pedro Salinas, “La mejor carta de amores de la literatura española,” Asomante 2 (1952):7–19.
Levante. The east; the lands bordering on the eastern Mediterranean Sea, from Greece to Egypt, and including Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine; or a wind blowing from that direction. See Amante; DQ II, 64; Pedro 3; Persiles III, 12.
Levantines [Levantes]. A term for pirates, usually Turkish, but sometimes also applied to Christians. See Amante.
Leventes. *Turkish sailors.
Leviticus [Levítico]. In the Old Testament, a book that contains the laws relating to priests and Levites. See Persiles I, 18.
Lewd son of Venus. *Cupid.
Lewdness [Liviandad]. One of the allegorical figures introduced by Malgesí in Casa 2.
Lewis, Sinclair (1885–1951). American novelist. Lewis’s entire work is characterized by a “quixotic vision,” made up of three elements: literature, adventure, and enchantment. Nowhere is this more true than in Main Street (1920) and Babbitt (1922). In Main Street, Carol Kennicott is the quixotic reformer whose goal is to “conquer the world—almost entirely for the world’s own good.” Specifically, she attempts to remake her adopted town of Gopher Prairie, Minnesota, into a progressive and idyllic location, but, of course, in the end, she is defeated by Main Street. She also has her own version of SP, her friend Vida Sherwin, who is always there to talk with her about her projects, offering occasional reality checks, and becoming ever more caught up in the reforming schemes herself. In Babbitt, George F.Babbitt, not a great reader of books like Carol Kennicott, still dreams of what he refers to as his “fairy child” or “fairy girl,” the ideal woman of his imagination, his DT. He constantly attempts to make this dream a reality by perceiving some of the actual women of his life in these terms. Finally, in the figure of Tanis Judique, he believes that he has finally made his dream come true: “I’ve found her! I’ve dreamed her all these years and now I’ve found her!” But Babbitt is too timid and too weak actually to make the break, giving up his dream and settling back into mediocrity. Bibliography: Martin Light, The Quixotic Vision of Sinclair Lewis (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1975).
Lewis, Wyndham (1884–1957). English novelist. Most of Lewis’s novels throughout his long career feature characters who are either explicitly or implicitly inspired, at least in part, in DQ. For example, in Tarr (1918), the title character is described by the narrator as a curious sort of reverseDQ: “His sardonic dream of life got him, as a sort of Quixotic dreamer of inverse illusions, blows from the swift arms of windmills and attacks from indignant and per
Page 433 plexed mankind. He, instead of having conceived the world as more chivalrous and marvelous than it was, had conceived it as emptied of all dignity, sense and generosity. The drovers and publicans were angry at not being mistaken from legendary chivalry or châtelains. =The very windmills resented not being taken for giants!” In The Revenge for Love (1937), the English in general, leftwing activists, and specific characters are all compared with DQ and other characters in MC’s novel. SelfCondemned (1954) is probably Lewis’s best and most quixotic novel. The protagonist René Harding imposes a romantic penance upon himself, in a manner that very much recalls DQ’s deeds in Sierra Morena (I, 25). At several key points in the novel he is referred to as being quixotic, a dreamer, a fanatic, “a man apt to become possessed of some irrational idea.”
Leyenda negra. *Black Legend.
Leyva, Don Alonso de. *Leiva, Don Alonso (Martínez) de.
Leyva, Don Sancho Martínez de. *Leiva, Don Sancho Martínez de.
Liar paradox. A word game, with a number of variations, which is set up in such a way that if someone is telling the truth, he is lying; but if he tells a lie, he is telling the truth. SP is presented with such a paradox in II, 51, and resolves it in favor of freedom rather than punishment. Bibliography: Joseph R.Jones, “The Liar Paradox in Don Quixote II, 51,” Hispanic Review 54 (1986):183–93.
Líbano monte. *Mountain of Lebanon.
Libeo. In Galatea 1, the shepherd whom Carino pretends to befriend and who is killed along with Leonida.
Liberalidad. *Generosity.
Libian plane [Libio llano]. The plane of Libya in North Africa, mentioned in DQ I, 14.
Libreas, el [libro] de las. *Book of Liveries.
Librija. In Rufián 1–2, a prostitute who is mentioned but does not appear in the play.
Libro de caballerías. The correct Spanish term for *romance of chivalry and the only term used for this purpose in the Golden Age; it means ‘book of chivalric deeds.’ It is a (slight) misunderstanding of the way the term was used in the Golden Age to employ the term in the singular: libro de caballería (in the sense of ‘book of chivalry’), as it implies that the book deals with a single ‘chivalric deed.’ It is equally misleading, and anachronistic, to use the term novela de caballería(s) (in the sense of ‘novel of chivalry’); since *novela in MC’s day was a term used for short (usually courtly) fiction. Bibliography: Daniel Eisenberg, “Un barbarismo: ‘Libros de caballerías,’” Thesaurus 30 (1975):340–41.
Libro de los reyes. *Kings, Book of.
Libro de memoria (Notebook). In Rinconete, Monipodio’s record of who is to receive slashings, beatings, and other common offenses.
Libro del caballero Cifar (Book of the Knight Cifar). A lengthy Spanish romance of chivalry from the late thirteenth or early fourteenth century. It is the most important fully extant fiction of its kind remaining from the Spanish Middle Ages. The romance has a generally allegorical structure, as its three parts correspond to hell, purgatory, and heaven. The name Cifar (or Zifar) is from the Arabic word meaning traveler (compare the English “safari”). The book tells of the hero’s often symbolic adventures in Byzantium, which lead to his crowning as King Mentón, together with the adventures of his son Roboán. Cifar’s squire Ribaldo (whose name suggests ribaldry) has often been considered a source, or at least an antecedent, for DQ’s squire SP. Bibliography: R.M.Walker, “Did Cervantes Know The Caballero Cifar?” Bulletin of Hispanic Studies 49 (1972):120–27.
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Libsomiro. In Persiles II, 19, the Frenchman who falsely accuses Renato and Eusebia of illicit relations and then defeats Renato in a duel, causing his exile. In II, 21, news comes of Libsomiro’s death and confession that he had lied about Renato and Eusebia, which makes possible their honorable return to France.
Libya [Libia]. The name given by the Greeks and Romans to all of northern Africa west of Egypt. In MC’s day it was a somewhat illdefined part of Berbería (North Africa in general). Today it is the country on the northern coast of Africa located between Algeria and Egypt. See Adjunta; Casa 3; Doncellas; DQ II, 44; Galatea 3, 5; Laberinto 2; Parnaso 6; Persiles IV, 1; Poesías 9; Tratos 2.
Licantropía. *Lycanthropy.
Licea. In Galatea 2, a shepherdess who is a friend of Leonarda.
Licenciado diestro. *Licentiate swordsman.
Licenciado Vidriera, El (Vidriera); The Glass Graduate. The fifth of the Novelas and the least narrative, least cohesive, and most overtly satiric of the collection. Vidriera may have been at least partly based on the report by Alonso de *Santa Cruz of a Swiss physician named Gaspar *Barth who suffered from a madness very similar to that of the protagonist. Certainly the illness is consistent with medical theories of the time, particularly those of Juan *Huarte de San Juan, so popular and influential in MC’s day. MC, whose fascination with themes of madness (DQ, Persiles, and so on) is wellknown, created in this story one of his most unforgettable characters. The protagonist’s names reflect the three periods in his life: Rodaja (small wheel) during his formative years, Vidriera (glass) during his period of madness and insight, and Rueda (wheel) in his brief, final phase as a soldier. Many of Vidriera’s satiric and philosophical comments, which form the majority of the text and can be read with interest independently of the narrative frame, are in the form of jests and jokes, often mere motes and/or apodos—disparaging or critical comments on someone’s actions combined with epithets and witticisms—a form of humor MC rarely uses outside this work. Two gentlemen students come across a young boy of about 11 years old sleeping near the banks of the Tormes River. Upon awakening him they learn that Tomás Rodaja, as he calls himself, is headed for Salamanca in hopes of finding a master for whom he can work while he pursues studies at the university. Since that is where the students are headed, they take him along as one of their servants. In eight years at the university, Tomás receives an excellent education, both in law and humane letters; in fact, his intellectual qualities gain for him a considerable reputation at the university and he graduates with honors. When his two masters finish their studies and return to their home in Málaga, Tomás accompanies them. Taking his leave, Tomás sets out for home, but meets an infantry captain named Don Diego de Valdivia and accepts an offer to accompany him on a trip to Italy and Flanders. He replaces his student garb with the more flamboyant dress of soldiers, often called papagayos (parrots). His Italian journey begins in the beautiful city of Genoa, and includes, among many others, stays in Rome, the queen of cities, and Naples, the best city in Europe and perhaps the whole world. Passing rapidly through Flanders and France, Tomás returns to Salamanca, where a lady falls hopelessly in love with him; but he rejects her advances. In an effort to make Tomás more responsive, the woman resorts to witchcraft and gives him what she hopes will be an aphrodisiac (made with quince), but the result is quite unexpected: Tomás falls ill, nearly dies, and when he recovers is quite mad, believing himself to be made entirely of glass. When some try to prove that he is a man of flesh and blood like everyone else, by embracing him to show him that he will not break, he falls to the ground screaming, and goes into a faint; upon recovery, he again insists that he is made of glass. He walks only in the middle of the streets, so that nothing that may fall from a building can break him. He sleeps outdoors in the summer and in a hayloft, packed in straw, in the winter. Since, despite his illness, he is of
Page 435 no danger to anyone, he is allowed to go freely about the city. A group of boys, teasing the madman, dub him the Licenciado Vidriera (Glass Graduate), and he adopts this name as an accurate description of his new status. He acquires fame as a street philosopher whose witty, satiric, and aphoristic observations on life are much sought by the public. The fame of Vidriera spreads, and he is invited to the thencapital city of Spain, Valladolid, by a curious nobleman. He makes the trip packed in straw, as any valuable piece of glass would be sent. In Valladolid, he continues his career as a popular philosopher and gains fame within a week. Once, for example, he is asked about poets; he responds that although there is an infinite number of poets, there are very few good ones, which is why he has little respect for poets in general. He admires and reveres the science of poetry because it includes within it all other sciences, makes use of all of them, and adorns them all, with marvelous results. He goes on to parody the antics of poetasters who insist on reciting their latest creations, over and over if necessary, for the appreciation of the world in general. As for why poets are notoriously poor, he suggests, it is because they choose to be, since they live surrounded by wealth: their ladies’ hair is gold, forehead silver, eyes emeralds, teeth ivory, lips coral, tears liquid pearls, and so forth. After two years in this state, Vidriera is cured by a monk of his madness, while retaining all his intelligence and perceptive abilities. He now takes the name Tomás Rueda (wheel) and attempts to continue his life as a wandering philosopher, but society pays no attention to a normal man acting in this capacity. Disillusioned, he departs for Flanders, joins the military in the company of his good friend Captain Valdivia, and is killed in action, leaving perpetual fame as a valiant soldier. Bibliography: Frank P.Casa, “The Structural Unity of El Licenciado Vidriera,” Bulletin of Hispanic Studies 41 (1964):242–46; Sybil Dümchen, “The Function of Madness in El Licenciado Vidriera” in Cervantes’s “Exemplary Novels” and the Adventure of Writing, ed. Michael Nerlich and Nicholas Spadaccini (Minneapolis, MN: Prisma Institute, 1989), 99–123; E.Michael Gerli, “The Dialectics of Writing: El licenciado Vidriera and the Picaresque,” in Refiguring Authority: Reading, Writing, and Rewriting in Cervantes (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1995), 10–23; Maurice Molho, “Una dama de todo rumbo y manejo. Para una lectura de El licenciado Vidriera,” in Erotismo en las letras hispánicas: Aspectos, modos y fronteras, ed. L.López Baralt and Francisco Márquez Villanueva (Mexico City: Colegio de Mexico, 1995), 387–406; Alvaro Molina, “Glass Characters and Glass Fictions: The Poetics of El curioso impertinente and El licenciado Vidriera,” Mester 25 (1996):5–29; Victor Eduardo Munguía García “El Licenciado Vidriera y Don Quijote,” Anales Cervantinos 30 (1992):10–26; José Ramón Sampayo Rodríguez, Rasgos erasmistas de la locura del “Licenciado Vidriera,” de Miguel de Cervantes (Kassel, Germany: Reichenberger, 1986); Cesare Segre, “La estructura psicológica de El licenciado Vidriera” in Actas del Primer Coloquio Internacional de la Asociación de Cervantistas, Alcalá de Henares 29/30 nov.–1/2 dic. 1988 (Barcelona: Anthropos, 1990), 53–62; George A.Shipley, “Garbage In, Garbage Out: ‘The Best of Vidriera,’” Cervantes 21, no. 1 (2001):5–41; and George A. Shipley, “Vidriera’s Blather,” Cervantes 22, no. 2 (2002):49–124.
Licentiate [Licenciado]. An academic degree corresponding roughly to a modern bachelor’s degree. It was awarded to a university graduate.
Licentiate swordsman [Licenciado diestro]. In DQ II, 22, the licentiate who first tells DQ and SP about the BasilioQuiteriaCamacho triangle and accompanies them to the wedding. Presumably, he is a supporter of Basilio and accompanies the newlyweds and DQ and SP after the marriage, then recommends his humanist cousin as a guide for DQ on his trip to the Cave of Montesinos.
Licurgo. *Lycurgus.
Lidia. In Galatea 1, a shepherdess from the banks of the Henares River, friend of Teolinda and in love with Eugenio.
Lie [Mentira]. With Adulation, one of two nymphs who attend Vainglory in MC’s dream in Parnaso 6.
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Liebre. *Rabbit.
Lienzo de las aventuras de Periandro. *Canvas depicting Periandro’s adventures.
Lieutenant [Teniente]. 1. In Gitanilla, the man who hears Preciosa sing and is so impressed that he introduces the gypsy girl to his wife, Doña Clara. 2. In Coloquio, the police officer who intervenes in the row caused in an inn by the illegal activities of the constable and La Colindres.
Life in Algiers. *Tratos de Argel, Los.
Life of Ginés de Pasamonte, The. *Vida de Ginés de Pasamonte, La .
Light of the Soul. *Meneses, Fray Felipe de.
Lighthouse (Pharos) of Alexandria [Faro de Alejandría]. The lighthouse constructed of white marble on the island of Pharos at Alexandria; it was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. See Parnaso 6.
Lighthouse of Messina [Faro de Micina]. This edifice marked the division of the “two Sicilies”: the continental part (the kingdom of Naples) was Sicily ultra farum, whereas the island itself was Sicily circa farum. See Amante.
Liguria. A province on the northwestern coast of Italy. Its capital is Genoa and, because of the association with wealthy Genoese banking houses, the name is sometimes used as a synonym for riches, as it is in Casa 1.
Lima. Capital city of Peru and one of the most important Spanish colonial cities. In Entretenida, the character of Don Silvestre de Almendárez returns to Spain from Peru. See also Galatea 5.
Limabo [Himavo]. A mountain in central Asia. See Persiles III, 8.
Limar. The Rimac River in Peru. See Galatea 6.
Limpieza de sangre. *Purity of blood.
Limping verse. *Pie quebrado.
Limpio. In Numancia 4, a Roman soldier who appears briefly.
Linajes. *Families.
Liñán (de Riaza), Pedro de (ca. 1556–1607). Spanish soldier, poet, and priest. A highly esteemed poet in his time, and also a recognized dramatist (although none of his theatrical works survives), Liñán is little read today. He is praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Lindström, Sigfrid (1892–1950). Swedish poet, novelist, shortstory writer, and essayist. Lindström’s first collection of stories, Sagor och meditationer (1922; Stories and Meditations), includes “Don Quixotes sista dagar och hans död” (“Last Days and Death of Don Quixote”). DQ, having returned home from his adventures, sees a boy playing at knighterrant and hears the child’s parents discussing the scene, commenting that it is one thing for a boy to play that way, but something else entirely—madness—when an adult does it. DQ takes this comment to heart and realizes that SP must have been right all along in his perception of reality. He goes and visits a windmill, seeing it for the machine that it is, and considering it a metaphor for how the world in general functions. Returning home, he falls ill, repents of his past life, and dies a Christian death. Lindström also wrote a poem entitled “Don Quixotes självbesinning” (“Don Quixote’s Examination of Conscious”), published in his collection De besegrade (1927; The Defeated), which is similar in tone and theme to his earlier story, except that DQ does not renounce his chivalric vision. Also in the same collection, there is a poem entitled “Sancho Panza” in which the squire affirms his decision to follow DQ in spite of recognizing that he is just a laughingstock for others. Finally, in Leksaks ballonger (1931; Toy Balloons), there is a story of a young farm boy who travels to the city to sell an old horse in order to support his father, who is ill. As he rides along on the horse he constructs an ever more quixotic vision of the
Page 437 world, using a cane as a lance as he charges an army (in reality, sheep, just as in DQ), and seeing a cow as a dragon and an old man as a dangerous dwarf. He arrives at an enchanted castle, complete with giants he defeats and a princess he is to kiss—and at this moment, his fantasy fades as a drunken vagabond shouts at him.
Lingua franca. In the multicultural Mediterranean area, where Arabic, Turkish, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, and other languages were in constant contact, especially in places like the bagnios of North Africa and onboard warships and pirate vessels, there developed a kind of pigeon language that drew from all sources. MC had extensive experience with such hybrid linguistic communication—a supreme example of what *Bakhtin calls “heteroglossia,” the multiplicity of mutually influencing languages within a specific sociohistorical context—during his years of captivity in Algiers. In MC’s works set in North Africa, examples of such speech are occasionally found as a realistic, and exotic, touch; an example is the speech of the young Muslim children who taunt the Christian prisoners in Baños 2. It is explicitly mentioned and commented on by the captive in DQ I, 41. Interestingly, in the more fantastic Persiles (I, 3; II, 18), the lingua franca of the illdefined northern regions is Polish.
Lion [León]. 1. In Tratos 4, the beast sent from heaven to lead Per Alvarez to freedom. 2. In DQ II, 17, one of two prize animals sent by the general of Oran to the king of Spain. They are being transported in a cage en route to Madrid when DQ sees the cart carrying them and believes that he is about to have a great adventure. He forces the lionkeeper to open the cage so that he can face one of the lions in single combat. But the lion refuses to come out, which DQ counts as a victory and then takes a new name for himself: the Knight of the Lions. As the king of beasts, the lion is often a symbol of bravery and royalty. Examples can be found in medieval epic poetry (Poema de Mío Cid), medieval chivalric romance (Chrétien de Troyes’s Yvain or Le chevalier au lion), and several Renaissance Spanish romances of chivalry (as in the first chapter of Amadís de Gaula). This is a unique episode in DQ, as here the protagonist confronts a more obviously lifethreatening danger than in any other adventure (and for this reason Thomas *Mann was particularly impressed by it). But danger turns to burlesque as the lion displays his rear end to the knight and then ignores him. Actually, the actions of the lion who chooses not to leave the safety of his cage for freedom in the wild are typical of many caged animals. Bibliography: Francisco Layna Ranz, “Itinerario de un motivo quijotesco: El caballero ante el león,” Anales Cervantinos 25–26 (1987–88):193–209; Sidney Monas, “The Lion in the Cage: The Quixote of Reality,” Massachusetts Review 1 (1959):156–75; and Edith Rogers, “Don Quijote and the Peaceable Lion,” Hispania 68 (1985):9–14.
Lionkeeper [Leonero]. In DQ II, 17, the man who opens the lion’s cage and then testifies to DQ’s bravery in confronting the beast.
Lipari Islands [Lipar]. A group of volcanic islands off the north coast of Sicily. See Galatea 5.
Lira. 1. A specific form of *silva consisting of a fiveline stanza with the rhyme scheme aBabB. It was first used by *Garcilaso de la Vega and then extensively by Fray Luis de León and Saint Juan de la Cruz. In Galatea 4, the shepherd Matunto is praised for his use of the lira. 2. In Numancia, the beautiful young Numantian woman loved by Marandro and for whom he steals bread from the Romans.
Liranzo. *Iranzo, Lázaro Luis.
Lira’s brother [Hermano de Lira]. In Numancia 4, the boy who starves to death in his sister’s presence.
Lirgandeo . Enchanter and supposed chronicler of the romance of chivalry Espejo de príncipes y caballeros (*Ordóñez de Calahorra, Diego). In DQ II, 34, he appears as a venerable old man, first in the procession of enchanters who precede the appearance of Merlin. See also DQ I, 43.
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Lisalco. In Galatea 1, the head shepherd from the Henares River, the father of Leocadia.
Lisandro. In Galatea 1, a noble shepherd from the banks of the Betis (Guadalquivir) River who is in love with Leonida and who is murdered.
Lisardo. 1. In Galatea 4, one of the Tajo River shepherds, praised for his erudition and discretion; he never actually appears in the story. 2. *Pastoral names.
Lisbon [Lisboa]. Capital city of Portugal, located on the Atlantic coast at the mouth of the Tagus River. In 1580, after the death of King Sebastião at *Alcazarquivir in 1578 and a brief interim reign, Felipe II inherited the crown of Portugal, thus making it yet another part of the vast Spanish empire and uniting the whole Iberian Peninsula under a single rule. In 1581, the newly released excaptive MC traveled to Lisbon with the new ruler. He petitioned for an administrative post, but received only a single, brief, minor diplomatic mission to Oran. In Persiles III, 1, Lisbon is described as being the largest city in Europe. It was not, but with nearly 100,000 inhabitants in the mid sixteenth century (when Periandro and Auristela arrive there), it may have been the largest city on the Iberian Peninsula. See also DQ I, prologue; Española; Guarda; Parnaso 4; Persiles I, 5, 10; III, 2, 4, 6, 12; IV, 6, 8.
Lisipo. *Lyssippus.
List of errata. *Preliminaries.
Listea. In Galatea 3, the late shepherdess who was the love of Orompo; she does not appear in the story.
Lisuarte de Grecia. Son of Esplandián and grandson of Amadís de Gaula, protagonist of Lisuarte de Grecia (1514) by Feliciano de *Silva. The full title of the romance is: El séptimo libro de Amadís: En el cual se trata de los grandes fechos de armas de Lisuarte de Grecia, fijo de Esplandián y de Perión de Gaula (The Seventh Book of Amadís: In which Are Treated the Great Deeds of Arms of Lisuarte of Greece, Son of Esplandián, and of Perión of Gaul). See DQ II, 1.
Lite. *Dis.
Literary Academies [Academias literarias]. Renaissance literary academies had their origin in Italy and often affected a guise of classical culture. In Spain, beginning in the sixteenth century, they were multipurpose intellectual and cultural organizations, literary salons, and informal tertulias, where, with varying degrees of formality, writers, friends, and rivals met to read and discuss literary works in progress and participate in literary competitions or tournaments. Most often, the prevailing tone of the meetings was one of lightheartedness and whimsy, with witty displays of satiric and burlesque poetry. This is reflected in the playful names the organizations often had: Academia Imitatoria (Imitative Academy), Academia de los Ociosos (Academy of the Idle), Academia de los Nocturnos (Academy of the Night Revelers), and Academia Selvaje (Savage Academy). MC (who cites the practices of the academies in DQ I, 18) was a member of the *Imitative Academy in Madrid and at least an occasional participant in others. In Madrid, the lists of participants in various academies over the years include the names of virtually every writer of importance. MC is not known to have participated in the *Academy of the Night Revelers in Valencia, but he most probably participated in literary meetings and tertulias at the *Ochoa Academy in Seville during his time there. In Valladolid during the years MC lived there, 1603–06, there was an active group of writers, of whom the most prominent was Alonso *López Pinciano, who met frequently, and MC may well have been involved. In Toledo, MC’s patron, Cardinal Bernardo de *Sandoval y Rojas, often held literary reunions in his garden; *Tirso de Molina was a frequent participant, and it is possible that MC put in appearances there also. Furthermore, it was common for writers to circulate manuscripts of their recently completed work and/or work they had in progress, a process (not unlike the way
Page 439 drafts of work in progress circulate today on the Internet) that kept friends and rivals up to date about one’s work. Later in the seventeenth century, the Spanish literary academies flourished but became ever more oriented to wit, frivolity, and superficial satire. Bibliography: Anne J.Cruz, “Art of the State: The Academias Literarias as Sites of Symbolic Economies in Golden Age Spain,” Calíope 2 (1995): 72–95; Aurora Egido, Fronteras de la poesía en el Barroco (Barcelona: Crítica, 1990); Willard F.King, Prosa novelística y academias literarias en el siglo XVII (Madrid: Real Academia Española, 1963); and José Sánchez, Academias literarias del Siglo de Oro español (Madrid: Gredos, 1961).
Literary theory in Cervantes. MC never wrote a work of literary theory as such. But his works are full of discussions about theoretical aspects of literature and/or dramatize the aesthetic issues involved. There is no question that MC was familiar with key features of Aristotelian theory—admiratio, imitatio, unity, verisimilitude, poetic versus historic truth, decorum, the legitimized marvelous, rhetorical display, moral edification, and instructive erudition, among others—especially in the version popularized in Spain by El *Pinciano. It also seems clear that he both admired and was critical of aspects of classical doctrine. Almost all of MC’s works deal with literary theory to at least some extent, and there are scenes like the examination of DQ’s library in I, 6, and the literary conversations among the priest, the canon of Toledo, and DQ in I, 47–50, which are virtual essays in theory. Equally interesting are the scenes of dramatized implicit literary theory and criticism: the conversation MC has with his ‘friend’ in the prologue to DQ I; the dialogue between DQ and SP as the latter tells a story in I, 20; the discussions during the presentation of the puppet show by Maese Pedro in II, 26; and various comments by the editornarrator concerning the manuscript of CHB throughout DQ. But Persiles is the work that seems most clearly to be a conscious attempt both to practice (and at times subvert) literary theory and to exemplify it in the characters and actions of the story. Especially interesting in this novel are Periandro’s long narrative in II, 10–20, which is so often interrupted, commented upon, criticized, and defended; and the episode of the counterfeit captives in III, 10– 11. Among other relevant passages are the opening of the second act of Pedro and the discussion about digressions between the two dogs in Coloquio. Although MC was long considered to speak through the words of the canon of Toledo and other conservative, classical, and neoclassical aestheticians, it is clear that MC held conflictive, or at least ambiguous and/or wavering, opinions about literary theory. He knew and admired the classical position of theorists like Torquato Tasso, but he also knew and admired the less formal, freer, more popular techniques of Ludovico Ariosto and others. The fact that he was able to criticize and satirize the pastoral, the chivalric, and the picaresque on one hand, and exemplify them in a very sympathetic light on the other hand makes clear how subtle and thoughtful his own theorizing and practice were. Bibliography: Anthony Close, “Cervantes’ Arte Nuevo de Hazer Fábulas Cómicas en este Tiempo” Cervantes 2, no. 1 (1982):3–22; Alban K.Forcione, Cervantes, Aristotle, and the “Persiles” (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970); Mary Gaylord, “Cervantes’ Portraits and Literary Theory in the Text of Fiction,” Cervantes 6, no. 1 (1986):57–80; E.C.Riley, Cervantes’s Theory of the Novel (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962); and Edward C.Riley, “Tradición e innovación en la novelística cervantina,” Cervantes 17, no. 1 (1997):46–61.
Lithuania. *Bituania.
Littell, Robert (1935–). American novelist. In Littell’s comic novel Mother Russia (1978), the protagonist Robespierre Isayevich Pravdin is a picaresque hustler in the Soviet Union. Pravdin (whose surname is derived from pravda [truth]) makes his living by buying, selling, and trading anything he can, and occasionally pushing for the one big idea—for example, introducing Qtips into Soviet culture—that will make him rich. He is described very explicitly in terms of DQ, with references to knighthood, windmills, armor, his horse, and more; he is “a real hero in a nonheroic epoch.” A loony and quixotic woman known as Mother Russia gets
Page 440 Pravdin involved in an attempt to prove that a great Soviet writer is a plagiarist. Appearing from time to time in the novel is a street vendor who sells little windup figures of DQ, making MC’s hero a kind of icon that implies an ironic commentary on Pravdin. At one point Pravdin buys one of the little DQ figures and sets it loose during a speech by the chairman of the Writers’ Union. When the outraged chairman demands to know, “Who is responsible for this?” Pravdin announces, “Cervantes, Miguel de.” A short while later, Pravdin comments on himself: “Synthesis: Ha! A windup Quixote emerging from the last wooden house in central Moscow to charge the holy of holies. Off my rocker is what I wish I was!” By the end of the novel, after Pravdin has been kept in an asylum and tricked into revealing the location of the documents that prove the plagiarism case, it begins to look as though universal paranoia is justified, the CIA and KGB are one, and they are manipulating one deception after another.
Little barefoot friars [Frailecitos descalzos]. In DQ II, 8, a reference by SP, probably to Saint Diego de Alcalá, canonized in 1588, and Saint Pedro de Alcántara, not actually canonized until 1669. He is expressing the view that glory (here, sainthood) is more easily and rapidly achieved by the religious life than by feats of arms.
Little blind boy. *Cupid.
Little Dipper [Bocina]. Ursa Minor (the Little Bear), one of the most famous constellations of the night sky; it consists of seven stars that can be seen as having the outline of a dipper or ladle. It is cited by SP in DQ I, 20.
Little Dog [Perillo]. The mark of Julián Rey, a famous Morisco armorer who worked in fifteenthcentury Toledo. In Rinconete, Monipodio carries a short sword with this symbol.
Little Gypsy Girl, The. *Gitanilla, La.
Livia, Señora. In Cornelia, the daughter of the duke of Mantua and the woman chosen by the duchess of Ferrara to marry her son; but after his mother dies the duke marries Señora Cornelia.
Liviandad. *Lewdness.
Livy [Livio]: Titus Livius (59 B.C.E.–C.E. 17). Roman historian who wrote of the legendary Roman king Numa. See Poesías 6, 11.
Lizana D., Desiderio. *Recio, Pedro.
Lladró porcelains. The Lladró porcelain company from Valencia has since 1941 made the best known, most recognized, most collected, and most valuable line of fine porcelain products in Spain. In fact, Lladró makes the largest and most varied line of porcelains in the world. There are well over 3,000 different designs in the collection, which ranges from thimbles to dinner plates, from small figures to large statues. No theme is as prominent in the Lladró collection as DQ: DQ and SP in various poses, figures on horseback and in chairs, DT (or Aldonza) figures, and more. DQ is the figure used to symbolize the collection in the international Lladró Collectors Society. Bibliography: Glenn S.Johnson, The Lladró Collection Reference Guide (Ayer, MA: Clear Communications, 1996); and Ricardo Martín, ed., Lladró: The Magic World of Porcelain, trans. Richard Lewis Lee (Barcelona: Salvat, 1988).
Lleras Restrepo, Isabel (1911–). Colombian poet. Lleras Restrepo’s Sonetos (1936; Sonnets) contains a sonnet, in Alexandrine verse, entitled “Oración a Don Quijote” (“Prayer to Don Quixote”). The poet invokes DQ who sallied forth on Rocinante, asking him to return to a world of dead ideals, a world that needs the ‘sublime Manchegan of the Woeful Countenance’ to undo wrongs and set things right again. Her book Lejanía (1952; Distance) also contains a sonnet entitled “For las llanuras de la Mancha” (“By the Plains of La Mancha”), an evocation of the countryside of La Mancha and the major characters of the novel: DQ, SP, and DT. Bibliography: Isabel Lleras Restrepo, Sonetos (Bogotá, Colombia: Minerva, 1936).
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Llorente. 1. In Pedro 1, a man mentioned as a welltodo resident of Junquillos and a possible suitor for the hand of Clemencia. 2. In Pedro 1, the squire who criticizes gypsies. 3. *Pastoral names.
Llorente, Nuestra Señora de San. *Our Lady of Saint Llorente.
Lo Fraso. *Lofraso, Antonio de.
Loaysa. In Celoso, the young man who tricks the guardian Luis and then seduces the innocent young Leonora.
Loba. *Wolf.
Loba, La [She Wolf]. The galley commanded by Don Alvaro de *Bazán. See DQ I, 39.
Lobillo (Lobo). 1. In Rinconete, a character known as “el de Málaga” (the one from Málaga) who is mentioned in the house of Monipodio, but who does not appear. 2. In Rufián 1– 2, a ruffian (also just called Lobo) friend of Cristóbal de Lugo in Seville.
Lobo Antunes, António (1942–). Portuguese novelist. Lobo Antunes’s novel As naus (1988; The Return of the Caravels) is an impressive mixture of history and contemporary realism, juxtaposing the remains of the glorious seafaring past of his nation with the contemporary collapse of empire; Renaissance sailing vessels mix with contemporary cargo ships in the docks of Lisbon, as numerous tales involving characters from different centuries intermingle and interact. As an incidental bit of comedy, early in the novel there are a few references to a onehanded Spaniard named MC, a former soldier and more recently a lottery ticket salesman from Mozambique, who is constantly scribbling bits of a novel called Quixote (no one knows why; that is the name of a famous steeplechase horse) and talking about DT, windmills, and other things he will put into his work.
Lobo Laso de la Vega, Gabriel (ca. 1559–1616). A highly regarded poet, known primarily for his ballads and a long poem about Cortés in Mexico. It is likely that Laso de la Vega was a personal friend of MC’s; he is cited favorably in Parnaso 5. He has also been mentioned as the possible author of the two short poems identified as written by “El Donoso,” which are among the prefatory verses to DQ I.
Lobos, Isla de los. *Island of wolves.
Lobsenz, Herbert. American novelist. Lobsenz’s first novel, the powerful Vangel Griffin (1961), is the story of a young American who goes to Spain in search of adventure and finds it in the person of Angel Cordero, a madly idealistic DQ who is the only member of his own army of liberation, his sultry sister Satry, and his proverbquoting, gluttonous, and lazy SPlike disciple, or sergeantatarms, named Telluriano. (Note the respective connotations of the names: angel lamb, satyr, earthy.) Early in the novel, in a scene reminiscent of DQ describing the armies of sheep to SP (I, 18), Cordero evokes his army that fills the Calle de Alcalá: “Now look up that street…. Can’t you see it’s packed with fifty thousand of the finest horsemen? See how their swords are raised. See how they stand in the stirrups. Do you hear the bugle sound?” When Telluriano insists that he sees nothing, Cordero responds, “Of course the street’s empty, you thickhead, but do you think any man could be a general if he saw his cavalry as visible men?… That street is empty, not because there’s no cavalry there, but because I am a general, and as a general would not be able to see it even if it were there.” The AngelSatryTellurianoVangel relationship becomes increasingly complex as the novel advances towards its tragic dénouement. Angel Cordero and Telluriano are two of the more original and moving DQ and SP figures modern literature.
Lobuna, Countess. *Trifaldi, Countess.
Locadelo, Gian Francesco. *Cervantes, Andrea de.
Loco de Córdoba. *Madman of Córdoba.
Loco de Sevilla. *Madman of Seville.
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Lodeña, Don Fernando de. Spanish nobleman and father of Fernando junior, who contributed a prefatory sonnet for Novelas. In the late 1570s, Lodeña senior was romantically involved with Magdalena de *Cervantes.
Lodeña, Don Fernando de (?–1634). Spanish nobleman, son of Fernando senior, lover of Magdalena de Cervantes. Young Lodeña contributed one of the prefatory sonnets for Novelas; he is praised by MC in Parnaso 4.
Loffredo, Donato Antonio di. *Nocera, duke of.
Lofraso (Lo Fraso), Antonio de (1530–90). Spanish poet and romance writer. Lofraso was the author of the pastoral romance Los diez libros de fortuna de amor (1573; The Ten Books of Love’s Fortune). In the scrutiny of DQ’s library in I, 6, the priest spares it from the flames with the comment that it is a comic book and the best of its kind. The praise seems exaggerated, although it is true that the romance does make some attempt at humor that undermines much of the traditional seriousness of the pastoral. Also worth noting is the presence in this book of a shepherd named Dulcineo, a probable source for the *name of DT. In Parnaso 3, the author is almost thrown overboard as a sacrifice to the Sirens, and is mentioned again among the bad poets in Parnaso 7. See also Vizcaíno. Bibliography: Edward T.Aylward, “Cervantes on Lofraso: Love or Hate?” Revista de Estudios Hispánicos 13 (1979):163–64; and María A.Roca Mussons, “Conjeturas sobre un autor, una obra y la enigmática evaluación de Miguel de Cervantes: Antonio de Lo Frasso y Los diez libros de fortuna d’amor” in Actas del Primer Coloquio Internacional de la Asociación de Cervantistas, Alcalá de Henares 29/30 nov.–1/2 dic. 1988 (Barcelona: Anthropos, 1990), 393–407.
Loja. A town located west of Granada and northeast of Málaga on the Genil River. See DQ II, 57.
Lomas Cantoral, Jerónimo de. *Cantoral, Jerónimo de Lomas.
Lombardy [Lombardía]. The northern section of Italy that lies on the Swiss border. Its capital is Milan. See DQ I, 47; Persiles III, 12; Rufián 1; Vidriera.
London [Londres]. The capital of England, located at the mouth of the Thames River. Much of the action in Española is set in London. See also DQ I, preliminary poems; DQ II, 57; Rufián 2.
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth (1807–82). American poet. Longfellow was the most popular lyric/narrative American poet of the nineteenth century. In the introductory remarks to The Spanish Student (1843) Longfellow states his indebtedness to the “beautiful tale” Gitanilla, but only the name of the heroine, Preciosa, and a central scene are specifically related to MC’s story.
Longnosed poet [Narigudo poeta]. *Ovid, whose full name was Publius Ovidius Naso, or, in Spanish, Publio Ovidio Nasón (big nose) who thus naturally acquired fame as having a big, or long, nose.
Lonja, La (Casa de Contratación). *House of Trade.
Lope Asturiano. In Fregona, the name assumed by Diego de Carriazo during the time he works as a water carrier in Toledo.
Lope de Vega, Calle de. *Calle de Cervantes.
Lope, Don. In Baños, the Christian captive in Algiers who is the protagonist of the play; he is chosen by Zahara to take her to freedom and marry her, and he arranges the escape of the Christians at the end of the play.
Lope Meléndez de Almendráez, Don. In Casamiento, the friend of Doña Clementa.
Lope Ruiz. In DQ I, 20, the shepherd protagonist of the story SP tells DQ.
Lope Tocho. In DQ II, 5, the son of Juan Tocho, a neighbor of SP. Lope has for some
Page 443 while shown an interest in Sanchica, the daughter of SP and Teresa. The latter believes that their daughter should marry someone like him rather than a nobleman, even if SP ever achieves his governorship.
López de Ayala, Adelardo. *Hurtado, Antonio.
López de Enciso, Bartolomé. Spanish poet whose pastoral romance Desengaño (not Desengaños, as MC writes) de celos (1586; Disillusionment of Jealousy) is condemned to the flames in the scrutiny of DQ’s library in I, 6. See also DQ I, 9.
López de Gómara, Francisco (1511–59). Spanish historian. López de Gómara is best known for his twopart Historia general de las Indias and Historia de la conquista de Mexico (1522; General History of the Indies and History of the Conquest of Mexico). The second part was commissioned by *Cortés himself and subvented by his son, and it presents the soldier in a particularly heroic light. López de Gómara was criticized by both Bartolomé de *Las Casas and Bernal *Díaz del Castillo in their accounts of the same incidents. Bibliography: Ramón Iglesia, Cronistas e historiadores de la conquista de Mexico: el ciclo de Hernán Cortés (Mexico City: El Colegio de Mexico, 1944).
López de Hoyos, Juan (?–1583). A priest and Latin teacher much influenced by *Erasmus, with whom MC studied in his youth. In 1568 López de Hoyos became rector of the Estudio de la Villa, a publicly financed academy in Madrid founded and endowed by Fernando and Isabel. It was a position he held for 15 years. After the death of Queen *Isabel de Valois in 1568, López de Hoyos edited a volume of poetry in her honor entitled Historia y relation de la enfermedad, felicísimo tránsito y sumptuosas exequias fúnebres de la Serenísima Reina de España Doña Isabel de Valois, nuestra Señora…(1569; History and Account of the Illness, Most Fortunate Passing, and Sumptuous Funeral of the Most Serene Queen of Spain Doña Isabel de Valois, Our Lady…). An introductory note by López de Hoyos refers to MC, four of whose poems (Poesías 2–5) appear in the book’s pages, as his ‘beloved disciple.’
López de Santa Catalina, Pedro. Spanish translator and romance writer. López de Santa Catalina and Pedro de Reinoso, two virtually unknown writers, are credited with the very free translation/adaptation of material from Mateo *Boiardo’s Orlando Innamorato and others that is known as Espejo de caballerías (Mirror of Chivalry). Parts I and II (1525, 1527) were done by López de Santa Catalina, whereas Part III (1547) is the work of Reinoso. Espejo de caballerías is one of five chivalric romances not condemned to the flames in DQ I, 6, where it is described as lacking the grace of Boiardo’s original, but worthy of eternal exile rather than destruction. Bibliography: Javier Gómez Montero, Literatura caballeresca en España e Italia (1483–1542): El “Espejo de caballerías” (Desonsrucción textual y creación literaria) Tübingen, Germany: Niemeyer, 1992).
López de Ubeda, Francisco. Converso, physician, and buffoon, who prospered under the patronage of the powerful privado Rodrigo Calderón. López de Ubeda is best known as the author of Libro de entretenimiento de la pícara Justina (1605; The Entertaining Book of the Pícara Justina), the first picaresque novel with a female protagonist. This fascinating and frustrating novel is alternately jesting, silly, frivolous, distracted, ribald, and misogynistic. Its structure is complex, with three prologues and four books, subdivided into chapters, parts, and numbers, with often irrelevant moral verses appended to each chapter. The heroine is little more than a pretext for some hermetic social satire, superficial moralizing, and antifeminist diatribe. La pícara Justina is often considered a roman à clef with veiled satiric evocations of members of the royal court of Felipe III in the early years of the seventeenth century, but in fact few of the supposed real identities behind the fictional characters have ever been identified. In some ways more interesting than the
Page 444 novel itself is the frontispiece of the first edition, an engraving depicting the heroine and the famous pícaro Guzmán de Alfarache sailing on the ship of Forgetfulness toward the port of Oblivion, accompanied by the bawd Celestina. Rowing alongside in a small boat is Lazarillo de Tormes, and surrounding the entire scene is a series of objects that comprise the Hopechest of Love. The image represents graphically the heroine’s statement that in a projected sequel (never written) she was to marry the greatest of all pícaros, Guzmán. Thus the engraving represents both the proposed honeymoon voyage of the future lovers (presided over by the antipriest Celestina) and the generic selfconsciousness of picaresque literature. The novel is, in many ways, a response to and parody of *Alemán’s Guzmán de Alfarache. La pícara Justina is one of the most enigmatic and difficult of all picaresque texts, little read today, although it may have been quite influential in the development of the English novel, as Daniel *Defoe owned a copy in Spanish and may have used it to some extent as a model for his own Moll Flanders. It is clear that López de Ubeda had knowledge of DQ before its publication, probably having read at least part of it in manuscript (this being one indication that, as was common at the time, MC circulated his work in manuscript form and/or read from it at meetings of writers), since López has his heroine proclaim herself more famous than Doña Oliva, Celestina, Lazarillo de Tormes, Guzmán de Alfarache, and DQ. MC makes López de Ubeda into a priest and leader of the band of untalented poets in the mockepic battle that is a highlight of Parnaso 7. Bibliography: Marcel Bataillon, Pícaros y picaresca: La pícara Justina (Madrid: Taurus, 1969); Bruno Damiani, Francisco López de Ubeda (New York: Twayne, 1974); Edward Friedman, The Antiheroine’s Voice: Narrative Discourse and Transformations of the Picaresque (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1987); and José María Micó, “Prosas y prisas en 1604: el Quijote, el Guzmán y la Pícara Justina” in Hommage à Robert Jammes, ed. Francis Cerdan. 3 vols. (Toulouse, France: Presses Universitaires du Mirail, 1994), vol. 3, 827–48.
López de Zárate, Francisco (ca. 1585–1658). Spanish religious writer. He was the author of Poema heroico de la Invention de la Cruz por el emperador Constantino (1648; Heroic Poem of the Discovery of the Cross by the Emperor Constantine). Its mention in Persiles IV, 6 (where it is cited as Cruz y Constantino [Cross and Constantine]), is evidence that it was known in manuscript form well before its publication date.
López de Zúñiga y Sotomayor, Don Alonso Diego, Duke of Béjar (1577– 1619). The person to whom DQ I is dedicated and who is praised in the prefatory poem by *Urganda la Desconocida. The dedication is perfunctory, to say the least; it is largely plagiarized from one written by Francisco de *Herrera. MC apparently received little or no support from the duke, as other names replace his in future dedications by MC. He does, however, receive the dedication of one of the most important books of the seventeenth century: Luis de *Góngora’s Soledades (1614).
López del Valle, Juan. An occasional poet mentioned by MC in Parnaso 4.
López Duarte, Francisco. An obvious misprint for Francisco *López de Zárate.
López, Luis. According to what MC says in the prologue to Comedias, a famous madman buried in the cathedral of Córdoba.
López Maldonado, Gabriel. Spanish soldier and poet. López Maldonado, who also fought in the battle of Lepanto, was a good friend of MC in Madrid in the 1560s and also later in life. He was the author of a Cancionero (1586; Songbook) to which MC contributed a laudatory sonnet (Poesías 15), along with another poem (Poesías 16). MC praises López Maldonado in Calliope’s song both in Galatea 6 and in DQ I, 6, where the priest calls him a good friend and spares from the flames his Cancionero (which is right next to Galatea). In turn, López Maldonado contributed a prefatory sonnet to Galatea, a poem that he also included in his Cancionero.
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López Pinciano, Alonso (El Pinciano) (ca. 1547–ca. 1627). Physician, poet, and the bestknown literary theorist of the Spanish Renaissance. His major publication was Philosophia antigua poética (1596; Ancient Poetic Philosophy), written in form of a *dialogue and presenting an original and coherent *Aristotelian version of poetics. El Pinciano (the name is taken from “Pincia,” the original name of Valladolid; he is not to be confused with Hernán *Núñez de Guzmán, who also used the same name) is critical of the dramatic practice of Lope de *Vega, preferring both Italian and classical theory. El Pinciano is the theorist who most obviously and directly influenced MC’s (implicit) theory of aesthetics. Bibliography: Jean Canavaggio, “Alonso López Pinciano y la estética literaria de Cervantes en el Quijote,” Anales Cervantinos 7 (1958):13–107; and Sanford Shepard, El Pinciano y las teorías literarias del Siglo de Oro (Madrid: Gredos, 1962).
López Portillo, José (1920–). President of Mexico 1976–82, and writer. López Portillo’s Don Q (1965) consists of a series of philosophical and sociological conversations between a young lawyer named Pepe Seco and the somewhat mysterious philosopher, Don Q (sometimes identified as a relative of Miguel de Unamuno and/or Antonio Machado). Although there is never any explicit mention of DQ or MC, Don Q cannot help but evoke the fictional knighterrant. The initial Q, together with the frequent discussion of Mexican culture, may also suggest the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl, the subject of another book by López Portillo. Bibliography: José López Portillo, Don Q (México City: Librería Manuel Porrúa, 1965).
Lopino, Domingo. *Información de Argel.
Loranca. There are two villages named Loranca in Spain. The first is Loranca de Tajuña, located directly east of Madrid and south of Guadalajara. The second is Loranca del Campo, located south of Madrid and west of Cuenca. It is not clear which is referred to in Cueva.
Lord of Aglante. *Aglante.
Lord of the Great Island of Trebizond. *Alifanfarón.
Lord’s Prayer. *Four prayers.
Lorena. In Persiles III, 15, the rejected lover of Domicio who attempts to kill him by enchantment.
Lorenza. 1. In Entretenida 3, a servant who is just mentioned once. 2. In Viejo, the young wife (also called Lorencica) who deceives her jealous old husband.
Lorenzi, Giambattista (?–1805). Italian dramatist. He wrote the libretto for the opera Don Chisciotte de la Mancha (1769), with music by Giovanni Paisiello (1740–1816).
Lorenzo Bentibolli. In Cornelia, the brother of Cornelia who wants to maintain the family honor.
Lorenzo Corchuelo. In DQ I, 25–26, the name of the father of Aldonza Lorenzo.
Lorenzo de Miranda, Don. In DQ II, 16, 18, the son of Don Diego de Miranda, an 18yearold student at Salamanca and a poet. He reads two of his poems for DQ, who praises them highly.
Lorenzo Pasillas. In Guarda, the sacristan who courts and wins the hand of Cristina.
Loreto, Nuestra Señora de. *Our Lady of Loreto.
Los que hallaron los versos de Don Quixote. *Those who found Don Quixote’s verses.
Lost in La Mancha: The UnMaking of Don Quixote (2002). A documentary film directed by Keith Fulton and Louis Pepe, an account of Terry *Gilliam’s failed attempt to make a DQ film. Though Gilliam only managed to film minutes of his proposed work, the documentary is the distillation of many hours of filming and, in its own way, is a quixotic film itself.
Page 446 Lot. In the Old Testament, the nephew of Abraham who was warned by angels to flee the doomed city of Sodom and not look back. His wife, however, did turn her head to look back and was turned into a pillar of salt. See DQ I, 27.
Lotario. Principal character in Curioso (DQ I, 33–35). When he agrees to humor his friend Anselmo’s wish that he test the virtue of Anselmo’s wife Camila, the events that will lead to the death of all involved are set into motion.
Loubayssin de Lamarca, Francisco (ca. 1588–ca. 1660). SpanishFrench novelist. Loubayssin lived in exile in France when he wrote Engaños deste siglo (1615; Deceits of This World), a curious mixture of picaresque, courtly, satiric, and erotic fiction. The author’s admiration for MC is evident throughout the work, as seen, for example, in his citation of the opening phrase of DQ I, and in his mention of MC and his Carrizales from Celoso, the only contemporary name included in a passage along with a half dozen characters from classical literature. The fact that within a decade of the publication of DQ I, and in the same year that DQ II appeared, a Spaniard living in France was already treating MC like a classic author is a strong testimony to the immediate influence and popularity of, together with the admiration and respect accorded to, MC’s novel. Bibliography: Francisco Loubayssin de Lamarca, Engaños deste siglo y historia sucedida en nuestros tiempos, 1615, ed. Elisa Rosales Juega (Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2001).
Love [Amor]. In the works of MC, Love is often personified in the form of Venus and/or her son *Cupid. For representative examples, see DQ I, 14, 34; DQ II, 19, 46, 56, 58; Entretenida 2; Eregona; Galatea; Juez; Pedro 1; Persiles I, 21, 23; II, 6–7, 10; IV, 3, 7, 9; Tratos 1, 4.
Lowry, Malcolm (1909–57). English novelist and poet. Lowry’s best novel is the powerful (and at least partly autobiographical) novel of alcoholism, Under the Volcano (1947). The protagonist is the British consul Geoffrey Firmin, for whom “life had become a quixotic oral fiction.” Firmin describes his mind as being “like Don Quixote avoiding a town invested with his abhorrence because of his excesses there.” Life becomes increasingly loathsome to Firmin, and books provide no answer, no escape. An emblem of his decay is a stuffed figure of DQ that at one point falls from the wall when Firmin slams the door, symbolically prefiguring Firmin’s own “fall” and death.
Loyola, San Ignacio de. *Saint Ignacio de Loyola.
Loza talaveril. *Talaveran pottery.
Luca. *Lucca.
Luca de Tena, Torcuato (1923–). Spanish journalist, novelist, and dramatist. Luca de Tena’s first novel, La otra vida del capitán Contreras, (1953; The Second Life of Captain Contreras), is an interesting new version of the life of Alonso de Contreras (1582–ca. 1642), Spanish soldier, adventurer, and friend of Lope de *Vega, who published his autobiographical Vida (Life, written around 1630). Contreras’s new life in modern times is one of disillusionment and affords a satiric view of midtwentiethcentury Spanish society. In addition to occasional citations from and allusions to DQ, Contreras becomes a quixotic figure as he attempts to create his own fantasy existence with Sylvia, a prostitute whom he idealizes as a kind of DT. Luca de Tena’s curious La brújula loca (1964; The Crazy Compass) is a tale told (in a style that consciously imitates that of MC) by a dog named Trespatas, who is aware of MC’s story of talking dogs Coloquio. Bibliography: Torcuato Luca de Tena, La otra vida del capitán Contreras (Barcelona: Destino, 1953).
Lucan [Lucano]: Marcus Amnaeus Lucanus (39–65). Latin poet. Lucan was the author of the epic poem Pharsalia (La Farsalia), on the civil war between Pompey and Caesar, which was translated into Spanish by Juan de Jáuregui (but not published until 1684). See Parnaso 2.
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Lucas, Charles (1769–1854). English novelist. Lucas is the author of The Infernal Quixote, a Tale of the Day (4 vols., 1801), a long and tiresome diatribe against eighteenthcentury philosophy, directed specifically at William *Godwin. Except for the title and the specific references to and citations of the quixotic Godwin, there is virtually nothing in the work that reminds the reader of DQ. Bibliography: Charles Lucas, The Infernal Quixote, a Tale of the Day, 4 vols. (London: Minerva Press, 1801).
Lucca [Luca]. A city in northwestern Italy. In MC’s day, Lucca was a free city, a status it had achieved in the fourteenth century and that continued until the nineteenth. MC describes the city in very similar terms in Vidriera and Persiles III, 19–20. See also Persiles IV, 8.
Lucero. *Morning Star.
Lucía. *Pastoral names.
Lucid Apollo. *Apollo.
Lucifer (Luzbel). The angel whose name means “bearer of light.” The figure is not mentioned in the Bible, but is derived from Phosphorus in Greek myth. In Christian tradition Lucifer came to be associated with *Satan before his fall. In Rufián 3, he comes up from the underworld to complain of the saintliness of Fray Cristóbal de la Cruz and again later to be present when Cruz dies a saint (he had been referred to in Casa 1 as Luzbel). See also DQ II, 22; Juez; Sultana 2.
Lucinda. *Pastoral names.
Lucretia [Lucrecia]. The virtuous and beautiful Roman woman, wife of Colatinus, who was raped by Sextus Traquinius and who then committed suicide. Outraged, the Romans drove the Etruscans from Rome and the Roman Republic was established. She is a symbol of chastity. See Cueva; DQ I, 25, 34; Galatea 4.
Luengo Barbero, Segismundo. Spanish writer. In a homage of the city of Esquivias to MC, Luengo Barbero contributes a loa (short panegyric in verse) entitled “Loa a doña Catalina de Salazar Palacios Vozmediano, Señora de Esquivias, Bella Dama, Fiel y Enamorada Esposa de Cervantes” (1987; “Loa to Doña Catalina de Salazar Palacios Vozmediano, Lady of Esquivias, a Beautiful Lady, Faithful and Loving Wife of Cervantes”), a panegyric to MC’s wife. Bibliography: Segismundo Luengo Barbero, “Loa a doña Catalina de Salazar Palacios Vozmediano, Señora de Esquivias, Bella Dama, Fiel y Enamorada Esposa de Cervantes,” in Homenaje de Esquivias a Cervantes (Toledo, Spain: Ayuntamiento de Esquivias, 1987), 55–87.
Lugilde Huerta, Manuel. *Saavedra de Cervantes, M.
Lugo, Cristóbal de. As described by Fray Agustín *Dávila Padilla, a sinner turned martyr and the historical basis for the protagonist of the same name in MC’s Rufián, where he is a ruffian in Seville who becomes an exemplary Dominican monk with the name of Cristóbal de la Cruz in Mexico, performs a spectacular miracle, and dies a saint.
Lugones, Leopoldo (1874–1938). Argentine poet. Lugones wrote a short, presumably unfinished, dramatic dialogue entitled “Dos ilustres lunáticos, o La divergencia universal” (“Two Illustrious Lunatics, or Universal Divergence”), first published in Lunario sentimental (1909; Sentimental Lunarian). The two interlocutors are Hamlet and DQ, identified simply as H and Q, who meet on a railway station platform one night under a full moon. The two figures discuss the workers’ strike that has stranded them there, political theory, love, and women. Bibliography: Leopoldo Lugones, Lunario sentimental, 3rd ed. (Buenos Aires: Centurión, 1947).
Luis. 1. In Celoso, the black eunuch slave employed by Carrizales to guard the entry to his house. He is easily duped by the clever Loaysa, who tricks him by appealing to his “natural” sense of rhythm and music and his love of alcohol. 2. In Fuerza, the child (also called Luisico) of Leocadia and Rodolfo, whose injury and
Page 448 spilled blood is responsible for reuniting the couple. 3. In DQ I, 43–45, the youth, called Don Luis, about 15 years old, who dresses as a mule boy and follows his beloved Doña Clara to the *inn of Juan Palomeque and becomes involved in the events there. The song he sings—“Dulce esperanza mía” (“My sweet hope”) in I, 43—was set to music by Luis *Salvador in 1591. This, along with the dates suggested by the events in Capitán, and those of the books in *DQ’s library, imply a date of composition of the early 1590s for DQ I.
Luis Antonio. In Persiles III, 3, the man chosen by her father to marry Feliciana de la Voz.
Luisa (the Talaveran woman, the whore from Talavera) [la talaverana, la ramera de Talavera]. In Persiles III, 6–7, the young woman whom Ortel Banedre marries but who then runs off with her former lover Alonso. The couple is sentenced to ten years of exile and, after Alonso dies in jail, Luisa gets involved with a Spanish soldier who abuses her. This is learned when she has a chance encounter with the pilgrims in III, 16. Luisa asks for help and is granted protection by the pilgrims, but after a short while, she runs off with the servant Bartolomé. Later, both Bartolomé and Luisa are jailed in Rome after Bartolomé kills the abusive Spanish soldier and Luisa kills her former husband Ortel Banedre (IV, 5). They appeal to the pilgrims for help, and Croriano and Eusebia use their connections and influence to have them set free. In IV, 14, it is stated that Bartolomé and Luisa go on to Naples, where they end up as badly as they had lived. See also Persiles III, 19.
Luisico. *Luis.
Luján. *Suárez de Luján, Doctor.
Luján de Sayavedra, Mateo. *Martí, Juan.
Luján, Pedro de (?–ca. 1571). Spanish romance writer. The converso Sevillian book publisher Luján has the distinction of writing the last of the romances in the *Amadís cycle, Silves de la Selva (1946; Silves of the Forest). He is also the author of Coloquios matrimoniales (1550; Matrimonial Colloquies) and translated the Italian sequel to Alonso de *Salazar’s Lepolemo, entitled Leandro el Bel, as Libro segundo del esforzado caballero de la Cruz Lepolemo Príncipe de Alemaña (1563; Second Book of the Brave Knight of the Cross Lepolemo Prince of Germany).
Lukács, Georg. Theorist of the novel. Lukács was one of the most influential Marxist theorists of the twentieth century. In his Theory of the Novel (1920), Lukács proposes that the modern genre of the novel comes into being in reaction to the greatest traditional genre, the epic, and that DQ, as a parody/criticism of the late (degenerate) epic in the form of the chivalric romance (Amadís de Gaula and the like), is “the first great novel of world literature.” For Lukács, DQ “stands at the beginning of the time when the Christian God began to forsake the world; when man became lonely and could find meaning and substance only in his own soul, whose home was nowhere; when the world, released from its paradoxical anchorage in a beyond that is truly present, was abandoned to its immanent meaninglessness.” Lukács was not the first to conceive of the novel as a development of the epic form, but his version of the theory—in which the novel is a latecomer in literary history and will eventually be replaced again by the epic—is the best known. To no small extent, *Bakhtin’s theory of the novel is a response to Lukács’s important and influential book. Bibliography: Georg Lukács, The Theory of the Novel: A HistoricoPhilosophical Essay on the Forms of Great Epic Literature, trans. Anna Bostock (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1971); and Galin Tihanov, The Master and the Slave: Lukács, Bakhtin, and the Ideas of Their Time (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000).
Luminary of the three faces [Luminaria de las tres caras]. The moon, as DQ refers to it in DQ I, 43. The allusion is to Horace, who refers to the moon as Febe, Diana, and Hecate; it also refers to the moon’s three basic phases: full, halfcircle, and crescent.
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Luna. *Gante and Luna.
Luna, Don Alvaro de (ca. 1390–1453). Spanish statesman who rose to great power as advisor to King Juan II of Castile and then fell from favor and was executed; his name became synonymous for the fortunes of fate. See the poem by Urganda la Desconocida in the preliminary pages to DQ I.
Luna, Juan de (ca. 1558–?). Spanish novelist. Luna was a Protestant who lived in exile in Paris, and there he wrote the Segunda parte de la vida de Lazarillo de Tormes (1620; Second Part of the Life of Lazarillo de Tormes), both a continuation of the original *Lazarillo de Tormes and a criticism of the other sequel published in 1555. Luna does away with the silly tuna fish episodes, presents a more “realistic” version of the protagonist’s adventures in the sea and as a carnival merman, and otherwise “corrects” the rival sequel. Above all, however, the novel is a sharp critique of the Spanish Inquisition, the clergy, and Catholicism in general. An interesting feature of the work, and one that makes it unique in Spanish picaresque literature, is its presentation as having been translated from ‘the old chronicles of Toledo,’ the same technique employed by MC in DQ I with the archives of La Mancha and the whole CHB ploy. In tone, style, and presentation, Luna’s novel is more reminiscent of DQ than any other Spanish picaresque novel. Bibliography: Marina Scordilis Brownlee, “Generic Expansion and Generic Subversion: The Two Continuations of the Lazarillo de Tormes” Philological Quarterly 66 (1982):317–25; and Robert S. Rudder, “La segunda parte de Lazarillo de Tormes: La originalidad de Juan de Luna,” Estudios filológicos 6 (1970):97–112.
Luna, Montes de la. *Mountains of the Moon.
Lunacharsky, Anatoliy Vasilevich (1875–1933). Russian dramatist and critic. His play Osvobozhdennyi Don Kikhot (1922; Don Quixote Liberated) is set in the palace of the duke and duchess from DQ. The heroic and idealistic DQ is the butt of cruel practical jokes (much like in the novel) by the sadistic courtiers who represent the old regime, making the theme of MC’s novel into one of a forerunner of the great social revolution.
Lunar de Dulcinea. *Dulcinea’s mole.
Lunas. An Aragonese family name mentioned in DQ I, 13.
Lupercios, los. *Argensola, Lupercio Leonardo de; *Argensola, Bartolomé Leonardo de.
Luscinda. First mentioned by Cardenio in DQ I, 24, 27, and then by Dorotea in I, 28, she is an important figure in Cardenio. Although present in Juan Palomeque’s inn in I, 36– 45, her role is relatively marginal in everything that takes place.
Luscinda’s parents [Padres de Luscinda]. The father is mentioned by Cardenio in DQ I, 24, 27, and then both parents are mentioned in passing by Dorotea in DQ I, 28.
Lusitania. The legendary name for the part of the Iberian Peninsula that is now modern *Portugal. See DQ I, 49; Parnaso 4.
Luso. The mythological companion, or son, of Bacchus, for whom Portugal (*Lusitania) is named. See Galatea 6; Parnaso 2.
Luterano. *Lutheran.
Luther, Martin (1483–1546). German theologian and leader of the Protestant Reformation. Luther posed a major threat to the dream of a unified Christian Europe as envisioned by Carlos V. After he famously nailed his 95 theses to the door in Wittenberg in 1517, Luther was excommunicated and declared a heretic at the Diet of Worms in 1521. Luther came to personify everything hateful to Spaniards—he was a monk who broke his vows and married a nun—and was considered to be the devil incarnate. In *Quevedo’s satiric Sueño de las calaveras (1607; Dream of Skulls), Luther is joined by Judas and Mohammed in an appearance before divine judgment. Bibliography: John Edward Longhurst, Luther in
Page 450 Spain, 1520–1540 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1959).
Lutheran [Luterano]. A general term for Protestant. In Poesías 27, the barbarian, the Lutheran, and the Araucanian (American Indian) are mentioned together as infidels, enemies of the late King Felipe II. In Poesías 20, the English are described as the vicious Lutheran (vicioso luterano).
Luz. The name used in his verse by Fernando de *Herrera for the countess of Gelves, for whom he had an intense but platonic love. See Parnaso 2; Poesías 29. Luz del alma. *Meneses, Fray Felipe de.
Luzbel. *Lucifer.
Lycanthropy [Licantropía]. The power to transform oneself or others into wolves. In Persiles I, 5, Antonio the Barbarian tells of being on an island inhabited by wolves who spoke to him, telling him to leave the island. In I, 8, the Italian dancing master Rutilio is freed from prison by a witch who takes him on a magic carpet to Norway and then turns into a wolf whom he kills. Rutilio says that he does not believe that such things are true, but these events did happen to him in the way he describes them. MC may have read of men and women who turn into wolves in the works of Olaus *Magnus and Antonio de *Torquemada. See also Persiles I, 18. Bibliography: Sidky Homayun, Witchcraft, Lycanthropy, Drugs and Disease: An Anthropological Study of the European Witch Hunts (New York: Lang, 1996).
Lycurgus [Licurgo] (ca. 390–ca. 325 BCE). A legendary Spartan legislator and lawgiver who gained fame as financial, military, and political leader of Athens. See Elección; DQ II, 1, 51; Pedro 1.
Lysippus [Lisipo] (fourth century BCE). Greek sculptor of great renown, who worked primarily in bronze. See DQ II, 32; Novelas dedication.
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M Macabeo, Judas; Maccabaeus, Judas. *Nine Worthies.
Macarius [Macario] (ca. 300–390). Christian monk, a hermit or anchorite in Egypt, known as “the Elder.” See Rufián 3.
Maccabees [Macabeos]. In the Old Testament, a family of Jews who conquered Antioch in the second century. See Baños 2; DQ I, 23.
Machado, Antonio (1875–1939). Spanish poet. The younger brother of Manuel *Machado, Antonio is generally considered, along with Federico *García Lorca, as one of the greatest Spanish poets of the twentieth century. In one of his most characteristic volumes of poetry, Campos de Castilla (1912; Fields of Castile), there is a poem dedicated to *Azorín, in which the poet praises Azorín’s quixotic work with MC and DQ. In the same book, there is a poem entitled “La mujer manchega” (“The Manchegan Woman”) in which the poet evokes both La Mancha and the most famous women from that region: MC’s bride, the wife of Don Diego de Miranda, SP’s wife, the innkeeper’s daughter, and, of course, DT. In Juan de Mairena (1936), in a section on the novel, Machado’s philosopher Juan de Mairena (the author’s alter ego) cites ‘MC and his seven league boots’ and asks who can follow in his path: ‘The truth is that, after Don Quixote, the world is waiting for another great novel that has never arrived.’ Later, he discusses the two great writers of dialogue in the Renaissance: Shakespeare and MC. Bibliography: Carl Cobb, Antonio Machado (New York: Twayne, 1971).
Machado, Manuel (1874–1947). Spanish poet. The older brother of Antonio *Machado. Machado’s poetry is so overshadowed by that of his brother that it is often completely ignored. His one poem on a theme from DQ, included in Caprichos (1905; Caprices), is the lovely “La hija del ventero” (“The Innkeeper’s Daughter”), an evocation of a young woman who dreams of the heroes of the romances of chivalry.
Machuca. *Pérez de Vargas, Diego.
Macías (fifth century). Famous Galician troubadour known as El Enamorado (The Lover) whose status as a famous lover became legendary. See Casa 2.
Macón. Apparently a pagan divinity comparable to Trivigant in Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso. See Casa 3.
Madama. *Lady.
Madama, prados de. *Lawns of Madama.
Madariaga, Salvador de (1888–1978). Spanish diplomat, critic, poet, and novelist. Madariaga’s Guía del lector del “Quijote” (1926; translated by the author as “Don Quixote”: An Introductory Study in Psychology) is one of the great books of MC scholarship, still valuable and relevant after threequarters of a century. But Madariaga also wrote an ingenious political allegory entitled Sanco Panco: Novela—Fantasía (1964; Sanco Panco: Novel—Fantasy). In a preface to the reader, Madariaga explains how he acquired the manuscript published here and what little he knows about the “author,” who uses a Cervantine pseudonym. The title page
Page 452 reads La más verídica que verdadera historia de Sanco Panco: Escribióla Manuel de Corzantes y la da hoy a luz Salvador de Madariaga (The More Veridical than Truthful History of Sanco Panco: It Was Written by Manuel de Corzantes and Brought to Light by Salvador de Madariaga). The novel is the story of one Sanco Panco, a general who becomes a virtual king in a country called Esperia (Hope; derived from Hesperia, a name for Spain), but also known as Desesperia (Desperation). Obviously the story is an allegory of the dictatorship of Francisco Franco (which rhymes with Panco) and the character is especially pleased to hear the crowds shout “Sanco Panco, Sanco Panco” (as Franco listened to adoring followers shout “Franco, Franco”). The novel is a sharp satire, with clever code names for everyone and everything involved, on the generalising in his dealings with the two superpowers Ursio (Russia) and Usio (United States), the construction of the Valley of the Fallen, and other aspects of the Franco regime. Bibliography: María Casas de Faunce, “Sancho Panza según Miguel de Corzantes,” in Cervantes, su obra y su mundo: Actas del I Congreso Internacional sobre Cervantes, ed. Manuel Criado de Val (Madrid: Edi6, 1981), 921–25; and Salvador de Madariaga, Sanco Panco: Novela—Fantasía (Mexico City: Editora Latino Americana, 1964).
Madásima. There are three women named Madásima in Amadís de Gaula, none of whom is a queen or has an affair with the surgeon Elisabat, as charged by Cardenio in DQ I, 24. It has been suggested that MC confused Mádasima with the princess Grasinda, but there is no need to look for a way to justify the erroneous claims of a madman in a work of fiction. See also DQ II, 32.
Madhouse of Seville [Casa de los locos de Sevilla]. The location for the story about the man who thought he was Neptune, a cautionary tale told by the barber to DQ in DQ II, 1.
Madman of Córdoba [Loco de Córdoba]. In the prologue to DQ II, an anecdote about a man who dropped marble stones on dogs; it is a satiric comment on the author of DQA.
Madman of Seville [Loco de Sevilla]. 1. In the prologue to DQ II, an anecdote about a man who blew air into dogs to inflate them; it is a satiric comment on the author of DQA. 2. In DQ II, 1, the protagonist of the cautionary tale told by the barber to DQ. The man was institutionalized, but convinced everyone that he was sane. As he was about to be released, another madman claimed to be Jupiter, and he responded that, as Neptune, he would rain on Jupiter’s thunder. With this, the director of the institution decided to keep the man confined. Bibliography: Mauricio Molho, “Para una lectura psicológica de los cuentecillos de locos del segundo Don Quijote,” Cervantes 11, no. 1 (1991):87–98.
Madre de Dios, Monastery of. *Monastery of la Madre de Dios.
Madrid. Capital of Spain (and the highest capital city in Europe), located almost exactly in the geographical center of the country. There is evidence of prehistoric humans living in the place where modern Madrid now stands, and there was a Roman town or city, named Mantua Carpentanea, on the site. But it was a relatively minor location until the Muslims built a fortress on the site in the ninth century and named it Majerit. It was reconquered by the Christians in the eleventh century and slowly evolved into an important city. In the late fifteenth century, Madrid was one of the homes of the itinerant court of the *Catholic Monarchs, but only in 1561 did Felipe II decree it as the capital of Spain, replacing Valladolid. At that time there probably were no more than 15,000 inhabitants in the city. Except for a brief period from 1601 to 1606, when Valladolid again became the site of the royal court, Madrid has remained the capital of Spain. Never as large as Seville during MC’s lifetime, Madrid had a rapid growth of population, and probably had about 70,000 inhabitants at the time of the death of Felipe II in 1598, but within half a century it was twice that size. When MC first arrived in Madrid to live in 1566, the city was only half that size (but even that was twice as large as the population
Page 453 of only two decades earlier). Although MC lived in Madrid for some 20 years and it is mentioned as his home in Adjunta, his only creative works set in Madrid are Entretenida, Guarda, and the first part of Gitanilla. The presence of MC in modern Madrid is fairly substantial. There is, most obviously, the monument to MC, DQ, and SP, so popular with tourists, at the Plaza de España in the heart of the city. A second monument, erected in 1834, to MC is located at the Plaza de las Cortes, across the street from the Spanish Cortes (Parliament). A third monument to MC is located at the entrance to the Biblioteca Nacional (National Library), where he is joined by Lope de *Vega, Antonio de Nebrija, and Juan Luis Vives. In addition, there is the commemorative marker on the building on the *Calle de Cervantes indicating the spot where MC lived in the final years of his life. The location of the print shop of Juan de la Cuesta on the Calle de Atocha also bears a plaque identifying it as the place where DQ I was printed; it is today the site of a Sociedad Cervantina (Cervantine Society) and may some day become an important MC museum (DQ II was also printed by Cuesta, but after his shop was moved to the very nearby Calle de San Eugenio, where there is also a commemorative plaque). In addition, there are commemorative plaques at the Estudio de la Villa on the Calle de la Villa, where Juan *López de Hoyos was MC’s teacher and mentor, and at the Trinitarian Monastery on the Calle de Lope de Vega, where MC is buried in an unmarked grave. Finally, there are well over a dozen restaurants, bars, cafeterias, and other commercial establishments named for MC, DQ, SP, DT, and others. Of these, the best is the lovely restaurant named El Ingenio (after the Ingenioso hidalgo of the title of DQ I) on the Calle de Leganitos, a small family restaurant that serves excellent food in a setting filled with graphic representations of characters and scenes from DQ. See also Adjunta; DQ II, 22, 41, 48, 50, 62; Fregona; Parnaso 1, 3, 7–8; Persiles III, 6–8, 21; Rinconete; Sultana 3; Vidriera. Bibliography: Alastair Boyd and Richard Oliver, The Companion Guide to Madrid and Central Spain (London: Tamesis, 2002); José Cepeda Adán, Madrid de villa a corte: un paseo sentimental por su historia (Madrid: Fundación Universitaria Española, 2001); Ernesto Giménez Caballero, Madrid cervantino o el barrio más espiritual de Europa (Madrid: Ayuntamiento, 1984); Elizabeth Nash, Madrid: A Cultural and Literary Companion (Oxford: Signal Books, 2001); and José Simón Díaz, “Cervantes y su obra en una guía literaria de Madrid,” Anales Cervantinos 25–26 (1987–88):399–412.
Madrid palace [Palacio de Madrid]. The royal residence in the capital city. See Persiles III, 6.
Madrigal. 1. A very small and isolated village, located south and slightly west of Soria and northeast of Madrid, near Sigüenza, that was known for its wines. See Vidriera. 2. In Sultana, the sacristan who is the comic figure in the play; he constantly ridicules and plays jokes on Jews.
Madrigal, Alfonso de, El Tostado (ca. 1400–1455). Prolific prose writer and bishop of Avila. El Tostado (the nickname comes from his father, Alonso Tostado) was better known for having written a lot—over 30 volumes—than for having written any particular work of importance. The phrase ‘to write more than El Tostado’ was a proverbial way of condemning someone for being longwinded or prolix. See DQ II, 3.
Madrina de Hércules. *Hera.
Maese de campo. *Master of ceremonies.
Maese Nicolás. 1. In DQ, the protagonist’s good friend (his name is first mentioned in I, 5) and a fairly important character throughout DQ I. It is to be noted that in the Renaissance the profession of barber was more than that of a haircutter. Barbers were also minor physiciansurgeons, administering crude cures (often consisting of a bloodletting) and giving other medical advice. The symbol of their profession was the shaving basin, a widerimmed receptacle with a single notch in the rim, used both in shaving and bloodletting. The profession, in other words, was one of some degree of prestige—a barber was not by any means a member
Page 454 of the nobility, but he was more than a mere peasant. Thus, the priest *Pero Pérez, the barber Maese Nicolás, and the hidalgo DQ probably formed the “intellectual elite” of the small village of La Mancha in which they lived. Their occasional gatherings to discuss literature, especially the romances of chivalry, as described in I, 1, was probably the closest thing to a tertulia or literary academy the village had ever experienced. The barber is an active participant in the examination of DQ’s library in I, 6, when he and his friend the priest keep for themselves the books they like and burn the rest. From the time DQ’s two friends reenter the novel in I, 26, until the end of DQ I, the barber mostly plays SP to the priest’s DQ, although there are a few occasions on which he takes a more prominent role. In the crude masquerade planned to trick DQ into returning home, the barber agrees to replace the priest and dress as a damsel in distress (I, 26–27), but then, after Dorotea takes over this role, he dons a fake beard and acts as her squire (I, 29–30). In the inn of Juan Palomeque, in order to humor DQ and have some fun, he asserts that the other barber’s shaving basin is, as DQ insists, really a helmet (I, 45). He then plays the role of the spokesperson for the magician who ‘enchants’ DQ (I, 46) in order to deceive him into returning home. Finally, he intervenes in the fight between DQ and the goatherd Eugenio, tripping his friend so that the goatherd can more easily beat him and thus provide more fun for those who are watching (I, 52). In II, 1, when the barber and the priest visit the recuperating DQ, it is the barber of whom DQ is leery, calling him insulting names (*Master shaver, shaver, Master Basin), and who tells the story of the madman of Seville in order to try to warn DQ that he is not as sane as he appears. Once Sansón Carrasco becomes the person from the village who takes it upon himself to go after DQ and make him return home, Maese Nicolás has almost no role to play in the story. See also DQ I, 5; DQ II, 4, 50, 52, 67, 74. 2. In Cueva, the local barber and lover of Cristina, who once refers to him as Maese Roque.
Maese (Mase) Pedro. The puppeteertrickster who owns the divining ape and stages the puppet show about Melisendra in DQ II, 25–26. He is revealed to be the pícaro *Ginés de Pasamonte from I, 22.
Maese Pedro’s puppet show [Retablo de maese Pedro]. The show staged by Maese Pedro and his assistant in DQ II, 26. The story of the beautiful Melisendra, wife of Don Gaiferos, held prisoner by the Muslims in Sansueña (Zaragoza) comes from the Carolingian ballads popular in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Puppet performances of this ballad episode are known to have been performed in Spain in MC’s time. Maese Pedro (*Ginés de Pasamonte from DQ I, 22) manipulates the marionettes on strings while his young assistant narrates the events. DQ is fully aware that it is a staged fictional event involving puppets, as is evident in the fact that he repeatedly interrupts the performance in order to comment on it. But there comes a moment when he seems to be caught up in the illusion, draws his sword, and charges into the action to rescue the lady in distress. After he destroys the puppets and the stage, he generously pays in cash for his actions. This metafictional play within a narrative has been seen as a reproduction in miniature of the narrative structure of DQ as a whole. Certainly it is one of the most graphically appealing and memorable episodes in the novel. A similar scene in DQA presents an interesting problem. In Avellaneda’s novel, DQ and SP join some other people at an inn to watch a performance of El testimonio vengado (Testimony Avenged) by Lope de *Vega. At one point, DQ gets caught up in the action when no one is defending an unjustly accused queen and rushes on stage, sword drawn, in her defense. The similarity between the two scenes has evoked considerable comment, but the problem is that it is impossible to know if Avellaneda was familiar with MC’s work in progress and imitated it (in a more realistic fashion) in his own sequel, or if MC read DQA and then inserted a parody of it with puppets in his own novel, or if it is mere coincidence. The latter is not all that unlikely,
Page 455 as the concept of the mad DQ being deceived by and interrupting a staged performance could easily have occurred to more than one person. Bibliography: George Haley, “The Narrator in Don Quixote: Maese Pedro’s Puppet Show,” MLN 80 (1965):145–65; and Carlos Romero Muñoz, “Nueva lectura del ‘Retablo de maese Pedro,’” in Actas del Primer Coloquio Internacional de la Asociación de Cervantistas, Alcalá de Henares 29/30 nov.–1/2 dic. 1988 (Barcelona: Anthropos, 1990), 95–130.
Maese Roque. *Maese Nicolás.
Maestresala. *Steward.
Maestro de las ceremonias. *Master of ceremonies.
Maeztu, Ramiro de (1874–1936). Spanish journalist and essayist. The prolific Maeztu’s bestknown book is one of his few writings on literature: Don Quijote, Don Juan y la Celestina (1925). In it, he discusses these three most famous of Spanish literary characters in terms of the concept they personify: love, power, and wisdom, respectively. In the first of an interesting series of three essays entitled “Ensayos de simpatía” (1925; “Essays in Sympathy”), Maeztu considers DQ as the best example of Spanish decadence, an expression of a man and a people who recognize the disillusionment of their ideal. Bibliography: Ricardo Landeira, Ramiro de Maeztu (Boston: Twayne, 1978).
Magalhães, Fernão de [Fernando de Magallanes] (1480–1521). Portuguese explorer, the first to undertake a voyage of circumnavigation of the earth, although he himself did not survive the trip. In DQ II, 41, SP mistakenly says Magallanes for *Magalona.
Magalona. A heroine from Carolingian legend (*Pierres and *Historia de la linda Magalona, hija del rey de Nápoles, y de Pierres, hijo del conde de Provenza). See DQ I, 49; DQ II, 40.
Magancés; Maganza. *Ganelon.
Maghreb. *North Africa.
Magic Cave of Salamanca, The. *Cueva de Salamanca, La.
Magic wand [Caña mágica]. In Persiles I, 8, the device used by the witch to free Rutilio from jail.
Magicians from Persia [Magos de Persia]. Persian religious figures who were often perceived as magicians in the West. See DQ I, 47.
Mágico divino. *Divine Magician.
Magimasa. In DQ I, 25, SP’s corruption of the name of Madásima, character from Amadís de Gaula mentioned in the previous chapter, into this form which means something like ‘Magicdough.’
Magistrate [Alcalde de la Justicia]. In Rinconete, this officer approaches Monipodio’s house and frightens everyone, but merely passes by.
Magistrate [Corregidor]. 1. An officer appointed by the king. The corregidor was the top governing official of a town under the jurisdiction of the crown who had substantial oversight responsibility for a city’s affairs. 2. In Fregona, the local official in Toledo whose son is in love with Costanza and who investigates the case. At the end of the story, his daughter marries Don Diego de Carriazo and his son marries the daughter of Don Juan de Avendaño. 3. In Coloquio, in Valladolid, while going from door to door to beg for alms with his master Mahudes, Berganza tries to talk and explain something to the magistrate, but all he can do is bark. 4. In Persiles III, 2, the official in Badajoz who hosts Periandro and the other pilgrims on their journey to Rome. 5. In Persiles III, 5, the official in Guadalupe who helps host and entertain the pilgrims and the family of Feliciana de la Voz for three days. 6. *Fernando de Azevedo, Don.
Magno Alejandro. *Alexander the Great.
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Magno cordobés. *Góngora y Argote, Don Luis de.
Magnus, Olaus (Olaf Magnus, Olaf Magnusson) [Olao Magno] (1490– 1557). Swedish biographer and archbishop of Uppsala. He was the author of the Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus (1555; History of the People of the Northern Regions), which was translated into Italian in 1565, and which MC certainly knew. The book, with its descriptions and maps of the land and peoples of countries to the north of the Europe, was influential in the formation of his concept of the northern geography that underlies Persiles. Bibliography: Leif Sletsjöe, “Cervantes, Torquemada y Olao Magno,” Anales Cervantinos 8 (1959–60):139–50.
Magos de Persia. *Magicians from Persia.
Magsimino. *Maximino.
Maguncia, Doña. In DQ II, 38–39, the widow of King Archipiela and mother of the Princess Antonomasia in the story told by the Countess *Trifaldi.
Mahamut. In Amante, the Sicilian renegade who reconverts to Christianity and helps the protagonist Ricardo; in the end, he marries Halima.
Mahoma. *Mohammed.
Mahometo. A name popular among Muslims. See Tratos 4.
Mahudes, Alonso de. The man who collected alms for the maintenance of the Hospital of the Resurrection in Valladolid. After he had received helpful treatment in the hospital, he dedicated himself to working in service to the institution where his life had been saved. He went about the city with two dogs in order to raise funds for the hospital. In Coloquio, he is described as going from door to door accompanied by the two dogs Berganza and Cipión, who carry lanterns to light his way.
Mahudes’s dogs [Perros de Mahudes]. Cipión and Berganza, protagonists of Coloquio.
Maid; Maiden(s). *Damsel(s), maiden(s), young women .
Main Street. *Calle Mayor.
Mainalo [Ménalo]. A mountain in Arcadia, where the god Pan resided. See Poesías 6.
Mairena (del Alcor). A small town directly east of Seville and southwest of Carmona; there is a statue of MC’s dogs Berganza and Cipión in the town. See Coloquio.
Majalahonda. A city (Majadahonda in modern Spanish) immediately northwest of Madrid, now part of the sprawling greater Madrid metropolitan area. See DQ II, 19.
Majordomo [Mayordomo]. 1. In Amante, Ricardo’s servant who negotiates the price of ransom for his master and Leonisa. 2. In Fregona, the servant of the mother of Costanza who, on his deathbed, reveals to Don Diego de Carriazo the secret of her birth and gives him the countersigns with which to identify her. 3. In Doncellas, the steward of Don Sancho de Cárdenas and the role Leocadia briefly tries to assume in order to hide her identity from Teodora and Rafael. 4. The chief steward, or primary administrator, of the duke’s household. He takes on the responsibility of arranging the tricks and practical jokes played on DQ and SP during their stay with the duke and duchess. As revealed in II, 36, he himself plays the role of Merlin in II, 35. He also plays the part of Countess Trifaldi in II, 36–41, and then accompanies SP to Barataria and helps arrange the events that take place there in II, 45–53. In II, 57, when DQ and SP are about to leave the duke’s castle, he gives SP 200 gold escudos. See also DQ II, 44, 56, 58.
Mal Lara, Juan de (1523–71). Spanish humanist, educator, and writer, best known for his Philosophía vulgar (1568; Popular Philosophy), a collection of 1,000 popular proverbs. There is no evidence of a direct relationship
Page 457 between Mal Lara and MC or even that MC actually read the Philosophía vulgar. But many of the proverbs quoted by the popular philosopher SP, or variants of them, are in Mal Lara’s collection.
Mala Fama. *Bad Fame.
Mala mujer cristiana. *Cava, La.
Málaga. The second largest city in Andalusia (after Seville) and a major Mediterranean port city in southern Spain, located northeast of Gibraltar and southwest of Granada. In Vidriera, it is the home of the two students who employ Tomás Rodaja in Salamanca. See also DQ I, 8, 30; Persiles III, 10; Rinconete; Sultana 3; Tratos 1.
Málaga, percheles de. *Picaresque geography.
Malambruno. The evil enchanter in the story told by the Countess *Trifaldi. See DQ II, 39–41, 44.
Malamud, Bernard (1914–). American novelist. Malamud’s most clearly quixotic novel is The Assistant (1957), which opens with Helen Bober reading DQ in the subway. Her choice of reading material is not accidental, as the idealistic and wishful Helen tells a friend that she wants “a larger and better life. I want the return of my possibilities…. Things I’ve wanted but never had.” She insists that she will not compromise with her ideals: “I’ll wait, I’ll dream. Something will happen.” Later, Helen reads *Dostoevsky’s The Idiot, another novel in which the book DQ is used to characterize the protagonist. The books the character chooses to read are a clear indication of what kind of person she is.
Malandrino. *Mambrino’s helmet.
Maldonado. In Pedro, the count of the gypsies who recruits Pedro de Urdemalas and instructs him in the way of gypsy life. In Coloquio, it is explained that this is the generic name given to the leader, or count, of the gypsies.
Maldonado de Matute, Hernando. *Maldonado, Licenciado Hernando.
Maldonado, Horacio (1884–?). Uruguayan poet, novelist, and essayist. In his preface to El sueño de Alonso Quijano (1920; Alonso Quijano’s Dream), Maldonado explains his very serious, romantic interpretation of DQ. The novel itself consists of the protagonist’s meditations and conversations (with his servant lad, his housekeeper, and his niece) on the last night (or perhaps the last two or three nights; the author is not sure) before he sallies forth as DQ in the final chapter. Bibliography: Horacio Maldonado, El sueño de Alonso Quijano (Montevideo, Uruguay: Imprenta “El Siglo Ilustrado,” 1920).
Maldonado, Licenciado Hernando. A littleknown poet, but perhaps Hernando Maldonado de Matute, a physician in Madrid, praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Maldonado, María. *Cervantes, Licenciado Juan de.
Malgesí (Maugis). A friend of Reinaldos de Montalbán in Carolingian legend. In Pedro 1, he is mentioned as the person who made the prophesy that Pedro de Urdemalas would become a gypsy, king, friar, pope, and bully. In Casa, he is the magician who intervenes to direct much of the action.
Malindrania. In DQ I, 1, the fictional island inhabited by the giant *Caraculiambro.
Malino. *Mambrino’s helmet.
Mallorca (Majorca). Spanish island in the Mediterranean, largest of the Baleares group. See Baños 3; DQ I, 40–41.
Malmaridada. A folkloric figure, a woman who has married badly and complains about her state. See Parnaso 1.
Malo. *Evil one.
Malraux, André (1901–76). French novelist, essayist, and editor. In his novel Les Noyers
Page 458 de l’Altenburg (1945; The Walnut Trees of Altenburg), one of the characters lists the only three novels that “hold their own against prison life”: DQ, Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, and Dostoevsky’s The Idiot. The reason for this is that they are, in effect, “one and the same” story, as they are “the three isolated heroes of the worldnovel.”
Malta (the impregnable island) [la isla inexpugnable]. An island in the Mediterranean Sea, located south of Sicily. In Persiles III, 12, Ambrosia Agustina mentions during the course of her story that the inhabitants of Malta lived in constant fear of Turkish attack. Such was indeed the case, as there were Turkish assaults on the island no fewer than nine times between 1545 and 1565. See also Amante; DQ II, 1; Parnaso 1, 3; Persiles III, 12; Tratos 2.
Malta, Order of. *Order of Malta.
Maltrapillo (Morato, Morat Rais). A Spanish renegade from Murcia, a corsair whose name means something like “Ragamuffin.” According to at least one witness, Maltrapillo helped convince Hassan Pasha to spare MC after his fourth attempt to escape was revealed.
Maluenda, Antonio de (?–1615). A Benedictine monk and poet, best known as a musician. He is cited in Parnaso 4.
Malvas. The phrase “nacer en las malvas” means to be born poor and of low lineage. See DQ I, 4; Retablo.
Mambrino’s helmet [Yelmo de Mambrino]. A golden helmet that Reinaldos de Montalbán won from the Muslim King Mambrino. Reinaldos then wore the helmet into combat against the Saracen Dardinel (and not Sacripante, as DQ says), whom he killed (all in Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso). According to DQ (although not part of the story told by Ariosto), the helmet is enchanted and its wearer invincible, and this is what appeals to DQ when he first mentions it to SP in DQ I, 10. In I, 21, an itinerant barber is spotted by DQ and SP wearing his shaving basin on his head as protection from the rain. DQ proclaims that the man is a knight wearing Mambrino’s helmet, charges, routs the poor barber, and takes the basin as a prize. Considerable humor comes from SP’s chronic inability to pronounce Mambrino’s name correctly. He confuses it with malandrín (scoundrel) and says Malandrino (I, 19), he mixes it with the common name Martin and says Martino (I, 21), and he corrupts it with maligno (evil person) to get Malino (I, 44). The helmet is worn by DQ throughout most of the remainder of DQ I. It is smashed by the galley slaves in I, 22; discussed by DQ and SP in I, 25; called a baciyelmo (basinhelmet) by SP in I, 44; and declared a helmet, and not a basin, by popular vote, which sparks a riot in I, 45. The object in question has been suggested as a symbol of one version of critical approaches to DQ: it is a basin for the hard critics, a helmet for the soft critics (*hard versus soft readings of Don Quixote), and a baciyelmo for the *perspectivists. See also DQ I, 30, 37. Bibliography: Veronica Azcue Castillón, “La disputa del baciyelmo y ‘El retablo de las maravillas’: sobre el carácter dramático de los capítulos 44 y 45 de la primera parte de Don Quijote” Cervantes 22, no. 1 (2002):71–81; Peter N.Dunn, “Contested Discourses in Don Quijote I: Paladin’s Helmet or Barber’s Basin?” in Brave New Words: Studies in Golden Age Literature, ed. Edward H.Friedman and Catherine Larson (New Orleans, LA: University Press of the South, 1996), 125–33; and Manuel Durán, “From Fool’s Gold to Real Gold: Don Quixote and the Golden Helmet,” in Studies in Honor of Donald W.Bleznick, ed. Delia V.Galván (Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 1995), 17–31.
Mameluco. *Great Mameluke of Persia.
Mamí. 1. In Tratos 2, a Muslim pirate who appears briefly. 2. In Tratos 2, the name that one of the Muslim merchants wants to give to the young boy *Francisco. 3. In Tratos 4, the name *Pedro Alvarez has decided to call himself after he converts to Islam (which he is talked out of doing). 4. In Baños 2, a man mentioned as the owner of the Tristán. 5. In Sultana, a eunuch in Amurates’s harem, who denounces Rustán for hiding Doña Catalina de Oviedo from Amurates for six years.
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Mamud Arráez. In Sultana 1, a Turk mentioned by Madrigal.
Man [Uno]. 1. In Gallardo 1, the person who reads the petition from the women and children of Oral to Alonso de Córdoba. 2. In Baños 1, there are at least two men with brief lines who are designated simply as Uno. 3. In Rufián 1, a person who has a brief speaking role. 4. In Laberinto 1, a person who has a brief speaking role. 5. In Viudo, the person who announces the arrival of the constable, but then informs the group that the officer has merely passed by the house. 6. In Elección, the person who announces the arrival of the gypsy musicians.
Man dressed as a wealthy cattledealer [Hombre vestido de ganadero rico]. In DQ II, 45, the man accused of rape in the case adjudicated by SP (*Woman). He is found innocent.
Man dressed in a green overcoat. *Knight of the Green Overcoat.
Man from Delos. *Apollo.
Man on foot [Hombre a pie]. A man walking alongside a mule loaded with lances and other equipment who talks only briefly with DQ in II, 24, and then in the following chapter tells him the story of the *braying aldermen.
Man on horseback. *Rosanio.
Man sitting up front [Hombre sentado en la delantera]. In DQ II, 17, the man riding on the cart carrying the lion.
Man who adored a banana tree [El que adoró el plátano]. According to Pero *Mexía, in his Silva de varia lección, it was the Persian king Xerxes who loved and cared for a banana tree as though it were a woman. See Persiles II, 3.
Man Who Pretended to Be from Biscay, The. *Vizcaíno fingido, El.
Manager’s wife [Mujer del autor]. In DQ II, 11, the person who plays the role of the queen in Las *Cortes de la Muerte.
Manasés. In Persiles IV, 3, the Jew at whose inn Periandro and the group take lodging in Rome.
Mancebo. *Young musician.
Mancebo bien nacido. *Young man of good birth.
Mancebo de Creta. *Icarus.
Mancebo de la casa de Austria. *Youth from the royal house of Austria.
Mancebos. *Young man, men.
Mancha, La. A region in Spain that lies south of Madrid and north of Andalusia. Traditionally it was made up of the provinces of Albacete and Ciudad Real. Today it is part of the larger autonomous community of CastillaLa Mancha and also includes the provinces of Toledo and Cuenca, making it the largest political subdivision in the country. The word Mancha is derived from the Arabic mantxa for “dry land,” an accurate description of much of the region. (The word mancha also means “stain,” a significant connotation in a time when a stain on one’s *honor was so important.) In MC’s time it was a poor and sparsely populated area with much infertile land. Today modern agricultural techniques and irrigation have made La Mancha into a productive area with abundant vineyards and vast fields of grain. Efforts have been made to trace on maps the precise route DQ takes on his three sallies, but neither the geography nor the chronology of his adventures follows a logical course. See DQ I, 5, 30, 49, 52; DQ II, 12–13, 19, 22–23, 31, 44, 50, 61; Gitanilla; Parnaso 7; Persiles III, 12. Bibliography: Diego Perona Villarreal, Geografía cervantina: jornadas, lugares y nuevo replanteamiento de las rutas en el “Quijote de la Mancha” (Madrid: Albia, 1988); and Luis Ruiz de Vargas, Tierras y lugares de la ruta de “Don Quijote de la Mancha” (Madrid: Hijos de E.Minuesa, 1983).
Mancha de Aragón. The eastern region of La Mancha; it is not directly related to the medieval kingdom of Aragon. The name comes
Page 460 from a hill in the region named Monte Aragón. See DQ II, 25.
Manchada. The spotted goat pursued by Eugenio in DQ I, 50.
Manchado. One of the dogs accompanying Erastro when he first appears in Galatea 1.
Manchegan lion [León manchado]. In DQ I, 46, the epithet used for DQ by the barber in his guise as an enchanter when he prophesies the union between him and DT. The barber somewhat maliciously modifies the adjective manchego (Manchegan) to manchado (blemished), a subtlety usually lost in translation.
Manco de Lepanto. An epithet popularly used for MC; it might be translated as ‘the cripple,’ ‘the maimed one,’ or ‘the onehanded man’ of Lepanto. It is not clear exactly what sort of serious wound was inflicted on MC’s left hand during the battle of Lepanto. He probably did not completely lose the hand, as he continued in military service for a few years after that incident, an unlikely probability if he had no hand at all. More likely, the wound consisted of broken bones, some scarring, and possibly nerve damage. MC took great pride in his crippled hand as a symbol of his participation in the battle that was, for him, one of the great turning points in history. In the prologue to DQ II, he specifically laments that the author of DQA called him old and crippled and recalls the occasion on which he lost the use of his hand (see also the prologue to Novelas, Poesías 8). And in DQ I, 15, DQ stresses to SP that wounds received in battle only confer honor to the wounded. Bibliography: Antonio López Alonso, Cervantes: Manco y bien manco (Alcalá de Henares, Spain Universidad de Alcalá, 1997).
Mandricardo. In Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso, a Saracen king and a fierce and respected warrior; he is killed by Ruggiero. See Viejo.
Manfredo, Duke of Rosena. In Laberinto, the man who comes to Novara to marry Rosamira, but finds her accused of sexual improprieties and then is himself accused of abducting the daughter and niece of the duke of Dorlán. At the end of the play he marries Porcia.
Maniferro. In Rinconete, one of two bravos present at the home of Monipodio when Rinconete and Cortadillo are accepted into the thieves’ brotherhood.
Mann, Thomas (1875–1955). German novelist. In 1934, Mann left Europe and traveled to America, and his memoir of that trip is entitled “Meerfahrt mit Don Quijote” (1935; “Voyage with Don Quixote”). A combination of literary criticism, socialpolitical commentary, autobiography, and travelogue, the essay intimately links Mann and DQ in a way that anticipates *Borges. Having read Ludwig *Tieck’s famous translation of the novel shortly before his voyage, Mann reflects on DQ and SP, MC’s style, and other aspects of character and plot. For Mann, the climax of the novel is DQ’s encounter with the *lion in II, 17, where the knight demonstrates extraordinary bravery in the face of potential death. He also takes some pride in Ricote’s remarks about the hospitality the exiled Morisco received in Germany. Bibliography: Erwin Koppen, Thomas Mann y “Don Quijote”: Ensayos de literatura comparada, trans. Rafael de la Vega (Barcelona: Gedisa, 1990); and Gene R.Pendleton, and Linda L.Williams, “Themes of Exile in Thomas Mann’s ‘Voyage with Don Quixote,’” Cervantes 21, no. 2 (2001):73–85.
Manriques. A Castilian family name mentioned in DQ I, 13.
Manteamiento de Sancho. *Sancho’s blanketing.
Mantible. *Historia del emperador Carlomagno y los doce pares de Francia.
Manto volador. *Flying carpet.
Mantua Carpentanea. The Roman name for what is now *Madrid. This name is used in Galatea 2 in order to identify the birthplace of the character Damón, usually assumed to represent MC’s friend Pedro *Laínez, who was from Madrid.
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Mantua, Duke of. In Cornelia, the person mentioned as the father of Livia.
Mantua, Marqués de. *Valdovinos.
Mantuan Tityrus [Mantuano Titiro]. A reference to Virgil, who was born in Mantua. Tityrus is a shepherd in Virgil’s Second Eclogue who is sometimes identified with the author himself. See Viudo.
Mantuano divino. *Virgil.
Mantuano, Pedro. The priest, historian, and secretary to important noblemen, Pedro Castro, from Málaga, settled in and changed his last name to evoke that of his adopted home Madrid (which was known as Mantua Carpentanea in Latin). MC cites him by this name as one of the good poets in Parnassus in Parnaso 4 and 7.
Manuel. In Guarda, a cloth vender driven away from Cristina’s house by the jealous soldier.
Manuel de Sosa Coitiño. In Persiles I, 9–11, the Portuguese prisoner of the barbarians who is first heard singing a sad song and who then tells his story. A successful soldier, he was about to marry the woman he loved in a sumptuous ceremony attended by all the best people of Lisbon, when the bride shocked everyone by announcing that she was taking the veil. Upon completion of his sad tale, Sosa Coitiño collapses and dies. Later, in Lisbon (III, 1), the travelers visit a beautiful tomb constructed in his honor by his brother. The character is probably based on, or inspired in, the soldierwriter of the same name whom MC knew in Algiers (*Sousa Coutinho, Manuel de). Bibliography: Lewis J.Hutton, “El enamorado portugués del Persiles de Cervantes,” in Cervantes, su obra y su mundo: Actas del I Congreso Internacional sobre Cervantes, ed. Manuel Criado de Val (Madrid: Edi6, 1981), 465–69.
Manuel el Gallardo. *Ponce de León, Don Manuel.
Manzanares. A Spanish river that rises in the Guadarrama Mountains north of Madrid, flows through the capital, and empties into the Jarama River southeast of Madrid and north of Aranjuez. At no point does the Manzanares carry much water, and its minimal status as a river in Madrid was the subject of much satirical writing during the Golden Age. See DQ II, 44; Gitanilla; Parnaso 2.
Manzanas de oro. *Golden apples.
Manzanilla. A small town located directly west of Seville and east and slightly north of Huelva. It is also the name of a subtle variant of dry sherry produced exclusively in the city of Sanlúcar de Barramea. See Rufián 1.
Manzoni, Alessandro (1785–1873). Italian novelist. Manzoni’s famous historical novel, I promessi sposi (written in the 1820s but not published in its definitive version until 1840–42; The Betrothed), is set in and around Milan during the years when it was part of Spanish possessions in Italy. The quixotic element is less in the characters than in the author/narrator, who, very much like MC in DQ, searches the archives for information, comments on the original historians’ manuscripts, discusses his own role, observes that certain information is not available, and addresses the reader about matters of textual understanding. The novel’s tone and selfconscious narrative discourse capture and replicate those of DQ as well as any novel ever written.
Maqueda, José. Spanish dramatist. He is the author of a oneact play entitled Sancho Panza en su gobierno (1812; Sancho Panza in His Governorship).
Mar del sur. *South Sea.
Mar helado. *Frozen sea.
Mar Mediterráneo. *Mediterranean Sea.
Mar Oceano. *Ocean Sea.
Marandro. In Numancia, the brave Numantian who sneaks into the Roman camp, kills
Page 462 several soldiers, steals some bread for the starving Lira, and dies of his wounds upon his return the besieged city.
Marañón, Don Alonso de. A knight in the Order of Santiago who drowned in the famous storm of La *Herradura; he is mentioned in SP’s anecdote in DQ II, 31.
Marañón, Luis (1935–). Spanish essayist and novelist. His novel Yo, el otro Balzac (1980; I, the Other Balzac) is a tale narrated in first person by a dog named Balzac. Among his canine friends are several with names taken from characters in the real Balzac’s novels, along with one named Rocinante. Some of the very literate dog’s many literary allusions are to MC and DQ. Although Coloquio is not cited directly, and his novel is not told in the form of a dialogue, it is hard not to think of MC’s model for Marañón’s novel. Bibliography: Luis Marañón, Yo, el otro Balzac (Madrid: E.M.E.S.A., 1980).
Maravedí. *Currency.
Marcela. In DQ I, 12–14, the independent woman who is loved by many men but who loves none in return (she is anticipated by the figure of *Gelasia in Galatea and, in turn, anticipates some aspects of *Preciosa in Gitanilla). DQ and SP learn from the goatherds how Marcela took to the fields dressed as a shepherdess in order to escape the men who were pursuing her. But several of these men, and in particular *Grisóstomo, also sallied forth as shepherds in order to lament her cruelty in disdaining their love. The depth of Grisóstomo’s feeling was so great that he died of love—or committed suicide. After Grisóstomo’s funeral, Marcela appears on a rock above the assembled mourners and delivers a brilliant speech in her own defense (I, 14). After acknowledging that she is beautiful and that all things beautiful attract the intellect and the emotions, she states that she understands why Grisóstomo and others might love her. But, she insists, that fact in no way obliges her to love any of them in return. She never encouraged anyone, was never cruel to anyone, and deserves no blame in the poor man’s death. She was born free and in order to live in freedom she took to the fields; she intends to maintain her independence. After delivering her speech, Marcela disappears, and DQ keeps some of the other men from following her, only to search in vain for her himself (I, 15). Marcela’s speech, perhaps the single most elegant rhetorical utterance in DQ, is often seen as a protofeminist statement. Certainly the successful presentation of her case (and the lack of explicit action forcing her to accept a traditional gender role) makes her unique in the literature of the time and one of the most original and interesting women characters in MC’s works. Bibliography: Thomas R.Hart and Steven Rendall, “Rhetoric and Persuasion in Marcela’s Address to the Shepherds,” Hispanic Review 46 (1978):287–98; Yvonne Jehenson, “The Pastoral Episode in Cervantes’ Don Quijote: Marcela Once Again,” Cervantes 10, no. 2 (1990):15–35; Mary Mackey, “Rhetoric and Characterization in Don Quijote” Hispanic Review (1974):51–66; and Emilia Navarro, “Manual Control: ‘Regulatory Fictions’ and their Discontents,” Cervantes 13, no. 2 (1993):17–35.
Marcela de Almendárez. In Entretenida, the woman who believes that her brother Don Antonio is in love with her and who is courted by the student Cardenio and by Don Ambrosio.
Marcela Osorio. In Entretenida, the second woman named Marcela, who is much talked about but never appears on stage. It has been suggested that this character’s name is significant and represents an oblique satire on Lope de *Vega and his scandalous affair with the actress Elena Osorio.
Marcela’s uncle [Tío de Marcela]. In DQ I, 12, the goatherd Pedro tells how Marcela was raised by her uncle, a kindly priest, after the death of her parents. The uncle decided that he would not choose a husband for her, but would permit her to make that decision for herself. Such an enlightened attitude on the part of a guardian is praised by Pedro.
Marcelio. In Galatea 4, the father of Leopersia; he never appears in the story.
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Marcellino, Antonio F. Argentine dramatist. Marcellino’s threeact play Sancho en la Insula (1931; Sancho on the Island) mixes scenes adapted from DQ and others invented by the author. The most interesting parts of the play do not involve the governor’s problems with the physician who will not let him eat, his wise judgments, or the feigned attack on the island, but his squabbles with his wife Teresa about their noble status, the way he resists the seductive Dorotea’s advances, his “duel” (fight) with an Italian count, and Sanchica’s amorous adventures that end in the loss of her virginity with the cook. Throughout, SP displays his natural astuteness, his folk wisdom, and his concern for his family with a degree of dignity not often found in the great majority of the many plays that dramatize SP’s adventures as a governor. Bibliography: Antonio F.Marcellino, Sancho en la Insula. Infierno dorado. Tubrión (Buenos Aires: Talleres Gráficos Argentinos L.J.Rosso, 1931).
Marcelo. In Pedro 3, the elderly nobleman who explains the story Belica’s birth and childhood as a gypsy, revealing that she is the queen’s niece.
Marchena. A town located east and slightly south of Seville and southwest of Córdoba. See DQ II, 57.
Marcial. *Martial.
Marcilla. Diego Juan Martínez de Marcilla, the lover of Isabel de Segura, the legendary lovers of Teruel. See Poesías 34.
Marco Antonio Adorno, Don. In Doncellas, the playboy who woos and deceives both Teodosia and Leocadia. After his lifethreatening injury, he admits his love for and marries Teodosia.
Marco Antonio Colonna. *Colonna, Ascanio.
Marco Polo. *Polo, Marco.
Mares [Yeguas]. The horses in DQ I, 15, who prefer merely grazing to the erotic advances of Rocinante, whose efforts result in a beating for him, DQ, and SP. This scene of animal lust in a stylized pastoral setting anticipates and parodies DQ’s own erotic advances toward *Maritornes in a stablelike loft in the inn in the following chapter, a scene that also ends in a beating for DQ and SP.
Marfisa. The great Saracen warrior woman from Boiardo’s Orlando Innamorato and Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso. In Casa, she challenges the Twelve Peers to singular combat. See also Doncellas.
Margarita de Valderrama (Fátima). In Gallardo 3, the woman who dresses as a man in order to follow Francisco de Saavedra to Africa and who marries him at the end of the play.
Margarita of Austria (1567–1633). The granddaughter of Carlos V who, in 1585, took the veil in the Convent of the Descalzas Reales (Royal Barefoot Nuns) in Madrid. Pedro de *Padilla dedicated his book Grandezas y excelencias de la Virgen señora nuestra (1587; Grandeur and Excelences of the Our Lady the Virgin) to her, and MC wrote a prefatory poem (Poesías 18) for the book.
Margarita of Austria (1584–1611). The wife of Felipe III and mother of Felipe IV. Her state visit to the church of San Llorente in 1605 is the subject of a ballad sung by Preciosa in Gitanilla.
Mari Cobeña. *Clementa Cobeña.
Mari Gutiérrez. *Name of Sancho’s wife.
Mari Sancha. *Sanchica.
María. 1. In Baños 3, the name Zahara adopts for herself as the depart from Algiers. 2. In DQ I, 37, the name by which Zoraida wants to be known. 3. *Mary.
María, Lela. *Lela María.
Marialonso. In Celoso, the dueña employed by Felipo de Carrizales to serve his wife Leo
Page 464 nora, who facilitates her illicit contact with Loaysa.
Mariana. 1. A generic name for maids and scrubladies. It is used as such in Pedro 2. 2. In Juez, the young woman who wants to divorce her old husband.
Maribobales, Doña. In Viudo, a name based on boba (stupid), used by Pizpita to criticize Repulida.
Marica. 1. A popular diminutive for María. When used in the phrase ‘to look for Marica in Ravenna or a bachelor in Salamanca,’ it means to search for some specific thing difficult to find because there are so many like it. See DQ II, 10. 2. In DQ II, 5, a name for *Sanchica used by Teresa in her discussion about social status with SP.
Maricastaña. A folkloric figure who represents the time in the ancient past when animals and even plants were able to speak. See Casamiento.
Marido. *Husband.
Marién. *Lela Marién.
Marina Sánchez. In Pedro, a widow who first appears namelessly and refuses to give alms to some gypsies. Later, she is deceived by Pedro, posing first as a blind man and then as a pious pilgrim.
Marinán. *Medichino, Giovanni Giacomo.
Marinero(s). *Sailor(s).
Marinero pescador. *Fisherman sailor.
Marinilla. In Fregona, a person mentioned as a wellknown kitchen maid at the Tajada Inn in Toledo.
Mario. *Marius, Gaius; *Ricardo.
Mario, Saint. *Saint Mario.
Marión. In Rinconete, Maniferro’s mispronunciation of the great musician of antiquity, *Arión.
Maritornes. The servantprostitute who works in the inn of Juan Palomeque and participates in the events that take place there in DQ I, 16–17, 32–47. Maritornes is described in grotesque terms (flatfaced, blind in one eye, hunchbacked) when she is first mentioned in I, 16, and this grotesqueness contributes considerably to the comedy later that night when she is supposed to keep a sexual appointment with the muleteer. DQ perceives her as a princess come to grace his own bed and pulls her down beside him while protesting that he must remain faithful to DT. DQ transforms the ugly details of her reality to fit with his chivalric vision of things: the coarse cloth of her dress becomes fine silk, her breath that reeks of garlic smells sweet and aromatic, and so forth. She receives (and gives, especially to SP) her share of blows in the ensuing riot. In addition to her repulsive physical appearance, Maritornes is said to take on the airs of an Old Christian from Asturias and to be presumptuous and (ironically and satirically) always obliged to keep her word (e.g., as in her assignation with the muleteer). She seems to be very much the instigator when she and the *innkeeper’s daughter play a practical joke on DQ in I, 43. Yet, at the same time, Maritornes comes across as a basically decent person, especially when she is supportive when DQ first arrives at the inn, when she offers SP water after he has been tossed in a blanket (I, 17), and when she takes tearful (if feigned) leave of DQ at the end of his stay in the inn (I, 47). See also DQ I, 27. Bibliography: Donald McGrady, “The Italian Origins of the Episode of Don Quijote and Maritornes,” Cervantes 7, no. 1 (1987):3–12; and Henry Mendeloff, “The Maritornes Episode (DQ: I, 16):A Cervantine Bedroom Farce,” Romance Notes 16 (1975): 753–59.
Marius, Gaius [Mario] (157–86 BCE). Roman general and consul, who, among other accomplishments, served under Scipio during the siege of *Numantia. In Numancia, he is represented by the character called *Cayo Mario. In
Page 465 DQ I, 27, he is cited as an example of a famous traitor.
Marivaux, Pierre Carlet de Chamblain de (1638–1763). French dramatist and novelist. Marivaux’s first novel was Pharsamon ou Les nouvelles folies romanesques (written ca. 1712, published 1737; Pharsamon, or The New Romance Follies), one of the earliest namesakes of DQ. In later editions the novel usually carried one of two subtitles: Le Don Quichotte français or Le Don Quichotte moderne (The French Don Quixote or The Modern Don Quixote). The novel is a parody of Gautier de La Calprenède’s Faramond (1670), a massive historical romance, and is the story of a young man who reads such romances and then sets out in search of romantic chivalric adventures. He and a peasant friend take new names and sally forth in search of adventure and romance. They succeed in falling in love and, at the end, are restored to sanity and conformity to social standards. Two other satiric fictions also written shortly after Pharsamon similarly feature quixotic heroes: Le Télémaque travesti (1736; A Travesty of Télémaque), a satire on Fénelon’s Les Aventures de Télémaque (1699), and the briefer La Voiture enbourbée (1714; The Coach Stuck in the Mud), another satire on romance reading with a DQ and SP pair. Bibliography: JeanPaul Sermain, Le Signe de don Quichotte: Marivaux, Cervantes et le roman postcritique (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 1999).
Mark Antony. *Antony, Mark.
Mark Twain. *Twain, Mark.
Market of Seville [Heria (feria) de Sevilla]. A section of Seville in which a weekly market was held on Thursdays; it was also a gathering place for criminals, ruffians, and other marginal types; cited in DQ I, 17; Rinconete; Rufián 1.
Marlowe, Stephen (1928–). American novelist. Marlowe’s biographical novel The Death and Life of Miguel de Cervantes: A Novel (1991) is basically consistent with known documentation of MC’s life, but at the same time it is a brilliant metafictional tale. The story begins with MC in captivity, about to be executed on April 23, 1579, for having organized one of his famous escape attempts. A local wise man, one Cide Hamete Benengeli, who (Merlinlike) knows the future, informs MC that he is indeed to die on April 23, but not this year. As MC then narrates the story of his life, we learn of his obsessive love for his sister Andrea (who, in the end, turns out not to be his sister); the mysterious activities of his brother Juan, known as “the Obscure”; the “truth” about Zoraida; the nature of his relationship to Lope de *Vega; his fame as a ráwi, or storyteller; his opinions about what subsequent historians and critics would write about him; how DQ came to be written; and much more. In the latter part of the novel MC gets increasingly involved, along with Juan the Obscure and CHB, in international espionage, and even meets Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare, among others. This novel is much more original and inventive than relatively pedestrian works about MC, such as Bruno *Frank’s A Man Called Cervantes, and it features some truly Cervantine metafictional play involving CHB. Bibliography: Harm den Boer, “The Truthful Fiction of the Death and Life of the Author: Cervantes and Marlowe,” in The Author as Character: Representing Historical Writers in Western Literature, ed. Paul Franssen and Ton Hoenselaars (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1999), 248–59; and Eduardo Urbina, “Historias verdaderas y la verdad de la historia: Fernando Arrabal vs. Stephen Marlowe,” Cervantes 18, no. 2 (1998):158–69.
Marqueríe, Alfredo (1907–74). Spanish journalist, essayist, and novelist. Marqueríe’s novel La antesala del infierno (1975; Hell’s Antechamber) is presented in Cervantine fashion as a diary of a young Frenchwoman that the author takes and translates to Spanish, with introduction, postscript, and frequent comments along the way. The novel even includes a metafictional discussion between the author and a “friend” concerning the use of the discovered manuscript convention. In the story, the protagonist, Mary, falls in love with and idealizes Luis in a way that clearly parallels DQ’s love for DT.
Page 466 Bibliography: Alfredo Marqueríe, La antesala del infierno (Madrid: EspasaCalpe, 1975).
Marqués de Mantua. *Valdovinos.
Marqués de Priego, señor de la casa de Aguilar y de Montilla. *Fernández de Córdoba y Figueroa, Don Pedro.
Marquesa. The galley, commanded by Diego de *Urbina, on which both MC and his brother Rodrigo served and fought during the battle of Lepanto.
Márquez Torres, Licenciado (1574–1656). Spanish civil servant, a chaplain in the employ of MC’s patron Cardinal Bernardo Sandoval y Rojas, archbishop of Toledo. Márquez Torres wrote one of the three approvals for DQ II. Normally such a document is short and formulaic, but this one is very personal and much longer than the norm. The anecdote Márquez Torres relates, about the French ambassador’s interest in and praise for MC, is usually considered to be authentic (at least in its general outline) and can be taken as a measure of the work’s popularity, but it would be a great coincidence if it had happened just two days before Márquez Torres had to write his approval. This approval is the first salvo in the constant criticism of DQA that runs through DQ II. It is similar in tone to some passages in MC’s novel, some of his prologues, and the dedication to DQ II where the author claims that he has been invited by the emperor of China to set up a school there and use DQ as a text to teach Spanish. Because of this, it has been suggested that MC actually wrote, or at least contributed to, the text printed over Márquez Torres’s name. Such a possibility is intriguing and should not be dismissed out of hand, but until more substantive proof comes along, it is safest to attribute the approval to the person who signed it. Bibliography: Jean Canavaggio, “El licenciado Márquez Torres y su aprobación a la Segunda Parte del Quijote: Las lecturas cervantinas de unos caballeros franceses,” in Studies in Honor of Bruce W. Wardropper, ed. Dian Fox, Harry Sieber, and Robert ter Horst (Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 1989), 33–39; Elias L.Rivers, “On the Prefatory Pages of Don Quixote, Part II,” MLN 75 (1960):214–21; and John G.Weiger, “Inimical Friends,” in In the Margins of Cervantes (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1988), 46–72.
Marquino. In Numancia 2, a warlock who raises a dead man to prophesy the destruction of Numantia.
Marquis [Marqués]. 1. In DQ I, 42, the older brother of Don Fernando, whose services are offered as godfather in the baptism of Zoraida. 2. In the battle against the bad poets, in Parnaso 7, Apollo’s standard is raised by an unnamed marquis. No positive identification has been made, but the name most often suggested is that of Juan de Mendoza y Luna, Marqués de Montesclaros.
Marrano. A stronger term for *converso, a Jew converted to Christianity. In fact, although the word marrano does means “swine” in Spanish, and is commonly understood in that sense, in this context it is actually derived from the Arabic words maran atha, in the sense of an anathema, something unspeakable, even though, ironically, the words mean “the Lord has come.”
Marruecos. *Morocco.
Mars (Adulterous warrior, God of Battles) [Marte (adúltero guerrero, dios de las batallas)]. 1. In Roman myth, the god of war, comparable to the Greek Ares. Mars was second only to Jupiter himself in the Roman pantheon. Sometimes he represents arms in the *arms and letters binary (with Minerva being the equivalent figure for letters). See Casa; DQ I. 20–21, 52; DQ II, 58; Entretenida 2–3; Española; Fregona; Galatea 2, 4, 6; Gallardo 2–3; Gitanilla; Laberinto 3; Numancia 1–2; Parnaso 1, 5, 7–8; Persiles I, 5; III, 10; IV, 1; Poesías 5, 10, 20, 27; Rufián 1–2; Sultana 2. 2. An allusion to the marquis of Falces, captain of the guard, in a ballad sung by Preciosa in Gitanilla.
Marseilles [Marsella]. Seaport in southeastern France, on the Mediterranean. See Casa 3.
Marsilio (Marsilo, Masilio). 1. In Carolingian legend, the king of Sansueña and, in the
Page 467 Spanish versions of that tradition, the captor of Melisendra. He is one of the puppets in the show put on by *Maese Pedro (DQ II, 26–27). See also Casa 3. 2. In Galatea 3–6, one of the shepherds who participate in the eclogue sung at the wedding of Daranio and Silveria. He represents lack of love since Belisa no longer loves him.
Marte. *Mars.
Martí, Juan (ca. 1570–ca. 1604). Under the pseudonym of Mateo Luján de Sayavedra, Martí wrote a sequel to Mateo *Alemán’s Guzmán de Alfarache (1602), and in the first years of the seventeenth century it was actually more popular than Alemán’s own sequel published in 1604. A work of little merit, Martí’s book is rarely if ever read outside of the circle of Alemán scholarship. Alemán’s satiric metafictional revenge in his own Part II is one of the most original and interesting parts of that novel. He brilliantly makes his rival into a thief named, significantly, Sayavedra, who steals the protagonist’s baggage and then admits his error and commits suicide. Perhaps inspired by Alemán’s original and successful tactics, MC undertakes a similar campaign against his own rival in DQ II. Bibliography: Edward H.Friedman, “Insincere Flattery: Imitation and the Growth of the Novel,” Cervantes 20, no. 1 (2000):99–114; and Donald McGrady, Mateo Alemán (New York: Twayne, 1968).
Martial [Marcial]: Marcus Valerius Martialis (40–ca. 103). Roman poet, born in Spain, famous above all for his epigrams. Three of the most distinguishing characteristics of Martial’s verse are its adulation of the rich and powerful, its sharp satire, and its obscenity. See DQ II, 16.
Martin (Martinico). In Pedro 3, the deceased nephew of Marina Sánchez; Pedro de Urdemalas, in disguise as a pilgrim, promises, for the right price, to pray for his soul.
Martin Crespo. In Pedro 1, the mayor of Junquillos and father of Clemencia.
Martín de Córdoba. *Córdoba y de Velasco, Don Martín de.
Martina. In Persiles III, 6, the 16yearold woman with whom Ortel Banedre first becomes involved in Talavera before he meets and marries Luisa.
Martínez, Alonso. A wellknown actor. In Sultana 3, he is mentioned as the inventor of various dances.
Martínez de Espinel, Vicente. *Espinel, Vicente Martínez.
Martínez de Leiva, Alonso. *Leiva, Alonso de.
Martínez de Ribera, Diego (?–1600). Spanish poet praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Martínez Rives, José. Spanish writer. In Martínez Rives’s El ingenioso hidalgo D. Quijote de la Mancha: Tercera parte escrita por el Bachiller Avellanado (1866; The Ingenious Hidalgo Don Quixote de La Mancha: Third Part Written by Bachiller Avellanado), the narrator visits the transcendental realm of immortality, the dwelling place of great men from the past: Homer, Caesar, Columbus, and, of course, DQ and SP.
Martínez Ruiz, José. *Azorín.
Martínez Valderrama, María Luz. Spanish writer. Martínez Valderrama’s collection of short stories, Entre el vivir y el soñar (1947; Between Living and Dreaming), includes a story entitled “Cartas de Dulcinea” (“Letters from Dulcinea”). Julio Antonio phones his friend Patricio and informs him that he, mildmannered Julio Antonio, is a kind of DQ. Patricio goes to find out what this is all about and listens to his friend’s story. Julio Antonio overheard a conversation between two strangers about a packet of six love letters. He managed to steal the letters and now imagines the tale of love that they must contain; he conjures up an ideal young woman, a sort of DT, who must have written them. But when Patricio wants to look at the letters, Julio Antonio refuses to hand them over and burns them, one at a time, in the
Page 468 fireplace, thus preserving forever the mystery of the letters from Dulcinea. Bibliography: María Luz Martínez Valderrama, Entre el vivir y el soñar (Madrid: Artegrafía, 1947).
MartínezBonati, Félix. Theorist of the novel. In “Don Quijote” and the Poetics of the Novel (1992), MartínezBonati takes issue with the critical assumption that DQ is a realist novel: “I believe that the question whether the Quixote is the first modern novel, the prototype of the genre, cannot be answered in the affirmative.” Rather, he states, DQ is unique in the history of prose fiction, with a form “more complicated than the form of the modern novel. It is literally a work sui generis.” For MartínezBonati, DQ “has created a generic structure that in principle is abstractable and generalizable, it has not established a historical genre—let alone the modern novel.” His argument that DQ does not share many of the characteristics we associate with the classic realist novel is beyond question, yet many of the great realist novelists of the nineteenth century—Flaubert, Pérez Galdós, Dostoevsky, to name but a few—consistently saw in DQ the founding text of the type of novel they wrote (MartínezBonati considers this a separate matter, one he chooses not to address). But surely a model does not have to be a perfect exemplar for it to be useful as a model, a point of departure, an inspiration. DQ is, in many ways, sui generis, but that in no way disqualifies it as a legitimate prototype for the comic, realist, or postmodern novel. Bibliography: Félix MartínezBonati, “Don Quijote” and the Poetics of the Novel, trans. Dian Fox in collaboration with the author (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992).
Martinico. *Martín.
Martinmas [San Martin]. Saint Martin’s Day, November 11. This was traditionally the day on which pigs were butchered, which gave rise to the saying that every pig will have his Martinmas, in the sense that eventually everyone will be called to account. See DQ II, 62; Pedro 1.
Martino. *Mambrino’s helmet.
MartínSantos, Luis (1924–64). Spanish psychiatrist, novelist, and essayist. Martin Santos’s Tiempo de silencio (1962; Time of Silence) is one of the most significant novels of the Franco era in Spain. It set a new standard for style and technique, moving beyond the comparatively naïve social realism that tended to characterize fiction in the postCivil War period. In addition to a few suggestive references to MC and DQ, there is an emblematic DQSP pair of metal figurines in a store window that evokes an image of a cheap imitation Spain. The protagonist, Pedro, a physician conducting cancer research on rats, goes on a nightmarish journey through the streets of old Madrid, haunted by MC and his characters. As Pedro’s feverish mind contemplates spiraling levels of theme, character, and significance of DQ, the reader becomes increasingly aware of the Pedro’s own quixotic quest to practice significant medical science in the historical context of postwar fascist Spain. Bibliography: Luis MartínSantos, Tiempo de Silencio (Barcelona: Seix Barral, 1962); and Manuel Sol T., “Don Quijote en Tiempo de silencio,” Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos 430 (1986):73–83.
Martorell, Johanot (ca. 1413–1468). Catalan novelist, primary author of the late medieval chivalric romance Tirant lo Blanch (1490; Tirant the White). Martorell wrote sections of the text over a period of years between 1450 and his death. Martí Joan de Galba revised and added to the text to some degree before its publication. After receiving knighthood and having several adventures in England, Tirant fights against the Muslims in the Mediterranean and Near East, leads the forces of Byzantium in war against the Turks, and has chivalric adventures in Africa. The successful Tirant returns to Constantinople and marries Carmesina, daughter of the emperor, and then falls ill and dies. What is most interesting about the work are its realistic, erotic, and comic elements. Tirant resembles a modern general more than he does a traditional knighterrant when he devises strategy and tactics against the enemy Turkish forces, a fair part of the text is devoted to pedestrian nonchivalric activities, and the hero dies peacefully in bed at the end of a long life.
Page 469 Tirant’s wooing of the Princess Carmesina is often described in sensual terms not typical of the traditional world of chivalry; there is even an explicitly voyeuristic scene when Tirant watches through a keyhole as his beloved disrobes. The erotic play of the empress and her squire Ipólito is both frankly sexual and sometimes comic. The randy widow Reposada and the gobetween maiden Placerdemivida also participate in several explicitly sexual (but not pornographic) scenes. Comic names such as that of the knight Don Quirieleisón (Kyrieeleison) de Montalbán and Placerdemivida (Pleasure of my life), the handtopaw combat Tirant has with a mastiff, and other incongruous and amusing scenes lend a comic tone to the story that is unmatched by any Spanish romance that appeared in the sixteenth century. Martin de Riquer makes an interesting distinction between what he calls a novel of chivalry, Tirant, and a romance of chivalry, Amadís de Gaula. Although this may be an overstatement, there is no question that Tirant is in many ways different in spirit and tone from traditional chivalric romances. It would be difficult to identify any work of prose fiction from the fifteenth century that can be read more enjoyably today than Tirant lo Blanch, a fact attested to by the bestselling popularity of the English translation in 1984. The work was anonymously translated into Spanish (with no mention of the Catalan authors) as Tirante el Blanco, published in 1511, and never reprinted; a single copy of this edition exists. It appears to have had virtually no resonance in Spain in the sixteenth century; it is never mentioned in any of the moralistic diatribes against the romances of chivalry or anywhere else. The exception to this curious neglect is MC, the most discerning and most avid reader of the genre. In DQ I, 6, in the scrutiny of the books that make up DQ’s library, Pero Pérez praises Tirante el Blanco with more energy and enthusiasm than he does any other book in the collection, noting that because of its style it is ‘the best book in the world.’ Certainly closer in spirit and tone to DQ than any of the Spanish romances of chivalry, Tirante is probably one of the formative works in the conception and creation of MC’s masterpiece. See also DQ I, 13, 20; DQ II, 1. Bibliography: Francisco López Estrada, “El Tirante castellano de 1511 y los libros de viajes,” in Actes del Symposion “Tirant lo Blanc” (Barcelona: Quaderns Crema, 1993), 441–470; Kathleen McNerney, “Tirant lo Blanc” Revisited: A Critical Study (Detroit: Michigan Consortium for Medieval and Early Modern Studies, 1983); Martín de Riquer, Tirant lo Blanch, novela de historia y de fiction (Barcelona: Sirmio, 1992); Antonio Torres Alcalá, El realismo de “Tirant lo Blanc” y su influencia en el “Quijote” (Barcelona: Puvill, 1979); and Mario Vargas Llosa, Carta de batalla por “Tirant lo Blanc” (Barcelona: Seix Barral, 1991).
Martos. A town located just southwest of Jaén and southeast of Córdoba. It was wellknown for the chickpeas grown there (and in 1592 MC collected some 150 bushels of chickpeas in Martos in his capacity as commissary). See DQ II, 38.
Martos, Marco (1942–). Peruvian journalist and poet. Martos’s collection of poems Donde no se ama (1974; Where There Is No Love) includes four short poems on quixotic themes: first, the enigmatic and very brief “Poema de Sancho” (“Sancho’s Poem”), and then, in the second section of the book, entitled “Sueños de Alonso Quijano” (“Alonso Quijano’s Dreams”), three more. In “Daltónico” (“ColorBlind”) the poet asks for a DT of his own; in “Quijote” he realizes that he appears ‘in the role of an idiot’ when it is really a serious man that women want; and in “Dulcinea existe” (“Dulcinea exists”) he obliquely evokes a DT figure. The remaining four poems in this section have no explicit relationship to MC or DQ. Bibliography: Marco Martos, Donde no se ama (Lima, Peru: Milla Batres, 1974).
Marvelous Puppet Show, The. *Retablo de las maravillas, El.
Marxist readings of Cervantes. Marxist approaches to literature tend to stress economic determinism, ideological hegemony, and the dialectic between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Because society itself is by definition ideological, all literature is ideological at heart. Foundational Marxist and Leninist approaches have been modified more recently by the important work of writers such as Fredric Jameson
Page 470 and Louis Althusser. Perhaps surprisingly, this has not been one of the stronger trends in Cervantes scholarship. Ludovik Osterc made an early effort in this direction, but his book has not had much impact. The most important recent work that takes a strong neoMarxist approach to MC is that of George Mariscal. Bibliography: George Mariscal, Contradictory Subjects: Quevedo, Cervantes, and Seventeenth Century Spanish Culture (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991); and Ludovik Osterc, El pensamiento social y político del “Quijote”: Interpretación históricomaterialista (Mexico City: UNAM, 1975).
Mary (Virgin Mary, Saint Mary, Our Lady) [María (Virgin María, Santa María, Nuestra Señora)]. In the New Testament, the virgin mother of Jesus. In Christendom, especially in the Roman Catholic Church, she is a figure of special veneration. Mary is mentioned frequently in MC’s works; for representative examples, see Baños 1, 3; DQ I, 40; DQ II, 16, 48; Pedro 1; Persiles I, 6; III, 5; Rufián 1–2; Sultana 2; Tratos 1, 4.
Mary’s shining star [Clarísima estrella de María]. The star that announced the birth of Christ in Bethlehem. See Persiles III, 5.
Mase Juan. Probably a reference to a kind of card trick. See Pedro 1.
Mase Rodrigo. *College of Master Rodrigo.
Masílicos campos. *Massilian plains.
Masilio. *Marsilio.
Massenet, Jules. *Cain, Henri.
Massilian plains [Masílicos campos]. An area of ancient Numidia, today Algeria. See DQ I, 18.
Massinger, Philip (1583–1640). English dramatist. Massinger’s The Renegado (1624) seems to be based, at least in part, on Baños. With John Fletcher, he coauthored The Custom of the Country (ca. 1620), an interesting adaptation of the Transila episode from Persiles. Although the action is moved to Italy, where Count Clodio claims droit de seigneur (the “custom” of the country, the feudal lord’s right of first sexual access to a virgin on her wedding night), the play still involves an escape by sea and further adventures elsewhere. One curious detail is the adaptation of some names from Persiles—Clodio; Zenocia/Zenotia; Arnoldo/ Arnaldo; Rutilio—but for characters in roles completely different from those of the Spanish originals. With Fletcher also he wrote The Double Marriage (ca. 1620), which contains a scene based on DQ II, 47, when Doctor Pedro Recio de Agüero keeps SP from eating the lavish meal set before him. The same two collaborated on A Very Woman, derived in part from Amante, and The Beggar’s Bush (ca. 1622), which bears some resemblance to Fuerza and Gitanilla. Massinger collaborated with Nathan Field on The Fatal Dowry (1632), which draws, at least in part, from Viejo. Bibliography: Celia E.Weller and Clark C.Colahan, “Cervantine Imagery and SexRole Reversal in Fletcher and Massinger’s The Custom of the Country,” Cervantes 5, no. 1 (1985):27–43.
Master of ceremonies [Maestro de las ceremonias, maese de campo]. In DQ II, 56, the duke’s servant who directs the battle between DQ and Tosilos.
Master shaver; shaver; Master Basin [Señor rapador, rapista, Señor Bacía]. Insulting names used by DQ for Maese Nicolás, the barber, in DQ II, 1, both before and after he tells DQ the cautionary tale of the madman of Seville.
Mata, Pedro. Spanish writer. Mata’s La celada de Alonso Quijano (1928; Alonso Quixano’s Helmet) contains two long stories, the first of which has the same title as the book. It is a pedestrian love story in which one character advises the other to beware of DQ’s helmet, reminding him of DQ I, 1, in which the protagonist makes part of his helmet out of cardboard, destroys it, and then remakes it a bit stronger—but does not test it again. He suggests that many of us, when honor, dignity, or money is involved, are like DQ: we don’t dare do a reality check. He concludes, ‘There is nothing more painful, more ridiculous, or more bitter
Page 471 and sadder than going through the world wearing DQ’s helmet.’ Bibliography: Pedro Mata, La celada de Alonso Quijano (Madrid: Cosmopolis, 1928).
Matadero. *Slaughterhouse.
Mateo de Berrío, Gonzalo. *Berrío, Gonzalo Mateo de.
Matharán, Luis. Argentine poet. Matharán’s Remanso (1961; Still Waters) contains a short section entitled “Dulcinea,” which consists of three poems, one of which is a sonnet in which the author dreams along with DQ about DT. Bibliography: Luis Matharán, Remanso (Buenos Aires: Impresora Francisco A.Colombo, 1961).
Mathematician [Matemático]. In Coloquio, in the Hospital of Resurrection, he believes he has found the fixed point and is about to solve the problem of how to square the circle.
Matos Fragoso, Juan de (1608–89). SpanishPortuguese dramatist and poet. One of the minor late Baroque dramatists, Matos Fragoso is best known for his adaptations, or refundiciones (rewritings), of earlier plays and for his original work in collaboration with other writers. One example of the former is his drama El yerro del entendido (The Wise Man’s Error), which, at least according to some, takes its theme from Curioso. An example of his collaborative work is El Hidalgo de la Mancha (1673; The Hidalgo from La Mancha), which he wrote in collaboration with Juan Bautista Diamante (1625–1687) and Juan Vélez de Guevara (1611–1675), son of the more famous Luis. Each of the authors had responsibility for one act: Matos Fragoso act I, Diamante act II, and Vélez de Guevara act III. The disjointed and very uneven play presents the loves of two noble couples, replete with the usual jealousy, mistaken identities, reconciliations, complaints, and so forth, before ending in the conventional double marriage. Along the way, it also includes characters and scenes (sheep, Mambrino’s helmet, galley slaves, SP’s blanketing, windmills, etc.) drawn primarily from DQ I, and is noteworthy in its very frequent use of *fabla to characterize DQ’s speech. Matos Fragoso also wrote an entremés entitled La fregona (The Kitchen Maid), presumably based on Fregona. Bibliography: Juan de Matos Fragoso, Juan Vélez de Guevara, and Juan Bautista Diamante, El hidalgo de la Mancha, ed. Manuel GarcíaMartin (Salamanca, Spain: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 1982).
Matrona anciana. *Old matron.
Matunto. 1. In Galatea 4, one of the Tajo shepherds, father of a poet by the same name, who is praised for his musical ability with the lyre; he is only mentioned in the story. 2. In Galatea 4, shepherd son of a poet by the same name, who is praised for the excellence of his verse; he is only mentioned in the story.
Matusalén. *Methuselah.
Matute el de Jerusalén. In Viejo, Hortigosa’s corruption of the name of *Matusalén (Methuselah).
Maugham, W.Somerset (1874–1965). English novelist, shortstory writer, and dramatist. Maugham’s Catalina (1948) is one of his lesserknown and infrequently read novels. It tells the story of a young Spanish woman whose mystical visions recall those of Saint Teresa de Jesús. Late in the novel, when the heroine and her new husband are traveling on horseback, there suddenly appears on the scene a man dressed in rusty, oldfashioned armor, wearing a barber’s basin on his head, and riding a skinny old nag; he is accompanied by a squire who has a large paunch, and who rides a dappled ass. In a scene reminiscent of DQ’s attempt to free a lady being carried away in a coach in DQ I, 8–9, the knight speaks of his chivalric quest and offers his services. Knight and squire (never named in the text) then accompany the couple to an inn, where DQ delivers a couple of speeches and offers to stand guard at the castle, while SP spouts several proverbs. Also at the inn is a troupe of actors preparing to stage a play based on Cardenio. The episode is not central to the novel, but it is one of the most unexpected and entertaining cameo appearances by DQ in another novel.
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Mauleón. Spanish poet, about whom nothing is known, but who was obviously recognized as untalented. See Coloquio; DQ II, 71.
Maupassant, Guy de (1850–93). French shortstory writer and novelist. Although known best as one of the truly great shortstory writers of all times, Maupassant’s novel Une vie (1883; A Woman’s Life) is another retelling of the traditional female DQ. Jeanne finds that the reality of life in general, and especially that of her married life, does not correspond to her romantic visions. That Maupassant was aware of the literary roots of his heroine is obvious in his explicit mentions of “her quixotic dreams” and “a quixotic frenzy of regret.”
Mauricio. In Persiles I, 12, the 60yearold who arrives at the island where Periandro, Auristela, and company have just come ashore. He is an astrologer from Hybernia and the father of Transila, with whom he is reunited (as is her husband Ladislao who has been traveling with Mauricio). He begins to tell the story of *Transila’s travails but lets her finish the tale herself. In I, 18, when they depart the island on Arnaldo’s ship, Mauricio has premonitions of the disaster that in fact befalls when mutinous sailors sink the ship. He accompanies Auristela and her party after the ship sinks and is one of those rescued from the shipwreck on the island of Scinta. During Periandro’s long and often interrupted narrative of his adventures (II, 10–20), Mauricio is the most critical of his verbosity, selfaggrandizement, exaggeration, and digressions (*literary theory in Cervantes; *Periandro’s narrative). As the pilgrims head for Europe in order to go to Rome (II, 21), Mauricio returns home, accompanied by his daughter and soninlaw.
Mauricios. In Persiles I, 12, the ancient family line of Hybernia, from which the Mauricio of the story descends. In effect, this is the famous Fitzmaurice clan of Ireland.
Maurisa. In Galatea 4–6, teenage shepherdess, sister of Artidoro and Galercio, with whom the elderly Arsindo falls in love.
Mausolo; Mausolus. *Artemisia.
Maximino (Magsimino). 1. In Persiles IV, 12, the king of Thule and the father of the two princes Maximino and Persiles. 2. In Persiles IV, 12–13, the oldest son of Maximino, king of Thule, and the older brother of Persiles. He loves Sigismunda and is supposed to marry her, but while he is away at war, Persiles and Sigismunda fall in love and begin their long journey to Rome. Upon returning to Thule and learning of the lovers’ departure, Maximino also departs for Rome. In IV, 14, he arrives, very ill, blesses the marriage between his brother and Sigismunda, and dies.
Mayenne, Duke of (1554–1611). French diplomat. He was the representative of the French court who was in Spain to make arrangements for the marriages of Louis XIII of France to Ana of Austria, daughter of Felipe II, and of Prince Felipe (future Felipe IV) to Isabel, daughter of Henri IV of France. See Márquez Torres’s approval to print DQ II.
Mayer, Robert. Theorist of the novel. In History and the Early English Novel (1997), Mayer places emphasis on a previously neglected issue within the *rise of the novel tradition: historiography. He states that his work “treats the most important feature on the horizon of expectations against which the novel made its appearance as well as the essential discursive link that led to the rise of the novel. History was the one discourse that virtually all seventeenthand eighteenthcentury fiction writers themselves associated with the novel and identified as the matrix of their fictions. My argument is that the novel is a form that forces the historyfiction problematic on the reader in a way that no other fictional discourse does, and that Defoe was the writer who laid bare the fictionhistory link in the novel in a way that no writer did before him or has done since he wrote. Thus the way to the novel lies through the historical study of historiography.” The trouble with this assertion is Mayer’s assumption that the novel is an original product of the English eighteenth century, ignoring completely that the historyfiction nexus is very much a critical issue in Renaissance fictionwriting in general and in MC in particular. His sentence about Defoe
Page 473 would be correct if the name of MC (who is never mentioned in Meyer’s book) were substituted for that of the English novelist (*historia; *literary theory in Cervantes). Bibliography: Robert Mayer, History and the Early English Novel: Matters of Fact from Bacon to Defoe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
Mayor [Alcalde]. 1. In Gitanilla, the officer in Murcia who arrests Andrés Caballero for theft, condemns him to death after Andrés kills his nephew, and then pardons him when his noble identity is revealed. 2. In DQ II, 48, an official mentioned by Doña Rodríguez when she tells her story to DQ. 3. In DQ II, 72, the local administrator who witnesses *Alvaro Tarfe’s affidavit of the legitimacy of DQ and SP. 4. In Persiles III, 10, a former captive whose penetrating questions reveal the scam being perpetrated by two students from Salamanca posing as former captives. Although at first he wants to punish the students, he winds up coaching them so that they can appear more authentic.
Mayor, Calle. *Calle Mayor.
Mayordomo. *Majordomo.
Mayordomo de don Sancho de Cárdenas. *Majordomo of Don Sancho de Cárdenas.
Mazagatos. A small town located north and slightly east of Madrid and south and slightly east of Burgos, near Ayllón. The name is used in the phrase “la de Mazagatos” in the sense of a difficult or risky situation, or a fight or brawl; the phrase is comparable in some ways to donnybrook in English See Fregona.
Mazalquivir [MerselKebir]. A seaport in Algiers, located to the east of Oran. See Gallardo 1, 3.
McCarthy, Justin (1830–1912). English novelist. McCarthy is the author of a romance entitled Donna Quixote (1890), in which the heroine, the beautiful, young Gabrielle, falls in love with and eventually marries the slightly eccentric, somewhat mysterious Clarkson Fielding. About halfway through the novel, one of the characters cleverly understands “the reality of Gabrielle’s character. She saw its simplicity, its generosity, its chivalry, if we may apply such a word to a woman’s nature, its Quixotry.” When Gabrielle announces her love interest to the aristocratic Major and Mrs. Leven, their response is entirely negative: “I thought you would have liked some one quite different. I am afraid you are doing a—well, a very Quixotic thing.” To marry the person you love in the face of conventional opposition has thus become a quixotic act. This and one more mention of DQ a page later are the only such references in this novel, whose title hardly seems justified. Bibliography Justin McCarthy, Donna Quixote (London: Chatto and Windus, 1890).
McConkey, James (1921–). American professor of literature and science fiction writer. McConkey’s Kayo, the Authentic and Annotated Autobiographical Novel from Outer Space (1987) is a tour de force in which things, especially names, are reversed (Kayo=OK, from Ohc; Ohcnas Aznap=Sancho Panza; Nod=Don [Quixote]). Kayo (Ohcnas Aznap) writes an autobiographical confession about, among many other things, his relationship with Nod. Important in the story is the greatest novel of Kayo’s planet, a work written by an ancestor of his that bears the title The Authentic Adventures of Kayo Aznap, which Kayo has never actually read and knows only through the Cliff’s Notes version. A major character in this famous novel is Nod, a simple farmer who read too many westerns and believed himself to be a cowboy who quixotically attempts to rescue his DT, a whore in the Golden Nugget Hotel. Along the way there is also a professor M—Michael, or Miguel, Quexana (or Quixada or Quesada)—who goes mad reading Derrida and other deconstructionists. Meanwhile, the narrator who receives Kayo’s messages and writes and annotates his novel/autobiography is a professor of literature professor from planet Earth whose favorite book is DQ, and who is also plagued by deconstructionists; he is called Sid (from CHB) by Kayo. Throughout, the levels of metafiction and intertextuality are multiplied
Page 474 repeatedly and dizzyingly in a unique and sometimes very funny retelling of DQ.
McDermott, Hubert. Theorist of the novel. Following the received wisdom of AngloAmerican criticism, established by Ian *Watt, of misconstruing the Spanish tradition of the novel, McDermott relegates both DQ and the *picaresque novel to primitive types of “antiromance” (they receive brief acknowledgment in his short chapter on medieval romance), of little or no consequence to the glorious rise of the novel in eighteenthcentury England. Almost completely ignoring Henry *Fielding’s own explicit statement that Joseph Andrews was written “in imitation of the manner of Cervantes,” McDermott asserts that “Fielding appeared to have borrowed his theory of fiction from the French writers of heroic romance, his technique from Paul Scarron, and his fictional structure from the drama.” McDermott acknowledges that Fielding was directly influenced by MC, but, he maintains, that influence came mostly through Scarron (directly, but via another?), who “was, perhaps, the single most importance influence of Fielding’s fiction,” an assertion that is simply untenable. Bibliography Hubert McDermott, Novel and Romance: The “Odyssey” to “Tom Jones” (Totowa, NJ: Barnes & Noble, 1989).
McKeon, Michael. Theorist of the novel. In his prize winning book, The Origins of the English Novel 1600–1740 (1987), McKeon takes some issue with the underlying premise of Ian *Watt’s “rise of the novel” thesis, according to which the novel is related to the rise of the middle class in eighteenthcentury England. What McKeon does not take issue with, however, is the conviction that fiction before Richardson, especially that written outside of England, is not a novel. He studies the conditions and works from 1600, about the time of MC, to the mideighteenth century, when the novel finally emerges in its full form in Richardson’s Pamela (1740). Fiction and some kinds of nonfiction written before Richardson—such as spiritual biography and autobiography, the picaresque, criminal biography, and travel narratives—is relegated to the status of “subgenres.” McKeon’s chapter on MC contains the obligatory praise for MC’s “genius” and the “extraordinary achievement” of DQ, but nowhere is there a suggestion that it is anything more than one of the most important of the precursors of the novel. In the end, McKeon may quibble with Watt, but he never doubts the “reality” of the rise of the novel in eighteenthcentury England. Bibliography: Michael McKeon, The Origins of the English Novel 1600–1740 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987).
Meander [Meandro]. The name of a river in Caria, in southern Asia Minor, and a river god, the son of Oceanus and Tethys. See Pedro 2.
Mecca [Meca]. City in Saudi Arabia, the birthplace of Mohammed, and a holy city in Islam, and site of the great mosque to which the faithful make pilgrimages. It is used in the phrase “de Ceca en Meca” in the sense of ‘from one place to another,’ as it is by SP in DQ I, 18.
Mecina. *Messina.
Medea. In Greek myth, the sorceress who helped Jason win the golden fleece and then fled with him. In an attempt to facilitate their escape, she killed her brother Absyrtus and scattered parts of his body along the way in order to delay their pursuers. When Jason left her for another woman, she slew their children out of spite and jealousy. Medea is thus a symbol of vengefulness, jealousy, and witchcraft. She later became the subject of great plays by Euripides and Seneca. See Coloquio; DQ I, prologue; Galatea 4; Gallardo 1.
Medellín Espinosa, Ignacio. Mexican writer. Medellín’s Don Quijote de la Limpia (1940; Don Quixote of the CleanUp Squad) is a filmscript (fortunately never filmed; nor, apparently, was a promised sequel ever published) about DQ and SP in Mexico City, where they conduct a puritanical crusade against evils such as alcoholism, gambling, and drug use. Bibliography: Ignacio Medellín Espinosa, Don
Page 475 Quijote de la Limpia (San Luis Potosí, Mexico: Talleres Gráficos de Don Mariano Guerra, 1940).
Medes [Medos]. Natives or inhabitants of Media, an ancient country in the part of Asia that is now northwestern Iran (formerly Persia). See DQ I, 6, 18.
Medichino, Giovanni Giacomo, Marquis of Marignan [Marinán] (1497– 1555). Italian soldier in the service of Carlos V. He is quoted by more than one source as the originator of a phrase about more and more money. It is in this connection that his name is used in Entretenida 1.
Médico. *Pedro Recio de Agüero; *Physician.
Medina [Almedina]. City in Saudi Arabia that is the site of Mohammed’s tomb, and thus a holy city in Islam. See Amante.
Medina del Campo. A city located south and slightly west of Valladolid and northeast of Salamanca that today is a fairly important agricultural and transportation center. After Seville, Medina, considerably larger in size in the Renaissance than it is today, was the most important commercial center in Spain. It was the site of the large weekly fair (perhaps the largest in all of Europe) where virtually everything and anything could be purchased. In 1520 the city was burned and almost completely destroyed during the comunero uprising. See DQ II, 31; Rinconete.
Medina, Maestro Francisco de (1544–1615). Spanish humanist and professor praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
MedinaSidonia, Duque de. *Pérez de Guzmán, Don Alonso de.
Medinilla. The name of a writer mentioned among the list of good poets in Parnaso 2 and then wounded by a book fired by Francisco *López de Ubeda during the battle for Parnassus in Parnaso 7. The name is imprecise and could refer to one of two possibilities: Pedro de Medina Medinilla, a minor poet and dramatist who emigrated to America around 1600, or Baltasar Elisio de Medinilla (1585–1620), a good friend of Lope de *Vega’s. However, it is also possible that the first reference is to Pedro and the second to Baltasar Elisio.
Medinilla, Baltasar Elisio de. *Medinilla.
Mediterranean Sea [Mar Medeterráneo]. The large sea bordered by southern Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa. In many ways, the Mediterranean was the crossroads of history in the Western world. It was the cradle of the Greek and Roman civilizations and the site of much political and religious strife in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. MC knew the Mediterranean well, as a soldier who fought at *Lepanto and participated in other battles on and around the Mediterranean; was stationed in port of Naples; was captive for five years in the port of Algiers; and knew various southern Spanish cities on the coast. See DQ II, 1; Española; Persiles I, 18; II, 2; III, 10. Bibliography: Ferdinand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, trans Siàn Reynolds, 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Row, 1972); and Emilio Sola, Un Mediterreáneo de piratas: Corsarios, renegados y cautivos (Madrid: Tecnos, 1988).
Medoro. A young African soldier in *Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso. He is wounded in battle and nursed back to health by Angelica, the Christian lady loved by Orlando. A love affair developed between Angelica and Medoro and thus was the cause of Orlando’s furious madness. Sometimes Medoro is cited as an effeminate, weak man. In DQ I, 26, DQ mistakenly refers to Medoro as the page of Agramante, but this is another of his errors, as Medoro was page to Dardinel. See also DQ I, 25; DQ II, 1; Rufián 1.
Medos. *Medes.
Medusa. In Greek myth, the only mortal among the three Gorgons (female monsters). Anyone who looked upon her (in some versions, her hair was of snakes) was turned so stone. Perseus was able to kill her by using a polished shield to that she would see her own
Page 476 reflection, allowing him to cut off her head. See Adjunta; DQ I, 43; Persiles III, 17.
Megaera; Megera. *Furies.
Méjico. *Mexico.
Melancholy. *Huarte de San Juan, Juan.
Melazo. *Milazzo.
Meléndez. In Sultana 1, a Christian captive freed by the spy Andrea. In order for the metrics of the line to be correct, the name should be Méndez.
Meléndez Valdés, Juan (1754–1817). Spanish poet and dramatist. Meléndez, who sometimes used the poetic name Batilo, was probably the best poet of the Spanish Enlightenment, and his later work shows a clear movement towards romanticism. He wrote a version of Las bodas de Camacho (1785; The Wedding of Camacho), based on DQ II, 20–21, which was a failure when staged in Madrid. When it was staged a decade later in Mexico City, it became the first theatrical version of DQ to be presented in Spanish America. Bibliography R.Merritt Cox, Juan Meléndez Valdés. (New York: Twayne, 1974).
Meli, Giovanni (1740–1815). Sicilian poet. Meli is considered the best poet ever to have written in Sicilian and one of the best Italian poets of the eighteenth century. Meli’s Don Chisciotti e Sanciu Panza (1787) is a long mockheroic poem of 12 cantos; it is his most ambitious work and probably his best. Later, Meli added an epilogue entitled “La Visione” (1813; “The Vision”), in which SP appears to the author in a dream, thanking him and relating his adventures since the poem ended. This is no mere rewriting or adaptation of MC’s novel, but a highly original conception of the two major characters, presented more as equals than as master and servant (although these roles are formally maintained). The protagonist is much more SP than it is DQ, as here SP is no illiterate peasant, but an articulate, sensitive, politically savvy philosopher whose moral stature increases during the course of the poem; it is significant that it is SP, rather than DQ, who has the final word in the epilogue. The poem is an extravagant (and sometimes verbose and uncontrolled) narrative of the adventures of the two heroes. They deal with frozen mountain paths and lugubrious caves; they are beaten, bitten, and slashed (SP even has his nose cut off); they are swallowed by a whale; Rocinante and SP’s ass both die early on; and DQ dies of a hernia while attempting to straighten out a crooked tree. The authorpoet’s mockheroic voice, together with the comedy and humor of many of the scenes, keep comedy at the forefront, but Meli’s poem also deals with some of the issues that were important to him throughout his life and works: defense of the common man (the peasant and the shepherd) in the constant social struggle with the rich and powerful; and social justice and an end to exploitation in the culturally backward, rural Sicilian society of his time. Overall, this is one of the most original and most readable of all eighteenthcentury quixotic works. Bibliography: Giovanni Meli, Don Chisciotti and Sanciu Panza, trans. Gaetano Cipolla (Ottawa: Canadian Society for Italian Studies, 1986).
Meliona. A city west of Algiers. The phrase “galanes de Meliona” (young men of Meliona) refers to the inhabitants of a desert region near Libia. See Gallardo 1–2.
Melisendra. A character from the Carolingian cycle of the Spanish ballad tradition. She does not exist in French literature. She was supposed to be the daughter of Charlemagne who married Don *Gaiferos. Melisendra is the heroine of *Maese Pedro’s puppet show whose most comic moment is when her skirt gets caught and she hangs suspended while attempting to climb down to Gaiferos’s horse in order to escape. See DQ II, 25–26, 64. Bibliography: John J.Allen, “Melisendra’s Mishap in Maese Pedro’s Puppet Show,” MLN 88 (1973):330–35.
Meliso. In Galatea 5–6, the shepherd whose excellence as a poet is celebrated at length and from whose tomb rises the figure of the muse
Page 477 *Calliope to sing her song of praise of the poets of Spain. Meliso is taken to be the poetic disguise of the famous poet Diego *Hurtado de Mendoza.
Melpomene; Melpómene. *Muses.
Melville, Herman (1819–91). American novelist, shortstory writer, and poet. Melville’s admiration for DQ was unlimited; he called DQ “the sagest sage that ever lived,” not worrying that this great sage was a fictional creation. Melville also read Lazarillo de Tormes and Guzmán de Alfarache, along with the English writers influenced by these picaresque novels; and in Melville’s library there was a wellannotated edition of DQ. Melville’s White Jacket (1850) features a quixotic shipmate who reads DQ and whose character is very much influenced by MC’s hero. Captain Ahab, the mad sea captain in Moby Dick (1851), has often been compared to DQ in his singleminded obsession with an ideal that is larger than life. Ahab is tormented by his dreams and fantasies, and he “whirled them round and round and round in his blazing brain, till the very throbbing of his lifespirit became insufferable anguish.” There is one occasion in Melville’s novel when two consecutive chapters have the same title: “Knights and Squires.” In them, the whaling ship’s officers and their harpooners are compared at length to the classical chivalric pair, and the narrator calls upon God, “who didst clothe with doubly hammered leaves of finest gold, the stumped and pampered arm of old Cervantes.” If there is an SP in the novel, it is the harpooner Queequeg. Melville was rereading DQ when he wrote The Confidence Man (1857), his novel that most reflects the metafictional selfconsciousness of CHB (a figure in whom Melville displayed a great interest). In this novel Melville, includes DQ with Hamlet and Milton’s Satan as the three truly original literary characters ever created. And finally, there is his brief poem from the 1870s entitled “The Rusty Man,” a sentimental vision of DQ. Bibliography: Harry Levin, “Don Quixote and MobyDick” in Cervantes across the Centuries: A Quadricentennial Volume, ed. Angel Flores and M.J. Benardete (New York: Gordian Press, 1947), 227–36.
Member of the Order of Saint Jerome [Religioso del Orden de San Jerónimo]. In Vidriera, the man who cures Vidriera of the illness caused by the jealous lover. The reference may be to Fray Pedro Ponce de León, who supposedly invented a way to make the mute talk, or to one of his disciples.
Membrilla. A town of La Mancha, located just outside of the city of Manzanares, to the southeast; it was known for its wines. See Vidriera.
Membrillo. *Quince.
Men [Hombres]. 1. In DQ II, 27, some 200 inhabitants of the village of the *braying aldermen, whom DQ and SP meet three days after they leave the inn where Maese Pedro had staged his puppet show. 2. In DQ II, 45, the tailor and the peasant, first described simply as ‘two men,’ who bring the first case before SP for his judgment. 3. In DQ II, 49, two individuals engaged in a sword fight over the size of a tip one should give the other. SP decides the case with a stiff penalty for each.
Men dressed in mourning [Hombres vestidos de luto]. Two servants, playing drums, who precede the entrance of Trifaldín in DQ II, 36.
Men on horseback (lancecarrying men, herdsmen) [Hombres de a caballo (lanceros, vaqueros)]. 1. In DQ II, 58, the men, many of whom carry lances, herding the bulls that trample DQ and SP. 2. In DQ II, 68, the ten men who, along with four or five on foot, lead DQ and SP back to the duke’s palace.
Mena, Juan de (1411–56). Spanish poet. Mena’s major work is the lengthy Laberinto de Fortuna (1444; The Labyrinth of Fortune), also sometimes known as Las Trescientas (The Three Hundred) for the 300 stanzas of which it is composed. It is the best allegorical/didactic work of the Spanish Middle Ages. A well
Page 478 known line from the Laberinto is cited by DQ in II, 44, where Mena is referred to as ‘that great Cordovan poet.’ Interestingly, Mena, who was chronicler to King Juan II, wrote an unfinished work on genealogy in which, among other things, he mentions that the “Cervatos” and “Cervantes” families were of Old Christian stock and had their origin in Galicia. Bibliography: María Rosa Lida de Malkiel, Juan de Mena, poeta del prerrenacimiento español (Mexico City: Colegio de Mexico, 1984).
Menalao. *Menelaus.
Mendaño, Alvaro. A military nobleman invented by Andrea de Cervantes as the name of her deceased husband when she took religious orders in 1609.
Mendelssohn, Felix (1809–47). German composer. Mendelssohn wrote a comic opera entitled Die Hochzeit des Camacho (first performed in 1827; Camacho’s Wedding).
Méndez. In Viudo, the prostitute who is the love of the ruffian Escarramán, and who went to Córdoba during his absence. She is only mentioned in this play, but in other works she also appears as the prostitutelover of Escarramán.
Méndez, Simón. A Portuguese financier with whom MC had business relations during his stay in Valladolid. During the *Ezpeleta affair, the accusation was made that Méndez was the open lover of MC’s daughter Isabel.
Mendoza. 1. A common family name. According to popular legend, the Mendozas were a superstitious lot; in Spanish, the adjective mendocino (Mendozan) means ‘superstitious.’ See DQ I, 13; DQ II, 58. 2. In Rufián 1, a prostitute who is mentioned but does not appear in the play.
Mendoza, Diego de. The poet (not to be confused with Don Diego *Hurtado de Mendoza) of this common name praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6 may well have been the tutor of Don Antonio Alvarez de Toledo, fifth duke of Alba.
Mendoza, Don Antonio de. *Hurtado de Mendoza, Don Antonio.
Mendoza, Don Francisco de (1547–1623). A nobleman whom MC may have met in Italy and who is praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Mendoza, Don Francisco de. Spanish nobleman and soldier, the brother of Don Juan de Mendoza, nephew of Diego *Hurtado de Mendoza, and brotherinlaw of Alonso de *Fernández de Córdoba. He captained the fleet that rescued the stronghold of Oran in 1563. See Gallardo 3.
Mendoza, Don Juan de (?–1562). Spanish nobleman and soldier, the brother of Don Juan de Mendoza and nephew of Diego *Hurtado de Mendoza. He was commander of the fleet that was destroyed by the storm in the harbor of La *Herradura in 1562. See Gallardo 3.
Mendoza, Don Martín de. *Cervantes, Licenciado Juan de.
Mendoza, Martina de. The illegitimate daughter of MC’s aunt María de * Cervantes.
Mendoza (y Figueroa), Don Lorenzo de. Spanish poet and humanist who, along with MC, contributed a preliminary poem to Lope de *Vega’s La hermosura de Angélica (1602). He is praised in Parnaso 5.
Mendoza y Luna, Juan, Marqués de Montesclaros. *Marqués.
Menelaus [Menelao]. In Greek myth, the king of Sparta and the husband of Helen. Paris ran away with her to Troy, and it was in order to return Helen to her husband that the Trojan War was begun. See DQ II, 71.
Meneses. A Portuguese family name mentioned in DQ I, 13.
Meneses, Don Francisco de (1547?). Spanish soldier. He was taken captive in the fall of La *Goleta in 1574 and was held captive along with MC in Algiers. In order to arrange
Page 479 his ransom, he was released on his word, went to Spain for the money, and sent it back to Algiers, keeping his promise as a Christian. See Tratos 4.
Meneses, Fray Felipe de (?–1572). Spanish religious writer. Meneses was the author of Luz del alma cristiana contra la ceguedad e ignorancia en lo que pertenesce a la Fe y ley de Dios y de la Iglesia (1554; Light of the Christian Soul against Blindness and Ignorance in Matters that Pertain to Faith and the Law of God and the Church), a book praised by DQ in the printshop in Barcelona in DQ II, 62. The book was very popular, being printed 11 times in the sixteenth century. On his deathbed, in II, 74, DQ states that he now detests the romances of chivalry and wishes that he had more time to read books that might be a ‘light of his soul,’ clearly an allusion to Meneses’s book.
Menosprecio de corte y alabanza de aldea. *Disdain for the court and Praise for the village.
Mensajero de los fingidos dioses. *Mercury.
Mentidero. A place where people gathered for gossip, mentioned frequently in the literature of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In MC’s Madrid, there were mentideros in different places for different types of information. Probably most important was the mentidero de comediantes, where the theme was theater. It was located on the Calle del León, where MC, and, later, Lope de *Vega and Calderón de la Barca had residences. In the patio of the Royal Palace, there was another mentidero devoted to royal gossip and the latest political news and rumor. The steps of the Church of San Felipe el Real, on the Calle Mayor (or the street or area called the Paseo de San Felipe, at one end of the Calle Mayor), was the site of a mentidero where personal, social, military, and national and international happenings were discussed. Finally, at the Puerta de Guadalajara there was a mentidero where all social classes, from commoners to royalty, could mingle and exchange information and rumor. MC makes mention of some of these places in Parnaso I. Bibliography: Rachel Schmidt, “Maps, Figures, and Canons in the Viaje del Parnaso” Cervantes 16, no. 2 (1996): 29–46.
Mentira. *Lie.
Mentironiana. In DQ I, 46, the enchantress who prophesies the union between DQ and DT when the priest and barber ‘enchant’ DQ in order to return him to his home.
Meona. In DQ I, 29, the priest mispronounces the name Meótides (*Palus Meoticus), perhaps maliciously and jokingly, converting it into someone who constantly has a need to urinate or who is a bed wetter.
Mercader amante, el. *Aguilar, Gaspar de.
Merced, Order of. *Order of Merced.
Merchant(s) [Mercader(es)]. 1. In Tratos 2, the two Muslims who purchase two Christian boys. 2. In DQ I, 4, the six innocent (but malicious) travelers who deal in silk whom DQ challenges to acknowledge the beauty of the peerless DT. Such a challenge is a stock scene in many romances of chivalry, and this scene represents a parody of that convention. When the merchants ask to see a picture of the lady before they implicitly admit to the legitimacy of the challenge, DQ is furious and insists that the important thing is to swear to and defend the truth without seeing evidence for it (an allusion to Saint Paul’s definition of Christian faith). When the merchants fail to do this, DQ charges, Rocinante stumbles and falls, and DQ winds up beaten for his efforts. Since commerce was an activity considered beneath most Old Christians, the probability is that these merchants were *conversos, or New Christians, and this scene alludes to, or metaphorically reenacts, the religious tensions of Spanish society, as well as the inevitable result when commercial interests come into clash with idealism. 3. In Española, the French merchant who arranges the transfer of funds from England to Spain for Isabel’s family. 4. In Española, a Florentine merchant who works with the French merchant
Page 480 to transfer money from England to Spain for Isabel and her family; later he helps confirm the truth of Ricaredo’s story. 5. In Coloquio, the wealthy businessman whom Berganza serves in Seville and whose children he accompanies to school. Bibliography: Juan Diego Vila, “La poética del retrato: Don Quijote y los mercaderes toledanos,” Anales Cervantinos 32 (1994): 157–68.
Merchant’s children [Hijos del mercader]. In Coloquio, Berganza carries their books to school and accompanies them as they hear their lessons.
Mercury (Cyllenian, God of the winged shoe, messenger of the false gods, solemn ambassador, talkative god, the talkative one) [Mercurio, cilenio, dios del alígero calzado, mensajero de los fingidos dioses, grave embajador, dios parlero, el parlero]. In Roman myth, the counterpart of the Greek Hermes, the (often talkative) messenger of the gods and the god of trade; he was often depicted with a winged hat and/or shoes. He was supposed to have been born on Mount Cyllene in Greece, and therefore is sometimes referred to as the Cyllenian (el cilenio). In Parnaso 1, he is sent by Apollo to MC with the ship that will take him to Parnassus. See also Adjunta; Fregona; Gitanilla; Parnaso 3–4, 7–8; Persiles IV, 1; Poesías 28.
Merezhkovsky, Dimitriy Ssergeyevich (1865–1941). Russian novelist, poet, and critic. Merezhkovsky’s novel Petr i Aleksei (1905; Peter and Alexis) includes a secondary character named Pastor Gluck, who is referred to as the “DQ of astronomy.” Gluck’s mission is to write commentaries on Newton’s Commentaries on the Apocalypse, which leads to debates with himself over metaphysics in a spirit that recalls DQ. Merezhkovsky also wrote a long descriptive poem entitled “Don Quixote” and a very influential critical essay “Vechnye sputniki: Servantes” (1897; “Eternal Companions: Cervantes”).
Merlin [Merlin]. In Arthurian legend, the archmagician, enchanter, and prophet. He first appears in the twelfthcentury writings of Godfred de Monmouth and soon appears throughout chivalric romances. Sometimes Merlin is presented as a benevolent figure and other times as a demonic one. In DQ II, 23, DQ mistakenly identifies him as a great French enchanter. When he appears as the figure of death on the *triumphal car in DQ II, 35, he announces that he is the son of the devil. In Spanish tradition, this demonic aspect of Merlin comes primarily from El baladro del sabio Merlin (1498; The Cry of Wise Merlin). See also Casa 1–2; DQ II, 36, 41, 48, 59–60, 63, 72; Pedro 1. Bibliography: Pedro M. Cátedra and Jesús Rodríguez Velasco, Creatión y difusión de “El baladro del sabio Merlín” (Burgos, 1498) (Salamanca, Spain: SEMYR, 2000).
Merlin’s column [Padrón de Merlin]. A padrón is a column erected to commemorate an event or make an announcement. It is usually inscribed or adorned with paper or parchment with a written text. In Casa 1, 3, Merlin’s spirit comes out of a column he has erected and speaks to Bernardo del Carpio and other characters.
Merlo, Juan de. A Spanish knight mentioned by DQ in DQ I, 49 (*Crónica de Juan II).
Merry god of laughter. *Bacchus.
MerselKebir. *Mazalquivir.
Mesa, Cristóbal de (ca. 1559–1633). Spanish poet and chaplain to the duke of Béjar (to whom MC dedicated DQ I). He was a translator of Virgil and a prolific author of heroic poetry. He is praised in Parnaso 3 and again in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Mesa de trucos. *Billiards table.
Mesa, Enrique de (1878–1929). Spanish poet. One of the good but lesser read poets of twentiethcentury Spain, Mesa rarely approached the depths and power of a Machado or a Lorca. His second book of poetry, and his best known, is Cancionero castellano (1911; Castillan Songbook). In it, there are six poems relating to MC, all written between 1905 and
Page 481 1909, in which La Mancha is movingly described; DQ himself is often just a suggestive detail. In one poem, “Sin caballero” (“Without a Knight”), the windmill, sheep, inn, and even squire are evoked, but without DQ. In the longest, “El nieto de Quijano” (“Quixano’s Grandson”), a prosaic, more contemporary, descendent of DQ is described, and at the end the poet wonders, ‘When will Quixano ever be Don Quixote again!’ Bibliography: Enrique de Mesa, Cancionero castellano (Madrid: Imprenta de P. Fernández, 1911); and Juan Antonio Tamayo, ed., “Los poemas cervantinos de Enrique de Mesa,” Anales Cervantinos 10 (1971): 227–39.
Meseguer, Francisco. Spanish writer. Meseguer wrote a brief political satire entitled Don Quixote de ahora con Sancho Panza, el de antaño (1809; Don Quixote of Today with Sancho Panza, the One of Old), in which the author dreams that he overhears two men talking. One is a man of short stature with a sign identifying him as the Caballero de la Mala Figura (Knight of the Evil Figure) and the other is a Spanish peasant; nearby are a skinny nag and an ass. He listens to their conversation and discovers that the first is no less than Napoleon Bonaparte, the DQ of today (i.e., earlynineteenthcentury Spain, which was governed by Napoleon’s brother Joseph, whom the French emperor imposed on Spain and who reigned from 1808 to 1813), and MC’s own SP, who represents traditional Spain. At the end, SP finishes his stern critique of French values and goes on his way, as does the eavesdropping author. Bibliography: Francisco Meseguer, Don Quixote de ahora con Sancho Panza, el de antaño (Córdoba, Spain: n.p., 1809).
Mesina. *Messina.
Mesonero. *Innkeeper.
Messenger [Correo, Cartero]. 1. In Laberinto 3, the man who delivers the letter in which Dagoberte explains his accusations against Rosamira and requests her hand in marriage. 2. In Entretenida 3, the man who delivers the message from the Pope in which permission for the cousins Marcela and Don Silvestre to marry is denied. 3. In DQ II, 47, the servant of the duke who delivers the letter to SP warning him of an immanent attack on his island.
Messenger of the false gods. *Mercury.
Messina [Mecina, Micina]. A seaport in northeastern Sicily. It was the site of the assembly of troops that would take place in the battle of *Lepanto and where MC spent six months recuperating from his serious wounds received in that battle. See Amante; DQ I, 39; Vidriera.
Mestanza, Juan de (?–ca. 1614). A minor poet who went to Guatemala in the sixteenth century. He is praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6 and again in Parnaso 7.
Metafiction. *Selfconscious narration/metafiction.
Metafou [Metafús]. A cape at the eastern border of Algiers. See Baños 1.
Metamorfóseos o Ovidio español [Metamorphosis or Spanish Ovid]. One of the books being written by the humanist scholar who accompanies DQ and SP to the Cave of Montesinos. See DQ II, 22, 24.
Methuselah [Matusalén]. In the Old Testament, the patriarch who lived for 969 years. See Adjunta; Celoso; DQ II, 3, 62; Galatea 3.
Mexía. The name of a writer praised in Parnaso 7. The name is imprecise and could refer to one of two possibilities: Diego Mexía, a Sevillian poet and translator, or Luis Mexía de la Cerda, a dramatist. The former seems somewhat more likely.
Mexía de la Cerda, Luis. *Mexía.
Mexía, Diego. *Mexía.
Mexía, Pero (1497–1551). Spanish humanist and historian. Mexía was a follower of *Erasmus and was recognized throughout Europe for his erudition. His bestknown work is the Silva de varia lección (1540; Forest or Collection of Histories), a miscellany of anecdotes,
Page 482 tales, miracles, and miscellaneous comments and observations. MC appears to have been familiar with the Silva, which may have been the direct source for the list of animals with special abilities (ultimately they are from Pliny the Elder) described by DQ in II, 12 (*Covarrubias y Orozco, Sebastián de).
Mexico (New Spain) [Méjico (Nueva España)]. Country in North America located between the United States and Central America. Mexico was perhaps the single most important Spanish colony ruled by a viceroy, was a source of silver and gold, and was the scene of the heroic exploits of * Cortés and his soldiers. It is the location of the action of the last two acts of Rufián. See also DQ I, 42; Entretenida 2; Galatea 6; Rufián 1; Vidriera.
Meyer, Carl Gottfired. *Neugebauer, Wilhelm Ehrenfried.
Meyer, Nicholas (1946–). American screenwriter and novelist. Meyer’s clever novel The SevenPerCent Solution (1974) brings together Sherlock Holmes and Sigmund Freud in a struggle against Holmes’s old rival, Dr. Moriarty. Meyer presents himself as editor of a discovered manuscript, whose author is Holmes’s assistant, Dr. Watson. The discussion of the manuscript’s discovery, its authenticity, its need of editing, the insistence on the truth of the matter, and related matters all recall MC’s practice in DQ I. Early in the novel, Holmes speaks at length about the evil Moriarty, and Watson comments, “No human that I had ever heard of could match the catalogue of atrocities, Holmes attributed to the professor. Irresistibly, I was reminded of Quixote’s archfoe, the Enchanter.” Indeed, the DQHolmes parallel is implicit throughout the novel, and the chivalric nature of the detective’s quest is often stressed, as it frequently is in the original novels by Arthur Conan Doyle. Mrs. Hudson, Holmes’s housekeeper, even recalls DQ’s housekeeper in her concern for her employer’s health and sanity; in the very first chapter of the novel, her paranoia is so great that she even suspects that Watson may be Moriarty.
Michaelmas [San Miguel]. September 29, the day of * Saint Michael. Since MC is named Miguel and was baptized early in October, it is logically assumed that he was born on September 29 and named for that day’s saint. Interestingly, Doña Clara (DQ I, 43) has the same birthday, as does Preciosa in Gitanilla; these are the only two characters in MC’s works who announce their birthdates.
Michelangelo Buonarroti [Micael Angelo] (1475–1564). Italian painter, sculptor, architect, and poet. Michelangelo was perhaps the greatest artist of the Renaissance; his statue of David and his painting of the creation on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel are his bestknown works. He is mentioned only in passing in a list of Italian artists in Persiles IV, 7.
Micina. *Messina
Micocolembo, gran duque de Quirocia [Great Duke of Quirocia]. In DQ I, 18, one of the participants in the battle (of sheep) as described by DQ.
Micomicona, Princess. In DQ I, 29, Dorotea pretends to be a maiden princess in distress and approaches DQ to request assistance. In I, 30, she tells her story: her father is Tinacrio el Sabidor, king of Micomicón, and her mother is Queen Jaramilla; her own name is Micomicona, after her kingdom. Tinacrio used his powers to foresee that a wicked giant, named Pandafilando de la Fosca Vista, would attempt to usurp the throne after his and his wife’s death, and sent Micomicona to Spain in search of DQ to prevent this terrible wrong and then marry the princess and inherit the throne. Dorotea has read romances of chivalry and plays her part well, even speaking in *fabla. But she occasionally confuses names and geography, making a comic presentation even funnier. DQ is, of course, pleased that—just as in his books of chivalry—such an adventure presents itself. Here, he explains to SP, is where he will have an ínsula to confer on his squire. (SP is concerned that his vassals will be black, but he decides that he will turn them to gold and silver by selling them.) But it also presents a dilemma
Page 483 for DQ, as he has already promised his undying love to DT—which means that he cannot marry the princess, inherit the throne, or reward SP. When SP strongly advises that DQ take this golden opportunity and forget about DT, DQ strikes him with his lance. See also DQ II, 4.
Miculoso. The pastoral name DQ suggests for the barber, Maese Nicolás, perhaps an error for Niculoso or perhaps on the basis of Micolás, a rustic variation of the name Nicolás. At any rate, the model DQ has in mind is probably Nemoroso, the shepherd from Garcilaso de la Vega’s Egloga I. See DQ II, 67.
Midas [Mida]. The legendary king of Phrygia who was granted his wish that everything he touched would turn to gold, and therefore a symbol of great wealth. When he realized that even the food he wanted to eat turned to gold, he asked to be relieved of his gift. He was told that this could be done if he washed in the waters of the Pactolus River, which he did, and ever since it has been believed that there is gold in the sands of that river (see Persiles I, 19). In addition to this better known legend about Midas, there is also the story, cited in Persiles I, 14. about his acting as a judge in a musical contest between Apollo and Pan. He was imprudent enough to award the prize to Pan, and Apollo turned Midas’s ears to those of an ass to symbolize his stupidity. Midas covered up his ears, but his barber knew the truth and, unable to contain his secret but afraid to speak in public, whispered the information into a hole in the ground and then filled in the hole. But the reeds that grew on that spot repeated the story every time the wind blew. See also Coloquio; Galatea 4; Gitanilla.
Middleton, Thomas (1580–1627). English dramatist. Middleton coauthored, with William Rowley, a fiveact play called The Spanish Gipsy (ca. 1653), which draws its material from both Gitanilla and Fuerza. The loves of Pretiosa (Preciosa) and Andres, and of Clara (Leocadia) and Roderigo (Rodolfo), are light fare in comparison with MC’s serious stories. For many years, Middleton was the leading candidate for the authorship of the play known as The Second Maiden’s Tragedy, based on Cardenio and Curioso, but recently a convincing case has been made that this is the longlost Cardenio play by *Shakespeare and Fletcher. Bibliography: Tomás Pabón, “Preciosa en la obra teatral inglesa, The Spanish Gipsy de 1653,” in Desviaciones lúdicas en la crítica cervantina: Primer convivio Internacional de “Locos Amenos,” ed. Antonio Bernat Vistarini and José María Casasayas (Salamanca, Spain: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 2000), 357–66.
Midsummer. *Saint John’s Eve.
Mier Rivas, Adolfo (1939–). Bolivian dramatist. Mier Rivas’s play El Quijote de la Cancha (1998; Don Quixote of La Cancha) is a farce about a harried newspaper reporter named Miguel Cervantes and the photographer, named Sancho, who works with him. They are frustrated when the editor of the newspaper rejects their investigative reporting and assigns them to cover a dog show. Meanwhile Miguel’s girlfriend, Pimi, becomes disgusted with him for always standing her up in order to cover his stories. Miguel and Sancho conceive the idea of going undercover in order to get current stories about the life of the common people who live and work in La Cancha, the great openair market, the largest of its kind in Bolivia, in Cochabamba, the important colonial city located slightly southeast of the capital La Paz. Sancho dubs Miguel Don Quixote de La Cancha, a knight without a horse but with a sad look about him (this to the strains of the theme music from Man of La Mancha). Miguel begins to publish a series of stories under the pseudonym of Don Quixote de La Cancha; the stories become extraordinarily popular, causing even the editor to wonder about the identity of this mysterious defender of the people. While working in La Cancha as an ambulatory salesman of needles and miscellaneous other common items, Miguel meets an attractive, uneducated vendor named Aldonsa, with whom he falls in love and whom he calls, of course, Dulcinea. In the end, Miguel leaves Dulcinea; Don Quixote de La Cancha writes his last column; Dulcinea (who never knew Miguel’s real identity) comes to the newspaper for advice, recognizes her lover, and leaves
Page 484 disillusioned; Miguel is reconciled with Pimi; the editor and her boyfriend declare their love; and everyone goes out to celebrate. Bibliography: Adolfo Mier Rivas, El Quijote de la Cancha (La Paz, Bolivia: Librería Editorial “Juventud,” 1998).
Miguel Banedre. The Spanish equivalent of the name of the Pole *Ortel Banedre.
Miguel Jarrete. In Elección, one of the candidates for the position of magistrate.
Miguel, Torcuato. Spanish novelist. Miguel’s La vuelta de Don Quijote (1979; The Return of Don Quixote) revives MC’s hero—he literally comes back to life in his tomb—in the year 1950, and he lives for some five years, having a series of encounters and adventures, and coming to realize that in the twentieth century people everywhere have something of DQ in them. He takes the name Alonso Quijótez, acquires a squire named Florentino, and talks frequently about quixotism and related ideas and themes. In the final chapter, DQ has a dream in which he carries on a conversation with ‘the author of this book’ about the significance of his two lives. At one point DQ meets and engages in conversation with other ‘resuscitated’ literary heroes: Werther, Cyrano de Bergerac, Hamlet, Othello, Romeo, Segismundo, and Pedro Crespo. A mediocre novel at best, Miguel’s book is one of the most obvious and literal of the sequels of DQ. Bibliography: Torcuato Miguel, La vuelta de Don Quijote (Espulgas de Llobregat, Spain: Plaza y Janés, 1979).
Miguelturra (Miguel Turra). A town located just southeast of Ciudad Real, almost as a suburb of that city. It is the supposed home of the peasant who requests financial help from governor SP. See DQ II, 47.
Milan [Milán]. Important industrial city in northern Italy. Milan became a Spanish possession in 1555 and remained one until 1713. In both Vidriera and Persiles III, 19, Milan is described in terms of Vulcan’s forge. Both the variety of weaponry and various kinds of cloth, such as brocade and damask, manufactured in Milan were highly esteemed throughout Europe. See also Cornelia; DQ I, 39; DQ II, 49; Galatea 2; Gitanilla; Parnaso 4; Persiles III, 5, 8; Tratos 4; Vidriera.
Milanese cap [Gorra milanesa]. A distinctive round hat with a metal band that keeps it stiff rather than soft. Montesinos wears one in DQ II, 23.
Milazzo [Melazo]. A port city in northeast Sicily. See Amante.
Milbio. In Numancia 2, a citizen of the city of Numantia.
Milesian fables [Fábulas que Ilaman milesias]. A kind of Greek romance that is characteristically erotic and picaresque in nature. First written by Aristides of Miletus in the second century B.C.E., this type of romance became the model for the Latin Satyricon of *Petronius and The Golden Ass of *Apuleius. Later, the Milesian tales are among the models for *Boccaccio’s stories. See DQ I, 47.
Military orders. Founded during the medieval war of reconquest against the Muslims, the great military orders of Calatrava (founded in 1158), Santiago (1170), and Alcántara (1176) were comparable to the Knights Templar, the Order of Malta (or Saint John), and other orders established to win back the Holy Land from the Muslims. Once the Muslims were finally completely driven out of the Iberian Peninsula in 1492, the orders became more a matter of social status (*nobility) than active military service for God and country. Bibliography: Derek W. Lomax, Las órdenes militares en la Peninsula Ibérica durante la edad media (Salamanca, Spain: Instituto de Historia de la Teología Española, 1976).
Miller(s) [Molinero(s)]. 1. In DQ II, 29, the people DQ takes to be enchanters in the adventure of the *enchanted boat. They rescue DQ and SP from the water when the boat overturns. 2. *Molinera.
Mina potosisca. *Potosan Mine.
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Mincio. Italian river near Mantua, where Virgil was born; it was praised by the great epic writer. See Galatea 6.
Minerva. The Roman name of the Greek virgin goddess Athena (or Pallas Athena), goddess of wisdom of the city and civilized life in general, whose symbol was the owl. She remains as the patroness of wisdom in civilized life. Sometimes she represents letters in the *arms and letters binary (with Mars being the equivalent figure for arms). See Fregona; Galatea 2; Poesías 10, 28, 35.
Mingo. 1. A common popular name, diminutive of Domingo. Its use by the children in DQ II, 73, probably has a specific connotation that is lost today. See also Entretenida 2. 2. In Galatea 1, a shepherd from the Henares who participates in the pastoral games.
Mingo Silvato. A resident of the village in which SP lives; he and his granddaughter Minguilla are mentioned by Teresa Panza in the letter to SP in DQ II, 52.
Minguilla. *Mingo Silvato.
Ministro. *Official.
Minkus, Ludwig. *Petipa, Marius.
Minos. In Greek myth, a king of Crete who became, with his brother *Rhadamanthys and the hero Aeacus, a judge of the dead in the underworld. See DQ II, 69; Galatea 4; Tratos 2.
Mint [Casa de la Moneda]. The building where money was coined in Seville, built in the sixteenth century. It is located next to the Plaza de Santo Tomás and near the *House of Trade. See Rinconete.
Minuesa. A minor tributary, today called the Revinuesa, of the Duero River. See Numancia 1.
Mira de Amescua, Doctor Antonio (1574–1644). Poet and dramatist in the cycle of Lope de *Vega. Mira was also royal chaplain in Granada and formed part of the retinue of the count of Lemos in Naples. MC cites his important role in the formation of the Spanish theater in Parnaso 3 and mentions him again in the prologue to Comedias. Bibliography: James A. Castañeda, Mira de Amescua (Boston: Twayne, 1977).
Miraflores. A castle or palace, located near London, where Oriana resides in Book II of Amadís de Gaula. It is cited in DQ I, in the prefatory sonnet written by Oriana.
Miraguarda. A castle in Palmerín de Inglaterra (*Moraes, Francisco de), mentioned in DQ I, 6.
Miramamolín. A term sometimes used in reference to a person as being descended from Muslims, as it is in Rufián 1.
Miranda, Diego de. A married man who was romantically involved with the widow of a former friend, Mariana Ramírez, a neighbor of MC’s in Valladolid in 1604–5. It is likely that this person’s name was used by MC for the character of *Diego de Miranda in DQ II.
Mireno. In Galatea 3, a shepherd from the banks of the Tagus River who is in love with Silveria and laments his poverty when Silveria marries Daranio. Mireno’s lament at losing out to money anticipates that of Basilio in DQ II, 21, but with the difference that Basilio ultimately wins the woman he loves but Mireno does not.
Mirra. *Myrrha.
Miulina. In DQ I, 18, the daughter of Alfeñiquén del Algarbe and the beloved of Timonel de Carcajona, two of the participants in the battle (of sheep) as described by DQ.
Mochuelo, el. A character merely mentioned in Rufián 1.
Moclín, Alonso. Probably a historical figure, but not identified by anyone. See the story told in Persiles III, 10, by two students from Salamanca dressed as captives.
Modena [Módena]. A city in northern Italy. See Laberinto 1.
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Modesty [Pudicia]. In Persiles II, 15, in Periandro’s dream, one of the two companions of Auristela (Chastity) on the island of precious jewels.
Modón. Not actually an island, as stated in DQ I, 39, but a maritime fort located near the Greek city of Navarinon.
Mohammed [Mahoma] (570–623). Arabian prophet, author of the Qu’ran, and founder of Islam. See Amante; Baños; Casa 3; DQ I, 1, 5, 18, 41; DQ II, 48; Gallardo; Gitanilla; Laberinto 1; Persiles II, 21, 48; III, 11; Sultana; Tratos 2–4.
Mohammed’s tomb. *Medina.
Moisés. *Moses.
Moisés cristiano. *Christian Moses.
Mojados. A small town south of Valladolid and northeast of Medina del Campo. See Fregona.
Mola, Bartolomé de. An unidentified poet mentioned in Parnaso 5.
Molani Nogui, Nicolás de (perhaps a pseudonym of Diego de Torres Villarroel). The Querella que Don Quixote de la Mancha da en el tribunal de la muerte contra D.Franco de Quevedo, sobre la primera y segunda parte de las visiones, y visitas de D.Diego de Torres (1728; Quarrel which Don Quixote de la Mancha Pronounces at the Tribunal of Death against D.Francisco de Quevedo, Concerning the First and Second Part of the Visions and Visits of D.Diego de Torres) is a thin fiction in which DQ complains to the celestial judge about criticism leveled at *Torres Villarroel’s Visiones y visitas…
Molar, Francisco. Servant to Juan de Urbina and the titular owner of the house in which Isabel de *Saavedra lived in Madrid.
Moles Hadriani. *Sant’Angelo.
Molière (JeanBaptiste Poquelin, 1622–1673). French dramatist; the greatest of all French writers of comedies. He drew from Gitanilla for his play L’Etourdi (1655; The Blunderer). In 1660 Molière himself played the part of SP in D.Quichot ou les Enchantements de Merlin, a lost play described as having been “revised” by Mademoiselle Béjart. In an anecdote recorded by a contemporary biographer of Molière, the great dramatist/actor was to enter the stage riding on SP’s ass, but the animal refused to move. All action ceased, awaiting the entry, and the actor’s voice was heard from off stage shouting for help because ‘the damn ass won’t move.’ The audience erupted in laughter and the play was brought to a halt. In addition, Molière’s company had a popular hit with *Guérin de Bouscal’s play about SP’s governorship, in which Molière also played the character of SP. Several of Molière’s characters, such as Monsieur Jourdain in Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (1670; The Bourgeois Gentleman), GrosRené in Sganarelle ou le cocu imaginaire (1660; Sganarelle, or The Imaginary Madman), La Montagne in Les Fâcheux (The Boors), Du Bois in Le Misanthrope (1666), and Sosie in Amphitryon (1668), bear some resemblance to SP in their fondness for food, complaints about their masters, and cowardice. It has also been suggested that the characters of Dom Juan and Sganarelle, from Molière’s Dom Juan (1665), may be based either on DQ and SP or on characters from the interlude “Los habladores” (“The Chatterers”), one of the works attributed to MC. There is some degree of resemblance, but neither case is fully convincing. Bibliography: Otilia López Fanego, “Un capítulo del Quijote y una comedia de Molière.” Anales Cervantinos 17 (1978): 19–40.
Molina Candelero, J. Spanish poet. Molina Candelero’s Don Quijote de la Mancha, en romance (1953; Don Quixote de la Mancha, in Ballad Format) is a retelling of DQ I in the form of a series of ballads (eightsyllable lines with assonant rhyme in the evennumbered lines). It actually follows the plot fairly well and provides a pleasant, if superficial, reading experience. Bibliography: J.Molina Candelero, Don Quijote de la Mancha, en romance (Madrid: Tesoro, 1953).
Molina de la Pólvora. *Gunpowder Mill.
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Molina, Isabel de. *Saavedra, Isabel de.
Molina, Luis de (?–1632). Spanish businessman, at one time a captive in Algiers. In 1608 he married Isabel de *Saavedra, daughter of MC, becoming her second husband and the stepfather of her daughter.
Molina, Tirso de. *Tirso de Molina.
Molinera (Doña Molinera). The daughter of a miller (molinero) and one of the two prostitutes who assist DQ during his stay in the inn and the burlesque ceremony in which he is dubbed a knight in DQ I, 2–3. She straps on his spur, and after she identifies herself DQ adds the honorific Doña to her name.
Molinero. *Molinera.
Molineros. *Millers.
Molinillo. *Inn of Molinillo.
Molinos de viento. *Windmills.
Mollorido. A small town, no longer existing, between Salamanca and Medina del Campo. In Rinconete, it is the birthplace of Rinconete. See also Baños 1.
Mompesir. In Laberinto 1, the emissary of Manfredo, Duke of Rosena, who comes to Novara to arrange the marriage of Manfredo and Rosamira, but breaks off negotiations when Rosamira is accused of sexual improprieties.
Monasterio de [Spanish name]. *Monastery of (same name).
Monastery of Atocha. A Dominican convent located next to the church of the same name in Madrid. In Adjunta, it is where MC meets Pancracio de Roncesvalles.
Monastery of Belem (Holy monastery) [Belén (Santo monasterio)]. The Hieronymite monastery at Belem, on the Tagus River in Lisbon. It was constructed in the late fifteenth century to commemorate the discovery of a sea route to India by Vasco da Gama. See Persiles III, 1.
Monastery of la Madre de Dios. A famous monastery in Lisbon, founded in the year 1509. In Persiles I, 10, it is where Manuel de Sosa Coitiño is to marry Leonora de Pereira, only to find out that she has become a nun.
Monastery of San Jerónimo. A wellknown Hieronymite monastery founded by the Catholic Monarchs in Granada. See Coloquio.
Monastery of San Millán de la Cogolla. San Millán de la Cogolla is a very small village located east of Burgos and west and slightly south of Logroño. The tomb of Saint Millán, who died in 574, soon became a destination for pilgrims. In the eleventh century, a small Mozarabic church or monastery, called Suso, was built in the nearby mountains, and then a second monastery, Yuso (sometimes called the “Escorial of La Rioja”), was constructed in the valley. It was an important station on the pilgrims’ route to Santiago de Compostela. In Viudo, the ruffian Escarramán relates that upon his escape from captivity by the Turks, he made a pilgrimage to the hermitage of San Millán de la Cogolla, which could refer to either or both of the monasteries.
Monastery of Santa Clara. The name of a monastery mentioned in Gallardo 2.
Monastery of Santa Cruz. A monastery located just outside the small town of Cubas de la Sagra, and near the villages of Torrejón de la Calzada and Torrejón de Velasco the highway between Madrid and Toledo. See Entretenida 3.
Monastery of Santa María de las Cuevas. A monastery in Seville. See Rufián 1.
Moncada, Don Miguel de. Spanish soldier. Moncada commanded the regiment in which MC served in Italy in 1571–72.
Moncadas. A Catalan family name mentioned in DQ I, 13.
Monda. A kind of large wax candle used in religious celebrations. It is also the name of a festival (featuring mondas) celebrated in the fields outside of Talavera in honor of a figure
Page 488 of the Virgin known as Nuestra Señora del Prado (Our Lady of the Fields). The celebration is an ancient one, having originated as a pagan rite that was incorporated into Christianity. See Persiles III, 6.
Mondaca, Carlos Roberto (1881–1928). Chilean poet. In his book of poetry entitled For los caminos (1910; Along the Roads), Mondaca includes “La muerte de D.Quijote” (“The Death of Don Quixote”). As DQ lies dying, recalling his exploits and adventures, the poet invokes his spirit and calls upon him to return. Bibliography: Carlos Roberto Mondaca, Poesías: For los caminos (Santiago, Chile: Barcelona, 1910).
Mondéjar, Celestino. Spanish writer. Mondéjar’s novel Dulcinea concretada (1983; Dulcinea Made Real) reads almost like a book by Azorín. It has a comparable structure, consisting of short, evocative scenes of everyday life, often with a nostalgic or elegiac tone. The protagonist, a writer named Ezequiel, takes a room in the Parador of *Ruidera, goes on long walks along the lagoons, and becomes acquainted with some of the local inhabitants. He makes Cervantine outings to Argamasilla del Alba and the Cave of Montesinos with his friend Pedro and the local priest, Don Florián. In these chapters, MC and the settings of La Mancha are evoked and discussed. But, most of all, he meets, gets to know, and falls in love with Filo (short for Filomena), the cook in the Parador. She becomes his DT, not an idealized and impossible woman, but one who is real, who is concretized: concretar in Spanish can mean to make concrete, to combine several things into one, and to reduce to its essence, and all of these are suggested in the word in this context. Bibliography: Celestino Mondéjar, Dulcinea concretada (Barcelona: Picazo, 1983).
Mondoñedo, Bishop of. *Guevara, Antonio de.
Monicongo. *Academicians of Argamasilla.
Monipodio. In Rinconete, the 45yearold head of the thieves’ brotherhood in Seville. He is based on a historical person, whom MC very possibly knew during his years in the city.
Monjuí. *Montjuich.
Mono adivino. *Divining ape. Monroy, Don Antonio de (1571–?). A minor poet, who wrote mostly religious verse, praised in Parnaso 2.
Mons Marius. *Monte Mario.
Monserrat (Monserrate). A mountain in Catalonia, located northwest of Barcelona and east of Lérida. Rising suddenly from the plain to a height of about 4,000 feet, the mountain provides spectacular views of the surrounding area. In the Middle Ages (ninth through eleventh centuries), a Benedictine monastery was constructed on a terrace about halfway up the cliff. According to legend, it was where the Holy Grail was preserved. A popular and venerated shrine, it was often the destination of pilgrimages, especially during the September festivals, in spite of the great difficulty in climbing the mountain. The monastery was destroyed in 1812 during the War of Independence from Napoleon, and it was rebuilt in the midcentury. The wooden figure in the monastery known as the Black Madonna (supposedly carved by Saint Luke and brought to this site by Saint Peter in C.E. 50) is the patron saint of Catalonia. See Doncellas; Persiles III, 12; Tratos 4.
Monserrato, El. *Virués, Cristóbal.
Montalbanes. In Casa 2, a reference to the family of Reinaldos de Montalbán.
Montalvo, Garci Rodríguez (not Ordóñez) de (ca. 1440–ca. 1505). Spanish author of chivalric romances. Montalvo is responsible for making available the most famous and influential medieval Spanish romance of chivalry, Amadís de Gaula, a work that was originally composed anonymously (probably in the fourteenth century; only a fifteenthcentury fragment of parts of several pages of this three volume manuscript version survives), and evidently a part of the Arthurian tradition. In the 1490s Montalvo revised and modernized the medieval text, making it into a work of four
Page 489 volumes whose complete title is Los cuatro libros del virtuoso caballero Amadís de Gaula (1508; The Four Books of the Virtuous Knight Amadís de Gaula). The 1508 edition is probably not the first printing, as it is generally assumed that at least one earlier edition, dating from about the mid1490s, was also published, but no evidence of it remains. Amadís was one of the first fictional *bestsellers in the modern age of print; it underwent at least 19 printings in sixteenthcentury Spain, where it was read by an extraordinarily high percentage of the literate public. Translated into French (1541–43), Italian (1546), German, (1569–71), English (1590–91 partial; 1619 complete), and Dutch (1598 partial; 1619 complete), Amadís was read and admired throughout the continent and even became a sort of manual of the perfect courtier in seventeenthcentury France. Montalvo combined some material from the medieval version with more of his own creation to write and publish a sequel, Book 5 in what was to become known as the *Amadís cycle, Las sergas del muy virtuoso caballero Esplandián, hijo de Amadís de Gaula (1510; The Deeds of the Very Virtuous Knight Esplandián, Son of Amadís de Gaula), relating the adventures of Amadís’s son Esplandián. Thus began the popularity of the fictional genre that dominated Spanish culture in the sixteenth century, especially in the first half of the century. The last Renaissance edition of Amadís was in 1586, and it was not published again in Spain until the midnineteenth century. Chivalric romance in England, France, and Germany had its greatest flowering in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and at least some romances, such as the primitive Amadís and the Libro del caballero Cifar, were written in Spain at that time. The genre’s revival and popularity in the Renaissance were somewhat of an anachronism, but the tremendous vogue of these books in Spain spread throughout Europe and the rest of the continent also participated, though less avidly, in this revival. Amadís is born the illegitimate son of King Perión of Gaula (i.e., Wales, not Gaul) and his betrothed princess Elisena of England, is raised in a noble family of modest means in Scotland, and falls in love during his childhood with the peerless beauty Oriana. Granted knighthood, unknowingly by his own father, at the age of 12, Amadís undertakes a career of knighterrantry that is long, illustrious, and glorious. Constantly rising in stature and prominence, Amadís is reunited with his family, inherits the kingdom, marries Oriana, and achieves great fame. The tale includes wonderful secondary characters such as Amadís’s squire Gandalín, his valiant but Donjuanesque brother Don Galaor, the evil enchanter Arcaláus, the benevolent shapechanger *Urganda la Desconocida, the satanic and monstrous hybrid the Endriago, and many more. Among the hero’s most memorable adventures are his slaying of the Endriago, his passing with Oriana through the Arco de los Leales Amadores (Arch of Faithful Lovers), his conquest of and residence on the Insula Firme (Firm Island), and his tearful penance on the Peña Pobre under the name of Beltenebros when he believes that he has offended Oriana. It is probable that in the original medieval version, Amadís (like King Arthur) tragically fought and was slain by his son Esplandián. But in Montalvo’s rewrite, the two recognize each other before their combat becomes mortal, and the evermore Christian family continues on in harmony. Amadís, along with Belianís de Grecia, the only two Spanish romances of chivalry not burned in the inquisition of the books in *DQ’s library in I, 6, are the books most frequently cited, praised, and imitated by DQ. The first of the sonnets dedicated to DQ in the preliminary verses to DQ I is written by Amadís. In the crucial episode of his penance in I, 25, DQ proclaims the need for all modern knightserrant consciously to imitate Amadís in order to achieve perfection in their chosen career. DQ cites episodes from Amadís to SP and others on many occasions in order to justify his own deeds, even if he sometimes has to embellish the account he gives in order to be more convincing. It is probably fair to say that MC both satirizes and expresses his profound admiration for Amadís throughout his novel. It is likely that DQ would not exist as we know it without Montalvo’s brilliant version of a timeless and
Page 490 beautiful story. See also DQ I preliminary poems, 1, 13, 15, 18, 20, 24, 26–27, 43, 49–50, 52; DQ II, 1–2, 6, 32, 34, 38, 44, 74; Pedro 1. Bibliography: Juan Bautista AvalleArce, “Amadís de Gaula”: el primitivo y el de Montalvo (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1990); James D.Fogelquist, El “Amadís” y el género de la historia fingida (Madrid: José Porrúa Turanzas, 1982); Susana GilAlbarellos, “Amadís de Gaula” y el género caballeresco en España (Valladolid, Spain: Secretariado de Publicaciones e Inercambio Editorial, Universidad de Valladolid, 1999); John H. O’Connor, “Amadis de Gaule” and Its Influence in Elizabethan Literature (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1970); Lilia E.F. de Orduna, ed., Amadís de Gaula: Estudios sobre narrativa castellana en la primera mitad del siglo XVI (Kassel, Germany: Reichenberger, 1992); Frank Pierce, Amadís de Gaula (Boston: Twayne, 1976); Martín de Riquer, Estudios sobre el “Amadís de Gaula” (Barcelona: Sirmio, 1987); Marian Rothstein, Reading in the Renaissance: “Amadis de Gaule” and the Lessons of Memory (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1999); and Emilio J.Sales Dasí, “GarciRodríguez de Montalvo, regidor de la noble villa de Medina del Campo,” Revista de Filología Española 79 (1999): 123–58.
Montalvo, Juan (1833–89). Ecuadorian essayist. Throughout his life, Montalvo was an implacable enemy of tyranny and, largely for this reason, spent much of his time in exile. More than any of his contemporaries, he was a traditionalist who defended Spain, the grandeur of the Golden Age, and, above all, the Spanish language, in its “purest” Castilian form, as opposed to what he called the degraded jargon spoken in America. In 1867, Montalvo published a “Capítulo que se le olvidó a Cervantes” (“A Chapter that Cervantes Forgot”) in a literary journal. The final chapter of his book Siete tratados (2 vols., 1882; Seven Treatises) is entitled “El buscapié” (“The Explanation”), after the title of the supposed key to the interpretation of DQ (*Buscapié). Then he decided to expand on his earlier essay and write a book in imitation of MC. The result was the posthumous Capítulos que se le olvidaron a Cervantes: Ensayo de imitation de un libro inimitable (1895; Chapters that Cervantes Forgot: An Essay in Imitation of an Inimitable Book), with his “El buscapié” as the prologue. Although presented as a fiction, Capítulos is less an imitation or continuation of DQ than it is a pretext for social and political criticism; the book has none of the irony, humor, and exuberance of MC’s novel. In Montalvo’s romantic understanding, DQ is one of the most sublime philosophical achievements of all time. His aim is to emulate, and not rival or compete with, this greatest of examples, for all great works lend themselves to constant reinterpretation and adaptation. Montalvo worked especially hard to polish his style and to evoke that of MC throughout his work. Capítulos has sometimes been called the most perfect imitation or continuation of MC’s novel, especially for its stylistic perfection. In comparison with other truly bad nineteenthcentury Spanish American sequels and imitations of DQ—see the novels of *Alberdi, *Irisarri, and/or *Otero y Pimentel, for example—Montalvo’s novel essay is both an interesting document of its time and still a readable and enjoyable work of fine prose. Yet the work’s positive effects are undercut by its cold didacticism, condescending attitude, reactionary cultural elitism, and complete lack of originality. Bibliography: Roberto Agramonte y Pichardo, Cervantes y Montalvo (La Habana, Cuba: Universidad de la Habana, 1949); Augusto Arias, “El Quijote de Montalvo,” América 23 (1947):199–228; Marcela Ochoa Penroz, “Juan Montalvo: Una reescritura del Quijote en América,” in Reescrituras del “Quijote” (Santiago, Chile: LOM Ediciones, 1997), 47–63; and Sara M.Parkinson de Saz, “Cervantes en Hispanoamérica: Fernández de Lizardi y Juan Montalvo,” in Cervantes, su obra y su mundo: Actas del I Congreso Internacional sobre Cervantes, ed. Manuel Criado de Val (Madrid: Edi6, 1981), 1059–86.
Montalvo, Luis de. *Gálvez de Montalvo, Luis.
Montañas rifeas. *Rhiphaei Mountains.
Montañés. A person from the region of the Cantabrian Mountains in northern Spain. See DQ II, 48.
Monte Carmelo. *Mount Carmel.
Monte de Calvario. *Mount Calvary.
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Monte Mario [Mons Marius]. In Persiles IV, 3, the hill (also called Mons Malus or Mons Gaudii) outside Rome where the pilgrims pause to contemplate the holy city. MC does not mention it by name, but it is clearly where the action of the plot takes place.
Monte Olimpo. *Mount Olympus.
Montefrascón. An Italian wine mentioned in Vidriera.
Montemayor, Jorge de (ca. 1520–1561). Portuguese poet and romance writer who wrote only in Spanish. Montemayor is the author of the most important *pastoral romance of Renaissance Spain, Los siete libros de la Diana (1559; The Seven Books of Diana). The book tells the story of the lovely shepherdess Diana and the men who love her, together with the loves and sorrows of a variety of other characters. The complicated interrelated series of unrequited loves, sorrows, laments, disquisitions on the theme of love, tearful poetry, and other pastoral commonplaces is resolved at the home of the magician Felicia whose enchanted water makes everything come our right. Drawing on *Sannazaro, *Garcilaso de la Vega, and León *Hebreo, as well as the bucolic tradition in classical literature, Montemayor’s Diana is perhaps the finest expression of the pastoral in European Renaissance letters. Diana was published over two dozen times in the sixteenth century in Spain and was translated into French (1578), English (1598), and German (1619). The story of El *Abencerraje (which was not written by Montemayor) was included within the 1561 edition and was often considered an integral part of the text. Caspar Gil *Polo and Alonso *Pérez published sequels, Diana enamorada (1564; Diana in Love) and Segunda parte de la Diana (1564; Second Part of La Diana), respectively. Pastoral romances were published or reprinted at a rate of over one per year in the second half of the sixteenth century, and as a genre the pastoral surpassed the chivalric romance during these years. MC’s first published book was a pastoral romance, Galatea (1585), written in the wake of Montemayor’s success and popularity. The priest saves Montemayor’s novel from the flames in the scrutiny of DQ’s library (I, 6), recognizing its honor as the first example of the genre, but he criticizes the scenes involving the Felicia and her magical water. See also Coloquio; DQ I, 5; Vizcaíno. Bibliography: Juan Bautista AvalleArce, La novela pastoril española, 2nd ed. (Madrid: Istmo, 1975); Bruno Mario Damiani, Jorge de Montemayor (Rome: Bulzoni, 1984); Eugenia Fosalba, La “Diana” en Europa: Ediciones, traducciones e influencias (Barcelona: Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, 1994); and Asuncion Rallo Gruss, “Montemayor, entre romance y novela: hibridismo de géneros y experimentación narrativa en La Diana” in La invención de la novela: Seminario hispanofrancés organizado por la Casa de Velázquez (noviembre 1992junio 1993), ed. Jean Canavaggio (Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 1999), 129– 57.
Monteros. *Huntsmen.
Montes de la Luna. *Mountains of the Moon.
Montes, Jerónimo (1865–1932). Spanish Augustinian priest and novelist. Montes’s El alma de Don Quijote (1904; The Soul of Don Quixote) is the story of César Iturralde, a retired army colonel who reminisces about the territorial and spiritual losses suffered by Spain in the war with the United States. Above all else, the reactionary colonel blames Masonry for Spain’s disaster (the foreignProtestantMason nexus is a common theme in Spanish reactionary tradition). The book’s ardent defense of traditional Spanish Catholicism is matched by its attack on the United States and by its blatant racism (as when the indigenous people of the Philippines are referred to as ‘Philippine monkeys’). Iturralde is quixotic in his conviction that Spain is still a world power capable of defeating the United States. Bibliography: Santiago Alfonso López Navia, “Dos Quijotes finiseculares: ‘D.Q.’ de Rubén Darío (1899) y El alma de Don Quijote de Jerónimo Montes (1904),” Anales Cervantinos 31 (1993):99–111; and Jerónimo Montes, El alma de Don Quijote (Madrid: Ediciones El Buen Consejo, 1904).
Montesa, Order of. *Order of Montesa.
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Montesdoca (Montes de Oca), Pedro de (?–ca. 1626). Spanish poet and civil servant who held official positions in Peru; sometimes called El Indiano. MC cites him as a friend in Parnaso 4, and he is praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Montesinos. A wellknown character from the Carolingian cycle (but not in French legend itself, where he does not appear) in the Spanish ballad tradition. Montesinos was married to a lady named Rosaflorida, who reigned in a castle called Rocafrida. According to popular tradition, the ruins of the castle were located in La Mancha near a cave that came to be called the *Cave of Montesinos, presumably named after this character for this reason. In some ballads, Montesinos is the cousin of *Durandarte, and it is in this capacity that he plays an important role in DQ II, 22–23. See also DQ II, 34–35, 48.
Montesinos’s rosary [Rosario de Montesinos]. A rosary consists of five sets of 11 beads and is used to count prayers as they are repeated. The first ten beads of each set represents a Salve, or Hail Mary, and the eleventh, which is slightly larger, a Pater Noster, or Our Father. As described by DQ in II, 23, the grotesque rosary carried by Montesinos consisted of beads the size of walnuts, with the eleventh as large as an ostrich egg—which is about six inches long and weighs three pounds (*Don Quixote’s rosary).
Montherlant, Henry de (1896–1972). French novelist and dramatist. In the preface to Le chaos et la nuit (1963; Chaos and Night), Montherlant cites DQ as the ‘patron saint’ of the Spanish people. He constantly evokes this patron saint in his novel about Celestino Marcilla, an aging and frustrated anarchist in exile in France after the end of the Spanish Civil War (1936–39) and fervent admirer of MC’s novel, which he knows almost by heart and frequently quotes. Early in the novel one of the other characters explicitly points out to Marcilla (and to the reader), the protagonist’s basic character trait: “You’re always going on about Don Quixote. Don Quixote was the first anarchist; he was irrational and pigheaded, which is why he lost his battles nine times out of ten. You’re a caricature of a man of the Left, just as Don Quixote was a caricature of a knighterrant.” References and citations to DQ abound in this interesting novel, which places quixotism in the context of leftist political idealism.
Montiel. 1. In Coloquio, the name that Cañizares calls Berganza hoping that he will turn out to be the son of her former colleague, Montiela. 2. In Retablo, the named used by Chanfalla when he stages the show of wonders. It is an allusion to the witch Montiela (*Coloquio) from the town of Montilla. 3. *Fields of Montiel.
Montiel, Pedro. A friend of MC’s during his active career in the theater in Madrid in the 1580s.
Montiela. In Coloquio, a colleague of the witch Cañizares who gave birth to two dogs, who may turn out to be Berganza and Cipión.
Montilla. A city located northwest of Granada and east and slightly north of Seville. It was the home of the historical Camacha family of witches who are cited in Coloquio.
Montjuich [Monjuí]. The hill south of Barcelona, overlooking the harbor. In MC’s day there was a watchtower there, and later a castlefort was built. Today it is primarily a recreational area, with several museums; it was also the site of the 1992 Olympics. See DQ II, 63.
Montluc, Adrien de, Count of Cramail (1588–1646). French dramatist. His play La Comédie de proverbes (1633; The Comedy of Proverbs) is a farce in which all the characters speak constantly in proverbs, exaggerating SP’s tendency in DQ.
MontmorencyNivelle, Philipe, Count of Hoorne [Conde de Hornos] (1518– 68). Dutch nobleman and soldier executed for heresy by the Duke of Alba. See DQ I, 39.
Montoya, Luisa de. A relative (perhaps second cousin) of MC and the widow of the historian Luis de Garibay. She lived with her three children in the same building as MC and his family in Valladolid.
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Moor(s) [Moro(s)]. 1. Originally, a term used for the inhabitants of North Africa, later used to refer to the Muslim invaders of Spain and, by extension, all Muslims. 2. In Tratos 2, the man who informs Yzuf that Azán wants his help in rebuilding the fortifications of Algiers in light of rumors of an impending Christian attack. 3. In Baños 1, four soldiers who take part in the raid on Spain. 4. In Baños 3, two men who discuss the interruption of the wedding of Mulay Maluco and Zahara. 5. In Sultana 2, the three men who bring Madrigal to the cadí to be sentenced for having sexual relations with a Muslim woman. 6. In DQ II, 26, a minor character in *Maese Pedro’s puppet show who steals a kiss from the beautiful Melisendra and is punished by King Marsilio. Bibliography: Richard A.Fletcher, Moorish Spain (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1992); and Colin Smith, Christians and Moors in Spain: Vol. 2, 1195– 1614 (Warminster, UK: Aris and Phillips, 1989).
Moorish novel [Novela morisca]. A popular subgenre of fiction in Renaissance Spain in which the life, customs, politics, and civil strife of the Muslim culture in Spain during the centuries of Reconquest is told with a romantic and idealized tone. The story that began the vogue was the *Abencerraje and the Beautiful Jarifa, and the most popular and defining text was Ginés *Pérez de Hita’s Guerras Civiles de Granada. The Moorish ballad tradition (which enjoyed simultaneous popularity on its own and provided poetic texts featured in Pérez de Hita’s novel), historical accounts of Muslim warfare and politics, legend, and nostalgia all contributed to the genre’s formation and popularity. Among foreign authors inspired in part by the genre are Madame de * Lafayette, Chateaubriand, Victor Hugo, John Dryden and, above all, Washington *Irving, whose Tales of the Alhambra is the bestknown modern version of the theme. Bibliography: María Soledad Carrasco Urgoiti, The Moorish Novel: “El Abencerraje” and Pérez de Hita (Boston: Twayne, 1976).
Mora, Fernando (1878–1939). Spanish journalist and novelist. Mora’s El patio de Monipodio (1912; Monipodio’s Patio) is described as a ‘novel of Madrid customs.’ It is neither a rewritten or a continuation of Rinconete; in fact, it has nothing to do with MC’s story. At one point the narrator invokes, as one would a muse, the ‘glorious and never sufficiently praised Padre Monipodio,’ a ‘new Dante,’ who should accompany the narrator on his examination of a contemporary hell (59). The novel is a straightforward, basically realistic love story, with moments of romantic rhetorical excess. Bibliography: Fernando Mora, El patio de Monipodio (Madrid: Pueyo, 1912).
Mora, Jerónimo de. Spanish soldier, painter, and poet, he was also a member of the Academia de los Nocturnos in Valencia. See Parnaso 7.
Mora, Juan Miguel de (1921–). Mexican novelist and essayist. Mora’s novel El yelmo de Mambrino (1993; Mambrino’s Helmet) begins with a paraphrase of the opening lines of DQ. The narrator justifies such a beginning, for this is the story of Don Gonzalo Castro de Linares, an MC scholar who in the first chapter makes a stunning discovery: documentary evidence for the existence of the shaving basin that belonged to MC when he died in Madrid in 1616. A series of documents traces the various owners of the basin, obviously the model for *Mambrino’s helmet in DQ, to its current owner, who lives in Madrid. Don Gonzalo goes immediately to the address of this person, but the date is July 20, 1939, the day the fighting of the Spanish Civil War breaks out in Madrid. It turns out that the owner of the basin has moved to Burgos, and Don Gonzalo (a cardcarrying socialist) sets out for that city, already under Nationalist control, on his quest for the basin in the midst of the intense and bitter fighting of the war. The remainder of the novel consists of the quixotic scholar’s travels throughout Spain during the three years of the war, as recorded in the testimonial statements of a variety of characters who come into contact with him. There is, of course, an SP figure in the novel: a peasant named Sebastián Pacheco (the initials, SP, are surely not a coincidence) who acts as escort, guide, and assistant for Don Gonzalo on
Page 494 many of his travels and who speaks with the wisdom of the people. There is also a DT: María Estrella Briones, whose life Don Gonzalo saves, who turns out to have the definitive knowledge about the basin, and who falls in love with the older, but brave and honest, scholar. In many ways, Don Gonzalo’s quest is a pretext for the author to present a vision of the Civil War that is a strong indictment of the fascist revolution. The basin/helmet is a symbol for a Spain tragically destroyed by fanaticism and, at the same time, a symbol of an indestructible ideal. But the clever combination of literature and life—or, in MC’s favorite terms, arms and letters—makes what could have been just another war novel into something much more interesting. Bibliography: Juan Miguel de Mora, El yelmo de Mambrino (México City: Edamex, 1993).
Moraes, Francisco de (ca. 1500–72). Portuguese statesman and fiction writer. He is the author of the fourth book of the *Palmerín cycle, entitled in full Libro del muy esforzado caballero Palmerín de Inglaterra (1547; Book of the Very Valiant Knight Palermin of England). The romance was written in Portuguese but it appeared in print first in the 1547 translation of Luis Hurtado de Toledo (1523–90), and only in the original language 20 years later in 1567. It was by far the best and most popular book in the Palmerín cycle and was translated into French (1553), Italian (1553), and English (1602). In the literary discussions DQ has with his friends the priest and the barber (I, 1), there is some discussion about who is the best of all knightserrant, Amadís de Gaula or Palmerín de Inglaterra; later (II, 1), DQ calls Palmerín the most discreet of all knightserrant. Palmerín is also one of five romances of chivalry saved from the flames in the scrutiny of DQ’s library in I, 6. There the priest praises the books stylistic clarity and describes it as a unique work that ‘is to be esteemed for two reasons, first because it is very good, and secondly because it is said to have been written by a wise and witty king of Portugal.’
Morales, Ambrosio de (ca. 1513–91). Spanish historian. One of the founding figures of Spanish historiography, Morales’s most significant work is his continuation of the work of Florián de *Ocampo in his Corónica general de España (1573; General Chronicle of Spain). Among other things, this work provided MC with historical source material for Numancia.
Morales, Licenciado Alonso de. An unidentified poet, but perhaps Alonso de Morales Salado, praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Morales, Pedro de. A famous actor, playwright, and theatrical impresario. He was probably known to MC during the period of his active theatrical life in Madrid in the 1580s. He is praised in Parnaso 2 and mentioned again in Parnaso 8 when MC returns to Madrid.
Morales Salado, Alonso de. *Morales, Licenciado Alonso de.
Moral Rais. *Maltrapillo.
Moratín, Leandro Fernández de (1760–1828). Spanish dramatist and poet; son of Nicolás. Moratín is the author of the most famous neoclassical play in Spanish literature: El sí de las niñas (1801, not staged until 1806; A Maiden’s Consent), a perfectly constructed story of the triumph of true love over an arranged marriage between a young woman and an elderly man. His model for his popular didactic poem La derrota de los pedantes (1789; The Defeat of the Pedants) is Parnaso. Bibliography: John Bowling, Leandro Fernández de Moratín (Boston: Twayne, 1971).
Moratín, Nicolás Fernández de (1737–80). Spanish critic and poet, father of Leandro. A surprise within the austere neoclassical writings of Moratín is El arte de las putas (written ca. 1771, published privately in 1898, and publicly in 1977; The Whores’ Art), a long, often obscene, satire. In one scene, a monk uses the cowl of his habit as a prophylactic while having intercourse with a prostitute. Just as he finishes, several people approach him and he hurriedly covers his head with the cowl, only to have his own semen run down his face. The very next lines of the poem refer to DQ II, 17, the scene
Page 495 in which SP places curds and whey in DQ’s helmet and when the knight puts on the helmet the whey runs down his face. The lighthearted equation of the fornicating monk with DQ only underscores the cynicism and satire of the passage. Bibliography: David T.Gies, Nicolás Fernández de Moratín (Boston: Twayne, 1979).
Morato. 1. In Baños 1, a renegade sea captain probably based on *Maltrapillo. 2. In Sultana 1, the name of a Muslim whose bagnio is mentioned.
Morato Arráez. In Sultana 1, the person who supposedly gave Doña Catalina de Oviedo to the Gran Turco. He may be based on *Maltrapillo. See also Sultana 3.
Morbo gálico. *French disease.
Moreno Torroba, Federico (1891–1982). Spanish composer. Moreno composed both symphonic music and more popular pieces, especially in his capacity as director of the Teatro de la Zarzuela. He also composed a work entitled Aventuras y desventuras de don Quijote (Adventures and Misadventures of Don Quixote).
Moreto, Agustín (1618–69). Spanish dramatist. Moreto is perhaps the most distinguished of the group of writers associated with the second wave of Spanish dramatic literature in the seventeenth century, the Calderón cycle. He was popular both with aristocratic (and royal) audiences and with the public in general. He wrote over 30 plays and collaborated on another twenty; one of his specialties was the rewriting of earlier works in a newer mode. His two bestknown plays are El desdén con el desdén (Disdain Conquered by Disdain), a romantic comedy, and El Undo don Diego (Don Diego the Dandy), a satire on a man taken by his own beauty. One of Moreto’s plays in entitled El Licenciado Vidriera (1653), but, in spite of having the title taken from Vidriera, only some aspects the third act are reminiscent of MC’s story. He also wrote a play based loosely on Celoso entitled No puede ser guardar una mujer (It Is not Possible to Guard a Woman). Bibliography: Frank P.Casa, The Dramatic Craftsmanship of Moreto (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966); and James A.Castañeda, Agustín Moreto (New York: Twayne, 1974).
Morfeo. *Morpheus.
Morgante. *Pulci, Luigi.
Morillo, (Fray Diego). Franciscan priest and author of religious poetry praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Morillos. *Young Muslims.
Morisca. A character who dances at the wedding ceremony in Baños 3.
Morisco. 1. In Coloquio, Berganza’s master after he leaves the gypsies. Berganza details the destructive nature of the role of the Moriscos in Spain. 2. *Elderly Morisco.
Morisco aljamiado. *Translator.
Moriscos. Muslims converted to Christianity or the children of such converts. As a group, the Moriscos became increasingly resented and hated in Renaissance Spain; they were accused of dishonesty, disloyalty, avarice, sexual promiscuity, and draining resources from the nation. And in fact it was true that many of them were Christians in name only, as they continued to live apart from the rest of Christian society, speak Arabic, and practice Islam to some degree. The fear that the Moriscos were a ready support group should the Turks invade Spain may have been exaggerated, but was grounded in a realistic scenario and kept alive by the sporadic smallscale raids by Turks and Barbary pirates along the Mediterranean coast, especially in the region of Valencia. In 1566, repressive measures were imposed on the Moriscos of Granada and in 1568 they rose up and attempted to take Granada. This attack failed, but the revolution spread throughout Andalusia and the conflict, known as the Alpujarras Rebellion (after the mountain range of that name), between Christians and Moriscos continued for some three years before Don Juan of Austria put an end to it. By decree of Felipe III, the Moriscos were expelled in 1609, first
Page 496 from the region of Valencia, where up to a third of the population, totaling over 100,000, was Morisco. As the decrees of banishment spread through Spain in the next four years (the decree for Extremadura, Castile, and La Mancha was promulgated in 1610), at least 250,000 Moriscos, about 3 percent of the total population, left the country, most of them settling in Morocco and other areas of North Africa. The exodus of the Moriscos was just one more factor in the economic and social homogenization and debilitation of the country, as many of those exiled were accomplished farmers, artisans, tradesmen, and financiers. One of the most interesting secondary characters in DQ is the Morisco *Ricote, whom SP encounters in II, 54. Ricote’s incongruous praise of the royal decree of banishment for him and his people, which broke up his family and destroyed his life, has alternatively been seen as a stinging satire on the subject and an awkward but sincere expression of MC’s belief that the country was better off without this pernicious group (see also his further similar statements in II, 65). In Coloquio, the dog Berganza severely criticizes the entire “race” of Moriscos after he has an experience in the service of one of them. In Persiles III, 11, the national danger posed by the Moriscos in the area near Valencia is dramatized and again the entire Morisco population is condemned, in spite of the charitable acts of some in this episode. See also DQ II, 63. Bibliography: Anwar G.Chejne, Islam and the West. The Moriscos, a Cultural and Social History (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983); Mikel de Epalza, Los moriscos antes y después de la expulsión (Madrid: Editorial MAPFRE, 1992); Mercedes GarcíaArenal and Miguel Angel de Bunes, eds., Los españoles y el Norte de Africa: Siglos XVXVIII (Madrid: Editorial MAPFRE, 1992); Leonard Patrick Harvey, Los Moriscos and “Don Quijote” (London: King’s College, 1974); and Francisco Márquez Villanueva, El problema morisco (desde otras laderas) (Madrid: Libertarias, 1991).
Morning Star [Lucero]. An allusion to Felipe IV, born in 1605 in Valladolid, in a ballad sung by Preciosa in Gitanilla.
Moro(s). *Moor(s).
Moro encantado. *Enchanted Moor.
Moro tangerino. A Muslim from Tangiers. See DQ I, 40. Many editors take this as a typographical error for moro tagarino (*tagarinos), a term used in the next chapter.
Morocco [Marruecos]. A country located on the northwestern corner of Africa, with coasts on the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. See Amante; Baños 3; DQ I, 51; DQ II, 5; Gallardo 3.
Morón (de la Frontera). A small city located southeast of Seville and northwest of Ronda, about halfway between the two. It was known for its partridges. See DQ II, 49.
Moros de Aragón. *Tagarinos.
Moros de Granada. *Mudéjares.
Morosini, Marco. Italian dramatist. His Don Chisciotte della Mancia (1680) is a musical comedy, with the music composed by Carlo Sajon.
Morpheus [Morfeo]. In Greek myth, the son of Hypnos and god of dreams. He was often depicted as a corpulent, winged youth, with a goblet in one hand and in the other a branch of soporifics. He appears in Parnaso 8, accompanied by Sloth, Silence, and Forgetfulness. See also Galatea 6; Parnaso 5.
Morris, Kenneth (1879–1937). Welsh novelist and shortstory writer. Morris’s fantastic tales and novels were long ignored, but recently he has been touted as one of the best fantasy writers of the early twentieth century. His story entitled “The Last Adventure of Don Quixote” was first published in a magazine under the pseudonym of Fortescue Lanyard in 1917 and was included in his collection The Secret Mountain and Other Tales (1926). The story is presented as part of CHB’s original manuscript but, for some reason, it was not included in the original Spanish publication. According to the Muslim historian, DQ did not die surrounded by friends and family as reported in DQ II, 74, but recovered and—now healthy, strong, and
Page 497 brave—rode out again on the real Rozinante, a powerful steed. At his side as squire was not the SP of MC’s version, but the true SP. They ride not through La Mancha, but through a world of beautiful and majestic scenery. His new squire tells him that he has been sent by his master, who took note of DQ’s deeds and worthiness, and wants him to undertake the struggle against the most dangerous of enemies. The two men ride together into battle and gloriously vanquish their foes. Afterward, the squire identifies himself as Michael of the Flaming Sword, and the last words of the story are, “Side by side in pleasant converse they rode forward then to the place gates of their sovereign: Don Quixote of La Mancha and Don Michael Archangel: each wondrously pleased with the nobility and high bearing of his companion.” Bibliography: Kenneth Morris, The Secret Mountain and Other Tales (London: Faber & Gwyer, 1926).
Morrison, G(eorge) E. (1860–1920). English dramatist. Morrison introduces his fouract play in prose and verse entitled Alonzo Quixano, otherwise Don Quixote, a Dramatization of the Novel of Cervantes, and Especially of Those Parts which He Left Unwritten (1895) with a preface in which he cites drama critics who claim that DQ cannot be successfully brought to the stage. After sketching a taxonomy of previous attempts to dramatize DQ and explaining why, in his opinion, they are failures, Morrison explains briefly how he has attempted to capture the essence of the novel in this work. Act I begins with the bookburning scene, consists primarily of a conversation between DQ and his niece Antonia, and ends with his decision to become a knighterrant. Act II is set at the inn of Palameque and involves an anomalous assortment of characters and adventures, including an appearance by Antonia, worried about her uncle, and an attempt to seduce her by the evil innkeeper. Act III takes place at the palace of the duke and duchess, involves more miscellaneous adventures, and ends when Master Nicholas, dressed as a knight, defeats DQ; again, Antonia puts in an appearance and suffers with her beloved uncle. Act IV consists of two parts: in the first, SP is governor of his island, and this part features Pedro Recio and the eating scene; in the second, DQ returns home and dies. Among his final words is the affirmation that there is no more DT than his niece Antonia. Overall, the play is little more than the usual hodgepodge of miscellaneous events and characters from the novel—precisely the sort of thing Morrison criticizes in his prologue. But, as the author points out in the preface, the play’s most original feature is the enhanced role of a romantic Antonia, making this perhaps the first truly romantic adaptation of DQ. In his preface, Morrison (in a rhetorical stance that anticipates *Unamuno by over a century) makes clear his view of DQ as a noble personage: “Though Cervantes sat down with no thought but that of recording the pranks of an elderly lunatic, he did not rise till he had created the Christ of fiction.” Bibliography: G.E.Morrison, Alonzo Quixano, otherwise Don Quixote (London: Elkin Mathews, 1895).
Moscoso, Francisco. Mayor of Ecija who issued an arrest warrant for MC for illegal sale of wheat. As a result, MC was jailed briefly, in Castro del Río, but was soon cleared and released.
Moses [Moisés]. In the Old Testament, the Israelite who led his people out of slavery in Egypt and to the Promised Land; along the way, he received the Ten Commandments from God. In Poesías 21, Felipe II is described as the Christian Moses. See also Baños 3; Coloquio.
Mosquera de Figueroa, Cristóbal (1547–1610). Spanish poet. Mosquera included one poem by his friend MC (Poesías 24) in his Comentario en breve compendio de disciplina militar en que se escribe la jornada de las islas de los Azores (1596; Brief Commentary Written on the Military Discipline in which the Trip to the Azores Islands Is Described). He is praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Mosqueteros. The lowerclass standees at performances of Spanish plays (*corral) who
Page 498 often formed the most critical part of the audience. See Entretenida 3.
Most distinguished people [Gente más lucida]. Those in attendance at *Camacho’s wedding, a reflection of his family’s wealth and influence. See DQ II, 21.
Most Holy Trinity, Order of the. *Order of the Most Holy Trinity.
Most popular adventures of Don Quixote. In his discussion with DQ in II, 3, Sansón Carrasco reports that the most popular episodes from DQ I are the windmills (I, 8), the fulling mills (I, 20), the armies of sheep (I, 18), the dead body (I, 21), the galley slaves (I, 22), the Benedictine giants/friars (I, 8), the battle with the Basque (I, 8–9), the Yanguesans (added at SP’s suggestion) (I, 15), and SP’s blanketing (I, 17). What is interesting about this list is that all of the episodes are from the more comic first half of DQ I, before the priest and the barber returned to the action (in I, 26) and before the series of embedded narratives (Cardenio, Curioso, and Capitán) that dominate the second half of the novel and are criticized later in the discussion. This list can serve as one reading of where the early popularity of the novel was greatest: in the comic episodes involving DQ and SP, more than in the more complicated and romanceoriented extraneous narratives. This discussion can stand as one testimony about the early *reception history of DQ I.
Mostaganem [Mostagán]. A city in Algeria, located west of Algiers and south and slightly east of Cartegena. See Gallardo 3; Tratos 3–4.
Mostrenca. In Viudo, one of the candidates to replace the recently deceased Pericona as Trampagos’s prostitute.
Motta Salas, Julián (1891–?). Colombian novelist. In Motta Salas’s Alonso Quijano, el Bueno (Don Quijote en Villaseñor) (1930; Alonso Quijano, the Good [Don Quixote in Villaseñor]), the historian Abensaide narrates that Don Diego de Miranda invites DQ and SP, along with the duke and duchess, Altisidora, Pedro Recio, and Doña Rodríguez, to spend some time at his estate of Villaseñor. Amidst a long series of typically cruel practical jokes—including the disenchantment of DT (played by Altisidora) and her marriage to DQ—DQ delivers characteristic speeches (e.g., on religion) and gives further advice to SP, while the latter writes new letters to his wife. Throughout the novel there are quotations from a wide variety of authors, always duly acknowledged in footnotes. Motta Salas also wrote a competent biography of MC entitled Vida del príncipe de los ingenios, Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (1965; Life of the Prince of Wits, Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra). Bibliography: Julián Motta Salas, Alonso Quijano, el Bueno (Don Quijote en Villaseñor) (Bogotá, Colombia: Minerva, 1930).
Mount Calvary [Monte de Calvario]. In the New Testament, the hill near Jerusalem where Jesus was crucified. See Poesías 13.
Mount Carmel [Monte Carmelo]. A mountain in northwestern Palestine. See Poesías 12.
Mount Olympus [Monte Olimpo]. In Greek myth, the dwelling place of the gods, located in Thessaly, in northern Greece. See Persiles IV, 8.
Mountain of Lebanon [Líbano monte]. In Celoso, Loaysa swears by this mountain that he will respect all the women in Carrizales’s fortresshouse if he is let in to sing.
Mountains of the Moon [Montes de la Luna]. According to Ptolemy, the headwaters of the White Nile River are in the mountains of Ethiopia that he called the ‘Mountains of the Moon.’ See DQ I, 20.
Moza. *Young woman.
Mozas del partido. A term for prostitutes. It is used with reference to *Tolosa and *Molinera in DQ I, 2.
Mozo. *Young man (men).
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Mozo de campo y plaza. *Lad for the field and marketplace.
Mozo(s) de mulas. *Mule boy(s).
Mozo motilón. *Widow.
Mozo vestido como labrador. *Youth dressed as a peasant.
Mrs. Barrabas [Mujer de Barrabás]. A disrespectful name SP uses for his wife in their conversation in DQ II, 5.
Muchacho(s). *Boy(s); *Young man (men).
Muchachos moros. *Muslim boys.
Mucio. *Scaevola, Gaius Mucius.
Mudable rueda. *Fortune.
Mudéjares. 1. Muslims living under Christian rule in Spain; not to be confused with *Moriscos, converts from Islam to Christianity, at least in name. 2. In DQ I, 41, a term for Muslims from Granada in North Africa.
Müeller, Johann Gottwerth (1743–1828). German novelist. The protagonist of Müller’s Siegfried von Lindenberg (1779), generally considered one of the best comic novels of the century in Germany, is a Prussian Junker, a “Pomeranian DQ,” whose goal is to introduce into his region all that he learns about from books and newspapers (which he must have read to him, as he is illiterate). The Prussian Junkers can be considered the caste parallel to Spanish hidalgos, and Müller’s novel is a critique on German nobility and German nationalism.
Muerte. *Death.
Muerto. *Dead body.
Múgica Celaya, Rafael Gabriel. *Celaya, Gabriel.
Muhammad Bey. *Presa.
Mujer de Barrabás. *Mrs. Barrabas.
Mujer de don Antonio. *Wife of Don Antonio.
Mujer de don Sancho de Cardona. *Wife of Don Sancho de Cardona.
Mujer de Teógenes. *Teógenes’s wife.
Mujer del autor. *Manager’s wife.
Mujer del rey Leopoldio. *Wife of King Leopoldio.
Mujer e hijos del jugador. *Wife and children of the dice player.
Mújica Laínez, Manuel (1910–84). Argentine novelist. Mújica Laínez’s short book Glosas castellanas (1936; Castilian Glosses) consists of some meditations on Spanish themes such as MC, SP’s proverbs, Amadís de Gaula, and the king’s buffoon Don Francesillo. There is also a section entitled “Prosas quijotiles” (“Quixotic Prose Pieces”), which consists of four short fictions: 1) about the priest and barber, after they burn DQ’s books and then go home to read the ones they kept for themselves; 2) about the frivolity and superficiality of the duke and duchess who make fun of DQ and SP; 3) about El Greco, who in effect has painted DQ in some of his famous canvases; and 4) about SP, who struggles to believe while others attempt to convince him of reality. Bibliography: Manuel Mújica Laínez, Glosas castellanas (Buenos Aires: Librería y Editorial “La Facultad,” 1936).
Mule boy(s) [Mozo(s) de mulas]. 1. Servants, usually younger boys, who take care of the mules (and, presumably, also donkeys and perhaps horses) of noblemen, wealthy peasants, and travelers of various sorts. 2. In DQ I, 4, three youths accompanying the *Toledan merchants who have an encounter with DQ. After Rocinante trips and falls, and DQ lies on the ground, one of them takes DQ’s lance, breaks it, and beats him with part of it. 3. In DQ I, 8, two servants who accompany the Basque lady in the coach. 4. In DQ I, 44, the young man who identifies Don Luis. 5. In Fregona, two
Page 500 young men who discuss the crackdown on pícaros and other marginal types in Seville, as well as the beautiful kitchen maid in Toledo, thus piquing Avendaño’s curiosity to see such a beauty. 6. In DQ II, 60, two young men who form part of the retinue of Doña Guiomar de Quiñones.
Muleteer(s) [Arriero(s), Harriero(s)]. 1. Men who drive mule trains, transport workers of the sort that were common on the roads of Spain. The constant flow of commercial traffic throughout the country provided employment for a large number of workers who were constantly on the move between cities, especially between Seville and Madrid. Many of the inns (ventas, posadas) that dotted the cities, roads, and highways had muleteers as some of their most frequent customers. Because of this, many of the inns corresponded to relatively lowclass and inexpensive truck stops (recall that the transport union in modern America is called the “Teamsters” from the early mule teams such drivers used). 2. In DQ I, 3, as DQ stands vigil over his arms in the courtyard of the inn in preparation to being dubbed a knight, a muleteer goes for water for his mules and moves DQ’s armor. Enraged, DQ invokes DT and orders the man to be more respectful to a knight’s arms and then, when ignored, strikes the man and knocks him unconscious. When a second muleteer attempts to do the same thing, DQ also knocks him to the ground. This calls forth a barrage of stones from the people watching the scene and leads to a precipitous mock dubbing ceremony by the innkeeper. There is no indication as to just how badly wounded the two innocent men are, but these two muleteers are the first of several characters seriously hurt by the dangerous madman, DQ. 3. In DQ I, 16, a guest in the inn of Juan Palomeque who has made an appointment to sleep with Maritornes. When he perceives DQ talking amorously with the woman he expects in his own bed, he hits DQ and begins the fight that disrupts the entire inn. He is described as one of the rich muleteers (a profession frequently associated with conversos) from Arévalo and, incongruously, a relative of the historian CHB. It is noted that CHB makes particular mention of this character, but the specific words used by the historian to discuss his relative are edited out and only a summary comment remains. The passage in which this affirmation is made is interesting as one of those that illustrates the role of the narratoreditor of the novel. 4. In Rinconete, a man who is fleeced at cards by Rinconete and Cortadillo at the beginning of the story.
Muley Hamet. *Muley Mohammed.
Muley Hamida (?–1575). Ruler of Tunis with a welldeserved reputation for cruelty. In 1542 he blinded and dethroned his father; in 1573 he was replaced by his brother *Muley Mohammed. See DQ I, 39.
Muley Maluco. In Baños, the handsome, valiant, and gracious Muslim who aspires to marry Zahara after he becomes king of Fez. He is based on the historical *AbdalMalik, the reallife first husband of *Zahara, historical daughter of *Hadji Murad and the model for the character of the same name in the play.
Muley Mohammed (Muley Hamet). The brother of *Muley Hamida, who was given command of Tunis by Don Juan of Austria in 1573, but was taken prisoner by the Turks the following year. See DQ I, 39.
Muley Xeque (Príncipe de Marruecos) (?–1613). The sultan of Morocco between 1603 and 1608; when he was replaced in this position, he fled to Madrid and converted to Christianity (and was sometimes called the Black Prince or the Felipe of Africa). He once lived in a house on the Calle de Príncipe (named for him) on the corner of the Calle de las Huertas, across the street from the house where MC lived on Huertas. See Adjunta.
Müller, Johann Gottwerth. *Müeller, Johann Gottwerth.
Muñatón. In DQ I, 7, the comic mispronunciation by the niece of the name of DQ’s enemy, the enchanter *Frestón. It evokes the name of the folkloric character of the old woman Muñatones.
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MuñizHuberman, Angelina (1936–). Mexican novelist, shortstory writer, and poet. Her novel Dulcinea encantada (1992; Dulcinea Enchanted) is the evocation of an autistic Dulcinea, who left Spain after the Civil War and spent time in Russia, in a home for Spanish refugee children, before going to Mexico. Dulcinea never speaks; lives in a world of fantasy, imagination, memory, and ambiguity; and is constantly writingrevisingreviewingremembering entire ‘mental novels’ that she never writes. She is truly an ‘enchanted Dulcinea’—and she specifically recalls the figure of DQ, speechless and confused, kneeling before the enchanted DT of DQ II, 10. She spends time with a certain Madame Frances Calderón de la Barca on her travels through Mexico. She readsimaginesremembers romances of chivalry, above all Amadís de Gaula, Spanish ballads, and DQ. She believes that in real life you have to take action, but in literature you can truly live. The love of her life is Amadís (Amado de Dios, Amadeus, Mozart), who may be a fantasy, who may be driving the automobile in which she is riding, who may have been killed in an accident, or who may be her dead brother (or his double). The novel shifts constantly and rapidly between firstperson and thirdperson narrative; it consists of disjointed fragments, phrases, and words. Rarely has the enchanted world of autism been so movingly and authentically evoked, and the intertextual MC connection deeply enriches an extraordinary achievement. Bibliography: Angelina MuñizHuberman, Dulcinea encantada (Mexico City: Joaquín Moritz, 1992); and Judith A.Payne, “A World of Her Own: Exilec Metafiction in Angelina MuñizHuberman’s Morada interior and Dulcinea encantada” Revista Canadiense de Estudios Hispánicos 22 (45–63):45–63.
Muñoz. In Entretenida, the squire to Marcela who helps Cardenio pose as Don Silvestre and thus be able to court Marcela.
Muñoz y Soliva, Trifón. *Quincoces, Rústico Dimas de.
Muntadas, Juan Federico (1826–1912). Spanish novelist. Muntadas’s Vida y hechos de Gil Pérez de Marchamalo (2 vols., 1866; Life and Deeds of Gil Pérez de Marchamalo) is presented in the prologue as a fictionalized picaresque autobiography of a friend of the author. The story has some picaresque aspects and mentions MC’s novel a few times, but is in no way a sequel to or imitation of DQ, although it is sometimes cited as such. Bibliography: Juan Federico Muntadas, Vida y hechos de Gil Pérez de Marchamalo, 2. vols. (Madrid: M.Rivadeneyra, 1866).
Murad III [*Amurates] (1546–95). Son of Selim II and ruler of the Ottoman Empire in the years 1574–95.
Murcia. A city in southeastern Spain, located north and slightly west of Cartagena, and southwest of Alicante, that was an important agricultural center and the site of a silk industry in MC’s day. The silk merchants of DQ I, 4, are headed for Murcia. It is also the place where the dénouement of Gitanilla takes place. See also Coloquio; DQ I, 40; Rinconete.
Murcia de la Liana, Licenciado Francisco. The name of two related Spanish civil servants who were involved (it is not always clear which) in the preliminaries to MC’s last five books: the list of errata, or corrector’s statement, for DQ I, Novelas, Parnaso, Coloquio, DQ II, and Persiles.
Murderous Polyphemuses [Polifemos matadores]. *Polyphemus is the most famous Cyclops (oneeyed giant) of Greek myth. In the plural it is used as one of the insulting terms used by the men who take DQ and SP back to the palace of the duke and duchess. See DQ II, 68.
Murillo, Fray Diego de. *Morillo, Fray Diego de.
Musäus, Johann Karl August (1735–87). German novelist. Musaus is the author of two quixotic novels: Grandison der Zweite (1760–62; Grandison the Second), where the target of satire is the fiction of Samuel *Richardson, and
Page 502 Physiognomische Reisen (1778–79; Physiognomical Journeys), a satire on physiognomy (the practice of deducing a person’s character and mental abilities by the observation of bodily, especially facial, features).
Museo Iconográfico del Quijote. *Iconographic Museum of Don Quixote.
Muses [Musas]. In Greek myth, the daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne, who were the goddesses of literature, music, and dance and, later, of all intellectual pursuits. There were nine in total and, although the list sometimes varies, they are usually listed as the following: *Calliope, muse of epic poetry; Clio, muse of history; Erato, muse of lyric poetry accompanied by the lyre; Euterpe, muse of lyric poetry accompanied by the flute; Melpomene, muse of tragedy; Polyhymnia, muse of hymns and pantomine; Terpsichore, muse of song and dance; Thalia, muse of comedy and bucolic poetry; and Urania, muse of astronomy. See Adjunta; DQ II, 18; Gitanilla VI; Parnaso 2–5, 7–8; Poesías 5, 28.
Musicians [Músicos]. 1. In Sultana 3, Spanish captives who provide the music for celebrations in honor of the new bride of the Sultan Amurates. 2. In Rufián 1, characters who accompany Cristóbal de Lugo on his serenades. 3. In Entretenida 3, the men who take part in the interlude put on by the servants in the household of Don Antonio. 4. In Pedro 1, the men who help celebrate the marriages of Clemente and Pascual; in Pedro 2, they play for the dance of the gypsies before the king and queen; and in Pedro 3, they sing in preparation for the production of the play for the king and queen. 5. In Juez, the men who bring the farce to a close with a song and dance about reconciliation. 6. In Viudo, the men who end the performance with song and dance. 7. In Elección, gypsies who arrive near the end of the farce for the customary song and dance. 8. In Guarda, the men who come in at the end of the farce for the usual song and dance. 9. In Vizcíno, the men who come in at the end of the farce for the usual song and dance. 10. In Viejo, the men who come in at the end for the usual song and dance.
Músico. *Young musician.
Muslim boys [Muchachos moros], 1. In Tratos 3, two children who taunt Christian slaves about their lack of freedom and the failure of Don Juan of Austria to come and rescue them. 2. In Baños 2, three children who taunt the Christians about their captivity.
Muslim woman [Alárabe]. 1. In Sultana 1, a woman who appears on stage but has no speaking role. 2. In Sultana 2, the woman with whom Madrigal has had sexual relations.
Mustafá. In Sultana 2, the name of one of the four pashas who talk with the ambassador of Persia.
Muza. In Sultana 3, the name, mentioned once, of one of the three boys who serves the Sultan Amurates.
Muzaraque. Although referred to as ‘famous,’ nothing is known of anyone named Muzaraque and nothing is known of his burial in the *Hill of Zulema, as mentioned in DQ I, 29. The whole ‘famous legend’ could well be an invention of MC’s.
Myers, John Myers (1906–). American writer of science fiction and fantasy. In Myers’s novel Silverlock (1949), the protagonist A. Clarence Shandon is shipwrecked off the imaginary island of Commonwealth (of Letters). In his travels throughout this strange land, Shandon takes the name of Silverlock and has encounters and adventures with Beowulf, Till Eulenspiegel, Anna Karenina, Prometheus, and many more literary and mythological personages, including, of course, DQ and SP. Among other things, DQ agrees to assist in the search for the giant Paul Bunyan and his blue ox. Not great literature, perhaps, but a curious cameo appearance by DQ.
Myrrha (Smyrna) [Mirra]. In Greek myth, the mother of Adonis, whom she conceived by her own father, Cinyras; a symbol of incest. See Entretenida 1.
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N Nabokov, Nicolas (1903–78). Russian/ American musician. Nabokov composed the music, George Balanchine the choreography, and Esteban Francis the scenery, costumes, and lighting for the New York City Ballet original production of Don Quixote (1965). Balanchine, who first performed in the *Minkus/Petipa ballet on the same theme as a teenager in 1916, was the initiator of the project to write a new ballet on the subject, and he and Nabokov collaborated on their own completely new work. In it, Balanchine danced the role of DQ and Suzanne Farrell that of DT. The first act begins in DQ’s study and features an appearance by DT, and then switches to scenes of Andrés and the galley salves, before ending with some scenes from the inn, including Maese Pedro’s puppet show. Act II takes place at the palace of the duke and duchess, where the staged masques and entertainments culminate in the appearance of Merlin and DT. In the final act, DQ is defeated by the Knight of the Silver Moon, returns home, and dies. (For an interesting take on this ballet, see Adrienne *Sharp’s fictional recreation of the BalanchineFarrell/ DQDT relationship in her short story entitled “Don Quixote.”) Nabokov also composed a piano suite entitled Le coeur de Don Quichotte (Don Quixote’s Heart). Bibliography: Nicolas Nabokov and George Balanchine, Don Quichotte (London: M.P.Belaieff, 1966).
Nabokov, Vladimir (1899–1977). Russian/ American novelist. In the spring semester of 1952, Nabokov taught a humanities course at Harvard University, a course that included DQ in its readings. In preparation for the assignment, Nabokov prepared a series of lecture notes that have since been published as Lectures on Don Quixote (1983). The lectures provide fascinating insights into MC’s novel by one of the great novelists of the twentieth century. They also show how such a writer can sometimes badly misread aspects of a great book; in this case, it is often the most comic and ironic passages and scenes that Nabokov (a great ironist himself) fails to understand. Nabokov was particularly impressed by what he considered the gratuitous cruelty he perceived throughout DQ, which he calls “a veritable encyclopedia of cruelty.” Surprisingly, Nabokov denies DQ the status of a novel, considering it a primitive picaresque tale. The first novel Nabokov published after his Harvard lectures was his famous Lolita (1955), which, not surprisingly, is infused with the spirit of DQ, especially its fantasyreality theme and its insistence on its status as a true history. Humbert Humbert, who, it is specifically noted, had read DQ in his youth, is obsessed with the 12yearold nymph Lolita, his very carnal DT: “What I had madly possessed was not she, but my own creation, another, fanciful Lolita—perhaps more real than Lolita; overlapping, encasing her; floating between me and her, and having no will, no consciousness— indeed, no life of her own.” In the latter part of the novel, Humbert attempts to identify the man (his double) who is pursuing him, Clare Quilty, who seduces his beloved but unfaithful Lolita, and whom he eventually murders. (Is not Nabokov’s denunciation of cruelty and violence in DQ perhaps somewhat hypocritical in the light of the graphic description of this murder?) As Humbert examines the tantalizing and playful literary clues left by his rival, at one moment he wonders if “my quarry was an old friend of the
Page 504 family, maybe an old flame of Charlotte’s, maybe a redresser of wrongs (‘Donald Quix, Sierra, Nev.’).” Throughout the novel, the rich wordplay (particularly on names in general, and especially that of the protagonist) also recalls the constant linguistic humor in DQ. Nabokov’s own thoroughly Cervantine practice belies his antiDQ theoretical stance. Bibliography: Catherine Kunce, “ ‘Cruel and Crude’: Nabokov Reading Cervantes,” Cervantes 13, no. 2 (1993): 93–104; Francisco Márquez Villanueva, “La lección del disparatario nabokoviano (Clare QuiltyAvellaneda),” in Desviaciones lúdicas en la crítica cervantina: Primer convivio Internacional de “Locos Amenos,” ed. Antonio Bernat Vistarini and José María Casasayas (Salamanca, Spain: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 2000), 337–55; Vladimir Nabokov, Lectures on Don Quixote (London: Weidenfeld Nicolson, 1983); and Juliá Edgardo Rodríguez, “Don Quijote por Nabokov,” Inti 45 (1997): 79–83.
Nabucodonosor. *Donosor.
Nacor. In Gallardo, the traitorous rival to Alimuzel for the hand of Alaraxa. He is killed by Buitrago in the second act.
Name of Cide Hamete Benengeli. Cide (Sidi) is a title of respect in Arabic, such as that given to the great Christian knight Rui *Díaz de Vivar, called El Cid. Hamete (or Hamid) is a common Arabic name meaning “he who praises.” Benengeli can simply mean, comically, aberenjenado (fond of berenjenas, eggplants), and this is what is alluded to in DQ II, 2, when SP first tells DQ of the existence of the published version of DQ I, written by CHB, whose name he corrupts, saying Cide Hamete Berenjena, and noting that Muslims are supposed to be very fond of this vegetable (and it might be noted that eggplants figure prominently in the gastronomy of La Mancha). Over the years, especially in many of the *esoteric readings of DQ, a wide variety of possible etymologies for and interpretations of the name of CHB have been proposed, and frequent attempts have been made to combine the letters of his name into an anagram that spells out the name of MC and/or some “secret” phrase. None is convincing.
Name of Don Quijote de la Mancha. DQ’s name carries with it a number of comic connotations, as do other names associated with chivalry. First, there were people living in small towns in La Mancha, and specifically in *Esquivias, the home of MC’s wife Catalina and in which he lived off and on for some years, who had the surnames Quijana, Quesada, and so forth (*Quijada, Alonso). But beyond the suggestive historical sources for the name, it is clear that the depreciatory suffixote connotes inappropriate size and/or awkwardness. At the same time, however, the ending recalls the name of one of the most famous of all knightserrant, Lanzarote (Lancelot), an association that DQ makes in I, 2, when he recites a ballad about Lanzarote, but substitutes his own name. Perceptive Renaissance readers, however, might well have recalled another knight whose name had the same ending—Camilote, a comic character in the romance of chivalry Primaleón (1512) and in the Gil Vicente play Dom Duardos based on that romance, who defended the beauty of his unattractive lady. The Spanish word quijote is used for the piece of armor that covers a knight’s thigh (in English, a “cuisse”), and some readers have seen in its use a connotation of sexuality, perhaps prudery or an unconscious desire to sublimate sexual desire. The first part of the name, Quij, carries with it various comic images also elicited by some of the names that the narrator’s supposed sources (in I, 1) suggest for the hidalgo who becomes DQ: Quijada, Quesada, and Quejana, which evoke quijada (jaw; some have even perceived here a subtle allusion to the famous, outsized jaw of the Hapsburg line), queso (cheese), and queja (complaint). The uncertainty about the specific form of the character’s surname is compounded in I, 5, when Pedro Alonso calls him ‘Señor Quijana,’ another new variant. The same thing happens in I, 49, when DQ claims to be a direct descendant from Gutierre Quijada. In each of these cases, the most recent suggestion seems more authoritative than the last, but in II, 74, on his deathbed, DQ refers to himself as
Page 505 “Alonso Quijano,” which is generally taken to be the definitive form of his name. The addition of the phrase de la Mancha is a parody of the practice of knights who adopt the name of their country as part of their name: de Gaula, de Grecia, de Fenicia, and so on. But La Mancha was just a relatively impoverished and infertile section of Spain, rather than a glorious nation. The entire name, however, does carry a certain lyrical hint in that it forms an octosyllabic line that would fit perfectly into a ballad or lyric poem, as in the ballad about Lancelot that DQ cites in II, 2. His new name was important to DQ, as he spent no less than a week pondering it so that it would be musical, lofty, and significant, like the one he had chosen for his horse—Rocinante. DQ’s selfbaptism should also recall the JudeoChristian practice of assuming a new name as a sign of a new status in life: Saul of Tarsis becomes Saint Paul, Samuel L.Clemens becomes Mark Twain, Clark Kent becomes Superman. Bibliography: R.M.Flores, “¿Qué hay en los apellidos Quijada, Quesada y Quijana? Fuentes históricas, teoría narratológica y bibliografía analítica en la crítica literaria,” Bulletin Hispanique 99 (1997): 409–22; Ana Rosa Llobet, “El problema de la nominación en El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha” in Primeras jornadas cervantinas (Bahía Blanca, Argentina: Instituto Superior “Juan XXIII,” 1981), 78–98; Howard Mancing, “The Comic Function of Chivalric Names in Don Quijote” Names 21 (1973): 220–35; Gregorio B.Palacín Iglesias, “El nombre del hidalgo en quien encarnó Don Quijote,” Romance Notes 5 (1963): 55–58; and Arsenio Rey, “Onomastic Perspectivism of Don Quixote” Literary Onomastic Studies 7 (1980): 157–66.
Name of Dulcinea del Toboso. In DQ I, 1, DQ transforms the name of *Aldonza Lorenzo into Dulcinea, on the basis of the assumption that the meaning of Aldonza was dulce (sweet). The ea suffix is in keeping with the poetic names of idealized women of the lyric and pastoral traditions: Melibea, Galatea, Finea, Astrea, and the like. In Antonio de *Lofrasso’s pastoral romance Las fortunas de amor (1573), there is a shepherd named Dulcineo, another possible source for DQ’s invention. The addition of del Toboso is a reductio ad absurdum of the chivalric tradition. Belianís is called de Grecia (from Greece) and other knightserrant also take the name of their country. DQ at least adds the name of a region of his country. But the addition of del Toboso only involves the name of a small and insignificant village. Furthermore, El *Toboso was known to be populated mainly by Moriscos, which adds a further level of richness to DQ’s choice of a beloved. Bibliography: Hermann Ivantosch, “Dulcinea, nombre pastoril,” Nueva Revista de Filología Hispánica 17 (1963–64): 60–81; and Augustin Redondo, “Del personaje de Aldonza Lorenzo al de Dulcinea del Toboso: algunos aspectos de la invención cervantina,” Anales Cervantinos 21 (1983): 9–22.
Name of Sancho Panza. Sancho, as well as being the name of a series of medieval kings, is derived from santo (saint), which gives the proverb “Al buen callar llaman Sancho” (“Sancho is the name for not speaking; it is saintly not to speak”). Panza means ‘belly,’ which gives SP the name of Holy Belly, personifying his joy in eating and clearly designating his role as a symbol of *carnival. There was, furthermore, a carnival celebration among students at the University of Salamanca that featured a grotesque figure named Santo Panza (Saint Belly) (*Sancho Zancas).
Name of Sancho’s wife. The multiple names used for SP’s wife have been considered by some as a primary example of linguistic *perspectivism in the novel by some, but are believed by others simply to be an example of MC’s carelessness and/or forgetfulness. In DQ I, 7, SP calls his wife Juana Gutiérrez and Mari Gutiérrez. In I, 52, she is Juana Panza. In II, 5, she is referred to as Teresa Cascajo and Teresa Panza, the latter being the definitive version that will be used throughout the remainder of the novel. In II, 59, when SP learns that in DQA Teresa is called Mari Gutiérrez (clearly taken from DQ I, 7), he is outraged that the false chronicler of his adventures has made this error. Bibliography: Leo Spitzer, “Linguistic Perspectivism in the Don Quijote,” in Linguistics and Lit
Page 506 erary History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1948), 41–85.
Napeas. In Greek myth, *nymphs of the valleys. See DQ I, 25.
Naples [Nápoles]. Naples and Sicily formed the kingdom known as the Two Sicilies, a Spanish possession since the fifteenth century. MC first arrived in the city in the summer of 1571, prior to the battle of Lepanto. During his years in the army, MC was based primarily in Naples and apparently came to love the city. In Vidriera it is described as the greatest city in Europe, if not the world; the soldier *Vicente de la Rosa similarly describes it as the richest and most luxurious city in the world (DQ I, 51). MC was extremely disappointed when he was not invited to return to Naples as part of the retinue of the count of Lemos in 1610. In Parnaso 8, MC visits Naples on his way home from Parnassus. See also Doncellas; DQ I, 35, 39; DQ II, dedication, 1, 35, 60; Fuerza; Galatea 2–5; Gallardo 3; Guarda; Parnaso 8; Persiles III, 14, 19; IV, 11–12, 14; Rinconete; Sultana 1; Tratos 2. Bibliography: Teresa Cirillo, “Nápoles en el Viaje del Parnaso cervantino y en dos Parnasos partenopeos,” in Actas del II Congreso Internacional de la Asociación de Cervantistas, ed. Giuseppe Grilli (Naples: Instituto Universitario Orientale, 1995), 65–73.
Naples soap [Jabón napolitano]. The type of homemade soap that the damsels use to lather DQ’s beard in II, 32.
Narbonne [Narbona]. City in southern France, near the gulf of the same name on the Mediterranean Sea. See Parnaso 3.
Narcissus [Narciso]. In Greek myth, the figure so beautiful that he fell in love with his own face, which he saw reflected in the water of a lake. According to one version, he fell into the water while contemplating his own beauty and drowned, but in another version he simply wasted away when he was unable to approach his own beautiful reflection. See Galatea 6; Laberinto 1.
Narigudo poeta. *Longnosed poet.
Narigueta. In Rinconete, a thug in Monipodio’s brotherhood who is just mentioned by name.
Nariz del escudero del Bosque. *Nose of the Squire of the Forest.
Narrative structure of Don Quixote. The identification of the narrative voices in DQ and the clarification of relationships among them has proven to be one of the most vexing and hotly debated subjects in MC scholarship. A variety of different schemes and definitions have been proposed. Probably the simplest understanding, and one consistent in every way with the (not always perfectly consistent) text, is the following. First of all, there is the title page of the book, where it is explicitly stated that MC is the person who ‘composed’ (i.e., wrote; but also suggesting that he put together, or edited) the text that follows. In the prologue to DQ I, MC (a fictionalized MC, in the sense that we all fictionalize ourselves when we tell a fictional story, especially if it is about ourselves) tells of his search for manuscript material for the life of DQ in the *Archives of La Mancha and claims to have written the story that follows on the basis of this research. In DQ I, 1, the narrating “I” carries out the claims of MC from the prologue and continues to draw upon source material from the same archives. Logically, since there is nothing in the text to indicate a shift in narrative voice (and there is no reason to assume a different voice without a textual signal), this narrator is still MC (again, a fictionalized MC, not the historical author in the sense that he makes a literal truth claim for what is being told), who continues to gather material about DQ from various sources. The most serious problem comes at the end of I, 8, when the last archival source—the work of ‘the author’ (i.e., some original historian) the narrator was most recently consulting—runs out, leaving the battle between DQ and the Basque squire suspended in midaction. The narrator (MC) then describes how he as ‘second author’ (i.e., not the original historian, but the compiler
Page 507 and editor; recall that in the prologue he states that he is not the ‘father’ of DQ but the ‘stepfather’) decides to continue to search for more material related to DQ. Then in I, 9, MC (writing in first person, just as in the prologue and I, 1) describes, with heavy irony and satire, his search for more information about DQ. He tells how one day in Toledo he acquired a manuscript entitled Historia de don Quijote de la Mancha, escrita por Cide Hamete Benengeli, historiador aríbigo (History of Don Quixote de la Mancha, Written by Cide Hamete Benengeli, Arabic Historian) and paid a Morisco aljamiado, a bilingual descendent of Muslim converts, to translate it to Spanish. CHB’s manuscript then becomes the single source for virtually all of the rest of the novel. There is a further complication, however, in I, 52, when CHB’s manuscript also comes to an end, and it is reported that the ‘author’ again searches for more archival material. Although the term ‘author’ has usually been employed in the text to refer to CHB, it is clear that the Muslim is not the referent here, for that normally omniscient historian would have no reason to search the archives of La Mancha for source material. More reasonable is the reading that the editor—MC, here simply calling himself ‘the author’—carried out yet again such an archival search after CHB’s manuscript came to an end. (The mere shift from first person to third in discourse should provide no problem, as there are innumerable examples of such shifts—often in order to add emphasis or distance—in many medieval and Renaissance texts.) All of DQ II maintains the same narrative structure as the bulk of DQ I: CHB narrates, in Arabic, the events of DQ and SP; the Morisco translates this into Spanish; and MC edits the translation and actually writes the version that we read. In DQ II, however, there is no metanarrative about a search for sources, the way in which the sequel to CHB’s manuscript was found, or anything comparable to the presentation in DQ I; the first words of II, 1, are simply ‘CHB says that…’ The consistency of this structure is broken from time to time: MC occasionally makes editorial comments about CHB’s text; there are occasional references to other sources, oral tradition, conjecture, and hearsay; the translator adds interpretive comments; and, paradoxically, CHB even complains about the fidelity of the translation. The truth of the narrative is subverted when MC, the characters, and the translator all call CHB’s honesty into question (‘all Muslims are liars’), leaving the reader to contemplate a true history written by a congenital liar. In comparison with the scheme outlined here, all other versions are more complicated and involve more narrative voices and presences, as many as 11 in the most extreme case. Thus we have proposals that involve a ‘shadowy figure’ lurking behind the narrative, or an omniscient but anonymous ‘supernarrator.’ One of the main problems here is the trap of binary thinking: something must be either fact or fiction; you can be either a human being in real life or a fictional character; but you can never be something between these mutually exclusive extremes or some combination of both of them. Those scholars—formalists, structuralists, semioticians, and poststructuralists alike—who take it as a matter of faith, or as some sort of absolute and universally accepted law, that the historical author can never, under any circumstance, enter into his or her own fictional narrative are the ones who are forced by their theory to go to the greatest extremes in separating and multiplying narrative voices, always exiling MC himself. (The pretentious “author is dead” stance, popular with some scholars, also interferes with an understanding of the narrative structure of DQ.) The binary assumption forces some, for example, to insist that the “I” of the prologue cannot be MC, because the prologue is a fiction (they assume and assert as fact that there was no literal and historical ‘friend’ who gave the author advice on how to write the prologue, and if the friend is a fiction, the person he talks to must also be a fiction: fiction with fiction, and fact with fact; never the twain shall meet) and the historical human being of flesh and bone cannot be part of a fiction. So it is suggested that the prologue is written not by MC but by an unnamed and totally fictional “prologuist.” This prologuist, in turn, cannot be the narrator of the fictional text (although the reason why is not
Page 508 clear), and so the narrators (or narrative voices) begin to multiply. To make matters more complicated, this fictional voice of the prologue claims some of the historical truths known to be associated with the historical author of the same name. But surely it is both easier and more consistent with human psychology to accept the voice of the prologue as that of an author (MC) who sometimes fictionalizes himself than it is to conceive of it as a fictional character who sometimes “factualizes” himself (by claiming, for instance, to be the author of the book we are reading, whose author we know is MC). Once we get past the prologue, many scholars are forced by their theories to deny that the references to MC in the text (as author of Galatea in I, 6, or as the soldier referred to as tal de Saavedra in I, 40) are to the historical MC, because the author cannot be permitted any entry into his fiction. If the historical person of fleshandblood cannot be in the text, these textual figures must, by definition, be complete fictions (and so there is no reason to believe that any other fact from the life of the fleshandblood MC also pertains to these fictions; there is no reason to assume, for example, that the tal de Saavedra ever left Algiers or wrote a book). In all this we have an example of what M.M. *Bakhtin calls “theoreticism”: the condition that exists when one’s beautiful abstract theory is more important than the ability to deal realistically and pragmatically with life, and so life is sacrificed to theory. In the final analysis, MC (the selffictionalizing narrator) tells us the entertaining story of DQ and SP, pretending that he has drawn upon various archival sources, the long history written by a Muslim, the translation of a Morisco, and, occasionally, hearsay and other sources. Rather than insist at all times on MC’s role as narrator throughout this encyclopedia, it is often more convenient to refer simply to the “narrator” or the “editor” of the text. For many readers, the selfreferential, playful, multileveled, metafictional, narrative structure of DQ is MC’s most original achievement and the novel’s most interesting and most modern (or postmodern) feature. Bibliography: John J.Allen, “The Narrators, the Reader and Don Quijote,” MLN 91 (1976): 201–12; Santiago Fernández Mosquera, “Los autores ficticios del Quijote” Anales Cervantinos 24 (1986): 47–65; George Haley, “The Narrator in Don Quijote: Maese Pedro’s Puppet Show,” MLN 80 (1965): 146–65; George Haley, “The Narrator in Don Quixote: A Discarded Voice,” in Estudios en Honor a Ricardo Guillón, ed. Luis T.GonzálezdelValle and Darío Villanueva (Lincoln, NE: Society of Spanish and SpanishAmerican Studies, 1984), 173–83; Howard Mancing, “Cide Hamete Benengeli vs. Miguel de Cervantes: The Metafictional Dialectic of Don Quijote” Cervantes 1, nos. 1–2 (1981): 63–81; José Manuel Martin Morán, “La función del narrador multiple en el Quijote de 1615,” Anales Cervantinos 30 (1992): 9–64; James A.Parr, “Don Quixote”: An Anatomy of Subversive Discourse (Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 1988); José María Paz Gago, Semiótica del “Quijote”: Teoría y práctica de la fictión narrativa (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1995); Charles D.Presberg, Adventures in Paradox: “Don Quijote” and the Western Tradition (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001); and John Weiger, (In the Margins of Cervantes) (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1988).
Narrative structure of El viaje del Parnaso. Since Parnaso is a narrative poem, and since the authornarrator fusion in it has caused some readers problems with it, it is appropriate to evaluate its narrative structure just as if it were a prose narrative. Many latetwentiethcentury theoretical approaches to literature forbid, as a matter of principle, any identification of author and narrator. Because of this, the fact that in Parnaso the author and the narrator are both named MC causes a problem. On the one hand, the narrator is a fictional character who makes a trip to the mythical Mount Parnassus and defends it against bad poets. On the other hand, the narrator is an exsoldier who was maimed in the battle of Lepanto and is the author of Galatea, DQ, and other works by MC, and so he is clearly the historical author of the work. The matter is further complicated by theories that deny any relevance of the author—or even deny his or her existence—under any circumstance, and/or insist that, by definition, all literary texts can and do refer only to themselves, to other works, and/or to language itself. Parnaso illustrates as well as any of MC’s
Page 509 works the limits of abstract theoretical constructs in the light of pragmatic realities (*narrative structure of DQ for a brief discussion of M.M.Bakhtin’s concept of ‘theoreticism’). MC is the author and the narrator of Parnaso, a narrative poem in which he tells a fantastic allegorical tale, in which aspects of the reality of his own life occupy the foreground. Some parts of the tale are literally true: MC did write Galatea and DQ; some are obviously fictional: MC did not make a trip to Parnassus; and others are somewhere between the two or in the area of personal understanding: MC was poor, but to what extent in reality as opposed to the presentation of his poverty in the poem? Bibliography: Jean Canavaggio, “La dimensión autobiográfica del Viaje del Parnaso,” Cervantes 1, nos. 1–2 (1981): 29–41; and E.C.Riley, “El Viaje del Parnaso como narración,” in Cervantes: Estudios en la víspera de su centenario (Kassel, Germany: Reichenberger, 1994), vol. 2, 491–507.
Narrative structure of La Galatea. MC’s first novel poses none of the narrative problems encountered in DQ, Parnaso, or Persiles. Narration is thirdperson, omniscient, and consistent in every way.
Narrative structure of Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda. The complex narrative structure of DQ is not replicated in Persiles, but it is approximated at times, in ways that appear to be inconsistent with the romance nature of the story. At the beginning, Persiles is presented as a standard thirdperson omniscient narrative. More than anything else, the narrative voice is similar to that of the singer of a classical epic poem. But by the end of Book I and beginning of Book II, there are increasingly frequent references to an (unnamed) original author, there are some epic apostrophes (direct addresses to the characters by the narrator), and it is stated that the text we read is a translation, but there is no indication of who the original author was, what language it was written in originally, who translated it, or why. In the course of narration in Persiles, the narrator evolves from a confident epic narrator to a translatoreditor who does not have absolute control over his text. He claims to be dependent on his characters, is bewildered by how some things are known, enters the text as a character himself, becomes more ironic and humorous, begins to engage in parody, becomes emotional about the characters’ actions and words, and becomes increasingly selfpitying and selfdeprecating. This evolution is one of the primary pieces of evidence in support of the theory that Persiles was written in stages throughout at least the last quarter of a century of MC’s life (*chronology of Cervantes’s works). It would seem that as the years advanced, MC became less confident in a traditional, allknowing, strong objective narration, and more comfortable with irony, ambiguity, and selfcontradiction. Bibliography: Alban K.Forcione, “The Narrator of the Persiles,” in Cervantes Aristotle and the Persiles (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970), 257– 301; and Amy R.Williamsen, Co(s)mic Chaos: Exploring Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda (Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 1994).
Narrative structure of the Novelas ejemplares. The stories in the collection Novelas are all narrated in the third person, except Coloquio, embedded in Casamiento, which is in dialogue form. But there are two problematic moments in the book. The first comes in the very first story, Gitanilla, when the narrator addresses the protagonist directly (the epic apostrophe), warning her not to enflame the jealousy of the man who loves her. (Similar situations occur in Curioso, DQ I, 33, when the narrator addresses Anselmo directly and warns him not to test his wife’s virtue; and in Persiles I, 23, when the narrator admonishes Auristela not to be jealous of Sinforosa, who is also in love with Periandro.) In Fregona, there is one passage where the narrator refers to a preexisting ‘author’ of the text (who fails to provide certain information).
Narváez, Rodrigo de (fifteenth century). Spanish nobleman, mayor of Antequera. He is best known as the Christian protagonist of El *Abencerraje y la hermosa Jarifa, where he defeats the valiant Muslim Abindarráez and then generously releases him and his wife. DQ cites
Page 510 Rodrigo de Narváez in his raving madness in DQ I, 5.
Natlia. *Anatolia.
Natsume Sôseki (Natsume Kinnosuke, 1867–1916). Japanese novelist. Arguably the best and most influential novelist in modern Japan, Natsume’s Kôjin (1912–13; The Wayfarer) is a variant on the theme of Curioso. The novel consists of the firstperson narrative of Jirô, who is requested by his brother Ichirô to attempt to seduce his wife Nao in order to test her chastity. Like Lotario in Curioso, Jirô at first attempts to avoid the test but finally agrees to it. The ending of the story is very different: no one dies, but the doubting husband Ichirô ends up sunk ever deeper in his solitude and madness. Bibliography: Jaime Fernández, “Hombre en camino de Natsume Sôseki: una ‘versión’ japonesa de El curioso impertinente de Cervantes,” Anales Cervantinos 31 (1993): 131–50.
Nature [Natura, Naturaleza]. The natural world is occasionally personified and/or invoked in MC’s works. For example, in Galatea 6, Elicio describes how Nature combines with Art to form a third kind of Nature that is beyond description, an example of which is the *Valley of the Cypress Trees. For representative examples, see also Entretenida 3; Galatea; Persiles II, 11; Sultana 2.
Náufrago. *Shipwreck.
Navarinon [Navarino]. A port city in southwestern Greece on the Gulf of Messina. MC participated in the expedition against Navarinon in 1572. See also DQ I, 39.
Navarra. A medieval kingdom on the Iberian Peninsula located north of Aragon, west of the Basque Country, and south of France. Today it is the Comunidad de Navarra, and its capital is Pamplona. See DQ II, 12; Sultana 2.
Navarro. Perhaps a set designer from Toledo, about whom virtually nothing is known. In the prologue to Comedias, MC considers him an important link between Lope de Rueda and later writers. Another possibility, though not a very likely one, is that the name is an error for Naharro, as in the name of the dramatist Bartolomé *Torres Naharro.
Navarro y Ledesma, Francisco (1869–1905). Spanish professor and man of letters. His lively, slightly fictionalized, biography of MC entitled El ingenioso hidalgo don Miguel de Cervantes (1905; The Ingenious Gentleman Don Miguel de Cervantes) is a classic; for some, it remains the best biography of MC ever written. Navarro also wrote the interesting short story entitled “La orfandad de Sancho Panza” (“Sancho Panza Orphaned”), which he included in his book En un lugar de la Mancha (1906; In a Village in La Mancha). SP is disconsolate after the death of DQ and decides to become a knight himself, wearing DQ’s armor. But nothing is known of his adventures, for there was no CHB to write his history. Bibliography: Francisco Navarro y Ledesma, En un lugar de la Mancha (Salamanca, Spain: Viuda de Calón e Hijo, 1906).
Nebrija, Elio Antonio de (1442–1522). Spanish humanist, classicist, historian, and grammarian. Nebrija’s greatest achievement was his Gramática de la lengua castellana (1492; Grammar of the Castilian Language), the first grammar of a modern European language. Nebrija dedicated his book to Queen Isabel and in the prologue explains that his work will be helpful to those spreading Spanish rule to the newly discovered territories in the New World, because language and empire always go handinhand. In Cueva, his name is used in the same way as Aristotle’s in the anecdote of the *widow and the lay brother in DQ I, 25. In Coloquio, there is a reference to Antonio, the common term used to refer to Nebrija’s famous Latin text entitled Introductiones latinae (1481). Bibliography: Victor García de la Concha, ed., Nebrija y la introducción del Renacimiento en España: Actas de la III Academia Literaria Renacentista (Salamanca, Spain: Universidad of Salamanca, Academia Literaria Renacentista, 1983).
Nebuchadnezzaar. *Donosor.
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Need [Necesidad]. In Tratos 2, a personified figure who tempts Aurelio.
Negrofeo, El. In Rinconete, Maniferro’s mispronunciation, combining negro (black) and feo (ugly), of the name of Orfeo (Orpheus).
Neighbor of Doña Clara [Vecina de doña Clara]. In Gitanilla, a woman who praises the beauty of Preciosa.
Neighborhood people [Gente de barrio]. In the time of MC, a term used in Seville to refer to a social group of welltodo but nonproductive, mostly young, inhabitants—something like yuppies in late twentiethcentury America. See Celoso.
Nembrot. *Nimrod.
Nemo [No One]. In Homer’s Odyssey, the name Odysseus uses while in the cave of the Cyclops *Polyphemus. Odysseus attacks and blinds the Cyclops, who cries out in pain that Nemo (No One) is killing him, with the result that those who might have helped him do not come to his assistance. See Vidriera.
Nemoroso. The name of one of the shepherds in *Garcilaso de la Vega’s first eclogue. In the Renaissance it was widely believed that the name referred to Garcilaso’s friend Juan Boscán, on the basis of etymologies: the Latin nemus (forest) and the Spanish bosque (forest, but also suggesting Boscán). Today it is believed that if the character of Nemoroso stands for anyone in particular, it is more likely to be Garcilaso himself. See DQ II, 67.
Nemurs, Duke of. In Persiles III, 13, he is described as a highranking French nobleman who is conducting a contest for his bride. He intends to choose the most beautiful woman applicant as the winner. His servant, who sees Auristela, has a portrait of her painted for the duke. In IV, 2, he is found near death, along with Arnaldo, similarly wounded, after the two of them have fought over the woman in the portrait. The duke is nursed back to health, and continues his rivalry with Arnaldo over Auristela in Rome (IV, 6). But when a spell is cast upon Auristela and she loses her beauty (IV, 9), he loses interest and heads back to France where, he claims, his mother has chosen a wife for him. The duke is consistently represented as a relatively superficial and frivolous man; in his final appearance, he also comes across as a liar and a mama’s boy.
Neoplatonism. *Platonism.
Nephew [Sobrino]. A reference in DQ II, 24, to the humanist scholar who has been called the cousin (primo) up to this point. It may be a careless error on MC’s part, a printer’s error, or a sly (but fairly pointless) deliberate trick by MC.
Nephew of Don Antonio [Sobrino de don Antonio]. The person who speaks through a tube in order to make it appear that the supposedly enchanted head is talking. See DQ II, 62.
Neptune (Humid god) [Neptuno (Húmido dios)]. In Roman myth, the equivalent of the Greek Poseidon, god of the seas. In Parnaso 5, he sinks the ship carrying the group of poets who arrive at Parnassus, complaining that they were not among those chosen by Apollo to make the trip. See also DQ I, 38; DQ II, 1; Parnaso 1, 5; Poesías 8.
Nerbia. *Espartafilardo del Bosque, duque de Nerbia.
Nero [Nerón] (37–68). The Roman emperor who is supposed to have played the fiddle as he watched Rome burn from the vantage point of the Tarpeian Rock. See Baños 1; DQ I, 14; DQ II, 44; Entretenida 3; Gitanilla.
Nestor [Nestor]. In Greek myth, the king of Pylos and a participant in the Trojan War, who lived to a very advanced age. Nestor is a kind of elder statesman who tends to be verbose in his stories and advice. See DQ II, 26.
Netalim. In Baños 3, a rabbi whose name is mentioned.
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Neugebauer, Wilhelm Ehrenfried (Carl Gottfried Meyer, ?–1767). German writer. He is the author of Der teutsche Don Quichotte (1753; The German Don Quixote), a satire on young readers influenced by French romantic fictions. The work is supposedly translated from a French original and introduces MC’s narrative technique of an intervening authoreditor into German literature a decade before Wieland’s Don Sylvio von Rosalva (1764).
New Atlas. *Sandoval y Rojas, Don Francisco Gómez de.
New Biscay. *Timonel de Carcajona, príncipe de la Nueva Vizcaya.
New Castile. *Castile.
New Christian. *Converso.
New historical approaches to Cervantes. New historicism, especially as conceived and practiced by Stephen Greenblatt and others, represents a “new” approach to placing literary works in their historical context. It tends to place emphasis on conflicting discourses within an age’s “episteme” (the perspectives that define a given historical reality) and often carries at least an implicit *Marxist orientation. By choosing unconventional texts and concepts to contextualize a literary work, a new historicist is sometimes able to illuminate the work under consideration in a new and surprising way, usually with emphasis on ideologies. Radical new historical approaches to the works of MC are not abundant, but several recent works share at least a part of this critical orientation. Bibliography: Joseph V.Ricapito, Cervantes’s “Novelas ejemplares”: Between History and Creativity (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1996); Diana de Armas Wilson, Cervantes, the Novel, and the New World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
New Samson [Nuevo Sansón]. A name used ironically to refer to *Sansón Carrasco in DQ II, 7.
New Spain. *Mexico.
Niarros. *Nyerros and Cadells.
Nicholas the Fish [Peje Nicolás (Nicolao)]. A oncefamous Sicilian merman whose legend extends as far back as the twelfth century and was based on the legend of Saint Nicholas of Bari. Nicholas is described in some detail by Pedro *Mexía in his Silva de varia lección. See DQ II, 18.
Nicolás de Ríos. *Ríos, Nicolás de los.
Nicolás el Romo. In Coloquio, Berganza’s first master in the slaughterhouse of Seville.
Nicosia. The capital of the island of Cyprus. Amante begins in this city, but the story soon ranges widely over the Mediterranean world.
Nido. *Cnossus.
Niece. *Antonia Quijana.
Niece of Isabel’s parents [Sobrina de los padres de Isabel]. In Española, a nun with the most beautiful singing voice in the convent of Santa Paula.
Nieva Calvo, Licenciado Sebastián de. A priest and religious poet mentioned in Parnaso 4.
Nieva, Francisco (1927–). Spanish dramatist. Nieva adapted and staged Baños, with music by Tomás Marco, to considerable acclaim in Madrid in 1979. Bibliography: José Monleón, ed., Los baños de Argel de Miguel de Cervantes, un trabajo teatral de Francisco Nieva, música de Tomás Marco (Madrid: Centre Dramátaico Nacional, 1980).
Nile [Nilo]. River in eastern Africa that flows north through Egypt to the Mediterranean Sea. See Galatea 3, 6; Poesías 5.
Nimrod [Nembrot]. In the Old Testament, a mighty warrior and hunter. See DQ II, 69.
Nine maidens. *Muses.
Nine Worthies [Nueve de la Fama]. By tradition, three Jewish kings (Joshua, David,
Page 513 and Judas Maccabaeus), three pagan kings (Hector, Alexander the Great, and Julius Caesar), and three Christian kings (Arthur, Charlemagne, and Godfrey of Bouillon). In DQ I, 5, DQ claims that he knows who he is and that he could be any or all of the Nine Worthies. MC probably knew the anonymous Crónica llamada el Triunfo de los nueve más preciados varones de la Fama (1530, republished in 1585; Chronicle Called the Triumph of the Nine Most Esteemed Men of Fame). See also DQ I, 20; and Casa 2 specifically for Judas Maccabaeus.
Ninfa(s) . *Nymph(s).
Ninfas de Henares (y pastures). *González de Bobadilla, Bernardo.
Ninfas del Tajo. *Nymphs of the Tagus.
Niño. *Child.
Niño ceguezelo; Niño ciego. *Cupid.
Niño de Guevara, Francisco Cardinal (?–1609). Archbishop of the Cathedral of Seville for whom Francisco Porras de la Cámara prepared a portfolio containing, among other things, the first versions of MC’s Rinconete and Celoso, together with Tía, which has also been attributed to MC.
Niño de la Guardia. *Sagrario.
Nísida. In Galatea, a Spanish noblewoman born in Naples (although in Galatea 4, other characters state that she was born on the banks of the Tagus River in Spain) with whom both Timbrio and Silerio fall in love. After many trials and adventures, she marries Timbrio. Her name comes from the small island by the same name (today Nisita) near Naples, the home of a mythological nymph called Nesis who was subject to the whims of fortune.
Nisus and Euryalus [Niso y Euríalio]. One of the classical pairs of good friends from antiquity. In Virgil’s Aeneid, they were companions of Aeneas and were killed together in battle. See DQ II, 12.
No One. *Nemo.
No tener. *Families.
Noah [Noé]. In the Old Testament, the patriarch who is commanded by God to construct an ark, so that he and his family, along with two of every kind of creature, can survive the great flood. See Baños 3; Poesías 12; Retablo; Tratos 4.
Nobility. There was a higher percentage of the population—at least 10 percent—with some title of nobility in Spain than in any other European country in the Renaissance (*gentility). Noble status carried certain official recognition, especially the exemption from personal taxes, but also symbolized hierarchical social superiority: nobles were assumed to possess honor and virtue, and there was an assumption that they were born leaders. The highest rank of nobility was that of grande (grandee), a category created by Carlos V in 1520 in recognition of special merit, wealth, possessions, political and social power, and prestige; grandees also normally carried a title (see list below). The rank carried certain unique privileges, and a grandee even had the right to wear his hat in the presence of the king. At first there were exactly 35 families granted this rank, but by the end of the sixteenth century about 100 nobles carried this designation. Don *Fernando of DQ I is the son of a grandee. After the grandes came the títulos (titled nobles), the remaining nobility with titles such as duque (duke), marqués (marquis), conde (count), or vizconde (viscount). Next came the rank of caballero (gentleman; literally, a horseman), a medieval term originally extended to recognize men of merit and religious standing in the ongoing civil war against the Muslims. Normally a caballero held at least fairly sizeable holdings of material goods, including, by definition, a horse. (In this category, as in all others, the degree of social prestige within rank was also a function of wealth.) Often a distinction was made between caballeros who were members of one of the *military orders and those who were not. Sometimes, lesser titles such as señor (lord; for example: Quevedo
Page 514 was Señor de la Torre de Juan de Abad) were accorded to caballeros as a form of recognition and distinction. The lowest level of nobility was that of hidalgo (from hijo de algo, the son of something or someone), a title created by Fernando and Isabel in the late fifteenth century to acknowledge service and standing in the Reconquest; it was a rank below a caballero and higher only than the labrador or vulgo (*peasantry). In general, a hidalgo cortesano (courtly) was more highly esteemed than a hidalgo rural (like DQ). But by the late sixteenth century, the title was often a hollow honor, in spite of the pretentious ejecutoria (letter officially recognizing nobility) carefully guarded by many hidalgos. Probably the most treasured recognition not extended to hidalgos was the right to place the honorific title of *Don before their first names. Though the members of the nobility formed the substantial body of the upper social strata, sometimes there was little or no role in society for hidalgos, especially those caught between economic reality and noble pretense. Already in the midsixteenth century, the proud but impoverished hidalgo was a figure of derision and satire, as seen, for example, in the famous haughty but impecunious hidalgo in Lazarillo de Tormes. Alonso Quijano was such an hidalgo before he went mad and became DQ, thus implicitly elevating his rank by appropriating the honorific Don—which, as SP tells DQ in II, 2, is a point on which he has been criticized (*don, doña). His excess of free time and lack of significant role in society, combined with his obsessive interest in the romances of chivalry, contributed substantially to his madness. The proverbial poverty of hidalgos is also mentioned in Sultana 3. Bibliography: Adolfo Carrasco Marínez, Sangre, honor y privilegio: la nobleza española bajo los austrias (Barcelona: Ariel, 2000); Ilda Ema Serantes de Salmuni, and Dora Davire de Musri, El sentido del honor en la España del siglo de oro (San Juan, Puerto Rico: EFU Nacional de San Juan, 1999); and I.A. Thompson, “The Nobility in Spain, 1600–1800,” in The European Nobilities in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, ed. H.M. Scott (London: Longman, 1995), vol. 1, 174–236.
Nocera, Duke of. Francesco Caraffa, but the reference to this duke in Parnaso 8 is apparently an error (either by the printer or by MC) for the Duke of Nocara, Donato Antonio di Loffredo, who was involved in the celebration of the marriage of Louis XIII of France and the Infanta Doña Ana of Austria, in Naples, and is praised in the poem.
Noche de San Juan. *Saint John’s Eve.
Noé. *Noah.
Noel, Eugenio (Eugenio Muñoz Díaz, 1855–1936). Spanish novelist, shortstory writer, and essayist. His bestknown novel is Las siete Cucas (Una mancebía en Castilld) (1927; The Seven Cucas [A Brothel in Castile]), a portrayal of life in smalltown Spain, with the focal point a brothel in which the seven prostitutes—a mother and her six daughters—are the Cucas of the title. The book is replete with references to MC, DQ, other characters, incidents from DQ, and the romances of chivalry. Dozens of times, specific phrases from DQ are worked into the narrative or dialogue. One chapter is devoted to a long discussion about the women in DQ, in which 36 are identified. The selfconscious narrator continually stresses his sources and his own role as a historian. Bibliography: Eugenio Noel, Las siete Cucas (Una mancebía en Castilld) (Madrid: Renacimiento, 1927).
Nona, Tower of. *Tower of Nona.
North Africa (Barbary Coast) [Berbería]: the Maghreb (Maghrib). Barbary refers to the Muslim areas that occupy most of North Africa west of Egypt; it includes Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya: basically what is often referred today as the Maghreb. The name Barbary comes from the Berbers, the lightskinned inhabitants of North Africa conquered by the Arabs in the seventh century. They quickly became assimilated within Islam and played a major role in the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula in the eighth century. Because the term is imprecise and can refer to any
Page 515 part of a very large area, it is not always easy to know what MC might be referring to when he uses the term Berbería. See Amante; Baños 2–3; DQ I, 40–2; DQ II, 54, 63, 65; Fregona; Galatea 5; Gallardo 1; Persiles I, 10; III, 10–11; Tratos 1; Viudo. Bibliography: Emilio Sola and José F. de la Peña, Cervantes y la Berbería: Cervantes, mundo turcoberberisco y servicios secretos en la época de Felipe II (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1995); and John B.Wolf, The Barbary Coast: Algiers under the Turks, 1500–1830 (New York: Norton, 1979).
North Pole [Polo Artico]. The northern end of the axis of the earth. For MC in Persiles IV, 12, it was the ultimate unknown northern land, even beyond Frisland, the home of Sigismunda.
Noruego italiano. *Norwegian from Italy.
Norway [Noruega]. In Persiles I, 8–9, the land where Rutilio kills the wolfwitch and becomes a metalworker. Norway was for MC a symbol of darkness, a distant, fabulous land of mystery. His concept of the place was largely influenced by Olaus *Magnus, whose history of the northern regions he had read. See also Persiles I, 18; II, 16; IV, 12.
Norwegian [Lengua de Noruega]. The language spoken in Norway. See Persiles IV, 12.
Norwegian falcon [Halcón noruego]. A kind of hunting bird famous since the Middle Ages. In Persiles III, 6, the pilgrim met by Persiles and his group of travelers outside of Talavera compares herself to this bird.
Norwegian from Italy [Noruego italiano]. In Persiles I, 8, a metalworker who takes Rutilio on as an apprentice and is later killed in a shipwreck.
Nose of the Squire of the Forest [Nariz del escudero del Bosque]. The fake nose worn by Tomé Cecial when he acts as squire to Sansón Carrasco, as described in DQ II, 14. The huge, curved, wartcovered, purple nose hangs down an inch below Tomé’s mouth. The very sight of the grotesque appendage inspires such fear in SP that he has DQ help him climb a tree to escape the other squire. This is probably the third most famous nose in Spanish literature, the other two being the enormous nose described in a sonnet by Francisco de *Quevedo, ‘There once was a man attached to a nose,’ and the long, pointed nose of the blind beggar, thrust into the mouth of Lazarillo de Tormes in order to smell the sausage the boy has stolen and eaten. The intrusion causes Lazarillo to vomit and return the badly digested sausage to its owner. Bibliography: Salvador J.Fajardo, “Don Quijote Wins by a Nose,” Hispanic Review 70 (2002):191–205.
Notary [Escribano]. 1. In Coloquio, the man who works with the corrupt constable in his dishonest schemes. 2. In Juez, an assistant to the judge. 3. In DQ II, 19, one of the peasants who accompany the group on the road to Camacho’s wedding. After two of the group engage in a duel in order to test theories of *fencing, he retrieves the sword thrown away in disgust by the loser and verifies the fact that it was thrown nearly threequarters of a league (about 2.25 miles). 4. In DQ II, 72, the local official who draws up the affidavit of legitimacy of DQ and SP, signed by *Alvaro Tarfe and witnessed by the local mayor. 5. In DQ II, 74, the person who comes to DQ’s house and helps him make out his will.
Novara. A city in northwestern Italy where the action of Laberinto takes place.
Novela [Short story]. This term, from the Italian novella, meant more or less the equivalent of the modern Spanish cuento (short story) in Spain at the time of MC. The short fiction of the Italian masters such as *Boccaccio, *Bandello, and *Giraldi Cinzio, was all translated into Spanish and widely read in Renaissance Spain. MC claimed in the prologue to his Novelas to be the ‘first to write novelas in Spanish,’ a slight exaggeration, perhaps, but essentially the truth. Perhaps when he made his
Page 516 claim of priority, he had in mind the embedded narratives he wrote as part of Galatea (1585). Much sixteenthcentury short fiction in Spain was brief and anecdotal in nature (*Timoneda) or adaptations of Italian and classical models. An exception was El *Abencerraje y la hermosa Jarifa and, at least to some extent, a few of the short stories embedded in Mateo *Alemán’s Guzmán de Alfarache. But certainly no one in Spain before MC conceived the idea of writing and publishing together a number of independent original short fictions that were not embedded in a larger narrative context. Bibliography: Walter Pabst, La novela corta en la teoría y en la creatión literaria: Notas para la historia de su antinomia en las literaturas románicas, trans. Rafael de la Vega (Madrid: Gredos, 1972); and Yvonne YarbroBejarano, The Tradition of the Novela in Spain from Pero Mexía (1540) to Lope de Vega’s “Novelas a Marcia Leonarda” (1621 1624) (New York: Garland, 1991).
Novela de caballería(s). A term often, but mistakenly, used for *libro de caballerías.
Novela de Rinconete y Cortadillo. In DQ I, 47, as DQ and company are departing the inn, Juan Palomeque gives some manuscripts that had been left there to the priest. One of them is MC’s story *Rinconete, which was later published in Novelas (1613), but which existed earlier, as proven by its mention here and its inclusion in the *Porras portfolio.
Novela del Capitán cautivo. In DQ II, 44, Capitán is referred to in this way. In DQ I, 39–41, the captain’s story is told as personal experience by a character on the same level of reality as DQ, SP, and the other characters. But by referring to it as a novela, it becomes a “fictional,” extraneous, embedded narrative, comparable to Curioso.
Novela del Curioso impertinente. In DQ I, 47, the manuscript of Curioso is referred to in this way. See also DQ II, 3, 44.
Novela morisca. *Moorish novel.
Novela picaresca. *Picaresque novel.
Novela sentimental. *Sentimental (or courtly) romance.
Novelas ejemplares. Madrid: Juan de la Cuesta, 1613 (Novelas): Exemplary Novels. Perhaps the most original and most influential collection of short fiction published in Europe before the nineteenth century. The 12 stories tend toward one of two generic models. The first is that of romance, with adventures, misfortunes, separations, and other strange occurrences that befall a pair of handsome young lovers who are eventually reconciled and married at the end of the story. Amante, Española, Fuerza, Doncellas, and Cornelia all have this tendency. The second model is that of the modern novel and consists of a more realistic treatment of everyday life; Rinconete, Vidriera, Celoso, Casamiento, and Coloquio gravitate more toward this model. The remaining two stories, Gitanilla and Fregona, seem to be a conscious mixture of the romance and novel. Overall, the stories can be arranged on a continuum from those that have the closest correspondence to the romance prototype (Amante, Española), to those that conform most to the novel prototype (Rinconete, Coloquio), rather than into two mutually exclusive and clearly defined generic types. Since Rinconete is mentioned in DQ I, 47, it is likely that it was in existence by 1605, which suggests that other stories, too, may well have been written long before their publication in this book. The existence of earlier versions of both Rinconete and Celoso (*Porras de la Cámara, Francisco) also points to an earlier writing of at least some of the novelas. Novelas was well received, with 22 editions in Spanish in seventeenth century. Praise from other authors of the period is consistent, as exemplified, for example, in *Tirso de Molina’s reference to MC as ‘our Spanish Boccaccio.’ Perhaps the most significant passage of the prologue is the one in which MC compares his collection of fictions to a public billiards table (a relatively recent introduction into Spain from Italy) set in the public square where anyone can come and play. Like comments in the prologue to DQ I about readers’ prerogatives, this is clearly an acknowledgment
Page 517 of the reader’s interpretive authority. See also Parnaso 4. Preliminaries: The corrector’s statement is signed by Licenciado Murcia de la Liana on August 7, 1613. The price is fixed for the Royal Council by Hernando de Vallejo on August 12, 1613, and by Doctor Cetina on July 2, 1612. There are four censors’ approvals, signed by Fray Juan Bautista on July 9, 1612; Doctor (Gutierre de) Cetina on the same date; Fray Diego de Hortigosa on August 8, 1612; and Alonso Jerónimo de Salas Barbadillo on July 31, 1613. It is not clear why a year passed between the first three approvals and the last. Salas Barbadillo’s text is one of enthusiastic praise for a writer whom he clearly admires. The king’s privilege is signed by Jorge de Tovar on November 22, 1612. A privilege to publish in Aragon is signed by Francisco Gassol on August 9, 1613. After the prologue and dedication, there are four preliminary verses: a sonnet by the Marqués de Alcañices, two décimas by Fernando Bermúdez Carbajal, a sonnet by Don Fernando de Lodeña, and another sonnet by Juan de Solís Mejía. Prologue: Addressing his beloved reader, MC says that he would have preferred not to write this prologue, since the one he did for DQ I was not so well received. Here he introduces himself with the words he would place below his portrait painted by Juan de Jáuregui: this figure, with aquiline face, chestnutcolored hair, smooth forehead, merry eyes, curved nose, silver (not long ago gold) beard, large moustache, small mouth, few teeth, regularsized body, slightly stoopshouldered; this is the face of the author of Galatea, DQ I, and Parnaso; he was for many years a soldier; and he lost his left hand during the naval battle of Lepanto, a wound that commemorates the most memorable event of history. MC then explains that he calls his stories ‘exemplary’ because, if you look carefully, you can take some advantageous example from each of them (some have seen the choice of this adjective as a reflection of the influence of the CounterReformation). His aim has been to place a billiard table in the public square where anyone can enjoy himself freely. These stories contain no vicious satire, for if he thought they did he would cut off the hand with which he wrote them, for he is too old to play games with the other world. What he does insist upon, however, is that he is the first to ‘have novelized’ (he novelado) in Spanish, an interesting phrase that can mean being the first person in Spain to have written original stories (novelas), but can also suggest that he has ‘made novel’ in his fictions, such as DQ. All other previous ones published are translations from foreign authors, whereas these are his own, neither imitations nor thefts; his imagination engendered them and his pen wrote them. Soon will come Persiles, a book that dares to compete with Heliodorus, but first DQ and SP are ready to venture forth again, and later will come the Semanas. Dedication: To Don Pedro Fernández de Castro, count of Lemos. MC does not engage in the frequent excesses of writers of dedications who often extend themselves in listing their patrons’ titles or claim to place themselves under the protection of their patrons. He merely notes, as though it were no small matter, that this work consists of 12 stories. The date is Madrid, July 14, 1613. Bibliography: Agustín G.de Amezúa y Mayo, Cervantes, creador de la novela corta española, 2 vols. (Madrid: CSIC, 1956); E.T.Aylward, The Crucible Concept: Thematic and Narrative Patterns in Cervantes’s “Novelas ejemplares” (Madison, NJ: Associated University Press, 1999); William H.Clamurro, Beneath the Fiction: The Contrary Worlds of Cervantes’s “Novelas ejemplares” (New York: Peter Lang, 1997); Ruth El Saffar, Novel to Romance: A Study of Cervantes’s Novelas ejemplares (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974); Alban K. Forcione, Cervantes and the Humanist Vision: A Study of Four Exemplary Novels (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982); Alban K.Forcione, Cervantes and the Mystery of Lawlessness: A Study of “El casamiento engañoso” and “El coloquio de los perros” (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984); Thomas R.Hart, Cervantes’ Exemplary Fictions: A Study of the “Novelas ejemplares” (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1994); Carroll B.Johnson, Cervantes and the Material World (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000); Howard Mancing, “Prototypes of Genre in Cervantes’ Novelas ejemplares,” Cervantes 20, no. 2 (2000):127–50; Michael Nerlich and Nicolas Spa
Page 518 daccini, eds., Cervantes’s Exemplary Novels and the Adventure of Writing (Minneapolis, MN: Prisma Institute, 1989); Antonio Rey Hazas, “Novelas ejemplares,” in Cervantes, ed. Anthony Close et al. (Alcalá de Henares, Spain: Centro de Estudios Cervantinos, 1995), 173–209; Joseph V.Ricapito, Cervantes’s “Novelas Ejemplares”: Between History and Creativity (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1996); Theresa Ann Sears, A Marriage of Convenience: Ideal and Ideology in the “Novelas ejemplares” New York: Peter Lang, 1993); and Stanislav Zimic, Las “Novelas ejemplares” de Cervantes (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1996).
Novelas intercaladas. *Embedded narratives.
Novelistic image. *Great time.
Novo, Salvador (1904–). Mexican poet. Novo’s Don Quijote (1947) is one of the better and more literate versions of MC’s novel designed for children; much of the dialogue reproduces exactly the passages from MC’s novel. It begins with a prologue in which CHB explains who he, MC, and DQ are. Between each of the three acts, which deal directly with DQ and SP, is an interlude in which the niece, housekeeper, priest, and Sansón Carrasco discuss books, DQ, and their plans for him. In the first act there are scenes involving the inn, Maritornes, the act of dubbing DQ a knight, and Andrés. The second features the armies of sheep, the galley slaves, and DQ’s victory over Sansón as the Knight of the Mirrors. The third act begins as the duke and duchess search for and find DQ in Sierra Morena and invite him to their palace to undo an enchantment. After a Barataria episode (featuring Pedro Recio and the eating scene), DQ and SP mount Clavileño and ride off to glory, with DQ informing the children of Mexico that he (like a modern comic book superhero) can never die and can be called on whenever injustice is perceived. The author, as is logical, takes great liberties with the text and simplifies the characters, but makes an original and interesting presentation of the story. Bibliography: Salvador Novo, Don Quijote (Mexico City: Institute Nacional de Bellas Artes, 1948).
Nudo gordiano. *Gordian knot.
Nuestra Señora de [Spanish name] . *Our Lady of [same name].
Nuestra Señora de Constantinopla. *Our Lady of Constantinople.
Nuestra Señora de la Esperanza. *Our Lady of Hope.
Nuestra Señora de las Aguas. *Our Lady of the Waters.
Nuestra Señora del Pópulo, Street of. Roman street, named for this wellknown church, where the pilgrims stay at an inn when they arrive in Rome in Persiles IV, 3.
Nuestro…ingenioso poeta; Nuestro poeta. *Garcilaso de la Vega.
Nueva España. *Mexico.
Nueva Vizcaya. *Timonel de Carcajona, príncipe de la Nueva Vizcaya.
Nueve de la Fama. *Nine Worthies.
Nueve doncellas. *Muses.
Nuevo Atlante. *Sandoval y Rojas, Don Francisco Gómez de.
Nuevo Sansón. *New Samson.
Numa (Pompilius). *Livy.
Numancia, La (Numancia); Numantia. One of two existing plays written by MC in the 1580s and his bestknown work of theater, which exists in two different manuscripts. The title is a problem: in one manuscript, the play is entitled Tragedia de Numancia; in another, it is El cerco de Numancia; in the prologue to Coloquio, MC refers to it as La destructión de Numancia, and in both DQ I, 48, and Adjunta, it is referred to as La Numancia. Probably the easiest thing to do is simply to refer to the play simply as La Numancia. The tragedy is based on the historical siege and destruction of the Iberian city of Numantia by the Roman general
Page 519 Scipio in 133 BCE. According to different versions of the event, 1) the Romans take a number of prisoners as trophies of their victory, 2) most of the Numantians prefer death to capture, and 3) all the Numantians who do not die in combat commit suicide rather than surrender to the enemy. It is the latter version, with its detail of the single boy who defies the enemy army by committing suicide rather than surrender (by the late fifteenth century already a part of the legend of Numantia), that MC chose to dramatize. The popularity of Numancia during MC’s days cannot be known, but the canon of Toledo cites the play in DQ I, 48, as a wellknown example of theatrical excellence. The subject was adapted by at least three other playwrights during the seventeenth century and one more each in the eighteenth and nineteenth century. During the Napoleonic wars in Spain in the eighteenth century, General Palafox had Numancia staged in Zaragoza during the siege of that city in order to inspire the Spaniards. In the early nineteenth century, the famous actor and orator Isidoro Maiquez (1768–1820) ignited the citizens of Madrid with his recitations of the play, possibly in one of the rewritten versions. During the Spanish Civil War, in 1937, a version of Numancia by the poet Rafael *Alberti was staged in Madrid in order to rally the leftist troops and citizens in their struggle against fascism. Later the play was again staged, this time by the Franco dictatorship, in order to commemorate the patriotic victory over the communist enemy in the war. Subsequent remakes and adaptations have been written in Spanish and French. Numancia was even admired and performed in the early Soviet Union as an example of the proletariat’s resistance to capitalist imperialism. German and British romantics, such as Goethe, the Schlegel brothers, Humboldt, Sismondi, Schopenhauer, and Shelley, all praised the play. Numancia is the only fulllength theatrical work by MC to have a continual history of actually being presented on stage, both in Spanish and in translation, and has been performed more than all his other long plays combined. It remains today MC’s most popular work of theater and a Spanish symbol of patriotism, idealism, and the spirit of freedom. For many, Numancia is the greatest tragic drama in all of Spanish literature. Act I: The Romans have lain siege to the Celtiberian town of Numantia for some 16 years without being able to break the indomitable will of the people who live there. The Roman general, Scipio, calls together his troops, harangues them, and imposes stricter rules of conduct, as he perceives that they have gone soft over the years. The soldiers promise their loyalty and support. Just then, two emissaries from Numantia arrive and offer Scipio a peace treaty, but he rejects their offer and vows to defeat the city. He orders that a deep trench be dug around the three sides of the city not bounded by the Duero River in order to isolate the inhabitants and force them into submission. All exit, and a woman with a miniature castle in her hand, representing Castile (Spain), comes on stage. She praises the bravery and spirit of her people and calls forth the Duero River. A person representing the river enters, accompanied by three young boys representing three of the river’s tributaries. The river states that it is the destiny of the Numantians to be defeated, but goes on to prophesize that Spain will rise to great heights in the future, especially under the reign of Philip II, when the entire Iberian Peninsula will be united (a reference to the annexation of Portugal in 1580). Act II: Teógenes, Caravino, and four Numantian officials lament their situation. The priest Marquino offers to revive a dead body to prophesy their future. After they depart, Leoncio criticizes his friend Marandro for paying more attention to his loveinterest, Lira, than his duties as a soldier under siege. Marandro defends himself and the value of love in any situation. Next, two priests sacrifice a ram in order to predict the future, but during the ceremony a demon rises up, snatches the ram, and plunges back down into the underworld, which is taken as a bad omen. Leoncio and Marandro discuss this event and agree that good soldiers do not depend on omens for their bravery. Next, Marquino invokes Pluto, god of the underworld, and manages to raise the figure of a dead man. The figure speaks and prophesizes the destruction of Numantia. Leoncio and Mar
Page 520 andro now agree that all signs point to their tragic fate. Act III: Caravino, from the walls of the city, calls to the Romans and suggests that the long conflict between the two peoples be settled once and for all by a one onone combat between representatives of the two camps. Scipio laughs at the proposal, denigrates his enemy, and declares that he will win a decisive victory over Numantia. Caravino calls the Romans cowards and a string of other insults, but has no choice but to return to the city. There he talks with Teógenes and the two decide that they would prefer to die in battle rather than be starved to death within the walls of the city. But several Numantian women appear to argue against that idea, stating that it would leave the women and children defenseless against the enemy and would insure that their children would become Roman slaves and that the young virgins of Numantia would be violated and abused. The men realize that the women are correct and vow to remain in the city. But unwilling to leave their riches to the hated enemy, Teógenes proposes that all the valuable goods of Numantia be brought to the city plaza and burned in a great bonfire. Lira tells Marandro that both her mother and brother have already died of hunger and that she too is suffering. Marandro pledges that he will go out of the city in order to raid the enemy camp of some food for her. She attempts to dissuade him of this heroic but tragic proposal, but she is unsuccessful. Marandro’s friend, Leoncio, has overheard this conversation and recognizes that love only makes brave men even more valiant. Over his friend’s opposition, Leoncio vows to accompany Marandro on his raid. As the act ends, the Numantians begin to assemble all their riches in the town plaza. Act IV: Scipio is informed that two Numantians (Marandro and Leoncio) have broken into their camp and killed at least half a dozen soldiers. One of the invaders was killed, but the other, badly wounded, escaped with some bread. Scipio marvels at the bravery and indomitable spirit of the Numantian people. Marandro returns to the city, gives the bread he has stolen to the starving Lira, and dies in her arms. As the citizens of Numantia begin to kill each other and themselves rather than surrender, and the figures of War, Sickness, and Hunger appear on stage and comment on the events. War reminds the audience that she is not all bad and that the Spaniards themselves will be proud of war under the future leadership of Fernando of Aragon, Carlos V, and Felipe II. The destruction of the city and slaughter of the inhabitants continue. The Romans, seeing the quiet that falls over the city, investigate and find the streets red with blood and corpses everywhere. Scipio is distraught at the thought of not having even a single captive to carry back to Rome as a trophy. But his soldiers discover one survivor, a young boy named Bariato, at the top of a tower. Scipio entreats him to come down, promising him honor and wealth. But the boy prefers to die the same heroic death as his compatriots and jumps to his death. Scipio admits that Numantia has defeated him even in his victory. The figure of Fame comes on stage and announces that Numantia will henceforth stand as a symbol of invincible spirit and bravery throughout the world. Bibliography: Emilie Bergmann, “The Epic Vision of Cervantes’ Numancia,” Theater Journal 36 (1982):85–96); Frederick A.de Armas, “Achilles and Odysseus: An Epic Contest in Cervantes’ La Numancia,” in Cervantes: Estudios en la víspera de su centenario, ed. Kurt Reichenberger and Roswitha Reichenberger (Kassel, Germany: Edition Reichenberger, 1994), 357–70; Frederick A.de Armas, “The Necromancy of Imitation: Lucan and Cervantes’ La Numancia,” in El arte nuevo de estudiar comedias: Literary Theory and Golden Age Spanish Drama, ed. Barbara A.Simerka (Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 1996), 24–58; Ronald J.Friis, “The Devil, the Tower, and the Hanged Man: The Hermetic Tarot of the Numancia,” in A StarCrossed Golden Age: Myth and the Spanish Comedia, ed. Frederick A.de Armas (Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 1998), 46–61; Paul LewisSmith, “Cervantes’ Numancia as Tragedy and as Tragicomedy,” Bulletin of Hispanic Studies 64 (1987):15–26; Sabatino G.Maglione, “Amity and Enmity in Cervantes’s La Numancia,” Hispania 83 (2000): 179–88; Sigmund Méndez, “Tragicidad y conflicto ético en la Numancia,” Bulletin of Hispanic Studies 78 (2001):155–70; Charles Oriel, “Cervantes’s Numancia: A Speech Act Consideration,” Bulletin of
Page 521 the Comediantes 47 (1995):105–19; Rachel Schmidt, “The Development of Hispanitas in Spanish SixteenthCentury Versions of the Fall of Numancia,” Renaissance and Reformation 19, no. 2 (1995):27–46; and Jack Weiner, “La Numancia de Cervantes y la alianza entre Dios e Israel,” Neophilologus 81 (1997):63–70.
Numantia [Numancia]. The Celtiberian city on the banks of the Duero River, just northeast of the modern city of Soria, taken after a long siege by the Romans in 133 B.C.E. that serves as the scene of the action of MC’s play Numancia. In 1882 the site was declared a national monument. See also Galatea 4.
Numantians [Numantinos]. 1. In Numancia 1, two men who act as ambassadors and offer Scipio a peace treaty, which he rejects. 2. In Numancia 2, four men who talk about the hunger of the people in the city. 3. In Numancia 2, two priests who sacrifice a ram in order to foresee what is to happen. 4. In Numancia 2, about eight men who act as pages to the two priests. 5. In Numancia 2, another man who helps with the sacrifice of the ram. 6. In Numancia 3, four women with children who lament their suffering. 7. In Numancia 3, two men who talk about burning the city rather than surrender to the Romans. 8. In Numancia 3, a mother who tries to explain to her children why she has no bread to feed them. 9. In Numancia 4, a soldier who pursues his wife to kill her. 10. In Numancia 4, a man who accompanies Teógenes to his death. The proliferation of these nameless characters reinforces the concept that it is the city itself who is the real protagonist of the play.
Numidians [Númidas]. The inhabitants of ancient Numidia, now part of Algeria. See DQ I, 18.
Nuncio’s Asylum [Casa del Nuncio]. An asylum constructed in Toledo in the fifteenth century for confinement of the insane. It was founded by a papal nuncio (representative of the pope to the local civic government), thus its name. It is the madhouse in which DQA is confined at the end of the novel. See DQ II, 72.
Núñez de Guzmán, Hernán (Fernán) (ca. 1475–1553). Spanish classicist, humanist, and collector of proverbs. He was also popularly known as El Pinciano (from Pincia, the original name of Valladolid; he is not to be confused with the more famous Alonso *López Pinciano who used the same name) and El comendador griego (The Greek commander) because he was both comendador of the Order of Santiago and a professor of Greek. His Refranes o proverbios en romance (1555; Sayings or Proverbs in Spanish) was a popular book in the Renaissance and a possible source for many of the proverbs used by SP throughout DQ.
Núñez de León, Jerónimo. Spanish poet and civil servant. He set the price for Persiles.
Núñez de Reinoso, Alonso (ca. 1492–?). Spanish romance writer. Núñez de Reinoso is known for a single, very interesting, work: La historia de los amores de Clareo y Florisea, y de los trabajos de la sin ventura Isea, natural de la ciudad de Efesa (1552; Story of the Love of Clareo and Florisea, and of the Travails of the Unfortunate Isea, from the City of Ephesus), a romance written in imitation of *Heliodorus’s Ethopian History. The first part of the romance is a translation/adaptation of *Achilles Tatius’s Leucippe and Cleitophon, and the second part is original. Clareo y Florisea was published in Venice and was not printed in Spain until the nineteenth century, so it is possible that neither MC nor many of his contemporaries knew the first original Spanish romance written specifically in the genre of the Greek romance, a genre MC would also consciously cultivate with Persiles. Bibliography: Christine Marguet, “De Leucipe y Clitofonte de Aquiles Tacio a La Historia de Clareo y Florisea de Alonso Núñez de Reinoso: un caso de reescritura novelesca entre traducción y creación,” Criticón 76 (1999):9–22; and Stanislav Zimic, “Leucipe y Clitofonte y Clareo y Florisea en el Persiles de Cervantes,” Anales Cervantinos 13–14(1974–75):37–58.
Nuzas. An Aragonese family name mentioned in DQ I, 13.
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Nyerros and Cadells [Niarros y Cadells]. Enemy political factions in Catalonia in the time of MC. The Nyerros were partisans of the nobility, whereas the Cadells were more closely aligned with the common man, although both groups favored independence from Spain. In DQ II, 60, *Roque Guinart is a partisan of the Nyerros.
Nymph(s) [Ninfa(s)]. 1. In Greek myth, a female personification of some natural object, such as a river, tree, or mountain. A nymph was always young, beautiful, and fond of music and dancing. In Galatea 6, Calliope is called a nymph, but in fact she is one of the Muses. See also DQ I, 26. 2. In Parnaso 4, a ‘squadron’ of beautiful nymphs that arrives along with the figure of Poetry. 3. In Rufián 2, six figures who sing and dance. 4. In DQ II, 20, eight young women, dressed in allegorical costume, who are participants in the celebration of *Camacho’s wedding. 5. In DQ II, 35, a term used with reference to the figure of DT in the *triumphal car.
Nymphs of the Tagus [Ninfas del Tajo]. A reference to *Garcilaso de la Vega’s third Eclogue and Sonnet XI, in which the scenes woven by the nymphs dwelling in the Tagus River are described. See DQ II, 8. Bibliography: Mary Barnard, “Garcilaso’s poetics of Subversion and the Orpheus Tapestry,” PMLA 102 (1987):316–25.
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O Oates, Joyce Carol (1938–). American novelist and shortstory writer. In Oates’s long novel them (1969), all three major characters, Loretta and her children Jules and Maureen, are constantly obsessed by fantasies and daydreams that have their source in the books they read and the movies they see. Loretta seethes with frustration: “Christ! I’m sick of all this. I want to be like people in that movie…. I wasn’t meant to be like this—I mean stuck here. Really I wasn’t.” Most of the time Maureen is given over to daydreams based on her reading: “Most of all she liked books. She liked novels set in England. As soon as she read the first page of a novel by Jane Austen she was pleased, startled, excited to know that this was real: the world of this novel was real. Her own life…could not be real.” Jules, perhaps the most quixotic of the three, spends his time listening to the radio and reads books and fantasizing about their heroes: “He thought of himself as a character in a book being written by himself, a fictional 15 yearold with the capacity to become anything, because he was fiction…. He could change his name. He could change his looks in five minutes. He could change himself to fit into anything…. He gave in to such fantasies…. Wasn’t he half Alan Ladd in Shane, wasn’t he half Marlon Brando?” Oates writes in the Author’s Note that precedes the novel that the characters are based on real people she met while teaching English at the University of Detroit. As she got to know her former student who was the Maureen of the story, her first thought was “This must be fiction, this can’t all be real!” but later she realized that “this is the only kind of fiction that is real.”
Obligado, Rafael (1851–1920). Argentine poet. He wrote “El alma de Don Quijote” (1905; “The Soul of Don Quixote”) about the quixotic liberators of South America, Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín.
Obras completas de Cervantes. *Complete works of Cervantes.
Obrón. A tributary, today called the Urbión, of the Duero River. See Numancia 1.
Ocampo, Florián de (ca. 1495–ca. 1558). Spanish historian. A student of Antonio de *Nebrija, Ocampo became court historian for Carlos V. In addition to revising and updating medieval histories, he is the author of Los cuatro libros primeros de la crónica general de España (1543; The First Four Books of the General Chronicle of Spain). It was Ambrosio de *Morales’s continuation of this unfinished chronicle that provided MC with the historical background he incorporated into Numancia.
Ocaña. 1. There are two municipalities named Ocaña in Spain, but the largest and best known, and the one referred to by MC, is the city located south and slightly east of Madrid and east and slightly north of Toledo. See Persiles III, 8–9. 2. In Entretenida, a lackey in the house of Don Antonio who is in love with the servant Cristina. 3. *Tiger from Ocaña.
Ocasión. *Opportunity.
Occasional poetry. *Poesías sueltas.
Oceanus (Ocean, Ocean Sea) [Oceano, Mar Oceano]. In Greek myth, one of the Ti
Page 524 tans, the son of Uranus and Gaia. He was the god of the great ocean that encompasses the world and the father of the rivers of the world and of the oceanic nymphs. MC uses the term Oceano (Océano in modern Spanish) to refer at times to the ocean seas in general and at other times in reference specifically to the Atlantic Ocean. See Celoso; DQ I, prologue; Española; Galatea 4, 6; Persiles III, 10.
Ocho comedias y ocho entremeses, nunca representadas. Madrid: Viuda de Alonso Martín, 1613 (Comedias); Eight Plays and Eight Farces, Never Performed. MC’s fifth book and the only theater published in his lifetime. Of the 20 to 30 plays he claimed to have written in the decade of the 1580s, only Numancia and Tratos survive. MC may have abandoned active theatrical production in 1587 when he accepted a job as a royal commissary in Andalusia, but he did not give up writing plays (*Cervantes the dramatist). Late in life he revised some of his earlier works, perhaps wrote some new ones, and published eight fulllength comedias and eight interludes in this volume. The latter have been received far better than the former, and place MC at the forefront of the practitioners of that genre. This was the least popular of MC’s published works; it was not published a second time until the mideighteenth century. Preliminaries: The permission to print the book is signed in Valladolid, July 25, 1615, and the price is set on September 22, 1615, both by Hernando de Vallejo. The corrector’s statement is signed on September 13, 1615, by Licenciado Murcia de la Llana. The approval is signed by Maestro Joseph de Valdivielso on July 3, 1615. Next come the prologue and dedication; there are no preliminary verses. Prologue: MC addresses the ‘curious reader’ and begs pardon to go beyond his customary modesty, recounting a conversation he had recently with some friends. The subject was the origin of theater in Spain. MC, as the oldest in the group, could recall as a boy seeing performances by Lope de Rueda, who presented pastoral dialogues and farces, featuring a few stock characters; there were no special effects, just a makeshift stage consisting of four or six boards mounted on benches. Rueda was followed by Navarro, who was famous for his role as a cowardly ruffian. He elevated the adornment of plays, added music, and invented some special effects. Then MC came along (in the 1580s) and wrote plays like Tratos, Numancia, and La batalla naval (The Naval Battle), reducing plays to three acts and being the first to put allegorical or moral figures on stage. During this period he wrote some 20 to 30 plays, all of which were staged with success. Then came that ‘monster of nature,’ Lope de *Vega, who took control of the theater, writing and staging many works. In his wake came numerous playwrights like Antonio Mira de Amescua, Guillén de Castro, and Luis Vélez de Guevara (MC names nine in all). Some years ago, MC went back to writing plays, but no one would produce them. One producer noted that you could expect a lot from MC’s prose, but nothing from his verse. Finally, he sold the current group of plays and interludes to a book publisher; he wishes they were the best in the world. Now, he is in the act of writing a play to be called El engaño a los ojos (Fooled with Open Eyes) that he thinks should be well received. Dedication: To Don Pedro Fernández de Castro, count of Lemos. MC offers the count these plays and farces in hopes that they might please him. DQ has put on his spurs in DQ II and is ready to sally forth to meet the count. He will arrive in a bad mood because of the way he has been mistreated in Tarragona (i.e., by Avellaneda in DQA). Next will come the great Persiles, then Semanas, and Galatea II. Bibliography: Jean Canavaggio, Cervantes dramaturge: Un théâtre à naitre (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1977); Joaquín Casalduero, Sentido y forma del teatro de Cervatnes (Madrid: Gredos, 1974); Edward H.Friedman, The Unifying Concept: Approaches to the Structure of Cervantes’ Comedias (York, South Carolina: Spanish Literature Publications, 1981); Vicente Gaos, Cervantes: Novelista, dramaturgo, poeta (Barcelona: Planeta, 1979); M.García Martín, Cervantes y la comedia española en el siglo XVII (Salamanca, Spain: Universidad de Salamanca, 1980); Catherine Poupeney Hart, Alfredo Hermenegildo, and César Oliva, eds., Cervantes y la puesta en escena de la sociedad de su tiempo (Actas
Page 525 del Coloquio de Montreal, 1997) (Murcia, Spain: Universidad de Murcia, 1999); Carroll B.Johnson, “El arte viejo de hacer teatro: Lope de Rueda, Lope de Vega y Cervantes,” Cuadernos de Filología 3 (1981):247–59; Jesús G.Maestro, La escena imaginaria: Poética del teatro de Miguel de Cervantes (Madrid: Iberoamericana, 2000); Melveena McKendrick, “Writing for the Stage,” in The Cambridge Companion to Cervantes, ed. Anthony J.Cascardi (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 131–59; Cory A.Reed, “Cervantes and the Novelisation of Drama: Tradition and Innovation in the entremeses,” Cervantes 11, no. 1 (1991):61–86; E.C.Riley, “The ‘Pensamientos escondidos’ and ‘Figuras morales’ of Cervantes,” in Homenaje a William L.Fichter: Estudios sobre el teatro antiguo hispánico y otros ensayos, ed. A.David Kossoff and José Amor y Vásquez (Madrid: Castalia, 1971), 623–31; Alberto Sánchez, “Aproximación al teatro de Cervantes,” Cuadernos de Teatro Clásico 7 (1992): 11–30; Bruce Wardropper, “Cervantes’ Theory of the Drama,” Modern Philology 52 (1955):217–21; and Stanislav Zimic, El teatro de Cervantes (Madrid: Castalia, 1992).
Ochoa Academy [Academia Ochoa]. A *literary academy in Seville. It is often assumed that MC belonged to this academy, but, although certainly a good possibility, there is no proof for this assertion.
Ochoa de la Salde, Juan. *Sempere, Jerónimo.
Ochoa, Licenciado Juan de. Probably a Sevillian, author of a grammar book, but unknown as a poet; nevertheless, he is the first of the poets praised in Parnaso 2.
Ociosos, Academia de los. *Academy of the Idle.
Octave [Octava]. Any of several types of eightline stanzas, of which the most important is the octava real (royal octave), which consists of eight 11syllable lines with a rhyme scheme of ABABABCC. See Poesías 9.
Octavian peace [Paz otaviano, Paz de Octaviano]. The period of relative peace and tranquility in Rome beginning in the reign of Octavian Augustus in 27 BCE and lasting until CE 180. See DQ I, 46; Laberinto 3.
Odysseus (Ulysses) [Ulises]. In Greek myth, a cunning and valiant warrior. He participates in the Trojan War, and the story of his return home, which includes the stay on *Calypso’s island and his love affair with her, is the subject of Homer’s Odyssey. See Amante; Coloquio; DQ I, 25, 47; DQ II, 3; Galatea 3; Gallardo 1; Parnaso 3.
Oedipus [Edipo]. In Greek myth, the son of King Laius of Thebes. He has the misfortune of making prophecy come true by killing his father and marrying his mother. In Sophocles’s version of the story, when he realized what he had done, Oedipus blinded himself. See Galatea 4.
Oeta. *Aetolia.
Officer(s) [Cuadrillero(s)]. 1. In DQ I, 16–17, a member of the Holy Brotherhood who is staying in the inn of Juan Palomeque when DQ arrives there, and who investigates the disturbance that takes place that night. He accidentally insults DQ, then, when DQ in turn insults him, he gets angry and hits DQ with a lantern. 2. In DQ I, 45–46, three members of the Holy Brotherhood who arrive at the inn of Juan Palomeque just as the dispute over the barber’s basin and packsaddle breaks out. They get involved in the brawl in defense of the barber. After DQ calms everyone down, one of the officers recognizes DQ as the man wanted for freeing the galley slaves (I, 22), and a second riot breaks out. The officers are convinced by the priest and Don Fernando not to arrest DQ but to allow his friends to take care of getting the mad knight safely back home. 3. In Persiles III, 4, members of the Holy Brotherhood who arrest Periandro and the group of pilgrims, charging them with the murder of Don Diego de Parraces.
Official [Ministro]. In DQ II, 69, a servant of the duke’s who presides over part of the farce of bringing Altisidora back to life. He places a long cape and hat on SP, making him
Page 526 look like a victim of the Inquisition, and warns him not to speak.
Oficiales. *Workmen.
Oidor. *Juan Pérez de Viedma.
Olaf Magnus; Olaf Magnusson; Olao Magno. *Magnus, Olaus.
Olalla. A rustic form of the name Eulalia, as seen in the song of the goatherd Antonio in DQ I, 11.
Oláran Chans, Justo. Uruguayan poet. Oláran Chans is the author of a very nice book of sonnets entitled Glosario Cervantino (Escolios líricos al “Quijote”) (1938; Cervantine Glossary [Lyrical Glosses to “Don Quixote”]). Following an introductory sonnet to MC, the book is divided into the following sections: 1) “La fuente del idioma” (“The Fountain of Language”), with eight poems to MC, his pen, CHB, and so on; 2) “Las semblanzas” (“Biographical Sketches”), with 23 sonnets about characters such as SP, Ginés de Pasamonte, Rocinante, and so on; 3) “Las aventuras” (“Adventures”), with 12 poems about specific adventures or episodes such as the windmills, Mambrino’s helmet, the wineskins, and so on; 4) “Las pláticas de Don Quijote” (“Don Quixote’s Speeches”), with seven sonnets to DQ’s discourses on the Golden Age, advice to SP, arms and letters, and so on; 5) “Las cosas de Sancho” (“Sancho’s Things”), with five sonnets on SP’s tales, proverbs, argument with his wife, and so on; 6) “Los episodios” (“Episodes”), with 11 poems on scenes such as the knighting of DQ, his penance, the Camacho’s wedding, and so on; and 7) “Finis coronat opus” (“End of the Work”), with four sonnets on DQ’s death, his will, and DQ as an immortal book. Of the several such books in existence, this one is perhaps the most elegant. The eight drawings by Carlos Vergottini (“Marius”) that head each section serve to enhance the positive impression the book makes. Bibliography: Justo Oláran Chans, Glosario Cervantino (Buenos Aires: Imprenta López, 1938).
Old Castile [Castilla la Vieja]. The northern part of the medieval kingdom of *Castile in central Spain. In DQ II, 74, the narrator warns that since DQ is now dead, no one should attempt to make him go to Old Castile, an allusion to the ending of DQA, where it is stated that in his next sally, DQ went to that region for new adventures. See also Baños 1; Fregona; Persiles IV, 1.
Old Christian. *Converso.
Old gypsy [Gitano viejo]. In Gitanilla, the leader of the gypsy band who approves of Andrés Caballero’s probationary entry into their group in order to prove that he is worthy of marrying Preciosa. His description and praise of gypsy life, which simultaneously reinforces cultural stereotypes and lays out a utopian social freedom, is a highlight in the story.
Old gypsy woman [Gitana vieja]. In Gitanilla, the person who steals a noble family’s baby—Preciosa, the protagonist—and raises her as her own niece. At the end of the story, she reveals the girl’s identity and makes possible the happy marriage.
Old Holy Brotherhood [Santa Hermandad Vieja]. A law enforcement and judicial organization established by King Fernando III in the thirteenth century and the forerunner of the *Holy Brotherhood founded by the Catholic Monarchs in the fifteenth century. See DQ I, 16.
Old man (men) [Vejete, Viejo, Hombres ancianos]. 1. In Juez, the husband whose young wife wants to divorce him. 2. In Baños, the man who tries unsuccessfully to protect his two young children during the raid on Spain and later witnesses the martyrdom of one of them. 3. In DQ II, 45, the two peasants who bring a dispute involving the loan of ten gold coins to SP for judgment. SP realizes that the ten coins are hidden inside a hollow walkingstick carried by one of the men.
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Old matron [Matrona anciana]. In DQ II, 20, a participant, sprightly for her age, in the celebration of *Camacho’s wedding.
Old physician [Antiguo médico]. In DQ II, 52, the possessor of a leaden box, discovered in the ruins of an old hermitage, containing documents, written on parchment in gothic letters (indicating that they are very old), pertaining to further activities of DQ. The only papers that can be deciphered, however, are the six poems, mostly epitaphs for DQ, written by the *Academicians of Argamasilla. How it is possible that such ancient and crumbling artifacts could pertain to the life of a man who lived in contemporary history is not explained. Bibliography: Américo Castro, “Como veo ahora el Quijote,” preliminary study in Miguel de Cervantes, El Ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha (Madrid: Magisterio Español, 1980), vol. 1, 9–102.
Olimpo, Monte. * Mount Olympus.
Oliva, Doña. *Sabuco, Miguel (1525–ca. 1588) and Oliva (1562–ca. 1629).
Olivante de Laura, Olivantes. *Torquemada, Antonio de.
Olivar (Olivares), Fray Jorge de. Commander of the Order of Merced in Valencia. He distinguished himself through his tireless efforts to raise money for the ransom of Christian captives in North Africa and his numerous trips to bring home ransomed captives. He arranged the ransom of MC’s brother Rodrigo in 1577. Olivar was in Algiers when MC made his second escape attempt and was accused by the Turks of being involved, but MC personally took all responsibility and absolved the Mercedarian. He is mentioned in this capacity in Tratos 4; and in Baños 3, he arrives in Algiers with a ransom ship.
Olivera de Valencia. *Picaresque geography.
Ollas de Egipto. *Fleshpots of Egypt.
Olmida. A member of the Roman camp mentioned in Numancia 4.
Olmo, Lauro (1922–). Spanish dramatist, shortstory writer, and novelist. Olmo is one of the more important figures in twentiethcentury Spanish theater, both for his original plays and for his adaptations or recastings of classical works. Among the latter is Nuevo Retablo de las maravillas y olé (The New Marvelous Puppet Show and Olé), an adaptation of Retablo, in which emphasis is on the political (progressive Catholic, socialist, and communist). Bibliography: Ricardo Doménech, “El teatro de Lauro Olmo,” Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos 229 (1969):161–72.
Olmos. One of the patios of the Cathedral of Seville; it was often frequented by the men and women from the margins of society. See Rufián 1.
Olor sabeo. *Sabean aroma.
Olympic games [Juegos olímpicos]. In Persiles 1, the games held on the island of Scinta, where, during the reign of King Policarpo, Periandro excelled in every event.
Oña, Licenciado Pedro de (1570–ca. 1643). A Chilean poet whose bestknown work is a sequel to Alonso de Ercilla’s Auracana, entitled El auraco domado (1596; The Auracan Defeated). He is cited in Parnaso 4.
Once cielos. *Eleven circles of heaven.
Once mil vírgenes. *Saint Ursula and the 11,000 virgins.
Ondarza Zavala, Miguel de. The Spanish civil servant who set the price for Galatea.
One of the famous triumvirate [Uno de aquel famoso triunvirato]. An allusion to the famous governing triumvirate in Rome formed by Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus. See Casa 2.
Onetti, Juan Carlos (1909–95). Uruguayan novelist, shortstory writer, and journalist. Onetti said that after he discovered DQ in his youth he read the novel ‘uncountable’ times, and also said that he believed that all novelists
Page 528 are always ‘in debt to that unfortunate man and his best novel, which is the first and also the best novel ever written.’ In Onetti’s La vida breve (1950; Brief Life), reality and identity become major themes as the main character, Brausen, in order to escape his undesirable existence, becomes both Arce and his own literary creation, Díaz Grey. Brausen’s alternate fantasy lives are reminiscent of James *Thurber’s Walter Mitty, as well as DQ. Bibliography: Juan Carlos Onetti, La vida breve (Buenos Aires: Sudamericana, 1950).
Oñez. One of two powerful factions in the Basque country through the time of the Catholic Monarchs. See Gitanilla.
Ongay, Fray Jorge de. A member of the ransom expedition to Algiers in 1577 when MC’s brother Rodrigo was ransomed.
Opportunity [Ocasión]. In Tratos 2, a personified figure who tempts Aurelio.
Oquina, Don Juan de. The treasurer of the viceroy of Naples who published the account of the celebration of the marriage of Louis XIII of France and the Infanta Doña Ana of Austria in Naples in 1612. See Parnaso 8 in connection with this celebration.
Oran [Orán]. A Mediterranean port city in northwestern Algeria, located directly south of Cartagena, that was a Spanish possession from 1509 to 1708. MC’s first attempt to escape his captivity in Algiers was via an overland route, guided by a local Muslim, to Oran, and his third attempt involved sending a letter to the governor of the Spanish garrison there (*Cervantes, escape attempts of). In 1581, soon after returning to Spain from Algiers, MC carried out a minor diplomatic mission to Oran; it is likely that some sort of espionage was involved. MC’s play Gallardo is set in the context of the siege of the stronghold in 1563. See also DQ I, 41; DQ II, 17; Gitanilla; Persiles III, 10; Sultana 3; Tratos 3–4.
Orbaneja. The painter from Ubeda who has to label his paintings so that the viewers can know what they are; if, for example, he paints a rooster, he has to place the words ‘This is a rooster’ on the canvas. This is a popular tale that existed in several variants in Golden Age folklore. See DQ II, 3, 71. Bibliography: lavier Portús Pérez, “Un cuentecillo del Siglo de Oro sobre la mala pintura: Orbaneja,” Boletín de la Institución Libre de Enseñanza 5 (1988):46– 55.
Orden de [Spanish name]. *Order of [same name].
Orden de San Jerónimo. *Saint Jerome.
Orden de San Juan de Jerusalén. *Order of Malta.
Orden del bienaventurado San Francisco. *Saint Francis.
Order of Alcántara [Orden de Alcántara]. One of the three important *military orders in medieval Spain. It was founded in 1156 by King Alfonso IX of Castile in the town of Alcántara (located northwest of Cáceres, very near the Portuguese border) with the specific charge for its members to fight against the infidels. See DQ I, 49; Fregona; Persiles III, 12.
Order of Calatrava [Orden de Calatrava]. One of the three important *military orders in medieval Spain. Founded in 1158 by King Sancho III of Castile, its symbol was a red cross, and its center was the city of Almagro in La Mancha. It was one of the highest possible honors that could be bestowed by the king on a member of the nobility. In Gitanilla, Fernando de Azevedo, father of Preciosa, the supposed gypsy girl of the title, is a member of this order. See also DQ I, 49.
Order of Christus [Orden de Christus]. A Portuguese militarychivalric religious order founded in the fourteenth century. The members of this order were identified by the distinctive cross of silver superimposed on one of red, which they wore as an emblem. Manuel de *Sousa Coutinho, the Portuguese soldier who
Page 529 dies for love in Persiles I, 11, is a member of this order.
Order of Malta (Order of the Knights of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem) [Orden de San Juan de Jerusalén]. The Knights Hospitallers, or Knights of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem, was an order of military monks named for a hospital founded in Jerusalem in the eleventh century. The order soon became a military organization and was considered a bulwark of Christianity in the Middle East. After being expelled from Jerusalem, they established their base in Rhodes. When Rhodes was taken by the Turks in 1522, they moved again, and in 1530 were given a permanent base by Carlos V on the island of Malta, which is how they came to be known as the Order of Malta. Interestingly, these defenders of the faith were also the most prominent Christian pirates of the sixteenth century. See Tratos 2; Amante; DQ I, 39, 49; Parnaso 1. Bibliography: Joseph Attard, The Knights of Malta (San Gwan, Malta: Publishers Enterprise Group, 1992); and Joseph M.Wismayer, The Fleet of the Order of St. John, 1530–1798 (Valletta, Malta: Midsea Books, 1997).
Order of Merced [Orden de la Merced]. Along with the Trinitarians (*Order of the Most Holy Trinity), one of two religious orders that took special interest in helping ransom Christian captives held in slavery in North Africa. See Baños 3; Tratos 4. Bibliography: James William Brodmann, Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the ChristianIslamic Frontier (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986).
Order of Montesa [Orden de Montesa]. One of the lesser *military orders. See Tratos 1–2.
Order of Saint Dominic [Orden de Santo Domingo]. A mendicant order founded by Saint Domingo de Guzmán (1170–1221) in 1215. Cristóbal de Lugo becomes a member of this order in Rufián 2.
Order of Santiago [Orden de Santiago]. One of the three important *military orders in medieval Spain, probably the one of most prestige. It was founded in 1158 by King Alfonso VIII. Membership in the Order of Santiago was one of the highest possible honors that could be bestowed by the king on a member of the nobility. In Gitanilla, Francisco de Cárcamo, father of Andrés, who has become a gypsy in order to win the love of Preciosa, is a member of this order. See also DQ I, 49; DQ II, 31. Bibliography: Derek W.Lomax, The Order of Santiago (London: Confraternity of St. James, 1990).
Order of the Most Holy Trinity [Orden de la Santísima Trinidad]. Religious order dedicated to the redemption of captives from 1198 to 1769. The Trinitarians arranged the ransom of both MC and his brother Rodrigo. In Española, Ricaredo is also ransomed by the Trinitarians and wears their insignia on his breast when he returns from a year’s captivity in Algiers.
Ordóñez de Calahorra, Diego. Spanish author of romances of chivalry. Ordóñez de Calahorra is the author of one of the most popular romances of the second cycle of those books that begins in the midsixteenth century, the Espejo de príncpes y caballeros, en el cual se cuentan los inmortales hechos del Caballero del Febo y de su hermano Rosicler, hijos del grande Emperador Trabacio (1555; Mirror of Princes and Knights, in which Are Told the Immortal Deeds of the Knight of the Sun and of His Brother Rosicler, Sons of the Great Emperor Trabacio). The protagonist is the valorous Caballero del Febo (Knight of the Dawn), who is mentioned in DQ I, 1, as a favorite character of the barber Maese Nicolás, and who is the author of a sonnet dedicated to DQ, one of the poems that precede DQ I. See also DQ I, 15, 20; Vizcaíno. Bibliography: Diego Ordóñez de Calahorra, Espejo de príncipes y caballeros. 6 vols., ed. Daniel Eisenberg (Madrid: EspasaCalpe, 1975).
Ordóñez de Lara, Don Diego (eleventh century). Spanish medieval hero. After Vellido *Dolfos murdered King Sancho II during the siege of Zamora, Ordóñez de Lara challenged the entire city and all its inhabitants—
Page 530 dead and alive, past, present, and future—if they did not release the murderer. The event became popular in the Spanish ballad tradition. See DQ II, 27.
Ordóñez de Montalvo, Garci. *Montalvo, Garci Rodríguez de.
Orelia. In the Spanish ballad tradition, the horse ridden by the Visigothic King Rodrigo. See DQ II, 40.
Orellana, Don Juan de. A descendant of the explorer and conquistador Francisco de Orellana, who was an ally of Francisco de Pizarro in the wars of Peru. In fact, his mother was of the Pizarro family and his brother, Don Francisco *Pizarro, went by his maternal surname (not an uncommon practice in Golden Age Spain). He lived with his brother in Trujillo and was almost certainly known to MC, who also had family there; he also becomes a character in MC’s last novel. Orellana is represented under his own name in Persiles III, 2, where he and his brother receive the baby (the child of *Feliciana de la Voz) left with Periandro and the group of pilgrims. He and his brother also intervene later (III, 5) in order to help reconcile family differences and marry Feliciana to her lover Rosanio.
Orellana, Don Pedro de. A member of the Orellana family of Trujillo who in 1615 married a relative of MC’s named Feliciana de Cervantes de Gaete (perhaps the model for *Feliciana de la Voz in Persiles).
Orena, Baltasar de. Spanish poet who served in Guatemala. He is praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Orestes [Oreste]. In Greek myth, the son of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, whom he killed, along with her lover Aegisthus. His lifelong friendship with *Pylades is often cited as a prototype of that relationship. See Galatea 4.
Orfenio (Orfinio). In Galatea 3, one of the shepherds who participates in the eclogue sung at the wedding of Daranio and Silveria. He represents jealousy because of his love for the beautiful shepherdess Eandra.
Orfeo. *Orpheus.
Orgaz. A town located southeast of Toledo and north of Ciudad Real. The burial of the count of Orgaz is the subject of one of the most famous paintings (housed in the church of Santo Tomé in Toledo) of El Greco. See Fregona.
Oria, Juan Andrea de. *Doria, Giovanni Andrea.
Oriana. The lady adored by Amadís de Gaula and who eventually becomes his wife (*Montalvo, Garci Rodríguez de). She is the author of a sonnet dedicated to DT as one of the preliminary poems to DQ I. See also DQ I, 15, 25–26; DQ II, 32.
Orient [Oriente], 1. The east, associated with dawn or daybreak. See DQ II, 61; Entretenida 1; Galatea 6; Laberinto 1; Numancia 2–3; Sultana 1, 2; Tratos 4. 2. For Europe, a region that was both a source of mystery and a source of spices, jewels, and other valuable commodities. It was to gain greater access to the wealth of the Orient that European sailors, particularly Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch, explored new routes around Africa and sailed west into uncharted waters. See Persiles III, 1.
Orlando, Orlando el Paladino. *Roland.
Ormaza, Don Fernando de. Spanish nobleman and soldier who spent time in captivity in Algiers with MC. In 1578 Fray Jorge de Oliver helped secure his release before his ransom was paid, and then the liberated Ormaza sent the ransom money to his owner Hassan Pasha as he had promised. This incident is recalled in Tratos 3.
Oro del Tíbar. *Tiber.
Orompo. In Galatea 3, one of the shepherds who participates in the eclogue sung at the wedding of Daranio and Silveria. He represents
Page 531 sadness because of the early death of his beloved Listea.
Oropesa. In Gallardo, Spanish captive and good friend and admirer of Fernando de Saavedra.
Orozco, Juan de (?–1608). Spanish religious writer. Orozco was from an illustrious family that included his father, the poet Sebastián, and his brother, the lexicographer Sebastián de *Covarrubias. His most famous work was the popular and influential Las emblemas morales (1589; Moral Emblems), which went through four editions and was translated into Latin. In this work, Orozco explains the theory and use of emblems and illustrates his theory with 100 examples of emblems. This is one of the emblem books which MC probably knew (*emblem).
Orpheus (Singer from Thrace) [Orfeo (Cantor de Tracia)]. In Greek myth, the son of Apollo and Calliope, a master musician whose music could tame wild animals. When his beloved wife Euridice died, Orpheus descended into the underworld and enchanted the subterranean divinities with his music, convincing them let her return to Earth with him—but only on the condition that he not look back to see if she was following. He disobeyed, looked back, and Euridice was lost to him forever. Later, he was killed by the women of Thrace. See Casa 3; Celoso; DQ II, 69; Galatea 1, 6; Laberinto 3.
Orrego Vicuña, Eugenio (1900–?). Chilean writer. Orrego Vicuña is the author of a work entitled Historia del ingenioso hidalgo don Miguel de Cervantes, dirigida a Don Quixote de la Mancha (1947; History of the Ingenious Hidalgo Don Miguel de Cervantes, Addressed to Don Quixote de La Mancha), a novelized version of MC’s life in terms of DQ’s career. Throughout most of the text, the author consciously attempts, fairly successfully, to imitate the style and technique of Juan *Montalvo. What is most interesting, however, is the prefatory material and the series of ‘Illustrations’ at the end of the book. The book opens with a tasa (price), just like in books published in Golden Age Spain; a dedication to DQ; a series of sonnets from Lope de *Vega, Rubén Darío, and Amadís de Gaula to MC; and a prologue to the reader imitating MC’s prologue to DQ II. Following the text, there is a small anthology of critical commentary on DQ by the ‘New Academicians of Argamasilla’ (Dostoevsky, Cassou, Unamuno, and so on). Then come the three ‘Illustrations’: a final commentary on MC’s death; an otherworldly conversation entitled “Paso de los hidalgos” (“Short Play of the Hidalgos”) among DQ, MC, and souls from different centuries (and one Native American soul) giving their interpretations of DQ; and the membership of the American ‘Order of DQ’ (Columbus, Washington, Bolívar, Whitman, Darío, and others). Bibliography: Marco Cipolloni, “Continuar por dentro. La paradójica estrategia del olvido de un Quijote y de un ‘Cervantes’ iberoamericanos,” in Desviaciones lúdicas en la crítica cervantina: Primer convivio Internacional de “Locos Amenos,” ed. Antonio Bernat Vistarini and José María Casasayas (Salamanca, Spain: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 2000), 219–27; and Eugenio Orrego Vicuña, Historia del ingenioso hidalgo don Miguel de Cervantes (Santiago, Chile: Adolfo Gana, 1947).
Ortega, Melchor. Spanish prose writer. Ortega is the author of the romance of chivalry entitled Primera parte de la grande historia del muy animoso y esforzado príncipe Felixmarte de Hircania y de su estraño nascimiento (1556; First Part of the Great History of the Very Courageous and Valiant Prince Felixmarte de Hircania and of His Strange Birth), one of the books burned in the scrutiny of DQ’s library in I, 6, where it is mistakenly cited as Florimorte de Hircania (corrected in later printings). The ‘strange birth’ cited in the title and mentioned by the priest consisted of his having been born in the wilds and nursed by a savage woman—not really so strange for a romance of chivalry. In DQ I, 32, Juan Palomeque claims that Felixmarte once cut five giants in half with a single blow, but there is no such scene in the romance of his adventures. See also DQ I, 13, 49; DQ II, 1. Bibliography: María del Rosario Aguilar Per
Page 532 domo, “Felixmarte de Hircania” de Melchor Ortega (Valladolid, Francisco Fernández de Córdoba 1556): Guía de lectura (Alcalá de Henares, Spain: Centro de Estudios Cervantinos, 1998).
Ortega y Gasset, José (1883–1955). Spanish philosopher trained in Germany in the neoKantian tradition. Ortega’s first book was Meditaciones del “Quijote” (1914; Meditations on “Quixote”), literally a meditation, oblique and tangential, on MC’s novel. It is in this book that Ortega penned what is undoubtedly his most famous line, ‘I am myself and my circumstances,’ a key concept in his ‘vital reason,’ i.e., his philosophy that contains elements of pragmatism, existentialism, and contextualism. Ortega sees in DQ everything that was to become characteristic of the modern novel (*quixotic novel). Bibliography: José Ortega y Gasset, Meditations on “Quixote,” trans. Evelyn Rugg and Diego Marín (New York: W.W.Norton, 1961).
Ortel Banedre. In Persiles III, 6–7, a Pole who kills a man in Portugal but is hidden and protected by the man’s own mother. After a stint in the Indies where he becomes wealthy, Banedre returns to Spain, and in Talavera marries a young woman named Luisa, who quickly takes his money and jewels and runs off with her lover. On his way to Madrid to avenge his honor, he encounters Periandro and the pilgrims and is talked out of his plan by them. He vows to return to Portugal and then to his homeland by ship. Later, in IV, 5, it is learned that Banedre has come to Rome and reencountered his wife, and has been killed by her. Some of the basic aspects of this character’s tale are derived from a story by *Giraldi Cinzio. See also Persiles III, 16.
Ortensio. *Paravicino, Hortensio Félix.
Ortiz de Pinedo, J. (1881–?). Spanish poet and novelist. Ortiz’s book of poetry entitled El retablo del “Quijote” (ca. 1925; The PuppetShow of “Don Quixote”) has poems grouped into six sections, the first of which is that of the title. It consists of a series of 20 poems of various meters and lengths about DQ, SP, adventures, other characters, and so forth. It is selective rather than complete in its coverage of the novel, but some of the passages have a genuine lyrical flavor. Bibliography: J.Ortiz de Pinedo, El retablo del “Quijote” (Madrid: Siglo XX, n.d.).
Orwell, George (Erich Blair, 1903–50). English novelist and political writer. Orwell served as a journalist in the Spanish Civil War and was profoundly influenced by that experience. He is the author of one of the most famous and prophetic novels of the twentieth century, 1984 (1949), a work that presents the reverse of DQ, the antiQuixote taken to its logical extreme: appearance is reality, reality can be changed as readily as appearance, and the evil enchanters rule the world. In such a world, it is quixotic to insist on a wellgrounded, unchanging reality, and that is just what protagonist Winston Smith does. In what may be the most chilling rewrite of the end of MC’s novel, Winston Smith, at the end of 1984, reaches the same sort of accord with the powers that be that DQ does in II, 74—he wins the victory over himself; renounces his quixotic quest for sanity, humanity, and reality; and embraces Big Brother. Bibliography: E.C.Riley, “Whatever Happened to Heroes? Don Quixote and Some Major European Novels of the Twentieth Century,” in Cervantes and the Modernists: The Question of Influence, ed. Edwin Williamson (London: Tamesis, 1994), 73–84.
Osiris. In Egyptian myth, the god of fertility and the personification of the dead king. In DQ II, 60, when one of *Roque Guinart’s bandits uses the name, however, he is actually referring to Busiris, who, in Greek myth, is an Egyptian king who sacrificed all strangers who arrived at his kingdom; he was killed by Heracles.
Osman (1258–1324). Founder of the empire that bears his name, the *Ottoman Empire. Osman, sometimes called the Conqueror, united all of Turkey, and his descendants added Hungary, Greece, all the areas surrounding the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, and North Africa as far west as Morocco, with Constantinople as the capital city. The greatest extension
Page 533 of the empire was achieved by the late seventeenth century.
Osorio, Don Diego. *Santisteban Osorio, Don Diego.
Osorio, Rodrigo. Theatrical autor with whom MC signed a contract in 1592 to furnish six plays ‘as soon as possible.’ There is no indication that the plays were ever delivered.
Ossorio. A Christian captive prominent in Baños 3.
Ostrovsky, Alexander Nikolayevich (1823–86). Russian dramatist. Ostrovsky translated MC’s interludes and wrote a play inspired directly in DQ, entitled Les (1871; Forest). Gennadi Neschastlivtsev is the DQ and Arkadi Schastlivtsev the SP in the play, a pair who meet on the road and then travel and talk together. The two characters come across as actors—the tragic Gennadi and the comic Arkadi—in comparison with the “normal” people with whom they come in contact. The play presents a broad panorama of provincial society, with all its shortcomings and vulgarity. Ostrovsky created his primary character under the influence of Turgenev’s essay on DQ and Hamlet, and it is interesting to note that Turgenev was particularly pleased with the play.
Osuna. A mediumsized city located east and slightly south of Seville and northwest of Málaga. It was the location of one of the minor universities (like Sigüenza, mentioned in DQ I, 1; and in I, 47, the physician *Pedro Recio de Agüero claims to be a graduate of this university ), which was founded in 1548 by Don Juan Téllez Girón, Count of Ureña, and went out of business in 1820. In DQ I, 30, Dorotea, in her guise as Princess *Micomicona, mistakenly states that she disembarked in Osuna upon her arrival, but as the priest points out, the city is not a seaport. See also Doncellas.
Otero, Blas de (1916–79). Spanish poet. One of the more important poets of the midtwentieth century, Otero is best known for his existential and metaphysical themes. Some of his works met with opposition from the Franco regime and could not be published in Spain; for example, his book En castellano (In Plain Words) was first published in French as Parler clair in 1959, in Mexico the following year, but not in Spain until 1977. In that book there are two short poems with Cervantine themes: “Letra” (“Letter”) is an evocation of Golden Age poetry (especially Quevedo) and an affirmation that DQ and DT are real, whereas “Don Quijote y San…Ignacio” is a twoline poem presenting DQ as the ideal and San Ignacio as action. Bibliography: Blas de Otero, En castellano (Barcelona: Lumen, 1977).
Otero y Pimentel, Luis. Cuban novelist. Otero’s Semblanzas caballerescas, o Las nuevas aventuras de Don Quijote de la Mancha (1886; Chivalric Sketches, or The New Adventures of Don Quixote de La Mancha) is a literal sequel to MC’s novel. DQ awakens from his profound sleep of centuries, reads and studies, travels the world to see its problems, and returns to his village of La Mancha, where he refurbishes his armor, recruits SP again, and sets out to right wrongs. After a number of episodes (e.g., DQ attacks trees instead of windmills) supposedly in the style of MC, DQ and SP travel to Spanish America where they get involved in a complex relationship involving the count and countess of Vegas Dulces and the count’s longlost daughter, known as the India de la Floresta (Indian Maiden of the Forest): the product of a relationship he had had with an Indian princess. The count, predictably, gives SP a governorship, this time of the Insula de Palo Verde, and, of course, SP is an exemplary governor. When DQ is jailed for one of his actions, he is rescued by María (the new, Christian, name of the India de la Floresta) as payback for the knight’s earlier deeds in saving her. Once set free, DQ returns home and the novel ends. The novel is adorned with 20 original and interesting, if less than excellent, engravings. The uninspired and derivative Otero illustrates as well as anyone why literal sequels to DQ are only very rarely good novels. Bibliography: Luis Otero y Pimentel, Semblanzas caballerescas, o Las nuevas aventuras de Don Qui
Page 534 jote de la Mancha (Habana, Cuba: Tipografía de “El Eco Militar,” 1886).
Other Don Quixote [Otro don Quijote]. A reference to DQA in the dedication to DQ II.
Other great musician. *Amphion.
Other one [Otro]. Of the six religious poets cited on Parnassus in Parnaso 4, the last one remains unnamed, but the description of his work as a dramatist has led critics and editors of Parnaso to identify him as *Tirso de Molina.
Othón, Manuel José (1858–1906). Mexican poet. He is the author of a oneact play entitled El último capítulo (1906; The Last Chapter), which presents MC in his home, in conversation with various people. He also wrote a poem entitled “Don Quijote y Dulcinea.”
Otomana, Casa. *Ottoman or Turkish Empire .
Otro. *Other one.
Otro don Quijote. *Other Don Quixote.
Otro gran músico. *Amphion.
Ottoman or Turkish Empire [Casa Otomana]. The Islamic empire based in Constantinople, Turkey, that came into being in the fourteenth century and lasted until 1922 (*Osman). Particularly under the leadership of Suleiman the Magnificent, this militant superpower became Spain’s (and Europe’s) most formidable enemy in the Renaissance. The capital city of Constantinople was larger than the ten largest cities of Spain combined. Muslim Turks and Christian forces led by Spain sparred and skirmished throughout the sixteenth century until the decisive Christian victory in the battle of *Lepanto in 1571. The Turkish threat remained, however, and Turkish piratry in the Mediterranean and the fear of raids along the Mediterranean coast were a constant concern. See, for example, references to or comments about the Turks in Cueva; DQ I, 39–40; DQ II, 1, 6; Persiles III, 12.
Oudin, César. *First translations of Don Quixote.
Our depraved age [Depravada edad nuestra]. A term used by DQ in II, 1, to refer to the present. Implicitly, it is meant to stand in comparison with the *golden age of the past.
Our…ingenious poet; Our great Spanish poet. *Garcilaso de la Vega.
Our Lady of Almudena (Church of Santa María) [Nuestra Señora de la Almudena (Iglesia de Santa María)]. Formerly the Church of Santa María, later renamed in honor of the Virgin of Almudena, patron saint of Madrid. In MC’s age, Santa María was the oldest and most venerated church in Madrid. Construction of the great modern structure was begun in the late nineteenth century and not finished until late in the twentieth century. See Gitanilla.
Our Lady of Atocha [Nuestra Señora de Atocha]. A church in Madrid, which houses a much revered image of the Virgin. See Entretenida 1.
Our Lady of Carmen [Nuestra Señora del Carmen]. A Carmelite monastery in Toledo, in which *Saint Juan de la Cruz was imprisoned, had some of his most profound mystical experiences, and wrote some of his famous poetry. The building was demolished in the nineteenth century. See Fregona.
Our Lady of Constantinople [Nuestra Señora de Constantinopla]. Convent where Doña Alfonsa *González was a nun. See Poesías 35.
Our Lady of Guadalupe [Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe]. A famous monastery located between Toledo and Mérida. Its statue of the Virgin Mary became a shrine visited by many thousands of pilgrims, beginning in the fourteenth century. Both Christopher Columbus and Hernán Cortés made the trip to ask for the blessing of Our Lady before embarking on their famous voyages for the New World. In Persiles
Page 535 III, 2, 4–5, it is an important destination for the pilgrims from the north and is the place where the beautiful singing voice of *Feliciana de la Voz is heard by her relatives and makes possible the resolution of her story. See also Adjunta; Casamiento; Celoso; Entretenida 1; Fregona; Persiles III, 2, 4–5.
Our Lady of Hope [Nuestra Señora de Esperanza]. A monastery outside the walls of the city of Ocaña. It was destroyed 1808 in the War of Independence against Napoleon. See Persiles III, 9.
Our Lady of Illescas [Nuestra Señora de Illescas]. A venerated temple in the town of Illescas. See Entretenida 1.
Our Lady of la Cabeza. *Sagrario.
Our Lady of Loreto [Nuestra Señora de Loreto]. Loreto, a city near Ancona in Italy, is the location of what is supposed to be the House of the Blessed Virgin, the home in which the Virgin Mary was living at the time of the Annunciation. The building was miraculously transported by two angels to Loreto in 1295. See Vidriera.
Our Lady of Peña de Francia [Nuestra Señora de la Peña de Francia]. A Dominican monastery situated at the summit of the highest mountain in the Sierra de Francia range in northwestern Spain, located east and slightly south of Ciudad Rodrigo and south and somewhat west of Salamanca, in the Parque Natural de las Batuecas. In the late fifteenth century, an image of the Virgin was discovered there and a monastery was founded on the site. In Gitanilla, it is cited as the supposed destination of Clemente when he is discovered by the gypsies. See also DQ II, 22.
Our Lady of San Llorente (San Lorenzo) [Nuestra Señora de San Llorente (San Lorenzo)]. Llorente was a Christian martyr burned alive in Rome. The church to the Virgin in his honor, located in Valladolid, was the site of the baptism of Felipe IV in 1605. The event is celebrated in a ballad sung by Preciosa in Gitanilla, where the church is also referred to as the Temple of the Holy Phoenix, a reference to Llorente’s death in the flames and his (metaphorical) rising up again. See also Celoso; Casamiento.
Our Lady of the Waters [Nuestra Señora de las Aguas]. An image of the Virgin in the church of San Salvador in Seville; it was often prayed to in times of drought. See Rinconete.
Our poet. *Garcilaso de la Vega.
Outsider [Forastero]. In DQ II, 51, the man who submits the question about the liar’s paradox to governor SP.
Ovando, Constanza de (Constanza de Figueroa) (ca. 1565–1622). Illegitimate daughter of MC’s sister Andrea. She was MC’s favorite niece and he only refers to her in very warm terms. In the 1590s she became involved with the noble Pedro de *Lanuza; at the time she was five years older than he. Later, after Lanuza cleared up some legal problems involving his brother, he abandoned her, leaving a document acknowledging that he owed her a certain amount of money. Constanza lived with MC and other members of the family in Valladolid in 1603–6. In 1608 she was involved in a court action against a man named Francisco Leal, most probably as a result of another love affair. MC’s reference to his niece in Adjunta is almost certainly a reference to Constanza, and it is noteworthy that his characters named Constanza in Gitanilla, Fregona, and Persiles are all very positive and beautiful young women.
Ovando, Nicolás de. Spanish nobleman who had an affair with Andrea de *Cervantes and was the father of her only daughter.
Ovejas y carneros. *Sheep.
Overmyer, Eric. American dramatist. Overmyer’s Don Quixote de La Jolla (1993) is pure burlesque, a madcap play about actors acting as actors acting out something more or less about DQ. Don and Sancho (a.k.a. Pancho Sanchez)
Page 536 talk about the roles they are to play and occasionally read from the Smollett translation of DQ; they ride bicycles representing Rocinante and the rucio; they frequently run afoul of the evil, webfooted Yanguesian carriers; DT (Dulce, Dulcy) dresses at times like Marilyn Monroe; Mambrino’s helmet is a World War I doughboy’s helmet; SP and DT dance the meringue, the waltz, and even the ‘lubricious lambada’; at one point DQ, SP, and DT descend to the orchestra pit, don fake moustaches and glasses, and play music. The dialogue is full of show business clichés and allusions to popular theater (including, of course, Man of La Mancha) and film. At one point the actors stage a puppet play, which DT describes thus: “This is the scene where Don Quixote and Pancho Sanchez come to this inn, and watch a puppet play about Don Quixote and Pancho Sanchez who come to this inn to watch a puppet play”; it reminds SP of Pirandello. They never get to the windmill scene, leaving that for tomorrow night’s performance. Not for purists, but occasionally great fun. Bibliography: Eric Overmyer, Don Quixote de La Jolla (New York: Broadway Play Publishing, 1993).
Ovid [Ovidio]: Publius Ovidius Naso (43 BCECE 17). Roman poet. Ovid is best remembered for his Ars amatoria (The Art of Love) and Metamorphoses, a collection of stories from Greek myth and Roman legend in which transformations (metamorphoses) play some part. The latter, especially, made its author perhaps the most popular of all Roman writers during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. It was the former, however, which occasioned his banishment by the Emperor Augustus, who, among other things, was ostensibly offended by its risqué theme at a time that he was promoting moral reforms. Ovid spent the last ten years of his life in Tomis, a city on the shores of the Black Sea, suffering in his cruel exile among the barbarians rather than in his beloved Rome. See DQ I, prologue, 6; DQ II, 22; Galatea 6; Parnaso 7; Vidriera; Vizcaino.
Ovidio español. *Metamorfóseos o Ovidio español.
Oviedo, El señor. *Lamberto de Oviedo.
Oviedo, Miguel de. Spanish civil servant. He succeeded Pedro de *Isunza as quartermaster general for the crown and in 1594 closed down the commission that employed MC to requisition supplies for the government.
Ovillejo. A complicated verse form consisting of stanzas of ten lines. The octosyllabic lines one, three, and five ask questions, which are answered in shorter lines (usually three or four syllables) in lines two, four, and six, each of which rhymes with the previous line. The final four octosyllabic lines are in the form of a redondilla (abba), with the last line consisting of the words of the three answers from lines two, four, and six. MC is one of the few poets who cultivates this stanza, using it for Cardenio’s lament in DQ I, 27, and in Fregona. These are the first two known uses of this precise form in Spanish poetry, although there are very similar examples of echo poetry from the Middle Ages and Renaissance.
Owner of an oxcart. *Carter.
Owner of the escape ship [Patrón de la barca]. In Baños 3, a man who appears briefly as the Christians make their escape.
Owner of the inn or lodging [Dueño del mesón o hospedaje]. *Innkeeper.
Oxcart [Carro de bueyes]. In DQ I, 46–52, what is used to transport DQ back home at the end of the novel. Although what DQ says at the beginning of I, 47, about this being a novel means of travel during enchantment, is generally true, there are some previous examples. The best known is that of Lancelot in Chrétien de Troyes’s Le Chevalier de la Charette (twelfth century; The Knight of the Cart), although in this instance Lancelot is not enchanted during his cart ride.
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P Pablo. *Pastoral names.
Pacheco de Narváez, Luis. *Spanish writer. Pacheco is the author of Grandezas de la espada (1600; Greatness of the Sword), the bestknown treatise on fencing of the time. Pacheco’s approach was “scientific” in the sense of being based on precise placement of the feet, specific angles of the weapon, and so forth, and stood in direct contrast to other approaches that stressed emotion and energy over form. This controversial theory is vindicated in the duel between the licentiate and *Corchuelo in DQ II, 19.
Pacheco, (Licenciado Francisco) (1535–99). Spanish humanist and priest who held the position of canon in the cathedral of Seville. He is praised as a poet in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Pacheco, Mary. American writer. Pacheco is the author of The New Don Quixote (1900), a novel of romance in which Arizona rancher Robert Vane (later earl of Chillingworth) is known as “the new DQ” because of his idealism, generosity, awkwardness, courage, courtesy, and love for an idealized woman. In the course of the novel, Vane thwarts the dishonest mining scam and marriage plans of the evil Reginald Dangerfield; punishes him for seducing Jovita, an innocent young Mexican woman; exposes the schemes of a false countess who attempts to marry into money; arranges the happy marriage of Jovita with José and sets up the poor but honest couple with a ranch of their own; identifies the real heir to the Chillingworth title, which he renounces; and winds up marrying Edith, his DT from the start of the novel. Bibliography: Mary Pacheco, The New Don Quixote (New York: Abbey Press, 1900).
Pachino [Paquino]. City and promontory on the southeast coast of Sicily near Syracuse. See Amante.
Pactolus [Pactolo]. A tributary of the ancient Hermus River in Turkey; according to legend, it had (like the Tagus) sands of gold (in this case, a result of King *Midas having bathed in the river). See DQ I, 18; Parnaso 1.
Padilla, Fray Pedro de (1550–ca. 1599). A poet highly praised by Lope de *Vega and other contemporaries, including MC, who wrote five prefatory poems for him: 1) a sonnet (Poesías 10) for Padilla’s Cancionero (1583; Songbook), 2) a poem of 16 *redondillas (Poesías 12) for his Jardín espiritual (1585; Spiritual Garden), 3) a poem of six *silvas (Poesías 13) also for the Jardín, and 4) a sonnet (Poesías 14) in praise of San Francisco also for the Jardín, and 5) a sonnet (Poesías 18) for his Grandezas y excelencias de la Virgen señora nuestra (1587; Grandeur and Excellences of Our Lady the Virgin). Padilla is praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6, but is not mentioned in Parnaso. His Tesoro de varias poesías (1580; Treasure of Various Poems) is mentioned in the examination of DQ’s library (I, 6), where it is spared from the flames but criticized as being excessively long and very uneven in quality. Padilla, who in 1585 entered a Carmelite Order and turned from writing secular poetry to writing spiritual and religious verse, probably formed
Page 538 part of a circle of MC’s friends that included Juan Rufo and others.
Padre. *Father.
Padre de [Spanish name]. *[Same name’s] father.
Padre de Ascanio Colona. *Colonna, Ascanio.
Padre de las aguas. *Neptune
Padre de Teresa. *Cascajo.
Padre Santo. *Pope.
Padre y madre. *Father and mother.
Padrenuestro. *Four prayers.
Padres de [Spanish name]. *[Same name’s] parents.
Padrón de Merlín. *Merlin’s column.
Pafos. *Paphos.
Pagán de Oria. *Doria, Pagano.
Page(s) [Paje(s)]. 1. A young man of good social rank who serves in a noble household. 2. In Casa 1, the servant who announces the arrival of Angélica. 3. In Sultana 1, the servant who accompanies the Gran Turco in his first appearance on stage. 4. In Laberinto 1, a servant who puts in a minor appearance. 5. In DQ II, 35, the duke’s servant who plays the role of DT in the procession of enchanters and then delivers the letters to Teresa Panza in DQ II, 50. 6. In DQ II, 38, the three servants who hold the three sections of Countess Trifaldi’s skirt when she enters the duke’s palace. 7. In DQ II, 47, the four servants of the duke who attend to SP during his first meal as governor. One, dressed as a student, says grace; another places a lace bib around SP’s neck; and a third, who acts as a steward, places dishes of food before him and then removes them as ordered by Doctor *Pedro Recio de Agüero. 8. *Young man; page.
Page poet. *Clemente.
Painter [Pintor]. 1. A character mentioned by Teresa Panza in the letter to her husband in DQ II, 52. 2. In Persiles III, 1, in Lisbon, the artist who paints a large *canvas on which are represented all the adventures Periandro, Auristela, and the others had in Books I and II. This canvas is then used as a visual aid when Antonio the younger narrates the group’s trials in the far north. 3. In Persiles III, 13, the artist who paints a portrait of Auristela for the duke of Nemurs. This portrait is the cause of the neardeadly fight between the duke and Arnaldo in IV, 2. 4. In Persiles IV, 6, the artist who owns the portrait of Auristela as a sort of queen of the world and for which Prince Arnaldo and the duke of Nemurs engage in a bidding war. But Periandro buys the painting and gives it to the governor of Rome (IV, 7).
Paisiello, Giovanni. *Lorenzi, Giambasttista.
Pajares, Nicasio (1881–1956). Spanish novelist. Pajares’s Don Quijote y tío Sam (Novela pseudohistórica y fantástica) (1930; Don Quixote and Uncle Sam [PseudoHistorical and Fantastic Novel]) is a weak political fantasy in which Alonso Quijano el Bueno, accompanied by friends who represent the various regions of Spain, travels to the United States, meets Uncle Sam, gets involved in world politics up through the year 2092, and winds up making an expedition to help some Native Americans in Alaska. Bibliography: Nicasio Pajares, Don Quijote y tío Sam (Novela pseudohistórica y fantástica) (Madrid: Compañía IberoAmericana de Publicaciones, 1930).
Paje. *Young man; page.
Paje poeta. *Clemente.
Pajecillo. *Young page.
Palacio de Madrid. *Madrid palace.
Palacio Valdés, Armando (1853–1938). Spanish novelist, shortstory writer, and essayist. His Marta y María (1883; Martha and Mary) is inspired by the characters of the prag
Page 539 matic Martha and the spiritual Mary of the New Testament. At the same time, as Palacio Valdés states in his preface to the novel, it is his explicit effort to imitate MC’s accomplishment with the romances of chivalry by using saints’ lives as the source of the mysticism of an impressionable young woman. María is an avid reader of the romantic novels of her age—those of Walter Scott and others. After long dreaming, like Emma Bovary, of becoming a kind of romantic heroine herself, she discovers a new source of inspiration: the lives of Saint Teresa and other women saints. She begins to imitate their humility, good deeds, and mystical ecstasies; at the end of the novel, she takes the veil. Meanwhile, Ricardo, the man María had long been planning to marry, is slowly won over to the simple, gentle, practical, and loving ways of her sister Marta. Bibliography: Armando Palacio Valdés, Marta y María (Barcelona: F.Pérez, 1883).
Palacios, Catalina de (?–1588). Motherinlaw of MC. She was a recent widow with three children when MC arrived in *Esquivias in 1584 and within a very short time married her daughter, also called Catalina.
Palacios, Catalina de (1565–1626). The wife of MC. Some confusion surrounds her name, as Catalina, like many of the age (including her husband), was very casual and inconsistent in the ways she referred to herself. Her signature exists as Catalina de: Palacios y Salazar, Salazar Vozmediana, Salazar y Palacios, Salazar, and Vozmediano. The inconsistency is further compounded in modern biographers and other scholars who refer to her as (Doña) Catalina de: Cervantes, Palacios, Palacios Salazar, Palacios Salazar (y) Vozmediano, Salazar, and Salazar y Palacios. Take your choice. Catalina was barely half the age of MC when they married in 1584 in her native town of *Esquivias (he was 37 and she just 19). Catalina’s uncle Juan, a priest, presided at the ceremony in the Church of Santa María de la Asunción. They had no children and lived apart much of the time, especially when MC was traveling throughout Andalusia as provisioner and tax collector in the years 1587–1603, although MC did spend some time in Esquivias with his wife during these years. In 1604, after settling the estate of her mother, Catalina joined MC and other members of his family in Valladolid (but she was briefly away in Esquivias when Gaspar de *Ezpeleta was killed in front of the building where MC and family lived). The two of them lived together for the rest of MC’s life, and Catalina arranged for the publication of Persiles after her husband’s death. It has often been assumed, but never proven, that because of the long periods of separation and the fact that there were no children, the marriage was unsuccessful. In a notarized document dated April 28, 1587, as he was about to begin his career as a commissary, MC gave extensive powerofattorney to Catalina, placing her in a position to dispose of his goods, finances, and future earnings. It has been suggested, not implausibly, that this is the equivalent of a de facto divorce settlement. But the fact that MC and Catalina maintained an ongoing relationship, and lived together for the last 12 years of his life, suggests that there was never any complete rupture in their marriage. In 1609 Catalina (along with MC’s sisters Andrea and Magdalena) took the habit of the *Third Order of Saint Francis. It is interesting to note that in her will, Catalina mentioned Constanza de *Ovando, MC’s niece, but not his daughter Isabel. Bibliography: Daniel Eisenberg, “El convenio de separación de Cervantes y su mujer Catalina,” Anales Cervantinos 35 (1999):143–47.
Palacios, Juan de (?–1595). Brother of Catalina de *Palacios, MC’s motherinlaw, and a priest in Esquivias. When the prosperous priest died, his niece Catalina de Palacios, MC’s wife, inherited some of his land and belongings.
Paladión de Troya. *Palladium of Troy.
Palafoxes. An Aragonese family name mentioned in DQ I, 13.
Palanca. A region in Angola, then a Portuguese colony, located on the southwest coast of Africa. See Cueva.
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Paleazzo, Giacome. An Italian architect known as El Fratín (the Little Friar) who worked for Carlos V and Felipe II. Among other things, he oversaw the fortification of Gibraltar and built the defenses of Oran (Gallardo 1). See also DQ I, 40.
Palermo. A seaport in northern Sicily. See Amante; Vidriera.
Palinurus [Palinuro]. In Virgil’s Aeneid, the pilot of Aeneas’s ship. See DQ I, 43.
Palladium of Troy [Paladión de Troya]. A small wooden image of an armed Athena that was the guardian statue of the city of Troy. Odysseus and Diomedes stole the palladium (but this episode is not included by Homer), which made possible the sack of Troy. Later, it was recovered by Aeneas, who brought it to Lavinium, from which it made its way to Rome. DQ uses the term as the name of the Trojan Horse (supposedly constructed with the divine assistance of Pallas), a common confusion during his time. See DQ II, 41.
Pallas [Palas]. 1. An ambiguous term in Greek that frequently refers to the brandishing of weapons. It was often used with the goddess Athena, in connection with the *palladium of Troy, so that she was often referred to as Pallas Athena. See Galatea 6. 2. A Portuguese family name mentioned in DQ I, 13.
Palma, Ricardo (1833–1919). Peruvian writer. Palma is most famous for his historical, folkloric, imaginative Tradiciones peruanas (published between 1871 and 1910; Peruvian Traditions), one of which is entitled “Sobre el Quijote en América” (“Concerning Don Quixote in America”). In it, Palma imagines a tale of the arrival of the first copy of DQ in Lima: the book is sent as a gift to the viceroy of Peru, who gives it to Diego de Hojeda, Spanish Dominican priest and epic poet, author of La cristíada (1611; The Christiad, the story of Christ’s passion), who, in turn, leaves it in the Dominican monastery in Lima, where it is read by a number of people. Palma also wrote a poem entitled “En la última página del Quijote” (“On the Last Page of Don Quixote”).
Palmas, arroyo de las. *Brook of the Palm Trees.
Palmerín cycle. A series of romances of chivalry comparable to the *Amadís cycle in the sixteenth century. The cycle is composed of the following works: Book 1, Palmerín de Olivia (1511), probably by Francisco *Vázquez; Book 2, Primaleón (1516), also probably by Vázquez; Book 3, Platir (1533), attributed to Francisco de *Enciso Zárate; and Book 4, Palmerín de Inglaterra (1547), by Francisco de *Moraes, clearly the best of the group. All four books are cited in DQ I, 6. Among them, they were published a total of 36 times in the sixteenth century, which suggests that although the series was only a third the length of the Amadís cycle, the books were comparably popular. Bibliography: Mari Carmen Marín Pina, “El ciclo español de los Palmerines,” Voz y Letra 7, no. 2 (1996):3–27; and Mary Patchell, The Palmerin Romances in Elizabethan Prose Fiction (New York: Columbia University Press, 1947).
Palmerín de Ingalaterra. *Moraes, Francisco de.
Palmerín de Olivia. *Vázquez, Francisco.
Palmilla de Cuenca. *Cuenca.
Paloma tobosina. *Tobosan dove.
Palomares. In Sultana 1, a Christian captive freed by the spy Andrea.
Palus Meoticus [Meótides]. The Latin name of what is now known as the Sea of Azov (a gulf of the Black Sea). In DQ I, 29, the priest mispronounces the name as *Meona.
Pamonés, Francisco de. A poet known for his comic verse. He is praised in Parnaso 4.
Pancaya. *Panchaia.
Panchaia [Pancaya]. An area in Arabia Felix (modern Yemen), a fertile region known for
Page 541 its aromatic plants and spices. See DQ II, 38; Parnaso 6.
Pancino. The pastoral name DQ suggests for SP. See DQ II, 67, 73.
Pancracio. In Cueva, the deceived husband who is made to believe that his wife’s lover is a figure conjured up by magic.
Pancracio de Roncesvalles. In Adjunta, the young (fictional) poet of about 24 years of age who meets MC in Madrid, talks with him about poetry and theater, describes his own recent trip to Parnassus, and delivers a letter from Apollo.
Pandafilando de la Fosca Vista. In DQ I, 30, the evil giant who has threatened the throne of Princess *Micomicona and whom DQ is to kill. In I, 35, in the inn of Juan Palomeque, DQ dreams that he is fighting Pandafilando and slashes several wineskins with his sword, causing a mess that must be cleaned up and paid for by others. A source for this episode is a scene in Apuleius’s Golden Ass.
Pandahilado, Señor. In DQ I, 30, SP’s mispronunciation of the name of Pandafilando, the evil giant in Princess *Micomicona’s story. SP, aware of the frequency of the archaic fin DQ’s chivalric *fabla, changes the f to h, and then also changes the present participle form to a past participle.
Panduro. In Elección, one of the two aldermen who interview candidates for magistrate.
Paniaguado. *Academicians of Argamasilla.
Paño de Cuenca. *Woolen cloth from Cuenca.
Pantasilea. *Penthesilea.
Pantasilonte. An infernal deity (invented by MC) evoked by Fátima in Tratos 2.
Pantelleria [Pantanalea]. A Mediterranean island located approximately halfway between Sicily and Tunis. See Amante; Galatea 5.
Panza. The way in which Countess Trifaldi refers to SP in her appeal for help in DQ II, 38.
Panzas. The family line from which SP descends. See DQ II, 50, 53, 68.
Papal guards [Guarda del Pontífice, Guarda del Pontificado]. The elite guards, to whom MC refers as tudescos (Germans), known today as the Swiss Guards. See Persiles IV, 7.
Paphos [Pafos]. A port city on the southwest coast of Cyprus. It was reputed to be the birthplace and residence of Aphrodite and was the site of a temple dedicated to her. See Persiles I, 21.
Papin, Pierre. A Frenchman who owned a playingcard store and gambling house on the *Calle de la Sierpe in Seville. In all probability MC knew him personally, as he is mentioned, absurdly, among the knightserrant in DQ’s description of the participants in the battle of the two armies (i.e., sheep) in I, 18. See also Rufián 1.
Paquino. *Pachino.
Paraíso Terrenal. *Earthly Paradise.
Paralipomenón of the Three Stars, Don [Don Paralipomenón de las Tres Estrellas]. In DQ II, 40, the name of a knighterrant that SP invents when explaining why he does not want to accompany his master on the flying horse Clavileño. The name comes from a series of Old Testament texts called Paralimpomenon, meaning things left out, or omitted; they are a kind of supplement to the books of the Kings. It is doubtful that SP has any idea what the word might mean, but it is likely that it was used by one of the preachers he has heard in church and suddenly came to mind as he had to invent a highsounding chivalric name on the spot.
Paravicino, Hortensio Félix (Ortensio) (1580–1633). Spanish poet and priest. A graduate of the University of Alcalá, Paravicino was considered the greatest religious orator of his
Page 542 age. He was also a very highly esteemed poet and as such is mentioned by Lope de *Vega and Francisco de *Quevedo. His portrait was painted by El Greco. In the list of six religious poets on Parnassus in Parnaso 4, there is one called simply “Ortensio,” but since nothing is known of anyone by this last name, it is generally assumed that the reference is to Hortensio Paravicino.
Parca(s). *Fates.
Pardo, Juan. The man who acted as godfather for MC when he was baptized in October 1547.
Paredes, Don Antonio de (?–ca. 1629). Spanish poet and knight in the *Order of Santiago. He was a friend of *Góngora’s and an active participant in the literary academies of Madrid. He is praised in Parnaso 2.
Paredes, Pedro Pablo (1917–). Venezuelan writer. His Leyendas del “Quijote” (1977; Legends of “Don Quixote”) is a fairly charming and wellwritten collection of reminiscences or depositions about DQ from more than four dozen of the people who knew or had at least brief contact with him: his niece, Pedro Alonso, SP, DT, and others. Bibliography: Ernestina Salcedo Pizani, “El Quijote como permanente posibilidad de recreaciones del tema: Dos ejemplos venezolanos: Don Quijote en America, de don Tulio Febres Cordero (1905), y Leyendas del Quijote, de Pedro Pablo Paredes (1977),” in Cervantes, su obra y su mundo: Actas del I Congreso Internacional sobre Cervantes, ed. Manuel Criado de Val (Madrid: Edi6, 1981), 933–42.
Pareja (y) Díez Canseco (Diezcanseco), Alfredo (1908–). Ecuadorian novelist. Pareja y Díaz Canseco’s Hechos y hazañas de don Balón de Baba y de su amigo Inocente Cruz (1939; Deeds and Exploits of Don Balón de Baba and of His Friend Inocente Cruz) is the story of a truly extravagant quixotic figure. Don Balón is a combination mad scientist, selfproclaimed messiah, inventor, political revolutionary, modernday knighterrant, platonic lover, and egomaniac. He dreams, imagines, invents, rationalizes, exaggerates, and lies in his relations with everyone. He defends the needy, rescues damsels in distress, dismisses and insults anyone who questions his interpretation of things, and maintains a frantic pace of activity. At one point, Don Balón gives a speech on the Golden Age of the future, partially paraphrasing DQ’s speech to the goatherds in I, 11. His DT is Cándida, an attractive, young neighbor who lives across the street and who strings him along in her answers to his rhetorical love letters. His SP is his friend Don Inocente Cruz de Sepedillo, who often speaks in proverbs, tries in vain to point out reality, has his own sorry episode with a purgatory reminiscent of the balm of Fierabrás, writes to his wife about his mad friend and their adventures, and gets drawn reluctantly into Don Balón’s adventures. At the end of the novel, after a political speech to a labor union fails and he is pursued into the forest by police, Don Balón dies and is eaten by dogs. Bibliography: Alfredo Pareja y Díez Canseco, Hechos y hazañas de don Balón de Baba y de su amigo Inocente Cruz (Buenos Aires: Club del Libro, 1939).
Pariati, Paolo. *Zeno, Apostolo.
Pariente, Cosme. Spanish poet praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Paris [París]. Capital of France, located on the Seine River. Most references in the works of MC are to the great university located in the city. See Casa 2; DQ I, 18; DQ II, 18, 26; Española; Persiles III, 13, 19; Sultana 2; Vidriera.
Paris (Bold guest) [Atrevido huésped]. The son of Priam and Hecuba who was asked by Hera, Aphrodite, and Athena to choose the most beautiful among them. When he chose Aphrodite, she rewarded him with the most beautiful woman in the world—Helen, wife of Menelaus of Sparta. Paris was the guest of Menelaus when he fell in love with Helen, abducted her, and fled to Troy. This is what set in motion the events of the Trojan War. See DQ II, 71; Laberinto 2.
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Parish priest [Cura de la parroquia]. In Fuerza, the man brought to the house where Rodolfo and Leocadia are reunited in order to marry them that very evening.
Parlero, el. *Mercury.
Parliament of Death, The. *Cortes de la Muerte, Las.
Parma. A city, and former duchy, in northern Italy. See Vidriera.
Parma, Duque de. *Farnesio, Alejandro.
Parmindro. In Galatea 1, a shepherd from the Betis (Guadalquivir) River, the father of Leonida.
Parnassus (Sacred Mountain) [Parnaso (Sacro Monte)]. A mountain in Greece, located just north of Delphi. It was a sacred location, associated with Apollo and the muses. It is the location for most of the action in MC’s mockepic Parnaso. See also Galatea 6; Persiles III, 2; Poesías 6, 13, 28, 29, 32.
Parr, James A. Theorist of the novel. One of the most prolific and influential students of the narrative structure of DQ, Parr’s “Don Quixote”: An Anatomy of Subversive Discourse (1988) is a major contribution to the field. Staking out a unique position in MC studies, Parr maintains that DQ is not a novel at all, but a “prenovelistic narrative,” a Menippean satire. The main problem with this position is that even as he draws upon the work of M.M. *Bakhtin (along with Northrup Frye the greatest student of the subject) for its concept of Menippean satire, Parr does not accept Bakhtin’s explicit endorsement of DQ as the prototype of the novel that emerges in the Renaissance. For all its brilliance in its study of the way MC subverts textual authority in DQ, Parr’s book fails to convince in its section on genre. In a later essay, Parr again denies that DQ is a novel, calling it primarily a (Menippean) satire, and even seems to call MC to task for not explicitly recognizing his work’s nonnovelistic genre. Bibliography: James A.Parr, “Comparataive Anatomy: Cervantes’s Don Quixote and Furetière’s Le Roman bourgeois,” in Echoes and Inscriptions: Comparative Approaches to Early Modern Spanish Literatures, ed. Barbara A.Simerka and Christopher B.Weimer (Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 2000), 108–24; and James A.Parr, “Don Quixote”: An Anatomy of Subversive Discourse (Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 1988), 108–24.
Parrhasius [Parrasio] (fourth century BCE). Greek painter, none of whose work survives. According to a famous anecdote, Parrhasius and *Zeuxis held a competition to see who could paint the most realistic painting. Zeuxis painted a bunch of grapes so realistic that a bird flew down to peck at them. Assured of victory, Zeuxis asked Parrhasius to draw back the curtain concealing his painting, but the curtain was the painting itself, and Parrhasius was declared the winner. See DQ II, 32; Persiles IV, 7.
Parte que es mejor de España. *Best part of Spain.
Partenio. A shepherd mentioned in Casa 2.
Partes de Don Quijote I. *Parts of Don Quixote I.
Parthenope [Parténope]. In Greek myth, one of the *sirens. In some versions, she threw herself into the sea when her song was not able to lure Odysseus into a shipwreck. It was believed that her body washed ashore in what is now the bay of *Naples, and so Parthenope was the name of the Greek colony on that site and thus another name for that city. See Parnaso 3, 8; Persiles IV, 12.
Parthians [Partos]. The inhabitants of ancient Parthia, an ancient kingdom of modern Iran. See DQ I, 18.
Partisans of Camacho [Valedores de Camacho]. Camacho’s friends at his wedding ceremony who are angry when they see that Basilio’s trick has deprived Camacho of his intended bride. See DQ II, 21.
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Parts of Don Quixote I [Partes de Don Quijote I]. DQ I is divided into four parts: Part I, chapters 1–8; Part II, chapters 9–14; Part III, chapters 15–27; and Part IV, chapters 28–52. But DQ II was called simply Part II, and there are no comparable divisions within the sequel. Although they are often maintained in editions and translations of DQ I, these parts play no functional role at all.
Pasamonte, Jerónimo de (1553–ca. 1605). Soldier and autobiographer who could also have been the author of DQA. Like MC, Pasamonte participated in the battle of Lepanto in 1571, and the two soldiers served together in the Spanish army in Italy during the years 1571–73. MC and Pasamonte almost certainly knew each other. Like MC, Pasamonte also spent time in captivity; he was taken prisoner in the fall of La Goleta in 1574 and spent the years 1574–92 as a captive in Constantinople and North Africa. It is also possible that the two men met again in Madrid in 1594 or 1595. Pasamonte’s autobiography, Vida y trabajos de Jerónimo de Pasamonte (unpublished autograph manuscript dated 1603; Life and Trials of Jerónimo de Pasamonte), could have been read by (or could at least have been known to) MC, and its author might have served as the model for the character of *Ginés de Pasamonte, pícaro and autobiographer, first introduced in I, 22. If he was offended by what MC wrote about him in DQ I, Pasamonte certainly had reason to strike back in a sequel. The case for Pasamonte’s authorship of DQA is a strong one, but far from definitive. Ultimately, the identity of *Avellaneda remains unknown. Bibliography: Alfonso Martín Jiménez, El “Quijote” de Cervantes y el “Quijote” de Pasamonte: Una imitación recíproca: La vida de Pasamonte y “Avellaneda” (Alcalá de Henares, Spain: Centre de Estudios Cervantinos, 2001); Helena Percas de Ponseti, “Un misterio dilucidado: Pasamonte fue Avellaneda,” Cervantes 22, no.1 (2002):127–54; and Martín de Riquer, Cervantes, Passamonte y Avellaneda (Barcelona: Sirmio, 1988).
Paschal [Pascua]. A church festival that extends over several days. There are four in Christianity: *Twelfth Night (Reyes), Pentacost (Pentecostés), *Easter (Flores), and *Christmas (Navidad).
Pascua de Natal. *Christmas.
Pascua de Reyes. *Twelfth Night.
Pascual. 1. In Pedro 1, a man mentioned as a welltodo resident of Junquillos and a possible suitor for the hand of Clemencia. 2. In Pedro 1, the man who changes his name to Roque so that he can marry Benita. These might be the same character, but, if so, that is not clear.
Paseo de San Felipe. A street or area in Madrid known as a *mentidero where soldiers exchanged information and gossip. See Parnaso 1.
Pasha(s) [Bajá(s)]. 1. A Turkish title given to highranking military officers such as provincial governor, more or less the equivalent of viceroy. It appears frequently in MC’s works dealing with warfare and captivity in Algiers and Constantinople, such as Tratos, Amante, Gallardo, Baños, and Sultana. 2. In Sultana 2, four men who mistreat the Persian ambassador when he speaks well of Spain and Felipe II.
Pasha of Chius [Bajá de Chío]. In Sultana 3, the position Doña Catalina proposes giving to Lamberto.
Pasha of Rhodes [Bajá de Rodas]. In Sultana 3, the position awarded to Lamberto by Amurates.
Pasillas, Bachiller. A name mentioned during Berganza’s stay with the drummer in Coloquio. It may refer to a folkloric figure popular at the time but who is unknown today.
Pasiphae [Pasífae]. In Greek myth, the wife of King Minos of Crete. After Minos refused her request to sacrifice a promised bull to Poseidon, god of the sea, Poseidon got revenge by making Pasiphae desire the bull sexually. With the help of Dedalus, she was able to gratify her unnatural passion and as a result gave birth to the Minotaur, a combination of bull and man.
Page 545 Pasiphae is not mentioned by name, but described in Persiles II, 3. See also Galatea 4.
Paso. A term used for short plays written in prose and featuring stock comic characters. The paso was particularly popular during the formative period of Spanish theater in the sixteenth century; probably the most celebrated author of pasos was Lope de *Rueda. The paso was a forerunner of the *interlude (entremés), a genre in which Cervantes excelled.
Paso, Alfonso (1926–78). Spanish dramatist. In 1961, the prolific Paso was invited to the Manchegan town of Alcázar de San Juan in order to deliver a lecture. The local mayor showed him the most valued treasures of the community, including a ruined fifteenthcentury tower. On his way back to Madrid, Paso began to imagine a play that would take place in the old tower. The result was Una tal Dulcinea (1961; A Certain Dulcinea), a play that mixes fantasy and reality, legend and life, timetravel (or not), an elaborate staged deceit, and a quixotic modern man who loves a woman from the past, accompanied by a comic realityinstructor friend who is his SP. There is no reference to MC or DT, but the play is clearly quixotic in the best sense of the word. Bibliography: Alfredo Marqueríe, Alfonso Paso y su teatro (Madrid: Escelicer, 1960); and Alfonso Paso, Una tal Dulcinea (Madrid: Alfil, 1961).
Paso honroso, Libro del. *Quiñones, Suero de.
Pastor. *Saint Justo and Saint Pastor.
Pastor(es). *Shepherd(s).
Pastor de Anfriso. *Apollo.
Pastor de Fílida. *Gálvez de Montalvo, Luis.
Pastor de Iberia. *Vega, Bernardo de la.
Pastor Fido. *Guarini, Giambattista.
Pastor portugués. *Portuguese shepherd.
Pastor viejo. *Elderly shepherd.
Pastoral names. In DQ I, 25, DQ explains to SP that the names of poetic and pastoral heroines are all inventions by their authors; he cites as examples all the Amarillises (Amariles), and all the Phyllises (Filis) (see also Parnaso 4), Sylvias (Silvias), Dianas, Galateas, and Alidas (or, if that name is a misprint, as many believe, perhaps it should be Fílidas). In DQ II, 73, when DQ tells the priest, the barber, and Sansón Carrasco that he is thinking of becoming a shepherd, Sansón enthusiastically endorses the idea and cites a number of common pastoral names: the Phyllises, Amarillises, Dianas, Fléridas, Galateas, and Belisardas. To these he adds Anarda for Ana, Francenia for Francisca, and Lucinda for Lucía. In Coloquio, Berganza contrasts real pastoral life with the life presented in pastoral literature; among other things, he comments on the artificiality of pastoral names: Amarilis, Fílida, Galatea, Diana, Lisardo, Lauso, Jacinto, and Riselo. All the shepherds he knew had realistic names: Antón, Domingo, Pablo, and Llorente. In Adjunta, Apollo sends MC a letter and a set of privileges, ordinances, and warnings for Spanish poets. In the latter, there is a list of common poetic, pastoral names: Amarili, Anarda, Clori, Filis, Fílida, and (facetiously) Juana Téllez.
Pastoral romance [Novela pastoril]. The pastoral in literature has roots that extend back to the earliest Greek poetry; it became a common literary theme and setting in Renaissance culture. Although it was never completely absent from Spanish literature in the Middle Ages, the poetry of *Garcilaso de la Vega, especially his elegant eclogues, established the pastoral alongside the chivalric as paradigmatic early in the sixteenth century. Italian models in both poetry and prose—particularly *Sannazaro’s Arcadia (1504; translated into Spanish in 1549)—played an important role in the popularity of things pastoral in Renaissance Spain. Jorge de *Montemayor’s La Diana (1559) initiated the vogue for pastoral romance in the second half of the sixteenth century. Pastoral literature traditionally involves noble pseudoshepherds involved in complicated plots of unrequited love, a Platonic view of love and beauty, a pleasant
Page 546 natural setting (locus amoenus), and a mixture of prose and lyric poetry. Beginning with Montemayor’s romance, pastoral names often disguise identities of real people, making the pastoral a genre associated with the roman à clef. The pastoral romance replaced the romance of chivalry as the most popular type of fiction in the second half of the sixteenth century, as dozens of such works appeared and were generally well received. MC’s first published book was the pastoral romance Galatea. *Pastoral themes and pastoral characters are to be found throughout the works of MC. Bibliography: JuanBautista AvalleArce, La novela pastoril española, 2nd ed. (Madrid: Ediciones Istmo, 1974); Francisco López Estrada, Los libros de pastures en la literatura española: La órbita previa (Madrid: Gredos, 1974); and Amadeu SoléLeris, The Spanish Pastoral Novel (Boston: Twayne, 1980).
Pastoral themes in Cervantes. MC’s first book was the pastoral romance Galatea. Though the chivalric is the primary motivating force in DQ, pastoral themes and characters are present throughout, and often the boundary between what is pastoral and what is chivalric is deliberately blurred. DQ’s speech on the *Golden Age (I, 11), the episode involving the pseudoshepherds Grisóstomo and Marcela (I, 12–14), the story of Leandra (I, 51), the merry shepherds of the feigned Arcadia (II, 58), and the plans made by DQ and SP to take up the pastoral life (II, 67) are some of the most obvious expressions of the concept in DQ, but implicitly as well as explicitly the pastoral informs much of the novel. As he did with the chivalric, MC both writes traditional pastoral literature and satirizes it. When searching for a manuscript that might continue the story of DQ after his first sources dry up (I, 9), MC maliciously cites the pastoral convention of the damsels who traipse some 80 years over hill and dale with their virginity slung over their backs and finally ‘go to their graves as pure as the mothers who bore them.’ The dog Berganza, protagonist of Coloquio, devastatingly contrasts the reality of the shepherd’s life in contrast with the literary version of the pastoral when he relates his time spent in the service of some real shepherds. Bibliography: Dominick Finello, Pastoral Themes and Forms in Cervantes’s Fiction (Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 1994); Pilar García Carcedo, La “Arcadia” en el “Quijote.” Originalidad en el tratamiento de los sets episodios pastoriles (Bilbao, Spain: Ediciones Beitia, 1996); and José J.Labrador Herraiz, and Juan Fernández Jiménez, eds., Cervantes and the Pastoral (Cleveland, OH: Cleveland State University, 1986).
Pastoras. *Shepherdesses.
Pastrana, Duke of. *Silva y Mendoza de la Cerda, Don Rodrigo (or Ruigómez).
Pastures of Córdoba [Dehesa de Córdoba]. Rich pastures for raising horses. See DQ I, 15.
Pata, La. *AlBatha.
Patán rústico, Don. *Rustic bumpkin.
Patio of the Council [Patio de los Concejos]. In MC’s day, the location of the Royal Council in Valladolid; today it is the Capitanía General. See Vidriera.
Patojo, El. A character merely mentioned in Rufián 1–2.
Patrón de la barca. *Owner of the escape ship.
Patrón de las Españas [Patron saint of Spain]. *Saint James the Great.
Patrón del hospedaje. *Innkeeper.
Patronage. Very little money was to be made from the writing of books in Renaissance and Baroque Spain. What profits were made from book sales more often went to printers than to writers, and pirated or unauthorized editions that brought authors no money at all were common. Probably the only writer who could have sustained himself from the income provided by his writings was Lope de Vega, whose enormous output in the theater brought in a large
Page 547 amount of money. Some writers—*Garcilaso de la Vega, for example, or Francisco de *Quevedo—were independently wealthy, or at least very comfortable, nobles who could simply write in their spare time. Others had some income from separate activities: Lope de Rueda was a goldsmith, Luis de *Góngora (like many others) was a priest; for years MC eked out a living as a commissary and tax collector, and even Lope de Vega served as private secretary to the duke of Sessa. But nearly everyone who published books also depended on the largesse of patrons. The system of patronage brought benefit to all involved: the writer could bask in the reflected glory of powerful and wealthy public figures, and the patron could gain recognition as a supporter of the arts. MC dedicated his first book, Galatea, to Ascanio Colona (a remnant of his Italian connection), and then dedicated DQ I to the duke of Béjar in hopes of receiving support from this important nobleman, but apparently none was forthcoming. Later MC’s more appreciative patrons included the count of Lemos (to whom he dedicated Novelas, Comedias, DQ II, and Persiles) and Lemos’s uncle, the archbishop of Toledo, Cardinal Bernardo Sandoval y Rojas. In Parnaso, he tried something else, dedicating the book to Don Rodrigo de Tapia, son of Pedro de Tapia of the Royal Council and the Holy Office of the Supreme Inquisition, in hopes of winning support from the powerful father. Probably the biggest disappointment in the latter part of MC’s life was when he was led to believe by the Argensola brothers that he would be included in the retinue of the count of Lemos when the count became viceroy of Naples and took a group of writers with him there. But MC was not included among the chosen and expressed his bitterness in comments made in Parnaso 3. Bibliography: Ronald G.Asch, and Adolf M. Birke, eds., Princes, Patronage, and the Nobility: The Court at the Beginning of the Modern Age, c. 1450– 1650 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991); Edward Baker, “Patronage, the Parody of an Institution in Don Quijote,” in Culture and the State in Spain: 1550– 1850, eds. Tom Lewis and Francisco J.Sánchez (New York: Garland, 1999), 102–25; and Harry Sieber, “The Magnificent Fountain: Literary Patronage in the Court of Philip III,” Cervantes 18, no. 2 (1998):85–116.
Pava. In Rufián 1, a prostitute who is mentioned but does not appear in the play.
Paveses. *Shields.
Pavia [Pavía]. A city in northern Italy; it was the site of Carlos V’s defeat and capture of Francis I, king of France. In Laberinto 1 there are references to the respected university located there.
Pavón. An inn in Novara, where Duke Anastasio takes a room. See Laberinto 2.
Paz de Octaviano; paz octaviano. *Octavian peace.
Peace of ChateauxCambrésis. The peace treaty signed between Spain and France in 1559, which made possible the marriage of Felipe II and *Isabel de Valois. MC alludes to this peace treaty in the opening lines of Poesías 2.
Peaceful possession [Posesión pacífica]. In DQ II, 20, one of the eight nymphs who participates in the celebration of *Camacho’s wedding.
Pearls [Perlas]. *Diamond cross.
Pearls from the South Sea. *South Sea.
Peasant(s) [Labrador(es)]. 1. In Pedro 3, a man who talks with Pedro de Urdemalas before Pedro joins the actors’ troupe. 2. DQ II, 9, a man DQ and SP ask for directions to DT’s palace in El Toboso. 3. In DQ II, 19, two travelers whom DQ and SP meet on the way to the wedding of Camacho and Quiteria. 4. In DQ II, 20, 12 participants, riding elegant horses, in the celebration of *Camacho’s wedding. 5. In DQ II, 47, the man who comes to Governor SP requesting help in providing a dowry so that his son can marry *Clara Perlerina. The man is falsely presented by both the page who announces his presence and the narrator as an
Page 548 honest and decent person. 6. In DQ II, 48, the wealthy peasant farmer who is a subject of, but lends money to, the duke. 7. In DQ II, 58, a dozen men who are transporting the *holy images to the church in their village. 8. In DQ II, 66, the representative of a large group who asks DQ and SP to resolve the issue of a race between a fat man and a thin man. The subject is one popular in folklore, as is SP’s solution—to have the fat man cut off weight rather than have the thin man carry extra weight. A possible source for the anecdote and the solution is Melchor de *Santa Cruz’s Floresta española. Bibliography: Ernest H.Templin, “Labradores in the Quijote,” Hispanic Review 30 (1962):21–52.
Peasant women [Labradoras]. In DQ II, 10, three residents of El Toboso who happen to be riding out of the city and whom SP presents to DQ as DT and two of her ladiesinwaiting (*Enchantment of Dulcinea).
Peasantry. In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, over 80 percent of the Spanish population consisted of peasants, that is, everyone who was not of the *nobility or *clergy. The most common terms for those who made up this large and amorphous group were labrador (farmer; a general term for those who worked the land), villano (villager; not with any hint of the English “villain”), and vulgo (common people, with a connotation of ignorance and vulgarity). In the city there was the hampa (vagabonds; the underworld) and a large number of *pícaros, as well as the mercaderes (merchant and shopkeepers) and the artesanos (tradesmen). In spite of conservative efforts to make the social and economic lines clearcut and obvious to all, the boundaries between categories were often blurred. A journeyman farm worker, for example, occupied the same category as—but stood at the opposite end of the spectrum from—a small but important group of wealthy labradores, whose economic condition was often far better than that of the lowest rank of the nobility, the hidalgos, even if their social status was inferior. This group clearly held a certain fascination for writers and others of the time, as is evidenced by works such Lope de *Vega’s Peribáñez and Calderón’s El alcalde de Zalamea, plays in which relationships between nobles and the daughters of welltodo and politically influential labradores form the central action. In MC’s works, also, there are a number of such figures. Especially noteworthy are the parents of Teolinda in Galatea 1; Dorotea’s father in Cardenio; Leandra’s father in DQ I, 51; Camacho the Rich, whose lavish wedding feast in DQ II, 20–21, is no commoner’s party; and the wealthy peasant who lends money to the duke as described by Doña Rodríguez in DQ II, 48. Also in DQ II, the son of a local peasant, Sansón Carrasco, is able to attend Salamanca and earn the degree of bachiller. Bibliography: Otis H.Green, “On the Attitude towards the Vulgo in the Spanish Siglo de Oro,” Studies in the Renaissance 4 (1957):190–200.
Peasant’s son [Hijo de un labrador]. The son of the wealthy man who lends money to the duke and who has seduced, but refuses to marry, the daughter of *Doña Rodríguez. See DQ II, 48, 52.
Pedro. 1. In Tratos 4, a captive who is talked out of renouncing his religion by Saavedra. 2. In DQ I, 12, the goatherd who tells the story of Grisóstomo and Marcela. An interesting feature of his discourse is the stylistic modulation of the narrative he tells. Although at the beginning he speaks as the rustic goatherd he is, with DQ frequently correcting his pronunciation and vocabulary, he winds up narrating the story in a much more elevated courtly style. 3. In Fregona, the son of the local magistrate (also called Periquito by his father), who is in love with and sings love songs to Constanza; he eventually marries the sister of his rival Tomás de Avendaño. 4. Mentioned as a generic name in Entretenida 2.
Pedro a Pedro. In DQ I, 47, SP uses the phrase “algo va de Pedro a Pedro” in the sense of ‘not all men are alike’ (i.e., one Pedro is not exactly the same as another man also named Pedro).
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Pedro Alonso. 1. In DQ I, 5, the peasant neighbor of DQ’s who finds him badly wounded after the encounter with the Toledan merchants, goes along with his ravings, and takes him home, waiting until after dark to enter the village in order not to embarrass DQ. 2. In Fregona, the elderly tutor who is supposed to accompany Diego de Carriazo and Tomás de Avendaño on their journey to Salamanca, but whom the youths deceive and abandon in Valladolid.
Pedro Alvarez. 1. In Tratos, a captive (also called Per Alvare) who plans his escape, considers converting to Islam (and calling himself Mamí), finally does make his escape, and is led to freedom by a lion in the last act. This theatrical episode is a reenactment of MC’s own first escape attempt in 1576. 2. In Gallardo 3, the name Vozmediano uses to deceive Don Juan de Valderrama.
Pedro Arias. In Rufián 1, a constable who is mentioned but does not appear in the play.
Pedro Benito. In Pedro 3, the deceased son of Marina Sánchez. Pedro de Urdemalas, in disguise as a pilgrim, promises, for the right price, to pray for his soul.
Pedro Capacho. In Retablo, the notary of the town where the marvelous show is produced.
Pedro Cobeño. In Persiles III, 8, the mayor who criticizes Tozuelo for dressing as a woman and whose daughter is pregnant by the youth.
Pedro de Aguilar, Don. *Aguilar, Don Pedro de.
Pedro de Alcalá. A name cited by SP in DQ I, 29, to illustrate the practice of taking one’s surname from the place in which one lives.
Pedro de Bustamante. In DQ I, 41, the uncle of one of the captives who escapes with Rui Pérez de Viedma. He is one of the 50 mounted men who first perceive the group that has just landed as Muslim raiders, but the truth of the situation is resolved when he recognizes his nephew.
Pedro de la Rana. In Elección, the successful candidate for the position of magistrate.
Pedro de Lobo. A resident of the village in which SP lives; he and his son are mentioned by Teresa Panza in the letter to SP in DQ II, 52.
Pedro de Losada. A name invented by the dog Berganza in Coloquio.
Pedro de Portugal, Don (1392–1449). Son of João I of Portugal; the duke of Coimbra. His travels throughout the world became the stuff of legend and was the subject of the Libro del Infante don Pedro de Portugal que anduvo las quatro partidas del mundo (1547; Book of Prince Don Pedro of Portugal who Traveled the Four Parts of the World). At that time, the world was considered to be divided into four “parts” (continents): Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. But reference to the seven parts of the world, perhaps by contamination from the Siete partidas (Seven Divisions, a legal treatise) of the thirteenthcentury Spanish King Alfonso X, was also common even in the Middle Ages. See DQ II, 23.
Pedro de Rincón. In Rinconete, the name of the protagonist, called *Rinconete by Monipodio.
Pedro de Urde. In Pedro 1, a shortened form of the name of the protagonist.
Pedro de Urdemalas. A folkloric character and the protagonist of Pedro. He is a Protean figure with roots in the Middle Ages (the earliest documented use of the name is from the twelfth century). Pedro de Urdemalas is cited frequently in the Golden Age works, most prominently in the Viaje de Turquía (unpublished; Voyage to Turkey), where he is one of the main characters.
Pedro de Urdemalas (Pedro). The last play in Comedias. It is a fairly rare example of a comedia in which the protagonist, and not just one of the minor characters, is a pícaro. Pedro’s long speech, which begins ‘I am a son of the
Page 550 stone/who has known no father,’ and in which he summarizes his life up until the beginning of the play, could easily be the outline for a picaresque novel. In Act I, Pedro is a servant; in Act II, a gypsy; and by the end of Act III, an actor—always existing on the margins of society and always living by his ingenuity and wit. Act I: As the play opens, Antón Clemente asks Pedro de Urdemalas for help in securing the hand of Clemencia Crespo, the daughter of the mayor of Junquillos and Pedro’s master. Pedro agrees to help. The mayor, Martín Crespo, appears with two of his aldermen, Sancho Macho and Diego Tarugo, the latter two individuals praising decisions recently made by the mayor (but in a brief scene shortly after this, they complain about his stupidity). Crespo then talks with Pedro and tells him how much he admires Pedro’s judgment and how valuable his advice is. Then, in a scene reminiscent of SP during his term as governor, Pedro helps the mayor adjudicate prudently a complaint brought by one local former, Lagartija, against another, Hornachuelos. Next Clemente and Crespo’s daughter Clemencia show up dressed in disguise as shepherds. They present a hypothetical case concerning marriage to the mayor, who, with Pedro’s assistance, describes what should be done in such a situation. They then reveal their identities and state that, following the mayor’s own principles, they should be allowed to marry. Crespo has to agree. Pedro then has a talk with Maldonado, count of the gypsies. Maldonado, speaking with a ceceo, an affected lisp (as gypsies often do, particularly when dealing with anyone other than their own), asks Pedro if he still wants to join the gypsy troupe, to which he responds affirmatively. Maldonado, in a speech somewhat reminiscent of that of the old gypsy in Gitanilla, then describes important aspects of the gypsy way of life. In turn, Pedro describes his life up until this point: an orphan, he grew up hungry and learned to steal; he went to the Indies and returned as poor as ever; he served as a carrier and lived among the poor of Seville; he held many other parttime and occasional jobs, including that of serving a blind beggar before he came into the service of Crespo. One day, a man named Malgesí prophesied that Pedro would become a king, friar, pope, and bully, and that he would have adventures as a gypsy. This is why he wants to join the troupe. Then, in a brief scene, Pedro helps his friend Pascual with a problem. Pascual loves a woman named Benita, but she has taken a vow that the man she marries must be named Roque, and the only Roque in town is the sacristan, in whom she has no interest. Pedro solves this one by convincing Pascual to change his name to Roque, a solution both Pascual and Benita accept. With the arrival of musicians, Clemente and Pascual celebrate their good fortune. Pedro talks again with Maldonado and also with the gypsy women Inés and Belica. The latter, somewhat like Preciosa in Gitanilla and not unlike Pedro himself, has dreams of being much more than a mere gypsy. During the conversation, a peasant widow and her squire Llorente come by, and the gypsies beg for money. They are refused any gift, and Llorente rails briefly about the evil and unproductive race of gypsies. As the act comes to an end, Maldonado wants to get Belica and Pedro together, which pleases Pedro but not the presumptuous Belica. Act II: The town officials make plans for a dance that evening to celebrate a visit by the king. A blind man and Pedro, pretending also to be blind, have a brief discussion about the prayers they know and sell to those who give them alms. A widow hears them and then talks to Pedro about what he can do for her. He promises to send her a venerable pilgrim, who will look much like himself, to provide prayers and comfort for her. Maldonado talks with Belica, criticizing her refusal to act like a common gypsy and her insistence that she deserves more. Pedro appears dressed as a pilgrim in preparation for his scam with the widow. The king and his assistant Silerio arrive and have a brief conversation with Maldonado and Belica, and the philandering king dispatches Silerio to arrange for a meeting between the king and Belica. The king and queen, the former known for his womanizing and the latter for her jealousy, come for the celebration and the dances that have been arranged. The dance prepared by the
Page 551 townspeople is ruined because of the actions of some of the pages in the royal retinue, but the dance performed by the gypsies is a success. During the dance, Belica “accidentally” falls at the feet of the king, which immediately awakens the jealousy of the queen, who has the gypsy dancers taken off to jail. Pedro decides not to await the outcome of this perilous situation and takes his leave of Maldonado and the gypsies. Act III: Pedro goes to the home of the widow Marina Sánchez in the guise of a venerable pilgrim. He easily convinces her that he is a kind of medium and can communicate with souls in purgatory. For a price, he will say prayers that will help each one move more swiftly to paradise. He describes the sufferings and torment of her husband, son, daughter, nephews, uncle, and sister. The widow gladly hands over all the money Pedro has requested in hopes of assisting her deceased loved ones. The queen talks with the elderly Marcelo and shows him the jewels Belica has in her possession. Marcelo confirms that the jewels are those he received from the Duchess Félix Alba, along with her recently born girl child, the father of whom was the queen’s brother, Rosamiro. He gave the child to a gypsy to be raised. Belica is, in effect, Isabel, the queen’s niece. The king is informed of this story and also accepts Belica as his niece. Inés asks Belica to use her new status to intercede on behalf of the gypsies, and Belica promises to do so. Pedro then talks with a pair of actors and a dramatist, and realizes that by becoming an actor himself he can make the prophecy of Malgesí, that he would be a king, pope, and so on, come true. So he adopts a new name, Nicolás de Ríos, for his new profession. As preparations are made to stage a play for the king and queen, Pedro talks with Belica and comments on how their dreams have been fulfilled—his in fiction and hers in fact. Maldonado and Inés both want a word with Belica, now Isabel, but she brushes them aside as she hurries to be with her aunt and uncle, the king and queen. Pedro turns to the audience and states that although they cannot see the play about to be presented before the royal couple, they should return to the theater the next day for a public performance. Bibliography: Ellen M.Anderson, “The Gentility and Genius of Pedro de Urdemalas, Engendered by Lope de Vega and Cervantes,” in Brave New Words: Studies in Golden Age Literature, ed. Edward H. Friedman and Catherine Larson (New Orleans, LA: University Press of the South, 1996), 175–89; Angel Estévez Molinero, “La (re)escritura cervantina de Pedro de Urdemalas,” Cervantes 15, no.1 (1995):82–93; Darío FernándezMorera, “Algunos aspectos del universo cervantino en la comedia Pedro de Urdemalas,” in Cervantes, su obra y su mundo: Actas del I Congreso Internacional sobre Cervantes, ed. Manuel Criado de Val (Madrid: Edi6, 1981), 239–42; Alban K.Forcione, “The Triumph of Proteus: Pedro de Urdemalas,” in Cervantes, Aristotle and the Persiles (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970), 319–37; Edward H.Friedman, “Dramatic Structure in Cervantes and Lope: The Two Pedro de Urdemalas Plays,” Hispania 60 (1977):486–97; Fernando García Salinero, “Dos perfiles paralelos de Pedro de Urdemalas,” in Cervantes, su obra y su mundo: Actas del I Congreso Internacional sobre Cervantes, ed. Manuel Criado de Val (Madrid: Edi6, 1981), 229–34; Edward Nagy, “La picaresca y la profecía dentro de la visión estética y social cervantina en la comedia Pedro de Urdemalas,” in Cervantes, su obra y su mundo: Actas del I Congreso Internacional sobre Cervantes, ed. Manuel Criado de Val (Madrid: Edi6, 1981), 273–79; and Antonio Rey Hazas, “Pedro de Urdemalas: Vida y literatura,” Torre de los Lujanes 27 (1994):197–210.
Pedro de Urdemalas. The title of two or three plays written in the seventeenth century. In El peregrino en su patria (1618; The Pilgrim in His Own Land), Lope de *Vega lists this as the title of one of his plays, but either the play is lost or it is the one published separately and usually attributed to Juan Pérez de Montalbán. There is another play of the same title attributed, as many of the time were, simply to ‘a wit of this Court’ and most likely is a work by Juan Bautista Diamante. These plays derive more from the folkloric character of Pedro than from MC’s play, with which they apparently have no relationship.
Pedro del Rincón. *Rinconete.
Pedro Estornudo. In Elección, the notary who interviews candidates for magistrate.
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Pedro Gregorio, Don. *Gaspar Gregorio, Don.
Pedro, Maese. *Maese Pedro.
Pedro Martínez. In DQ I, 18, the name of one of the men who tossed SP in a blanket in I, 17.
Pedro Noriz, Don. In DQ II, 62, a friend of Don *Antonio Moreno who is present and asks a question during the exhibition of the *enchanted head.
Pedro Osorio, Don. In Entretenida, the father of Marcela, who wants to marry his daughter to Don Antonio, but she promises herself to Don Ambrosio. The matter is left unsettled at the end of the play.
Pedro Pérez Mazorca. In DQ II, 49, a resident of Barataria. When the *daughter of Diego de la Llana tells her story to SP and the majordomo, she first claims to be the daughter of Pedro Pérez Mazorca, but the majordomo knows that this man has no daughter. So the young woman tells the truth.
Pedro Recio de Agüero, Doctor. The pompous pseudophysician who orders the dishes placed before governor SP to be removed before he can eat them. See DQ II, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55.
Pedro Recio de Mal Agüero, Doctor. SP’s deliberate mispronunciation of the name of the physician who keeps him from eating in DQ II, 47. He changes the man’s second surname from Agüero (Omen) to Mal Agüero (Evil Omen).
Pedro Tenorio, Don. In Persiles III, 5, the father of Feliciana de la Voz. Upon recognizing Feliciana’s beautiful voice in the monastery of Guadalupe, Tenorio and his son want to kill her and avenge the family’s honor, but they are prevented from doing this and consent to her marriage to her lover Rosanio.
Pedro Vique, Don. *Vich y Manrique, Don Pedro.
Pedrola. *Duke.
Pedrosa. It is not clear to whom this name refers when it is mentioned as one of the bad poets who fires off four novels against the good poets during the battle for Mount Parnassus in Parnaso 7. One candidate is Francisco de Pedrosa, a Latin teacher who lived in Guatemala; another is the minor poet Francisco Pedrosa y Avila.
Pedrosa, Luis de. *Información de Argel
Pedroza, Raul. Brazilian poet. Pedroza’s dramatic poem “Dulcinéa” (1952, published 1962) begins with an invocation of and praise for Aldonza. Then the narrative begins: as time passes, Aldonza’s father becomes wealthy, and upon his death he leaves her as the richest and most respected lady of El Toboso. But people begin to gossip about her after a book is published in which she is presented as DT, the lady love of DQ. The local priest gives her a copy of the book to read, and as she does so, she realizes that she has missed her great opportunity in life. At the end of the poem, she is described by the poet as DT, patron saint of lovers and immortal daughter of MC’s genius. Pedroza is also the author of a oneact play entitled Cervantes e Dulcinéa (1960) and a screenplay entitled A mulher de Sancho Pança (1960; Sancho Panza’s Wife). Bibliography: Raul Pedroza, Dulcinéa, with Spanish trans. by Antonio Alonso (Rio de Janeiro: Casa dos Quixotes, 1962).
Pegasus [Pegaso]. In Greek myth, the winged horse captured by Bellerophon. The fountain Hippocrene on Mount Helicon was supposedly produced when Pegasus stamped his hoof on the spot. See DQ I, 29; DQ II, 40; Parnaso 8; Poesías 13.
Peirene [Pirene]. A famous fountain in Corinth, Greece. See Poesías 29.
Peje Nicolás (Nicolao). *Nicholas the Fish.
Pelayo (?–737). Medieval king of Asturias. See Casa 3.
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Peltzer, Federico. Argentine writer. In his book of short stories entitled Un país y otro país (1976; One Country and Another), Peltzer includes a story entitled “Las brasas del libro” (“The Book’s Embers”), which is actually four short fictions that take place after the events of DQ II are over. In the first, SP misses DQ, contemplates the nature of reality and appearance, and winds up going out to the forest and whipping himself some 3,300 times. In the second, Sansón Carrasco also thinks back over his relationship with DQ and in the end leaves with a servant as his squire to begin his own chivalric quest. In the third, Aldonza Lorenzo lives comfortably in middle age, but learns about her role as DT in DQ, begins thinking about the literary knight who loved her, and one day even sees his miragelike figure, realizes that he is her only true love, and rejects a suitor for her hand. In the final story, part of CHB’s lost manuscript is found. In it are related some of what happened to knight and squire on their way from Barcelona back to their village. At one point DQ convinces SP to change roles with him, which SP reluctantly does, exchanging clothing, mounts, and relationships with DQ. But this only lasts for a short while, as SP realizes that he is not made of the stuff of knighthood. Bibliography: Federico Peltzer, Un país y otro país (Buenos Aires: Emecé Editores, 1976).
Pemán, José María (1898–1981). Spanish poet, dramatist, shortstory writer, and novelist. In 1961 Pemán, in collaboration with Francisco *SánchezCastañer, staged an adaptation of Numancia, with music by Joaquín Rodrigo. This version was much freer and original than SánchezCastañer’s earlier version.
Pen [Pluma]. The instrument with which CHB has written DQ. After DQ dies in II, 74, CHB hangs up his pen and addresses it, charging it not to let anyone else use it to write another sequel to the story. The words CHB chooses for the pen to say are interesting: the pen should warn others that for it alone (para mí sola; a feminine adjective, as the word for pen is the feminine pluma) was DQ born, him to act and the pen to write. But as the pen is to continue, the adjectives it is to use switch to masculine (satisfecho, ufano, primero), thus somehow melding the pen, CHB, and even MC himself into one voice. Bibliography: Ellen M.Anderson, “His Pen’s Christian Profession: Cide Hamete Writes the End of Don Quixote,” RLA: Romance Languages Annual 6 (1994):406–12; and Luce LópezBaralt, “The Supreme Pen (AlQalam AlA’la) of Cide Hamete Benengeli in Don Quixote,” Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 30 (2000):505–18.
Peña de Francia, Our Lady of. *Our Lady of Peña de Francia.
Peña Pobre. A small and barren island in Amadís de Gaula where the protagonist goes to perform his penance when he believes he has been scorned by his beloved Oriana. There he laments his fate, crying and sighing; he is consoled by a hermit, who gives him the name *Beltenebros. This is one of the most famous episodes in the novel and is remembered in DQ I, 15, and then imitated in *Don Quixote’s penance in I, 25. See also DQ I, preliminary poems, 26, 37. Bibliography: David G.Burton, “Peña Pobre to Sierra Morena: Cervantes’ Inversion of a Model,” RLA: Romance Languages Annual 2 (1990):358–61.
Penates. In Roman religion, one of the groups, along with the Lares, of domestic gods. Their basic role was that of gods of the pantry. See Casa 3.
Peneius [Peneo]. A river in Thessaly and, in Greek myth, a river god and the father of *Daphne. See Galatea 6.
Peneius’s daughter. *Daphne.
Penelope [Penélope]. In Greek myth, the wife of Odysseus who waited patiently and faithfully during his 20year absence from home during and after the Trojan War. She was courted by over 100 potential suitors, but postponed answering them until she had finished a shroud for her fatherinlaw on which she was working. In order not to have to deal with them, she undid by night all that she had woven by day, thus never finishing her work. Because of
Page 554 her faithfulness, she is often cited as the prototype of the perfect spouse. See DQ I, 34; Fregona.
Penitencia de Don Quijote. *Don Quixote’s penance.
Penitents [Disciplinantes]. 1. The men involved in DQ’s last adventure in DQ I, a scene somewhat reminiscent of the episode of the dead body in I, 19. What DQ sees as a group of evildoers transporting a stolen princess in I, 52, is in reality a procession of penitents carrying an image of the Virgin Mary. He demands that the lady be set free and is met by one of the men, who hits him hard on the shoulder, knocking him down and rendering him briefly unconscious. Admitting defeat, DQ takes SP’s advice to go home, thus putting an end to his chivalric career—until events at the beginning of DQ II force him to sally forth again. The importance of DQ’s acknowledged defeat cannot be overemphasized, because the kind of heroes DQ most admires—Amadís, Belianís, and other knightserrant who are protagonists of romances—are never beaten in battle. To accept a defeat at the hands of another and not have an excuse (enchanters, his horse fell, and so forth) is to admit that DQ is not truly the kind of knight errant he has always presented himself to be. 2. *Triumphal car.
Pensiles. *Hanging gardens.
Pentapolín del Arremangado Brazo [of the Rolledup Sleeve]. In DQ I, 18, king of the Garamants (an ancient people of Libya, famous for their barbaric ferocity) and leader of the Christian army in the battle (of sheep) as described by DQ. Bibliography: Amancio Labandeira Fernández, “En torno a Pentapolín,” Anales Cervantinos 12 (1973):157–66.
Penthesilea [Pantasilea]. In Greek myth, a queen of the Amazons who came to the aid of Troy after Hector was killed and who fought with distinction. Later, she was killed by Achilles, who grieved over her body. See Doncellas.
Pepino. *Pippin III.
Per Alvare. *Pedro Alvarez.
Pera. A district within the city of Constantinople. See Sultana 3.
Peralta. 1. In Casamiento, a licentiate and the friend of Campuzano’s who listens to his tale of his deceitful marriage and then reads Campuzano’s manuscript of the conversation between two dogs. 2. In Rufián 1, a student and friend of the protagonist who appears briefly in one scene.
Peralta, Carolina. Spanish writer. Peralta is the author of La última salida de Don Quijote de la Mancha (1952; The Last Sally of Don Quixote de La Mancha), in which, after World War II, DQ receives divine permission to visit Earth to see if his services might be useful. But the technology of modern warfare convinces him that they are not. Bibliography: Carolina Peralta, La última salida de Don Quijote de la Mancha (Barcelona: Gráfica Vicente Ferrer, 1952).
Peralvillo. A small town located south and slightly east of Toledo and just directly north of Ciudad Real. It was the site of an office where the Holy Brotherhood held court. See DQ II, 41; Pedro 2.
Percheles de Málaga. A location on the outskirts of the city of Málaga where fish were salted and prepared for distribution; it was a favorite haunt of ruffians, pícaros, and other marginal types (*picaresque geography).
Percy, Walker (1916–90). American novelist. Once, when asked which work of literature he would liked to have written, Percy responded, “Don Quixote…. If I had to choose—the first novel and maybe the best. What is so good about Don Quixote is the happy conjunction of narrative and satire.” Not surprisingly, then, Walker’s consistent theme throughout his novels is the quixotic quest for faith and love in the New South even as that region is undergoing transformation by industry and technology. The hero of his novel Lancelot
Page 555 (1977), Lancelot Lamar, inspired in southern stoicism and chivalry, attempts to set up a kind of utopia. His intransigence and fanaticism, however, shackle him more than they liberate him, and the project fails. In The Last Gentleman (1966), a selfdeluded Will Barrett, idealistic and noble of spirit, makes a trip back to the South as in hopes of restoring a kind of lost Golden Age of Southern gentility and chivalry. His inability to perceive reality for what it is and his impracticality lead to the inevitable failure of the “last (quixotic) gentleman” of southern fiction. Bibliography: Montserrat Ginés, “Walker Percy and the Last Gentleman of Southern Literature,” The Southern Inheritors of Don Quixote (Baton Rouge: Louisana State University Press, 2000), 147–67; and Bertram WyattBrown, The House of Percy: Honor, Melancholy, and Imagination in a Southern Family (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).
Perdigón manso y hurón atrevido. *Tame partridge and bold ferret.
Perdomo Azopardo, Pedro. Spanish novelist. Perdomo’s La vida golf a de Don Quijote y Sancho (1975; The Vagabond Life of Don Quixote and Sancho) is written as the firstperson memoir of one José de Ventas, owner of a grocery store, and often called “El Quijotes.” His employee and companion is Sancho Fuentes, a gypsy who becomes a bullfighter. José rides a motorcycle named, of course, Rocinante. The love of his life is named Sinforosa but he refers to her always as Dulcinea. Sancho’s affections belong to María Domínguez, known as Maritornes, the “dueña” of Dulcinea. Throughout the novel, whose plot is almost nonexistent, there are frequent reminiscences of (and at times grudging admiration for) MC, observations directed to the reader; comments about CHB and other characters and events from DQ (Dorotea, Camacho, Sansón Carrasco, Barataria); remarks on the writing of his work; and comparisons between Alonso Quijano and José himself. Bibliography: Pedro Perdomo Azopardo, La vida golfa de Don Quijote y Sancho (Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain: Bandama, 1975).
Pereda, José María de (1833–1906). Spanish novelist and journalist. Pereda was the major conservative realist novelist of the nineteenth century. His novels, including his two best—Sotileza (1884–85; Sotileza, Fine Spun) and Peñas arriba (1895; The Peaks Above)—are also arguments for traditional Spanish and Catholic values, and, as such, they contain frequent citations, references, and allusions to MC and DQ. Bibliography: Lawrence H.Klibbe, José María de Pereda (New York: Twayne, 1975).
Peregrina(s), Peregrino(s). *Pilgrim(s).
Peregrina de Talavera. *Pilgrim from Talavera.
Pereiras. The ancient and respectable family from which *Leonora in Persiles I, 10, descends.
Perel, Earl Jay. American poet. Perel’s Romantic Odyssey: A Quixotic Poet’s Random Memoirs (1998), is a kind of diary, consisting of a sequence of sonnets, one for each day of the year. The poems are characterized by classical and modern literary allusions and citations, and the themes of knighthood and an idealized love run throughout. In nearly a dozen sonnets, DQ (and DT, SP, and MC) are cited, clearly at the thematic core of the work. The sonnet for December 28 captures the spirit of the book as well as any: “My countenance’s as sad as that old knight’s/Who Sancho served in poor Cervantes’ tale.” Bibliography: Earl Jay Perel, Romantic Odyssey: A Quixotic Poet’s Random Memoirs (Princeton, NJ: Xlibris, 1998).
Perendenga, La (The Cheap Jewel). A supposedly famous interlude, cited in the prologue to DQ II, that has been lost. Agustín Moreto wrote an interlude with a similar name, but not until some years after the reference by MC. It has been proposed that Moreto’s play was a reworking of the one that no longer exists, but that may not be the case, as the Moreto title is La perendeca (The Prostitute), hardly the same as the title cited by MC.
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Pérez, Alonso. Spanish physician and romance writer. Pérez wrote a sequel to Jorge de *Montemayor’s popular and influential pastoral romance La Diana, entitled La segunda parte de la Diana (1564; The Second Part of La Diana). The two parts were often published together, both in Spanish and in translation, making Pérez’s work more widely read and praised than the superior sequel published in the same year by Caspar Gil *Polo. Pérez’s work perishes in the fire during the inquisition of books in DQ I, 6, whereas Polo’s sequel is spared.
Pérez de Alcega, Juan. Basque civil servant who at one time in the early 1580s promised to marry Magdalena de Cervantes, MC’s sister. But he changed his mind and bought his way out of the arrangement.
Pérez de Ayala, Ramón (1880–1962). Spanish novelist, critic, and poet. Pérez de Ayala’s best novel, Belarmino y Apolonio (1921), is the story of two philosophershoemakers in which the former is more of a DQ and the latter an SP. Belarmino’s own special language and the two characters’ ongoing dialogue include several references and allusions to DQ (also a characteristic of Pérez de Ayala’s other novels). At one point Belarmino is explicitly compared with MC, ‘the premier Spanish thinker.’ Bibliography: Marguerite C.Rand, Ramón Pérez de Ayala (New York: Twayne, 1971).
Pérez de Guzmán, Alonso (1255–1309). Legendary Spanish warrior. In 1294, during the siege of Tarifa, Pérez de Guzmán’s son was captured by the Muslims who threatened to kill the boy if he did not surrender. When informed of this demand, Pérez de Guzmán went to the walls and threw down his own dagger, which was in fact used to slay the child. It was this deed that won for him the epithet of el Bueno (the Good). In Rinconete, this famous event is mentioned when Cortadillo is given the name el Bueno. In Poesías 20, the valor of Guzmán el Bueno, called a second Abraham, is invoked by MC as an example for his descendent, Alonso Pérez de Guzmán, Duke of Medina Sidonia, general in command of the Invincible Armada.
Pérez de Guzmán, Don Alonso de, Duke of Medina Sidonia. Spanish nobleman and admiral. His apparent cowardice and inability to (re)act following the English sack of Cádiz in 1596 is the object of MC’s satire in Poesías 25. After the untimely death of the great admiral Don Alvaro de Bazán, Marqués de Santa Cruz, command of the Invincible *Armada was given to the duke of Medina Sidonia. He was an inexperienced and timid leader, and no small part of the failure of the expedition was due to his mistakes. Bibliography: Peter O’M.Pierson, Commander of the Armada (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989).
Pérez de Hita, Ginés (ca. 1544–ca. 1619). Spanish soldier and novelist. Pérez de Hita is the author of the Historia de las guerras civiles de Granada (1595, 1619; The Civil Wars of Granada), the popular novelized history of Muslim civil conflict in the Iberian peninsula during the Reconquest. The first part, where the fictional element dominates the historical and doctrinal aspects, is clearly superior. It is a prototype of the socalled Moorish novel, romanticized fictional stories that attained a certain popularity in Renaissance Spain, and arguably the first historical novel ever written. There is no indication of direct contact between MC and Pérez de Hita, but the author of DQ was clearly familiar with the genre Pérez de Hita represents. MC did know and cited (DQ I, 5) the famous tale of El *Abencerraje y la hermosas Jarifa, the founding text of the genre, and somewhat romanticized Muslim elements abound in his tales of captivity. Bibliography: María Soledad Carrasco Urgoiti, The Moorish Novel: “El Abencerraje” and Pérez de Hita (Boston: Twayne, 1976).
Pérez de Montalbán, Juan (ca. 1601–1638). Spanish dramatist and novelist. Pérez de Montalbán was a good friend of Lope de *Vega and wrote the first biography (1636) of the great dramatist. A converso, Pérez was ordained a priest and became a notary for the Inquisition;
Page 557 he engaged in a series of often scurrilous literary polemics. One of his plays is Pedro de Urdemalas, which bears only a slight resemblance to MC’s Pedro, and another, La gitanilla, is based on Gitanilla. Bibliography: Jack H.Parker, Juan Pérez de Montalbán (Boston: Twayne, 1975).
Pérez de Vargas, Diego (thirteenth century). Spanish knight, brother of Garci Pérez de Vargas. He distinguished himself in battles against the Muslims during the reign of King Fernando III, el Santo. He acquired the epithet Machuca (Smasher) after he used a tree branch to kill the enemy in the battle of Jerez. See DQ I, 8.
Pérez de Vargas, Garci (thirteenth century). Spanish knight, brother of Diego *Pérez de Vargas. He was a contemporary of Fernando III, el Santo, and participated with him in the Reconquest of the Iberian peninsula. See DQ I, 49.
Pérez de Viedma family. In DQ I, 39, Ruy Pérez de Viedma, protagonist of Capitán, tells how his father challenged his three sons to choose careers in the traditional division of Iglesia o mar o casa real (Church, sea, or royal service): The oldest, the narrator, chose a military career. The second son chose to seek his fortune in the Indies, where he has become wealthy. The third son, Juan, chose public service, and he is the oidor (judge) with whom Ruy is reunited in I, 42. The folkloric tale of three brothers who have to make their way in the world (like the three little pigs) is adapted here by MC to the social and historical reality he personally experienced. The plot of the story is also the traditional one of long separation and happy reunion: the story begins in 1567 and ends 22 years later with the events that take place in the *inn of Juan Palomeque. This means that this scene takes place in 1589 or 1590, which stands in contrast to other historical events with later dates that are mentioned in the novel; it is not possible to establish a coherent chronology (or geography) in DQ, just as is the case with Persiles (*chronology in Cervantes’s works). Furthermore, MC himself affirmed in 1590, in his application for a position in the New World, that he had left home and begun his military service (which included many of the events described by Ruy) some 22 years earlier. This has led some to believe, plausibly (but not necessarily), that he wrote Capitán around 1590 and later inserted the tale in DQ I.
Pérez del Barrio Angulo, Gabriel (ca. 1557–ca. 1650). Spanish civil servant. Pérez del Barrio is the author of the howto book entitled Direction de secretarios de señores… (1613; Instructions for Gentlemen’s Secretaries …), for which MC wrote a prefatory poem (Poesías 31).
Pérez del Pulgar, Hernán (1451–1531). Spanish soldier and historian. Pérez del Pulgar fought alongside the Gran Capitán Gonzalo Hernández de Córdoba and the valiant Diego García de Paredes against the Muslims and in Italy. In 1527, at the request of Carlos V, he published an eyewitness account of the events; the book was reprinted several times, with somewhat different titles. The one cited in DQ I, 32, is Historia del Gran Capitán Gonzalo Hernández de Córdoba, con la vida de Diego García de Paredes (1580; History of the Great Captain Gonzalo Hernández de Córdoba, with the Life of Diego García de Paredes).
Pérez Galdós, Benito (1843–1920). Spanish novelist, dramatist, and journalist. He is Spain’s premier novelist of the nineteenth century and perhaps the writer most consistently and profoundly influenced by MC. In 1868, before he wrote any of his own novels, Pérez Galdós translated Charles *Dickens’s quixotic novel Pickwick Papers into Spanish. Pérez Galdós wrote some 31 Novelas Contemporáneas (Contemporary Novels)—reminiscent of Balzac’s Comédie humaine (Human Comedy) series—most of which feature characters and events from other volumes in the series, forming a vast, panoramic vision of Spain in general and Madrid in particular in the second half of the century. In addition, Pérez Galdós wrote 46
Page 558 Episodios Nacionales (National Episodes), historical novels divided into five series, each with a central cast of recurring characters; 23 plays, many adapted from his own novels; and some 15 other volumes of articles, stories, criticism, and other miscellaneous writings. Although virtually everything Pérez Galdós wrote features characters, themes, and episodes from DQ, and allusions, citations, and references to MC and his works abound throughout, only a few representative works will be discussed briefly here. La desheredada (1881; The Disinherited Lady) is the story of Isidora Rufete, a young woman from La Mancha who has been led to believe that she is the unrecognized but legitimate heir to a wealthy family fortune. She has repeatedly read the story of her life in romance novels where a longlost heroine gets her due; she thrives on fantasy and imagination. Her lover, Agusto Miquis, was born in El Toboso and refers frequently to his Cervantine connections. Her uncle, whose name is Don Santiago QuijanoQuijada, encourages her fantasies. José Relimpio is a quixotic defender of innocent virgins and sees himself as Isidora’s DQ. Isidora’s pathetic efforts to pursue her lawsuit and her sad descent into prostitution are the elements of one of the truly great novels of the nineteenth century. El amigo Manso (1882; Our Friend Manso) is a curious metafictional novel that begins with the words ‘I do not exist.’ The protagonist is at first a coldly logical professor, a man of reason, a sort of antiDQ, but he comes to respect MC’s novel and wants to imitate his hero. He perceives himself and is perceived by others as a quixotic knight errant, defender of the good in the face of evil. Late in the novel he realizes that the real Irene, the woman he loves, his DT, is not at all like the woman he imagined her to be. Galdós’s masterpiece is the vast panoramic work entitled Fortunata y Jacinta (1886–87), the names of the two women whose parallel stories represent the Madrid of the author’s day. One of the main characters in the novel, and one of Galdós’s greatest creations, is Maxi—Maximiliano Rubín—who quixotically falls in love with, idealizes, marries, forgives, and is reconciled with Fortunata, lowerclass lover of the aristocrat Juanito Santa Cruz. The protagonist of Nazarín and its sequel Halma (both 1895) is Nazario Zaharín, called Nazarín, a Dostoevskylike blend of Christ and DQ. He is occasionally called a hermiterrant as he goes about his quixotic Christian quest. Misericordia (1897; Compassion), Galdós’s last great novel, is the story of the elderly servant Benina who (in a manner reminiscent of Lazarillo de Tormes with his master the proud squire) supports her quixotic mistress Doña Paca by begging. In order to deceive Doña Paca about the source of the money she brings home, Benina makes up a story of a kindly priest named Don Romualdo, for whom, she says, she also works part time. When, late in the novel, a real priest named Don Romualdo shows up and provides an income for Doña Paca, both women have trouble separating reality and fantasy. Almudena, the blind Muslim beggar who is a friend of Benina’s outside her home, is a unique DQ figure who idealizes the elderly woman, making her his DT. At one point he chooses to do a penance for her on a garbage dump, a parody of DQ’s parody of Amadís. And the absurdly quixotic Don Frasquito literally rides out on a Rocinantelike horse to rescue Benina. His fall and injury, followed by his stubborn defense of Benina, is reminiscent of DQ in every way. Other Pérez Galdós novels, such as La Fontana de Oro (1870), Doña Perfecta (1876), Gloria (1876–77), Marianela (1878), Tormento (1884; Torment), La de Bringas (1884; Bringas’s Wife), Lo prohibido (1884–85; The Forbidden), the Torquemada tetralogy (1889–95), La incógnita (1889; The Unknown One), and Tristana (1892), could also easily lend themselves to discussion here. Even Galdós’s historical novels, especially the first series, reverberate with a feeling for MC and DQ. In Bailén (1873) there is a moving description of La Mancha, evocation of DQ, and description of a battle scene reminiscent of DQ’s description of the armies of sheep in I, 18. In Napoleón en Chamartín (1874), Napoleon himself is described as an imperial DQ. In Cádiz (1874), Don Pedro del Congosto is described repeatedly and at length as a degenerate DQ. In La batalla de los Arapiles (1975), there is an extraordinary scene based simultaneously on
Page 559 the enchantment of DT and DQ’s encounter with the troupe of actors from DQ II, 10–11. In Galdós’s final novel, El caballero encantado (1909; The Enchanted Knight), there is a protagonist who goes through a quixotic pilgrimage of selfpurification in an attempt to transform Spain itself into something great. The novel is filled with stylistic and technical evocations of MC, particularly in the constant play with chapter titles, sources, historians, chroniclers, and narrators. Throughout his works, Pérez Galdós himself, in the guise of novelist, chronicler, historian, friend of his characters, and gossip, populates the pages of his novels, just as MC, historian and editor, inhabits those of DQ. Every Galdós novel, without fail, contains references and allusions to DQ, characters named for those in MC’s novel, play with chapter titles and other metafictional devices reminiscent of MC, and specific words and phrases taken directly from DQ, with the result that his works occasionally replicate and always evoke the very tone and style of DQ. Bibliography: Anales Galdosianos (1966–); Rubén Benítez, Cervantes en Galdós (Murcia, Spain: Universidad de Murcia, 1990); Stephen Oilman, Galdós and the Art of the European Novel: 1867–1887 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981); Hazel Gold, The Reframing of Realism: Galdós and the Discourses of the NineteenthCentury Spanish Novel (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993); J.Chalmers Herman, “Don Quijote” and the Novels of Pérez Galdós (Ada: East Central Oklahoma State College, 1955); Kevin S.Larsen, Cervantes and Galdós in “Fortunata y Jacinta”: Tales of Impertinent Curiosity (Eewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 1999); Margarita Pedraz García, La influencia del “Quijote” en la obra de Pérez Galdós (Madrid: Veloz, 1971); Geoffrey Ribbans, Conflicts and Conciliations: The Evolution of Galdós’s “Fortunata y Jacinta” (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1997); and Geoffrey Ribbans, History and Fiction in Galdós’s Narratives (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993).
Pérez, Licenciado Francisco. The priest who administered the last rites to the dying MC.
Pérez, Nicolás. Spanish critic known as El Setabiense (i.e., from the city of Játiva, whose Roman name was Saitabi). Pérez published a book called El AntiQuixote (1805), an idiosyncratic and vicious criticism of MC and his novel (and of several respected scholars of DQ) hardly worthy of attention but that attracted a number of strong counterattacks, including one from Juan Antonio Pellicer entitled Examen crítico del tomo primero del AntiQuixote (1806; Critical Examination of the First Volume of the AntiQuixote). Pérez promised five more volumes of comparable criticism, but none ever appeared. Bibliography: Francisco Aguilar Piñal, “Un ‘Quixote’ valenciano: El Setabiense,” Anales Cervantinos 34 (1998):125–33.
Pereza. *Sloth.
Periandro. *Persiles.
Periandro’s narrative. One of the most discussed episodes in Persiles is the long narrative of his adventures by Periandro (II, 10–20). The outlandish fantasy of the horse that is made to jump off a mountain onto the frozen ground below and landing without injury calls the tale’s verisimilitude into question. The speaker’s attention to minute detail and his drawing out of the adventures to extraordinary length undercut the rhetorical effectiveness of the presentation. His selfadulation calls his very moral character into question. All of these aspects are discussed by various characters, especially the wise Mauricio and the malicious Clodio, during pauses and interruptions in the narration. But if some of the men who hear the tale tend to be critical, most of the women, especially Transila and Auristela, listen in rapt attention. This calling into question of narrative authority is one of the main reasons why modern understandings of Persiles tend to stress the ambiguous and unreliable nature of the work more than did earlier ones that saw the entire text as unfailingly romantic and idealized. Bibliography: Alban K.Forcione, “Periandro’s Narration,” in Cervantes Aristotle and the Persiles (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970), 187–211; and Amy R.Williamsen, Co(s)mic Chaos: Exploring “Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda” (Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 1994).
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Perico. The phrase “no me estima en el baile del rey Perico” (“does not esteem me in King Perico’s dance”) means to be held in low esteem. See Juez.
Pericona. In Viudo, the recently deceased prostitute of the protagonist.
Perillo. *Little Dog.
Perión de Gaula. The father of Amadís de Gaula. See DQ II, 1.
Periquillo. In DQ II, 73, the name of one of the two *boys playing as DQ and SP enter their village.
Periquito. *Pedro.
Peritoa. A name erroneously mentioned by the Countess Trifaldi in DQ II, 40, as one of the *horses of the Sun. She was probably thinking of the celestial horse named Pyroesis and perhaps confusing it with Peirithous, the great friend of Theseus.
Perlas. *Diamond cross.
Perlas del Sur. *South Sea.
Perlerines. The family name of *Clara Perlerina. See DQ II, 47.
Permas. A district within the city of Constantinople. See Sultana 3.
Pero (Pedro) García. A folkloric character who spoke the truth. See Viejo.
Pero Peréz. In DQ, the protagonist’s good friend (perhaps based, at least in part, on a priest of the same name in *Esquivias) and an important character throughout the novel, especially DQ I. A graduate (licenciado) of the (minor and not wellrespected) university at Sigüenza, the priest, together with the local barber *Maese Nicolás, discusses the relative merits of fictional knightserrant with DQ in I, 1. He participates willingly in the examination of DQ’s library in I, 6, commenting (as MC’s mouthpiece, according to some) on many of the books, and authorizing the burning of those of which he does not approve. He reenters the novel in I, 26, when he and the barber, who have left home in order to rescue their mad friend DQ, encounter SP. At this time, it becomes apparent that Pero Pérez is as interested in enjoying the fun provided by SP and DQ as he is in helping his poor friend. He dresses as a damsel in distress in order to trick DQ into returning home, but decides this is not decorous for a priest and so has the barber agree to play the part of a woman (I, 26–27), but this ruse is obviated when Dorotea takes over the role of damsel in distress. He is a major player in I, 26–52, as he gets involved in Cardenio (27–36), leads the discussion of literature at the *inn of Juan Palomeque (I, 32), reads Curioso (I, 33–35), arranges the reunion of the Pérez de Viedma brothers (I, 42), stands helplessly by during the melees involving all the other men in the inn (I, 45), plans the ‘enchantment’ of DQ (I, 46), discusses theater and literature with the canon of Toledo on the way back to the village (I, 47–48), and laughs with pleasure as DQ fights with Eugenio the goatherd (I, 52). In DQ II, 1, he and the barber get DQ thinking about chivalry again after the latter has rested for a month and shows no sign of sallying forth again. He has little of note to do in most of the rest of the novel, as Sansón Carrasco takes over the role as the person who leaves the village in order to make DQ return home again. Finally in II, 74, he confesses DQ, gives him last rites, and consoles him in his final days. Overall, this is a very secular priest, more given to literature, adventure, and laughter than to his professional responsibilities. His supposedly altruistic efforts to get DQ to return home in DQ I are undercut by the way in which he sacrifices expediency for enjoyment. He is very much a DQ to the barber’s SP during the second half of DQ I. SP’s accusation that the priest is envious of DQ’s fame in I, 47, rings true. DQ always frets about the wicked enchanter who, envious of his glory and fame, works to deny him successes, but in fact it is the priest who does more than anyone in the novel to diminish DQ’s accomplishments. With friends like the priest and the barber, DQ has no need of enemies. See also DQ I, 5; DQ II, 67, 73.
Page 561 Bibliography: Manuel FerrerChivite, “El cura y el barbero, o breve historia de dos resentidos,” in Cervantes, su obra y su mundo: Actas del I Congreso Internacional sobre Cervantes, ed. Manuel Criado de Val (Madrid: Edi6, 1981), 723–35; James Iffland, “La raíz festiva del cura Pero Pérez,” in Actas del II Congreso Internacional de la Asociación de Cervantistas, ed. Giuseppe Grilli (Naples: Instituto Universitario Orientale, 1995), 353–62; Howard Mancing, “Alonso Quijano y sus amigos,” in Cervantes, su obra y su mundo: Actas del I Congreso Internacional sobre Cervantes, ed. Manuel Criado de Val (Madrid: Edi6, 1981), 737–41; and John G.Weiger, “Cervantes’s Curious Curate,” Kentucky Romance Quarterly 30 (1983): 87–106.
Perogrullo (Pero Grullo). Folkloric character who speaks in platitudes and truisms. SP compares the enchanted head in Barcelona to Perogrullo. See DQ II, 62.
Perpignan [Perpiñán]. A city in southern France, the capital of the old province of Rosellon, which was officially a part of Catalonia until 1642. See Galatea 2; Persiles III, 12–13.
Perra mora. A popular dance. See Fregona.
Perrilla de falda. *Lapdog.
Perro de Alba. *Dog from Alba.
Perro sabio. *Wise dog.
Perros de Mahudes. *Mahudes’s dogs.
Persas. *Persians.
Perseus [Perseo]. In Greek myth, the son of Zeus and Danae, who used a mirror when he killed Medusa. In DQ I, 25, DQ refers to the labyrinth of Perseus, confusing this figure with Theseus, who found his way out of the labyrinth of Crete.
Persia. An ancient empire in southwestern Asia extending from the Indus River to the Mediterranean Sea, essentially the area that today forms the nation of Iran. It was founded by Cyrus the Great in the sixth century BCE and was destroyed as a political entity by Alexander the Great in 331 BCE See DQ I, 47; Sultana 2.
Persian Ambassador [Embajador de Persia]. In Sultana 2, this emissary is treated rudely by officials of the Turkish court when he talks well of Felipe II and Spain. The character is probably based on one of the Persian ambassadors sent to various European nations around 1600 to request assistance against the Turks.
Persians [Persas]. Natives or inhabitants of the ancient empire of *Persia. See DQ I, 6.
Persiles (Periandro). In Persiles, the male protagonist, a handsome young man of 19 to 20 years of age, and the prince of Thule (Iceland). Persiles (whose real name is not revealed until II, 6) takes the name Periandro in order to hide his true identity throughout his journey to Rome in the company of his beloved Sigismunda (who travels under the name Auristela), Princess of Frisland. After numerous adventures in the illdefined northern regions and a trip across Europe that begins in Lisbon, they reach Rome, reveal their true identities, and marry. Persiles’s physical beauty and prowess are superior to those of any other character. His moral perfection is intended to be evident to all, but his lack of modesty and tiresome storytelling in Book II undercut this perfection (*Periandro’s narrative). Bibliography: Ruth El Saffar, “Periandro: Exemplary Character, Exemplary Narrator,” Hispanófila 69 (1980): 9–16.
Persius [Persio]: Aulus Persius Flaccus (34–62). Latin stoic poet, best known for his satires. See DQ II, 16.
Perspectivism. A prominent term in the critical understanding of MC’s works, especially DQ. It refers to the view that MC offers simultaneously multiple perspectives on reality, and it is best summed up in the neologism baciyelmo (basinhelmet) used by SP in I, 44. The word recognizes and acknowledges that the item in question partakes simultaneously, depending on one’s perspective, of both a *bar
Page 562 ber’s basin and *Mambrino’s helmet (see also DQ’s discussion of the helmetbasin dilemma in I, 25). Thus, in comparison with the hard and soft approaches of DQ, the perspectivist is one who attempts to have his cake and eat it too. Bibliography: R.M.Flores, “Don Quijote de la Mancha: perspectivismo narrative y perspectivismo crítico,” Revista Canadiense de Estudios Hispánicos 21 (1997): 273–93; and Leo Spitzer, “Linguistic Perspectivism in the Don Quijote” in Linguistics and Literary History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1948), 41–85.
Peru [Pirú]. A country in South America on the Pacific Ocean and long a major Spanish colony in the New World. Because of the riches of its mines, Spaniards frequently traveled to Peru and other parts of Spanish America in order to make their fortune. Such émigrés were often called peruleros or, more commonly, indianos. One such merchantadventurer is Carriazo from Celoso, another is the second *Pérez de Viedma brother (DQ I, 42), and a third is *Ortel Banedre (Persiles III, 6). In Pedro 1, the protagonist says that he went to the Indies but returned home as poor as ever. See also Entretenida 2; Galatea 6. Bibliography: James M.Lockhart, Spanish Peru, 1532–1560: A Colonial Society (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1968).
Perulero. *Peru.
Pésame dello. A popular, festive dance based on a line of poetry meaning ‘I’ m sorry about it.’ See Celoso; Fregona; Sultana 3.
Pescadores. *Fishermen.
Pescadores, Isla de los. *Island of the Fishermen.
Peshkov, Aleksey Maksimovich. *Gorky, Maksim.
Pesuña. In Electión, the bachelor who interviews candidates for magistrate.
Petaja, Emil (1915–). American science fiction writer. Petaja’s The Nets of Space (1969) is one of the science fiction novels most directly inspired by DQ. The protagonist’s name is Donald Quick; the love of his life is Donna Elena Dulce, which he makes into Dulcinea. He frequently reads from DQ: “Don Quixote was his ideal and his alter ego. Perhaps Don’s name had something to do with it (his father had admired the Woeful Knight, too) or perhaps it was his facility for getting himself into the damndest scrapes.” Throughout the novel, there are dozens of mentions of MC, DQ, and various characters and scenes from DQ, and there are occasions on which passages from the novel are read aloud. The plot has to do with giant crabs from outer space that threaten the earth; Quick winds up in a position to save the world by his presence on yet another planet. In the final chapters, Quick returns to the world where he is a giant, where he literally is that world’s DQ, and where he saves the earth, using the book DQ to do it. Though the concept and action of the novel are pedestrian at best, the way in which Petaja literally makes the quixotic Quick into DQ and the way in which the physical book entitled DQ plays a decisive role in the dénouement are quite original and interesting for readers of MC’s novel.
Petipa, Marius (1819–1910). FrenchRussian choreographer. He wrote Don Kikhot (ca. 1869), a short fouract ballet about DQ, based on Camacho’s wedding, with music by Ludwig Minkus (1826–1917). The work was then revised (and often retitled Don Quichotte) into a considerably longer fiveact version (ca. 1871). Elderly, wealthy Gamache is to marry the beautiful Kitri, but she loves Basil. Thanks in part to DQ’s intervention, the two young lovers are united. These two ballets remain popular today and are the standard Russian dance versions of MC’s novel. They have been performed and filmed frequently in modern times.
Petrarca, Francesco [Petrarch] (1304–74). Italian poet, scholar, and humanist. Petrarch is considered the greatest lyric poet in Italian; he produced a body of work, especially his sonnets to Laura, that influenced European poetry for centuries. Petrarch’s De remediis utriusque fortunae (ca. 1355; Remedies for For
Page 563 tune Fair and Foul) was translated to Spanish in 1510 and his I trionfi (written between 1351 and 1374; Triumphs) in 1512. He is famous for the series of metaphors he employed to describe the beauty of his beloved: hair like gold, eyes like the blue sky, lips like coral, teeth like pearls, and so forth. So distinctive and so influential was his style that the term “Petrarchan” has come to represent his work, his influence, his imagery, and, eventually, artificiality and convention in poetry. Petrarch particularly perfected the *sonnet form so popular in Renaissance Spain. Petrarch’s influence in Spain was very great, beginning with the poetry of Juan *Boscán and, especially, *Garcilaso de la Vega. MC employs Petrarchan imagery on occasion throughout his works, sometimes seriously (as in Erastro’s description of Galatea in Galatea 3 or Cornelio’s description Rosamira in Laberinto 1) and sometimes in an ironic or parodic sense (as in DQ’s description of DT in I, 13, and in the satiric remarks made by protagonist in Vidriera). See also Casamiento; Galatea 6. Bibliography: Anne J.Cruz, Imitatión y transformatión: El petrarquismo en la poesía de Boscán y Garcilaso de la Vega (Amsterdam: Johns Benjamins, 1988); Ignacio Navarrete, Orphans of Petrarch: Poetry and Theory in the Spanish Renaissance (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); and Lisa Rabin, “The Reluctant Companion of Empire: Petrarch and Dulcinea in Don Quijote de la Mancha,” Cervantes 14, no. 2 (1994): 81–91.
Phaethon (Daring youth) [Faetonte (Atrevido mozo)]. In Greek myth, the son of Helios, the sun god. When Helios offered to grant him a wish, the daring youth Phaethon asked to be allowed to drive his father’s fiery chariot across the heavens for one day. But the young man proved unable to control the horses, and they bolted from their normal course and threatened to burn up the earth. Zeus intervened, hurling a thunderbolt at Phaethon, who fell dead into the River Po, and righting the normal course of events. See Galatea 6.
Phalaris [Falari, Fálaris] (570–554 BCE). A Sicilian tyrant known for his great cruelty. According to legend, he placed his enemies in a bronze figure of a bull and ignited a fire underneath it in order to roast them alive, so that their cries of pain sounded like the bellowing of the bull. See Baños 1; Persiles III, 10.
Pharaohs and Ptolemys of Egypt [Faraones y Tolomeos de Egipto]. Ptolemy I [Tolomeo] (ca. 367–285 BCE), with the title of pharaoh, was the founder of the Ptolemaic Dynasty that ruled Egypt between 323 BCE and 30 BCE. There were 15 pharaohs named Ptolemy during this time. The great astronomer and geographer also named *Ptolemy was no relation. See DQ II, 6.
Phedias [Fidias] (ca. 490–432 BCE). Greek sculptor, and also an architect and painter. He is often considered to have been the greatest of Athenian artists. See Novelas, dedication.
Philidor [François André Danican, 1726–95). French dramatist. With Antoine Alexandre Henri Poinsinet (1735–1769), Philidor wrote a comic opera entitled Sancho Pança dans son Isle (1762; Sancho Panza on His Island) in which governor SP falls in love with a young woman named Juliette and becomes involved in a romance plot that culminates in a potential duel. But neither SP nor his rival really wants to fight, and the confrontation degenerates into a discussion, after which SP abandons amorous pursuits and returns to his administrative chores.
Philip II. *Felipe II.
Philip III. *Felipe III.
Philip IV. *Felipe IV.
Philosopher’s stone [Piedra filosofal]. The imaginary substance sought after by alchemists in the belief that it could turn base metals, or even stones themselves, into silver or gold. The alchemist in Coloquio believes he is on the brink of finding the philosopher’s stone.
Philosophical Quixote; or, Memoirs of Mr. David Wilkins, The (2 vols., 1782). An
Page 564 anonymous English fiction. In the preface, the “editor” states that the letters that make up the text were published without the knowledge of the authors, but that, in his opinion, their great interest justifies their publication. In the exchange of letters in which the title character is discussed, Wilkins’s supposed quixotic nature and deeds are described: he is about 50 years of age and has read extensively in, and has been excessively influenced by, books of natural philosophy, or biological science. Wilkins’s experiments, his conversations with various characters, and so forth are described for the amusement of the correspondents. Except for two passing references to Wilkins’s supposed “quixotism”—once his “real motive” is described as “studying for the good of mankind”—there is nothing in the text that would make a modern reader think of this character in terms of MC’s hero. Bibliography: Anonymous, Philosophical Quixote; or, The Memoirs of Mr. David Wilkins, 2 vols. (London: J.Johnson, 1782).
Phineus [Fineo]. In Greek myth, a king of Thrace who offended the gods. In payment, Phineus was tormented by the Harpies, beasts with the face of a woman and the body of a vulture, who came every time he sat down to eat, stealing and/or defiling his food and table. In Persiles I, 19, Antonio the younger alludes to this story and calls Rosamunda a harpy when she propositions him.
Phoebus. *Apollo.
Phoenix (of Arabia) [Ave fénix, Fénix de Arabia]. 1. In Egyptian myth, the bird that lived in the Arabian desert for some 500 to 600 years, built its own funeral pyre, fanned the flames of cremation with its own wings, and arose anew from the ashes to start another life. The phoenix was considered the only example of its species and, as such, is a symbol of uniqueness, immortality, and chastity. See Casa 1; DQ I, 30; DQ II, 38. 2. *Our Lady of San Llorente.
Phyllis. *Pastoral names.
Physician [Médico]. 1. The person who examines DQ and confirms that he is very ill. See DQ II, 74. 2. *Pedro Recio de Agüero.
Piacenza [Plasencia]. A city in northern Italy on the Po River. See Vidriera.
Piamonte. *Piedmont.
Picado, Alonso (?–ca. 1616). Spanish poet from Peru praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Pícara Justina. *López de Ubeda, Francisco.
Picaresque geography. Throughout Spain, and especially in the large cities, there were places frequented by pícaros, criminals, ruffians, prostitutes, and other marginal and lowlife types. MC knew many of them personally and others by reputation, and references to them are scattered throughout his works. The description of the early career of the innkeeper in DQ I, 3, includes the best single list of such picaresque haunts: *Percheles de Málaga, the *Islas de Riarán, the *Compás de Sevilla, the *Azoguejo de Segovia, the Olivera de Valencia, the *Rondilla de Granada, the Playa de *Sanlúcar (de Barrameda), the *Potro de Córdoba, and the *Ventillas de Toledo. Another similar list is found in the opening paragraphs of Fregona, where the joys of the picaresque life are celebrated: the Ventillas de Toledo; the Barbacanas de Sevilla; the Almadrabas de *Zahara (de los Atunes), here described as the ‘finibusterrae of picaresque life’; the *Zocodover of Toledo; and the *Plaza of Madrid. Others include inns in general (e.g., that of DQ I; 2–3), the tanneries (tenerías) of Toledo (see DQ II, 19), the *market of Seville, the *steps (gradas) leading up to the cathedral of Seville, and the *Alamillo of Seville (see Rufián 1).
Picaresque novel [Novela picaresca]. The most original and influential of Spanish fictional genres of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Most characteristically, it is the satiric autobiographical narrative of an orphaned youth who must make his way in the world. The genre is uniquely flexible and inclusive, of
Page 565 ten featuring protagonists who are mature men and women, characters of higher social station, and/or animals; its structures can be more or less digressive, with various kinds of embedded stories, tales, dramatic works, and poetry; the novels’ length, tone, and themes vary considerably; it is, very literally, a protean genre. As opposed the *chivalric, *pastoral, and *sentimental fictional genres, all of which are more romance than novel, the picaresque may legitimately be considered the first consistently novelistic genre of European letters. The first, most original, most influential, and best of the picaresque novels is the anonymous short novel *Lazarillo de Tormes (1554). Mateo *Alemán’s very long, digressive, doctrinal, twopart Guzmán de Alfarache (1599, 1604), often known prototypically simply as El Pícaro, was in its age the most influential work of the genre. Francisco de *Quevedo’s satiric, grotesque, extravagant, and linguistically brilliant Vida del Buscón (1626; Life of the Swindler) is generally considered to be the third canonical picaresque novel. In the wake of the extremely popular Guzmán, picaresque fiction was the dominant Spanish fictional genre in the early decades of the seventeenth century. The last great exemplar of the genre, and one of the best of all, is Vida y hechos de Estebanillo González, nombre de buen humor (1646; Life and Deeds of Estebanillo González, Man of Good Humor), the semihistorical, perhaps (at least partially) legitimately autobiographical story of a dwarf and court jester. The picaresque novel is, along with DQ, the basis for the legitimate claim that the modern novel emerges in Renaissance Spain (*theory and history of the novel). Lazarillo, Guzmán, and many of the other works of the Spanish genre were translated and read throughout Europe. Adaptations, sequels, and imitations of the Spanish picaresque novels are to be found at the headwaters of every European national tradition of the novel. Among the major works directly inspired by the Spanish picaresque tradition are Johann Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen’s Simplicissimus (1669), AlainRené Lesage’s Gil Blas (1715, 1724, 1735), and Daniel Defoe’s Moll Flanders (1722), all fundamental early fictions in their national literatures. In more modern times, works like Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn (1885), Saul Bellow’s The Adventures of Augie March (1953), and Thomas Mann’s Adventures of Felix Krull, Confidence Man (1954) are all related to the picaresque. There is no way to exaggerate the importance of the Spanish picaresque tradition in the formation, history, and practice of the novel. Bibliography: Richard Bjornson, The Picaresque Hero in European Fiction (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977); Fernando Cabo Aseguinolaza, El concepto del género y la literatura picaresca (Santiago de Compostela, Spain: Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 1992); Peter N.Dunn, Spanish Picaresque Fiction: A New Literary History (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993); Giancarlo Maiorino, ed., The Picaresque: Tradition and Displacement (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); and Francisco Rico, The Picaresque Novel and Point of View, trans. Charles Davis with Harry Sieber (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983).
Picaresque themes in Cervantes. MC was clearly fascinated by the genre and includes a pícaro in DQ I, 22, in the figure of *Ginés de Pasamonte, the galley slave who has written the story of his life and who later becomes the puppeteer *Maese Pedro. The discussion of his life and book by Ginés and DQ is one of the earliest indications of a consciousness of the picaresque as a unique literary genre in the early seventeenth century. In addition, MC wrote three short stories that can be considered at least partially picaresque: Rinconete, which takes place in the world of pícaros and thieves in Seville; Fregona, set in the world of servants at an inn; and Coloquio, in which the dog Berganza—a canine pícaro—tells the story of his life and adventures as servant to many masters. Bibliography: Peter Dunn, “Cervantes De/Reconstructs the Picaresque,” Cervantes 2, no. 2 (1982): 109–31; and Joseph V.Ricapito, “Cervantes and the Picaresque: Redivivo,” in Hispanic Studies in Honor of Joseph H.Silverman, ed. Joseph V.Ricapito (Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 1988), 319–43.
Pícaro barbero. *Barber kitchenboy.
Pícaros de cocina. *Kitchenboys.
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Picasso, Pablo (1881–1973). Spanish painter. Picasso’s famous drawing of DQ—made in 1955 for an issue of a French magazine celebrating the 350th anniversary of the publication of DQ I—is the most reproduced graphic version of MC’s character of all time and ranks second only to the works of Doré in shaping the popular conception of DQ. No other picture of DQ matches its brilliant simplicity: a few casual brushstrokes conjure up a dominant DQ on Rocinante, with SP and the windmills as small background figures. Bibliography: A.G.Lo Ré, “A Possible Source for Picasso’s Drawing of Don Quixote,” Cervantes 12, no. 1 (1992): 105–10.
Picchia, Paulo Menotti del (1892–1943). Brazilian poet and novelist. Menotti del Picchia’s dramatic poem, divided into three parts, entitled O Amor de Dulcinéa (1928; Dulcinea’s Love), is a striking and original work. In the first part, DQ and SP talk as they ride along. DQ complains about Rocinante, whereas SP compares the old horse to some of the great steeds of legend. As DQ continues complaining about things, SP says to him, ‘You’re talking like a bourgeois,’ which in fact is what the cynical DQ sounds like in comparison with his idealistic squire. At the end of this part, SP spots some 20 giants on a hilltop, but DQ says that they are only windmills. In the second part, DQ and SP are sitting in an inn, drinking wine, and again DQ is complaining, this time about DT. Again, SP tries to animate him with poetic talk of the peerless DT. After a while, they fall asleep and DQ has an allegorical dream of DT. A servant in the inn, named Dulcinéa, awakens them, and DQ murmurs DT’s name, which the servant takes as a personal insult. In the final section, the idealistic SP dies as DQ sits by his bedside. To the very end, the quixotic SP maintains his idealism, insisting that it is one’s duty to combat dragons and evil in the world. Bibliography: Paulo Menotti del Picchia, O Amor de Dulcinéa (São Paulo, Brazil: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1928).
Pichou, Le Sieur (1597–1631). French dramatist. Pichou’s popular Les Folies de Cardénio (ca. 1627; Cardenio’s Madness) is based on the episodes of Cardenio in Sierra Morena but also includes comic scenes involving DQ, here a miles gloriosus (boasting but cowardly soldier), and SP.
Picón, Jacinto Octavio (1852–1923). Spanish novelist. In the author’s note to the 1909 reedition of his novel Dulce y sabrosa (1891; Sweet and Delectable)—the story of a young woman who is seduced and abandoned but who manages to win back her lover—Picón explicitly appropriates MC’s language from the prologue to DQ I, about his novel as child, never as attractive as the father would wish, and ending with a DT metaphor for the Spanish language itself. Throughout the novel, replete with quotes from and references and allusions to DQ, there are chapter titles of the sort frequently used by MC. Like *Pérez Galdós, Picón deliberately and consistently evokes the greatest of Spanish novelists, and thus implicitly implies a comparability of stature. Bibliography: Jacinto Octavio Picón, Dulce y sabrosa, ed. Gonzalo Sobejano (Madrid: Cátedra, 1891).
Pie quebrado [broken foot, or limping verse]. A verse form in which the last line of a stanza is shorter than the preceding ones. The medieval stanza in which the form was originated was composed of six lines, with lines one, two, four, and five all eight syllables in length, whereas lines three and six are only four syllables. MC uses pie quebrado in DQ’s poem to DT in I, 26.
Piedehierro. The name of a stolen horse involved in a scam in Coloquio.
Piedmont [Piamonte]. A region of northwestern Italy bordering on France and Switzerland, with Turin as its capital. See DQ I, 39; Persiles III, 19; Vidriera.
Piedra filosofal. *Philosopher’s stone.
Piedrahita. A small town located southwest of Avila and southeast of Salamanca. It was best known for its cattle industry. See DQ I, 22.
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Pierides [Piérides]. The *Muses, so called because their cult was said to have originated in the region of Pieria, near Mount Olympus.
Pierres. The hero of an Old French and medieval Spanish story. In DQ II, 40, as part of the introduction of *Clavileño, the ride on the flying wooden horse by Pierres and his beloved Magalona is mentioned. There seems to be some confusion here, as the story of these two lovers as told in the *Historia de la linda Magalona, hija del rey de Nápoles, y Pierres, hijo del conde de provenza (1519; History of the Lovely Magalona, Daughter of the King of Naples, and Pierres, Son of the Count of Provence) does not involve a flying horse, but such an episode is to be found in the Historia del muy valeroso e esforzado caballero Clamades, hijo de Marcaditas, rey de Castilla, y de la linda Clarmonda, hija del rey de Toscana (1521; History of the Very Brave and Strong Knight Clamades, Son of Marcaditas, King of Castile, and of the Lovely Clarmonda, Daughter of the King of Tuscany), translated/adapted from a Provençal original. The similarity of the two titles is probably the source of the confusion. See also DQ I, 49.
Pierres Papín, señor de las baronías de Utrique [Lord of the Baronies of Utrique]. In DQ I, 18, one of the participants in the battle (of sheep) as described by DQ. His name is based incongruously and humorously on the historical figure of Pierre *Papin. The baronies of Utrique are an invention by MC.
Pífaro. *Fife player.
Pig gelder [Castrador de puercos]. In DQ I, 2, the man who blows his horn as DQ approaches the inn. DQ believes the sound is that of a dwarf’s trumpet announcing his arrival at the castle.
Pigmaleón. *Pygmalion.
Pigs [Puercos]. The 600 animals that trample DQ and SP in DQ II, 68, as knight and squire journey home from Barcelona. Because of the connotations of filth and sloth (as well as the association with Judaism) that pigs have, this is a particularly great humiliation for DQ. Bibliography: Clark Colahan, “Lunar Pigs Trash Crazed Green Cultists (DQ 2: chs. 58–68),” Cervantes 14, no. 2 (1994): 71–80.
Pílades. *Pylades.
Pilate, Pontius [Pilatos]. The Roman governor of Judea at the time when Jesus Christ was crucified. He is supposed to have found Jesus not guilty of the charges against him, but he bowed to pressure and turned him over to the prosecuting Jews, “washing his hands” of the whole matter. Pilate is thus a symbol of cynicism, selfdeception, and hypocrisy. See Baños 3.
Pilgrim(s) [Peregrino(s), peregrina(s)]. 1. In DQ II, 54, the group of six foreign travelers whom SP meets after he leaves his governorship. Among them is his former neighbor, the Morisco *Ricote. 2. In DQ II, 60, two men who are part of the traveling group taken captive by the bandit *Roque Guinart, but then released by him. 3. In Persiles III, 6–8, a woman with a disfigured face who is traveling throughout Spain to all the most important religious sites and festivals; she accompanies Periandro and his group for a while. 4. In Persiles IV, 1, a man who is compiling a book of aphorisms. He encounters Periandro and his fellow travelers and asks each to contribute to the anthology of wise sayings he is putting together. Some have seen in this figure aspects of MC himself: he served as a soldier in his youth and turned to writing in his mature years; he is the author of some books that have achieved success. 5. In Persiles IV, 3, a pilgrim encountered by Periandro and his fellow travelers on a hill just outside the city of Rome. He recites a poem in praise of the city and tells the group that it is intended as a response to one in which Rome is slandered. In IV, 6, Periandro and his party again meet the same pilgrim in Rome and he tells them of his visit to a marvelous museum containing canvasses destined for commemoration of great works, such as Tasso’s Jerusalem Delivered, to be written in the future.
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Pilgrim from Talavera [Peregrina de Talavera]. In Persiles IV, 1, a name used to refer to Luisa, the young woman who runs off with Bartolomé.
Pillars of Hercules [Columnas de Hércules]. Two peaks on either side of the Strait of *Gibraltar: Calpe (the Rock of Gibraltar itself) on the European side and the mountain named Abyla in Ceuta on the African side. In Greek myth, they were erected by Heracles (*Hercules in Roman myth) as part of the completion of his 12 labors (prodigious deeds). See DQ II, 25; Española; Persiles III, 10; IV 14.
Pilon, Frederick (1750–88). English dramatist. Pilon’s twoact farce entitled Barataria: or, Sancho Turn’d Governor (1785) is a recasting and modernizing of three scenes from the Barataria episode in the second part of D’Urfey’s Comical History of DQ (and, the author claims, much more faithful to MC). In Act I, SP receives his commission and takes leave of the duke and DQ, his wife and daughter arrive on the scene, and he is received at Barataria. Act II includes the scene of the judgment of the alleged rape case, dinner with the interference of Doctor Pedro Recio, the attack on the island, and SP’s resignation. This doubly derivative work is, characteristically, pure farce, with feeble characterization and tired humor. Bibliography: Frederick Pilon, Barataria: or, Sancho Turn’d Governor (London: J.Almon, 1785).
Pimpinela de Plafagonia, Doña. A name invented by the drummer in Coloquio and used in the Wise Dog act.
Pindo. A mountain range running through Macedonia and Thessaly. The sacred mountain Parnassus in located in the central part of this area. See Galatea 6; Parnaso 2, 7.
Pingarrón. In Pedro 2, a musician who is to play for the dance to be performed for the king and queen.
Pinheiro da Veiga, Tomé (1566–1656). Portuguese historian. Pinheiro da Veiga wrote a chronicle of events in Valladolid in celebration of the birth of Prince Felipe (later Felipe IV) in June 1605, just months after the publication of DQ I, while MC was living in that city. Among other things, Pinheiro describes a nobleman from Portugal who dressed comically as DQ, rode a gray nag, and was accompanied by an SP figure as part of the entertainment for the crowd at a bullfight. This is the first testimony to the immediate appeal of DQ in popular culture.
Pintiquiniestra. A queen (whose name is actually Pintiquinestra) in the romance of chivalry entitled Amadís de Grecia by Feliciano de *Silva, mentioned in DQ I, 6.
Pinto Brandño, Tornás (1664–1743). Por tuguese poet. A fairly popular poet in his day, the now forgotten Pinto Brandño wrote a ballad entitled “A Dom Quixote, envestindo a hum Moinho de vento” (1732; “To Don Quixote, Attacking a Windmill”), a straightforward retelling of the scene from DQ I, 8. Bibliography: José Ares Montes, “Don Quijote en un romance portugués,” Anales Cervantinos 11 (1972):155–58.
Pintor. *Painter.
Pío Quinto. *Pius V.
Piojo. A fountain in Madrid, located near the Gate of Recoletos. See DQ II, 22.
Pipota. In Rinconete, a pious member of Monipodio’s gang of thieves; she is also very fond of wine.
Pippin III [Pepino] (714–768). King of France, known as the Short. He was the father of Charlemagne. See DQ I, 48. Píramo. *Pyramus and Thisbe.
Pirandellianism. *Pirandello, Luigi.
Pirandello, Luigi (1867–1936). Italian dramatist, novelist, and shortstory writer. One of Pirandello’s most obsessive themes is the relativity of truth, the line between reality and fan
Page 569 tasy. This concern is best seen in his metatheatrical Sei personaggi in cerca d’autore (1921; Six Characters in Search of an Author) and Enrico IV (1922). Such works have inspired the coining of the term “pirandellianism” to refer to selfconscious metaliterary techniques, but this term is, like *bovarysm, really just a variant on one aspect of *quixotism. Bibliography: Wilma Newberry, The Pirandellian Mode in Spanish Literature from Cervantes to Sastre (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1973).
Pirate(s) [Cosario(s), Pirata(s)]. 1. Privateers, either freelance or authorized by a government, to sack and plunder foreign merchant ships. The corsairs most feared during MC’s time were the Barbary pirates. 2. In DQ I, 41, a group of French pirates who capture the escaping Ruy Pérez de Viedma and Zoraida, rob them of their jewels and money, and set them free in a small boat near the Spanish coast close to the city of Málaga. 3. In Amante, Turks who raid the Sicilian coast and take Ricardo and Leonisa prisoner. 4. In DQ II, 63, the Algerian crew of the pirate ship taken prisoner during DQ’s visit to the galley in Barcelona. 5. In Persiles I, 13, a group that purchases Transila from the fishermen and then sells her to the barbarians. 6. In Persiles I, 20–24, the captain of the pirate ship that rescues Auristela and company from the snowcovered island. During their threemonth voyage, he entertains his guests with stories, particularly the one about Periandro’s triumph during the Olympic games on Scinta, which arouses Auristela’s jealousy of the Princess Sinforosa, who had rewarded Periandro’s victories and fallen in love with him. In II, 1–2, the pirate ship sinks off the shore of Scinta and although Auristela and all those traveling with her are rescued, the pirate captain and his crew apparently all drown. 7. In Persiles II, 10, the captain who appears to be a merchant when he first takes Periandro, Auristela, and Cloelia on his ship to begin their journey. According to one of his sailors, he is really a pirate who plans to kill Periandro and take possession of Auristela. 8. In Persiles II, 10, when the double wedding among the fishermen is interrupted by the abduction of Auristela and other women, the men follow Periandro, take a ship, and go to sea as pirates in search of the missing women. Along the way, they have a series of adventures and win great wealth. In II, 20, after spending three months in the Frozen Sea and Bituania, they decide to return home, apparently without ever finding their stolen women. 9. In Persiles II, 12, a second pirate ship encounters the one on which the stolen Auristela et al. are being taken from the fisherman’s island. These second pirates defeat the first group, kill all the other pirates, and escape with the women. Later (II, 16), Periandro and his fishermen pirates come across these pirates again on the Frozen Sea and learn that Auristela and the other women have been sold to Arnaldo. Bibliography: Emilio Sola, Un Mediterráneo de piratas: corsarios, renegados y cautivos (Madrid: Tecnos, 1988).
Pirene. *Peirene.
Pirineos. *Pyrenees.
Piron, Alexis (1689–1773). French poet and dramatist. Piron’s twoact comic opera La Robe de dissention, ou le Faux prodige (1726; The Robe of Dissention, or the False Prodigal) is based on Retablo and the interlude by the same name by *Quiñones de Benavente.
Pirro Calabrés. In Persiles IV, 7, the ruffian lover, from the southern Italian province of Calabria, of the courtesan *Hipó1ita la Ferraresa. In IV, 13, when Hipólita offers to help Periandro and Auristela, Pirro is enraged and tries to kill Periandro, wounding him very badly. Within four days, he is executed for this crime.
Pirsiles. In Parnaso 4, the title MC uses when referring to the forthcoming Persiles (or perhaps just a misprint).
Pirú. *Peru.
Pisa. City in northwestern Italy, located on the Arno River. It is particularly famous for its leaning tower. In MC’s day, it was reputed to
Page 570 be the site where the best china in Italy was manufactured. See Persiles I, 5.
Pistoletes. *Hired gunmen.
Pisuerga. A Spanish river that rises in the mountains of northcentral Spain, flows southwest through Valladolid, and empties into the Duero just southwest of Valladolid. See DQ I, 18; DQ II, 44; Galatea 6; Parnaso 8.
Pit [Sima]. In DQ II, 55, the deep hole in the ground into which SP and his ass fall during the dark night when he is returning to the duke’s palace after resigning as governor of Barataria. He compares his experience to that of DQ in the *Cave of Montesinos, but whereas his master saw a sumptuous palace and romantic enchanted figures, he sees only snakes and toads, a concise representation of an essential difference between the two of them. The pit also represents graphically SP’s “fall” from political power, standing thus as a cautionary emblem of the instability of *fortune in the world. SP’s descent into the pit also stands in contrast to his account of his ‘ascent’ into the heavens during the ride on *Clavileño in II, 40.
Pius V [Pío Quinto] (1504–72). Pope and saint. Pius V instigated the creation of the *Holy League against the Turks, which culminated in the battle of Lepanto. He also eradicated Protestantism in Italy, excommunicated Elizabeth I of England, and banned bullfighting in Spain. See DQ I, 39.
Pizarra de la Mancha. An unidentified fountain. See Fregona.
Pizarras, fuente de las. *Fountain of Slate.
Pizarro, Don Francisco de. A descendant of the explorer and leader of the conquest of the Incas in Peru, also named Francisco de Pizarro. In fact, his father was of the Orellana family (the explorer and conquistador Francisco de Orellana was an ally of Francisco de Pizarro in the wars of Peru), but he chose to go by his maternal surname (not an uncommon practice in Golden Age Spain), whereas his brother, Don Juan de *Orellana, went by the paternal name. He lived with his brother in Trujillo and was almost certainly known to MC, who also had family there; he also becomes a character in MC’s last novel. Pizarro is represented under his own name in Persiles III, 2, where he and his brother receive the baby (child of Feliciana de la Voz) left with Periandro and the group of pilgrims. The two brothers also intervene later (III, 5) in order to help reconcile family differences and marry Feliciana to her lover Rosanio.
Pizpita. In Viudo, one of the candidates to replace the recently deceased Pericona as Trampagos’s prostitute.
Placerdemivida [Pleasure of My Life]. Gobetween maiden in Tirante el Blanco (*Martorell, Johanot), mentioned in DQ I, 6.
Plafagonia. A region in northern Asia Minor (*Pimpinela de Plafagonia, Doña).
Planas, Miguel. *García, Antonio.
Planet Mars [Planeta Marte]. The fourth planet from the Sun, named after the god of war. See DQ II, 6.
Plascencia. 1. City in Extremadura located west and slightly south of Madrid and south and slightly west of Salamanca. See Casamiento. 2. *Piacenza.
Plátano. *Man who adored a banana tree.
Platería. Part of the Calle Mayor in Madrid where silversmiths had their shops. See Vizcaíno.
Platero. *Silversmith.
Platir. *Enciso Zárate, Francisco de.
Plato [Platón] (427–347 BCE). Greek philosopher. A student of Socrates, Plato founded an academy in a grove near Athens, where he taught philosophy, mathematics, and dialectics for some 40 years. His greatest student was *Aristotle. See DQ I, prologue; DQ II, 38, 51; Entretenida 3; Vidriera.
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Platonism. Second only to *Aristotelianism as the major classical intellectual tradition of the *Renaissance; sometimes, particularly in modern criticism, the term neoplatonism is used for this school of thought. Crucial in the formation of Renaissance Platonic thought are the fifteenthcentury Florentines Marsilio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola. Noteworthy ideas and concepts based on versions and interpretations of Plato’s works include the transcendent existence of universal forms, the primacy of spirit over matter, the analogical ordering of nature, the human microcosm, and unity as the goal of thought. Particularly important was the Platonic theory of love: that the admiration of and desire for physical beauty (especially of a beautiful woman) could lead, through adoration of that beauty, to a virtuous soul and ultimately to a contemplation of the perfection and ethereal beauty of the entire universe and God himself (*Hebreo, León). Platonism infuses Renaissance poetry (especially in *Garcilaso de la Vega, Fray Luis de *León, and Francisco de *Aldana), the *pastoral romance, *mystical literature, and much *humanist thought (especially in Juan Luis Vives, Miguel Servet, and Pedro Simón Abril). MC’s works, particularly Galatea and Persiles, are influenced, in at least a general way, by Platonic thought, and certainly elements of DQ’s love for DT can be considered platonic, if not a parody of the concept. Bibliography: José L.Gallegos, “Don Quixote as Lover: A Neoplatonic Paradigm,” in Magical Parts: Approaches to “Don Quixote,” Indiana Journal of Hispanic Literatures 5 (fall 1994):127–44; and Melchora Romanos, “La estructura narrativa de La Galatea de Cervantes. De lo poético a la ficcionalización novelada,” in Actas del II Congreso Internacional de la Asociación de Cervantistas, ed. Giuseppe Grilli (Naples: Institute Universitario Orientale, 1995), 171–79.
Platonov, Andrei P. (1889–1951). Russian novelist. Platonov’s Chevengur (1926–29 but first published in the USSR in 1989) is a parable on DQ types, who are fanatics in their love of humanity but who usurp power. It was first published in 1972 in Paris in Russian and was then translated into English in 1978, which made the book available in other countries before it could be read in the USSR.
Plautus, Titus Maccius [Plauto] (ca. 250–184 BCE). Roman dramatist. Plautus’s comedies featured such stock types as the braggart soldier, the resourceful slave, and the prostitute. His works were rediscovered in the Renaissance and he became, along with *Seneca, one of the most important classical models for comic theater in Spain, England, and France. See Adjunta; Rufián 2.
Playa de Sanlúcar. *Picaresque geography.
Plaza of Madrid. Presumably the Plaza Mayor; it is mentioned among the favorite haunts of pícaros in Fregona (*picaresque geography).
Pleiades [Siete cabrillas]. In Greek myth, the seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione. They were pursued by Orion and turned into a sevenstar constellation, which is known in Spanish as the Siete cabrillas (seven little goats). SP claims to have dismounted there during the flight on Clavileño and played for a while with the goats. See DQ II, 41. Bibliography: Franklin O.Brantley, “Sancho’s Ascent to the Spheres,” Hispania 53 (1970):37–45.
Pliny the Younger [Plinio]: Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus (ca. 61–113). Roman administrator and nephew of Pliny the Elder, known primarily for his letters written on a wide range of subjects. The famous dictum “Sequels are never any good” (which Pliny attributes to his uncle, Pliny the Elder) is quoted anonymously by Sansón Carrasco in DQ II, 3. See also Persiles I, 18.
Pluma. *Pen.
Plutarch [Plutarco] (46–ca. 119). A Roman historian and biographer who wrote in Greek. He and his biography of Alexander the Great in his Parallel Lives are mentioned in the prologue to DQ I. In DQ I, 33, he is also simply referred to as “the poet” who wrote usque ad aras, a line that means “as far as the altar” (i.e.,
Page 572 in this context, that the close friendship between two men should change after one of them marries).
Pluto (God of the horrendous face) [Plutón (Dios del gesto horrendo)]. God of the underworld. In Numancia 2, he is referred to as the god of the horrendous face, as he was considered extremely ugly.
Po. A river in northern Italy that flows into the Adriatic Sea. According to myth, when *Phaethon proved unable to control the chariot of the sun he was killed by a thunderbolt from Zeus and fell into this river. See Galatea 6; Poesías 32.
Poblete, Egidio (1860–1940). Chilean writer. Poblete wrote a fantasy entitled “Don Quijote en Chile” (1905), a speculation about what DQ would be like in earlytwentiethcentury Chile. The author concludes that there would be no place for the idealistic DQ in that society, but that the pragmaticpicaresque SP would fit right in.
Pocris. *Cephalus and Procris.
Poesía. *Poetry.
Poesías sueltas (Poesías); Occasional poetry. Rather than include entries for all of MC’s occasional poetry by either title or first line scattered throughout this encyclopedia, the poems have been gathered together and numbered under the general rubric of poesías sueltas. Included are the 35 poems (Poesías 1 through Poesías 35) considered authentic by both of the most important editors of MC’s poetry in recent years: Vicente Gaos and Elias L. Rivers. There is no separate entry for the 151 poems scattered throughout MC’s prose works (80 in Galatea; 34 in DQ I; 15 in DQ II; 16 in Novelas: eight in Gitanilla, four in Fregona, one each in Amante, Rinconete, Celoso, and Coloquio; and six in Persiles) or for other poems that through the years have been considered by some as having been written by MC (*attributed works). Bibliography: Miguel de Cervantes, Poesías completas II, ed. Vicente Gaos (Madrid: Castalia, 1981); and Miguel de Cervantes, Viage del Parnaso: Poesías varias, ed. Elias L.Rivers (Madrid: EspasaCalpe, 1991).
Poesías 1: “Seremsíma reina, en quien se halla” (“Most serene queen, in whom is found”). A sonnet discovered in a manuscript in the National Library of Paris and first published in 1899. The poem is written in praise of Queen *Isabel de Valois, the third wife of King Felipe II, upon the occasion of the birth of her daughter Catalina Micaela in 1567. Assuming it is authentic (and not everyone accepts the attribution), this is the earliest known written work by MC.
Poesías 2: “Aquí el valor de la española tierra” (“Here the valor of the Spanish land”). A sonnet published in the 1569 volume edited by MC’s Erasmian mentor, Juan *López de Hoyos. This is MC’s first published work of literature, a pedestrian sonnet in praise of the late Queen *Isabel de Valois, with a reminder of the universality and inevitability of death. In an editorial note that accompanies this poem and the three that follow, MC is identified as ‘our dear and beloved disciple.’
Poesías 3: “Cuando dejaba la guerra” (“When the war left”). A set of two *quintillas, also known as a *copia real (and referred to in the text as a redondilla castelland), published in the 1569 volume edited by MC’s Erasmian mentor, Juan *López de Hoyos. This brief poem praises the late Queen *Isabel de Valois and employs the metaphor of a flower cut from a branch.
Poesías 4: “Cuando un estado dichoso” (“When a fortunate state”). A poem consisting of eight *quintillas, or four *coplas reales (and referred to in the text as redondillas castellanas), published in the 1569 volume edited by MC’s Erasmian mentor, Juan *López de Hoyos. The poem is a standard lament about how the famous thief and fierce tyrant, Death, stole away Queen *Isabel de Valois. The final stanza is addressed to the queen’s children, Isabel Clara Eugenia and Catalina Micaela, and
Page 573 contains an allusion to the famous Sonnet X of *Garcilaso de la Vega.
Poesías 5: “¿A quién irá mi doloroso canto?” (“To whom will my painful song go?”). A poem consisting of 66 tercets and addressed to Cardinal Diego de Espinosa, published in the 1569 volume edited by MC’s Erasmian mentor, Juan *López de Hoyos. A note in the text explains: ‘The elegy that, in the name of the whole academy, was written by the abovementioned [MC]….’ This rhetorical, patriotic, and adulatory poem is structured along the lines similar to the elegies of *Garcilaso de la Vega, whose sonnets, elegies, and eclogues are all alluded to and evoked throughout.
Poesías 6: “¡Oh cuán claras señates habéis dado!” (“Oh what clear signs you have given!”). The first of two sonnets in a manuscript by Bartholomeo *Ruffino di Chiambery discovered in Turin, Italy; first published in 1863; and later destroyed in a fire. Ruffino had been a captive in Algiers with MC, and his manuscript was a history or commentary on various aspects of the ChristianMuslim conflict in the Mediterranean Sea. In the sonnet, there is an allusion to the author’s captivity and exaggerated praise for his qualities as a poet.
Poesías 7: “Si ansí como de nuestro mal se canta” (“If, just as we complain about our misfortune”). The second sonnet from the same manuscript as Poesías 6. Ruffino’s work is praised as a truthful historical account that will be of benefit to all Christians.
Poesías 8: Epístola a Mateo Vázquez: “Si el bajo son de la zampoña mía” (Epistle to Mateo Vázquez: “If the lowly sound of my flute”). An epistle consisting of 81 tercets dealing with the suffering of the Christian captives in Algiers. The poem was first published in 1863 by Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch, who found it in a manuscript in a private archive. The poem is divided into three sections: 1) stanzas 1–30, dedicated to praise of Mateo Vázquez; 2) stanzas 31–64, in which MC’s own heroic exploits and his captivity in Algiers are described; and 3) stanzas 65–81, a plea to Felipe II to come and free the suffering captives. The authenticity of the poem has frequently been questioned, but more often than not it is included among MC’s works. Perhaps the strongest reason for believing that MC is the author is that stanzas 61–79, the heart of the poem dealing with the plea to rescue the suffering captives, is repeated almost verbatim by the character Saavedra (in whom readers see reflections of MC himself) in Tratos 1. In no known case does MC incorporate a long passage from another author in any of his works, whereas he does make double use of a poem in a few instances (e.g., Grisóstomo’s “Song of Despair”). There seems no reason to doubt that the allusion to the year 1577 (in the comment about MC’s being in Algiers for two years after being taken prisoner in 1575), together with the passage included in Tratos, written in the early 1580s, place the composition of the poem in the period of MC’s captivity in Africa. Certainly the theme of the poem is thoroughly consistent with MC’s other works about Spanish captives in North Africa and Constantinople (Tratos, Gallardo, Baños, Sultana, Laberinto, and Capitán). On the other hand, the poem could have been pieced together from some of MC’s writings (e.g., the stanzas from Tratos 1) and linked together by someone else at a later date. Bibliography: José Luis Fernández de la Torre, “Historia y poesía: Algunos ejemplos de lírica ‘pública’ en Cervantes,” Edad de Oro 6 (1987):115–31.
Poesías 9: “Si el lazo, el fuego, el dardo, el puro hielo” (“If the bonds, the fire, the dart, the pure ice”). A poem consisting of 12 octaves written as an introductory piece for an unpublished work entitled Celia, by Antonio Veneziani (Veneziano). The poem is accompanied by a brief letter from MC to Veneziano dated in Algiers, November 6, 1579. The two men were captives together and obviously were able to compose literary works during that time. The poem, which praises both the beautiful Celia and the author of the collection of poems in her honor, was first published in 1861. In Galatea 1 there is a sonnet by Galatea that utilizes
Page 574 some of the same conventional imagery (lazo, fuego, hielo).
Poesías 10: “Ya que del ciego dios habéis cantado” (“Since you have sung about the blind god”). A prefatory sonnet published in Pedro de *Padilla’s Cancionero (1583). According to MC, Padilla, who had previously sung gloriously of love, now writes about war.
Poesías 11: “¡Oh venturosa, levantada pluma!” (“Oh fortunate, elevated pen!”). A sonnet by MC published among the preliminary poems for Juan *Rufo’s La Austriada (1584). The poem praises Rufo’s ‘great’ heroic version of the history of the exploits of Don Juan of Austria.
Poesías 12: “Hoy el famoso Padilla” (“Today the famous Padilla”). The first of three poems by MC, this one consisting of 16 *redondillas, for Pedro de *Padilla’s Jardín espiritual (1585; Spiritual Garden). The poem refers to Padilla’s new religious vocation and praises his poetry.
Poesías 13: “Cual vemos que renueva” (“Just as we see that [the eagle] renews”). The second of three poems, this one consisting of six sixline *silvas, for Pedro de *Padilla’s Jardín espiritual (1585; Spiritual Garden). MC praises Padilla’s new vocation and his shift from profane to religious verse.
Poesías 14: “Muestra su ingenio el que es pintor curioso” (“The one who is a curious painter demonstrates his imagination”). A sonnet, one of three poems by MC for Pedro de *Padilla’s Jardín espiritual (1585; Spiritual Garden). The poem follows one by Pedro *Laínez to San Francisco and continues the same theme.
Poesías 15: “El casto ardor de una amorosa llama” (“The chaste ardor of an amorous flame”). A sonnet written by MC as one of two preliminary poems (the other is Poesías 16) for the Cancionero (1586; Songbook) of Gabriel *López Maldonado. The poem consists of exaggerated praise for the author, who is called ‘unique and famous.’
Poesías 16: “Bien donado sale al mundo” (“Well endowed does [this book] go out into the world”). A poem consisting of eight *quintillas written by MC as one of two preliminary poems (the other is Poesías 15) for the Cancionero (1586; Songbook), of Gabriel *López Maldonado. The main feature of the poem is the wordplay on the author’s second surname, Maldonado, in the words bien donado or Biendonado (with the “goodbad” contrast of bienmal). As in other poetry by MC, there are allusions to or evocations of the poetry of *Garcilaso de la Vega and, to a lesser extent, Fray Luis de León.
Poesías 17: “Cual vemos del rosado y rico oriente” (“Just as we see from the rosy and rich Orient”). A prefatory sonnet published in Alonso de *Barros’s Filosofía cortesana moralizada (1587; Courtly Philosophy Moralized). The theme of the poem is the author’s wise decision to choose the simple life over the more hurried and confused life of the court (*disdain for the court and praise for the village).
Poesías 18: “De la Virgen sin par, santa y bendita” (“Of the peerless, holy and blessed Virgin”). A prefatory sonnet written for Fray Pedro de *Padilla’s Grandezas y excelencias de la Virgen señora nuestra (1587; Grandeur and Excellences of the Our Lady the Virgin). Padilla dedicated his book to *Margarita of Austria, and it is she who is praised in MC’s poem.
Poesías 19: “Tú, que con nuevo y sin igual decoro” (“You, who with a new and unequaled decorum”). A sonnet published at the end of a medical treatise by the royal surgeon Francisco Díaz entitled Tratado nuevamente impreso de todas las enfermedades de los riñones, y carnosidades de la verga y utrina …(1588; Newly Printed Treatise on All the Infirmities of the Kidneys, Gall Bladder, and Fleshy Parts of the Penis and Uterus…). In the poem, the physician’s abilities are praised
Page 575 and the author is referred to as outstanding in both of Apollo’s sciences, medicine and philosophy.
Poesías 20: “Bate fama veloz, las prestas alas” (“Beat your swift wings, rapid Fame”). A heroic poem consisting of nine 16line *silvas on the theme of the Invincible *Armada, probably written in 1588 when the first bad news of the plight of that expedition began to spread throughout Spain. The poem (together with the related Poesías 21) is found in a manuscript in the Biblioteca Nacional in Madrid and was first published in 1899. Since the exsoldier MC had spent about a year requisitioning supplies for the Armada, he may have had a personal, as well as patriotic, interest in its success. This may also represent MC’s effort to compete with his admired Fernando de *Herrera (see Poesías 29) as an author of heroic verse. The poet acknowledges ‘the confusing sound of the bad news’ but invokes Fame and Fortune in support of ‘our invincible Christian army,’ inspired and led by the house of Austria (the Hapsburgs) and consisting of reincarnations of great heroes like El Cid, Roland, and Mars himself, as they go forth in the name of ‘Mother Spain’ to put a yoke on ‘the unjust neck of the English.’ When the enemy sees ‘a true portrait of the Catholic Monarch, they will see a new David’ and recognize defeat, as ‘Spain already sings its victory.’
Poesías 21: “Madre de los valientes de la guerra” (“Mother of the valiant men of war”). A heroic poem consisting of eight 17line *silvas on the theme of the Invincible *Armada, probably written in 1588 when the defeat of the expedition was confirmed. The poem (together with the related Poesías 20) was found in a manuscript in the National Library in Madrid and was first published in 1899. The poet implores Mother Spain to open her arms to the soldiers who return ‘confused, not defeated’ from the military disaster; heaven may have postponed the victory but does not ‘permit evil to go unpunished.’ What has happened is that ‘they have stepped on the tail of your [Spain’s] lion,’ but wherever this lion casts his gaze the enemy trembles. Invoking next Felipe II, the poet again urges him, a Christian Moses, to place on the enemy ‘the just yoke that his unjust bosom and insane conduct deserves.’ The (English) pirate may celebrate his triumph now, but his day of reckoning will come. The potentially heroic metaphor of the lion of Spain is undercut by the image of a lion who turns and runs when someone steps on his tail. This metaphor, in fact, together with the image of the bellowing calf in Poesías 25 and that of the lion who remains in his safe cage rather than fight in DQ II, 17, seems to point to an important shift in MC’s thinking: away from the invincibility of Spain and the inevitability of its ultimate Catholic victory, to the nation’s weakness and inability to carry out great enterprises.
Poesías 22: “Yace donde el sol se pone” (“There lies where the sun sets”). A 60line ballad with ea assonant rhyme, often cited by the title “Romance [or Morada] de los celos” (“Ballad [or Dwelling Place] of Jealousy”). MC was reputed to be a recognizable writer of ballads and stated in Parnaso 4, ‘I have written infinite ballads and the one on jealousy is the one I most esteem’ (*Cervantes the poet). This obviously popular poem was published at least three times in MC’s lifetime, once specifically attributed to him; the best version is the one found in the Romancero general (1600). Jealousy resides in a ‘deep, lugubrious, dark cave’ (somewhat reminiscent of Polyphemus’s cave in *Góngora’s Fábula de Polifemo and Segismundo’s cave in *Calderón’s La vida es sueño); from inside come sounds of chains and deep sighs. At the entrance to the cave there is a yellow stone marker announcing: ‘This is the dwelling place of jealousy and suspicions.’ When this is explained to the shepherd Lauso, he proclaims that the jealousy living in the cave is that inspired by the actions of his beloved Silena. Both Lauso and Silena are characters in Galatea, the former often considered to represent MC himself. The possibility exists, therefore, that the poem represents a deep personal feeling for the author. Be that as it may, there is no question that *jealousy is a constant
Page 576 theme in MC’s works, nowhere better expressed than in this poem and in Auristela’s unmotivated jealousy in Persiles II.
Poesías 23: “Tras los dones primitives” (“After the primitive gifts”). A *gloss on the theme of San Jacinto (given in a *redondilla beginning “El cielo a la iglesia ofrece” [“Heaven offers the church”]) in eight *quintillas that won for MC first prize in a poetry contest as recorded in the Relation de la fiesta que se ha hecho en el convento de Santo Domingo de la ciudad de Zaragoza a la canonización de San Jacinto (1595; Account of the Celebration that Was Held in the Convent of Santo Domingo in the City of Zaragoza on the Canoni zation of Saint Jacinto). The pious poem praises the saint and plays on his name and that of the flower, the hyacinth.
Poesías 24: “No ha menester el que tus hechos canta” (“The one who sings your deeds has no need”). A sonnet dedicated to Don Alvaro de *Bazán, who participated in the battle of Lepanto and led the expedition that conquered the Azores for Spain. The poem was published in Cristóbal *Mosquera de Figueroa’s Comentario en breve compendio de disciplina militar en que se escribe la jornada de las islas de los Azores (1596; A Brief Commentary on Military Discipline in which the Trip to the Azores Islands Is Described).
Poesías 25: “Vimos en julio otra semana santa” (“In July we saw another Holy Week”). A satiric sonnet written on the occasion of the English sack of *Cádiz in 1596. The poem forms part of a manuscript housed in the Biblioteca de Palacio and was first published by Juan Antonio Pellicer in 1778. It bears the following explanatory title: ‘To the entry of the Duke of Medina [Sidonia] into Cádiz, in July of 1596, with help from the troops drilled in Seville by Captain Becerra, after the English had evacuated that city, having sacked it for the space of twentyfour days under the command of the Count of Essex.’ (There is a variant to this introductory title that conveys about the same information in slightly different words.) According to the poem, the common man was frightened by Becerra’s soldiers, but not the English. After the calf (becerro, a cruel play on Becerra’s name) ‘bellowed,’ the great duke ‘triumphantly’ entered the deserted city. The bitter sarcasm and political criticism of the poem make it one of the great satiric sonnets of the Spanish Renaissance, on a par with Poesías 26.
Poesías 26: Al túmulo del rey que se hizo en Sevilla: “—¡Voto a Dios, que me espanta esta grandeza” (To the Tomb of the King that Was Built in Seville: “ ’I swear to God that this grandeur frightens me’”). A satiric sonnet with an *estrambote written on occasion of the death of Felipe II in 1598. In Parnaso 4, MC cites this poem by its first line and calls it the ‘the principal honor of my writings.’ Because of the scandal its public reading caused (see below), the poem gained great popularity (there are several variants of it) and was widely circulated throughout Spain. It was first published in José Alfay’s anthology Poesías varias de grandes ingenios españoles (1654; Various Poems by Great Spanish Wits). When the king died in 1598, an enormous and ostentatious catafalque was erected to his honor in the cathedral of Seville (its construction took some 52 days to complete). Petty political and religious squabbling over seating rights and order of procession delayed the official dedication ceremonies for weeks, during which time many people came to admire the tomb. One day an exsoldier—MC himself—walked in, recited this sonnet next to the tomb, and left with a flourish. Lines 1–11 are a satiric exclamation in mock praise of the grandeur of the construct, ending with the bet that the dead king’s soul has left heaven itself in order to admire it. The final three lines of the sonnet are a comment made by a valentón (braggart), who agrees with the statements and declares that anyone who says anything else is a liar. Then, in the threeline estrambote, the braggart puts on his hat, rattles his sword, looks out the corner of his eye, and leaves, ‘and that’s all there was.’ Together with
Page 577 Poesías 25, this is the height of MC’s satiric writing and in every way a brilliant poem. Bibliography: E.C.Graf, “Escritor/Excretor: Cervantes’s ‘Humanism’ on Philip II’s Tomb,” Cervantes 19, no. 1 (1999):66–95; Adrienne Laskier Martín, Cervantes and the Burlesque Sonnet (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); and S.B. Vranich, Ensayos Sevillanos del Siglo de Oro (Valencia, Spain: Albatros Hispanófila, 1981).
Poesías 27: “Ya que se ha llegado el día” (“Since the day has arrived”). A poem of 12 *quintillas, contained in an anthology compiled but not published in the seventeenth century, the Descriptión del túmulo y relatión de las exequias que hizo la ciudad de Sevilla en la muerte del rey don Felipe segundo (Description of the Tomb and Relation of the Funeral Rites Celebrated in the City of Seville on the Occasion of the Death of the King Don Felipe the Second), edited by Licentiate Francisco Gerónimo Collado. Unlike the blatant satire of Poesías 26, this poem on the same subject is apparently measured and respectful in its praise of the character and accomplishments of the deceased king, but there is at least a trace of satire in comments such as the one about the nation’s empty coffers. Some doubt the authenticity of this poem.
Poesías 28: “Yace en la parte que es mejor de España” (“There lies in the best part of Spain”). A prefatory sonnet for Lope de *Vega’s collection of poetry entitled La hermosura de Angélica (1602; Angelica’s Beauty). As is common in such laudatory poems, MC plays on the author’s name Vega (plain) and hyperbolically praises his works. Given the enmity between MC and Lope, the poem is often read as heavily ironic in its praise for the author. It is interesting to note the dense concentration of mythological names (Apollo, Helicon, Jupiter, Mercury, Minerva, the Muses, Parnassus, and Venus), more than in any other short poem of MC’s. This is precisely the sort of pedantry that MC was to criticize and satirize just three years later in his prologue to DQ I.
Poesías 29: “El que subió por sendas nunca usadas” (“He who ascended by paths never used”). A sonnet in praise of the poet Fernando de *Herrera on the occasion of his death. It was included in a manuscript by Francisco Pacheco dated 1613 and published for the first time in Martín Fernández de Navarrete’s biography of MC (1819). In the manuscript, the poem is introduced with the following explanatory comment: ‘I wrote this sonnet on the occasion of the death of Fernando de Herrera, and, in order to understand the first quatrain, I point out that in his verses he celebrated a lady under the name of Luz. I think that this is one of the good poems that I have written in my life.’ The poem makes the conventional references to the poet’s greatness and, in this case, cites his love lyrics devoted to Luz. Bibliography: Adrienne Laskier Martín, “El soneto a la muerte de Fernando de Herrera: texto y contexto,” Anales Cervantinos 23 (1985):213–19.
Poesías 30: “En la memoria vive de las gentes” (“There lives in the memory of people”). A sonnet in praise of the fame of the poet Don Diego de *Hurtado de Mendoza; it was published in the posthumous Obras del insigne caballero don Diego de Mendoza (1610; Works of the Illustrious Gentleman Don Diego de Mendoza). The praise for the late poet is conventional, but it is assumed that MC felt some genuine affection for Hurtado de Mendoza, as he is considered to be represented by the figure of *Meliso in Galatea 6.
Poesías 31: “Tal secretario formáis” (“You make such a secretary”). A poem consisting of eight *redondillas published as one of the prefatory verses in Gabriel Pérez del Barrio Angulo’s book Dirección de secretarios de señores… (1613; Instructions for Gentlemen’s Secretaries…), a kind of howto book. It consists of the usual type of praise for the author.
Poesías 32: “Jamás en el jardín de Falerina” (“Never in Falerina’s garden”). A prefatory sonnet for Diego Rosel y Fuenllana’s book Parte primera de varias explicaciones y transformaciones…(1613; First Part of Various Explanations and Transformations…), published in Naples. In addition to praise for
Page 578 the author and wordplay based on the author’s name (Rosel, rosa (rose) and accompanying flower imagery), the poem contains references to Italian literary characters and rivers.
Poesías 33: “Virgen fecunda, madre venturosa” (“Fecund virgin, fortunate mother”). A poem in praise of *Saint Teresa de Jesús consisting of seven 14line *silvas. It was published in the Compendio de las solenes fiestas que en toda España se hicieron en la beatificación de nuestra beata madre Teresa de Jesús…(1615; Compendium of the Solemn Celebrations that Were Held throughout Spain on the Occasion of the Beatification of Our Blessed Mother Teresa de Jesús…). The Divine Magician (God) himself came to take away the ‘fecund virgin,’ Teresa de Jesús. There is some conventional wordplay with the name of the town where Teresa died, Alba de Tormes, and alba (dawn).
Poesías 34: “De Turia el cisne más famoso hoy canta” (“The most famous swan of Turia sings today”). A sonnet published as one of the preliminary verses in Juan Yagüe de Salas’s book Los amantes de Teruel …(1616; The Lovers of Teruel…). It consists of conventional praise for the glory of the author.
Poesías 35: “En vuestra sin igual dulce armonía” (“In your unequaled sweet harmony”). A sonnet in praise of the Franciscan nun Doña Alfonsa González de Salazar published as one of the preliminary verses in Licentiate Miguel Toledano’s book dedicated to González entitled Sacra Minerva (1616; Sacred Minerva). MC praises the nun as a peerless and sacred Minerva, making use of the book’s title in his poem.
Poet [Poeta]. 1. In Coloquio, the playwright whom Berganza gets to know and who is devastated when his play is a failure. 2. In Coloquio, in the Hospital of the Resurrection, a patient who is writing a book about King Arthur and the quest for the Holy Grail. 3. In Persiles III, 2, the dramatist who wants to write a play based on the painting of the trials of Periandro and his companions, and then tries to recruit Auristela as an actress. 4. *Plutarch. 5. *Vivar, (Juan) Bautista de.
Poet who wrote a satire about that Señora Angélica [Poeta que haya hecho alguna sátira a esa señora Angélica]. *Góngora y Argote, Don Luis de.
Poeta cordobés. *Mena, Juan de.
Poetas del dorado Tajo. *Poets of the Tagus River.
Poetas religiosos. *Religious poets.
Poética; Poetics. *Horace.
Poetry [Poesía]. 1. In Galatea 6, the muse Calliope introduces herself as the representative of ‘the marvelous and never sufficiently praised science’ of Poetry. Poetry is personified and lavishly described as a beautiful maiden by the poetpage of Gitanilla. The mad Licenciado Vidriera speaks at length of his admiration for the science of poetry. In DQ II, 16, DQ lectures Don Diego de Miranda on the proper way to consider the science of poetry, which he describes as being is like a young and tender damsel, who should always be treated with great respect and who should always be served and adorned by all other sciences. MC wrote poetry throughout his life, even though he admitted that he did not have the gift of poetry (*Cervantes the poet). 2. In Parnaso 4, the figure of Poetry makes a theatrical entrance onto the scene with Apollo and the poets from Spain on Parnassus and puts in a second appearance after the victory over the bad poets in Parnaso 8. 3. In DQ II, 20, Poetry is one of the eight nymphs who participates in the celebration of *Camacho’s wedding.
Poets of the Tagus River [Poetas del dorado Tajo]. In Fregona, writers who sing the praises of the illustrious kitchen maid.
Poinsinet, Antoine Alexandre Henri. *Philidor.
Polaco. *Polish.
Page 579
Polar, Juan Manuel (1868–1936). Peruvian writer. Polar’s Don Quijote en Yanquilandia (1925; Don Quixote in Yankeeland), supposedly translated from a manuscript by CHB, begins when Tío Samuel (Uncle Sam) falls asleep reading DQ and drinking whisky. He awakens and summons wise men and women to help him bring DQ and SP to life. They succeed by magic and DQ begins his adventures in Yankeeland. He has a long conversation with Uncle Sam, takes the American eagle (which he calls Doña Aguila) to be his DT, fights with the Knight of the Dollar in defense of the working class, disenchants the supposed kingdom of Quivira, and in the end goes off with SP and Uncle Sam to new adventures on a train. Bibliography: Juan Manuel Polar, Don Quijote en Yanquilandia (Cartagena, Colombia: Juvenilia, 1925).
Policarpa. In Persiles I, 22, the oldest daughter of King Policarpo is first mentioned. She is also present, but plays virtually no role in the events, in II, 2–17.
Policarpo. In Persiles, king of the island of Scinta. In I, 22, the pirate captain tells Auristela and those traveling with her about the island of Scinta, which is ruled by a democratically chosen king, currently Policarpo, a widower with two beautiful daughters, Policarpa and Sinforosa. He presides over the Olympic games held there. Recently a stranger named Periandro arrived and won all the games, as well as the love of Sinforosa, and Auristela immediately becomes extremely jealous of the princess. In II, 2, the entire group of adventurers is reunited on Scinta. Policarpo falls in love with Auristela, and, aided by Sinforosa, who loves Periandro, and the enchantress Cenotia, who wants Antonio the younger, attempts to create confusion by starting a fire in the palace (II, 17). The plan fails, as Periandro, Auristela, and the entire group manage to escape. The local populace, enraged by their leader’s actions, depose him.
Policea. An imaginary kingdom invented by MC in Pedro 3, or perhaps an error (or misprint) for Policena, daughter of King Priam of Troy and beloved of Achilles.
Policemen [Corchetes]. 1. In Coloquio, companions and assistants of the constable who adopts Berganza. 2. In DQ II, 49, the officers who assist in the arrest and return to their home of the children of Diego de la Llana.
Polifemo. *Poliphemus.
Polifemos matadores. *Murderous Polyphemuses.
Polignoto. *Polygnotus.
Polimnia. *Muses.
Polish [Polaco]. In Persiles I, 3, the lingua franca among the barbarians. For MC and his contemporaries, Poland was a powerful, mysterious, somewhat mythical, distant land to the east and north. See also Persiles II, 18.
Pollinos. *Asscolts or fillies.
Polo Artico. *North Pole.
Polo, Gaspar Gil (?–1585). Courtier, poet, and novelist, best known as the author of the better of two sequels to Jorge de *Montemayor’s prototypical pastoral romance, La Diana: Los cinco libros de la Diana enamorada (1564; The Five Books of the Enamored Diana). The romance picks up the story of Diana, in love with Sireno but married to Delio, a situation that is remedied when the latter dies, and then all the confusing and conflicting relationships among the characters are worked out. The prose and poetry of Polo’s romance are considered among the most elegant and perfect of the genre. MC was among the admirers of Diana enamorada, which is spared from the flames in the inquisition of books in DQ I, 6. Included in the romance is a poem entitled “Canto de Turia” (“Song of Turia”), which consists of praises for writers from the region of Valencia (through which the Turia River flows), somewhat similar to (and, probably for this reason, cited in) Calliope’s song in Galatea 6. The author is cited as Gil Polo; there is no consensus
Page 580 as to whether Gil is the author’s second given name or his first surname, as it can function either way.
Polo, Marco (ca. 1254–ca. 1324). The Venetian traveler whose journey to Asia became the stuff of legend. See DQ I, 47.
Polvico (Polvito). A famous lascivious dance, often cited by reference to the phrase “pisar el polvico a tan menudico” (“stomp the dust so fine”). See Elección; Gitanilla; Vizcaíno.
Polvos de unicornio. *Unicorn powders.
Polydorus Vergil [Virgilio Polidoro] (1470–1555). Italian humanist scholar and historian. His most famous book was the De rerum inventoribus (1499; On the Invention of Things), a treatise that included much imagination and many absurdities, on famous inventions and that was quite popular in much of Europe during the Renaissance. A Spanish translation/adaptation was done by Francisco Thámara with the title Libro de Polidoro Vergilio que trata de la invention y principio de todas las cosas (1550; Book of Polydorus Vergil which Deals with the Invention and Beginning of All Things). The humanist scholar who accompanies DQ and SP to the Cave of Montesinos states that he is writing a supplement to that work. See DQ II, 22, 24.
Polyglot Bible. *Alcalá de Henares.
Polygnotus [Polignoto] (fifth century BCE). Greek painter, best known for his murals depicting mythological subjects. See Persiles IV, 7.
Polyhymnia. *Muses.
Polyphemus [Polifemo]. In Greek myth, a Cyclops, son of Poseidon. In Homer’s Odyssey, the Cyclops are a race of savage, oneeyed giants who tend sheep and goats on the island of Sicily. After Odysseus and a dozen of his men land on the island, Polyphemus begins systematically to kill and eat the men. Odysseus manages to make the Cyclops drunk and blinds him with a long pointed stake (*Nemo). In Theocritus’s poetry, Polyphemus falls in love with the nymph *Galatea, who rejects him for the love of Acis. It is the latter story of Polyphemus that *Góngora tells in his famous Fábula de Polifemo and Galatea. See Viudo.
Ponce de León, Don Manuel (Manuel el Gallardo) (fifteenth century). Spanish courtier and soldier who participated in the conquest of Granada in 1492. Ponce de León was renowned for his physical strength and courage and became a popular figure in Spanish ballads. According to legend, his most memorable deed was to go into a lion’s den to retrieve a glove purposely dropped there by a lady. After retrieving the glove, he slapped her with it. See DQ I, 49; DQ II, 17; Gallardo 1. Bibliography: Buchanan, Milton A.Buchanan, “The Glove and the Lions,” in Estudios dedicados a Menéndez Pidal, 7 vols. (Madrid: CSIC, 1950–62), vol. 6, 245–58.
Ponce de León, Félix Antonio. Spanish writer. His Vida, hechos y aventuras de Juan Mayorazgo, alusivos a la buena y mala crianza del señorito en su pueblo y cadete en la milicia (1779; Life, Deeds, and Adventures of Juan Mayorazgo, Including the Good and Bad Upbringing of the Young Man in His Hometown and as a Cadet in the Militia) has often been cited as an imitation of DQ, but in fact any relationship is minimal.
Poniente. The West; the Atlantic coast; or a wind blowing from that direction (*west wind). See Pedro 3.
Pontiff; Pontífice. *Pope.
Pontus [Ponto]. In antiquity, the name for the Black Sea and, by extension, the lands around it. In DQ II, 16, DQ’s reference to the poet exiled to the islands of the Pontus is to *Ovid, who was banished to the city of Tomis on the shore of the Black Sea, where he died. See also Parnaso 4.
Pope (Holy Father, Pontiff, Supreme Pontiff, Holiness) [Papa (Santo Padre, Pontífice, Sumo Pontífice, Santidad)].
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The bishop of Rome and the head of the Roman Catholic Church. See Baños 1; Coloquio; DQ I, 19, 39; Española; Entretenida 3; Persiles III, 7, 9, 14; Rufián 3; Vidriera.
Popolo Gate [Puerta del Pópulo]: Porta del Popolo. A famous entrance to Rome (the Porta Flaminia in Roman times), so called because of the nearby church of Santa María del Popolo. In Persiles IV, 3, Periandro and the group of pilgrims enter the city by this gate.
Poquelin, JeanBaptiste. *Molière.
Porcia (?–43 BCE). A noble Roman woman and the virtuous wife of Brutus, one of the assassins of Julius Caesar. She committed suicide (either by inhaling fumes from a brazier or actually swallowing hot coals) after her husband’s death. She is a symbol of the faithful and chaste spouse. See Cueva; DQ I, 34; Fregona.
Porcia de Utrino (Rutilio). In Laberinto, sister of Dagoberto and niece of the duke of Dorlán, who accompanies Julia, also dressed as a shepherd, then as a student, and then as a peasant. While dressed as a man, she uses the name Rutilio. At the end of the play, she marries Manfredo.
Porquero. *Swineherd.
Porras de la Cámara, Francisco (ca. 1560–1616). An official in the cathedral of Seville who, in about 1605, compiled a portfolio of miscellaneous reading material entitled Compilación de curiosidades españolas (Anthology of Spanish Curiosities) for his superior officer, the archbishop, Cardinal Fernando Niño de Guevara. Porras copied in his own hand a number of tales and anecdotes and three short works of fiction: Rinconete, Celoso, and Tía. The versions of Rinconete and, more significantly, Celoso are somewhat different from those published in Novelas. Because of its inclusion with two obviously authentic works by MC, the more scandalous Tía has often been attributed to him, but there is no certainty for such an attribution. These three texts were first published in 1788, but the original material was lost in Guadalquivir River in the year 1823. Bibliography: Geoffrey Stagg, “The Refracted Image: Porras and Cervantes,” Cervantes 4, no. 1 (1984):139–53.
Porreño, Baltasar. Spanish writer. In his Dichos y hechos del señor don Felipe el Bueno (1662; Sayings and Deeds of Our Lord Don Felipe the Good), about the reign of Felipe III, Porreño records an incident that has often been cited: one day the king saw a student reading a book and laughing out loud; the king made the remark that either the young man was crazy or he was reading DQ. He was in fact reading DQ.
Porres, Gaspar de. Spanish theatrical impresario. In 1585 he signed a contract with MC to purchase two plays entitled El trato de Constantinopla (Life in Constantinople) and La confusa (The Confusing Play). Neither survives, but at least the second must have been written, as MC refers to it in Parnaso 4 as his best play.
Portada. *Title page.
Porter [Ganapán]. In Juez, the pícaro who wants to divorce the wife he married under the influence of alcohol.
Portero infernal de los tres rostros. *Cerberus.
Portocarrero, Alonso Pacheco. The married lover of MC’s sister Magdalena (and perhaps also of his sister Andrea). Magdalena’s lawsuits against him continued through the late 1570s.
Portocarrero (Puertocarrero), Don Pedro. Head of an aristocratic Andalusian family and father of Alonso and Pedro junior. He fought in the battle of Lepanto, commanded the fortress of La Goleta, was taken prisoner when La Goleta and Tunis fell to the Turks in 1574, and died on the way to Constantinople. See DQ I, 39.
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Portocarrero, Luis. Councilor in Ecija who accused MC of embezzlement. MC was later cleared of the charges.
Portocarrero, Pedro. Son of Pedro senior and younger brother of Alonso, known as la Muerte (Death). He seems to have been involved in an affair with MC’s sister Andrea. Both brothers were implicated in lawsuits brought by Andrea.
Portugal. The country that shares the Iberian Peninsula with Spain. Following the death of Don *Sebastião in 1578, in 1580 the crown of Portugal (along with the second largest colonial empire in the world) passed to Felipe II, bringing the entire Iberian Peninsula under united Spanish rule, although Portugal retained a degree of legal and institutional autonomy and maintained its separate identity. Full Portuguese independence was not restored until 1640. MC visited Portugal on one occasion, in 1581, shortly after his return from captivity in Algiers, and he spent several months there after undertaking his diplomatic mission to *Oran. See DQ I, 13 (where it is Portugal), 20, 31; DQ II, 3, 23; Española; Parnaso 4; Persiles III, 1, 6; IV, 6, 8; Tratos 2.
Portugal, Arco de. *Portuguese Arch.
Portuguesa (lengua). *Portuguese language.
Portuguese [Portugueses]. The Portuguese had the reputation of being overly sentimental, lyrical, and romantic. In Persiles, I, 10, Manuel de Sosa Coitiño virtually personifies the type. See also Celoso; Coloquio.
Portuguese Arch [Arco de Portugal]. Popular name of the Arch of Marco Antonio in Rome, which was demolished in 1622. In Persiles IV, 3, the pilgrims take rooms in an inn near this landmark.
Portuguese India [India de Portugal]. The Portuguese colonies in India. See Española.
Portuguese language [(Lengua) Portuguesa]. A mellifluous language that Madrigal claims to speak in Sultana 2.
Portuguese man [Hombre portugués]. In Persiles III, 1, one of the prisoners freed from the barbarians’ island who has returned to Portugal and told the sad story of Don Manuel de Sosa Coitiño, and who shows Periandro and the other travelers Sosa Coitiño’s tomb.
Portuguese shepherd [Pastor portugués]. In Galatea 5–6, the person whose marriage to Galatea is arranged by Aurelio, her father, much to the dismay of Elicio, Erastro, and other Tagus shepherds. His immanent arrival as the romance is brought to a close heightens suspense and prepares the way for the (never written) sequel.
Portuguese thread [Hilo portugués]. Highquality thread was one of the products produced in Portugal. See Guarda.
Portugueses. *Portuguese.
Posada de la Solana. *Inn of la Solana.
Posada del Sevillano. *Inn of the Sevillano.
Posada, José Guadalupe (1851–1913). Mexican artist. Posada is best known for his stunning series of engravings of Mexican life that consist of beings who are only skeletons and skulls. It is one of the most striking manifestations of the Mexican preoccupation with death, most often seen in the annual celebration of the Día de los Muertos (Day of the Dead). His DQ is a skeleton, wearing something like Mambrino’s helmet, mounted on a skeleton Rocinante, wielding his lance, trampling, scattering, and pursuing a number of smaller skeletons. Although thoroughly typical of the artist’s most characteristic style, it is one of the most unusual DQs ever drawn.
Posesión pacífica. *Peaceful possession.
Posilipo. A mountain outside the city of Naples, where both Virgil (Titiro) and Sannazaro (Sincero) are buried. See Parnaso 3.
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Post tenebras spero lucem [After darkness I hope for light]. The Latin motto, taken from the Book of Job in the Old Testament, that forms part of the emblem of the printer Juan de la Cuesta, which occupies a large portion of the title page of his books, including DQ I and DQ II. The emblem shows a hooded falcon (who is in darkness while the hood is on but who will see light after it is removed) and, in the background, a sleeping lion. Many of the *esoteric readings of the novel, which purport to reveal the real truth hidden in the text, thus bringing the light of understanding to readers who have up to this point been in the dark, refer to this emblem. DQ also uses the phrase in II, 68, before the trampling by the pigs.
Postilión. *Demon(s), Devil(s).
Poststructuralist and postmodernist readings of Don Quixote. Poststructuralism, particularly as practiced by Jacques Derrida and his followers, importantly involves the concepts of infinite textuality and endless semiosis. Everything is text, and texts are no more than traces of différence and aporias (gaps). There is nothing outside the text—no biological agent, no material reality, no author. All reading is misreading and texts only refer to themselves and other texts. Postmodernism, a related concept whose major representatives include François Lyotard and Jean Baudrillard, stresses the lack of reality: it is the simulacrum, rather than the “real” thing, with which we deal; there is no “there” there, no stable meaning in the world. Everything is a fiction, all is play; all understanding is always, and only, subjective and arbitrary. Stress tends to be on visual media and popular culture, more than on traditional printbased literary texts. Both poststructuralism and postmodernism have informed much recent writing about MC and his works. Bibliography: Anne J.Cruz and Carroll B.Johnson, eds., Cervantes and His Postmodern Constituencies (New York: Garland, 1999); and Ciriaco Morón Arroyo, “Deconstrucción: Aspecto del gramanálisis que estudia los factores de disolución de un texto,” Dieciocho 5 (1982):63–71.
Potiphar. *Barbarous Egyptian.
Potosan Mine [Mina potosisca]. In Viudo, a term used to describe the late Pericona, who was a steady and reliable source of income (*Potosí).
Potosí. A mine, discovered in upper Peru—modern Bolivia—in 1544, that provided much silver for imperial Spain. The name became synonymous with an unending source of great riches. Sometimes it was also used to refer to some faroff place. See DQ II, 40, 71; Entretenida 1–2; Pedro 2–3; Persiles III, 9; Rufián 1. Bibliography: Diana de Armas Wilson, “Cacao and Potosí,” in Cervantes, the Novel, and the New World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 78–108.
Potro district of Cordoba [Potro de Córdoba]. A section of Córdoba in which horses were stabled, raced, and sold, and also a common gathering place for criminals, ruffians, and other marginal types (*picaresque geography). See DQ I, 17.
Pour la belle Egyptienne (ca. 1643). An anonymous ballet based on Gitanilla (perhaps by way of *Hardy) that is supposed to have been very popular in its day.
Powell, Richard (1908–). American novelist. Powell’s Don Quixote, U.S.A. (1966) is the story of the quixotic (in the sense of the naïve dogooder who never quite realizes what is going on or how he influences it) Arthur Peabody Goodpasture who goes to the Caribbean island of San Marco, where he soon acquires his SP, an 11yearold pícaro named Pepe, and a very earthy DT named Conchita. Goodpasture gets involved with the guerrilla band hoping to overthrow the island’s dictator and incongruously winds up as the guerrilla leader who overthrows the government and establishes a democracy, simultaneously transforming himself into a savvy and effective politician. Don Quixote, U.S.A. was made into a play by David Rogers and the author in 1967 and then was the inspi
Page 584 ration for Woody *Allen’s film Bananas (1971).
Power of Blood, The. *Fuerza de la sangre, La.
Poyo, Licenciado. *Salus(t)io del Poyo, Damián .
Pozo, Doctor Andrés del. A religious figure and minor poet included among the six religious poets on Parnassus in Parnaso 4. He may also be the person referred to as el licenciado Pozo at the end of Gitanilla.
Pozo, Licenciado. *Pozo, Doctor Andrés de.
Prados de Madama. *Lawns of Madama.
Prague [Praga]. The capital of the Czech Republic (formerly Czechoslovakia), located on the Moldau River. See Sultana 1.
Pransiles. In Galatea 2–3, a gentleman from Jerez who is the rival of Timbrio, who defeats him in a duel.
Preacher who preached in this town [Predicador que predicó en este pueblo]. The priest cited by SP as the source for some of the more sophisticated language and imagery he uses in the conversation with his wife in DQ II, 5.
Preciosa (Preciocica). In Gitanilla, the protagonist, the beautiful, talented gypsy who personifies poetry and whose abilities as a singer and dancer are without equal. Her insistence that her soul is free recalls the figure of Marcela in DQ I, 14. At the end of the story, her true name of Doña Constanza de Azevedo y de Meneses and her birthright as the stolen daughter of the royal magistrate of Murcia are revealed, and she marries the noble youth Don Juan de Cárcamo, formerly known among the gypsies as Andrés Caballero.
Pregonero. *Crier.
Preliminaries. After the invention of the printing press and the growth of the publishing industry, the matter of censorship and government control became a pressing problem. Early in his reign, in 1558, Felipe II instituted a system of governmental review and approval for all publications. As a result, all of MC’s publications, like those of his contemporaries, feature a series of preliminary statements by governmental officials that had to be secured before the book could be printed and sold. These preliminaries include a tasa (price), which set the price; a fe (or testimonio) de erratas (list of errata, or corrector’s statement); an aprobación (approval), or a series of them, from a representative of the Royal Council, indicating that the book contains nothing irreverent or seditious; and a privilegio (privilege), official permission to print the book, virtually what we consider a copyright today, usually headed with the words El Rey and/or signed in the name of the king. Each of these statements is signed by the royal officer who examined the book. The privilegio was sometimes paid for by the author himself and was sometimes underwritten by the patron, but most often it was sold to the publisher/printer. MC did the latter with all of his books, except Parnaso, the privilegio for which was purchased by Don Rodrigo de *Tapia, father of the man to whom the book is dedicated. Some variation in the number of these bureaucratic statements and the occasional absence of one or more of them were common. In addition to these official preliminaries, writers had the option of including a dedication, usually to a wealthy and/or influential patron (*patronage), a *prologue (and occasionally multiple prologues) to the reader(s), an authorial statement often begging pardon for and/or introducing the work to follow; and one or more (sometimes many more) laudatory poems contributed by other writers in praise of the author and the book. Bibliography: Roger Chartier, The Order of Books: Readers, Authors, and Libraries in Europe between the Fourteenth and Eighteenth Centuries, trans. Lydia G.Cochrane (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994); James A.Parr, “The Title as Text: El Ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha,” RLA: Romance Languages Annual 2 (1990):515–19; Elias L.Rivers, “On the Prefatory
Page 585 Pages of Don Quixote, Part II,” MLN 75 (1960): 214–21; and Pierre Lioni Ullman, “The Burlesque Poems which Frame the Quijote,” Anales Cervantinos 9 (1961–62):213–27.
Premio Cervantes. *Cervantes Prize.
Presa. Galley commanded by Muhammad Bey, a grandson—not the son, as mistakenly stated in DQ I, 39—of the corsair *Barbarossa.
Presentism. *Great time.
Prester John of the Indies [Preste Juan de las Indias]. A legendary figure of great popularity throughout Europe in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. He was supposed to have been a Christian king and priest who ruled a vast empire in Asia (or, sometimes, in Africa) and lent aid in the Christian Reconquest of the Holy Land. See Celoso; DQ I, prologue, 47; Fregona; Vizcaíno.
Prévert, Jacques (1900–77). French dramatist, screenwriter, and poet. His version of Retablo, Le Tableau des Merveilles (1936) approaches the original spirit of MC’s work. One of the details that is different from the original is the presentation of the military as the source for illusion rather than the factor that unveils truth. Bibliography: Epifanio Ramos de Castro, “El retablo de Cervantes y Prévert,” Anales Cervantinos 10 (1971):169–90.
Price. *Preliminaries.
Prichard, Kate (1851–1935) and Hesketh Prichard (1876–1922). English writers. Kate O’Brien Hesketh Prichard wrote some novels and fantasy stories and also collaborated with her son Hesketh Vernon HeskethPrichard, famous biggame hunter, soldier, and writer, on three novels—The Chronicles of Don Q (1904), Don Q in the Sierra (1906), and Don Q’s Love Story (1925)—which are not about DQ, but about a noble and generous Spanish brigand of Andalusia. There is no suggestion at any point that Don Q might even imply DQ, although the link must have been there in the concept of the authors. The third volume was made into a movie entitled Don Q, Son of Zorro (1925), starring Douglas Fairbanks, Jr.
Priego, Count of. *Carrillo de Mendoza, Don Pedro.
Priego, Marqués de, señor de la casa de Aguilar y de Montilla. *Fernández de Córdoba y Figueroa, Don Pedro.
Priest [Cura, Clérigo]. 1. In DQ, the protagonist’s good friend *Pero Pérez. 2. In Cornelia, the man who shelters Cornelia when she needs a refuge and then helps bring her together with her husband, the duke of Ferrara. 3. In Rufián 2, the person who tries unsuccessfully to convince the dying Doña Ana de Treviño to repent of her many sins and then watches in amazement as Fray Cristóbal de la Cruz makes his unprecedented bargain with her to trade souls.
Priest of the town [Beneficiado de aquel pueblo]. The person who arranged the artifices and celebration for *Camacho’s wedding. See DQ II, 20.
Priestley, J(ohn) B(oynton) (1894–1984). English novelist, dramatist, and essayist. Priestley’s early picaresque novel The Good Companions (1929) has some faint quixotic elements, especially in the character of Miss Trent whose life is “a world that seemed as far way and fantastic as any of those she explored so eagerly in her favorite fiction.” But in his late The Image Men (1969), the quixotism is more obvious and pervasive. In this novel the tall, thin, Cosmo Saltana and the short, fat Owen Toby deliberately evoke DQ and SP. Cosmo is fond of reading the works of MC, “whom he loved above all other writers and carried with him everywhere in a Spanish pocket edition.”
Priests or students [Clérigos o estudiantes]. Two travelers whom DQ and SP meet on the way to the wedding of Camacho and Quiteria in II, 19. They get into an argument about the best strategy for *fencing, the natural method or the scientific one. They have a duel
Page 586 with DQ as judge, and the licentiate who uses the scientific method easily defeats Corchuelo, the bachelor who prefers the natural method.
Prieto, Antonio (1930–). Spanish novelist. Prieto’s Carta sin tiempo (1975; Timeless Letter) recalls a famous epithet for Amadís de Gaula: Amadís sin tiempo (Timeless Amadis). This is a historical novel of sorts, consisting of a manuscript edited and with scholarly footnotes by the author. The events described largely parallel and/or reproduce aspects of the life of MC, with citations and references throughout to Galatea, DQ, and Persiles; MC’s participation in the battle of Lepanto, capture by pirates, and his years of captivity in Algiers; and references to specific characters and scenes from DQ: Andrés, the windmills, DQ’s speech on the Golden Age, the armies of sheep, events in the Sierra Morena, Sansón Carrasco, the Caballero de los Espejos, Clavileño, and the death of DQ. Bibliography: Antonio Prieto, Carta sin tiempo (Madrid: E.M.E.S.A., 1975).
Primaleón. *Vázquez, Francisco.
Primavera. *Spring.
Primera parte de la Galatea, dividida en seis libros. *Galatea, La.
Primo. *Cousin.
Primo del licenciado. *Cousin of the licentiate.
Prince [Príncipe]. DQ’s reference to ‘a prince whom I know’ who is very generous, in II, 24, is usually taken as a reference to the count of Lemos, MC’s patron, to whom the novel is dedicated.
Prince of Morocco; Príncipe de Marruecos. *Muley Xeque.
Princes of Greek and Latin poetry [Príncipes de la poesía griega y latina]. *Homer, author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and *Virgil, author of the Aeneid.
Príncipes de la poesía griega y latina. *Princes of Greek and Latin poetry.
Princivalle, Carlos M. Uruguayan dramatist. Princivalle’s play Los títeres de Maese Pedro (1935; Maese Pedro’s Puppets) is described as a ‘comedyfarce’ written for children. The play is not an adaptation of the *Maese Pedro scenes from DQ II, but a play about a puppetmaker and puppeteer by that name. The play involves Pedro’s children and his puppet creations. Bibliography: Carlos M.Princivalle, Pulgarcito y Los títeres de Maese Pedro (Montevideo, Uruguay: La Facultad, 1935).
Print shop [Emprenta]. The bookstore visited by DQ in Barcelona. There he talks with a man who is translating a book from Italian to Spanish, mentions some good translations, and notes that a translation is like a great Flemish tapestry, but seen from the back side; praises a book called Luz del alma (Light of the Soul) (*Meneses, Fray Felipe de), which he will recall on his deathbed in II, 74; and criticizes DQA, which is being reprinted (actually here MC is more generous than history, as *Avellaneda’s sequel has no second printing in the seventeenth century). Interestingly, this is the first scene in literature in which a literary character visits a bookstore.
Printer [Estampero]. In DQ II, 62, the craftsman (more likely a sculptor than a printer) in Madrid who made a talking head like the one owned by Don *Antonio Moreno.
Printing in Spain. The printing press reached Spain early after its invention by Gutenberg in Germany in 1455. The first recorded press in Spain is that of Lambert Palmart in Valencia in 1474, two years before William Caxton established the first English printing press in Westminster. By the end of the fifteenth century, there were at least 25 presses in Spain and over 700 books had been printed (about 350 were printed in England during the same period). The role of the printing press was decisive in the rapid establishment of Spanish political, military, economic, and artistic dominance during the *Golden Age. It is no surprise that
Page 587 Spanish literature, especially prose fiction, flourished as none ever had before it in a nation with a strong infrastructure of printing and publication (*bestsellers).
Prior. In Rufián 2, the administrator of the Mexican order in which Cristóbal de Lugo takes vows and whose office Lugo eventually assumes.
Prior of the Monastery of Guadalupe. In Persiles III, 5, a man who helps host and entertain the pilgrims and the family of Feliciana de la Voz for three days.
Priora. A fountain in Madrid, located near the modern Plaza de Oriente. See DQ II, 22; Fregona.
Prisoners [Prisioneros]. In Persiles I, 6, the 20 men freed from the islanddungeon after the destruction of the island of the barbarians.
Privado (Valido). The king’s favorite, who actually controls most of the royal government. In the Middle Ages, Castilian kings regularly had a privado to run their affairs. Isabella the Catholic put an end to the practice, and Carlos V and Felipe II followed suit. But Felipe III, more interested in entertainment than statecraft, restored the privado system with the appointment of the duke of *Lerma to the position. Bibliography: Antonio Feros, Kingship and Favoritism in the Spain of Philip III, 1598–1621 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
Privilege; Privilegio. *Preliminaries.
Privilegios, ordenanzas y advertencias que Apolo envía a los poetas españoles (Privileges, Ordinances, and Warnings that Apollo Sends to Spanish Poets). Along with his letter to MC in Adjunta, Apollo includes this satiric piece of the genre of the premáticas made popular by Quevedo and other writers.
Procne [Progne]. In Greek myth, the wife of Tereus, who fell in love with Procne’s sister Philomela, raped her, and cut out her tongue so that she could not report the crime. But Philo mela wove the story into a tapestry in order to inform her sister about what had happened. The two sisters then conspired to kill Tereus. Procne was turned into a swallow and Philomela into a nightingale. See Galatea 4.
Procris. *Cephalus and Procris.
Procurador. *Attorney.
Prodigal son [Pródigo]. In the New Testament, in one of the parables of Jesus, the son who takes his inheritance and leaves home, lives lavishly, loses everything, and returns home in shame— and is received with love and honor. Thus, a prodigal, or prodigal son, is the repentant child who returns to family. In Celoso, the term is applied to Carrizales in his youth.
Producer [Autor]. In Pedro 3, the theatrical producer who accepts Pedro de Urdemalas into the actors’ troupe and prepares the play for the king and queen.
Profeta. *Prophet.
Progne. *Procne.
Prologue [Prólogo]. The prologue of a book is the place in the book’s *preliminaries where author and reader meet directly, where the author has the opportunity to suggest a context and frame of mind in which his or her work is to be read, and where the reader expects to find a generic and thematic orientation for the text that follows. It was a recognized semiacademic genre, usually characterized by a relatively solemn style and format. In Spain, the prologue was cultivated as a literary genre with more variety and originality than anywhere else in Renaissance Europe. And of all Spanish prologue writers, MC was the undisputed master of the genre. His first effort, the prologue to Galatea, is a relatively restrained and straightforward generic statement. But in the prologue to DQ I, MC satirizes the elaborate and pompous prefatory material of many books of the time, apparently with particular barbs aimed at his rival Lope de *Vega. The theme of the prologue is the writing of prologues, and this brilliant meta
Page 588 prologue establishes the tone and technique of the novel as a whole. Interesting, too, is the explicit recognition that interpretive authority lies with the reader, not the author: ‘Your soul is your own and your will as free as any man’s, you are in your own house and master of it… And you can say what you will about the story ….’ In the prologue to Novelas, MC pridefully describes himself as painted by the artist Juan de *Jáuregui, summarizes his life (soldier, captive, author), claims to be the first to have written original short fictions in Spain, and compares his book to a pool table set in the public square—available for use and entertainment by all (another acknowledgment of reader authority). The prologue to Parnaso is very brief, a mere paragraph. The prologue to Comedias consists of a review of the Spanish theater before MC, a discussion of his own original contributions and successes, and an explanation of why he is offering these works that never have been performed. In DQ II, MC responds with wickedly satiric restraint to the criticisms of *Avellaneda, author of the spurious 1614 sequel to MC’s novel, enumerating several criticisms he says he will not state and proclaiming that this is the authentic sequel, ‘cut from the same cloth and by the same craftsman’ as the first part. The prologue ends with two satiric anecdotes about madmen, one who drops bricks on dogs and one who inflates dogs by means of a tube made of reed inserted in the dogs’ rear opening; both anecdotes are read as allegories of book writing and madness. Finally, in the prologue to Persiles, written on his deathbed, MC relates an anecdote about a student who met and praised him that, he says, happened recently on the road near Esquivias, and ends with a farewell to all his friends, whom he hopes to see soon in a better life. Overall, MC’s prologues are more personal and more intimate in their relationship to the reader than those of any other writer of his time, and the satire of the prologues to DQ I and DQ II is unmatched. Bibliography: Salvador J.Fajardo, “Instructions for Use: The Prologue to Don Quixote I,” Journal of Interdisciplinary Literary Studies 6 (1994):1–17; Francisco J.Martin, “Los prólogos del Quijote: la consagración de un género,” Cervantes 13, no. 1 (1993):77–87; George E.McSpadden, “Don Quijote” and the Spanish Prologues: Glimpses of the Genius of Cervantes at Work, vol. I (Potomac, MD: José Porrúa Turanzas, 1979); Alberto Porqueras Mayo, El prólogo como género literario: Su estudio en el siglo de oro español (Madrid: CSIC, 1957); Charles Presberg, “‘This Is Not a Prologue’: Paradoxes of Historical and Poetic Discourse in the Prologue of Don Quixote, Part I,” MLN 110 (1995): 215–39; and John G.Weiger, “The Prologuist: The Extratextual Authorial Voice in Don Quixote,” Bulletin of Hispanic Studies 65 (1988):129–39.
Promontorio. In Parnaso 8, on his way back from Parnassus, MC stops in Naples and runs into his old friend Promontorio. This is not an uncommon name in the region and could be a reference to someone MC knew during his time in that city. On the other hand, it may represent a totally fictional character invented for the occasion. It has also been suggested that this is the name of a child of MC’s, born of a relationship that he had while stationed in Naples during the time he was in the army. There is no evidence whatsoever for the actual existence of such a child (*Silena).
Propertius, Sextus [Propercio] (ca. 50 BCE–ca. CE 16). Roman poet. Propertius was best known for his four books of elegies; his work is among the most passionate and personal in Roman literature. See Galatea 6.
Prophet [Profeta]. Mohammed, referred to by one of the musicians in Sultana 3.
Prosperine [Prosperina]. In Roman myth, the daughter of Jupiter and Ceres, who, after being stolen away by Pluto, lord of the underworld, was condemned to spend six months of the year with her mother and the remaining six with her husband in Hades. See Numancia 2; Parnaso 2.
Proteus [Proteo]. In Homer’s Odyssey, one of the minor sea gods, the shepherd of Neptune’s flocks, who had the powers to know the past, present, and future; to speak the truth; and to change his form at will. In Pedro 3, Pedro
Page 589 de Urdemalas calls himself a second Proteus. See also Numancia 1.
Protoquijote. *UrQuijote.
Proust, Marcel (1871–1922). French novelist. Marcel, in Proust’s Du Côté de chez Swann (1913; Swann’s Way), the first and defining volume of his vast A la Recherche du temps perdu (1913– 28; Remembrance of Things Past), is called a “master booklover” and he does indeed live within and draw his concept of reality from the books he reads: “For the scenes in the books I read were to me not merely scenery more vividly portrayed by my imagination than any which Combray could spread before my eyes, but otherwise of the same kind…our Combray garden, from which I was careful to eliminate every commonplace incident in my actual life, replacing them by a career of strange adventures and ambitions in a land watered by living streams.” Marcel’s quixotism carries over into his concept of Odette, his DT: “If anyone had portrayed her to him as she was, or rather as she had been so long with himself, but had substituted some other man, he would have been distressed.” In later volumes, the Baron de Charlus, a genuinely quixotic figure in the way he is not content with ordinary reality and dreams of a nobler past, is explicitly compared to DQ tilting at windmills. Bibliography: Edward J.Hughes, “Prisons and Pleasures of the Mind: A Comparative Reading of Cervantes and Proust,” in Cervantes and the Modernists: The Question of Influence, ed. Edwin Williamson (London: Tamesis, 1994), 55–72.
Provence [Provenza]. A former province in southeastern France, on the Mediterranean Sea. See Persiles III, 13.
Proverb [Refrán]. Spain is reputed to be the European nation richest in proverbs. Although these pithy bits of folk wisdom have always been popular, they enjoyed a real vogue in the Renaissance, when they were often collected in books called Refraneros (Proverb Collections), the first of which was the Marqués de Santillana’s Refranes que dizen las viejas tras el fuego (1508; Proverbs the Old Ladies Tell by the Fireside). Other important collections were Refranes o proverbios en romance (1555; Proverbs in the Romance Language) by Hernán *Núñez de Guzmán, Libro de refranes (1594; Book of Proverbs) by Pedro Vallés, and the Vocabulario de refranes (1626; Proverb Vocabulary) by Gonzalo Correas. Extensive modern collections also exist. MC knew the proverb tradition intimately and many examples of them are scattered throughout his works. But it is the popular figure of SP who gained fame in part because of his tendency to string together series of proverbs. SP’s first proverb (DQ, I, 19) is ‘Let the dead go to the grave, while the living continue to eat,’ advice implicitly remembered by the narrator in the final chapter of the second part. The proverb SP cites most frequently, almost his motto, is ‘I was born naked, I am naked now, I’ve neither lost nor gained’ (DQ I, 25; DQ II, 8, 53, 55, 57), which is based on a passage in the book of Job in the Old Testament. DQ also speaks in praise of proverbs, wisdom drawn from experience (I, 21), and criticizes SP’s tendency to spout off strings of them without rhyme or reason (II, 43). Ironically, the very last proverb spoken in the novel comes from the dying DQ: ‘There are no birds this year in the nests of yesteryear’ (II, 74). At the same time, it is SP who makes the last reference to the authority of the romances of chivalry his master cited so often throughout the book. Bibliography: María Cecilia Colombí, Los refranes del “Quijote”: Texto y contexto (Potomac, MD: Scripta Humanistica, 1989); and Alexander A.Parker, The Humor of Spanish Proverbs (Cambridge, UK: Heffer and Sons, 1963).
Prudent and famous generals [Prudentes famosos generales]. A reference in Poesías 20 to Alejandro *Farnesio, the duke of Parma, and Alonso Pérez de *Guzmán, the duke of Medina Sidonia.
Prus, Boleslaw (Aleksander Glowacki, 1847–1912). Polish journalist and novelist. His finest novel is Lalka (1890; The Doll), a social novel and a panoramic portrait of War
Page 590 saw in the late nineteenth century. The protagonist is the middleaged Stanislaw Wokulski, a wealthy businessman whose quixotism consists of his idealization of his DT, named Isabella Lecka, the dreamy, imaginative, frivolous, and frigid “doll” of the title. Late in the novel, Wokulski goes through some of his illustrated books, but seizes especially on a Doré illustrated DQ: “Most often he looked at Don Quixote, which made a powerful impression on him. He recalled the strange story of a man living for years in the sphere of poetry—just as he had done, who had hurled himself at windmills—like him, who was shattered—like him, who had wasted his life pursuing an ideal woman—like him, and found a dirty cowgirl instead of a princess—as he had done.”
Psychoanalytic readings of Cervantes. Given Sigmund *Freud’s interest and at least partial inspiration in MC, it is not surprising that MC’s works have been the subject of much psychoanalytic criticism. Varieties of the psychoanalytic approach, in fact, make up one of the most productive and provocative approaches to MC’s works. Carroll B.Johnson reads DQ in Freudian terms, suggesting that the protagonist suffers a midlife crisis sparked by his repressed incestuous desire for his niece, and that the entire novel can be read in terms of his relationships with women. René Girard is the author of an important and influential theory that DQ represents what he calls “mediated” desire, a concept that can be used to understand a great deal of literature. Major Jungian readings are provided by John G.Weiger, who traces the process of individuation in the protagonist, and, especially, Ruth El Saffar, who traces themes of animusanima and androgyny in MC’s works. Louis Combet has proposed an extreme version of a psychosexual understanding of DQ. Most recently, Henry Sullivan’s Lacanian reading of the episode of the Cave of Montesinos as a key to the understanding of DQ is a challenging and polemical work. Also particularly noteworthy is a collection of essays on several MC works assembled by Ruth Anthony El Saffar and Diana de Armas Wilson. Bibliography: Ruth Anthony El Saffar, and Diana de Armas Wilson, eds., Quixotic Desire: Psychoanalytic Perspectives in Cervantes (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993); Carroll B.Johnson, Madness and Lust: A Psychoanalytical Approach to “Don Quixote” (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983); and Henry W.Sullivan, Grotesque Purgatory: A Study of Cervantes’s “Don Quixote,” Part II (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1996).
Ptolemy [Ptolomeo]: Claudius Ptolemaeus (ca. 100–ca. 178). Greek astronomer, mathematician, and geographer whose cosmology, which placed the earth at the center of the universe, was accepted until the time of Copernicus in the sixteenth century. When DQ mentions his name in II, 29, SP corrupts it into puto (sodomite) and gafo (person with leprosy), in one of his less felicitious speaking errors. In Persiles III, 11, Periandro rejects the Copernican (suncentered) cosmology naïvely described by Bartolomé for a traditional Ptolemaic one. See DQ I, 47.
Publishing permit. *Preliminaries.
Pudicia. *Modesty.
Puente de Alcántara. *Alcántara Bridge.
Puente de Plata. *Laurcalco, señor de la Puente de Plata.
Puente de Segovia; Puente segoviano. *Segovia Bridge.
Puente de Toledo; Puente toledana. Toledo Bridge.
Puente, José Félix de la. Peruvian writer. Puente’s Herencia del Quijote, novela peruana (ca. 1935; Don Quixote’s Legacy, a Peruvian Novel) is a novel of family conflict and romance. Near the end, the two main characters, Claudio and Pilar, are faced with a dilemma. They want to marry, and Claudio, who is facing increasing criticism from the local community, insists that they do so at once or he will have to leave Peru, whereas Pilar wants to wait until she has had a chance to care for her mother, who is gravely ill. The mother, Doña Rosario
Page 591 de las Mercedes Maraví de Ganimedes, is an explicitly quixotic woman who insists on living, in modern Peru, according to the values of seventeenthcentury Spain, and who makes her daughter’s life miserable. Claudio refuses to postpone their marriage, considering it a matter of honor that is his inheritance: ‘We who are born of Spaniards have hot blood. Don Quixote has engendered us all. Personal pride above everything…!’ The lovers separate and the novel ends in sorrow for Pilar, a victim twice over of the legacy of DQ. Bibliography: José Félix de la Puente, Herencia del Quijote, novela peruana (Paris: Casa Editorial FrancoIberoAmericana, n.d.).
Puercos. *Pigs.
Puerta de [Spanish name]. *Gate of [same name].
Puerta del Pópulo. *Popolo Gate.
Puerto de Santa María. An important port city located south of Seville and opposite Cádiz on the Bay of Cádiz. Its major industries have long been fishing and sherry. See Doncellas.
Puerto Lápice. A small city located south and somewhat east of Madrid and northeast of Ciudad Real. In MC’s day it was merely a crossroads with a much frequented inn; it was not incorporated until the midnineteenth century. Modern day Puerto Lápice features a few windmills and the Venta (Inn) of DQ, a popular tourist stop promoted as being located on the same spot as the inn in which DQ was dubbed a knight (I, 2–3). After the adventure of the windmills (I, 8), DQ takes the road to Puerto Lápice, and along the way encounters the *Benedictine friars and the captive princess (*Basque lady) in a coach and her *Basque squire, with whom DQ does battle.
Puertocarrero, Don Pedro. *Portocarrero, Don Pedro.
Pujol, Carlos (1936–). Spanish novelist, translator, and literary critic. Pujol’s Un viaje a España (1983; A Trip to Spain) is both a historical novel and a postmodern metafiction. The novel’s protagonist is none other than Vautrin, the archcriminal in Honoré de Balzac’s Ilusions perdus. When Vautrin, who thinks he might be too old to go off on adventures like DQ, has an opportunity to go to Spain during the time of the Carlist Wars in order to bring back a friend’s (quixotic) father, he goes to discuss the matter with Balzac. Author and character talk over adventures, reality, truth, and fiction, with Balzac affirming that Vautrin will have no reality until he, Balzac, writes the novels of his Comédie humaine. The whole scene strongly recalls the chapter in which the character Agusto Pérez goes to talk over his fate with his author Miguel de *Unamuno in the latter’s Niebla. Both novels are infused with the metafictional spirit of MC. Bibliography: Carlos Pujol, Un viaje a España (Espulgues de Llobregat, Spain: Plaza y Janés, 1983).
Pulci, Luigi (1432–84). Italian epic and chivalric poet. Pulci’s Morgante Maggiore (1483; Morgante the Great) is derived from the French chivalric tradition. It was translated into Spanish by Jerónimo de Auner as Libro del esforzado gigante Morgante y de Roldán y Reinaldos (1533; The Book of the Brave Giant Morgante and of Roland and Reinaldos). The protagonist is an amiable giant with a voracious appetite and a taste for violence, who is converted to Christianity by Orlando (Roland). It was quite popular and influential in the Renaissance. See DQ I, 1; DQ II, 1. Bibliography: Javier Gómez Montera, “El Libro de Morgante en el laberinto de la novela de caballería,” Voz y Letra 7, no. 2 (1996):29–59.
Puñonrostro, Conde de. *Arias de Bobadilla, Don Francisco, Count of Puñonrostro.
Purcell, Henry. *D’Urfey, Thomas.
Purity of blood [Limpieza de sangre]. Similar to, but not quite the same as, *gentility; the quality that defined an Old Christian (i.e., someone not tainted by Jewish or Muslim ancestry). The concept, often satirized in the theater (as in Retablo), implied a blending of racial purity and religious orthodoxy. The heart of the
Page 592 idea was that those who were direct descendents from the Visigoths could not have been tainted by contact with Jewish or Muslim blood lines. To have such ancestry was, by definition, to be noble; it brought with it a cluster of ideas such as tradition, honor, valor, and virtue. The creation of the Inquisition in 1478 helped in stitutionalize the obsession with racial and religious purity. The most famous (but not the first) statute of limpieza was promulgated in 1547 in Toledo, and the issuance of such statutes continued throughout the sixteenth century and into the seventeenth. The mere fact that one’s ancestor had been convicted by the Inquisition was as damning as actual Jewish or Muslim ancestry. A challenge to one’s ancestry could bring either civil or Inquisitorial investigation. Proof of blood purity was often necessary for any sort of royal appointment. The practice of having notarized certificates of blood purity—complete with sworn statements that an individual had never been a Muslim, a Jew, or a descendant of either of these, or otherwise “reconciled” by the Inquisition, but was an unblemished Old Christian—became common, and the forging of such documents was equally common. In late 1569 MC requested from Italy that his father have such a certificate of purity of blood sent to him. The statement, which was more than a little bit ambiguous (*Cervantes family), arrived early the next year and made possible MC’s entrance into the household service of Cardinal Acquaviva. See Persiles III, 8. Bibliography: Albert Sicroff, Los estatutos de limpieza de sangre: Controversias entre los siglos XV y XVII, trans. Mauro Armiño (Madrid: Taurus, 1985).
Pushkin, Aleksandr Sergeyveich (1799–1837). Russian poet and dramatist, often considered the father of modern Russian literature. Pushkin, who was said to have “adored” DQ, owned two copies of Novelas in Spanish, and translated Gitanilla to Russian and used it as an inspiration for his own narrative poem entitled Tsigane (1824; The Gypsies). The direct influence of MC is clear in Pushkin’s narrative poem, Evgeni Onegin (1833). Although Onegin himself has at least a hint of quixotism, it is the woman Tatyana Larina who is the real DQ figure. She is intelligent, imaginative, given to daydreaming, and fond of literature, being especially a fan of popular romance novels and their sensitive, romantic, tearful heroines. Imitating her literary models, Tatyana creates her own male version of DT: the handsome but cynical Evgeni, to whom she attributes all the qualities of the heroes of the romances she has read. The poem is one of the most original satires on previous fiction and at the same time an important presentation of a female DQ. In his book Zamor Rotenfel’da (1829–35; Rotenfeld’s Castle), Pushkin included a ballad entitled “Zhil na svete ristar’ bednyi” (“A Poor Knight”), an elegant presentation of a romantic DQlike knighterrant. Pushkin’s poem plays an important role in Fyodor *Dostoevsky’s profoundly quixotic novel The Idiot. Finally, Pushkin had an idea for a major work inspired in DQ, but delayed writing the project, and finally gave the idea to *Gogol, who turned it into Dead Souls. Bibliography: Jack Weiner and Evelynne Meyerson, “La Gitanilla de Cervantes y Tsigán de Pushkin,” Nueva Revista de Filología Hispánica 17 (1963– 64):82–87.
Putifar. *Barbarous Egyptian.
Pygmalion [Pigmaleón]. The legendary king of Cyprus who made a statue of a beautiful woman and prayed to Aphrodite to give him a wife as beautiful as his creation. In granting the wish, Aphrodite made the statue, Galatea, come to life, and so Pygmalion married the woman he created himself. See Galatea VI.
Pylades [Pílades]. In Greek myth, the lifelong friend of *Orestes, whose sister, Electra, he married. See DQ II, 12.
Pynchon, Thomas (1937–). American novelist and shortstory writer. Pynchon’s first novel, V (1963), is the story of the search for the elusive—and perhaps nonexistent—woman of mystery known only as V. The characters of Stencil and Profane have much of DQ and SP about them. Both Herbert Stencil (tall, thin, in
Page 593 his midfifties) and Fausto Maijstral recall aspects of DQ. But it is V herself who most recalls MC’s novel to the reader, for she is very much a DT figure. Bibliography: Carole A.Holdsworth, “Dulcinea and Pynchon’s V,” Cervantes 19, no. 1 (1999):27–39.
Pyramus and Thisbe [Píramo y Tisbe]. According to Ovid, two lovers whose families were opposed to their union. They were separated by a wall, able to speak with but not to see each other. The plight of these lovers was a favorite theme of poets. They agreed to meet, but when Thisbe arrived first, she was chased away by a lion, and as she fled dropped her scarf, which the lion (bloody from having just eaten an animal) gnawed, leaving blood on it. When Pyramus arrived and saw the scarf, he assumed that Thisbe had been killed by the lion and, distraught, committed suicide. Then Thisbe came back, found Pyramus’s body, and also committed suicide. See DQ I, 24; DQ II, 18–19; Galatea 1; Vizcaíno.
Pyrenees [Pirineos]. The mountain range extending from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea that divides the Iberian Peninsula from the rest of Europe. See Casa 1; Coloquio; DQ I, 18.
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Q Quartermaster [Furrier]. In Retablo, the military officer who arrives at the end of the play to announce that some 30 soldiers need to be quartered in the town; he is the only one who admits that he cannot see the wonders described by Chanfalla and Chirinos and is therefore of suspect lineage and religion.
Queen [Reina]. 1. In DQ II, 11, a character in the cast of Las *Cortes de la Muerte. 2. In Pedro 2, the character who accompanies her womanizing husband on his visit to Junquillos and intervenes to prevent his affair with Belica.
Queen of England. *Elizabeth I.
Queer theory in Cervantes. Queer theory is a critical approach to literature in which stress is placed on the belief that sexual identity is not fixed by biology and that gender is a socially constructed concept. Drawing in large part on the work of Judith Butler, queer theory has provided provocative readings of modern and classic texts. For example, in MC’s case, it has been suggested that in DQ the AldonzaDT figure, where the lusty peasant woman is converted into an idealized noble beauty, evokes the concept of the modern butchfemme relationship. Bibliography: Mary S.Gossey, “Aldonza as Butch: Narrative and the Play of Gender in Don Quijote,” in ¿Entiendes? Queer Readings, Hispanic Writings, ed. Emilie L.Bergmann and Paul Julian Smith (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995), 17–28.
Quejana. In DQ I, 1, the name mentioned as perhaps the most probable surname for the protagonist (*Name of Don Quijote).
Queneau, Raymond de (1903–76). French novelist and poet. Queneau’s novels consistently partake of the same sort of metafiction that originates with MC and the awareness of DQ and SP that they are literary characters. In Le Chiendent (1933; The Bark Tree), the characters debate the real nature of common items such as a pair of scissors and a shoe in dialogue that sometimes recalls discussions of the barber’s basin in DQ I. At one point, there is a question about “the book,” to which a character replies, “Well, this one. The one we’re in now, which repeats everything we say as we say it and which follows us and tells about us, a sure piece of blotting paper that’s been stuck onto our lives.” In Queneau’s bestknown novel, Zazie dans le métro (1959; Zazie in the Subway; translated simply as Zazie), it is remarked that the story is “the dream of a dream, the reverie of a reverie, scarcely more than the typewritten delirium of an idiotic novelist (oh! sorry).” In Le Vol d’Icar (1968; The Flight of Icarus), the title character literally escapes from the book (somewhat like the character of Tom Baxter escapes from the film The Purple Rose of Cairo [*Allen, Woody]), causing another character to comment thus on his absence: “How extremely Pirandellian” (*Pirandello, Luigi). Throughout, the author muses about his problem—a novel with no characters. Finally, Icarus returns to his original author, only to find himself rejected (in a scene that recalls Unamuno’s Niebla).
Quesada. In DQ I, 1, one of the possible surnames for the protagonist (*Name of Don Quijote).
Quesnel, Pierre. *Rasiel de Selva, Hercule.
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Queso de Flandes. *Flanders.
Quevedo y Villegas, Francisco de (1580–1645). Spanish poet, novelist, satirist, courtier, and philosopher; one of the greatest writers of the seventeenth century. Quevedo was a member of the Order of Santiago and carried the title of lord of the Torre de Juan Abad; he was a major and very public figure in both literary and political circles. His ongoing rivalry with *Góngora and other writers was the subject of widespread interest and gossip; his association with the dukes of Osuna and Medinaceli and the CountDuke Olivares gave him immediate access to the most powerful men in the Court. In literature, Quevedo is most famous for his picaresque novel Vida del Buscón llamado don Pablos (written about 1605, published in 1626; Life of the Swindler Named Don Pablos), though he is arguably the finest poet of his age, having produced a large corpus of works with contemplative, philosophical, amorous, scatological, political, and satiric themes. MC, who always maintained good relations with Quevedo, includes him as one of the good poets in Parnaso 2 and has Apollo send him his regards in the letter to MC in Adjunta. Quevedo is the author of a burlesque poem entitled “Testamento de don Quijote” (“Don Quixote’s Will”), written between the publication of DQ I and that of DQ II (and not after DQ II, as some have suggested). In it, Quevedo describes a grotesque death scene for DQ and writes his will; the poem combines the author’s signature conceptista style with the *fabla used by MC in DQ. Bibliography: William H.Clamurro, Language and Ideology in the Prose of Quevedo Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 1991); James Iffland, “Don Francisco, Don Miguel y Don Quijote: Un personaje en busca de su testamento,” Edad de Oro 13 (1994): 65–83; and Pablo Jauralde Pou, Francisco de Quevedo (1580– 1645) (Madrid: Castalia, 1998).
Quijada. In DQ I, 1, one of the possible surnames for the protagonist (*name of Don Quijote). In DQA the protagonist is named Martín Quijada.
Quijada, Alonso. Resident of Esquivias and relative of the family of Catalina de *Palacios, MC’s wife. Quijada, who died in the midsixteenth century, was a monk who was reputed to be an avid reader of romances of chivalry. He must have been, at least partially, a model for DQ.
Quijada, Gutierre. A Spanish knight mentioned by DQ in DQ I, 49 (*Crónica de Juan II). DQ claims to be a descendent in the direct male line from this illustrious ancestor, which complicates the issue of DQ’s name (*name of Don Quixote), as this surname is not one previously suggested in the narration.
Quijana, Señor. This is the name by which the peasant Pedro Alonso refers to DQ when he comes across him in DQ I, 5. Since it is the surname used by someone who personally knows the hidalgo who becomes DQ, it would seem to be the definitive version of the *name of DQ, but such is not the case.
Quijano. *Alonso Quijano the Good.
Quijotismo. *Quixotism.
Quijotiz. The pastoral name DQ chooses for himself. See DQ II, 67, 73.
Quijotización. *Quixotization and sanchification.
Quimera. *Chimera.
Quinault, Philippe (1635–88). French dramatist. Quinault’s first work was Les Rivales (1653; The Rivals), based on Doncellas, but also borrowing from *Rotrou’s earlier and more original adaptation, Les deux Pucelles. His Le Docteur de verre (1657; The Glass Doctor) is derived from Vidriera.
Quince [Membrillo]. A sweet fruit used to make jellies. Because of its resemblance to female genitals, the quince fruit is a symbol of fertility, sacred to Venus, the food of brides, and the “apple” of Dionysos (Bacchus). In Vidriera it is used by a jealous woman as the base for an aphrodisiac to make the protagonist fall in love with her.
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Quincoces, Don. In Parnaso 5, a fictional poet who participates in the attack on Parnassus.
Quincoces, Rústico Dimas de (Trifón Muñoz y Soliva). Spanish writer. His long semiautobiographical Aventuras del Rústico Dimas de Quincoces (2 vols., 1844–45; Adventures of the Rustic Dimas de Quincoces) is presented as a satire in the spirit of MC and other seventeenthcentury writers, and there are some references to DQ. But there is really very little, if any, of the comic or social spirit of MC’s work in this novel, which is in fact little more than a reactionary diatribe against modern political and social ideologies and a defense of traditional Catholicism against Protestantism. Bibliography: Rústico Dimas de Quincoces, Aventuras del Rústico Dimas de Quincoces (Madrid: n.p., 1844–45).
Quiñones. In Entretenida, the page in the house of Don Antonio who is in love with the maid Cristina.
Quiñones (Azcaray). In Vizcaíno, the friend of Solórzano who plays the part of the Basque.
Quiñones de Benavente, Luis (ca. 1589–1651). Spanish dramatist. Quiñones never attempted to write a fulllength play, preferring to master the technique of the *interlude. He is generally considered the best practitioner of this minor genre (although MC’s eight interludes are easily a match for Quiñones’s best), and wrote over 150 short works. He enjoyed great popularity during his lifetime. One of his works is El retablo de las maravillas (1645), adapted from MC’s Retablo, but much milder in its satire. Bibliography: Hannah E.Bergman, Luis Quiñones de Benavente (New York: Twayne, 1972).
Quiñones, Doña Mencía de. The daughter of Don Alonso de *Marañón, a historical figure, and the wife of the fictional hidalgo mentioned in SP’s anecdote in DQ II, 31.
Quiñones, Suero de. A Spanish knight mentioned by DQ in DQ I, 49 (*Crónica de Juan II). In July 1434 Quiñones and nine other knights undertook the heroic feat known as the paso honroso (honorable deed), which consisted of a defense of the bridge of Orbigo, near the Castilian city of León on the Camino de Santiago, for the period of one month. No one was permitted to cross the bridge unless he jousted with Quiñones and/or his colleagues. According to historical accounts, some 68 knights from throughout Spain participated in the event. The very popular story was retold in the Libro del Paso Honroso defendido por el excelente caballero Suero de Quiñones (1588; Book of the Paso Honroso Defended by the Excellent Knight Suero de Quiñones) by Juan de Pineda. This is an example of how the fictional deeds of knightserrant in the romances of chivalry were sometimes based on historical events. DQ’s challenge to the merchants of Toledo (I, 4) is an example of this type of chivalric adventure. Suero and his deeds are cited by DQ in his conversation with the canon of Toledo (I, 49) as proof of the historical reality of knighterrantry. Bibliography: Amancio Labandeira Fernández, El passo honroso de Suero de Quiñones (Madrid: Funcación Universitaria Española, 1977); and Martín de Riquer, Caballeros andantes españoles (Madrid: EspasaCalpe, 1967).
Quiñones Vaca, Jerónimo. *Vaca y de Quiñones, Jerónimo.
Quintanar, Cortés, Federico Javier. *Veliz Domingo, José.
Quintanar de la Orden. A small town located southeast of Toledo and northeast of Ciudad Real; it is just slightly northwest El Toboso. It is the home of *Juan Haldudo in DQ I, 4, and of the parents of *Antonio the Barbarian in Persiles III, 8–9. See also DQ II, 74.
Quintanilla, Emilio G. Peruvian novelist. His Peralvillo y Sisebuto has its roots in Rinconete. In Quintanilla’s tale, the two picaresque mestizos go to Lima and get involved in criminal activities just as Rinconete and Cortadillo go to Seville and become part of Monipodio’s crime syndicate.
Page 597 Bibliography: Emilio G.Quintanilla, Escritos literarios (Lima, Peru: Imp. Liberal de “El Correo del Perú,” 1877).
Quintañona. In Spanish ballads of the Arthurian cycle, the dueña of Queen Guinevere and the gobetween in her love affair with Lancelot. She is purely a Spanish creation, with no equivalent in English versions of the story. Her name suggests a matronly (fiftyish) elderly lady, which may help explain why she became a standard folk reference in Spanish culture of the Middle Ages and Renaissance. See DQ I, 13, 16, 49; DQ II, 23. Bibliography: Jacques Joset, “‘Aquella tan honrada dueña Quintañona,’” Anales Cervantinos 34 (1998):51–59.
Quintilla. A stanza form consisting of five eightsyllable lines with a rhyme scheme that contains only two rhymes, which can be combined in various ways; e.g., abbab, ababa, aabba. MC uses quintillas in Poesías 3, 4, 16, 23, 27.
Quinto Fabio. *Fabius, Quintas.
Quirieleisón de Montalbán. A knighterrant in Tirante el Blanco (*Martorell, Johanot), mentioned in DQ I, 6.
Quirinal. One of the hills of Rome. See Vidriera.
Quirocia. *Micocolembo, gran duque de Quirocia.
Quiroga, Carlos B. (1890–1971). Argentine novelist. In Quiroga’s La raza sufrida (Novela americana) (1929; The LongSuffering Race [An American Novel]), the firstperson narrator avidly reads DQ, discusses it with other characters, waxes lyrical about the book as containing ‘the essence of humanity,’ and evokes DQ as a saint. Few works of fiction better represent the ultraromantic, or soft, reading of DQ. Bibliography: Carlos B.Quiroga, La raza sufrida (Buenos Aires: Talleres Gráficos Argentinos L.J. Rosso, 1929).
Quiteria. 1. In DQ II, 19–22, the shepherdess known as the Beautiful (la Hermosa) who is supposed to marry Camacho the Rich but winds up marrying Basilio (*Camacho’s wedding). 2. In Pedro 3, the deceased niece of Marina Sánchez. Pedro de Urdemalas, in disguise as a pilgrim, promises, for the right price, to pray for her soul.
Quixote, Captain Don X. American writer. This pseudonymous political writer’s book A Rocket to Tyranny (1966) is a rightwing diatribe against the evils of liberalism in general and the idea of taxation in particular. Among the final summary statements is the following: “Maybe Captain Quixote is still just fighting the windmills of Freedom, Free Air, and Hope.” Bibliography: Captain Don X Quixote, A Rocket to Tyranny (Country Homes, WA: The Windmill Press, 1966).
Quixotic novel. In a famous essay, Harry Levin coined the term “the quixotic principle” to refer to “the tragicomic irony of the conflict between real life and the romantic imagination”; it is “the rivalry between the real world and the representation that we make of it for ourselves.” For Levin, this principle is a constant in novels written at all times and in all places since DQ. For the purposes at hand, the term that will be used is “quixotic novel”—any novel that bears some degree of intertextual relationship to DQ. Lionel Trilling has stated, “All prose fiction is a variation on the theme of Don Quixote.” José *Ortega y Gasset has written that we need ‘a book that would show in detail that every novel ever written bears Don Quixote within it like an inner filigree.’ It would not be difficult to see how such a book might be structured around the figure of DQ himself. In fact, one can identify five degrees of quixotic novels. First, there are the literal sequels, the continuations of the story of DQ and SP or their literal reincarnations (examples include *Avellaneda, *Delgado, and *Chapman); sometimes DQ is only a secondary character, rather than the protagonist (see *Maugham, *Meyers, and *Sender). Second are the namesakes of DQ, novels in which the pro
Page 598 tagonist is explicitly identified, usually in the title, as a kind of DQ (examples can be seen in the novels of *Lennox, *Greene, and *Acker). Third are novels whose protagonist is explicitly (either within the text or in extratextual authorial statements) based or inspired, at least in part, in DQ (for example, *Fielding, *Flaubert, *Dostoevsky, *Pérez Galdós, *Hesse, *Bellow, and *González); this is perhaps the richest and most interesting category. Fourth are those novels whose protagonist duplicates (or at least approximates) DQ’s basic premise of a fantasy or alternative reality inspired in books (or film, television, or other media), and/or who, like DQ, consciously chooses to imitate ideal models from these media (*Austen, *Eliot, and *Kosinski). And finally, in just a short extension of the previous category are all those novels in which the protagonist is dissatisfied with his or her life and circumstances and attempts to change them in some way—in other words, just about every novel ever written. In a very real sense, to be a novel is to be a quixotic novel. As Harold Bloom has written, “All novels since Don Quixote rewrite Cervantes’ universal masterpiece, even when they are quite unaware of it.” The quixotic novel, which need not be (and usually is not) a satire, most typically involves a character who has some of those qualities we associate with DQ, but there are also cases where it is the innovative, postmodern, narrative selfawareness that places a work in juxtaposition to MC (*Unamuno, *Spark, and *Barth); often, but not always, such novels also feature quixotic themes and characters. Linguist Noam Chomsky has proposed that, in a certain (deep) sense, there is only one human language—with very many (surface) variations. It is significant that virtually every kind of novel written since the eighteenth century has been seen by its major practitioners as having its roots in DQ. The great eighteenthcentury comic novelists such as Fielding, Sterne, and Diderot all hearken back to MC for their inspiration. The great realists of the nineteenth century, such as Flaubert, Dostoevsky, and Pérez Galdós, model their novels and their characters after those of MC. Contemporary authors of selfconscious, metafictional, postmodern novels, such as Barth, Coover, and Fuentes, explicitly write in the tradition of MC. Perhaps the novel, like language itself, is an example of a theme and variations: all novels are but variations on the theme(s) of DQ. Bibliography: Steven Gilman, The Novel According to Cervantes (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); Harry Levin, “The Quixotic Principle: Cervantes and Other Novelists,” Harvard English Studies 1 (1970):45–66; Santiago Alfonso López Navia, La ficción autorial en el “Quijote” y en sus continuaciones e imitaciones (Madrid: Universidad Europea de MadridCEES Ediciones, 1996); Félix Martínez Bonati, “Don Quixote” and the Poetics of the Novel, trans. Dian Fox in collaboration with the author (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992); Michel Moner, “Cervantes y la ‘invención de la novela’: estado de la cuestión,” in La invención de la novela: Seminario hispanofrancés organizado por la Casa de Velázquez (noviembre 1992–junio 1993), ed. Jean Canavaggio (Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 1999), 233–67; Alexander Welsh, Reflections on the Hero as Quixote (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981); and Eric J.Ziolkowski, The Sanctification of Don Quixote: From Hidalgo to Priest (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1991).
Quixotic principle. *Quixotic novel.
Quixotism. MC has bequeathed a small but significant vocabulary to both Spanish and English: quijotesco, quijotescamente, quijotismo, quijotada, quijotería, and quijotil in Spanish; and quixotic, quixotical, quixotically, and quixotism in English. Determining exactly what words like quixotic or quixotism might mean in a given context, however, is not always easy. The terms most frequently suggest the ideas of romantic chivalric idealism, romantic exaltation, visionary and/or imaginative capabilities, delirium and/or hallucination, impractical but earnest efforts to do well, and/or detachment from reality. But it can also imply DQ’s bookinspired understanding of reality or an attempt to cope with the world according to, or in imitation of, literary (or filmic, television, or other media) models. It is primarily in the latter sense that the term *quixotic novel is used throughout this encyclopedia.
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Quixotization and sanchification [Quijotización y sanchificación]. In his classic study of DQ first published in 1926, Salvador de Madariaga describes SP’s growing idealism and enthusiasm for quixotic adventures as a result of his association with DQ as a process of quixotization (quijotización). A parallel to this process is DQ’s increasing accommodation with reality under the influence of SP: his sanchification (sanchificación). These terms have become staples of Cervantes criticism, especially among soft critics and those who stress the psychological aspects of the novel. Hard critics, on the other hand, who see in DQ and SP only comic, unchanging figures, never use such terms (*hard versus soft readings of Don Quixote). Like most critical terminology, it is often too easy to use the terms in a simplistic or formulaic way, but they do have value for the judicious critic. Bibliography: Salvador de Madariaga, “Don Quixote”: An Introductory Essay in Psychology (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1935).
Qur’an (Koran) [Alcorán]. The writings of the prophet Mohammed, which are the sacred scriptures of Islam. See Tratos 2.
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R Rabbit [Liebre]. The fleeing animal that takes refuge under the legs of SP’s rucio. DQ interprets it as an indication that he will never see DT again. The association of DT with a rabbit, famous as a symbol of sexuality and reproduction (there is a reason why the bunny is the symbol of the Playboy empire), is perhaps unfortunate here. See DQ II, 73. Bibliography: E.C.Riley, “Symbolism in Don Quixote, Part II, Chapter 73,” Journal of Hispanic Philology 3 (1979):161–74.
Rabelín (Señor Rabel). In Retablo, the musician who helps with the production of the wonder show.
Rachel [Raquel]. In the Old Testament, the younger of Jacob’s two wives and the mother of Joseph and Benjamin. See Sultana 3.
Racism in Cervantes. *Slaves.
Radamanto. *Rhadamanthys.
Radischev, Aleksandr Nicoleyavich (1749–1802). Russian poet and prose writer. Radischev’s fame rests mostly on his Puteshestvie iz Peterburga v Moskvu (1790; Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow), which contains an incident reminiscent of the clouds of dust raised by the armies of sheep in DQ I, 18, in which DQ is explicitly evoked. But even more interesting is a scene that recalls the galleyslave episode of DQ I, 22. A traveler comes across a group of men who are shackled and, because of bureaucratic injustice, are being taken away to serve in the army. The man talks with the prisoners and helps them escape their fate; in turn, the guards attack him and drive him away. Whether the scene is pure reportage or a reconstruction inspired in literature is difficult to discern.
Rafael de Urbino. *Raphael Santi.
Rafael de Villavicencio, Don. In Doncellas, the brother of Teodosia who helps her regain and marry her wayward lover Marco Antonio, and who falls in love with and ultimately marries Leocadia.
Rafael, Lorenzo (1897–?). Mexican sculptor. Rafael has made hundreds of DQ figures, in a variety of materials—wood, stone, metal—and styles, but his most characteristic works are in bronze and iron relief. No Mexican artist has been as obsessed with DQ throughout his career as has Rafael.
Rafala. In Persiles III, 11, the young woman who tells Periandro and company about her father’s treachery and the upcoming raid that would result in their being taken captive to Africa. She advises them to seek the help of her uncle, Jarifa, an astrologer, who does indeed save them from the raiders. Rafala also escapes the raid unharmed.
Ragged Knight of the Disreputable Countenance, the Ragged One [Roto de la Mala Figura, El Roto]. In DQ I, 23, names the narrator uses for Cardenio in order to contrast and compare him to DQ, the Knight of the Mournful Countenance.
Raiders [Salteadores]. In Persiles II, 12, a group of 50 men sent from the pirate ship to steal Auristela and other women from the fishing community.
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Raimundo, fray. *Fray Diego.
Raja de Florencia; Raso de Florencia. *Florence.
Ramah [Ramá]. An Old Testament place name, used by Madrigal in Sultana 1 to denigrate the Jews he mercilessly teases.
Ramera de Talavera. *Whore from Talavera.
Ramillete de Daraja (Daraja’s Bouquet). A play, with a Muslim theme, of unknown authorship that has been lost but whose existence is attested to by a reference in Coloquio and in the works of other writers of the period.
Ramírez de Prado, Don Lorenzo (1583–1658). Humanist lawyer who published a controversial commentary on Marcial. He is praised among the good poets in Parnaso 2.
Ramírez, Mariana. A resident, with her mother and two children, of the building where MC and his family lived in Valladolid. She was intimately involved with a man named Diego de *Miranda.
Ramírez, Ramón. Morisco quack doctor and popular entertainer. Ramírez gained fame for his prodigious memory as exhibited by his verbatim recitations of long segments of Amadís de Gaula and other romances of chivalry. His activities were brought to the attention of the Inquisition and it turned out that he did not recite the books with perfect accuracy, but paraphrased them with convincing skill. Ramírez was a talented confidence artist who deceived large segments of a still largely oral popular culture, and his case illustrates the lingering popularity of the romances of chivalry in the late Renaissance. Bibliography: L.P.Harvey, “Oral Composition and the Performance of Novels of Chivalry in Spain,” Forum for Modern Langauge Studies 10 (1974):270–86.
Ramírez y Blanco, Alonso. *Zidra, Ramón Alexo de.
Ramón de Hoces. *Hoces, Ramón de.
Ramón (or Remón), Fray Alonso (1561–1633). A Mercedarian priest, poet, and dramatist mentioned by MC in the prologue to Comedias and included among the group of six religious poets in Parnaso 4, where he is called simply Doctor Ramón.
Ramos Carrión, Miguel (1845–1915). Spanish journalist and dramatist. As part of the tercentenary celebration of the publication of DQ I, Ramos Carrión wrote El caballero de los Espejos (1905; The Knight of the Mirrors), an adaptation of the episode in which Sansón Carrasco presents himself to DQ as a knighterrant (DQ II, 12–14).
Ransom of Cervantes. *Gil, Fray Juan.
Rapaz ceguezuelo. *Cupid.
Raphael Santi [Rafael de Urbino] (1483–1520). Italian painter and architect. Raphael was one of the great masters of painting in the Italian Renaissance; the wealthy courtesan *Hipólita la Ferraresa has some of his works hanging in her house. See Persiles IV, 7. Bibliography: Frederick A. de Armas, Cervantes, Raphael and the Classics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
Rápida. An infernal deity (invented by MC) evoked by Fátima in Tratos 2.
Rapista. *Master shaver, shaver, Master Basin.
Raquel. 1. A Jewish name mentioned in Baños 3. 2. *Rachel.
Ras. *Arras.
Raspe. An infernal deity (invented by MC) evoked by Fátima in Tratos 2.
Rastro. Today the site of Madrid’s flea market, but in MC’s day, the location of the city’s main slaughterhouse. See Cueva; Guarda.
Rauchenecker, Georg. *Diecke, Eugen.
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Ravenna [Rávena]. City in northern Italy, near the Adriatic Sea. See DQ II, 10.
Real. *Currency.
Real Academia Española. *Royal Spanish Academy.
Real Consejo. *Royal Council.
Reallife Don Quixotes. In addition to many passing references in newspapers, magazines, and other media to just about every politician and his or her “quixotic quest” for office, and occasionally to others in a similar manner, the frequency with which biographers choose DQ as the central metaphor for their subjects is somewhat surprising. Some examples, hardly an exhaustive list, are Gilberto Freyre’s Olivera Lima, Don Quixote gordo (1907; Olivera Lima, a Fat Don Quixote), in which the main idea is that Olivera Lima may have been fat in body, but he was quixotic in spirit; A. SafroniMiddleton’s South Sea Foam: The Romantic Adventures of a Modern Don Quixote in the Southern Seas (1920), an autobiography whose premise is spelled out in the subtitle; Darío Guevara’s Quijote y Maestro, Biografía novelada de Juan Montalvo, o el Cervantes de América (1947; Quixote and Maestro, Novelized Biography of Juan Montalvo, or the Cervantes of America), in which Montalvo is consistently presented as Uruguay’s (and Spanish America’s) greatest spiritual and intellectual teacher, a quixotic figure, and the American MC; Santiago Magariños’s Quijotes de España (1951; Quixotes from Spain), a wideranging review of conquistadors, saints, royalty, and common men and women who have displayed aspects of quixotism; Alfredo Sanjinés’s biography of Bolivian dictator Mariano Melgarejo, El Quijote mestizo (1951; The Mestizo Quixote), which states: ‘Melgarejo is, underneath everything, a knighterrant who conceives the unrealizable dream of governing an ungovernable and essentially revolutionary country like Bolivia in peace’; Harley Williams’s Don Quixote of the Microscope (1954), a biography of the great Spanish neuroscientist Santiago Ramón y Cajal as a dedicated quixotic scientist; Karl M.Schmidt’s Henry A.Wallace: Quixotic Crusade 1948 (1960), a history of the Wallace Progressive Party as “a quixotic crusade”; Victor Napoleón Graterol Leal’s El quijotismo de los Graterol (semblanzas) (1966; The Quixotismo of the Graterols [Likenesses]), sketches of a dozen of his more illustrious relatives, each of which is described as a DQ; Luis J.González and Gustavo A.Sánchez Salazar’s The Great Rebel: Che Guevara in Bolivia (1969), in which the revolutionary who once compared himself to DQ is described as a “Don Quixote of the twentieth century” as he charges down the roads of the world in order to “right wrongs”; similarly, Daniel James’s Ché Guevara: A Biography (also 1969) includes a chapter entitled “The Making of Quixote”: “he was, as he saw himself, a modern Don Quixote”; Armando Rojas’s biography of Spanish American liberator Simon Bolívar, El quijotismo de Bolívar (1980; Bolívar’s Quixotism), in which the point of departure is *Bolívar’s own comparison of himself with DQ and Jesus Christ; Katherine Middleton Murry’s biography of her father, a famous literary scholar, entitled Beloved Quixote: The Unknown Life of John Middleton Murry (1986): “Romantic, pure, innocent, like Cervantes’ hero, he was a lone knight, too, of infinite courage”; Tina Rosenberg’s Children of Cain: Violence and the Violent in Latin America (1991), which begins with an essay about drug related killings in Medellín, Colombia, entitled simply “Quijote”: Judge Alvaro Medina, whose favorite reading is DQ, is murdered for having indicted cocaine trafficker Pablo Escobar, and the reporter suggests that people like him—the “handful of people, who, against all reason, continued to believe in Colombia as a nation”—are best described in the words of Medina’s widow, who says that the rule is that idealistic Quijotes turn into cynical Sanchos but that a few, like her husband, are still willing to “die of Quijote”; Leonardo Altuve Carrillo’s Don Quijote Bolívar (1993), like the earlier biography by Rojas, uses DQ (taking a phrase from an essay by Unamuno) as a defining image for the great liberator; Elayne Wareing Fitzpatrick and Shell Fisher’s A Quixotic Companionship: View of
Page 603 Fanny and Robert Louis Stevenson from the Shores of Monterey (1994) is an account of the marriage and travels of the writer and his wife; Neil Slaven’s biography of Frank Zappa, Electric Don Quixote (1996): “Like some modern Don Quixote he entered the lists, his lances tipped with verbal venom, to defend the notion of individual freedom supposedly enshrined in the American Constitution”; Sofía GarcíaMares’s autobiography entitled Doña Quijota de Galicia (1996), in which the author notes how in her youth she was called ‘rare’ and ‘stupid,’ along with ‘Quijota’ for her idealistic kindness; John Baynes’s For Love of Justice: The Life of a Quixotic Soldier (1997), a biography of Derek Cooper; and Andrew Tobias’s financial autobiography entitled My Vast Fortune: The Money Adventures of a Quixotic Capitalist (1997), in which the idea is that investment can be idealistic and quixotic as well as materialistic and panzaic.
Reavey, George (1907–). English poet. Reavey’s short book of poems entitled Quixotic Perquisitions (1939) has two sources of inspiration: DQ and the Copernican revolution. About half of the 15 poems in the book are related to DQ, but only one, “Don Quixote’s Testament,” is directly inspired in the text itself (DQ II, 74). Bibliography: George Reavey, Quixotic Perquisitions (London: Europa Press, 1939).
Rebellas. A Valencian lineage mentioned in DQ I, 13.
Rebolledo, Alonso. *Girón de Rebolledo, Alonso.
Rebolledo, Efrén (1877–?). Mexican poet and shortstory writer. In his book of short fictions entitled Capriachos (1914; Caprices), first published in Japan, there is a story entitled “El desencanto de Dulcinea” (“The Disenchantment of Dulcinea”). In it, DQ is dying, worried that he has had no news of DT since she was supposedly disenchanted by SP (which required SP to whip himself 3,300 times). As DQ slips closer to death, SP admits to him that he never gave himself the lashes, but DQ is too far gone to hear. Filled with remorse, SP goes home and completes his task, lashing himself as required. No sooner is this done than DT herself appears, dressed elegantly and adorned with precious jewels. She animates DQ, who rises from his deathbed and challenges Death itself. The two meet in mortal combat, and DQ defeats his opponent, but spares Death’s life. Then, after receiving a kiss from DT, DQ rides out and becomes the champion of people and nations everywhere: he is Lafayette in the Revolutionary War, Bolívar in the Spanish American war of independence, Zola in the Dreyfus case, and others. All the while, DT remains a constant source of inspiration. Two years later, Rebolledo made this tale the title story for his collection El desencanto de Dulcinea (1916). Bibliography: Efrén Rebolledo, El desencanto de Dulcinea (Mexico City: J.Ballescá, 1916).
Recaredo. *Ricaredo.
Reception history of Don Quixote. DQ was immediately very popular. DQ I was printed ten times in the decade before DQ II was published. Overall, the novel was published some 28 times in the seventeenth century in Spain and 14 times more in Spanish in the rest of the Empire (mostly in Lisbon, Brussels, and Antwerp). Dozens of allusions and/or references to DQ appear immediately in novels, plays, poems, and other Spanish writings, beginning in 1605 and continuing throughout the seventeenth century. Records show that within months of publication, copies of DQ I were shipped on at least two occasions to the Spanish colonies in America. Immediately, throughout Spain (and, to some extent, the Spanish colonies) figures of DQ, SP, DT, and Rocinante begin to appear in processions, masquerades, dances, and other occasions. Probably the first public appearance of MC’s characters was during the festivities surrounding the important state visit of Lord *Howard to Valladolid in 1605. During the festivities held in Salamanca in 1610 for the beatification of *Saint Ignacio de Loyola, there was a procession that included a triunfo (triumphal cart) of DQ. A similar celebration, also involving DQ, took place in Za
Page 604 ragoza in 1614 for the beatification of *Saint Teresa de Jesús. Other instances are recorded for the cities of Córdoba, Seville, Salamanca, Baeza, and Utrera. Toward the end of the century, however, as Spain continued its cultural, intellectual, and historical decline, interest in DQ also declined, as evidenced by the fact that there was no new edition of the work between 1674 and 1704. The total number of editions of DQ in eighteenthcentury in Spain is 37. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, both in Spain and in the rest of Europe, DQ seems to have been read and understood almost universally as a satire, a burlesque, and a funny book. Certainly it appears that the characters in DQ II who have read DQ I—Sansón Carrasco, the duke and duchess, Don Juan and Don Jerónimo, and Don Antonio Moreno—all react to DQ in these terms. In DQ II, 3, when DQ asks Sansón what episodes from his earlier exploits are most discussed, the answer is a list of comic adventures that took place in the first, more comic, half of the novel, chapters 8–22 (*most popular adventures of DQ). The anonymous author of DQA also consistently stresses the comic and the burlesque. The DQ and SP who appear on stage and in the poetry of the period are always comic and usually ridiculous; other contemporary references to DQ and SP (e.g., in Francisco de *Quevedo’s “Testamento de don Quijote”) are always in the same spirit. An oftencited anecdote relates that King Felipe III once saw a student reading a book and laughing, and remarked that either the man was crazy or he was reading DQ (*Porreño, Baltasar). Although there are some subtle indications that MC himself may have seen something more than this in his own work (in the growing respect for and increased moral stature of SP, for example), it is clear that a major (if not the only) conscious aim MC had was to write a comic fiction. By the eighteenth century, there are some indications that in England there was a growing sense that DQ was more than just a funny book; rather, he became an ‘amiable humorist’ and even a pathetic idealist. But the turning point in Cervantine criticism comes with the German romantics—Tieck, Schiller, the Schlegels, and Heine—who shifted the emphasis from comedy to DQ’s supposed nobility of soul. DQ began to be perceived as a man more admirable than his contemporaries, a tragic and even Christlike figure. Overall, the romantic reading, or variants of it, have been dominant in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Whether the opposition is put in terms of comic versus romantic, cautionary versus idealist, fool versus hero, or *hard versus soft, however, there are two polar opposites that mark the spectrum across which almost every conceivable understanding of MC’s novel has been expressed. It is partly the protean nature of DQ that allows it to be read and understood in so many ways (*Don Quixote myth; *Quixotic novel), and that has allowed subsequent novelists as radically different as Fielding, Flaubert, and Fuentes all to recognize their origins in DQ. Bibliography: Francisco Aguilar Piñal, “Cervantes en el siglo XVIII,” Anales Cervantinos 21 (1983): 153–63; Catalina Buezo, “El triunfo de Don Quijote: una máscara estudiantil burlesca de 1610 y otras invenciones,” Anales Cervantinos 28 (1990):87–98; Anthony Close, The Romantic Approach to “Don Quixote”: A Critical History of the Romantic Tradition in “Quixote” Criticism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978); Arthur Efron, Don Quixote and the Dulcineated World (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1971); Amparo García, José María Angel, and Carmen Gallego, Cervantes: Cuatro siglos en la Literatura Universal (Valencia, Spain: Diputación Provincial, 1984); Isaías Lerner, “Contribución al estudio de la recepción del Quijote,” in Actas del III Coloquio Internacional de la Asociación de Cervantistas (Barcelona: Anthropos, 1993), 23–32; Alberto Navarro, El Quijote español del siglo XVII (Madrid: Ediciones Rialp, 1964); and Ascensión Rivas Hernández, Lecturas del “Quijote” (Siglos XVII–XIX) (Salamanca, Spain: Ediciones Colegio de España, 1998).
Recio, Pedro (Desiderio Lizana D. ?– 1922). Chilean poet. Writing under the pseudonym of the tiresome physician from DQ II, 47, Lizana won first prize in a poetry contest in honor of the 300th anniversary of MC’s death with “Sancho en el cielo” (“Sancho in Heaven”), a poem consisting of 59 octaves in praise of SP, MC and DQ, the nation and the church, and contemporary writers and critics.
Page 605 One can only imagine how bad the poems were that did not win a prize. Bibliography: Pedro Recio, Sancho en el cielo (Santiago, Chile: La Ilustración, 1916).
Recovery of Sancho’s ass. Beginning with the second 1605 edition of DQ, a passage is placed in I, 30, in which SP sees Ginés de Pasamonte riding his stolen ass and gets it back (*theft of SP’s ass).
Rector. *Director.
Redoma, señor. *Flask, Mr.
Redondilla. Stanza form consisting of four octosyllabic lines with a rhyme scheme abba, thus the name, derived from redondo (round; i.e., starting and ending with the same rhyme).
Redondilla castellana. A verse form created by uniting two *quintillas.
Redondo. In Pedro 1, the notary who takes part in the mayor’s decisions.
Reed, Walter L. Theorist of the novel. There must be an exception to every rule, and Reed, a professor of English rather than a Hispanist, is the glaring exception to the standard Anglo American critical view of the rise of the novel (*Watt, Ian). Reed defines the novel as “a long prose fiction which opposes the form of everyday life, sexual and psychological, to the conventional forms of literature, classical or popular, inherited from the past. The novel is a type of literature suspicious of its own literariness; it is inherently antitraditional in its literary code.” As a concept dependent on the printed book, by definition the novel cannot exist as a genre before the Renaissance. Thus, in spirit but with different emphases, Reed’s concept of the novel is much like that of M.M. *Bakhtin and Robert *Alter. Reed sees the novel as a genre that “rises” more than once in European history, that is born over and over again, at different times in European history, “first in Spain and then in England.” The Spanish novel, Reed suggests, has two basic strains: the *quixotic and the *picaresque. These two strains of the novel in Spain are “the first fully developed examples of an extended prose writing which opposes the fictions of everyday life to the fictions of a literary tradition.” For Reed (though he does not put it in these terms), if DQ is not the “first” novel in the modern sense of the word it is only because there was at least one earlier example of it in Spain: the anonymous picaresque Lazarillo de Tormes (1554). Bibliography: Walter Reed, “Don Quixote: The Birth, Rise and Death of the Novel,” in Magical Parts: Approaches to “Don Quixote,” ed. Edward H. Friedman and James A.Parr Indiana Journal of Hispanic Literatures 5 (1994):263–78; and Walter Reed, An Exemplary History of the Novel: The Quixotic versus the Picaresque (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981).
Refrán; Refranero. *Proverb.
Regente de la Vicaría de Nápoles. *Guiomar de Quiñones, Doña.
Reggio [Roso, Rijobes]. A city in northern Italy, between Parma and Modena. In Laberinto it is variously referred to as Roso, Rezo, Reza, and Rejo. See also Guarda.
Regidores rebuznadores. *Braying aldermen.
Región anártica. *Antarctica.
Regrets de SanchoPança sur la mort de son asne: ou Dialogue de Sancho et de Don Quichotte sur le même sujet, et autres Nouvelles en vers, Les (1714; Sancho Panza’s Regret upon the Death of His Ass; or Dialogue of Sancho and Don Quixote on the Same Subject, and Other Novelas in Verse). An anonymous French narrative on the subject described in the title.
Reguilete. A character killed by a bull in a ballad sung in Rufián 1.
Reichenberger, Klaus, and Theo Reichenberger. German artists. The Reichenbergers published an impressive book entitled Helden und Strolche bei Cervantes: Imaginäre Porträts/Personajes cervantinos, Retratos ima
Page 606 ginados (1992; Cervantine Characters: Imaginary Portraits), which consists of portraits of 25 of MC’s characters: 18 from DQ, four from Novelas, and three from the interludes. The book also contains a brief preliminary essay by Sebastian Neumeister on DQ as a book of books and some contemporary authors—Kafka, Fuentes—who have found inspiration in DQ. It is one more example of the extraordinary series of works of art inspired in DQ. Bibliography: Klaus Reichenberger, and Theo Reichenberger, Helden und Strolche bei Cervantes, Imaginäre Porträts/Personajes cervantinos, Retratos imaginados (Madrid and Kassel, Germans: Ministerio de Cultura and Edition Reichenberger, 1992).
Reina. *Queen.
Reina de Inglaterra. *Elizabeth I.
Reinaldos de Montalbán: Renaut de Montauban. French epic hero, one of the Twelve Peers of France, also very popular in the Italian versions of the French legends in works by Boiardo, Ariosto, and Tasso; he is Orlando’s main rival for the hand of the beautiful Angelica. In Spanish legend, but not in the French, Reinaldos participated in the battle of *Roncesvalles. Reinaldos is also a very popular figure in the Spanish *romancero and in some romances of chivalry. In DQ I, 1, he is cited as a favorite hero of DQ’s; in I, 7, DQ favors him over Roland. In DQ I, 33, Reinaldos is mentioned in the context of the test of the folkloric tale of the lovers’ glass as described in Orlando Furioso: no one whose spouse was unfaithful could drink from the enchanted goblet. Reinaldos prudently chooses not to take the test. In Casa, Reinaldos is one of the main characters, the rival of Roldán for the love of Angélica la Bella. See also DQ I, 6; DQ II, 1, 32, 40.
Reino de Granada. *Granada.
Reinoso, Pedro de. *López de Santa Catalina, Pedro.
Rejaule (y Toledo), Doctor Don Pedro Juan de. A judge and dramatist who used the pen name of Ricardo de Turia. See Parnaso 5.
Rejo. *Reggio.
Rejón y Lucas, Diego Ventura (1735–96). Spanish novelist. Rejón y Lucas’s Aventuras de Juan Luis, historia divertida que puede ser útil (1781; Adventures of Juan Luis, an Entertaining History that Might Be Useful) begins with the discovery of the manuscript of this work in La Mancha, but after that bears little resemblance to DQ.
Relación de lo sucedido en la ciudad de Valladolid desde el punto del felicísimo nacimiento del Príncipe Don Felipe Dominico Víctor, nuestro señor, hasta que se acabaron las demonstraciones de alegría que por él se hicieron (1605; Account of What Happened in the City of Valladolid from the Time of the Most Fortunate Birth of Prince Don Felipe Dominico Víctor, Our Lord, until the Demonstrations of Joy that Were Made for Him Were Ended). This historical document has been accepted by some scholars as having been written by MC, who was in fact living in Valladolid at the time it was written. More likely, however, is the candidacy of royal chronicler Antonio de *Herrera. The highlights of the festivities described in the work include the arrival of English delegate Lord Charles *Howard and various processions, masquerades, balls, banquets, bullfights, and chivalric jousting. One event described is the appearance of the Portuguese caballero Jorge de Lima Barreto dressed as DQ.
Religion in Cervantes. There is no way to make a convincing argument about MC’s true feelings about religion. In DQ alone, there are over 150 citations of or references or allusions to the Bible. At times, MC’s works have been read as those of a faithful Catholic, even a CounterReformation fanatic; never is there an explicit statement of criticism of the Church (there could not be in the age of the Inquisition). At other times, some of his works, especially DQ, have been read as religious parody or freethinking iconoclasm. Both of the extreme views are probably just that: extreme (*esoteric
Page 607 readings of DQ). It is unlikely that MC was ultraorthodox or reactionary, and it is equally unlikely that he was a parodic freethinker or an atheist. His nuanced ambiguity makes religion one of the most fascinating subjects in his works and provides much food for thought and material for analysis and discussion. In one of his earliest known works, Tratos, the sublime virtues of Christianity and Christians are contrasted with the degenerate evil of Islam and Muslims, in a crudely propagandistic and simplistic binary way. And at the end of his life he finished writing an explicitly orthodox novel (Persiles) and joined the Third Franciscan Order shortly before his death. On other occasions, however, he seems to take a much more reserved, even slightly ironic, attitude toward the Church; very many of his references to or statements about the Church, the clergy, and religious practices are ambiguous and/or highly suggestive. Is the bookburning scene in I, 6, an implicit criticism of the Inquisition’s autosdafe or merely a funny scene in which some hysterical characters overreact? When DQ, SP, and the humanist cousin visit a hermitage in II, 24— after DQ’s remarks about how hermits today are not what they used to be, the hermit himself is absent but his female assistant is there—is it a criticism of the clergy? Are the priest’s donning of a woman’s dress in I, 26–27, and standing by, crying out, and wringing his hands with the women present in the inn during the freeforall fight in I, 45, implicit anticlerical statements or merely funny scenes? Are DQ’s ‘hundreds of prayers’ in I, 17, his ‘million’ prayers and makeshift rosary in I, 26, or the duchess’s statement about works of charity in II, 36, blasphemous or heretical statements worthy of the *censorship they received, or just comic exaggerations? Is something more than the literal truth intended when DQ says to SP, ‘We have come up against the church,’ in II, 9? Is the duchess’s reference to halfhearted works of charity in II, 36, ironic? There are many more such ambiguous and tantalizing statements concerning the Church, the Inquisition, the clergy, prayers, and other aspects of religion throughout DQ. The fact of MC’s youthful studies with Juan *López de Hoyos, an open follower of *Erasmus, has led scholars to detect strong Erasmian currents in his work. Overall, MC impresses readers as more secular than most, if not all, of his contemporaries; it is quite possible that religious skepticism was a central feature in the younger and mature MC’s ideology, but that he became more conservative and orthodox as he aged. Bibliography: Marcel Bataillon, Erasmo y España: Estudios sobre la historia espiritual de España (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1966); Américo Castro, El pensamiento de Cervantes, rev. ed., ed. Julio RodríguezPuértolas (Barcelona: Noguer, 1972); Maureen Ihrie, Skepticism in Cervantes (London: Tamesis, 1982); Salvador Muñoz Iglesias, Lo religioso en el “Quijote” (Toledo, Spain: Estudio Teológico de San IIdefonso, 1989); Antonio Vilanova, Erasmo y Cervantes (Barcelona: Lumen, 1989); and Eric J. Ziolkowski, The Sanctification of Don Quixote: From Hidalgo to Priest (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1991).
Religioso del Orden de San Jerónimo. *Member of the Order of Saint Jerome.
Religious poets [Poetas religiosos]. Six poets who make an appearance on Parnassus with their faces covered. Apollo identifies five of them by name—Francisco Sánchez, Hortensio Félix Paravicino, Juan Bautista Capataz, Andrés del Pozo, and Alonso Román—and the sixth—Tirso de Molina—by description. Apollo also responds to MC’s question about why they keep their faces covered by suggesting that it is to maintain the decorum of their profession.
Relinchos de Rocinante. *Rocinante’s whinnies.
Reloja, La. A nickname for the town of Espartinas, located immediately to the east of Seville. The name comes from an anecdote in which the people of the town were to be presented with a clock (reloj) but supposedly asked in stead for a reloja (female clock) so that she could have offspring. See DQ II, 27.
Remestán, Mosén Enrique de. A German knight mentioned by DQ in DQ I, 49 (*Crónica de Juan II).
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Remón, Fray Alonso. *Ramón (or Remón), Fray Alonso.
Rémora. *Suckerfish or remora.
Renaissance. The great Renaissance scholar Jakob Burkhardt stated famously that there was no such thing as a “Renaissance” in Spain. And since then it has been assumed, tacitly or explicitly, by many that Spain was a country so dominated by ignorance, superstition, intolerance, and the Inquisition, that a “reawakening” of interest in the classics, humanism, and scientific thought was impossible (*Black Legend). It is not uncommon in books on the European Renaissance even today to see virtually no mention of Spain. Such a stance is, of course, absurd. Spanish *humanism, especially under the profound influence of *Erasmus of Rotterdam, flourished to an extent greater than is often recognized. The great universities of *Salamanca and *Alcalá were, particularly in the first half or twothirds of the sixteenth century, among the finest in Europe. The Spanish cultural and intellectual door was open to anything and everything written in Italy, to such an extent that Italy was the only European nation to have a significant, direct impact on Spanish thought (*Italian literature). Otherwise, Spanish hegemony in the *Golden Age was absolute: Spanish language, literature, art, and culture—not to mention Spanish politics, military affairs, and economics—were dominant throughout Europe, with translations of Spanish works achieving great popularity and influence in every other country (e.g., a copy of the first edition of DQ was imported by Sir Thomas Bodley and placed on the shelves of Oxford’s Bodleian Library in 1605, the same year in which it was published). In fact, the case could be made that many aspects of the sort of thought that characterizes the prototypical Italian Renaissance were manifest earliest and strongest in Spain. Nowhere in Europe was literature to flourish in an ambience of innovation and experimentation as it did in Spain in the sixteenth century. No other European country, for instance, adapted and naturalized the Italian poetic meters—heptasyllabic and hendecasyllabic lines; forms such as the *sonnet and the *octave; *Petrarcan and *pastoral themes—sooner or more completely than did Spain. The revolution in poetry begun by *Boscán and *Garcilaso was carried out within a few months in 1526. And though Garcilaso became an immediate “modern classic,” and his new style was imitated by all the great poets of the age, traditional forms continued to flourish in a way that they did not, for example, in France where the newer poetic forms won complete acceptance at the expense of the more traditional forms. The Spanish theater, which had only the weakest medieval development, was rich in experimentation and innovation throughout the sixteenth century, and in the 1580s exploded onto the cultural scene with a force not matched anywhere else. MC was an important figure in the development of the Spanish stage during that decade, but it was the appearance of the incomparable Lope de *Vega at that time that gave the greatest impetus to Spanish theater. In the century that followed, Lope, *Tirso de Molina, *Calderón de la Barca, and dozens of others wrote and staged plays at a rate that dwarfs all the rest of European dramatic traditions combined. Shakespeare was unknown in Renaissance Spain, and no Spanish dramatist rivals his stature, but Spanish drama had a direct and substantial impact on Shakespeare and his contemporaries, as well as on the later French tradition of Corneille, Molière, and Racine. In prose fiction, the development and perfection of new themes and forms were even more profound and influential. The traditional sentimental and chivalric romances, best exemplified by Cárcel de Amor (1492; Prison of Love) and Amadís de Gaula (1508), respectively, were developed to an extent far more sophisticated than in any other country. In the wake of the brilliant Celestina (1499), the dialogued novel enjoyed an extraordinary and unheardof vogue. The Spanish picaresque novel, beginning with Lazarillo de Tormes (1554), was the first truly novelistic (in the full modern sense of that term) tradition in Europe, and would have a considerable effect on the development of the novel in late seventeenth and eighteenthcentury Germany, France, and England. And,
Page 609 of course, the culmination of the long century of experimentation and innovation in prose fiction in Renaissance Spain is seen in DQ (1605, 1615), the prototype of the novel everywhere and throughout the centuries (*quixotic novel). The rich Spanish Renaissance made contributions well beyond its own narrow borders for centuries to come. Bibliography: William J.Bouwsma, The Waning of the Renaissance: 1550–1640 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000); Peter Burke, The European Renaissance: Centres and Peripheries (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1998); Stephen Gilman, “The Problem of the Spanish Renaissance,” in Studies in the Literature of Spain: Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, ed Michael J.Ruggerio (Brockport: Department of Romance Languages, State University of New York, 1977); Otis H.Green, The Literary Mind of Medieval and Renaissance Spain (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1970); John R.Hale, The Civilization of Europe in the Renaissance (New York: Atheneum, 1994); Lisa Jardine, Worldly Goods: A New History of the Renaissance (New York: Nan A.TaleseDoubleday, 1996); and Walter D.Mignolo, The Darker Side of the Renaissance: Literacy, Territoriality, and Colonization (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995).
Renato. In Persiles II, 17–21, the Frenchman who lost a duel and, when his life was spared, chose selfimposed exile rather than life in dishonor. He secluded himself in a hermitage on the Island of the Hermits, where he was joined by Eusebia, whom he married informally and with whom he lives virtuously. He hosts Persiles and the other travelers, tells them his story, and receives news that his name has been cleared and he can return to France. See also Persiles IV, 8.
Renaut de Montauban. *Reinaldos de Montalbán.
Renco. In Pedro 2, a peasant only mentioned in the play who participates in the dance for the king and queen.
Renegade [Renegado]. 1. An apostate from any religious faith. Renegades were especially hated by their coreligionists and the term is normally used in a derogatory sense: you were a renegade if you abandoned my faith for another one; you were a convert if you abandoned another faith for mine. 2. In DQ I, 40, the unnamed friend in whom Ruy Pérez de Viedma confides in order to learn who lives in the house from which he has received money and signs of a Christian inhabitant. The renegade assists with translation and arranges for their escape from Algiers. Once in Spain (I, 41), he heads straight for the local office of the Inquisition, as was required of all renegades who wished to return to the Christian fold. 3. In DQ II, 64–65, a Spaniard, member of the crew of the pirate ship captained by Ana Félix. He helps rescue Don Gaspar Gregorio and return him to Spain. See DQ II, 63–65. 4. A character by this name mentioned by la Pipota in Rinconete. Bibliography: Bartolomé Benassar, and Lucile Benassar, Los cristianos de Alá: La fascinante aventura de los renegados, trans. José Luis Gil Aristu (Madrid: Nerea, 1989); and Miguel Angel de Bunes Ibarra, “Reflexiones sobre la conversión al islam de los renegados en los siglos XVI y XVII,” Hispania Sacra 42 (1990):181–98.
Renegado tiñoso. *Uluj Alí.
Rengo. A character from Alonso de *Ercilla’s La Araucana who is mentioned in Parnaso 8.
Reno. *Rhine.
Reparaz, Antonio de. *García Cuevas, Francisco.
Repolido. In Rinconete, the thug who has beaten Juliana la Cariharta, but who later makes up with her at Monipodio’s house.
Reponce (Riponce). In Cueva, the sacristan and lover of Leonarda.
Reposada. In Tirante el Blanco (*Martorell, Johanot), a widow and the wet nurse of the Princess Carmesina, the beloved of the Knight Tirante. Reposada schemed to possess the knight for herself, and her embustes (tricks) are mentioned by the priest in his praise for the book in DQ I, 6.
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Repulida. In Viudo, the candidate chosen to replace the recently deceased Pericona as Trampagos’s prostitute.
Requesenes. A Catalan lineage mentioned in DQ I, 13.
Restraint [Continencia]. In Persiles II, 15, in Periandro’s dream, one of the two companions of Auristela (Chastity) on the island of precious jewels.
Resurrección, Hospital de la; Resurrection, Hospital of the. *Hospital of the Resurrection.
Retablo. A theatrical show involving puppets or marionettes, as in the puppet show of *Maese Pedro in DQ II, 26, and Retablo. Originally the term referred to the images or tablas, often including carved and painted wooden figures, used to act out religious scenes. The word was then extended to mean the box of figures used in such scenes of sacred history and, eventually, any sort of puppet show. The equivalent English word retable, a shelf for lights and/or other objects above the altar, has none of the theatrical connotations of the Spanish word.
Retablo de las maravillas, El (Retablo); The Marvelous Puppet Show. The sixth interlude in Comedias. This is MC’s highly original version of the tale of the Emperor’s New Clothes, which existed in several forms in oral tradition and written medieval and Renaissance texts. The originality of this version of the old story, and the main point of the sharp (even vicious) satire, is that the play put on by the two pícaros can only be seen by those who are not illegitimate or who are of Old Christian blood. Since no one in the small town wants to admit that he or she cannot see the play, which would be an admission of one of the two great social sins of the time, everyone pretends to see the absurdities that are ‘presented’ in the wonderful show. When the quartermaster arrives at the end of the farce and insists that there is nothing to see, the line between reality and fantasy is further blurred and the one honest man in the play is ridiculed as being of suspect blood. This is the only interlude in the collection that does not end in song and dance. By far MC’s most admired and most often performed work of short comic theater, Retablo ranks, for many, near DQ and Coloquio as a masterpiece. The picaresque couple of Chanfalla and Chrinos, with the assistance of the young musician Rabelín, arrive in the small town of Las Algarrobillas and are met by the governor, Licenciado Gomillas, the mayor Benito Repollo, the alderman Juan Castrado, and the notary Pedro Capacho. Chanfalla tells them that they have come to put on the wonder show of the wizard Tontonelo. The wonder of the show is that anyone who is not the child of a legitimate marriage or who has any trace of converso blood in his or her veins cannot see the show. The governor suggests that the show be staged that evening in honor of the upcoming marriage of Juana Castrada, daughter of the alderman. Chanfalla accepts the idea that as long as such a performance would be a prelude to a presentation the following day to the whole community. This is agreed upon, and Chanfalla and Chrinos are paid in advance for their work. The governor is particularly interested in seeing the performance, because he fancies himself a poet and says that he has written some 22 plays, which he hopes someday to take to Madrid and have performed. The stage is set, and the narrators begin their tale. Chanfalla conjures up Tontonelo and the magician begins to send his marvelous visions. First is Samson and the temple he destroyed; then come the bull, a plague of mice, flood waters from the Jordan River, two dozen lions and bears, and Herodias (and not Salome, as in the original biblical story) with her dance that cost John the Baptist his head. All the while, everyone claims to see everything that the narrators describe. Only the governor, in a series of asides, admits that he sees nothing, but, to save his reputation, he, too, pretends to see everything. At this point, a quartermaster arrives and announces that some 30 troops are about to arrive in the town and they will need accommodations. The townspeople think that the troops are also sent by Tontonelo, but the quartermaster insists that they are real.
Page 611 When the quartermaster says that he cannot see any of the things the locals claim to see, particularly the famous dancing lady of the New Testament, the locals immediately begin to chant that he must be “de ex illis”: one of them (i.e., either a bastard or a suspect Christian). With this, the farce is brought to a close. Bibliography: José R.CartagenaCalderón, “El Retablo de las Maravillas y la construcción cultural de la masculinidad en la España de Cervantes,” Gestos 27 (1999):25–41; E.Michael Gerli, “El Retablo de las Maravillas: Cervantes’ ‘Arte nuevo de deshacer comedias,’” Hispanic Review 57 (1989): 477–92; Catherine Larson, “The Visible and the Hidden: Speech Act Theory and Cervantes’s El retablo de las maravillas,” in El arte nuevo de estudiar comedias: Literary Theory and Spanish Golden Age Drama, ed. Barbara Simerka (Cranbury, NJ: Bucknell University Press, Associated University Press, 1996), 52–65; Enrique Martínez López, “Mezclar berzas con capachos: armonía y guerra de castas en el entremés del Retablo de las Maravillas de Cervantes,” Boletín de la Real Academia Española 72 (1992):61–171; Cory A.Reed, “Dirty Dancing: Salome, Herodias and El retablo de las maravillas,” Bulletin of the Comediantes 44 (1992): 7–20; Dawn L.Smith, “Cervantes and his Audience: Aspects of Reception Theory in El retablo de las maravillas,” in The Golden Age Comedia: Text, Theory and Performance, ed. Charles Ganelin and Howard Mancing (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1994), 249–61; and Bruce W.Wardropper, “The Butt of the Satire in El retablo de las maravillas,” Cervantes 4, no. 1 (1984):25–33.
Retablo de maese Pedro. *Maese Pedro’s puppet show.
Revinuesa. *Minuesa.
Revolving wheel. *Fortune.
Rey. *King.
Rey de Artieda, Andrés (1549–1613). Spanish soldier, poet, and dramatist. He was one of the primary members of the *Academy of the Night Revelers. He is remembered primarily because of his only surviving play, Los amantes (The Lovers), a version of the legend of the tragic lovers of Teruel (a medieval tale that has been retold dozens of times, the most popular version being that of Juan Eugenio Hatrzenbusch, Los amantes de Teruel [1837]). Although there is no record of direct contact between Rey de Artieda and MC, the fact that both participated in and were seriously wounded in the battle of Lepanto suggests that they were probably at least acquainted. MC praises him (as Micer Artieda) in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6 and again in Parnaso 3. Bibliography: John C.Weiger, The Valencian Dramatists of Spain’s Golden Age (Boston: Twayne, 1976).
Rey de Francia. *King of France.
Rey de las Alpujarras. *King of Alpujarras.
Rey don Alonso el Bueno. The name of a popular dance, probably resembling the *zarabanda. See Viudo.
Rey, Jerónimo del. *Castellani, Leonardo.
Reyes Católicos. *Catholic Monarchs.
Reyes, libro de los. *Kings, Book of.
Reyles, Carlos (1878–1938). Uruguayan writer. His El terruño (1914; Native Land) bears some resemblance to DQ, especially in the figure of Tocles, who is quite DQlike, and Mamagela, his SP. Reyles’s celebrated novel El embrujo de Sevilla (1922; The Wizard of Seville) has a character who praises DQ as ‘the most profound and complete vision that any artist has had of the human condition.’ Bibliography: Carlos Reyles, El embrujo de Sevilla (Buenos Aires: Agencia General de Librería y Publicaciones, 1922).
Reza, Rezo. *Reggio.
Rhadamanthys [Radamanto]. In Greek myth, a son of Zeus and Europa who gained great fame as a just ruler. After death he, together with his brother *Minos and the hero Aeacus, became one of the judges of the dead in the underworld. See DQ II, 69; Galatea 4; Tratos 2.
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Rhine [Reno]. A river that flows through Switzerland and Germany and empties into the North Sea. See Galatea 6.
Rhiphaei Mountains [Montañas rifeas]. Mountains at the headwaters of the Don River in southern Russia. See DQ II, 29.
Rhodes [Rodas]. An island in the Aegean Sea southwest of Turkey and the name of its capital city. It was best known for the Colossus, a gigantic bronze statue of Helios, the sun god, erected in the third century B.C.E. at the entrance to the island’s harbor, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. See Amante; Parnaso 6; Sultana 3.
Riarán. *Islas de Riarán.
Ribadavia. A small city in Galicia, located south and east of Santiago de Compostela and east of Vigo. It is on the Miño River, just north of Portugal. It was—and is—known for its wines. See Coloquio; Vidriera.
Ribera. A criminal executed not, as stated by a character in Fregona, by the count of Puñonrostro (*Arias de Bobadilla, Don Francisco, Count of Puñonrostro), but by his predecessor, the count of Priego (*Carrillo de Mendoza, Don Pedro).
Ribera, Pedro de. An unidentified poet praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Ribera, Sancho de (1545–91). Spanish poet and dramatist from Peru, one of the promoters of theater in the Spanish Indies. He is praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Ribero y Larrea, Alonso Bernardo. Spanish writer. Ribero y Larrea’s Historia fabulosa del distinguido caballero Don Pelayo, Infanzón de la Vega, Quixote de la Cantabria (in three parts, 1792, 1793, 1800; The Fabulous History of the Distinguished Gentleman Don Pelayo, Infanzón de la Vega, the Quixote of Cantabria) is the story—as narrated by Mr. Maulé, original author of the history—of Don Pelayo who, accompanied by his SPlike servant Mateo, sets out to prove the superiority of his name and the nobility of Cantabria (mountainous coastal region of northern Spain). The novel consists primarily of a series of encounters with a character who tends to represent a certain type (priest, shoemaker), followed by the moral of the encounter. Bibliography: Alonso Bernardo Ribero y Larrea, Historia fabulosa del distinguido caballero Don Pelayo, Infanzón de la Vega, Quixote de la Cantabria, 3 vols., facsimile ed. by Luciano Castañon (Gijón, Spain: Silverio Cañada, 1979).
Ricard, Frederic. Catalan writer. Ricard’s El malson d’una nit d’estiu/La pesadilla de una noche de verano (1977; A Midsummer Night’s Nightmare) is a bilingual Catalan Spanish novel about ‘a modern Iberian Quixote, in love with the unreal and symbolic Marianne.’ The semiautobiographical detective story takes place mostly in France after the Spanish Civil War and has only a tenuous DQ connection. Bibliography: Frederic Ricard, El malson d’una nit d’estiu/La pesadilla de una noche de verano (Barcelona: Freri, 1977).
Ricardo (Mario). In Amante, the gallant and handsome Christian soldier (also known in captivity by the name of Mario) who is taken captive by the Turks and has a series of adventures before winning the love of the beautiful Leonisa and her hand in marriage.
Ricardo, Duke Don. A *grandee of Spain and the father of Fernando, mentioned during Cardenio’s narrative in DQ I, 24, and again by him in I, 27.
Ricaredo. In Española, the protagonist, in love with the beautiful Spanish English woman Isabel, whom he marries at the end of the story. In some editions, the name is Recaredo.
Richardson, Samuel (1689–1761). English novelist. Richardson’s Clarissa; or, The History of a Young Lady (1747–48) is at least partly inspired by Nicholas *Rowe’s The Fair Penitent (specifically cited in the text in connection with DQ), which in turn bears a distant relationship to Curioso (DQ I, 33–35). Richardson’s entire long novel can be reduced to Love
Page 613 lace’s “experiment,” to test a supposedly virtuous young woman in order to prove or disprove that virtue. And the first important such experiment in literature, and one that Richardson (and Rowe) both knew, was that of MC in Curioso. At one point Lovelace discusses his desire to test Clarissa: “For what woman can be said to be virtuous till she has been tried”—a strong paraphrase of Anselmo’s statement about Camila in I, 33. Lovelace writes once to his friend Bedford (the faithful friend and advicegiving Lotario of the novel), “Nor was Nick Rowe ever half so diligent to learn Spanish, at the Quixote recommendation of a certain peer, as I will be to gain mastery of this vixen’s hand.” Bibliography: Florian Stauber, “Pamela II: ‘Written in Imitation of the Manner of Cervantes,’” in New Essays on Samuel Richardson, ed. Albert J. Rivero (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996), 53–68.
Riches from the Orient. *Orient.
Richter, Johann Paul Friedrich. *Jean Paul.
Ricla. In Persiles, the wife of *Antonio the Barbarian and mother of Antonio the younger and Constanza. She becomes the group’s treasurer and eventually retires with her husband in Quintanar de la Orden.
Ricota. *Ana Félix.
Ricote. A *Morisco and former neighbor of SP. The name comes from the Valley of Ricote in the province of Murcia, an area populated by *mudéjares and where Moriscos sometimes took refuge after the edicts of expulsion. SP and Ricote meet and share food, wine, and conversation after SP resigns his governorship. The apparently decent and honest Ricote’s praise for the royal decision to expel him and his people, even if they were good Christians, in the name of national and religious unity rings hollow in the context of his description of how that decision broke up his family and caused him personal hardship. Such an opinion is, however, consistent with statements about the same subject in Coloquio and Persiles III, 11. Later, Ricote is reunited with his daughter *Ana Félix onboard a ship in Barcelona. See DQ II, 54–55, 63, 65. Bibliography: Carroll B.Johnson, “Ricote the Morisco and Capital Formation,” in Cervantes and the Material World (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000), 51–68; and Otilia López Fanego, “Algo más sobre Sancho y Ricote,” Anales Cervantinos 21 (1983):73–81.
Riforme. An infernal deity (invented by MC) evoked by Fátima in Tratos 2.
Rijobes. Perhaps a misprint for Rijoles, Spanish name for *Reggio.
Rimas. During the battle for Mount Parnassus, the bad poets fire off volumes of rhymes, or rimas, in Parnaso 7.
Rinconete (Pedro de Rincón, Rinconete el Bueno). In Rinconete, one of the protagonists, a pícaro whose specialty is that of card shark. He is given the name Rinconete by the crime boss Monipodio. Once Monipodio calls him “Rinconete el Bueno,” apparently by mistake (he had earlier called Cortadillo “el Bueno”).
Rinconete y Cortadillo (Rinconete); Rinconete and Cortadillo. The third story in Novelas. Rinconete presents a convincingly lifelike picture of low life in Seville in the sixteenth century. This story is also included in the Porras de la Cámara collection in a version slightly different from the published one; in the Porras version, the complete title is Novela de Rinconete y Cortadillo, famosos ladrones que hubo en Sevilla, la cual pasó así en el año 1569 (Novel of Rinconete and Cortadillo, Famous Thieves in Seville, which Took Place in the Year 1569). There are numerous minor textual differences, but none is significant for the understanding of the story. In DQ I, 47, it is mentioned as a manuscript left in the *inn of Juan Palomeque by a previous traveler. It has always been one of the most popular of MC’s short stories. At the inn of Molinillo, on the road from Madrid to Andalusia, there is a meeting be
Page 614 tween two badly dressed young boys, pícaros of about 14 or 15 years of age. They strike up a conversation, in which they address each other with exaggerated courtesy and politeness. The larger one takes the lead and introduces himself: his name is Pedro de Rincón, from the town of Fuenfrida; his father is a seller of papal bulls. One day he stole some money and went to Madrid. The law caught up with him and he was punished with lashes and exiled from the capital for four years. One of the few things that he was able to bring with him is a well used and marked deck of cards, which with he has earned his way, mostly playing the game of 21. The other, whose name is Diego Cortado, responds in kind: he is from a place between Salamanca and Medina del Campo; his father is a tailor. He learned his specialty, that of cutpurse, from his father. Bored with smalltown life, he went to Toledo where he has survived by practicing his trade. Rincón suggests that the two of them cooperate in using the marked deck to fleece a muleteer who is at the inn, and Cortado agrees. They are successful, and in a short while clean out the muleteer who, assuming he can get his money back from the boys by force, learns otherwise, as both boys are armed. About this time a group of travelers invites the boys to accompany them to Seville, and they accept and set out for that city. After they depart, the innkeeper mentions to the muleteer that she was amused by the boys’ exaggerated speech when they first met and by their description of the marked cards. Enraged, the muleteer wants to track them down and get his money back, but is convinced not to do so. On the trip to Seville the boys are tempted to steal some things from their traveling companions, but do not do so until the end of the trip when Cortado slits open the luggage of a Frenchman in the group and takes a few items. In the city the boys watch other youths acting as carriers, and decide that that job would be perfect for them. They get some advice from one of the carriers about what equipment to buy in order to set up in the business. Their first day, they are approached by a student and a soldier. The soldier employs Rincón to carry some things for him, and when he returns, Cortado tells him that he has stolen the wallet of the student, who is also a sacristan. About then, the student returns looking for his lost money and, as he talks with Cortado, the latter also steals his handkerchief. Another youth who has been watching them approaches and asks if they have the blessing of Monipodio. Not knowing who this person is, the boys accept an invitation to go to his house. Along the way, their guide explains some terms in thieves’ slang. They arrive at a disreputablelooking house and are ushered in to an interior patio and told to wait. Looking around, Rincón notes a room with an image of the Virgin and a small basket that appears to be where one would place offerings. Slowly, the place fills up with new arrivals, including two carriers, a blind man, and an old woman (who immediately kneels before the image of the Virgin, prays, and leaves an offering): in total, about 14 people. Last to arrive are two thugs armed with swords and pistols. Finally, Monipodio makes his entrance; he is a man of about 45 or 46, well built, and with a thick black beard. Everyone pays their respects, and then Monipodio begins to question the two newcomers. After they identify themselves, Monipodio christens each of them: Rincón is to be called Rinconete and Cortado, Cortadillo. He also begins to instruct them in the ways of the group’s activities. The youth who brought them to Monipodio’s house, whose name is Ganchuelo, assures Monipodio that there are three guards posted to make sure there is no unwanted interruption. Continuing his interrogation of Rinconete and Cortadillo, Monipodio tells them that they will learn much more than a few common scams with cards and petty thefts. Monipodio is impressed enough with the boys that he accepts them as full members of his confraternity and waives the normal probationary year. At this moment, the group is warned that the local constable is approaching the house. Monipodio tells everyone not to worry, as this is a friend of his, and goes out to consult with him. Upon his return, Monipodio is angry because at the Plaza de San Salvador a purse was stolen and not reported to him. Ganchuelo swears that he knows nothing of the matter, but Monipodio is furious, swearing that anyone
Page 615 who disobeys his ordinances will pay for it. The constable has told Monipodio that the purse was taken from a sacristan, a relative of his, and that he wants it returned, which Monipodio wants to do, since this man is an ally who does him many favors. Cortadillo then admits that he was the one who took the purse, and hands it over to Monipodio (who tells him he can keep the handkerchief he also stole). Because he admits his theft, Monipodio gives Cortadillo the name of ‘Cortadillo el Bueno,’ reminiscent of the epithet given to the legendary hero Gumán el Bueno. Then two women, named La Gananciosa and La Escalanta, arrive; they are obviously prostitutes and intimate with the two thugs, whose names are Chiquiznaque and Maniferro. They are followed by Silbatillo, who brings a large basket filled with food and wine. Then the old woman who had prayed before the figure of the Virgin, whose name is la Pipota, informs Monipodio that the previous evening she was left with an even larger basket, the contents of which she has not yet investigated. Monipodio assures her that he will look at it and divide up the goods fairly, as is his custom. Meanwhile, the old lady is thirsty and has a very large drink of wine, a beverage she is very familiar with, as she can identify its place of origin as Guadalcanal. Before she leaves, she receives some coins from the women to light votive candles on their behalf. After Pipota leaves, the sentinel announces that Juliana la Cariharta is about to arrive, all disheveled and in tears. Juliana enters and describes how she was beaten and lashed by her lover Repolido. But La Gananciosa gets her to admit that after beating her Repolido was more loving and attentive than before, and that this is typical among men and women; she bets that before long, Repolido will show up and be more solicitous than ever. Next to depart are two very elderly men who are called hornets (abispones), whose job is to move around the city and note where money and valuable goods are being moved and stored, which makes them among the most valuable members of the brotherhood. Repolido does in fact arrive next, and he and Juliana make up. The group then engages in some song and dance, with improvised instruments including a broom. The festivities are broken up, however, when it is announced that the mayor and two assistants are approaching the house. Everyone but Rinconete and Cortadillo scrambles for cover, but the lawmen walk past the house and the crisis is averted. Then a young gentleman arrives at the door complaining that the faceslashing he had commissioned had not been carried out. Monipodio inquires about the case, and Chiquiznaque explains that the man’s face was too small for the size of slashing contracted for, so he gave it instead to the man’s lackey. The gentleman complains, but is forced to accept the (dubious) principle that the act is as good as if it had been delivered to the man himself. The gentleman pays an additional amount so that the intended recipient will in fact receive the punishment. Next are read three lists of chores to be done: 1) slashings, 2) beatings, and 3) common offenses. As the meeting breaks up, Rinconete and Cortadillo are given their assignment for the following days and they are to be entered into the register as members of the brotherhood, without a year of apprenticeship. The two boys comment on the thieves’ inappropriate use of language and their incongruous religiosity, and they decide not to spend much time in the brotherhood. But they do remain with Monipodio for some months, and their adventures would require lengthier description, as would those of Monipodio, but everything would be of great consideration and would provide interesting examples for anyone who would read them. Bibliography: Dian Fox, “The Critical Attitude in Rinconete y Cortadillo,” Cervantes 3, no. 2 (1983): 135–47; Gustavo García López, “Rinconete y Cortadillo y la novela picaresca,” Cervantes 19, no. 2 (1999):113–24; Juergen Hahn, “Rinconete y Cortadillo in Don Quijote: A Cervantine Reconstruction,” MLN 116 (2001):211–34; Aden W.Hayes, “Narrative ‘Errors’ in Rinconete y Cortadillo,” Bulletin of Hispanic Studies 58 (1981):13–20; Carroll B.Johnson, “Guilds and Entrepreneurs in Sevilla,” in Cervantes and the Material World (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000), 37–50; Robert M. Johnson, “Generic Polyphony and the Reader’s Exemplary Experience in Cervantes’ Rinconete y Cortadillo,” Revista Canadiense de Estudios Hispánicos 16 (1991):73–85; Michael Nimetz, “Genre and Cre
Page 616 ativity in Rinconete y Cortadillo,” Cervantes 10, no. 2 (1990):73–93; Frank Pierce, “Rinconete y Cortadillo: An Extreme Case of Irony,” in Hispanic Studies in Honor of Geoffrey Ribbans, ed. Ann L.Mackenzie and Dorothy S.Severin (Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press, 1992), 55–63; Juan José Sendin Vinagre, “A Place in the World: Delinquency and the Search for Liberty in Cervantes’ Rinconete and Cortadillo,” trans. Henry T.Edmondson, III, in The Moral of the Story: Literature and Public Ethics, Ed. Henry T.Edmondson, III (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2000), 109–22; and Stanislav Zimic, “Rinconete y Cortadillo en busca de la picaresca,” Acta Neophilologica 25 (1992):31–71.
Río Jordán. *Jordan River.
Río Tormes. *Tormes River.
Rioja, Francisco de (1583–1659). Courtier, theologian, scholar, and poet. Rioja, secretary to the countduke of Olivares, was an admirer and follower of Luis de *Góngora and was best known as the author of delicate poetry on themes of nature, especially flowers. He is praised in Parnaso 3.
Ríos, Juan (1914–). Peruvian dramatist. Ríos’s threeact ‘tragedy’ Don Quijote won a national prize for drama in Peru in 1946. The somewhat pretentious play features choruses of beggars, women, woodcutters, muleteers, peasants, prostitutes, and others, and aims at allegory (as explained by the author in his prologue): DT represents death; and other figures also have symbolic value. One interesting feature is the role of Tomé Cecial (SP’s friend who plays the role of squire to Sansón Carrasco in DQ II, 12– 15). First, Tomé’s niece is recruited to play the role of DT and seduce DQ, but SP recognizes her immediately for the peasant that she is. Later, a quixotic Tomé criticizes Sansón and others in their deceptions of DQ. Finally, as DQ lies on his deathbed, Tomé falls to his knees and, like Simon Peter, begs forgiveness for his betrayal. At the end of the play, after his defeat by Sansón, DQ achieves his DT: beautiful, pure death; death is life. Bibliography: Juan Ríos, Don Quijote, in Teatro peruano contemporáneo, ed. Aurelio Miro Quesada Sosa (Lima, Peru: Huascaran, 1948).
Ríos, Nicolás de los (ca. 1560–1610). Wellknown actor and one of eight autores [directors/producers] officially recognized by the decree of 1603. In Pedro 3, the protagonist chooses the name of Nicolás de Ríos for his new career as an actor.
Riponce. A variant of the name of *Reponce.
Riquezas del Oriente. *Orient.
Riscos de Acroceraunos. *Acroceraunian Rocks.
Rise of the novel. *Theory and history of the novel.
Riselo. *Pastoral names.
Rivera, José Eustasio (1889–1928). Colombian novelist. Rivera’s oncefamous novel La vorágine (1924; The Vortex) recalls DQ in the character of Cova, especially in his chivalry and his attempt to restore harmony (reminiscent of the Golden Age) between man and nature. The presence of names from MC’s works such as Zoraida, Maritornes, and Clarita, further underscores the Cervantine roots of Rivera’s novel. Bibliography: José Eustasio Rivera, La vorágine, ed. Montserrat Ordóñez (Madrid: Cátedra, 1990).
Rivera, Pedro de. *Información de Argel
Rivero y Azpiri, Atanasio (ca. 1860–1930). Spanish journalist and essayist. Rivero won a prize in a contest sponsored by the Asturian Center of Havana, Cuba, for his work entitled Pollinería andante (1905; AssErrantry). The short work opens with a burlesque of the preliminaries of MC’s own books: a tasa that fixes the price, two approvals to print, a copyrightlike privilege, a dedication, a prologue, and four burlesque poems. The fiction begins with a lengthy letter from Sansón Carrasco to the priest of El Toboso, in which the bachelor explains how, after the death of DQ, SP decides to become a sort of knighterrant himself. Sansón himself accompanies SP when he takes the three asscolts promised to him by DQ (in I, 25) but never given to him
Page 617 by DQ’s niece, plus two others, and sets out on his adventures, riding his rucio and leading the five other animals. Then comes the ‘punctual chronicle of the adventures and misadventures of SP,’ which includes a failed love affair and an encounter with a man who thinks he is a soul from purgatory, and which ends when SP dies of indigestion. Throughout the story, the number of asses in SP’s possession continues to grow and eventually reaches the hundreds. It is the prominence of these asses that gives the work its title. The Spanish for ‘knighterrantry’ is caballería andante, based on caballero, the word for ‘horse’ ; but SP rides an ass and leads a number of others, so his is a kind of pollinería andante, a sort of ‘asserrantry.’ Later, Rivero wrote several journalistic essays on DQ, engaging in some of the *esoteric interpretations of the novel, primarily by using anagrams he ‘discovered’ in the work. Perhaps his main contribution in these essays was the ‘revelation’ that DQA was the collaborative work of members (particularly Antonio Mira de Amescua) of the Academy of the Idle in Naples. Bibliography: Antonio Cruz Casado, “La locura apacible de Atanasio Rivero y su lectura en clave del Quijote,” in Desviaciones lúdicas en la crítica cervantina: Primer convivio Internacional de “Locos Amenos,” ed. Antonio Bernat Vistarini and José María Casasayas (Salamanca, Spain: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 2000), 229–39; and Atanasio Rivero y Azpiri, Pollinería andante (Havana, Cuba: Avisador Comercial, 1905).
Roama. In Gallardo 3, a Muslim who appears briefly.
Robbers [Ladrones]. The criminals supposedly taking refuge in the mountains near where *Grisóstomo is buried and *Marcela delivers her speech. When DQ turns down *Vivaldo’s offer to go with him to Seville in I, 14, he says that he intends to pursue these criminals. In fact, DQ does not look for any criminals in the mountains, but tries to locate Marcela.
Robert, Felipe. The bookseller in Tarragona who published DQA.
Roberto. In Sultana, a Christian renegade who is in Constantinople to search for his former pupil Lamberto.
Robledo. In Gallardo 1, a Spanish ensign in Oran.
Robles, Blas de (?–1592). Spanish book publisher. Robles started in Alcalá de Henares in 1568 and then moved to Madrid in 1586 and received the title of librero del Rey (King’s publisher). Like most Spanish libreros (booksellers/publishers), Robles normally paid printing costs for the books he published and then retained ownership and publishing rights to the manuscript. He published MC’s first book, Galatea.
Robles, Francisco de (?–1623). Spanish book publisher, son of Blas de *Robles whom he succeeded as librero del Rey. He published DQ I, DQ II, and Novelas. As soon as DQ I was published in 1605 and sold out immediately, Robles prepared a second printing, this time securing a new privilege extending his original grant, which was only for Castile, to Portugal and Aragon. The primary reason for this was the publication of two pirated editions in Lisbon in 1605. Robles’s financial assistance to MC in the publication of his three books was probably crucial to the author’s economic survival.
Robusto. One of the dogs accompanying Erastro when he first appears in Galatea 1.
Roca Guinarda, Perot (1582–?). Catalan bandit who served as the basis for *Roque Guinart in DQ II, 60. At the age of 20, Roca Guinarda first got involved in a factional struggle between groups of noblemen (he supported the *Nyerros party in the struggle) and the clergy, which soon spread throughout the region. Roca Guinarda continued to drift toward illegal pursuits and soon was reputed to be the most active bandit in northeastern Spain, especially in the region between Zaragoza and Barcelona, and he was renowned for his RobinHoodlike generosity. In 1610 a military force was sent to capture him, but he escaped. The next year, he accepted a pardon and a commission in the Spanish army, serving as captain of a troop of soldiers that went to Naples.
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Rocabertis. An Aragonese lineage mentioned in DQ I, 13.
Rocaferro. A place name mentioned in Sultana 1 as the origin of the Turks who capture Clara.
Rocinante. DQ’s horse. The hidalgo who becomes DQ owns an old nag (rocín), whom he renames before starting out on his adventures (I, 1). Although knights’ horses are not named in the romances of chivalry, they are in the tradition of the Italian chivalric epic. The new name combines the horse’s old status, rocín, and his new prominence in the suffixante, which suggests foremost. DQ’s constant companion and his double (both are skinny, awkward, and no longer young) Rocinante becomes one of the most important and most comic figures in the novel. In addition to the burlesque sonnet that consists of a dialogue between Rocinante and Babieca, the Cid’s horse, in the prefatory poems to DQ I, some of the more interesting scenes involving Rocinante are the time he trips and falls when charging the Toledan merchants (I, 4); when he goes to communicate his sexual ‘needs’ to a group of mares and winds up beaten and knocked down, as are DQ and SP, by the mares’ owners (I, 15); when SP ties his feet so that he cannot move the night DQ wants to go to investigate the strange noises they hear in the forest (I, 20); when he moves out from under DQ, who had stood up on his back in order to reach his hand up to a damsel at a window, where it was tied, leaving his master dangling by his wrist (I, 43); when his whinnies are interpreted by DQ as a signal to take to the road again in search of adventure (II, 4); when they set out on the third sally and his neighs are interpreted as a good omen (II, 8); the time the jester frightens him with jingle bells and he bucks, tossing DQ to the ground (II, 11); when his friendship with SP’s ass is discussed (II, 12); when he runs at his best trot during DQ’s battle with the Knight of the Mirrors (whose own horse, no better than Rocinante, has stopped and cannot be made to move again), thus helping DQ win a victory; when young boys in Barcelona place furze under his tail, which causes him to buck and make DQ fall to the ground (II, 61); and when he is made fun of as DQ and SP reenter their village for the last time (II, 73). See also DQ I, 2, 9, 52; DQ II, 3, 14, 40; Parnaso 1, 8. Bibliography: Anthony J.Cardenas, “Horses and Asses: Don Quijote and Company,” RLA: Romance Languages Annual 2 (1990):372–77; John T.Cull, “The ‘Knight of the Broken Lance’ and His ‘Trusty Steed’: On Don Quixote and Rocinante,” Cervantes 10, no. 2 (1990):37–53; Alvaro Fernández Suárez, “Rocinante y el rucio, o el mito de la ancha fraternidad,” in Los mitos del “Quijote” (Madrid: Aguilar, 1953), 149–200; and Mary Power, “The Uniqueness of Rocinante,” RLA: Romance Languages Annual 2 (1990):520–23.
Rocinante’s whinnies [Relinchos de Rocinante]. As DQ and SP talk with Sansón Carrasco about the possibility of a third sally in II, 4, they hear the whinnies of Rocinante, which they take as a sign that knight and squire should indeed set out again. Then in II, 8, as they set out, Rocinante again whinnies (or neighs), which DQ interprets as a good omen (*Rucio’s sighs and brays).
Rocker, Rudolf (1873–1958). German anarchist. Rocker’s book Die Sechs (1928; The Six) is a philosophical allegory in which a great and mysterious sphinx stands in a desert. Six roads lead to the sphinx, and along these roads travel six literary figures: Faust, Don Juan, Hamlet, Don Quixote, Medardus (from E.T.A. Hoffmann), and the bard Heinrich von Ofterdingen. Each is described (in the words of their original creators) individually before they all meet together at the end. DQ is accompanied by SP as the scenes of the windmills, the tavern/castle, and the galley slaves are evoked; it is a noble and romantic DQ that Rocker presents. At the very end of the book, the six figures, none of whom alone knows the answer to the sphinx, all join hands and, together, solve the ancient riddle. The great figure of the sphinx crumbles to dust: “The portals of the new realm open. The new man treads the new earth, and from the heavens ring songs of jubilation!” The wondrous new age of anarchism has arrived.
Page 619 Bibliography: Rudolf Rocker, The Six, trans. Ray E. Chase (Los Angeles: Rocker Publications Committee, 1938).
Rodaja de la Fortuna. *Fortune.
Rodaja, Tomás. *Vidriera, Licenciado.
Rodamonte (Rodomonte). A Saracen king and warrior from the works of Boiardo and Ariosto who was famous for his arrogance, strength, and courage. He is killed by Ruggeiro. See Casa 3; Coloquio; DQ II, 1; Parnaso 1; Viejo.
Rodas. *Rhodes.
Rodó, José Enrique (1871–1917). Uruguayan philosopher and social critic. Rodó’s most famous work is Ariel (1900), a meditation on what makes a civilization great, inspired largely by the events of the SpanishAmerican War of 1898. The book was read and admired throughout Spanish America and was an important contribution to the rise of postcolonial national and regional consciousness. Rodó also wrote an essay entitled “El Cristo a la jineta” (“Christ on Horseback”), included in his book El mirador de Próspero (1913; Prospero’s Balcony), an allusion to SP’s comment in DQ II, 16, about Don Diego de Miranda as a ‘saint on horseback.’ Rodó sketches an extended list of similarities between Christ and DQ and the essay is one of the most consistent and most fully developed explorations of the similarities between the two figures (*Don Quixote and Christ). Bibliography: José Enrique Rodó, El mirador de Próspero (Montevideo, Uruguay: J.M.Serran, 1913).
Rodolfo. In Fuerza, the young gentleman who rapes Leocadia and is eventually convinced to marry her.
Rodolfo Florencio. In Amante, the father of the beautiful Leonisa.
Rodomonte. *Rodamonte.
Rodrigo, Don (?–711). The last Gothic king of (what was to become) Spain, who died in the battle of Guadalete, fighting against Muslim invaders. In legend, he seduced (or raped) La *Cava, whose father, Count *Julián, called in Muslim invaders in revenge, thus bringing about the “loss” of “Spain” to the “infidels.” See Galatea 4; DQ II, 26, 33, 40.
Rodrigo, Joaquín (1901–99). Spanish composer. Rodrigo is one of the finest Spanish composers of the twentieth century, best known for his Concierto de Aranjuez (1939; Concert in Aranjuez). He also wrote a symphonic poem on the theme of “Ausencias de Dulcinea” (1948; “Absence of Dulcinea”) in honor of the 400th anniversary of the birth of MC. The piece is inspired in the burlesque love poem DQ carves into the trees during his penance in Sierra Morena (I, 26), with their refrain ‘Here Don Quixote lamented/the absence of Dulcinea.’ The relatively short work, about 15 minutes in length, is played by a fairly large 27piece orchestra, with five solo singing voices. Rodrigo attempts to convey some of the humor and irony, as well as the more traditionally romantic nobility and grandeur, of the novel. Bibliography: Joaquín Rodrigo, Ausencias de Dulcinea (Madrid: Ediciones Joaquín Rodrigo, 1993).
Rodrigo, Mase. *College of Maese Rodrigo.
Rodríguez. In Coloquio, the man who is mentioned as the friend of Montiela, and presumably the father of her children/dogs.
Rodríguez, Alonso. An Asturian tradesman and husband of Ana *Franca de Rojas, lover of MC and mother of his only child, Isabel. With his wife, Rodríguez ran a tavern in Madrid that was popular with actors and other theater people; it was most likely at this tavern that MC and Ana met.
Rodríguez Alvarez, Alejandro. *Casona, Alejandro.
Rodríguez de Grijalba, Doña. The highestranking dueña (dueña de honor, usually an elderly widow, referred to only by her last name)
Page 620 in the duchess’s service at her country home. She becomes one of the more important characters during DQ’s sojourn there in DQ II, 31–57. At first, the exchange in which SP asks her to care for his ass (II, 31) suggests that she will be a stock figure, the comic dueña about whom so much satiric literature was written. But later she becomes a real lady in distress (although her tale always retains comic aspects) and as such appeals to DQ to help marry her daughter to the neighbor who has dishonored her, bravely confronting the duke, her master (II, 48). She reveals, among other things, that the duke refuses to take action to help her daughter because he owes money to the young seducer’s father and that the duchess has two *running sores on her legs that purge her of the evil humors in her body. She is beaten and paddled by the duchess and *Altisidora who overhear what she tells DQ. Then, when DQ fails to take action, Doña Rodríguez confronts him (using a comic discourse featuring *fabla) in the presence of the duke, a daring move that forces the duke to act (II, 52). The duke’s scheme is to have his lackey Tosilos, in the guise of the seducer, defeat DQ (thus obviating the marriage and having some fun at the same time), but this is thwarted when Tosilos suddenly falls in love with and agrees to marry the young woman; Doña Rodríguez accepts the proposed marriage for her daughter (II, 56). Later, we learn that after DQ leaves the duke’s castle, the lackey is beaten for disobeying orders, the daughter enters a convent, and Doña Rodríguez returns to Castile a broken woman (II, 66). Doña Rodríguez thus is crucial in revealing the social and moral corruption of the duke and duchess, and her scheme to marry her daughter is thwarted by the duke, whose actions result in the destruction of her family. The shift by Doña Rodríguez from comic dueña to victim of aristocratic arrogance and misuse of power makes her a key figure in what may be the most significant and substantial example of social criticism in DQ. See also DQ II, 33, 37, 40, 50. Bibliography: Conchita Herdman Marianella, “Dueñas” and “Doncellas”: A Study of the “Doña Rodríguez” Episode in “Don Quijote” (Chapel Hill: North Carolina Studies in the Romance Languages and Literatures, 1979).
Rodríguez de Lena, Pedro. *Quiñones, Suero de.
Rodríguez de Montalvo, Garci. *Montalvo, Garci Rodríguez de.
Rodríguez, Leonor. The famous reputed witch who lived in the village of Montilla in Andalusia; she was the model for the witch called La Camacha in Coloquio.
Rodríguez Lobo, Francisco (ca. 1580–1622). A wellregarded Portuguese poet who is mentioned in Parnaso 7.
Rodríguez, Luis Felipe (1888–1947). Cuban novelist. Rodríguez’s short Don Quijote de Hollywood (peripecia tragicómica) (1936; The Don Quixote of Hollywood [A Tragicomic Adventure]) is the tale of the ‘DQ of Filmland’: Charlie Chaplin. It deals with Chaplin’s spiritual malaise, attempts to find relief, and apparent death. It is the latter that leads to his Dantesque wanderings through the worlds of the spirit and features his meeting with DQ in some illdefined astral region. This short conversation between the DQ of La Mancha and the DQ of Hollywood is the highlight of a most curious fiction. Bibliography: Luis Felipe Rodríguez, Don Quijote de Hollywood (peripecia tragicómica) (Havana, Cuba: Molina, 1936).
Rodríguez, Señora. The way DQ once addresses *Doña Rodríguez during their nocturnal conversation in II, 48.
Rodríguez (y Ardila), Licenciado Pedro. A bookseller and wellknown poet praised in Parnaso 2.
Rojas, Ana Franca de. *Franca de Rojas, Ana.
Rojas, Carlos (1928–). Spanish novelist. Rojas most distinguished himself as the writer of creative historical novels centering important figures from the Spanish Civil War (1936–39). His first significant novel in this vein is the excellent Azaña (1973), an evocation of the final months of the life of Manuel Azaña, the last president of the Spanish Republic, as he recalls
Page 621 his life and work from his exile in France. The scholarly Azaña’s thoughts constantly evoke MC and DQ, along with Calderón’s La vida es sueño (Life Is a Dream) and Shakespeare’s Hamlet. A phrase that echoes throughout the text is ‘whose name I choose not to recall’ from the famous first sentence of DQ I. Azaña also cites other phrases from DQ: ‘I know who I am’ (I, 5) and ‘I can do no more’ (II, 29); and from SP: ‘I was born naked, I’m still naked; I neither win nor lose’ (DQ I, 25; DQ II, 8, 53, 55, 57). Like DQ in I, 2, Azaña anticipates a chronicler who will write his history. But Rojas’s most obviously quixotic novel is El Jardín de Atocha (1990; The Garden of Atocha; translated as The Garden of Janus), which is the story of MC’s last years. The novel records MC’s conversations with DQ and SP (or their specters) in the Garden of Atocha; presents interesting views of some of the people important in MC’s life, such as his wife Catalina and Ana Franca de Rojas, the mother of his daughter; and conversations with his friends/rivals Lope de *Vega and Luis de *Góngora. Much of the attention in the work centers on the writing of DQA by someone paid to do the job by Lope and Góngora; the “real” identity of Avellaneda is revealed in the final pages. At the end of each of the three sections of the novel, there is one chapter entitled “De la edad de oro” (“From the Golden Age”) devoted to quotations from texts either from or relating to seventeenthcentury Spain, and one entitled “El revés de la trama” (“The Opposite Side of the Plot”) in which the author comments on his work. Overall, El Jardín is an appealing recreation of the life, times, and works of MC, with its own surprises and a multilayered metafictional structure. Bibliography: Carlos Rojas, El jardín de Atocha (Madrid: Debate, 1990); and Kessel Schwartz, “Cervantes and the Fiction of Carlos Rojas,” in En torno al hombre y a los monstruos: Ensayos críticos sobre la novelística de Carlos Rojas, ed. Cecilia Castro Lee and C.Christopher Soufas (Potomac, MD: Scripta Humanistica, 1987), 70–84.
Rojas, Fernando de (ca. 1474–1541). Attorney and writer. Rojas was of the earliest *converso generations and probably witnessed the burning of his father at the stake during an autodafé. There is little wonder that he first published La Celestina semianonymously, apparently wrote nothing else, and lived out a life of obscurity and conformity. For many, Celestina is the greatest work of Spanish literature after DQ. The full title of the work as it was originally published in 1499 was Comedia de Calisto y Melibea (Comedy of Calisto and Melibea), but from the beginning it was popularly known by the name of the most original and powerful character in the work: the old bawd Celestina. The first version consisted of 16 acts in prose, clearly preserving the form of theater but never meant to be acted on stage. Though published anonymously, a prefatory acrostic in the 1502 edition identified the author as Rojas, who claimed that as a student at the University of Salamanca, he had found the anonymous first act and during a vacation period decided to continue the story. By 1502 the text had been expanded to 21 acts and the title was revised to Tragicomedia de Calisto y Melibea (Tragicomedy of Calisto and Melibea). The story takes place on two levels. On the first, the handsome Calisto falls hopelessly in love with the beautiful Melibea and woos her with the poetic language of courtly love. On the second level, Calisto’s servants convince him to enlist the assistance of the infamous Celestina, doortodoor peddler of trinkets (in order to gain access to homes at all strata of society), gobetween, madame, restorer of lost virginity, exwhore, and witch. Through Celestina’s wiles, Calisto gains access to Melibea’s home and virginity, but one night falls from the wall of her garden and dies. The young woman, distraught, commits suicide by leaping from the top of a tower. Meanwhile, the servants revel with two prostitutes at Celestina’s home and ridicule the pretense of high society. Eventually the servants kill Celestina in a dispute over money and are themselves killed by law officers. Immediately very popular, Celestina became a part of popular culture throughout the Renaissance. Before long, sequels and imitations began to appear, among them Feliciano de *Silva’s Segunda comedia de Celestina (1534; Second Comedy of Celestina), Gaspar Gómez de Toledo’s Tercera parte de la tragicomedia de Celestina (1536; Third Part of
Page 622 the Tragicomedy of Celestina), and Sancho de Muñón’s Tragicomedia de Lisandro y Roselia (1542; Tragicomedy of Lisandro and Roselia). Celestina and her avatars continued to appear throughout Spanish literature well into the seventeenth century in the comedia, in poetry, and in the novel, especially in Alonso de *Salas Barbadillo’s La hija de Celestina (1612; The Daughter of Celestina). Celestina—the ‘old whore,’ as the very birds in the trees and stones in the street attest when she walks by—is an extraordinary figure, unique in Spanish literature, even though there is a medieval prototype, the trotaconventos (conventtrotter; i.e., a procuress who moves among convents). Celestina is marvelous as she invokes the power of the underworld; drinks and dines with her protégés and their lovers (Calisto’s two servants), reminiscing about the good old days when she was sexually active; and connives, cajoles, and manipulates all the other characters. Celestina is alive and vibrant as perhaps no literary character had been before her. All of the servants and prostitutes also have an individuality and life of their own. Calisto is simultaneously a stereotypical noble and a desperate, lusting young man, a parody of the ideal courtly lover. Melibea and her family (perhaps, as some suggest, of converso origin) are equally figures of flesh and blood, alive and convincing. It is easy to see how and why Celestina straddles the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, with traditional themes and forms on one hand, and a new secular spirit of humanism and individualism on the other. The work presents scholars with important problems involving authorship, textual authenticity, literary genre, and interpretation; but it also presents readers with lively characters in a vibrant world and is still read with as much enjoyment today as when it first appeared. Like virtually everyone in his age, MC appears to have revered Rojas’s work, referring to it in the prefatory poems to DQ I as ‘a book, in my opinion, divine/even though it does include more the human.’ The Celestinalike aunt in Tía, a work often attributed to MC, might be his attempt to revive and rewrite the type. Probably characters such as the grotesque inn servant and prostitute *Maritornes in DQ I, 16–17, owe a certain debt to Celestina. But the debt of MC to this classic is more likely to be detected in the spirit, characterization, and realism of the work than in specifics. See also Rufián 1. Bibliography: James F.Burke, Vision, the Gaze, and the Function of the Senses in Celestina (University Park: Penn State University Park, 2000); Ricardo Castells, Fernando de Rojas and the Renaissance Vision: Phantasm, Melancholy, and Didacticism in Celestina (University Park: Penn State University Park, 2000); Celestinesca (1977–); biannual journal devoted to Celestina; Ivy A.Corfis, and Joseph Thomas Snow, eds., Fernando de Rojas and “Celestina”: Approaching the Fifth Centenary: Proceedings of an International Conference in Commemoration of the 450th Anniversary of the Death of Fernando de Rojas, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, 21–24 November 1991 (Madison, WI: Hispanic Seminary of Medieval Studies, 1993); Peter N.Dunn, Fernando de Rojas (Boston: Twayne, 1975); Stephen Gilman, The Spain of Fernando de Rojas. The Intellectual and Social Landscape of “La Celestina” (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1972); Carroll B.Johnson, “Cervantes as a Reader of La Celestina,” FarWestern Forum (May 1974):233– 47; and D.W.McPheeters, “Cervantes’ Verses on La Celestina,” Romance Notes 4 (1963): 136–38.
Rojas Villandrando, Agustín de (ca. 1572–ca. 1625). Spanish actor and dramatist. Rojas’s major work is El viaje entretenido (1603; The Entertaining Journey), a popular and oftenreprinted account of theatrical life in Spain at the turn of the century. The work is of value as a historical document of wandering companies, actors, works written and staged, and so forth. It also includes both autobiographical elements and embedded fictions. Among other things, it mentions MC’s early play Tratos.
Rojas Zorrilla, Francisco de (1607–48). Spanish dramatist and poet. One of the more important dramatists in the second cycle of Spanish theater, the one formed around *Calderón de la Barca, Rojas is one of the major writers of the century to bring the works of MC to the stage. He wrote the first and most serious adaptation of Persiles for the stage with his
Page 623 work Persiles y Segismunda. The play, staged before King Felipe IV in 1633, begins with events from the first chapters of Book I, the scenes that take place on the island of the barbarians, during part of which both main characters are crossdressed. The work preserves little of the symbolic or allegorical aspect of the novel, and it does not end with the protagonists’ marriage in Rome, but continues their adventures and ends in tragedy. In addition, Rojas wrote two boisterous and extravagant plays on the theme of Numancia: Numancia cercada (Numantia Besieged) and Numancia destruida (Numantia Destroyed), where MC’s influence is present, but where the love element is much more prominent and tragedy is sacrificed to wonder and adventure. Another work attributed to Rojas, Don Gil de la Mancha, also shows some influence from DQ. Bibliography: Antonio Cruz Casado, “Persiles y Sigismunda: De Cervantes a Rojas Zorrilla,” in Actas del Tercer Coloquio International de la Asociación de Cervantistas: Alcalá de Henares, 12–16 nov. 1990 (Barcelona: Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores—Anthropos, 1994), 541–51; Frederick A. de Armas, “Numancia as Ganymede: Conquest and Continence in Giulio Romano, Cervantes, and Rojas Zorrilla,” in Echoes and Inscriptions: Comparative Approaches to Early Modern Spanish Literatures, ed. Barbara A. Simerka and Christopher B.Weimer (Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 2000), 250–70; and Rafael González Cañal, “Temas cervantinos en el teatro de Rojas Zorrilla,” Anales Cervantinos 35 (1999):193–203.
Rokha, Pablo de (Carlos Díaz Loyola, 1893–?). Chilean poet. In his first book of poetry, Los gemidos (1922; Groans), Rokha includes a list of the people who have most influenced him: 11 historical figures and the name of Alonso Quijano, repeated three times. Elsewhere, in his poems “Sátira” and “Jesucristo,” he also praises MC. Bibliography: Pablo de Rokha, Los gemidos (Santiago, Chile: Cóndor, 1922).
Roland [Roldán, Orlando, Rotolando]. In French legend, the greatest hero of the Carolingian cycle, known for his strength, courage, and chivalric spirit. He is the protagonist of the French national epic poem, Le Chanson de Roland (ca. 1100; The Song of Roland). In the poem, Roland leads the rearguard of his uncle Charlemagne’s forces returning from a successful expedition against the Saracens in Spain; they are caught in the narrow pass at Roncesvalles and massacred. The poem celebrates the defense of the Christian faith, loyalty to France and Charlemagne, and the virtues of chivalry. Roland (Roldán), Charlemagne (Carlomagno, Carlo Magno), and other heroes of the Carolingian tales became extremely popular in medieval Spanish ballads and prose romances. According to Spanish versions of the legend, Roland is killed at the battle of Roncesvalles by the Spaniard *Bernardo del Carpio, a character who does not exist in the French versions of the story. The Italian version of Roland’s name is Orlando, and as such he is the protagonist of *Boiardo’s Orlando Innamorato and *Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso. In the Italian versions, he is one of the greatest of all literary heroes in the Renaissance. For MC, Roland is a multifaceted character available to him from more than one source and in more than one context. He has considerable importance for DQ; only Amadís (together, perhaps, with Belianís) is demonstrably more directly influential on DQ’s life. Orlando is the author of a sonnet dedicated to DQ as one of the preliminary poems to DQ I. When DQ prepares to initiate his famous penance in Sierra Morena (I, 25), he considers both Amadís and Orlando as possible models, but ultimately chooses to imitate the tearful penance of the former rather than the furious penance of the latter (*Don Quixote’s penance). In I, 26, DQ states that the enchanted Roland could only be wounded by the soles of his feet, and for this wore shoes with seven levels of iron on the soles, but he is somewhat confused here, as it was Ferrau (Ferragús) who wore such shoes, although he is right about Roland’s enchantment. In Viudo, the protagonist compares his ‘wedding’ to the prostitute La Repulida, attended also by the famous ruffian Escarramán, as being even better than that of Roland. In Casa, Roldán (who once refers to himself as Orlando) is one of the main characters, the rival of Reinaldos for the love of Angélica la Bella.
Page 624 See also DQ I, 1, 7, 13, 32, 49; DQ II, 1, 8, 26, 32, 40, 66; Gallardo 2; Poesías 20; Rufián 1 (where it is Orlando el Paladino); Viudo.
Roland’s horn [Cuerno de Roldán]. Named the Oliphant, this is the horn Roland supposedly used to summon the Twelve Peers of France. See DQ I, 49.
Roland’s sword [Espada de Roldán]. Durendal, the sword of the French epic hero. In the Spanish ballad tradition of the Middle Ages, Durendal was somehow corrupted into the name of a knight named *Durandarte. See DQ II, 8.
Roldán. *Roland.
Roma. *Rome.
Roman Catholic Church [Santa Iglesia, Santa Madre Iglesia, Santa Iglesia Católica Romana, Iglesia de Dios Nuestro Señor]. For MC and Spaniards in general, the Christian church, as Protestants were considered to be heathens or infidels just as much as were Jews and Muslims. The Church is mentioned or alluded to frequently throughout MC’s works; for representative examples, see DQ I, 27, 37, 40; DQ II, 8, 47–48, 55, 58; Persiles I, 8.
Roman knight. *Curtius, Marcus.
Romance. *Ballad.
Romance (versus novel). The English term “romance”—used for a kind of prose fiction that is conceptually different from what we usually mean by the term “novel”—should not be confused with the Spanish term *romance (ballad), a narrative poem with a distinctive meter. Modern Spanish, French, Italian, and German, for example, have only a single term for long prose fiction: novela, roman, romanzo, and Roman, respectively. The novelromance distinction is one that comes from the English, rather than the continental, critical tradition; Clara Reeve made the first important distinction between the two in 1785, when she wrote, “The Romance is an heroic fable which treats of fabulous persons and things. The novel is a picture of real life and manners and of the times in which it is written.” The distinction is an important one, both for the *history and theory of the novel and for our understanding of MC, his works, and the context within which he wrote. First, it is necessary to acknowledge that these two categories are not two diametrically opposed concepts, that they do not form binary opposites, and that their boundaries are fuzzy and in many cases overlapping. Keeping these caveats firmly in mind, however, it is still possible and advantageous to distinguish between two prototypes of prose fiction (what *Bakhtin calls the “two stylistic lines” of the novel). The first is what we can call “romance”; in its earliest and most prototypical form in antiquity, it consists of fiction that tends to present noble and beautiful young characters who fall in love, suffer difficulties and separations, have marvelous adventures, and eventually are reunited and marry. Later, mostly medieval and Renaissance, variants preserve large elements of the ancient romance while adapting the love story to specific situations, such as the world of chivalry or the pastoral setting. The second is what we can call the “novel,” a much more difficult term to describe; in the end, a novel is all that which romance is not. A novel tends to be more realistic, more comical, more selfconscious, more dialogic, and more protean; it is often written specifically in opposition to (and as a satire and/or parody of) romance; its characters tend to be individuals rather than types. Romance tends to fit more clearly into generic categories: in ancient literature, the adventure romance (Heliodorus’s Ethiopian History); in MC’s day, the sentimental romance (Cárcel de Amor), chivalric romance (Amadís de Gaula), pastoral romance (La Diana), and adventure romance (Persiles); in contemporary literature, women’s love romance and historical romance, and men’s adventure fictions and westerns are examples of modern romances. The novel is harder to categorize and each category tends to be much larger, less defined, more ambiguous, and more generally associated with broad literary movements through the centuries: comic, romantic, realist, naturalist, psychological, modernist, and postmodern. DQ is clearly not
Page 625 like Amadís; one is a novel, the other a romance. As E.C.Riley has insisted, MC could not have written DQ unless he had a clear sense of a difference between novel and romance. But it is always too simplistic to set up a binary opposition, in this case novel versus romance. There are blends of all sorts, and Walter *Reed’s category of a “romanticized novel” is an important one. The paradigm case of the romanticized novel is best seen in the works of Samuel *Richardson, especially Pamela and Clarissa in the 1740s, but this type of fiction has roots that extend back through Madame de Lafayette’s La Princesse de Clèves (1678) to the courtlypicaresque hybrids of Salas Barbadillo, Castillo Solórzano, and others in the second quarter of seventeenthcentury Spain. Bibliography: M.M.Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, ed. Michael Holquist, trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981); Alan D.Deyermond, “The Lost Genre of Medieval Spanish Literature,” Hispanic Review 43 (1975):231–59; Daniel Eisenberg, “The Romance as Seen by Cervantes,” El Crotalón: Anuario de Filología Española 1 (1984):177–92; Howard Mancing, “Prototypes of Genre in Cervantes’ Novelas ejemplares,” Cervantes 20, no.2 (2000):127–50; Walter L.Reed, An Exemplary History of the Novel: The Quixotic versus the Picaresque (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); E.C.Riley, “Cervantes: A Question of Genre,” in Mediaeval and Renaissance Studies on Spain and Portugal in Honour of P.E.Russell, ed. F.W.Hodcroft et al. (Oxford: Society for the Study of Mediaeval Languages and Literature, 1981), 69–85; and Edward C.Riley, “‘Romance’ y novela en Cervantes,” in Cervantes, su obra y su mundo: Actas del I Congreso Internacional sobre Cervantes, ed. Manuel Criado de Val (Madrid: Edi6, 1981), 5–13.
Romance del cura que avisó al rey. *Ballad of the priest who warned the king.
Romance of chivalry [Libro de caballerías]. Tales of chivalric heroism and gallantry were a staple of the Middle Ages throughout Europe. By the time of the *Renaissance, as the worldview was changing and when alternative types of literature were available as never before, the popularity of this genre waned. But in Spain, in the late fifteenth century, a book was published that changed all this: Garci Rodríguez de *Montalvo’s revised version of the medieval romance entitled Amadís de Gaula. Amadís was perhaps the first fictional work in the history of European literature to gain what can be considered *bestseller status (although it is possible to argue the same for Diego de *San Pedro’s sentimental romance Cárcel de Amor and for Francisco de *Rojas’s La Celestina). The invention and diffusion of the printing press in the late fifteenth century made possible the concept of a single text, massproduced and read by a very large percentage of the literate public, and Amadís was the first fictional work to take full advantage of the new technology. In Spain and, soon thereafter, throughout Europe, readers and listeners everywhere followed the exploits of Amadís and his family and friends through multiple volumes of adventure. As the Amadís cycle grew to 12 books, other competing cycles, such as that of *Palmerín, together with individual romances of chivalry grew in popularity. The vogue of the chivalric romance dominated fictional reading in Spain in the first half of the sixteenth century. In the latter part of the century, other forms of fiction, especially the *pastoral romance, diminished the popularity of the chivalric genre, but stories of new heroes such as Belianís de Grecia (1547) kept the romances of chivalry near the forefront of interest for the reading public. New romances were published and/or classic ones such as Amadís reprinted at the rate of about one per year throughout the century. The *Catholic Monarchs Fernando and Isabel were fond of medieval chivalric romances. Later, Emperor *Carlos V led the list of avid fans of the genre, but that list also included figures such as Teresa de Avila and Ignacio de Loyola, both future saints, and, of course, DQ. Francisco de Portugal wrote of a man who returned home to find his wife, children, and servants crying because they had just read that Amadís de Gaula had died. Alonso de Fuentes cited the case of a man who claimed to know Palmerín de Olivia by heart; there was an anecdote dated about 1600 of a student who, while reading one of the romances, suddenly jumped up and began shouting, wielding his
Page 626 sword, and trying to defend the book’s hero from attack; and Luis *Zapata, in his Miscelánea (1590), wrote of a man who imitated Orlando Furioso. The self righteous moralists of the time consistently criticized the genre for its lack of verisimilitude, structural unity, and clear moral lesson, as well as for its supposed licentiousness and power to corrupt the morals of readers (especially weak and impressionable women); such moralists regularly recommended censorship, but their protests had little or no influence in the face of the genre’s overwhelming popularity. The romances of chivalry were banned in the Spanish colonies in America, but nevertheless these books, the favorite reading of the conquistadors, were exported in large numbers to the New World (as was DQ). It is the avid reading of Amadís and other romances of chivalry that drives the lonely hidalgo of DQ I, 1, mad and inspires him to become a knighterrant himself. Throughout the novel, DQ consciously imitates the words and deeds of his literary heroes, making that practice explicit in his discourse on imitation in I, 25. When in I, 52, DQ is defeated in his battle against one of the penitents, he acknowledges the end of his chivalric career and returns home with no expectation of ever again becoming a knighterrant. Amadís, Belianís, and other protagonists of the chivalric romances DQ esteemed were never defeated (without some excuse, such as enchantment); thus if DQ recognized defeat, it meant by definition that he could no longer be a hero of a chivalric fiction. But, after a month to recuperate, the poor man finds himself urged by his friends the priest and the barber, SP, and even Rocinante to sally forth again. But—even more importantly—he learns from Sansón Carrasco that not only was a book written of his knightly adventures (i.e., DQ I) by a wise magician/author named CHB, but also that this same author has promised a sequel. So the poor hidalgo has no choice but to resume his chivalric enterprise—for thus it is about to be written. Only on his deathbed in II, 74, does he renounce the romances of chivalry and reach a full accommodation with reality (*desengaño). MC’s only explicitly stated aim in writing DQ was to satirize and ridicule the romances of chivalry (see especially the prologue to both parts). And there is no question that DQ is both a burlesque and a parody of this genre from beginning to end. In fact, the popularity of the romances of chivalry, already in decline toward the end of the sixteenth century, was accelerated after the publication of DQ, not solely because of MC’s book but also because of new types of fiction, especially the picaresque and short story. *Byron’s belief that MC “smiled Spain’s chivalry away” reveals a misunderstanding of both MC’s achievement and the historical and cultural reality of MC’s Spain. Today only the hardest of the *hard critics of DQ read it exclusively in comic, satiric, and parodic terms. There is every reason to believe that MC’s conception of the work and its characters grew as he wrote, and there is no question that much of the novel’s perennial popularity and enormous influence are reflections of the fact that Cervantes’s accomplishment went far beyond parody. Bibliography: Julián Acebrón, ed., Fechos antiguos que los cavalleros en armas passaron. Estudios sobre la ficción caballeresca (Lérida, Spain: University de Lleida, 2001); Rafael Beltrán, ed., Literatura de caballerías y orígenes de la novela Valencia, Spain: Universitat, 1998); Anna Bognolo, “Las novelas de caballerías (1995–99),” in Actas del V Congreso de la Asociación Internacional Siglo de Oro, ed. Christoph Strosetzki (Madrid: Iberoamericana, 2001), 215–38; Marie Cort Daniels, The Function of Humor in the Spanish Romances of Chivalry (New York: Garland, 1992); Daniel Eisenberg, and Mari Carmen Marín Pina, Bibliografía de los libros de caballerías castellanos (Zaragoza, Spain: Prensas Universitarias de Zaragoza, 2000); Daniel Eisenberg, Romances of Chivalry in the Spanish Golden Age (Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 1982); José Manuel Lucía Megías, Antología de libros de caballerías castellanos (Alcalá de Henares, Spain: Centro de Estudios Cervantinos, 2001); José Manuel Lucía Megías, La imprenta y libros de caballerías (Madrid: Ollero y Ramos, 2000); Mari Carmen Marín Pina, “La literatura caballeresca. Estado de la cuestión. 2. Los libros de caballerías españoles,” Romanistisches Jahrbuch 46 (1995):314–38; and Mari Carmen Marín Pina, “Motivos y tópicos caballerescos,” in Don Quijote de la Mancha, 2 vols., ed. Francisco Rico et al. (Barcelona: Instituto Cervantes, Crítica, 1998), vol. 2, 857–902.
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Romancero [Ballad collection; corpus of ballads]. The word can refer to the entire set of all Spanish *ballads or to any single collection of them.
Romancero del Cid. *Díaz de Vivar, Rodrigo.
Romancero general (1600; General Anthology of Ballads). The greatest of all the collections of ballads, reprinted in 1604 and 1605. MC knew this famous collection very well, and in all likelihood some of the poems in it are his. See Gitanilla.
Romancillo. *Ballad.
Romanesco. An Italian wine mentioned critically in Vidriera.
Romanillos (de Atienza). A very small town located north and east of Guadalajara and southwest of Soria. In Elección (Daganzo is not far from Romanillos), it is ironically compared with Rome.
Romanos. A modern lineage mentioned in DQ I, 13.
Rome (Holy City) [Roma (Ciudad Santa)]. The capital of Italy and the site of the Vatican, the administrative center of the Roman Catholic Church. Rome was both the great monument to the glory of the Roman Empire and the center of Christendom; it was the most important city in Europe during MC’s day. At the same time, Rome is often described in Renaissance literature as the most corrupt city in the world, a den of moral decay, prostitution, and all manner of sin (*sonnet about Rome). Rome is the destination of the pilgrims of Persiles, and all of IV 3–14 takes place in and around Rome; as such, it is the symbol both of civilization and of the protagonists’ spiritual purification and marriage. The description of Rome and the events that take place in Persiles illustrate the two contradictory and conflictive aspects of the great city (*Seven Churches). See also Numancia 4; Galatea 4; DQ I, 14, 49; Gitanilla; Española; Vidriera; Fuerza; Fregona; Parnaso 8; Rufián 2; Sultana 2; Casa 2; Baños 1; Entretenida; Pedro 3; Viudo; Elección; Cueva; DQ II, 6, 8, 41, 49, 53, 59–60; Persiles I, 16; II, 7.1; 15; III, 10, 12–14, 16, 18, 19; IV, 1, 5–6, 8, 11; Poesías 26. Bibliography: Thomas James Bandelet, Spanish Rome, 1500–1700 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002).
Romero, José Rubén (1890–1952). Mexican novelist. Romero’s La vida inútil de Pito Pérez (1938; The Useless Life of Pito Pérez) is more picaresque than quixotic, but it does have some interesting reminiscences of DQ. The drunkard Pito Pérez, who wonders about the relationship between fiction and reality, is specifically compared to DQ by the narrator, and a servant woman, named María, at an inn is described in a way that recalls Maritornes from DQ I, 16. Bibliography: José Rubén Romero, La vida inútil de Pito Pérez (Mexico City: México Nuevo, 1938).
Romero Larrañaga, Gregorio (1815–72). Spanish dramatist. Romero Larrañaga’s remake (1841) of Agustín Moreto’s play El licenciado Vidriera (1653) may be the best theatrical version of MC’s story. Bibliography: Cecilia García Antón, “Temas cervantinos en el teatro español del siglo XIX: El licenciado Vidriera,” Revista de Literatura 57 (1995): 529–42.
Ronca. An infernal deity (invented by MC) evoked by Fátima in Tratos 2.
Roncesvalles. A mountain pass in the western section of the Pyrenees in Spain, northeast of Pamplona, near the French border. It was here in 778 that the Basques of Navarra (Saracens in French chivalric legend) massacred part of Charlemagne’s army led by *Roland. In DQ I, 1, the Spanish version, in which it is *Bernardo del Carpio who killed Roland, is recalled. Roncesvalles is also recalled as the battle in which *Durandarte was killed, which set into motion the series of events described by DQ in the *Cave of Montesinos in DQ II, 23. See also DQ I, 26, 49; DQ II, 9, 32.
Roncesvalles. *Garrido de Villena, Francisco.
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Ronda de la ínsula. *Rounds of the island.
Rondilla de Granada. An area of the city of Granada located near the Gate of Bibataubín and much frequented by pícaros and diverse marginal types (*picaresque geography).
Roque. 1. A common name (compare, for example, Roque Guinart), often used in the colloquial exclamation “Vive Roque” (“Long live Saint Roque”), more or less the equivalent of ‘by all that’s holy’ or even simply ‘I swear.’ It is also used in the phrase “ni Rey ni Roque” (“neither the King nor Roque”; i.e., no one of any station in life). See Baños 2; DQ I, 4 DQ II, 10; Entretenida 1; Rufián 1; Sultana 1. 2. In Pedro 1, the sacristan considered a possible husband for Benita, who has sworn that she will only marry a man named Roque.
Roque Guinart. The Catalan bandit whose men take DQ and SP prisoner but who hosts them generously, then sets them free and arranges for a friend of his, Don *Antonio Moreno, to receive them in Barcelona. The bandits of Catalonia were a major social concern in MC’s time, and one of the most famous of them was a man named Perot *Roca Guinarda, obviously the model for Roque Guinart. These bandits, who posed a real threat to the crown, were well connected politically with one of the two major factions in that part of the country, the *Nyerros or the Cadells; with powerful private citizens in Barcelona; with the French Huguenots; with the Church; and with the citizenry in general. See DQ II, 60–61. Bibliography: Silvia LorenteMurphy and Roslyn M.Frank, “Roque Guinard y la justicia distributiva en el Quijote,” Anales Cervantinos 20 (1982):103–111; and Alison Weber, “Don Quijote with Roque Guinart: The Case for an Ironic Reading,” Cervantes, 6 no. 2 (1986):123–40.
Roque, Maese. *Maese Nicolás.
Roqui. In Española, a Florentine banker who helps Ricaredo with money transfers.
Rosamira. In Laberinto, the daughter of the duke of Novara, accused of illicit sexual conduct by Dagoberto. At the end of the play, the two marry.
Rosamiro. In Pedro 3, the brother of the queen and father of Belica.
Rosamunda. In Persiles I, 12, the woman who arrives on Mauricio’s ship, chained to Clodio. Just as Clodio is the personification of satire (gossip, backbiting, slander), Rosamunda represents lust. In I, 14, Clodio explains that she is the lascivious former concubine of the king of England (he makes a pun on her name calling her Rosa inmunda, ‘unclean rose’), who was exiled to a deserted island chained to the gossip Clodio. In I, 19, Rosamunda attempts to seduce Antonio the younger but is rejected by him. Thus spurned, she wastes away and dies, being buried at sea (I, 21). It seems that this character is based on the historical figure of Rosamonde Clifford, famous paramour of King Henry II of England in the twelfth century. Bibliography: Karen Lucas, “Rosamunda: A Cervantine Mingling of History and Fiction in Persiles,” Cervantes 10, no. 1 (1990):87–92.
Rosanio. In Persiles III, 2, an unidentified man on horseback who gives Periandro, Periandro’s band, and the shepherds who are with them a gold chain and a newborn baby to deliver to friends in Trujillo, and then disappears. He is later identified as Rosanio, the lover of *Feliciana de la Voz and the father of the child. In III, 5, he is happily reunited with Feliciana.
Rosario de Don Quixote. *Don Quixote’s rosary.
Rosario de Montesinos. *Montesinos’s rosary.
Rosas. Apparently a port city in Catalonia, in the province of Gernoa, not far from Barcelona. It is mentioned by Silerio in his account of his life and adventures in Galatea 2, but there is no port of that name anywhere in the region.
Rosaura. In Galatea 4–5, the noble and wealthy daughter of Roselio, who is in love with Grisaldo and is abducted by Artandro.
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Rosaura’s aunt [Tía de Rosaura]. In Galatea 4, she helps Rosaura in her love for Grisaldo.
Rosel y Fuenllana, Don Diego. Spanish soldier and writer often criticized for his extravagance. MC contributed a prefatory sonnet of praise (Poesías 32) for Rosel’s Parte primera de varias explicaciones y transformaciones, las cuales tratan términos cortesanos, práctica militar, casos de Estado, en prosa y verso, con nuevos hieroglíficos y algunos puntos morales (1613; First Part of Various Explanations and Transformations, which Deal with Courtly Terms, Military Practice, Matters of State, in Prose and Verse, with New Hieroglyphics and Some Moral Points). It has been suggested that Rosel was the model for the licentiate’s pedantic humanist cousin, who is writing a book on transformations, in DQ II, 22.
Roselio. In Galatea 6, the father of Rosaura.
Rosena, Duke of. *Manfredo.
Roso. *Reggio.
Rotating wheel. *Fortune.
Roto de la Mala Figura; el Roto. *Ragged Knight of the Disreputable Countenance.
Rotolando. The Latinate form of *Roland, mentioned as a variant of that name. See DQ I, 25; DQ II, 1.
Rotrou, Jean de (1609–50). French dramatist. Rotrou’s Les deux pucelles (ca. 1636; The Two Maidens) is a dramatic adaptation of Doncellas.
Rotunda. *Gentleman in Rome.
Round Table [Tabla Redonda]. In Arthurian legend, the circular table for King Arthur’s knights constructed by the magician Merlin as a symbol that all the knights were equal and none sat at the “head” of the table. See DQ I, 13, 20.
Rounds of the island [Ronda de la ínsula]. One evening, after dinner, SP and his retinue go out to walk around the island of Barataria so that the new governor can get better acquainted with the place. The people they encounter during the rounds of the island give SP more opportunity to display his acute judicial sense. Most interesting is the case of the young woman, the *daughter of Diego de la Llana, who has escaped her home confinement by dressing in her brother’s clothing. Clearly, this is not one of the tricks planned in advance by the majordomo and his staff and illustrates that the small problems of life exist everywhere and at all times. See DQ II, 49.
Rowe, Nicholas (1674–1718). English dramatist and editor of Shakespeare. Rowe’s play The Fair Penitent (1703) bears a certain resemblance to MC’s Curioso (as well as being derived from The Fatal Dowry by Philip Massinger and Nathan Field) and prominently features a character named Lothario (from Lotario in Curioso) as the successful seducer of Calista. The play retained great popularity into the nineteenth century, and Lothario became so wellknown a character that his name has entered English by antonomasia (alongside Don Juan and Casanova) as that of a seducer.
Rower [Espalder]. On a galley, the head rower on each side of the sets of oarsmen, the one who sets the rhythm for the rowing. In DQ II, 63, he is the one who coordinates the trick of lifting SP into the air and passing him from hand to hand among the rowers.
Rowson, Mrs. Susanna (1762–1824). American dramatist. Rowson’s first dramatic effort was Slaves in Algiers; or, A Struggle for Freedom (1794), based partly on Capitán. The play is the predictable mix of intrigue, adventure, mistaken identities, betrayal, love, and ransom. It features the beautiful Zoriana, a secret Christian, and Frederic, a brave American captive. Bibliography: Mrs. Susanna Rowson, Slaves in Algiers; or, A Struggle for Freedom (Philadelphia: Wrigley and Berriman, 1794).
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Royal Council [Consejo Real]. The governmental organization in charge of book approval and censorship. See Amante: DQ I, 32.
Royal couplet [Copla real]. A verse form that consists of two *quintillas. It is also sometimes called a redondilla castellana.
Royal Spanish Academy [Real Academia Española]. The official academy of the Spanish language, founded in 1714. The Royal Academy has consistently attempted to promote the work of MC (and other Spanish writers). It sponsored one of the first great editions of DQ: in 1780, in four volumes, with illustrations by a number of outstanding artists, and a biography of MC by Vicente de los Ríos. Later (1819) it published the important biography of MC by Martín Fernández de Navarrete, and a facsimile edition of the complete works of MC (7 vols., 1917–23). The most controversial decision of the Royal Academy has been to accept one of the Juan de *Jáuregui portraits as authentic.
Rubenstein, Anton. Russian musician. Rubenstein composed an orchestral version of DQ (1871), which was well received.
Rubertino. In Persiles III, 15, the man who attempts to abduct Féliz Flora but who is killed by Antonio the younger.
Rubicon [Rubicón]. A river in northern Italy that flows into the Adriatic Sea. In 49 BCE, Julius *Caesar famously crossed this river with a small number of soldiers and defeated a much larger army. To “cross the Rubicon” means to make an irrevocable decision. See DQ II, 8.
Rucio. The term used most frequently by SP to refer to his ass, but not the name of the animal, as SP specifically points out in DQ II, 33. The donkey is of a silvery gray color, perhaps with some spots or dapples, an appearance evoked by the term rucio, but the animal has no proper name in the novel (*Dapple). Interestingly, the term is not used until I, 24; before that, the words used are asno and jumento, and these are also used from time to time throughout the text. From the start, there is a clear relationship between short, stocky, pragmatic SP and his short, solid, reliable ass (commented on in II, 34), just as there is between DQ and *Rocinante. When the rucio is stolen in DQ I (*theft of Sancho’s ass), SP is desolate, and its recovery in I, 30, is a moment of great joy for him. In DQ II, the ass takes on even greater prominence. His ‘sighs’ in II, 8, are taken as a good omen, especially by SP who believes that they signal that his fortune is to rise above that of DQ himself (*Rucio’s sighs and brays). In II, 12, the narrator notes that the author of this true history (CHB) dedicated a chapter to the friendship between Rocinante and the rucio, even going so far as to compare it to that between great friends of antiquity, but, for the sake of decorum, decided not to include the passage. In II, 31, SP insults Doña *Rodríguez when he asks her to take special care of his ass. When SP rides off to take possession of his island (II, 44), he makes sure that his rucio accompanies him in style, even though he himself is mounted on a powerful mule. When he can no longer take the practical jokes of those attending his reign as governor and resigns the position, he first goes to the ass and, with tears in his eyes, embraces his friend (II, 53). In II, 55, the rucio is SP’s only consolation when he falls into the deep pit. Upon arrival back home at the end of the novel, the boys playing in the street shout for others to come and see ‘the beast of SP,’ a reference to both animal and rider (II, 73). See also DQ II, 3, 27, 34, 61.
Rucio’s sighs and brays [Sospiros y rebuznos del rucio]. As DQ and SP set out in DQ II, 8, Rocinante whinnies and the rucio ‘sighs’ (perhaps a euphemism for farts) and brays. But since the latter are more numerous than the former, SP takes it as an omen that his fortune is to surpass that of DQ on this sally. Bibliography: Donald McGrady, “The Sospiros of Sancho’s Donkey,” MLN (1973):335–37.
Rueda, Lope de (ca. 1510–1565). A goldsmith born in Seville, who became a famous dramatist, actor, and producer of plays. Rueda’s influence on MC is considerable. MC states in the prologue to his Comedias that he had seen
Page 631 Rueda’s performances as a youth and that these experiences were a major factor in awakening his lifelong interest in the theater. Rueda particularly excelled at the paso (short comic farce) and became famous throughout Spain as his traveling troupe staged these and other works in town squares and other venues. These relatively primitive pasos were the forerunners of the interludes (entremeses) of the seventeenth century and were best exemplified by the eight examples in MC’s Comedias. Probably Rueda’s bestknown and mostread paso is the one entitled Las aceitunas (The Olives), a variation on the theme of counting your chickens before they are hatched. Seven of Rueda’s collected plays were first published under the title of El deleitoso (1567; The Delight) by the poetprinter Juan de *Timoneda (as MC recalls in Parnaso 8). Rueda lived in the same area of Seville as the Cervantes family in the mid1560s, and it is possible that MC met him at that time. In fact, Rueda’s daughter was baptized in Seville in the summer of 1564, so it is almost certain that his troupe was performing there at the time, which makes it very likely that MC saw his work then. See also Baños 3. Bibliography: Carroll B.Johnson, “El arte viejo de hacer teatro: Lope de Rueda, Lope de Vega y Cervantes,” Cuadernos de Filología 3 (1981):247–59.
Rueda, Tomás. *Vidriera, Licenciado.
Ruffians [Rufianes]. In Coloquio, associates of Monipodio who help the constable gain a reputation as an honest lawman.
Ruffino di Chiambery, Doctor Bartholomeo. Italian jurist in Tunis and, following his capture in the fall of La Goleta in 1574, for a time a fellow prisoner with MC in Algiers. Ruffino wrote a historical work on aspects of the conflict between Christians and Muslims in the Mediterranean Sea, based at least partly on his own experiences. While in Algiers, MC contributed two prefatory sonnets (Poesías 6–7) to the work, which were discovered in Turin, Italy, in the nineteenth century but later lost in a fire. MC’s two poems were first published in 1863.
Rufián. A ruffian or pimp. The term often carries with it more a connotation of a pícaro than an exploiter of women, although that element is rarely completely absent. In Viudo, the protagonist Trampagos clearly lives from the income of his prostitute, but in Rufián Cristóbal de Lugo does not, and in Persiles IV, 7, Pirro Calabrés is more the lover than the pimp of the wealthy courtesan Hipólita la Ferraresa, yet all three are called rufianes. The English “ruffian,” rather than “pimp,” has been used throughout this encyclopedia.
Rufián dichoso, El (Rufián); The Fortunate Ruffian. The fourth play in Comedias, the story of a ruffian who becomes a saint. The play is based on the historical figure of Cristóbal de Lugo as presented in Fray Agustín Dávila Padilla’s book on the Dominican Order in Mexico. The play is usually considered an example of the saint’s play, a popular didactic genre of the Spanish comedia. Although some critics have praised Act I (set in the world of ruffians and prostitutes in Seville) and severely criticized Acts II and III (set in Mexico and dealing with the protagonist’s martyrdom and sainthood), many others have considered Rufián to be one of MC’s most successful dramatic efforts. Act I: As the play opens, the protagonist, the student Cristóbal de Lugo, and a pair of his ruffian friends are boisterously talking about their activities. A constable and two deputies arrive, and the former wants to take Lugo into custody, but his assistants convince him that Lugo, servant of the inquisitor Tello de Sandoval, is famous throughout the city as an accomplished and respected delinquent, who cannot be touched by the law. The constable vows to do something about the situation, but withdraws with his men. The boy Lagartija arrives to tell Lugo that several prostitutes have invited him for a sumptuous meal that evening after dark and then entertains Lugo with a comic ballad about a foolishly brave man killed by a bull. An unnamed lady arrives and declares her love for Lugo, for whom she is prepared to leave her husband. Lugo refuses her offer. The same woman’s husband also arrives
Page 632 and Lugo talks with him, informing him that his wife is being courted by another man and suggesting that the husband should take precautions. The latter vows to do just that, keeping his wife under lock and key in a house in another city. In a change of scene, the constable from the earlier scene talks with Sandoval and informs him of his servant’s reputation. The inquisitor thinks it might be a good idea to take Lugo with him to Mexico. In another change of scene, Lugo and some musicians comically serenade a house, but, in an exchange of insults with a servant of the house, they learn that its occupants are not there. Lugo gives a blind beggar his last coin so that the blind man will say a series of prayers for the souls in purgatory. Now there is nothing with which to buy food or drink, but some pastry shop workers recognize Lugo as a friend and treat him and the musicians. Then, back at Sandoval’s house, the prostitute Antonia arrives looking for Lugo, whom she loves and pursues, even though he does not return her interest. Lugo arrives home and in a conversation with Sandoval states that he mixes good deeds with bad ones. Sandoval tells Lugo of his intention to take him to Mexico. As Lugo begins to talk with Antonia, the boy Lagartija arrives with the news that Carrascosa, who runs a brothel, is being taken off by a couple of constables. Lugo rushes to his defense and has him released. Lugo then goes to a previously arranged card game with the student Gilberto, vowing to God that if he does not win he will become a highwayman. Lugo wins a considerable amount of money. Then he again encounters the deceived husband who tells him that he has secured his wife in a safe place. The act ends with a soliloquy by Lugo in which he recognizes that his careless vow to become a thief if he had lost at cards was not a proper invocation of God; now he seriously promises to take religious vows. There is rejoicing in heaven and an angel announces this fact. Act II: The act begins with a dialogue between two nymphs identified as Curiosity and Comedia (in the sense of Theater in general). Curiosity states that she no longer recognizes Comedia, for she has changed so much in recent years. Comedia explains that as times have changed, so have theatrical practices. The old standards, such as the three classical unities, are no longer considered essential as they were in the days of Greek and Roman theater. Now rapid time shifts, place changes, and multiple plots are the rule. Today’s audience can follow imaginatively a shift of scene from Seville to Mexico, for example, as in this play, with no difficulty whatsoever. She adds that although Lugo’s conversion, according to history and legend, took place in Toledo, in this play it happened in Seville for the sake of plot. Here the protagonist’s sinful deeds are presented in Act I, his admirable life in Act II, and his saintly death in Act III. He is now called Fray Cristóbal de la Cruz and is accompanied by the former rascal Lagartija, now known as Fray Antonio. The two allegorical figures depart, and Fray Cristóbal, dressed as a Dominican monk, and Fray Antonio come on stage to begin the action. Fray Antonio recalls fondly the good old days of wine, women, and song in Seville, but Fray Cristóbal admonishes him to elevate his thoughts and contemplate matters of the soul. In a change of scene, Sandoval is preparing to leave Mexico to return to Spain, and in a conversation with the Dominican Prior hears that Fray Cristóbal is an exemplary person, an inspiration to his brothers. Fray Cristóbal asks Sandoval to take his regards to his father in Seville, and Fray Antonio asks to be remembered to one of the prostitutes and to an old friend. In another scene change, a physician tells the beautiful but sinful Doña Ana de Treviño that she is seriously ill, news that Doña Ana refuses to believe. The scene shifts to the monastery, where Fray Antonio comes across Fray Cristóbal in a faint, having a vision of sinful temptation, with demons and lascivious women tempting him in dance. (The stage directions affirm that this vision is strictly based on historical fact.) The dancers sing that the rites of Venus are the most enjoyable thing in the world. Fray Cristóbal responds that the most enjoyable thing in the world is the wonderful cross, then drives the demons out. Fray Antonio testifies that this event took place in fact, not just in Fray Cristóbal’s imagination. Doña Ana
Page 633 comes to the monastery but refuses to heed the admonitions of a priest that her soul is in danger. Fray Cristóbal enters into conversation with her and succeeds in convincing her that she can still save her soul. He makes a bargain with her: invoking the Virgin Mary, her son, and Saint Ursula and the 11,000 virgins, he promises that he will take all of Doña Ana’s sins and give her all the spiritual benefits his good works and prayers have accumulated throughout the years. Doña Ana accepts the exchange. Fray Antonio and the other priest are stunned by this unprecedented bargain. Act III: A local citizen tells the prior that he witnessed the events of Fray Cristóbal’s pact with Doña Ana. As soon as the deal was made, Doña Ana cried out for confession and, surrounded by the 11,000 virgins, died and went straight to heaven. At the same time, Fray Cristóbal turned into a leper, an external manifestation of Doña Ana’s corrupt soul. Fray Cristóbal enters, weak from his new disease, and Fray Antonio vows to serve and care for him in his illness. The scene changes, and two demons, Saquiel (in the form of a bear) and Visiel (whose form is left to the director), come on stage to complain that Fray Cristóbal has taken a thoroughly corrupt soul from them. They predict that Fray Cristóbal will rise at least to the level of provincial of his order. Saquiel confronts Fray Cristóbal and threatens him, but Fray Cristóbal drives him away screaming. The next development is that Fray Cristóbal is elected prior of the order, an honor that he attempts to turn down as unworthy but must ultimately accept. Lucifer himself, accompanied by Saquiel and Visiel, comes on stage to complain of Fray Cristóbal’s accomplishments and says that he wants to be present at his death. In the next scene, 13 years later, Fray Cristóbal has died and three souls—dressed in white and carrying lighted candles— arrive to accompany the soul of the deceased saint to heaven. Local citizens, including the viceroy of Mexico, crowd into the monastery to kiss the feet of the deceased saint and to carry off his relics. Lucifer and his minions admit defeat. The viceroy praises the saint and announces that the play has come to an end. Bibliography: Ellen M.Anderson, “The Lover into the Beloved Transformed: Neoplatonic Love as a Means of SelfTransformation in Cervantes’ El rufián dichoso,” in Love and Death in the Renaissance, ed. Kenneth R.Bartlett, Konrad Eisenbichler, and Janice Liedl (Ottawa, Canada: Dovehouse, 1991), 1–16; Jean Canavaggio, “Para la génesis del Rufián dichoso: El Consuelo de penitentes de fray Alfonso de San Román,” Nueva Revista de Filología Hispánica 38 (1990):461–76; Aurelio González, “La construcción dramática y espectacular de El rufián dichoso de Cervantes,” in Palabra crítica: Estudios en homenaje a José Amezcua, ed. Serafín González and Lilia von de Walde (Mexico City: Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Unidad Iztapalaga, Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1997), 205–17; Florencio Sevilla Arroyo, “Del Quijote al Rufián dichoso: Capítulos de teoría dramática cervantina,” Edad de Oro 5 (1986):217–45; Dawn L.Smith, “El bailarín fantasma: Escarramán y otros pensamientos escondidos en el teatro de Cervantes,” Revista Canadiense de Estudios Hispánicos 25 (2000):43–52; William A. Stapp, “Dichoso por confiado,” Anales Cervantinos 25–26 (1987–88):413–52; Patricia Varas, “El rufián dichoso: una comedia de santos diferente,” Anales Cervantinos 29 (1991):9–19; and Stanislav Zimic, “La caridad ‘jamás imaginada’ de Crístobal de Lugo: Estudio de El rufián dichoso de Cervantes,” Boletín de la Biblioteca de Menéndez Pelayo 56 (1980):85–171.
Rufián viudo llamado Trampagos, El (Viudo); The Widowed Pimp. The second interlude in Comedias. In his prologue, MC identifies the ruffian as a stock character in this minor genre of the short comic farce. Though some critics have praised this as one of MC’s best interludes, others consider it one of the worst. Escarramán, who enters late in the action, is a popular figure in Spanish folklore. The ruffian (pimp) Trampagos has just lost his beloved and moneyproducing prostitute Pericona. With his servant Vademécum and friend Chiquiznaque, Trampagos laments his loss. Though Pericona had claimed to be only 32 years old, the deceased was actually 56. She had not taken the medicine prescribed for her, but she had taken 11 sweating cures for syphilis. She suffered from open sores on her legs and arms that made them resemble the fabulous royal fountains at Aranjuez. She had only a few
Page 634 teeth left in her mouth, which emitted a bad odor. But she was a good, dependable source of income. Three other prostitutes come by to apply for the position as Pericona’s replacement—La Repulida, La Pizpita, and La Mostrenca. With them is the burly ruffian Juan Claros. There is some more praise for the recently deceased, and then the three women describe their abilities and their financial status. After some squabbling and namecalling among the women, Trampagos considers his options and chooses La Repulida, who then offers (in jest) to place the signs of the letter S and a nail (in Spanish, S+clavo [nail]=esclavo [slave]) on her cheeks to show that she now belongs to Trampagos. As they all begin to celebrate with music and wine, a man dressed as a captive (escaped from the Turks in Africa) joins the crowd. It is none other than the most famous of all ruffians, Escarramán. He briefly narrates the tale of his captivity, escape, and pilgrimage to San Millán de la Cogolla. He also inquires about his beloved Méndez, who has gone off to Córdoba in his absence. The scene ends with song and celebration of both Trampagos’s ‘marriage’ and the return of Escarramán. Bibliography: Jorge Checa, “El rufián viudo de Cervantes: Estructura, imágenes, parodia, carnavalización,” MLN 101 (1986):247–69; Jean GrahamJones, “‘Tuya soy’: the Economics of Marriage in Cervantes’s Entremés del rufián viudo llamado Trampagos,” Bulletin of the Comediantes 41 (1989):151–61; and Dawn L.Smith, “El bailarín fantasma: Escarramán y otros pensamientos escondidos en el teatro de Cervantes,” Revista Canadiense de Estudios Hispánicos 25 (2000):43–52.
Rufianes. *Ruffians.
Rufo (Gutiérrez), Juan (1547–ca. 1620). Spanish soldier and poet. Rufo grew up in Córdoba with MC (the two were born in the same year), and they were childhood friends and most likely maintained a close relationship through adulthood. Rufo participated in the war against the *Moriscos in 1568 and, along with MC, in the battle of *Lepanto in 1571, two of the military actions headed by Don *Juan of Austria. MC contributed a prefatory sonnet (Poesías 11) for Rufo’s La Austriada (1584; The Austriade), a heroic poem about the achievements of Don Juan. Rufo also wrote Los seiscientos apotegmas (1596; The Six Hundred Apothegms), a book of proverbs and sayings. In DQ I, 6, La Austriada is praised (along with *Ercilla’s La Araucana and *Virués’s El Monserrato) as one of the best works of heroic verse ever published in Spanish. Rufo is also praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6. Bibliography: Elizabeth B.Davis, “Writing after Ercilla: Juan Rufo’s La Austriada,” in Myth and Identity in the Epic of Imperial Spain (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2000), 61–97.
Rugel de Grecia. Rogel (not Rugel) de Grecia is a romance of chivalry written by Feliciano de *Silva. DQ cites it as a book he has read in I, 24, so it must have been one of the books in his library not mentioned in I, 6, probably one of those thrown onto the bonfire without being examined.
Ruggiero [Rugero]. A character in Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso where he is described as an ancestor of the dukes of Ferrara. See DQ II, 1; Viejo; DQ II, 1, 40.
Ruidera. The dueña of *Belerma who, with her seven daughters and two nieces, wept so copiously at the time of Durandarte’s death that they were turned into the *Lagoons of Ruidera. The lagoons of the daughters were under control of the king of Spain, whereas those of the nieces belonged to the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem (*Order of Malta). In fact, two of the lagoons were controlled by that religious order and not by the crown. See DQ II, 22–23.
Ruidera, Lagoons of. *Lagoons of Ruidera.
Ruiz de Alarcón, Juan (ca. 1581–1639). Civil servant and dramatist, born and raised in Mexico, who spent his life alternating between Europe and the New World. Ruiz de Alarcón was one of the most outstanding writers in the circle of Lope de *Vega. Of his relatively limited output of some 20 plays, the most celebrated is La verdad sospechosa (Suspect Truth), made even more famous when translated/ adapted by Corneille as Le Menteur (1644; The
Page 635 Liar). Ruiz de Alarcón is also the author of a play entitled La cueva de Salamanca, about the teaching of magical arts in the famous university city, a theme of MC’s Cueva. His play El semejante a sí mismo (The Man Who Looked like Himself) is based, apparently, on Curioso. Bibliography: Willard F.King, Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, letrado y dramaturgo: su mundo mexicano y español (México City: Colegio de México, 1989); and Walter Poesse, Juan Ruiz de Alarcón (New York: Twayne, 1972).
Ruiz de Biedma, Fernán. A minor poet mentioned by MC in Parnaso 7.
Ruiz de Burton, María Amparo. *Burton, Mrs. H.S.
Run. An infernal deity (invented by MC) evoked by Fátima in Tratos 2.
Running sores of the duchess [Fuentes de la duquesa]. During her nocturnal visit with DQ, Doña *Rodríguez reveals that the beautiful duchess is not as perfect as she appears to be. She has two running sores, one on each leg, to permit the evil humors that fill her body to flow out. These ‘sores’ were incisions made by a physician, supposedly for the health of the patient, in order to let the body purge itself of unhealthy humors (*Huarte de San Juan, Juan). In the context of the story, the duchess’s sores are an external manifestation of her inner corruption (interestingly, the late prostitute Pericona in Viudo had similar sores). See DQ II, 48.
Ruperta, Señora. In Persiles III, 16, the widow who vows to avenge her husband’s death but, when she sees the beauty of Croriano, the son of her husband’s killer, she immediately falls in love and marries him (III, 17). The two of them accompany the pilgrims to Rome and support them throughout the remainder of the novel, returning to France in IV, 14.
Rus. A name used in the phrase “voto a Rus” (“I swear to Rus”), a euphemism for ‘I swear to God.’ See DQ II, 25.
Rushdie, Salman (1947–). AngloIndian novelist. Rushdie was already a respected novelist in the early 1980s, but he suddenly burst into international fame and became a cause célèbre when his novel The Satanic Verses (1988) was considered blasphemous by leading Iranian Muslim clerics, and the Ayatollah Khomeini condemned the book and called on Muslims throughout the world to kill its author. He has since gained prominence as the most important “postcolonial” writer in the world. He has explicitly named MC as one of his “literary parents.” In his novel The Moor’s Last Sigh (1995), a long and complex family saga of the spice trade in India, there is a remote village in Spain named Benengeli (obviously after CHB). DQ is mentioned or alluded to several times in the novel and was clearly a factor in the work’s conception and execution. Bibliography: Paul A.Cantor, “Tales of the Alhambra: Rushdie’s Use of Spanish History in The Moor’s Last Sigh,” Studies in the Novel 29 (1997): 323–41; and Salman Rushdie, Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism, 1981–1991 (London: Granta Books, 1991).
Rustán. In Sultana, a eunuch in Amurates’s harem, who has hidden and protected Doña Catalina de Oviedo for six years.
Rustic bumpkin [Patán rústico, Don]. In DQ II, 47, the insulting name SP calls the peasant who requests money for his son to marry *Clara Perlerina.
Rústico. In Casa, the shepherd loved by Clori in spite of being the butt of practical jokes by Corinto and Lauso.
Rute. Small town in Andalusia, located southeast of Córdoba and just south of Cabra. It was famous for its hams and its wine. See Casamiento; Sultana 3.
Rutilio. 1. In Laberinto, the name used by *Porcia de Utrino when she dresses as a man. 2. In Persiles I, 6, the barbarian who frees the prisoners from the islanddungeon and then joins the group of Periandro and Auristela when they leave the barbarians’ island. In I, 8–9, he
Page 636 explains that he is Italian, and was a dancing teacher. He had an affair with a student that landed him in jail, from which he was freed by a witch using a magic wand and a flying carpet to take him to Norway. But when he rejected the witch’s sexual advances, she turned into a wolf and he killed her. After living and working for some time in Norway, he survived a shipwreck and wound up on the island of the barbarians, where he pretended for three years to be mute, before the events that ended in the destruction of the island. He accompanies Periandro and the group until they depart for Europe (II, 21). At that time, he chooses to do penance for his sins and occupy the hermitage being abandoned by Renato. Rutilio apparently gives up his saintly and solitary life, however, as he reenters the story in IV, 12–14, near Rome, where he meets Serafido and hears the story of the true identity of Persiles and Sigismunda, and then fills in Serafido on the couple’s adventures in the far north. See also Persiles IV, 8.
Ruy Pérez de Viedma. *Capitán cautivo.
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S S+clavo [nail]=esclavo [slave]. This symbol was sometimes branded on the cheeks of slaves to identify their status; the practice is also described in some detail in María de *Zayas’s story entitled “La esclava de su amante” (“The Slave of Her Lover”), the first story in Desengaños amorosos (1647; Disillusion in Love). In Viudo, Repulida jokingly says she will take this symbol of slavery in her “marriage” to the rufián Trampagos.
Saavedra. The second surname used by MC beginning in 1586 in documents relating to his marriage. Logically, he should have been called Cervantes (y) Cortinas, using his mother’s maiden name, as was the custom. None of his direct relatives had the name Saavedra, but a distant cousin, Gonzalo de *Cervantes Saavedra, whom MC knew, did, and it has been suggested that MC took the name from this relative. The name was a distinguished one, as a Saavedra family gained fame for heroism and defense of the faith on the medieval frontier between Christian and Muslim lands; in particular, a certain Juan de Saavedra from Seville was the hero of a legendary captive in the Romancero. MC seems specifically to have wanted to associate both his own captivity (recall ‘a certain Saavedra’ in DQ I, 40) and that of two of his brave theatrical captives (in Tratos and Gallardo) with the name. And when he recognized his illegitimate daughter, born in 1583, he named her Isabel de Saavedra. As is inevitable, there has been speculation about deep psychoanalytic reasons why MC chose this name, but there is no real documented or logical psychological justification for such speculation. Bibliography: Rafael Sánchez Saus, “Los Saavedra y la frontera con el reino de Granada en el siglo XV,” in Estudios sobre Málaga y el reino de Granada en el V centenario de la conquista (Málaga, Spain: Servicio de Publicaciones, Diputación Provincial de Málaga, 1987), 163–82.
Saavedra (Sayavedra). In Tratos, a Christian soldier held captive in Algiers; he is assumed to represent MC. The name is Sayavedra in some editions.
Saavedra, a certain [Tal de Saavedra]. A Spanish captive in Algiers mentioned by Ruy Pérez de Viedma in DQ I, 40. Saavedra’s bravery was universally recognized, he says, even by his cruel master Hassan Pasha, and his attempts to escape were never punished. Clearly, this is a reference to MC himself. Interestingly, however, during the years MC was in captivity, 1575– 80, he did not go by the name of Cervantes Saavedra. It was not until about 1586 that he began to use that second surname.
Saavedra de Cervantes, M. (Manuel Lugilde Huerta?). This author’s Panquijote (1906) is one of those fictions in which DQ and SP return to life in modern times. In this case, the two of them suddenly descend from heaven and find themselves near Jerez de la Frontera in Andalusia. DQ no longer dedicates himself to DT, but to the welfare of the common laborer, his ‘Ideal,’ which he calls Doña Emancipación (Lady Emancipation), who is served by a dueña named Solidaridad (Solidarity). After a series of adventures (encounters with tobacco smoking, modern firearms, and automobiles) and an opportunity to preach his new proletarian message, knight and squire are whisked off in a fantastic electric (cobaltpowered) automobile, driven by the spirit of a
Page 638 teacher whom he has met during this trip to Earth, to a location that the narrator does not reveal but that will be apparent in the (apparently never published) continuation. This is not the most inspired sequel to DQ. Bibliography: M.Saavedra de Cervantes, Panquijote (Madrid: M.Tabares, 1906).
Saavedra Fajardo, Diego de (1584–1648). Spanish diplomat and writer. A prolific and varied writer, Saavedra Fajardo’s Platonic fantasy República literaria (1655; Literary Republic) presents an interesting view of the arts in general and literature in particular. The author offers personal opinions about many of the important writers of the age, but with notable omissions, including that of MC. Bibliography: John Bowling, Diego de Saavedra Fajardo (Boston: Twayne, 1977).
Saavedra, Isabel de (1584–1652). MC’s illegitimate daughter with Ana *Franca de Rojas, the married wife of a tavern owner. In 1599 MC’s sister Magdalena (who, some suspect, was actually Isabel’s mother, an unlikely scenario) took official custody of the recently orphaned teenager. In the record of this act, Isabel is identified as the daughter of Alonso Rodríguez (husband of Ana Franca de Rojas), but she is referred to by the name of Isabel de Saavedra, and Juan de Cervantes is mentioned as her grandfather. In this way, MC indirectly recognized Isabel as his daughter. She lived with MC in Valladolid in 1604–5, and according to testimony in the *Ezpeleta case in 1605, MC’s only daughter was illiterate. In 1606 she married Diego Sanz del Aguila, of whom little is known. In 1607 she gave birth to a daughter named Isabel Sanz del Aguila y Cervantes. In 1608 Isabel’s husband died and she remarried Luis de Molina (like MC, a former captive in Algiers). During this time she was receiving moral and material support, including a house in which to live, from Juan de *Urbina (who, some suspect, was actually her father, which is also unlikely), probably her lover. Urbina, for example, paid a substantial amount as Isabel’s dowry (officially, the money was from her father, MC) when she married Molina. When baby Isabel died in 1609, Urbina broke with his lover, sparking an ugly court fight that even included a suit brought by Isabel against her own father. This seems to have been the final rupture between MC and his only child. Since Isabel left no children, MC’s line was extinguished with her death in 1652. Bibliography: Krzysztof Sliwa, “Hija y nieta de Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, Isabel de Cervantes y Saavedra e Isabel Sanz,” in Actas del VIII Coloquio Internacional de la Asociación de Cervantistas, ed. José Ramón Fernández de Cano y Martín (El Toboso, Spain: Exmo. Ayuntamiento de El Toboso, 1999), 267– 74.
Sábado [Saturday]. In Vidriera, a name used by the protagonist to refer to a New Christian, or converso (suspected of being a Jew).
Sábanas de Holanda. *Holland.
Sábato, Ernesto (1911–). Argentine novelist and dramatist. Sábato has stated that he believes DQ to be the most important work in the history of world literature. Sábato gained fame with his existential novel El túnel (1948; The Tunnel), a tale of crime and punishment. In a pivotal scene, some of the characters discuss the theory that the detective novel is the modern equivalent of the romances of chivalry in the Renaissance, and it is proposed that a modern DQ would then be a parody of detective fiction. The plot of the novel outlined, in which the detective himself is revealed to be the killer, is reminiscent both of the sort of plots perfected by Jorge Luis Borges in his famous short fictions (there is a suggestive reference to a “Georgie” during the discussion) and of the film noir. Bibliography: Ernesto Sábato, El túnel, ed. Angel Leiva (Madrid: Cátedra, 1977).
Sabea. The region of Sheba (Sabá) in Arabia, famous for producing incense and other fragrances. See Casa 3; DQ I, 31; Parnaso 4, 6; Sultana 2.
Sabean aroma [Olor sabeo]. *Sabea.
Sabinica. In Entretenida 3, a servant whose name is mentioned once.
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Sabio. *Chronicler; *Wise man.
Sabuco, Miguel (1525–ca. 1588) and Oliva (1562–ca. 1629). Spanish writers, father and daughter. The Nueva filosofía de la naturaleza del hombre (1587; New Philosophy about the Nature of Man) is a medical treatise that includes, along with a study of anatomy and medicine in general, a theory of the therapeutic power of laughter. As such, it may have been one of the theoretical sources known to MC. The book was published under the name of Doña Oliva Sabuco and she was assumed at the time to be the sole author; in fact, the popular book was often referred to simply as Doña Oliva. In his will, however, Miguel claimed that he actually wrote the book, and today the question of authorship is still in dispute. Francisco *López de Ubeda refers to Doña Oliva (and DQ, among others) in La pícara Justina, and the book’s theories are generally consistent with the concept and practice of humor in that picaresque novel.
Sacra Escritura. *Bible.
Sacred Minerva [Sacra Minerva]. In Poesías 35, the term used to describe Doña Alfonsa González, to whom MC addressed a poem in a book of the same title dedicated to her.
Sacred mountain; Sacro monte. *Parnassus.
Sacred Scripture. *Bible.
Sacripante. A Saracen king in love with the beautiful Angelica in Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso (*Mambrino’s helmet). See DQ I, 10; DQ II, 1, 4, 27.
Sacristan [Sacristán]. A resident of the village in which SP lives; he is mentioned by Teresa Panza in the letter to her husband in DQ II, 52.
Sadoc. A Jewish name mentioned in Baños 3.
Saetán. *Satan.
Sáez de Zumeta, Juan. *Sanz de Zumeta, Juan.
Sagra, Puerta de la. *Gate of la Sagra.
Sagrada Religión de San Juan de Dios. *Brothers of la Capacha.
Sagrario. A chapel in the cathedral of Toledo that contained a famous image of the Virgin, patron saint of Toledo. Christian warriors often came here to take an oath in the presence of the Virgin before going off to fight the Muslims. It is one of the points on the itinerary of the old woman pilgrim in Persiles III, 6. The others she mentions, all sanctuaries with precious images of the Virgin and/or religious relics, are the Niño de la Guardia, the Santa Verónica de Jaén, and Nuestra Señora de la Cabeza (so named for the precipice, formerly called El Cabezo, where it is located). See also Fregona.
Sailor(s) [Marinero(s)]. 1. In DQ II, 63, the crewman who announces that there is an enemy ship near the harbor during DQ’s visit to the galley. 2. In Persiles I, 2–3, the six men who take Periandro (dressed as a woman) to the barbarians’ island. 3. In Persiles I, 15, the man who announces the arrival of Mauricio’s ship to the island of the inn. 4. In Persiles II, 10, the man who tells Periandro that the captain with whom they are sailing plans to murder him in order to possess Auristela. 5. In Persiles II, 15, a member of Periandro’s crew of fishermen who is swallowed whole by the sea monster called a náufrago. In III, 1, it is stated that two sailors, not just one, were swallowed up.
Saint Acacio. In Pedro 2, a saint mentioned by Pedro de Urdemalas, posing as a blind man, as one of those whose prayer he knows.
Saint Anne [Santa Ana]. The wife of Saint Joachim and the mother of the Virgin Mary. Anne was supposed to have been married for some 20 years before Mary was born, and she is traditionally associated with marriage, motherhood, and the family. She was one of the patron saints of Madrid and, as a prototypical
Page 640 mother, has always been particularly popular with pregnant women. The festival of Saint Anne is celebrated on July 26; the holiday was established by Pope Julian II in 1510. The Calle de Santa Ana in Madrid ended just outside the gate of La Latina, an area inhabited by gypsies, where there was an altar with an image of the saint which was later removed to the Church of Santa María (*Our Lady of Almudena). The gypsies took part in the festivities celebrating the move and became frequent visitors to the church in order to continue venerating their favorite saint. See Gitanilla.
Saint Anthony [San Antón, Santo Antón] (ca. 250–ca. 350). The Egyptian founder of Christian monasticism. During the years in which he lived in solitude, fasting, and selfmortification, he was repeatedly tempted by the devil, who took various forms. See Fregona; Laberinto 3.
Saint Apolonia (third century). A Christian martyr whose teeth were pulled out before she was burned alive; thus, she is the patron saint of those who suffer from toothaches. There are a number of prayers, both standard and private, for toothaches to Saint Apolonia, and it was not uncommon to give someone your favorite prayer to her. In *Rojas’s La Celestina, a prayer to Saint Apolonia (with sexual connotations) is important in the seduction of Melibea. See DQ II, 7.
Saint Augustine [Augustinus] (354–430). Latin Church father, bishop of Hippo in North Africa. Saint Augustine is best known for his autobiographical Confessions (written 397–401) and De Civitate Dei (413–26; City of God). See DQ II, 50.
Saint Augustine, Holy Crucifix of. *Holy Crucifix of Saint Augustine.
Saint Bartholomew [San Bartolomé]. One of the 12 apostles, a martyr who was skinned alive. His name is often a symbol of suffering and sacrifice. See DQ I, 4, 31.
Saint Basil [San Basilio] (ca. 329–ca. 379). Cappadocian church father and bishop of Caesarea. See DQ I, prologue.
Saint Benedict [San Benito] (ca. 480–ca. 543). Italian monk who founded the Benedictine Order. The monks who DQ attacks in I, 8, are of this order. See also Gallardo 2.
Saint Blaise [San Bias]. Patron saint of those with throat ailments. See Rinconete.
Saint Christ [San Cristo]. In Sultana 3, the name used by Madrigal in a comic oath: “Por san Cristo” ([“I swear] by Saint Christ”).
Saint Christopher [San Cristóbal]. A legendary martyr, reputed to be of great strength, who used to carry people on his shoulders across a swift river. Once, it was believed, he carried the young Jesus across the river; thus his name, which means “Christ bearer.” Since there is no proof of the existence of such a person, he has been removed from the official list of Catholic saints. See Gitanilla.
Saint Denis [San Dionis] (third century). The patron saint of France and first bishop of Paris. For this reason, he is invoked by Roldán and one of Charlemagne’s pages in Casa 1, 3.
Saint Dominic. *Order of Saint Dominic.
Saint Elmo [Santelmo]. Patron saint of sailors and, by extension, a guide or guiding light. Saint Elmo’s Fire is the glow of static electricity sometimes seen at night and/or in a storm at the top of ships’ masts. See Entretenida 1.
Saint Francis of Assisi (Seraphic father) [San Francisco de Asís (Seráfico padre)] (1182–1226). Italian saint who founded the Franciscan order; he was particularly famous for his gentle ways and his ability to communicate with animals. The religious order he founded became one of the most popular and influential of all Christianity (*Third Order of Saint Francis). The reference to this order in DQ II, 58, also repeats the curious popular superstition that meeting a priest was a bad omen. See also Fregona; Poesías 14.
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Saint George [San Jorge] (?–ca. CE 303). Cappadocian martyr and patron saint of England. Saint George is the protagonist of several legends, including one in which he rescues a maiden by slaying a dragon. Ever since the reconquest of the city of Huesca in the eleventh century, San Jorge was also the patron saint of chivalry in the kingdom of Aragon. His festival is celebrated on April 23 (coincidentally, the date of MC’s death) and, according to DQ, there were celebrations involving chivalric jousting in the city of Zaragoza, capital of Aragon. For this reason, DQ decides (in DQ II, 4) to make this his destination when he sets out anew. He is the most genuinely chivalric of the saints discussed in terms of chivalry by DQ in II, 58. In his commentary, DQ uses the Spanish honorific don before his name. Such a practice was not uncommon in the Spanish Middle Ages. See DQ II, 58.
Saint God [San Dios]. A name used in a comic oath by Monstrenco in Pedro 2.
Saint Ignacio de Loyola [Saint Ignatius of Loyola] (1491–1556). Soldier and founder of the Jesuit Order, Loyola shared with MC a common source of inspiration: the Spanish romances of chivalry. When Loyola was recovering from serious battle wounds in 1530 he requested his favorite reading, the romances of knighterrantry. But instead he was given a life of Christ and a collection of saints’ lives, and this reading literally changed his life, inspiring his conversion to true Christianity and eventually leading to his founding of the Order of Jesus, intense study, mysticism, and organizational activities. The parallel between the secular adventure of knightserrant and the spiritual adventures of militant soldiers for Christ was an easy one for sixteenthcentury readers (like *Saint Teresa de Jesús) to make. It led to the creation of the subgenre of the chivalric romances *a lo divino; and it is reflected in DQ in SP’s proposal that the knight and squire become saintserrant in order to do good deeds and achieve heaven more surely (II, 8); and in DQ’s response that ‘Chivalry is a religion; there are sainted knights in glory,’ his assertion in his *Golden Age speech that the order of chivalry was instituted in order to carry out God’s will on earth (I, 11), and his comparison of the four figures of saints on horseback with knightserrant (II, 58). Bibliography: Philip Caraman, Ignatius of Loyola: A Biography of the Founder of the Jesuits (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1990); Georg Eickhoff, “Ignacio de Loyola entre armas y letras. Los preceptos de lectura del humanismo castellano y los Ejercicios espirituales como arte de leer,” Iberoromania 36 (1992):1–20; and José Ignacio Tellechea Idígoras, Ignatius of Loyola: The Pilgrim Saint, trans. and ed. Cornelius Michael Buckley (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1994).
Saint James the Great (Saint James the Moorslayer, Knight of the Red Cross) [Santiago (San Diego Matamoros, Caballero de la cruz bermena)] (?–ca. 44 CE). The patron saint of Spain. One of the apostles of Christ, James was martyred in Jerusalem. According to Christian legend, James’s remains were miraculously transported to Spain (a region he had evangelized) and were discovered in the year 813. They immediately became an inspiration for the Christians in their ongoing war against the Muslims. Santiago was supposedly often seen mounted on a great white horse, carrying his white shield adorned with a red cross, leading the charge against the Muslims, and trampling and slaying the enemy (though he was known as the Knight of the Red Cross, there is no connection between Saint James and the Red Cross Knight in Spenser’s Faerie Queene). The shout “Santiago y cierra España” (“Saint James and close in, Spain”; something like ‘Charge, in the name of Saint James’) became a proverbial rallying cry among the Christian soldiers. A shrine was constructed on the site of the apostle’s tomb and became a venerated destination for pilgrims throughout the Middle Ages. The great modern cathedral (constructed mostly during the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries) that now stands on the spot in the city of Santiago de Compostela, in Galicia in northwestern Spain, still contains James’s remains. In his commentary on the wooden figure of Saint James in DQ II, 58, DQ uses the Spanish honorific don be
Page 642 fore his name. Such a practice was not uncommon in the Spanish Middle Ages. See also DQ II, 4; Gallardo 2. Bibliography: Thomas D.Kendrick, St. James in Spain (London: Methuen, 1960).
Saint Jerome [San Jerónimo] (ca. 340–420). Monk and church scholar who first translated the Vulgate into Latin. The Hieronymite Order is an order of hermits named after Saint Jerome. See Vidriera.
Saint John of Jerusalem, Order of. *Order of Malta.
Saint John the Baptist [San Juan Bautista]. New Testament prophet, who announced the coming of the Messiah, and then baptized Jesus Christ. He was decapitated by Herod. His saint’s day is June 24 (*Saint John’s Eve), and in DQ II, 60, it is stated that DQ should arrive in Barcelona on that date; however, some have suggested that, in order to be somewhat more consistent with the (inconsistent) chronology of the novel, the reference may be to August 29, the date of Saint John’s decapitation. See also Viudo.
Saint John’s Eve [Noche de San Juan, Víspera de San Juan]. The night before June 24, the day celebrated as the birth of *Saint John the Baptist. It is a time of great celebration (related to preChristian solar ceremonies and fertility rites), because of the summer solstice, or midsummer, when the sun is farthest from the equator—on or about June 21 in the northern hemisphere, the longest night of the year. Saint John’s Eve is a magical night, one for lovers, superstition, and miraculous cures. A popular belief is that every body of water in the world contains a drop of the Jordan River (where John baptized Jesus) on that night, which makes the water holy and gives it special curative powers. The occasion is celebrated with bonfires, revelry, and religious ritual throughout the Hispanic world. Not infrequently it was the date of chivalric jousting, as in Barcelona (see DQ II, 61). See also Juez; Pedro 1; Persiles III, 21; Viejo.
Saint Juan de la Cruz [Saint John of the Cross] (1542–91). Spanish mystic and poet. A peasant of converso origin, Juan de Yepes was transformed by an encounter with *Saint Teresa de Jesús and became her male counterpart in the reformation of the Carmelite Order. His beautiful mystic poetry of the union of the soul with God employs the metaphoric language of sexual union. Any direct influence of the poetry of Saint Juan de la Cruz in the works of MC is slight at best. The major possible connection between the two writers comes in some of the ambiguous and suggestive details in the scene of the *dead body in DQ I, 19. Bibliography: Daniel A.Dombrowski, St. John of the Cross: An Appreciation (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992).
Saint Junco. One of the many popular (nonexistent) saints. He is cited in Elección.
Saint Justa and Saint Rufina [Santa Justa y Santa Rufina]. Virgin martyrs in Seville. Their saint’s day, July 17, is celebrated with bullfights in that city. See Rufián 1.
Saint Justo and Saint Pastor [San Justo y San Pastor]. Child martyrs who died in Complutum (*Alcalá de Henares, birthplace of MC) in the year 304. Their remains were moved from Huesca to Alcalá in 1568. See Baños 2.
Saint Lawrence [San Llorente or San Lorenzo] (?–258). A Christian martyr, burned alive in Rome. According to legend, as he was being grilled slowly, he remarked, ‘Turn me over; I’m done on this side.’ See Laberinto 1.
Saint Lucy [Santa Lucía]. Early Christian martyr, who supposedly had her eyes put out, and therefore the patron saint of those with ailments of the eyes; the name Lucía (Lucy) is from luz (light). The phrase “en la espina de Santa Lucía” (DQ II, 3) means ‘to be very thin.’ See also Guarda; Rinconete.
Saint Mario. There are various saints of this name; perhaps the most likely candidate for the
Page 643 use of the name in Rufián 3 is the one known as the Alexandrian or the Younger (306–395).
Saint Martin [San Martín] (ca. 316–397). A Roman soldier who converted to Christianity and refused to engage in combat. He became bishop of Tours and founded a monastery near the city. According to a famous legend, he once tore his cape in half in order to share it with a poor beggar and later had a vision in which Christ appeared wearing the half cape. See DQ II, 58; Gallardo 3.
Saint Mary. *Mary.
Saint Michael [San Miguel]. In the Old Testament, one of the archangels, the patron angel of Israel, and Satan’s greatest adversary (*Michaelmas). See Rinconete.
Saint Olalla. In Pedro 2, a saint mentioned by Pedro de Urdemalas, posing as a blind man, as one of those whose prayer he knows.
Saint Pancracio. In Pedro 2, a saint mentioned by Pedro de Urdemalas, posing as a blind man, as one of those whose prayer he knows.
Saint Pastor. *Saint Justo and Saint Pastor.
Saint Paul [San Pablo] (10–67 CE). A Jewish rabbi and tentmaker from Tarsus, named Saul, who was originally opposed to Christianity. But one day, as he made a journey to Damascus, he had a vision of God, fell from his horse, and converted to Christianity on the spot. Changing his name to Paul, he became the greatest of Christian evangelists. See DQ II, 58.
Saint Peter [San Pedro] (?–ca. 67). In the New Testament, a fisherman on the Sea of Galilee who became one of the 12 apostles of Jesus. His original name was Simon (Simón), and it was Jesus who gave him the name Peter (which is etymologically related to the word for stone or rock). Peter was one of the most active missionaries of the new faith and spread the word to Asia Minor and Rome, where he is considered to have been the first bishop, and therefore pope, and founder of the Christian church (the “rock” upon which the church is built). He was martyred and crucified upside down. See DQ I, 45; DQ II, 41, 53, 56, 59, 64; Elección; Persiles III, 8; Poesías 12.
Saint Peter’s Needle [Aguja de San Pedro]. An obelisk brought from Egypt and erected in the Plaza of Saint Peter in Rome. According to a popular but erroneous belief, it was intended as the recipient of the mortal remains of Julius Caesar. See DQ II, 8.
Saint Pito. One of the many popular (nonexistent) saints. See Elección; Rufián 1.
Saint Quintín. A saint mentioned in Pedro 1.
Saint Quirce. In Pedro 2, a saint mentioned by Pedro de Urdemalas, posing as a blind man, as one of those whose prayer he knows.
Saint Rufina. *Saint Justa and Saint Rufina.
Saint Sophia [Santa Sofía]. The great temple of the Eastern Orthodox Church in Constantinople. See Sultana 1, 3.
Saint Teresa de Jesús (de Avila) [Saint Teresa of Avila] (1515–82). Religious reformer, mystic, poet, and autobiographer. Saint Teresa de Avila—of converso lineage—was, like DQ, Saint Ignacio de Loyola, and Carlos V, an avid reader of romances of chivalry. According to reliable sources, at one point in her youth she and her brother Rodrigo wrote a romance of chivalry, but no trace of the book remains. Her sweeping reforms and tireless establishment of new convents in the Carmelite Order, together with accounts of her mystical experiences, won her great fame in her own time. Teresa’s Libro de la vida (1562; The Life of Saint Teresa) is the most significant autobiography written in Spain during the Renaissance. The detailed and moving description of her mystical experiences in her autobiography and as she elaborated her theory of mystical ascent and union with God in Las moradas (1577; Interior Castle), together with her other theological writings, earned her beatification in 1614 (in Zaragoza that year, in honor of Teresa,
Page 644 a DQ figure formed part of the public celebrations; in Córdoba the celebrations included a student presentation of an imagined betrothal of DQ and DT), sainthood in 1622 (in a spectacular monthlong celebration and ceremony in Madrid, during which Ignacio de *Loyola and Francisco Javier were also canonized), and eventually the status of doctor of the Church in 1970. In 1614, as part of the celebration in Madrid, MC wrote a poem (Poesías 33) for Saint Teresa, which was published the next year in a volume of poetry in her honor. Bibliography: Victor G. de la Concha, El arte literario de Santa Teresa (Barcelona: Ariel, 1978); Alison Weber, Teresa of Avila and the Rhetoric of Femininity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990); and Rowan Williams, Teresa of Avila (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1991).
Saint Thomas [Santo Tomás]. The name of a supposed international monastery on the island of Greenland, where the natives are instructed in Christianity by Europeans from four nations. MC elaborated on the already exaggerated or invented version of this monastery by *Zeno. See Persiles IV, 13.
Saint Thomas Aquinas [Santo Tomás de Aquino] (ca. 1225–1274). Philosopher and theologian whose Summa theologica best sums up the understanding of Christianity that informs Catholic dogma. See DQ I, prologue.
Saint Ursula and the 11,000 virgins [Santa Ursula y las once mil vírgenes]. Ursula was a legendary Christian princess who, together with 11,000 virgins, was supposedly killed by the Huns at Cologne in the second century CE. There is no documentation for her existence or the event, and Ursula is no longer included among the Church’s official saints. See Guarda; Rufián 2.
SaintAmant, Marc Antoine de Girard, Sieur de (1594–1661). French poet. SaintAmant was known primarily for his burlesque and bawdy poetry of taverns and featured food and drink. In addition to brief mentions of MC and DQ in several works, SaintAmant wrote a long odeepistle entitled “La chambre du débausché” (“The Wastrel’s Room”), which contains a section that evokes scenes from DQ I, from the bookburning scene of I, 6, through the adventures in Sierra Morena. It is, typically of the period, pure burlesque and farce, though entertaining enough for its genre. Bibliography: Salvador J.Fajardo, “Abjection’s Tapestry: SaintAmant’s Reading of Don Quixote,” in Echoes and Inscriptions: Comparative Approaches to Early Modern Spanish Literatures, ed. Barbara A.Simerka and Christopher B.Weimer (Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 2000), 98–107.
Saintes Maries, Les [Tres Marías, las]. A small city on the French Mediterranean coast near Marseille. See Española.
SaintEvremond, Charles de Marguetel de SaintDenis de (ca. 1615–1703). French critic and dramatist who lived much of his life in exile in England. His romance entitled Les Opéra (1678) features a protagonist named Crisotine, who is obsessed with opera; she begins to live as an opera singer and stops talking and always sings. While she sleeps, her parents and the family doctor recall the case of DQ and burn her opera scores.
SaintPol, Count of [Conde de San Polo]. A French knight mentioned by DQ in DQ I, 49 (*Crónica de Juan II).
Salamanca. The university city located northwest of Madrid and southwest of Valladolid. The university located here was founded in the thirteenth century, and, along with Paris, Oxford, and Bologna, was one of the most important centers of learning during the Renaissance. Known for its democratic structure (the students chose their professors) and intellectual independence, Salamanca was for years in the early sixteenth century a center of humanist and Erasmian thought and teaching. Theology, particularly in the work of Francisco de Vitoria and Fray Luis de León, and international law, as exemplified in the debates centered around the work of Bartolomé de *Las Casas and the rights of Native Americans, were two particularly strong areas of study at the university. Co
Page 645 pernicus was taught at Salamanca earlier than in any other university; the human body was used for dissection and experimentation; there were even some early efforts at providing higher education for women. Later, during the reign of Felipe II, the influence of the Inquisition became ever stronger, and religious orthodoxy increasingly replaced independent intellectual inquiry. A large institution, perhaps the largest in Europe, it had over 6,000 students in the late sixteenth century (in comparison, the university at Alcalá de Henares had only some 2,500 students at the same time). Salamanca was the crown jewel in the set of some 20 universities in Spain—arguably the most literate and the most cultured nation in Europe—in the sixteenth century. In Vidriera, it is where the protagonist studies for eight years and where he launches his career as a glass philosopher. See also Cornelia; Doncellas; DQ I, 12, 39; DQ II, 1–2, 7, 10, 16, 18–19, 66; Fregona; Gitanilla; Persiles III, 9–10, 19–21; Retablo; Rinconete; Vizcaíno. Bibliography: Conrad Kent, Salamanca en la edad de oro (Delaware: Ohio Wesleyan University, 1995).
Salas Barbadillo, Alonso Jerónimo de (1581–1635). Spanish satirist, novelist, and civil servant, who was probably a personal friend of MC’s. Salas, who wrote one of the approvals (which includes elaborate praise for MC) for Novelas, is one of MC’s literary inheritors who most reorients fiction, especially short fiction, toward a more courtly model. His bestknown work is the short picaresque novel La hija de Celestina (1612; The Daughter of Celestina)—also revised, expanded, and republished two years later as La ingeniosa Elena (1614; The Ingenious Helen)—one of the best efforts to make a woman the protagonist of a work in that genre. Salas’s El caballero puntual (1614; The Punctilious Gentleman) is perhaps the first prose imitation of DQ. It is, however, a weak effort in which the protagonist, Don Juan de Toledo, who calls himself a ‘gentleman adventurer of the court,’ attempts to maintain his nobility by means of picaresque deceits. Don Juan exchanges letters with DQ in order to stress the more courtly nature of the former and the more rustic or rural nature of the latter. Included within Salas’s Coronas del Parnaso y Platos de las musas (1635; Crowns of Parnassus and Dishes of the Muses) is the somewhat better prose fable “La peregrinación sabia” (“The Wise Pilgrimage”), in which two foxes, father and son, make a trip through Spain, having encounters with various other animals and commenting satirically on them and their ways. Particularly interesting is their encounter with a canine knight errant, righter of wrongs, who calls himself Florisel de Hircaña (an evocation of Melchor *Ortega’s Felixmarte de Hircania), in an episode inspired by the romances of chivalry and DQ. Salas also wrote several other collections of short fiction and novels, and was one of the bestknown and admired fiction writers in the decades immediately following MC. He is praised among the good poets in Parnaso 2. Bibliography: Leonard Brownstein, Salas Barbadillo and the New Novel of Rogues and Courtiers (Madrid: Play or, 1974); Francisco A.Cauz, La narrativa de Salas Barbadillo (Santa Fe, Argentina: Ediciones Colmegna, 1977); and Myron A.Peyton, Alonso Jerónimo de Salas Barbadillo New York: Twayne, 1973).
Salat Fornells, J. SpanishCatalan writer. Salat Fornells’s Primer libro de Sendas de Olvido o Don Quijote en tierras leridanas (1944; First Book of Paths of Forgetfulness, or Don Quixote in the Lands of Lérida) purports to be an account, based on a recovered manuscript of CHB’s, of the adventures of DQ and SP in Lérida on their way to Barcelona (presumably the action takes place between chapters 60 and 61 of DQ II). Probably the most interesting aspect of the novel is a certain metafictional play, even though it is handled inconsistently by the author. At one point DQ meets a person who informs him of the extant printed versions of his story (DQ I and DQA) and who further explains that although CHB is the supposed author of DQ I, the real author is MC. Later, DQ reads parts of DQ I and praises both the style and accuracy of the author. The book is elegantly printed and the text is in a “Gothic” font, similar to those used in early printed books.
Page 646 Bibliography: J.Salat Fornells, Primer libro de Sendas de Olvido o Don Quijote en tierras leridanas (Cervera, Spain: Artes Gráficas Prunés, 1944).
Salazar, Alonso de. Spanish author of prose fiction. Salazar is the probable author of Crónica de Lepolemo, llamado el Caballero de la Cruz, hijo del emperador de Alemania (1521; Chronicle of Lepolemo, Named the Knight of the Cross, Son of the Emperor of Germany), one of the books burned in the examination of DQ’s library in I, 6. Bibliography: Sylvia Roubaud, “Cervantes y el Caballero de la Cruz,” Nueva Revista de Filología Hispánica 38 (1990):525–66.
Salazar, Catalina de. The most common alternate name used by or in reference to MC’s wife, Catalina de *Palacios. See, for example, Pedro de Contreras’s approval to publish Persiles.
Salazar, Count of. *Velasco y Aragón, Don Barnardino de.
Salazar Palacios, Fernando de (1581–?). Brotherinlaw of MC. In 1600 he took vows in the Franciscan order and adopted the name of Fray Juan de Salazar. At that time, he left half of his possessions to his sister Catalina and named his brotherinlaw, MC, as one of his executors.
Salazar Palacios, Francisco de (1577–1652). Brotherinlaw of MC. In 1595 he was ordained a priest in Toledo; MC attended the ceremony.
Salazar Vozmediano, Hernando de (?– ca. 1585). Husband of Catalina de *Palacios and father of Catalina de Palacios, MC’s wife. He died shortly before his daughter was married.
Salcedo Villandranda, Capitán Juan de. A Spanish soldier and poet in Peru. He is referred to simply as Capitán Salcedo when he is praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Saldaña, Conde de. *Gómez de Sandoval y Rojas, Don Diego.
Salec. In Sultana, a renegade who explains Turkish customs to Roberto.
Salgó, Andrés (1909–). Mexican painter. Salgó painted a series of some 70 works around the theme of DQ in the twentieth century. Although many of the works are simply evocations of the figure of DQ (a face or bust, DQ reading, or DQ riding on Rocinante), several of them literally place him within images of very modern times: skyscrapers, gears, barbed wire, a rocket ship, and so forth. The violence and mechanization of life in these impressive canvases contrasts sharply with the traditional view of the knight of La Mancha. Bibliography: Andrés Salgó, Don Quijote en el siglo XX/Don Quixote in the XXth Century, text by Rubén Salazar Mallén (Mexico City: Editorial de los Estados, 1969).
Salieri, Antonio. *Bocherini, Giovanne Gastone.
Salinas. *Salt works.
Salinas, Conde de. *Silva y Mendoza, Don Diego de.
Salinas, Luis Omar (1937–). American Chicano poet. Salinas’s Walking behind the Spanish (1982) is primarily an evocation of and homage to some Spanish poets of the early twentieth century, especially of the time of the Civil War: García Lorca, Jiménez, Hernández, and others. But there is also an “Ode to Cervantes” in which MC’s poverty and hardship are evoked in the poet’s attempt to understand his own difficulties. And several other poems also contain references to MC, DQ, and DT. Salinas’s Nights with Cervantes (1997) includes the poem “Night with Cervantes” and continues the Spanish orientation of the earlier volume. Bibliography: Luis Omar Salinas, Darkness under the Trees; Walking behind the Spanish (Berkeley: Chicano Studies Library Publications, University of California, 1982).
Salinas, Pedro (1891–1951). Spanish poet, dramatist, and literary critic. A member of the Generation of 1927, Salinas is one of Spain’s most distinguished poets of the twentieth cen
Page 647 tury. He was also known as a great teacher and in his essays proves himself to be a subtle reader of literature. In one essay, he describes DQ’s *letter to DT (I, 25) as the most beautiful love letter in Spanish literature. In another, he comments on MC and the *theory and history of the novel by noting, ‘When I pick up a book on the novel, I go straight to the list of names in the index and if Cervantes is not among them, I don’t read the book. This is obviously not just chauvinism, but it seems to me that it unconscionable to speak about the novel as a genre and not refer to Cervantes as the father of this great world.’ Salinas’s only novel is La bomba increíble (1950; The Incredible Bomb), a meditation on evil. Throughout, works of literature, and especially DQ (which is among the works included on the ‘Social Scientific Index’ of prohibited books), play a subversive role in the futuristic totalitarian state obsessed with the destructive potential of the atomic bomb. Bibliography: John Crispin, Pedro Salinas (New York: Twayne, 1974); Andrew P.Debicki, ed., Pedro Salinas (Madrid: Taurus, 1976); and Carlos Feal Deibe, Poesía y narrativa de Pedro Salinas (Madrid: Gredos, 2000).
Salmerona. A prostitute who is mentioned but does not appear in Rufián 1–2.
Salmón. In Pedro 1, the illiterate Diego Tarugo’s mispronunciation of Salomón (Solomon); the legendary Old Testament king famous for his wise decisions. The same mistake is made by Sancho Macho in Pedro 3.
Salomón. *Solomon.
Salt works [Salinas]. The salt mines on the island of Trapani. In Amante, the gardens where Turkish pirates stage a raid and carry away the beautiful Leonisa and the generous Ricardo; they are located near the salt works.
Saltarel: Saltarello. A popular dance that had its origins in Italy. See Parnaso 2.
Salteadores. *Highwaymen; *Raiders.
Salus(t)io del Poyo, Licenciado Damián (?–1614). A wellknown dramatist praised as a poet in Parnaso 2.
Salvador, Luis. Chapel singer of Felipe II. In 1591 he set to music a poem by MC: “Dulce esperanza mía” (“My sweet hope”), sung by Don Luis to serenade Doña Clara in DQ I, 43 (MC on the popular music charts!). This fact, along with the dates suggested by the events in Capitán, and those of the books in DQ’s *library, imply a date of composition of the early 1590s for DQ I.
Salvajes. *Savages.
Salve, Salve Regina. *Four prayers.
Sambenito. A large yellow robe adorned with a red cross visible at a distance as a warning that its wearer was a heretic; for this reason, those who wore one often hid from public view. See DQ II, 6.
Samson [Sansón]. In the Old Testament, a Hebrew judge renowned for his great strength; he was the Jewish counterpart of Hercules. *Delilah learned that the secret of his strength was in his hair and cut it while he slept. His most famous feat was to topple the Philistine temple, killing many of the enemy and himself. He is a symbol of strength, integrity, and selfsacrifice. In Retablo, he is the first of the wonders who appears in the show produced by Chanfalla and Chirinos. See also DQ I, 18; DQ II, 71; Elección; Galatea 4.
San [Spanish name]. *Saint [English equivalent]. (There are two exceptions: the Spanish *Saint Juan de la Cruz and *Saint Ignacio de Loyola are listed under their Spanish names rather than their English equivalents, Saint John of the Cross and Saint Ignatius Loyola, respectively.)
San Andrés. The cemetery in the San Andrés parish of Madrid. See Guarda.
San Bernardo. An area of Seville near the slaughterhouse. See Coloquio.
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San Felipe. *Paseo de San Felipe.
San Francisco. An important plaza in Seville, where both the town hall and the magistrates court were located. See Coloquio; Rufián 1.
San Francisco, Calle de. *Calle de San Francisco.
San Ginés. *Church of San Ginés.
San Jerónimo. *Church of San Jerónimo; *Monastery of San Jerónimo.
San José, Diego (1885–1962). Spanish novelist, poet, dramatist, and journalist. San Jose’s Una vida ejemplar, o sea la vida de Ginés de Pasamonte que fue pícaro y ladrón y bogó en galeras (1916; An Exemplary Life, or, the Life of Ginés de Pasamonte who Was a Pícaro and Thief and Rowed in the Galleys) is the picaresque autobiography of the famous galley slave and autobiographer from DQ I, 22. Ginés recounts his life from birth to the point at which he writes the last installment of his life story. Along the way he has an episode as a carrier in Seville and an encounter with the crime king of that city, Monipodio (from Rinconete); his encounter with DQ (from I, 22); his meeting with Cardenio; his theft of SP’s ass; his career as the puppeteer Master Pedro; and many other adventures. The way in which San José uses, often verbatim, MC’s texts, but by a fictional narrator and in a very different context, very much recalls Jorge Luis *Borges’s famous story about Pierre Menard, author of DQ. Ginés de Pasamonte may not be a great novel, but it should be one of interest to anyone who knows DQ. Bibliography: Juan Manuel de Prada, “Tres versiones de Ginés de Pasamonte,” in Nuevas visiones del “Quijote,” ed. José Luis García Martín (Oviedo, Spain: Ediciones Nobel, 1999), 115–58; and Diego San José, Una vida ejemplar, o sea la vida de Ginés de Pasamonte que fue pícaro y ladrón y bogó en galeras (Madrid: Biblioteca Hispania, 1916).
San José, Teodoro. *Barriobero y Herrán, Eduardo.
San Juan. A neighborhood in Florence. See DQ I, 35.
San Juan de Dios, Sagrada Religión de. Brothers of la Capacha.
San Juan de Jerusalén; San Juan, Orden de. *Order of Malta; *Ruidera.
San Julián. An old district of Seville near the Macarena Gate. See Coloquio.
San Llorente, Our Lady of; San Lorenzo, Our Lady of. *Our Lady of San Llorente.
San Lorenzo de El Escorial. *Escorial. San Martín. *Martinmas.
San Martín (de Valdeiglesias). A town west of Madrid and southeast of Avila very wellknown for its wines. See Coloquio; Pedro 1; Sultana 3; Vizcaíno.
San Miguel. A fortress, also known as San Salvador, near Mazalquivir. See Gallardo 2–3.
San Miguel. *Michaelmas.
San Millán de la Cogolla. *Monastery of San Millán de la Cogolla.
San Pablo. 1. The name of a galley captured by Arnaut Mamí (who also took MC captive in 1575) in 1577. One of the soldiers taken prisoner in this encounter was Manuel de *Sousa Coutinho, who spent two years in Algiers with MC and became the model for Manuel de Sosa Coitiño in Persiles. Also captured on this occasion was Antonio de *Sosa, whose book on life in Algiers is the source of much information we have about MC’s years of captivity. 2. In Tratos 2, it is the ship on which Silvia was traveling when taken captive; her description of the ship’s capture is consistent with historical accounts of the event.
San Pablo, templo de. *Basilica of Saint Paul.
San Paulín. *Juan Paulín.
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San Pedro [San Pietro]. Island in the Mediterranean Sea near Sardinia. See Tratos 2.
San Pedro, Diego de (ca. 1437–ca. 1498). Spanish romance writer. San Pedro is best known as the author of two influential *sentimental romances, Tractado de amores de Arnalte y Lucenda (1491; Treatise on the Loves of Arnalte and Lucenda) and Cárcel de Amor (1492; Prison of Love). Both were very popular and influential, but the latter became the prototype of the genre (and may be considered the first epistolary novel in European literature, preceding those of Samuel Richardson by some two and a half centuries) and enjoyed enormous popularity both in Spain and throughout Europe, especially in France and Italy. It was, for example, published over a dozen times in France as a bilingual text and was often used in the study of the Spanish language. MC must been familiar with San Pedro’s popular works but, surprisingly, never refers or alludes to him in his own writings. Bibliography: Peter N.Dunn, “Narrator as Character in the Cárcel de Amor,” MLN 94 (1979):187–99; and Keith Whinnom, Diego de San Pedro (New York: Twayne, 1974).
San Pedro, hábito de. *Habit of Saint Peter.
San Polo, Conde de. *SaintPol, Count de.
San Román. *Church of San Román.
San Salvador. 1. An alternate name for the fortress of *San Miguel. 2. There are two plazas named San Salvador in Seville, one located to the north of the church of that name, and the other to the south. In Rinconete, it is at one of these two plazas where Rinconete and Cortadillo begin to work as carriers. 3. *Church of San Salvador.
San Sebastián. *Church of San Sebastián.
San Servando. A fourteenthcentury castle built by the Muslims just outside of Toledo, across the Tagus River. In the prologue to DQA, Avellaneda mocks MC’s age, calling him as old as the castle of San Cervantes (playing on the name). Today it has been restored and serves as a university residence and youth hostal.
San Telmo. A hermitage in Seville, located next to the Guadalquivir River. See Rinconete.
Sanazaro. *Sannazaro, Jocopo.
Sancha. *Sanchica.
Sancha, Doña. In Spanish medieval legend, the evil aunt of the seven Infantes of Lara. See DQ II, 60.
Sancha Redonda. In Pedro 3, the deceased daughter of Marina Sánchez; Pedro de Urdemalas, in disguise as a pilgrim, promises, for the right price, to pray for her soul.
Sánchez de Carranza, Jerónimo. *Carranza, Jerónimo Sánchez de.
Sánchez de Enciso, Mariano. Spanish novelist. Sánchez de Enciso’s Don Quijote en América (Escenas de la andante españolería) (1913; Don Quixote in America [Scenes of Spanish Errantry]) is the story of a very slightly quixotic Basque named lavier de Mendiburu who goes first to Cuba and then to Mexico, where he gets involved in armed political conflict. He finds his DT, a Creole named Nela, who is, unfortunately, killed by a stray bullet. The novel has none of the humor or irony of MC’s original. Bibliography: Mariano Sánchez de Enciso, Don Quijote en América (Madrid: Imprenta HispanoAlemana, 1913).
Sánchez de las Brozas, Francisco (El Brocense) (1523–1600). Poet, humanist, professor of Greek and rhetoric at the University of Salamanca, and friend of Fray Luis de León. Among his most important works is an annotated edition (1574) of the poetry of *Garcilaso de la Vega. El Brocense’s wellknown dictum that a good poet necessarily imitates the best of the ancients is the implicit source for DQ’s disquisition on *imitation in I, 25. He is praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
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Sánchez (de Villanueva), Doctor Francisco (1581–1658). Royal preacher and later bishop of the Canary Islands. He is mentioned as one of the six religious poets on Parnassus in Parnaso 4.
Sánchez, Miguel (ca. 1545–ca. 1616). Spanish poet and dramatist, sometimes referred to as el Divino (the Divine). Very little is known of this significant precursor of Lope de *Vega. MC cites him as an important figure in the development of the Spanish theater in the prologue to Comedias and praises him as a poet in Parnaso 2. He is the author of a play entitled La guarda cuidadosa (ca. 1615), which shares only the title with MC’s Guarda. Bibliography: Vern G.Williamsen, “El teatro de Miguel Sánchez, el Divino,” in Actas del Sexto Congreso Internacional de Hispanistas, ed. Alan M. Gordon and E.Rugg (Toronto: University of Toronto, 1980), 803–7.
Sánchez Rojas, José (1885–1931). Spanish writer. Sánchez Rojas is the author of an interesting early book about women in the works of MC: Las mujeres de Cervantes (1916; Cervantes’s Women). The book is less a critical study than a meditation—reminiscent of Azorín or Unamuno—on a number of MC’s female characters. Sánchez Rojas describes his subjects; imaginatively fills in aspects of their lives, their histories, and their psychology; and at times speculates on their fate after they disappear from the pages of MC’s fictions. There are several chapters on women from Novelas and DQ, and only briefer consideration of characters from Galatea or Persiles (a note following the text informs the reader that the author could not finish the book as commissioned and so the chapters on DQ’s housekeeper, DT, the women of Galatea, and Auristela of Persiles were written by others). So, in the Sánchez Rojas’s version, we learn about *Maritornes’s child and about *Dorotea’s reading of the chapters about herself in DQ I years after the events described there. DQ’s niece, *Antonia, is described at some length as representative of an illiterate, unimaginative, ignorant type of woman common (according to the author) in Spain, who, years after DQ dies, marries and has a dozen children. An interesting and littleknown original mixture of commentary and fiction, Sánchez Rojas’s book perhaps does not deserve the oblivion into which it has fallen. Bibliography: José Sánchez Rojas, Las mujeres de Cervantes (Barcelona: Montaner y Simón, 1916).
Sánchez Torrentó, Eugenio. Cuban exiled poet. Sánchez Torrentó’s brief book of poetry entitled Rocinante gordo (1972; Fat Rocinante) contains a short poem, “Los caminos sin caminos” (“Roads without Roads”), in which a fat Rocinante, a DQ who sells balloons in the park, and a puppet show about Montesinos are briefly evoked. Bibliography: Eugenio Sánchez Torrentó, Rocinante gordo (Valencia, Spain: Artes Gráficas Soler, 1972).
SánchezCastañer, Francisco. Spanish literary critic. In 1948 SánchezCastañer staged his adaptation of Numancia in the Roman Theater of Sagunto, in the wake of the 400th anniversary of MC’s birth. It was the most successful and longestrunning presentation of the work of all time. He also edited an extensive collection of poetry about MC (*Cervantes in poetry).
Sanchica (Mari Sancha, Marica, Sancha). The daughter of SP and Teresa Panza. In DQ II, 5, her parents argue over whether she should marry above her station if and when SP becomes a governor. In II, 50, she receives the page who brings letters from SP and the duchess; at that time she is described as being about 14 years of age and she says that she cannot read. See also DQ II, 49, 52, 67, 73.
Sanchico. The 15yearold son of SP and Teresa, who never appears in DQ and is mentioned only in II, 5, where it is suggested that he might study for the priesthood.
Sanchificación [Sanchification]. *Quixotization and sanchification.
Sancho. A generic name mentioned in Entretenida 2.
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Sancho Bienaya (Minaya). A small commercial square or plaza in Toledo, mentioned in DQ I, 3.
Sancho de Azpetia, Don. In DQ I, 9, the name of the *Basque squire with whom DQ battles, according to the newly purchased manuscript of CHB. Azpetia is a small town located east and slightly south of Bilbao and southwest of Donostia (San Sebastián).
Sancho de Cárdenas, Don. In Doncellas, the father of Leocadia, who is about to do battle with the father of Marco Antonio in defense of his daughter’s honor when the happily married couples arrive home.
Sancho de Cardona, Don. In Doncellas, the Catalan nobleman who provides a residence and other assistance to the main characters; it is in his home that the lovers are finally united and make their marriage vows.
Sancho, Don. *Clemente.
Sancho Macho. In Pedro 1, one of the aldermen of Junquillos.
Sancho Manjón. In Pedro 3, the deceased uncle of Marina Sánchez; Pedro de Urdemalas, in disguise as a pilgrim, promises, for the right price, to pray for his soul.
Sancho Panza. First mentioned, though not by name, in DQ I, 4, SP makes his appearance in I, 7, where he is described as a peasant who is a good man but with ‘little salt in his mill’ (i.e., not very smart). The literary origins of the character of SP are in the medieval and Renaissance folkloric and carnivalesque traditions, the buffoons of Roman theater, and the wise fool. SP’s role in DQ is largely to be reality instructor to DQ, as well as to provide comic relief, beginning with his name (*name of Sancho Panza). The way in which he makes DQ talk about things other than knighterrantry, prosaic things like eating and drinking, also very subtly serves to undermine DQ’s chivalric mission. That SP grows in selfconfidence, worldly wisdom, and moral stature throughout the course of the novel (a process sometimes called *quixotization) seems clear. In DQ II, he speaks more frequently than DQ, achieves success while DQ goes into decline, and survives the novel as a generally positive figure. SP’s more memorable moments in DQ I include his role as reality instructor in the windmill scene (I, 8); his illness after drinking the balm of Fierabrás and his blanketing (I, 17), the moment of his greatest humiliation and the scene he constantly brings up to DQ; his pathetic plea to DQ not to leave him on the night of the fulling mills (I, 20), followed by his tying the legs of Rocinante, his comic tale of Torralba, and the scatological scene when he has to ‘do what no one else could do for him,’ all in the same chapter; his inability to recall the letter written by DQ to DT when he meets the priest and barber (I, 26); his accusation that the priest and barber have acted out of envy in pretending to enchant DQ (I, 47), his quixotic defense of DQ; and his frustration when he cannot help DQ in the fight with Eugenio (I, 52). In DQ II, SP’s important scenes are even more substantive: his conversation with DQ and Sansón Carrasco (II, 3–4), his role in convincing DQ to make a third sally (II, 4), his conversation with his wife Teresa (II, 5), his enchantment of DT (II, 10), his conversation with the squire of the Caballero del Bosque (II, 13), his placing of the curds in DQ’s helmet just before the encounter with the lion (II, 17), his enjoyment of the feast at Camacho’s wedding (II, 20), his braying episode that leads to a beating (II, 27), his negotiation with DQ for a fixed salary (II, 28), his presentation of DQ to the duchess (II, 30), his acceptance of the duchess’s statement that DT really was enchanted (II, 33), his comic exchange of absurd superlatives with the Countess Trifaldi (II, 38), his ride into the heavenly spheres on Clavileño (II, 41), his wise judgments on his first day as governor (II, 45), his scene with the physician who refuses him to eat any of the sumptuous meal set before him (II, 47), his renunciation of his governorship (II, 53), his encounter with his exneighbor Ricote (II, 54), his fall into the dark pit (II, 55), his fight with DQ (II, 60), his ruse to avoid lashing himself (II, 71), his symbolic “rescue” of DT
Page 652 upon entry into their home village (II, 73), and his sorrowful presence during DQ’s death scene (II, 74). See also Parnaso 2. Bibliography: Anthony J.Close, “Sancho Panza: Wise Fool,” Modern Language Review 68 (1973): 344–57; R.M.Flores, Sancho Panza through Three Hundred Seventyfive Years of Continuations, Imitations, and Criticism, 1605–1980 (Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 1982); Howard Mancing, “La retórica de Sancho Panza,” in Actas del Séptimo Congreso de la Asociación Internacional de Hispanistas, ed. Giuseppe Bellini (Rome: Bulzoni Editore, 1982), 717–23; Francisco Márquez Villanueva, “Sobre la génesis literaria de Sancho Panza,” Anales Cervantinos 12 (1958):123–55; Mauricio Molho, “Raíz folklórica de Sancho Panza,” Cervantes: Raíces folklóricas (Madrid: Credos, 1976), 217–355; and Eduardo Urbina, El sin par Sancho Panza: parodia y creación (Barcelona: Anthropos, 1991).
Sancho Panza en su ínsula (ca. 1800; Sancho Panza on His Island). An anonymous sainete (oneact sketch, usually comic and with music) based on François *Philidor’s Sancho Pança dans son Isle. It has the same love relationship with a woman named Julieta and the same confrontation with SP’s rival for her affections.
Sancho Panza, Señor don. The title by which his ‘subjects’ on Barataria want to call SP, but he refuses to acknowledge the title that he, as a peasant, does not deserve (*Don, doña). See DQ II, 45, 47, 50.
Sancho Panza’s daughter. *Sanchica.
Sancho Panza’s son. *Sanchico.
Sancho Tenorio, Don. In Persiles III, 5, the brother of Feliciana de la Voz. Upon recognizing Feliciana’s beautiful voice in the monastery of Guadalupe, he and his father want to kill her and avenge the family’s honor, but they are prevented from doing this and consent to her marriage to her lover Rosanio.
Sancho Zancas. In DQ I, 9, a name given to SP in the newly purchased manuscript of CHB. Supposedly this name is used at times throughout the manuscript, but it is never again mentioned in the translated and edited version we read.
Sancho’s blanketing [Manteamiento de Sancho]. In DQ I, 17, after DQ leaves the inn without paying, SP attempts to do the same, but he is taken by several of the men there and tossed in a blanket, ‘like they do with dogs during carnival season.’ This is the greatest single humiliation SP ever suffers, literally being dehumanized and treated like a dog, and he brings it up repeatedly to DQ when things are going bad and/or when he wants to return home (e.g., in I, 18, 19, 21, 46; II, 3). It is a defining moment in the novel for the longsuffering squire. See also DQ II, 3.
Sancho’s father [Padre de Sancho]. He is referred to in DQ II, 13.
Sancho’s judgments [Juicios de Sancho]. SP’s three judicial decisions made during his first day as governor of Barataria (DQ II, 45). All three cases—involving fingersized caps made by a tailor, a man hiding money in a hollow walking stick, and a false rape charge—have origins in folk culture. SP amazes everyone by his Solomonlike wisdom, but in fact all three cases are custommade for a clever man of the people like SP.
Sancho’s proverbs. One of the defining characteristics of SP is his use of *proverbs, sometimes in lengthy strings, and frequently with little or no relation to the subject at hand. This feature of his discourse has clear roots in folklore and popular culture. SP’s first proverb is uttered at the end of the episode of the dead body in I, 19: ‘Let the dead go to their grave, while the living go for bread.’ This sentiment is echoed in II, 74, when DQ dies and the narrator comments that even while grieving, the niece, housekeeper, and SP continue to eat, drink, and enjoy life.
Sanchuelo. Diminutive of Sancho, used by DQ in addressing SP in DQ I, 37.
Sanders, Brett Alan. American schoolteacher. Sanders, a Spanish teacher, read and
Page 653 enjoyed DQ in graduate school and has incorporated it into his life. He describes his very brief book Quixotics (1990) as a collection of “snippets,” in imitation of Ortega y Gasset’s meditations on DQ. Bibliography: Brett Alan Sanders, Quixotics (Leopold, IN: Kroessman Press, 1990).
Sandoval y Rojas, Don Bernardo, Cardinal (1546–1618). Archbishop of Toledo, primate of Spain, president of the Supreme Council of the Inquisition, uncle of Francisco Gómez de *Sandoval y Rojas, duke of Lerma (the privado of King Felipe III), and a member of the family of the count of *Lemos—clearly one of the most powerful and influential men of his time. He occupied a central position in the circle of wealthy and influential protectors and supporters of MC. He is mentioned in the prologue of DQ II and by the student who talks with MC in the prologue of Persiles. Bibliography: Rafael Láinez Alcalá, Don Bernardo de Sandoval y Rojas, protector de Miguel de Cervantes (1546–1618) (Salamanca, Spain: Anaya, 1958).
Sandoval y Rojas, Don Francisco Gómez de, Duke of Lerma (1553–1625). The *privado or valido (favorite) of Felipe III and the most powerful man in Spain in the early seventeenth century. The frivolous and disinterested king turned virtually every aspect of government over to this intelligent and ambitious courtier. The duke of Lerma took full advantage of his power to enrich himself and his family. Two of the most notable events during his period of ascendancy were the temporary moving of the royal court from Madrid to Valladolid in 1601 and then back to Madrid in 1606, and the expulsion of the *Moriscos in 1609–11. He is alluded to, but not mentioned by name, in the discussion of the Moriscos in Persiles III, 11. It is in the latter capacity that he is alluded to as the ‘new Atlas’ (nuevo Adlante) in Persiles III, 11. Bibliography: Antonio Feros, El Duque de Lerma: realeza y privanza en la España de Felipe III (Madrid: Marcial Pons, 2002).
Sangián (San Julián). The fortress in Lisbon where the pilgrims are received upon their arrival in Europe. See Persiles III, 1, 6.
Sangre de Cristo. A stairway leading up from the Plaza de Zocodover to the Plaza de Carmen in Toledo. See Fregona.
Sanlúcar (de Barrameda). A small Atlantic port city located at the mouth of the Guadalquivir River, northwest of Cádiz and south and slightly west of Seville. Today Sanlúcar is most famous as the only place where manzanilla (a superb type of very dry sherry) is made. In MC’s day it was a reputed haunt of criminals and pícaros and was also the point of departure for Columbus’s third voyage to the New World. See Celoso; DQ I, 2–3; Rufián 2.
Sannazaro, Jacopo (1458–1530). Italian (of Spanish heritage) humanist and author. His pastoral romance La Arcadia (1504) was the inspiration and model for all subsequent *pastoral romances. Translated into Spanish in 1549, it was a direct source for Jorge de *Montemayor and all other Spanish writers of pastoral romances, including MC. MC mentions him by his pseudonym Sincero in Parnaso 7. See also DQ II, 74.
Sans Falguera, Pedro. Spanish writer. Sans Falguera conceived the idea of a film version of DQ in his youth, and the idea stayed with him through the years and multiple readings of MC’s novel. The result was El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha (1958, expanded from an earlier, briefer, theatrical version with the same title in 1945, in which MC was listed as coauthor—and with good reason, for most of the dialogue is directly from the pages of DQ), which was performed in the theater in 1956. The work is a standard hodgepodge of scenes from DQ II, beginning with the visit of the priest and barber to DQ’s house after his onemonth convalescence following his second sally (i.e., following DQ I), and with emphasis placed on the stay at the palace of the duke and duchess and SP’s governorship. Bibliography: Sans Falguera, Pedro El ingenioso
Page 654 hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha (Tortosa: Miguel Arimany, 1967).
Sansón. *Samson.
Sansón Carrasco. After DQ and SP, the most important character in DQ II (unless CHB might have that honor). His first name, which suggests the strength and integrity of the biblical Samson, is clearly ironic. He is first mentioned by SP in II, 2, as having just returned from Salamanca as a graduate, and then comes to visit and talk with DQ in II, 3– 4. The long conversation among Sansón, DQ, and SP about the publication of DQ I by CHB and the nature of that book—a brilliant scene without precedent in literature—is, perhaps, the metafictional highlight of the entire novel. Sansón offers himself as DQ’s squire on a third sally and then, when this is rejected, sees the knight and squire off as they depart anew (II, 7); he is described as very much of a clown and jester in this scene. He sets out as the Knight of the Mirrors in an attempt to defeat DQ in the guise of a knighterrant and make him return home again, and has a long conversation with DQ before the two do battle that, incongruously, DQ wins (II, 12–14). His defeat prompts Sansón to swear to come after DQ again, but motivated more by revenge than altruism (II, 15); Sansón appears to consider himself a true rival to his more famous neighbor. After SP sends his wife a letter from Barataria where he is governor (II, 50), Sansón learns of the whereabouts of DQ and again departs to make him return home. Dressed as the Knight of the White Moon, he catches up with DQ in Barcelona, challenges him, and defeats him, making him promise to return home and practice no chivalry for a period of one year (II, 64–65). Finally, he is with DQ when the knight makes his will and prepares to die (II, 74), constantly encouraging DQ to get well and carry out his plan of living like a shepherd from a pastoral romance; when DQ dies, he composes a burlesque epitaph for his grave. Sansón takes over much of the role of the priest and barber from DQ I. He is the first character who has read the text of DQ’s adventures and uses his knowledge gained from that reading to manipulate him. From the beginning, he is described as a funloving jokester, and DQ, SP, and, later, Teresa Panza, are all wary of him. He supposedly feels sorry for his poor, mad friend and wants to help him, but it seems clear that he is also envious of DQ’s achievements. After he defeats DQ in Barcelona, Sansón tells Don Antonio Moreno and others from that city that he has been more moved than anyone else to help the poor mad hidalgo, a selfserving version that is less than truthful. The names he assumes are obviously symbolic: Knight of the Mirrors (facing reality; seeing yourself as you are) and Knight of the White Moon (the moon is a cold, pale, inert body, unlike the lifegiving sun, and it often symbolizes death and/or madness/lunacy). See also DQ II, 8, 16, 28, 33, 38, 52, 56, 66–67, 70, 73. Bibliography: Randolph D.Pope, “Especulaciones sobre el ajedrez, Sansón Carrasco y Don Quijote,” Anales Cervantinos 20 (1982):29–47, Carlos Romero, “La invención de Sansón Carrasco,” in Actas del II Coloquio Internacional de la Asociación de Cervantistas (Barcelona: Anthropos, 1991), 27–69; and Pierre L.Ullman, “An Emblematic Interpretation of Sansón Carrasco’s Disguises,” in Estudios literarios de hispanistas norteamericanos dedicados a Helmut Hatzfeld con motivo de su ochenta anivarsario, ed. Josep M.SolàSolé, Alessandro Crisafulli, and Bruno Damiani (Barcelona: Hispam, 1974), 223–38.
Sansonino. In DQ II, 67, a pastoral name DQ suggests for Sansón Carrasco.
Sansueña. In the Spanish ballad tradition, the Muslim name (from the French Sansoigne) of the city of *Zaragoza. See DQ II, 26.
Santa [Spanish name]. *Saint [English equivalent]. (There is one exception: the Spanish *Saint Teresa de Jesús is listed under her Spanish name rather than their English equivalent, Saint Teresa of Avila.)
Santa Bárbara, campos de. *Fields of Santa Bárbara.
Santa Clara. *Monastery of Santa Clara.
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Santa Cruz, Don Alonso. Spanish physician and writer. Santa Cruz, court physician, wrote a treatise on melancholy that was not published until after MC’s death, but which MC could well have known, as both men lived in Valladolid in the years 1604–06. Included in the treatise is the story of a man named Gaspar *Barth who believed he was made of glass and was afraid to let anyone touch him. The parallel with Vidriera is obvious, and this could well have been a source, or an inspiration, for MC’s story.
Santa Cruz, Marqués de. *Bazán, Don Alvaro de.
Santa Cruz, Melchor de (1520–80). Spanish writer. Santa Cruz was above all a folklorist and anthologist. His extremely popular Floresta española de apotegmas, o sentencias sabia y graciosamente dichas de algunos españoles (1574; Spanish Collection of Apothegms, or Wise and Witty Maxims Said by Various Spaniards) was a source of popular culture for many writers, most probably including MC.
Santa Cruz, Monasterio de. *Monastery of Santa Cruz.
Santa Escritura. *Bible.
Santa Hermandad. *Holy Brotherhood.
Santa Hermandad Vieja. *Old Holy Brotherhood.
Santa Iglesia Católica Romana; Santa Iglesia; Santa Madre Iglesia. *Roman Catholic Church.
Santa Inquisición. *Inquisition.
Santa Liga. *Holy League.
Santa María de las Cuevas, Monastery of. *Monastery of Santa María de las Cuevas.
Santa María, Iglesia de. *Our Lady of Almudena.
Santa María la Mayor. *Church of Santa María la Mayor.
Santa Paula. A Hieronymite convent north of the city of Seville, at the end of the Calle de Santa Paula. It is thought that MC had two cousins who were nuns in this convent. In Española, it is where Isabel’s cousin is a nun.
Santa Sofía, Abad de. *Abbot of Santa Sofía.
Santa Ursula y las once mil vírgenes. *Saint Ursula and the 11,000 virgins.
Santa Verónica de Jaén. *Sagrario.
Santángel [Sant’Angelo]. A famous round fortress on the Tiber River in Rome. It was originally constructed as a burial place for the emperor Hadrian and was known as the Moles Hadriani. See DQ II, 8.
Santelmo. 1. A fortress in Naples. See Parnaso 8. 2. *Saint Elmo.
Santiago. *Saint James the Great.
Santiago, Calle de. *Calle de Santiago.
Santiago de Compostela. The cathedral located in the city of that name in Galicia, south of La Coruña, in far northwestern Spain. According to legend, the remains of the apostle *Saint James the Great (San Diego, Sant Yago, Santiago) were discovered at this location in the ninth century. Not long after that, the saint himself began to sally forth to lead Christian forces against the Muslims, thus earning the name Santiago Matamoros (the MoorSlayer) and becoming the patron saint of Spain. By the eleventh century, the fame of Santiago and his shrine acquired particular status throughout Christendom, especially after Jerusalem fell to the Turks. The shrine became the destination for millions of pilgrims throughout the world, and the route across northern Spain used by these travelers became known as the Ruta (or Camino) de Santiago (Way of Saint James). In Doncellas, the main characters make a pilgrimage to the city and the temple. See also Cornelia; Galatea 5.
Santiago, Orden de. *Order of Santiago.
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Santidad. *Pope.
Santísima Trinidad, Orden de la. *Order of the Most Holy Trinity.
Santísimo Sacramento. *Holy Sacrament.
Santisteban. 1. In Cornelia, the page who serves the two Spaniards, Don Juan de Gamboa and Don Antonio de Isunza. 2. In Sultana 1, a Christian captive freed by the spy Andrea.
Santisteban Osorio, Don Diego de (Don Diego Osorio). Spanish poet who wrote a sequel to Ercilla’s La Araucana (1597). He is praised, under the name of Don Diego Osorio, in Calliope’s song in Gitanilla VI.
Santo Agustín, Santo Crucifijo de. *Holy Crucifix of Saint Augustine.
Santo Antón. *Saint Anthony.
Santo Concilio. *Council of Trent.
Santo Crucifijo de Santo Agustín. *Holy Crucifix of Saint Augustine.
Santo Domingo, Order of. *Order of Saint Dominic.
Santo monasterio. *Monastery of Belem.
Santo Nuflo. A saint of popular culture whose name has been identified either with a famous hermit, or with Saint Onofre, an Egyptian monk of the fourth century. See Gallardo 1.
Santo Oficio. *Inquisition.
Santo Tomás (de Aquino). *Saint Thomas Aquinas.
Santos. A fortress in Oran. See Gallardo 3.
Sanz de Portillo, Andrés. A littleknown poet praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Sanz de Zumeta, Juan (ca. 1533–?). Spanish poet praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Sanz del Aguila, Diego (?–ca. 1608). The first husband of Isabel de *Saavedra, MC’s daughter.
Sanz del Aguila y Cervantes, Isabel (1607–9). The only child of Isabel de *Saavedra, MC’s daughter.
Saquiel. In Rufián 3, the demon (the name is MC’s invention) from the underworld who, in the form of a bear, tries to tempt Fray Cristóbal de la Cruz but who is driven back by the monk’s steadfast belief.
Sarah [Sarra]. In the Old Testament, the wife of Abraham and mother of Isaac; who lived to the age of 110. See Galatea 3.
Sarao de damas. *Ladies’ dancing party.
Sardanapalo. *Asurbanipal.
Sardinia [Cerdeña]. An Italian island in the Mediterranean Sea, located south of Corsica. See Tratos 2.
Sardou, Victorien (1831–1908). French dramatist. Sardou was a popular dramatist in the second half of the nineteenth century. Among his works is a play entitled Don Quichotte (1864).
Sargel. *Shershel.
Sarmiento de Valladares, Licenciado Don Juan. Magistrate of Seville beginning in 1598 (*Sauceda, La). See Coloquio.
Sarmiento y Carvajal, Don Diego de. Possibly Diego de Carvajal, a Spanish administrator in Peru. He is praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Sarna. In DQ I, 12, Pedro’s mispronunciation, meaning ‘itch,’ of the name *Sarah (Sara, often pronounced Sarra), the wife of Abraham.
Sarra. *Sarah.
Sarria, Juan de. A bookseller who, in 1605, shipped some 72 copies of DQ I from Seville to his son in Puertobello, Panama, who then
Page 657 took them to Lima, Peru, by June of the following year.
Sartre, JeanPaul (1905–80). French philosopher, novelist, and dramatist. Sartre’s best novel, La nausée (1938; Nausea), in which the realityappearance theme is prominent, includes a very quixotic character in Anny, with her theory of ‘privileged situations’ and ‘perfect moments,’ who creates roles, plays them well, relives them over and over: “I live in the past. I take everything that has happened to me and arrange it. From a distance like that, it doesn’t do any harm, you’d almost let yourself be caught in it. Our whole story is fairly beautiful. I give it a few prods and it makes a whole string of perfect moments. Then I close my eyes and try to imagine that I’m still living inside it. I have other characters, too…. You have to concentrate. Do you know what I read? Loyola’s Spiritual Exercises. It has been quite useful for me. There’s a way of first setting up the background, then making characters appear. You manage to see.” Anny “sees” in the way that DQ sees the giants in the windmills or the knightserrant in the armies of sheep.
Sassoferrato, Bartolo de [Bártulo] (1313–57). Italian lawgiver. His work established the bases of judicial science until well into the eighteenth century. See Elección.
Sastre, Alfonso (1926–). Spanish novelist, essayist, and dramatist. Sastre’s play El viaje infinito de Sancho Panza (1984; Sancho Panza’s Infinite Voyage) begins with the death of DQ, SP’s attempted suicide, and his being tossed in a blanket. Then the scene shifts to a madhouse in Ciudad Real, where SP is confined. In a long conversation with a psychiatrist named Pedro Recio, SP criticizes the published version by Miguel de Cerpontes (or Cervantes, it isn’t clear), according to which the mad DQ recruited SP as his squire. In fact, SP explains, he was the one who was fond of reading romances of chivalry and who first suggested to DQ that the latter become a knighterrant. SP dreamed that DQ set out as a knight, with SP as his squire. He had to convince DQ that he was no ordinary smalltown hidalgo, but a famous knighterrant. It turned out that DQ had also had similar dreams, but since he did not really know chivalry well, it never occurred to him that the dreams might be significant. During their adventures it is DQ who sees windmills, and SP who convinces him that they are giants; in general, DQ often has to turn to SP for encouragement and advice on how to act as a knighterrant. After DQ’s defeat by Sansón Carrasco, he returns home and dies, and SP is placed in the mental institution. The majority of the play simply consists of the acting out of scenes from DQ. Bibliography: Farris Anderson, Sastre (New York: Twayne, 1971); and Alfonso Sastre, El viaje infinito de Sancho Panza (Hondarrabia, Spain: Argitaletxe, 1991).
Satan (the devil) [Satanás (Saetán, el diablo)]. In Christian theology, the devil; the great enemy of human kind and of goodness itself. Satan is usually identified with *Lucifer, the leader of the fallen angels who was cast out of heaven by the Archangel *Michael. Satan is particularly prominent in MC’s saint’s play, Rufián, where he and his agents are major characters, tempting the protagonist and railing against the power of belief in God. See also Baños 3; Celoso; Coloquio; DQ I, 5, 25, 30, 35; 37; DQ II, 11, 17, 22, 33, 40, 45; Entretenida 1; Gallardo 3; Gitanilla; Guarda; Pedro 2–3; Persiles III, 21; Rufián 1–2; Tratos 3; Vidriera; Viejo.
Satan’s housekeeper. *Housekeeper.
Saturn [Saturno]. An allusion to the archbishop of Toledo, Cardinal Bernardo de Sandoval y Rojas, in a ballad sung by Preciosa in Gitanilla.
Satyrs [Sátiros, Silvanos]. 1. Mythological creatures who inhabited the forests. See DQ I, 25–26. 2. In Casa 3, two characters who drag Angélica across the stage and apparently kill her, but they are merely a vision.
Sauceda, La. An area next to the town of Cortes de la Frontera in the mountains south
Page 658 west of Ronda and north of Gibraltar. In the latter part of the sixteenth century, it was a haven for criminals and bandits. In 1590 Felipe II issued a pardon for those who took refuge there. It was not destroyed by Don Juan *Sarmiento de Valladares, as stated in Coloquio.
Savage Academy. *Academia del Parnaso.
Savages [Salvajes]. 1. In Casa 1, two figures dressed in green ivy who guide the palfrey ridden by Angélica la Bella in her first entrance. 2. In DQ II, 20, four men wearing green ivy who pull the Castle of Caution as a part of the celebration of *Camacho’s wedding. 3. In DQ II, 41, four of the duke’s servants, dressed in green ivy, who bring in the figure of the wooden horse Clavileño.
Savater, Fernando (1947–). Spanish philosopher, journalist, and general man of letters. In his Criaturas del aire (1979; Creatures of the Air), Savater presents 31 imaginative monologues by fictional characters, including DT. Talking as Aldonza, she acknowledges that she has had sex with many of the men of El Toboso and nearby towns; she has none of those qualities ascribed to virtuous, idealized ladies. That is why she was surprised one day when a local peasant, named SP, came to inform her that a knighterrant loved her from afar under the name of DT and that he was waiting outside the city in hopes that he might meet her. During the conversation, DT and SP become increasingly comfortable with each other, and the talk drifts away from DQ. Before he leaves to return to his master, SP also engages in sex with Aldonza. When she suggests that the knight might also want to enjoy the same favors, SP quickly leaves, calling her DT. Bibliography: Fernando Savater, Criaturas del aire (Barcelona: Planeta, 1979).
Sayago. There are several towns with Sayago as part of their name in the Sayago valley (*Sayago peasant).
Sayago peasant [Sayagués, villana de Sayago]. A person from the Sayago valley, in northwestern Spain, more or less along the border between the modern provinces of Zamora and Salamanca. People from that area had long been stereotyped as being crude and ignorant, speaking a harsh, rustic, ungrammatical dialect; as such, they were stock characters in the theater. (The very name Sayago is probably a corruption of Santiago.) In DQ II, 19, a contrast is made between the Sayagan dialect and the Spanish spoken by someone from Toledo, traditionally (along with Valladolid) cited as the place where the finest Castilian Spanish is spoken. In DQ II, 32, DQ compares DT in her enchanted form with a peasant from this part of the country. See also Fregona. Bibliography: Charlotte Stern, “Sayago and sayagués in Spanish History and Literature,” Hispanic Review 24 (1961):217–37.
Sayavedra. *Saavedra.
Scaevola, Gaius Mucius [Mucio]. A legendary Roman soldier who, when captured and threatened with death, held his hand in fire in order to prove that he was indifferent to pain. See DQ II, 8; Parnaso 6.
Scaparro, Maurizio. *Azcona, Rafael.
Scarron, Paul (1610–60). French poet and novelist. Scarron’s Roman comique (1651–57; The Comical Romance), a tale of the adventures of a group of itinerant actors, draws strongly from both the Spanish picaresque novel and DQ. The burlesque quixotic dwarf lawyer named Ragotin, who wants to become an actor, is made fun of, repeatedly beaten, and made the object of cruel practical jokes, and finally drowns. In some aspects of narrative technique (the game of sources for the “true history,” humorous chapter titles, and embedded narratives), Scarron’s work recalls MC’s novel, which is explicitly praised and implicitly set up as a model: “If a man could write as good novels in French, as those of Miguel de Cervantes, they would soon be as much in vogue as ever heroic romances have been.” An important and influential comic scene, clearly derived from the events in DQ I, 16–17, takes place in an inn and anticipates the comic inn scenes of Joseph *Fielding; in fact, Scarron is an important
Page 659 link between MC and Fielding, one that supplements Fielding’s direct inspiration by MC. Scarron was one of the first writers outside of Spain to see the comic and satiric potential of DQ when transported to other contexts. His superficial and burlesque treatment of the theme of quixotism is a reflection of the nearly universal understanding of MC’s novel at the time. His burlesque play entitled Le faux Alexandre (The False Alexander), which survives only in a fragment, is about a quixotic Jodelet whose reading leads him to believe that he is Alexander the Great. Bibliography: Frederick A. de Armas, Paul Scarron (New York: Twayne, 1972); and Barbara L. Merry, Menippean Elements in Paul Scarron’s “Roman comique” (New York: Peter Lang, 1991).
Schallück, Paul (1922–76). German novelist, dramatist, and essayist. In Don Quichotte in Köln (1961; Don Quixote in Cologne), an idealistic radio and television editor and announcer named Anton Schmitz decides to go out into the world and practice what he has been discussing on air for years. Schmitz’s broadcasts bear the same titles as essays published by Schallück, and his age and looks remind one of both DQ and Schallück. Like his namesake, Schmitz’s adventures turn out very differently from what he idealistically expects. He is accompanied by a pragmatic, if at times very reluctant, friend named Peter Scheel. The two of them are compared both with Jesus Christ and the apostle Peter and with DQ and SP. The novel also includes two cameo appearances by the author that recall MC’s appearances in DQ as the author of Galatea (I, 6) and as a captive in Algiers (I, 40); Schallück is mentioned as the author of an important parable that plays a major role in the events of the novel, and again appears as a speaker at a rally. Bibliography: Alan Frank Keele, Paul Schallück and the PostWar German Don Quixote: A CaseHistory Prolegomenon to the Literature of the Federal Republic (Bern: Herbert Lang, 1976).
Schiebeler, Daniel (1741–71). German dramatist. Schiebeler wrote the libretto for the opera Basilio und Quiteria (1761) when he was only 18 years old. Schiebeler knew the Spanish language and the literature of Spain well and followed MC’s text closely in his version. He showed his text to the famous and elderly (nearly 80 at the time) composer Georg Philipp Telemann (1681–1767), who enthusiastically agreed to write the music for it. As Telemann proceeded, he made substantial modifications to Schiebeler’s original text, rewriting parts and eliminating others, in order to adapt it to the music he wanted for it. When first performed, it was given a new title: Don Quichotte auf der Hochzeit des Camacho (Don Quixote at Camacho’s Wedding); later it was also known as Don Quixote der Löwenritter (Don Quixote the Knight of the Lions). The one act opera contrasts a slightly formal DQ and SP with folkloric elements incorporated into the wedding ceremony. Bibliography: Barbara P. EsquivalHeinemann, “Some Forgotten Don Quijote(s),” Cervantes 12, no. 1 (1992):45–57.
Schiller, Friedrich (1759–1805). German dramatist, poet, and aesthetician. Schiller considered Karl Moor in his first play, Die Räuber (1781; The Robbers), to be a DQ figure, but he also acknowledged that his character was modeled on *Roque Guinart. Like Roque, Robin Hood, or an uptodate knighterrant, the bandit Moor functions just outside official law and order in order to take from the rich and give assistance to the poor and downtrodden. In many ways, the Marquis of Posa in Schiller’s Don Carlos (1787) is a more quixotic figure than Moor. Early in the play, a character comments to Posa that there remain no giants for knights such as him to pursue. Posa’s reply is that power used to oppress the weak is always a giant worthy of fighting.
Schlegel, August Wilhelm von (1767–1845). German scholar and critic. With his brother Friedrich, he was one of the primary representatives of German romanticism and one of those who most influenced the shift in the understanding of DQ from a purely comic and satiric figure to one of nobility. He was particularly attracted to MC’s theater and especially admired the “rare perfection” of Numancia.
Page 660 Schlegel wrote a sonnet entitled “Don Quixote de la Mancha” in which he contrasts the knight’s poetry with the squire’s prose.
Schlegel, Friedrich von (1772–1829). German critic and aesthetician. With his brother Wilhelm, he was one of the primary representatives of German romanticism. Schlegel argued that Hamlet, DQ, and Goethe’s Wilhelm Meister were the greatest examples of romantic art. He especially liked the Novelas, particularly Vidriera. Important to his understanding of DQ was the concept of an “arabesque”: an “artistically arranged confusion, a charming symmetry of contradictions in its rhythmical alterations between enthusiasm and irony.” Bibliography: G.R.Thompson, “Romantic Arabesque, Contemporary Theory, and Postmodernism: The Example of Poe’s Narrative,” ESQ: A Journal of the American Renaissance 35, nos. 3–4 (1989): 163–271.
Schmitz, Ettore. *Svevo, Italo.
Scila. *Scylla.
Scinta. In Persiles I, 22, the island not far from Hybernia (perhaps one of the Shetland Islands in MC’s uncertain and ambiguous geography) ruled by King Policarpo, where the Olympic games (all won by Periandro) are held. Later (II, 2–17) it becomes the scene of amorous rivalries, jealousy, plots, and intrigues during the time when Periandro et al. are visiting there. See also Persiles II, 20.
Scipio (the Younger) [Cipión, Escipión]: Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Maior (236–183 BCE). Roman soldier, conqueror of Spain, and victor of the Second Punic War. In Numancia, he is the Roman general, conqueror of the Carthaginians, whose troops set siege to and defeat the Iberian city of Numantia. In fact, the victory at Numantia was Scipio’s last major victory, and after it he added the title of Numantinus to his name. See also DQ II, 58; Laberinto 2–3.
Scitia. *Sythia.
Scoggins, C(harles) E(lbert) (1888–1955). American novelist. Scoggins’s attempt at a quixotic fiction is called John Quixote (1929), the story of an American medical student in Spain. When he catches sight of a beautiful woman, John Harvey decides on impulse to follow her. He soon acquires a young pícaro who is his SP, and the woman, Doña Elena de Avila, becomes his DT. The quest soon leads to La Mancha and involves a windmill and a castle, together with a strange mystic named Andrew Morgan, his servant, a gypsy thief, and Elena’s furious father. Harvey is only too conscious of his role, introducing himself thus: “My name’s Harvey, John Harvey. Sorry to cause all this trouble, sir, but—I seem to have got myself into it. Little Helpful—that’s me. Boy Scout doing his kind deed, and earning a bump on the bean. John Quixote, himself, in person!” Everything works out as it should, and in the end evil is punished, virtue is rewarded, pride is humbled, and DQ and DT plan to marry. Bibliography: C.E.Scoggins, John Quixote (Indianapolis: BobbsMerrill, 1929).
Scorza, Manuel (1928–83). Peruvian novelist and poet. Scorza’s politically committed fiction also partakes of the Spanish American “boom” of more aesthetically conceived postmodern narratives. His most ambitious novel, La danza inmóvil (1983; The Immobile Dance), is explicitly and profoundly quixotic. In the same way that MC is the narrator of DQ, Scorza narrates his novel and peppers his discourse with comments about the books he has written, those he has in progress, and the text being read. In addition, authors and books—prominently including MC and DQ—are discussed in organized discussions comparable to those in DQ involving the priest, barber, canon of Toledo, and DQ. At one point, the authornarrator himself is a character in a restaurant along with other characters. In one scene, the character Ajax mistakes a herd of sheep for an army (DQ I, 18), which makes him a ‘relative to our divine madman, DQ.’ A final judgment of the authornarrator is that MC ‘was a revolutionary in both thought and form.’ The entire novel, with its interplay of reality and imagi
Page 661 nation (or fantasy and literature), ideal and fact, theory and praxis; with its shifting, alternate realities, and its juxtaposition of art and life; and with its frequent allusions to and citations of DQ, is constantly reminiscent of MC’s novel. Bibliography: Manuel Scorza, La danza inmóvil (Espulgues de Llobregat, Spain: Plaza y Janés, 1983).
Scotland [Escocia]. A part of Great Britain, north of England. See Persiles I, 21; III, 16.
Scott, Sir Walter (1771–1832). Scottish novelist, poet, and collector of ballads. Scott read DQ in Spanish (he had seven editions in his personal library), actually began a translation of it into English, and was profoundly influenced by it in his own practice of fiction. References to and quotations from it are found scattered throughout his historical romances. At the beginning of Waverley (1814), Scott explicitly writes that he intends “not to follow in the steps of that inimitable author [MC], in describing such total perversion of the intellect as misconstrues the objects actually presented to the senses, but that more common aberration from sound judgment which apprehends occurrences indeed in their reality, but communicates to them a tincture of its own romantic tone and colouring.” Scott is making a relatively subtle distinction, and a legitimate one, but, in the end, one of degree. Scott is indeed a romantic writer in the grand Cervantine tradition, and in no work of his is this seen better than in Waverley itself, where Edward Waverley is by all standards a quixotic character, reading his way “through a sea of books, like a vessel without a pilot or rudder.” There is one scene in the novel that is a virtual rewrite of DQ I, 5, when Pedro Alonso brings DQ back home after his first sally. Fergus says, “Open your gates, incomparable princess, to the wounded Muslim Abindarez, when Rodrigo de Narvez, constable of Antiquera, conveys to your castle, or open them, if you like better, to the renowned Marquis of Mantua, the sad attendant of his halfslain friend, Baldovinos of the Mountain. Ah, long rest to thy soul, Cervantes! without quoting thy remnants, how should I frame my language to benefit romantic ears!” The misguided Jacobite protagonist of Redgauntlet (1824) also bears considerable resemblance to DQ. In the novels of the Waverley series, there is also a continual play with selfconscious narration in a way that clearly recalls MC’s practice with CHB, although Scott is far more restrained than MC in this respect. Bibliography: Patricia S.Gaston. “The Waverly Series and Don Quixote: Manuscripts Found and Lost,” Cervantes 11, no. 1 (1991):45–59; W.U. McDonald, Jr., “Scott’s Conception of Don Quixote,” Midwest Review 1 (March 1959):37–42; and Alexander Welsh, “Waverley, Pickwick, and Don Quixote,” Nineteenth Century Fiction 22 (1967):19–30.
Scribe, Eugene (1791–1861). French dramatist. Scribe was the author of over 400 plays of all kinds, and enjoyed considerable popularity in his lifetime. His Léocadie (1824) is based in part on Fuerza.
Scudéry, Georges de (1601–67). French dramatist. Scudéry is the author of a play entitled L’Amant libéral (1638) based on Amante and written at almost the same time as *Guérin de Bouscal’s betterknown play of the same name. See also his Arminius.
Scylla [Scila, Cila, Escila]. In Greek myth, the daughter of Phorcys and Hecate. She was turned into a monster by a rival in love and is depicted as having six heads, three rows of teeth, and 12 feet. She lived in a cave, usually located in the Straits of Messina between Sicily and Italy, opposite the whirlpool *Charybdis. The problem for mariners was to navigate between the rock of Scylla and the whirlpools of Charybdis. Scylla and Charybdis have thus come to refer to two equally dangerous options and/or the need to run a straight and narrow course between two perils. See DQ I, 37; Galatea 5; Parnaso 3; Persiles I, 9; Poesías 21; Tratos 1.
Scythia [Cita, Escitia, Scitia]. A vast ancient Eurasian kingdom that extended from eastern Europe westward to China. It flourished from about the eighth to the fourth centuries BCE, and its inhabitants were considered
Page 662 barbarians, often cannibals, by the Greeks. In Poesías 15, the darkskinned Ethiopian is contrasted with the lightskinned Scythian. In DQ II, 68, Scythian is one of the insulting terms used by the men who take DQ and SP back to the palace of the duke and duchess. See also Casa 2; Doncellas; DQ I, 18; Galatea 3, 5; Parnaso 6; Persiles III, 11; Poesías 9.
Sebastián. In Tratos 1, a youth who describes the martyrdom of a Christian priest.
Sebastián de Sorzano, Don. In Persiles III, 4, the man who treacherously murders his relative Don Diego de Parraces.
Sebastián, Don. *Sebastião, Don.
Sebastião [Sebastián], Don (1554–78). King of Portugal. He was the son of Juana of Austria (daughter of Carlos V of Spain) and Prince João of Portugal, and he became king in 1577. In the next year, he personally and idealistically (quixotically) led an army of some 800 ships and 18,000 troops in an invasion of Africa. The expedition met with disastrous defeat at the hands of AbdelMalek, and Sebastião was killed along with the majority of his troops at the battle of Alcazarquivir. It was his death that led to Spain’s annexation of *Portugal in 1580. See Persiles III, 18.
Sebeto. A small Italian river near Naples mentioned by Sannazaro in his Arcadia. See Galatea 4, 6.
Second Abraham. *Pérez de Guzmán, Alonso.
Second author of this work. *Narrative structure of Don Quixote.
Second heaven [Segundo cielo]. The realm of Diana, goddess of the moon. See Fregona.
Second Part of Don Quixote of La Mancha. *Avellaneda, Alonso Fernández de.
Second Part of the Imaginative Knight Don Quixote de la Mancha. *Don Quijote II.
Second sun [Sol segundo]. The realm of Venus, goddess of love. See Fregona.
Secret marriage [Desposorio]. Marriage was sometimes a much less formal affair in the Middle Ages and Renaissance that it has become since then. Relatively common was the practice of a man and a woman simply swearing their commitment to each other, perhaps with a witness or simply in the eyes of God, and then considering themselves married. Because they could “marry” (desposarse) in this way, they could then immediately have intercourse as husband and wife. In this way, marriage becomes a relatively simple matter of giving one’s word—and hand—as a symbol of the promise; thus the power of the phrase “dame la mano” (“give me your hand”) in so many stories and plays of the period. It is also this sort of informal marriage agreement that leads to the plot complications of countless works of literature throughout the Golden Age. The paradigm case is perhaps *Tirso de Molina’s El burlador de Sevilla (The Trickster of Seville), the original Don Juan play, in which the protagonist is a rake who convinces women to ‘give their hand’ with his promise (either explicit or implicit) of marriage. Don Juan makes love, abandons his conquest, and then moves on—as the Don Juan legend grows through the centuries, so does the length of the list of women he deceives (for a much later example, see Zorrilla’s 1844 Don Juan Tenorio, in which Don Luis refuses to marry his fiancée, Doña Ana, because Don Juan has already had his way with her). This scenario also illustrates another patriarchal cliché: that woman is an imperfect animal, governed by physical desires, weak, and prone to sin. Once a woman has surrendered her virginity to a man, she can marry only him, because no other will have a wife who has already had a sexual relationship with another man. So when a man promises to marry a woman, has sex with her, and then abandons her, she has only two choices: somehow find and convince the man to fulfill his obligation and marry her (i.e., recognize that he is already by definition married to her), or enter a convent (and marry that bridegroom who always accepts
Page 663 her: Christ). The Church looked with increasing disfavor at such “clandestine” marriages, and at the *Council of Trent (1563) declared them illegal. In the works of MC, such marriage agreements are frequent and provide the point of departure for several plots. Examples are Dorotea and Fernando in DQ I, 28; Teodosia and Marco Antonio Adorno in Doncellas; Cornelia and the duke of Ferrara in Cornelia; Quiteria and Basilio in DQ II, 21; Claudia Jerónimo and Vicente Torrellas in DQ II, 60; Leocadia and Rodolfo in Fuerza; Eusebia and Renato in Persiles II, 19; Feliciana de la Voz and Rosanio in Persiles III, 3; Tozuelo and Clementa Cobeña in Persiles III, 8; Ambrosia Agustina and Contarino de Arbolánchez in Persiles III, 12; Ruperta and Croriano in Persiles III, 17; and Isabela Castrucha and Andrea Maurulo in Persiles III, 21. The last example is particularly interesting, as the case sparks a lively discussion about the legitimacy of such a marriage among the other characters in the novel (Persiles IV, 1). Bibliography: Jean M.Hindson, “The FernandoDoroteaCardenioLuscinda Story: Cervantes’s Deconstruction of Marriage,” RLA: Romance Languages Annual 5 (1992):483–86; Antonio Martí Alanis, “Los siete pecados capitales en Don Quijote: La Lujuria,” in “Ingeniosa Invención”: Essays on Golden Age Spanish Literature for Geoffrey L.Stagg in Honor of His Eightyfifth Birthday, ed. Ellen M. Anderson and Amy R.Williamsen (Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 1999), 149–66; Helena Percas de Ponseti, “Luscinda y Cardenio: Autenticidad psíquica frente a inverosimilitud novelística,” in “Ingeniosa Invención”: Essays on Golden Age Spanish Literature for Geoffrey L. Stagg in Honor of His Eightyfifth Birthday, ed. Ellen M.Anderson and Amy R.Williamsen (Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 1999), 193–205; Robert V.Piluso, Amor, matrimonio y honra en Cervantes (New York: Las Americas, 1967); and Marian Rothstein, “Clandestine Marriage and Amadis de Gaule—The Text, the World, and the Reader.” SixteenthCentury Journal 25 (1994):873–86.
Secretary [Secretario]. The servant who reads the letter from the duke to SP, accompanies him on the rounds of his island, and generally provides assistance to SP while he is governor of Barataria. See DQ II, 47, 49, 53.
Sedequías. 1. A Jewish name mentioned in Baños 3. 2. In Sultana 1, a Jew who is mentioned but who does not appear.
Sedero. *Silk merchant.
Sefardíes. *Sephardic Jews.
Segovia. A city located northwest of Madrid and southeast of Valladolid. It was one of the most important Roman cities on the Iberian Peninsula, and today a large section of Roman aqueduct still dominates the city. In the midsixteenth century, Segovia had no more than about 20,000 inhabitants. In DQ I, 19, it is the destination of the procession accompanying the dead body. See also DQ I, 17; DQ II, 3–4, 33.
Segovia Bridge [Puente de Segovia (Puente segoviana)]. A bridge over the Manzanares River and one of the major entrances into Madrid from the west or south. See Guarda; Persiles, prologue.
Seguidilla (Seguida). A light verse form derived from folk lyrics and consisting of quatrains with the rhyme abab (although at times only the evennumbered lines rhyme), normally in lines that can vary from five to seven syllables. In the seventeenth century, there was a development in which the form became one of seven lines with a subtler rhyme: free/a/free/a/ b/free/b. See Celoso; DQ II, 24, 38; Gitanilla; Rinconete.
Seguidor de la fugitiva ninfa. *Apollo.
Segunda Diana. *Polo, Caspar Gil.
Segunda Diana del Salmantino. *Pérez, Alonso.
Segunda Parte de Don Quijote de la Mancha. *Avellaneda, Alonso Fernández de.
Segunda parte del ingenioso caballero don Quijote de la Mancha. *Don Quijote II.
Segundo Abrahán. *Pérez de Guzmán, Alonso.
Segundo autor desta obra. *Narrative structure of Don Quixote.
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Segundo cielo. *Second heaven.
Segura, Fray Bartolomé de. A Benedictine friar and poet, best known for a work on *Saint Teresa de Jesús. See Parnaso 7.
Sejanus [Seyano]. A Roman citizen who owned a horse that brought bad luck to him and all subsequent owners. The reference is thus to any sort of bad bargain. See Coloquio.
Selfconscious narration/metafiction. MC is the greatest writer of selfconscious fiction, and/or metafiction, in the history of the novel. But before him, there was ample experimentation with the technique in Spain. Novels and romances as different as *Montalvo’s Las sergas de Esplandián (1510), Francisco Delicado’s La Lozana andaluza (1528), *Alemán’s Guzmán de Alfarache (1599, 1604), and *López de Ubeda’s La Pícara Justina (1605), among others, all make innovative use of aspects of selfconsciousness: the author as character, direct address to the reader, discussions of the writing of the text being read, and so forth. But MC develops and extends all of these precursors and writes a work that burlesques its own origins; criticizes its own putative author CHB, a lying Muslim; interrupts the fiction to discuss the writing of the fiction; has the characters become aware of themselves as characters; and more. After MC, the novel and romance writers of seventeenth and eighteenthcentury France, especially *Scarron and *Marivaux, also make limited use of metafictional techniques, but the first true masters of the technique after MC are the English Joseph *Fielding and Laurence *Sterne. Although the latter’s Tristram Shandy is often considered, especially by AngloAmerican critics, as the greatest exemplar of selfconscious fiction writing, Sterne does little more than extend what he learned from MC and add some wonderful and whimsical typographical tricks. Metafictional selfconsciousness also pervades postmodern fiction, and represents the formal, as opposed to thematic, branch of the quixotic novel. Bibliography: Robert Alter, Partial Magic: The Novel as a SelfConscious Genre (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975); James A.Parr, Don Quixote: An Anatomy of Subversive Discourse (Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 1988); and Patricia Waugh, Metafiction: The Theory and Practice of Self Conscious Fiction (London: Methuen, 1984).
Selim [Selín] II (1524–74). The son of *Suleiman the Magnificent, who ruled as Great Turk (Gran Turco, sometimes Gran Señor) after the death of his father in 1566. In Amante, the cadí ostensibly plans to present the slave Leonisa to him as a gift in order to curry his favor. See also DQ I, 39.
Seller of papal bulls [Buldero]. A bull is a document, edict, or decree from the pope. The distribution and sale of such papal bulls provided an opportunity for all sorts of illegal activities, as in the fifth tratado of Lazarillo de Tormes. In Rinconete, Rinconete says that his father was a seller of papal bulls.
Sellés, Eugenio (1842–1926). Spanish dramatist. Sellés’s oneact play La primera salida (1905; The First Sally) is a dramatization of the inn scenes in DQ I, 2–3, written for and staged in honor of the 300th anniversary of the publication of DQ I. The dialogue is mostly either quoted from MC’s novel or a paraphrase of the text. The scenes consist of DQ’s meal, DQ’s standing vigil over his arms, the encounters with the muleteers, and the dubbing scene. Bibliography: Eugenio Sellés, La primera salida (Madrid: R.Velasco, 1905).
Selvagem, Carlos (Alfonso dos Santos). Portuguese dramatist. Santos’s Dulcinéa, ou a última aventura de D. Quixote (1943; Dulcinea, or Don Quixote’s Last Adventure) is one of the more interesting dramatic adaptations of MC’s novel. It presents a noble, if gullible, DQ who comes to the island of Tristiânia to help gain political freedom for the oppressed populace. A local prostitute, the beautiful Florinda, is enlisted to play the role of DT and seduce the rebel leader. But DQ resists her advances, maintaining that she is noble and pure. Florinda has never had any man fail to succumb to her charms, and she is moved by his nobility and idealistic loyalty to the idea of DT. When DQ is to be set up to take blame for a failed coup,
Page 665 Florinda reveals the truth, warning him to leave. But DQ has given his word and does not take her advice. When the revolt is betrayed and DQ is blamed (but pardoned), he challenges the new ruler who has ordered punishment for Florinda. DQ is easily defeated and beaten. In the final scene, the dejected and disillusioned DQ sees the now idealistic and quixotic Florinda being led to her death. Then a young resident of the island is dubbed a knight by DQ and given his armor, and he and his own DT go off to continue DQ’s mission. DQ may be ineffective and ingenuous, but his nobility is never called into question. SP is occasionally funny in his use of proverbs and great interest in food and sleep, but he is a loyal servant. But it is the conversion of Florinda into the quixotic DT, perhaps under the influence of Gaston *Baty’s famous Dulcinée, that is the main point of interest in the play. Bibliography: Carlos Selvagem, Dulcinéa, ou a última aventura de D. Quixote (Lisbon: Aviz, 1943).
Selvas de Erífile. *Balbuena, Bernardo de.
Selviana. In Persiles II, 10–12, the beautiful bride who loves the unattractive Solercio. She is one of the women abducted by pirates.
Semana Santa. *Holy Week.
Semanas del jardín, Las (Semanas); Weeks in the Garden. A book MC projected writing and whose forthcoming publication he announced in his prologue to Novelas and in the dedications to Comedias and Persiles. The title suggests that it was to be a collection of short fictions within some sort of overall framework, rather like *Boccaccio’s Decameron or the books by María de *Zayas. In the nineteenth century, Adolfo de Castro proposed that a fragment entitled “Diálogo de Cilena y Selanio” (“Dialogue between Cilena and Selanio”) was part of a work by MC. Few, if any, serious scholars gave much weight to such an attribution, especially in light of Castro’s famous literary forgery, El *Buscapié. More recently, however, Daniel Eisenberg has revived the idea that the text is by MC and has proposed that it formed part of Semanas. Eisenberg’s lengthy and complex argument rests on two foundations: the ideological and literary beauty of the text, something that only MC would have written; and thematic parallels between this text and other works by MC. Although fascinating, the argument fails to convince and has not been accepted by the majority of MC scholars. Bibliography: Antonio Cruz Casado, “Una recuperación: Las Semanas del jardín, de Miguel de Cervantes,” Anales Cervantinos 30 (1992):163–73; and Daniel Eisenberg, ed., Las “Semanas del jardín” de Miguel de Cervantes: Estudio, edición y facsímil del manuscrito (Salamanca, Spain: Ediciones de la Diputación de Salamanca, 1988).
Semivirgins [Semidoncellas]. A neologism of MC’s to refer to the daughter of Juan Palomeque and Maritornes when they trick DQ in DQ I, 43. Since one cannot be a partial virgin, the word might suggest that the innkeeper’s daughter is a virgin whereas Maritornes certainly is not; thus, they average out to two semivirgins. Another possibility is that the daughter is less pure than was believed.
Sempere, Jerónimo. In DQ I, 7, La Carolea is mentioned as a book that may have been in DQ’s library and that went to the flames without being examined. It is a reference to one of two works, both long verse narratives about the exploits of Carlos V entitled Primera parte de la Carolea (1560 and 1585; First Part of La Carolea). The first is by Jerónimo Sempere and the second by Juan Ochoa de la Salde.
Sena. *Siena.
Sender, Ramón J. (1902–82). Spanish novelist. The first of Sender’s Tres novelas teresianas (1967; Three Teresan Novels), fictions about *Saint Teresa de Jesus, entitled “La puerta grande” (“The Great Door”), tells of a trip the young Teresa makes out of Avila in the company of her father. She has two meetings with DQ and SP, and at the end of the story Teresa gives DQ a rose. In the same year Sender published another book of stories, this one entitled Las gallinas de Cervantes y otras narraciones parabólicas (1967; Cervantes’s Hens and Other Parabolic Narrations). In the
Page 666 title story, MC is living in Esquivias with his wife Doña Catalina who is slowly turning into—a hen. In spite of the absurdity of the premise, the story very nicely evokes the ambience of the town and the family. Noteworthy are Catalina’s uncle Alonso Quesada, fond of reading romances of chivalry, and the local priest and barber. In his Comedia del diantre y otras dos (1969; Comedy of the Devil and Two More), there is a play entitled “Donde crece la marihuana” (“Where the Marijuana Grows”), which updates Curioso and locates the story on a ranch in Arizona where the rancher Don Luis wants to know in depth the true feelings of his wife Graciela and recruits his friend Don Juan for the purpose. Here, Don Luis uses a tape recorder to verify what is said between his wife and best friend, causing the lovers to rehearse their lines with the machine off, before turning it on for Don Luis’s sake. Juan and Graciela become lovers, she becomes pregnant (Don Luis is impotent), and in the end, before he is shot by one of his Native American employees, Luis claims that everything went as he had planned it. Bibliography: Charles L.King, Ramón J.Sender (New York: Twayne, 1974); Marcelino C.Peñuelas, La obra narrativa de Ramón J.Sender (Madrid: Gredos, 1971); and Ramón Sender, Comedia del diantre y otras dos (Barcelona: Destino, 1969).
Seneca [Séneca] (4 BCECE 65). Roman statesman, philosopher, essayist, and dramatist, born in what is today the city of Córdoba. His nine tragedies, written in verse and intended for reading more than for performance, provided the primary classical model for all three of the great Renaissance theaters: the Spanish comedia, the Elizabethan theater, and the French neoclassical theater. Seneca was a particular favorite in his “native” Spain, and all the important figures in the formative period of the Spanish stage in the late sixteenth century—*Argensola in Zaragoza, *Rey de Artieda and *Virués in Valencia, *Cueva in Seville, and MC and, later and to a lesser extent, Lope de *Vega in Madrid— knew Senecan tragedy and consciously incorporated elements of it into their own work: lofty poetry, rhetorical bombast, allegory, heroes from antiquity, legendary military figures, complicated multiple plots, disregard of the unities, and supernatural figures. See Rufián 2.
Señor Bacía. *Master shaver, shaver, Master Basin.
Señor capitán. *Urrea, Jerónimo Jiménez de.
Señor de Aglante. *Aglante.
Señor de Delo. *Apollo.
Señor del ganado. *Sheepowner.
Señor del húmido tridente. *Neptune.
Señor rapador; Señor rapista. *Master shaver, shaver, Master Basin.
Señora Cornelia, La (Cornelia); Lady Cornelia. The tenth story in the collection Novelas. Set in the Italy that MC knew well, this is a conventional tale of romance and intrigue. The two central characters are a pair of Spanish friends living in Italy who are more accessories to or facilitators of the action than the main figures in it. Between them they exemplify the positive Spanish virtues of bravery, loyalty, and honesty, rather than those negative attributes that were often attributed to Spaniards in the Renaissance: arrogance, pride, and ostentation. Don Antonio de Isunza and Don Juan de Gamboa, young Spanish noblemen in their midtwenties who are students at the University of Salamanca, decide to leave their studies and take up arms in the conflict in Flanders. But when they arrive there, there is little military action taking place, so they decide to return home, but only after visiting Italy. In Bolonia they garner many friends and learn of the legendary beauty of a young woman of that city named Cornelia Bentibolli, but have no luck in actually seeing the reclusive young woman. One night, as Don Juan is walking along a dark street, he hears someone calling to him. Responding to the call, he is asked if he is Fabio and responds affirmatively. Then he is handed what turns out to be a newly born baby,
Page 667 wrapped in rich clothes. Perplexed, he takes the child home, gives him to the housekeeper, and asks her to take him to a midwife for care. He returns to the place where he was given the baby to see if he can find out any more about what is going on, when he hears a rustle of swords. Seeing a single man defending himself against six, he immediately rushes to the side of the outnumbered man. They hold their own in the sword fight, but then the other man is wounded by two blows and falls to the ground. The arrival of law officers, called by nearby residents, puts an end to the skirmish. The other man is not badly hurt, but refuses to identify himself after Don Juan has told him his name. Meanwhile, Don Juan has picked up a hat dropped by someone else in place of his own, which was lost during the sword fight, and wears it home. On his way back home, he runs into Don Antonio, who is anxious to tell Don Juan of an extraordinary event that took place earlier that evening. Don Antonio explains that he was approached by a distraught young woman of about 18 years of age who asked him to take her to his house and protect her. He has brought her to the house and she is now in the bedroom; she is the most beautiful woman he has ever seen. Don Juan then tells Don Antonio about the baby. When Don Juan peeks into the room to see the beauty, she notices his hat and assumes that he is Alfonso de Este, Duke of Ferrara, whose diamondstudded hat is famous. Don Juan joins Don Antonio in assuring the woman that she has nothing to fear from them and their only desire is to be of service to her. Tearfully, she tells them her story: she is the beautiful Cornelia, and at a relative’s wedding she met and fell in love with the duke. After receiving his promise to marry her, Cornelia entered into a liaison with the duke and, after a while, found herself pregnant. Earlier that night she was to escape with the duke to France where they were to be married, but events took another turn. Hearing the sound of clashing swords in the street, and fearing that they had been discovered, she suddenly gave birth to her child. She had a maid call to a servant of the duke’s and hand the baby over to him. Then, fearful of her brother’s possible actions, she fled from the house and ran into Don Antonio. Just then, as the housekeeper is preparing to take the baby out for care, Cornelia hears the child cry. She calls for the child and, seeing it obviously hungry, nurses him. Only then is she told that this is the child handed to Don Juan earlier that evening and obviously hers. At this time, a page announces that one Lorenzo Bentibolli is at the door, asking for Don Juan. It is Cornelia’s brother, and she fears that he has somehow learned her whereabouts and has come for her, but the two Spaniards promise to protect her. Don Juan answers the door, and Lorenzo explains that he has come, drawn by the reputation Don Juan has for loyalty and decency, to solicit his help in resolving a family difficulty. His sister, he explains, has had an illicit affair with the duke of Ferrara, and he, the protective brother, has attempted to uphold the family honor. Earlier that evening he had a skirmish with the duke, who was aided by an anonymous protector. The duke has returned to Ferrara, and Lorenzo now asks Don Juan to accompany him to Ferrara in order to get satisfaction in the matter. Don Juan agrees, of course, to help in any way he can. When Don Antonio learns what Don Juan has agreed to do, he wants to accompany his friend, but Don Juan does not approve of the idea. So Don Antonio decides to follow along behind in order to make sure that everything goes all right. After the men leave, the housekeeper talks with Cornelia and convinces her that they are not safe in the house without men to protect them, and that Don Juan and Don Antonio may have been lured away so that Cornelia’s brother can more easily have her killed. She suggests to Cornelia that they go to a village near Ferrara where the housekeeper once served a priest, a good man who will provide them with shelter and protection. Within hours they pack up and depart for the village, with the baby and a wet nurse. Meanwhile, on the road to Ferrara, Don Juan and Lorenzo meet up with the duke. Don Juan takes the duke aside and explains the situation, and the duke rushes to assure Lorenzo that his intentions are only admirable and that he wants to formalize his marriage with Cornelia. The main reason he has not done so before now is
Page 668 that his mother, very ill and perhaps near death, had wanted to marry the duke to a certain Señora Livia, daughter of the duke of Mantua, and he did not want to upset his mother on her deathbed. They return to Bolonia to tell Cornelia the happy news, but find her missing. One of the servants tells Don Antonio that the page Santisteban has been entertaining a woman named Cornelia in his room. They go to Santisteban’s room and do find Cornelia there—another woman with the same name whom the page has had there for three nights. Then they are told that Cornelia is upstairs. They rush upstairs and find another woman, also named Cornelia, in bed with another of the pages. While the comedy of names is going on, the duke heads back to Ferrara. On his way, he stops in a nearby village to visit a friend of his who is a priest. It is, of course, the very house in which Cornelia is staying, and before long the priest reconciles the couple. The duke sends his servant Fabio to bring Lorenzo, Don Antonio, and Don Juan to the priest’s house. When they get there, the duke and the priest tell them a story about how the duke cannot marry Cornelia because he has made a previous commitment to a local peasant woman, which he now intends to honor. Just as everyone is about to kill the duke for having dishonored Cornelia and not being a man of his word, they introduce the peasant woman—who is, of course, none other than Cornelia. Everyone agrees that that was a good joke, and everything is settled harmoniously. The duke and Cornelia are informally and unofficially married, but this is kept secret until the duke’s mother dies, which is very soon after. Cornelia’s maid, Sulpicia, also marries the duke’s servant, Fabio. Before the two Spaniards return to Spain, Cornelia has two more children, both daughters. She gives Don Juan and Don Antonio lavish gifts upon their departure. Both men soon marry wealthy, noble women, and everyone lives happily ever after. Bibliography: Esther Lacadena y Calero, “La señora Cornelia y su técnica narrativa,” Anales Cervantinos 15 (1976):199–210; Frances Lutikhuizen, “Verdad histórica y verdad poética en La señora Cornelia,” in Actas del Primer Coloquio Internacional de la Asociación de Cervantistas (Alcalá de Henares, 6–9 noviembre 1989) (Barcelona: Anthropos, 1990), 265–70; Diana de Armas Wilson, “Of Piracy and Plackets: Cervantes’ La señora Cornelia and Fletcher’s The Chances,” in Cervantes for the 21st Century/Cervantes para el siglo XXI: Studies in Honor of Edward Dudley, ed. Francisco La Rubia Prado (Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 2000), 49–60; and Stanislav Zimic, “La señora Cornelia: Una excursión a la ‘novela’ italiana,” Boletín de la Real Academia Española 71 (1991):101–20.
Señora vizcaína. *Basque lady.
Señores inquisidores. *Inquisitors.
Sensuality [Sensualidad]. In Persiles II, 15, in Periandro’s dream, the beautiful maiden who takes away several of his sailors.
Sentencias catonianas. *Catonian sentences.
Sentimental (or courtly) romance [novela sentimental]. Late medieval and early Renaissance romances of love in courtly settings. The medieval traditions of courtly love and chivalric romance influenced these tales, often written partially in epistolary form, of love and personal tragedy. The most important of the works in this subgenre is Diego de *San Pedro’s Cárcel de Amor (1492), which was exceedingly popular in Spain and the rest of Europe during the sixteenth century. The contexts of melodrama, violence, and extreme actions typical of the sentimental romance also become features of the courtly *novela of writers like MC and, especially, María de *Zayas of the seventeenth century. Bibliography: Robert Folger, Images in Mind: Lovesickness, Spanish Sentimental Fiction and Don Quijote (Chapel Hill, NC: U.N.C., Dept. of Romance Languages, 2002); and Patricia E.Grieve, Desire and Death in the Spanish Sentimental Romance (1440–1550) (Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 1987).
Sentinels [Centinelas]. In Rinconete, the three men who stand guard during the assembly of thieves and prostitutes at Monipodio’s house.
Sephardic Jews, Sephardim [Sefardíes]. *Jews whose origin was in the Iberian Penin
Page 669 sula, as opposed to the Ashkenazic Jews (or Ashkenazim), whose origin was in central, eastern, and northern Europe, especially Germany. In the wake of the successful Reconquest of the peninsula by the Catholic Monarchs, the Jews were expelled in 1492. The Sephardim, more than 100,000 of them, who were forced to leave the country often maintained their customs and language in communities throughout the world. Bibliography: Paloma DíazMas, Sephardim: The Jews from Spain, trans. George K.Zucker (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
Sepulcro de la viuda bella. *Artemisia.
Sepulcro de Mahoma. *Medina.
Sequels. MC invited another author to write a sequel to DQ I with his last words of that book, but when *Avellaneda did just that, MC was offended and wrote some brilliant pages of metafictional satire about his rival in DQ II (just as Mateo *Alemán had when faced with the same situation). The practice was a common one, however, as virtually every innovative fictional work of the Spanish Renaissance was continued by other writers: Celestina, Amadís, Lazarillo, Diana, Guzmán, and others. In DQ II, 4, when DQ asks Sansón Carrasco if the author of DQ I promises a sequel, the answer is affirmative, but with the cautionary comment that ‘second parts have never been very good.’ Sansón is right in that: in none of the Spanish cases was a continuation up to the stature of the original book (an exception, however, might be Palmerín de Inglaterra, the fourth book in the Palmerín cycle and the best of the lot). In Italy, however, Ariosto proved that sequels could surpass the original when he bested Boiardo with Orlando Furioso. MC was obviously aware that continuations (or what would today be called spinoffs) tended toward hack work and rarely approximated the genius of the original inspiration. Yet he chose to write his own sequel to DQ I and, in the nearly unanimous opinion of readers throughout the centuries, wrote a book both very different from the first one and at the same time clearly a continuation of it. There is an exception to every rule, and DQ II is the exception to the Carrasco principle.
Seráfico padre [Seraphic father]. *Saint Francis .
Serafido (Seráfido). In Persiles IV, 12–13, Persiles’s tutor who comes to Rome to warn him of the arrival of his brother Maximino; Persiles overhears him tell the story of his origins and those of Sigismunda to Rutilio. In some editions the name is Seráfido, rather than Serafido.
Sergas de Esplandián, Las. *Montalvo, Garci Rodríguez de.
Serjan, Mario. Spanish poet and novelist. Serjan has had such an intense interest in DQ that years ago he began writing a series of sonnets on characters and scenes in the novel. This lifelong project culminated in his book Gozos y penas del señor Don Quijote (1996; Joys and Sorrows of Señor Don Quixote), a series of 101 sonnets that, in effect, summarize or paraphrase the plot of the novel. The poems are more than mere doggerel, and some of them approximate the sprit, tone, and style of MC. Bibliography: Mario Serjan, Gozos y penas del señor don Quijote (Barcelona: Seuba, 1996).
Serpiente. *Hydra.
Serra, Narciso (1830–77). Spanish dramatist. Serra’s oneact play El loco de la guardilla (1861; The Madman in the Attic) was inspired by José Eugenio Hartzenbusch’s short story La locura contagiosa (1847; Contagious Madness) about MC. Situated in Madrid in 1605, the play deals with MC’s home life and features his sister Magdalena. At one point, there is so much raucous laughter coming from the house that it is visited by a *familiar of the Inquisition. It is explained that the laughter is provoked by a book MC is writing (DQ I, of course), and, while the familiar is reading the book, MC explains who the man is—none other than Lope de *Vega. The play enjoyed a mild degree of notoriety and was several times staged in the nineteenth century as part of festivities in honor
Page 670 of MC. A sequel, the oneact play entitled El bien tardío (1867; Good News Comes Late), has a young Francisco de *Quevedo and the count of *Lemos present on the day of MC’s death. Lemos had come to present MC a commission as governor in the Indies, but arrived after the writer had died. Serra also wrote two poems to MC, entitled “A Cervantes” and “Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra.” Bibliography: Carmen Menéndez Onrubia, “Notas sobre la presencia de Cervantes en la obra de Narciso Serra (1830–1887),” Anales Cervantinos 35 (1999):325–35; and Naraciso Serra, El loco de la guardilla (Madrid: Manuel de Rojas, 1861).
Servando, San. *San Servando.
Servant(s) [Criado(s), mozo(s)]. 1. In DQ I, 4, four servants on horseback who form part of the group headed by the *Toledan merchants. 2. Two men who accompany the Benedictine friars in DQ I, 8. 3. In DQ I, 13, three foot servants who form part of the retinue of *Vivaldo and his friend at the funeral of *Grisóstomo. 4. In DQ I, 28, the servant who Dorotea takes with her when she dresses as a man and goes in search of Fernando. When they are alone in the mountains the servant attempts to force himself upon her, but she pushes him off a cliff. 5. In DQ I, 35, the servants of Anselmo who abandon him after his wife and best friend both disappear. 6. In DQ I, 44, the servant of Don Luis’s father who arrives at the inn of Juan Palomeque in search of the runaway Don Luis. 7. In DQ I, 48, the attendants who accompany the canon of Toledo and who are sent to a nearby inn for food for the traveling company. In I, 52, they help prolong the fight between Eugenio and DQ, especially when one of them restrains SP so that he cannot come to the assistance of his master. 8. In DQ II, 25, a young servant woman mentioned as being involved in the disappearance of an alderman’s ass, the event that sets into motion the story of the *braying aldermen. 9. In DQ II, 31, the serving staff at the duke’s palace who come out to greet DQ as knights are supposed to be received when they arrive at a castle in the romances of chivalry. 10. In DQ II, 49, the maid who opens the door and lets the children of Diego de la Llana back into their home. 11. In DQ II, 60, six servants who form part of the retinue of Doña Guiomar de Quiñones. 12. In Persiles III, 13, the servant of the duke of Nemurs who tells the pilgrims how the duke has decided to hold a contest to choose a beautiful wife. He introduces them to three principal candidates, Deleasir, Belarmina, and Féliz Flora, but adds that he also wants to send the duke a portrait of Auristela, as she is the most beautiful woman he has ever seen. 13. In Persiles III, 16–17, Ruperta’s servant who tells the pilgrims the story of his mistress’s ghoulish lust for revenge and arranges for them to see her preparing to kill the son of the murderer of her husband. 14. In Persiles II, 13, King *Leopoldio’s servant who becomes the lover of the king’s wife and who is returned to the kingdom of Dánea in chains. 15. *Damsels, maidens, young women.
Servio. In Numancia 4, a young boy who appears briefly.
Sessa, Duke of. *Fernández de Córdoba, Gonzalo.
Seven Churches [Siete Iglesias]. The seven churches that made up a famous circuit of nearly 20 kilometers through the city of *Rome. The circuit was established in 1559 by Saint Philip Neri, who is said to have made the rounds many times, sometimes accompanied by up to 2,000 of the faithful. It became a standard route for tourists and pilgrims in the holy city. In Persiles IV, 6, the pilgrims make the customary rounds of the seven churches: Basilica of Saint Peter (San Pedro), Church of Saint John Lateran (San Juan de Letrán), *Basilica of Saint Paul (San Pablo Extramuros), Basilica of Saint Mary Major (Santa María la Mayor), Basilica of Saint Lawrence (San Lorenzo), Church of the Holy Cross (Santa Cruz en Jerusalén), and Basilica of Saint Sebastian (San Sebastián). See also Entretenida 1; Vidriera.
Seven cities of Greece [Siete ciudades de Grecia]. The cities of Smyrna, Rhodes, Colophon, Salimis, Chios, Argos, and Athens, all
Page 671 of which claimed to be the birthplace of Homer. See DQ II, 74.
Seven Goats. *Pleiades.
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World [Siete maravillas del mundo]. The list was first drawn up in Hellenistic times and consisted of the following: the pyramids of Egypt, the *Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (*Artemisia), the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, the statue of Zeus at Olympia, the Colossus of *Rhodes, and the *lighthouse (Pharos) of Alexandria. See Fregona.
Seville [Sevilla]. The largest and most important city in Andalusia, in southwestern Spain, located southwest of Córdoba and north and very slightly east of Cádiz. With about 120,000 inhabitants in the late sixteenth century—more than Madrid or London, and exceeded in size only by Paris and Rome (and perhaps Naples), and rivaled on the Iberian Peninsula only by Lisbon—Seville was the largest, most robust, and most prosperous city in Spain during MC’s lifetime. Madrid may have been the site of the royal court and national and international politics and policy, but Seville was heart and soul of economic Spain. After 1503, Seville was the sole official port of entry for all the riches from the New World, and the great flotillas arrived there twice a year. The city teemed with merchants, soldiers, clergy, and noblemen on one hand, and with thieves, swindlers, bullies, ruffians, pícaros, and women of easy virtue on the other. MC certainly knew the latter group better than the former. The city was known for its wines, hams, olives and olive oils, and seafood. It was also the headquarters of the Inquisition, and there were two spectacular autosdafé in Seville in 1564 and 1565, during MC’s residence there. Another noteworthy event that took place in Seville during the time MC lived there was the public execution of an adulterous wife and her lover by the woman’s husband, an innkeeper, who thus avenged his honor for all to see. Although it is by no means certain that MC actually witnessed the event, he described it in Persiles III, 7. During his years as a commissary and tax collector and for a while afterward, between 1587 and 1604, MC was frequently in and out of Seville, overall living there as much as half the time. In 1597–98 he spent several months in the royal prison in Seville (inaugurated in 1569) for tax fraud (which he had not committed). In Rinconete, it is the scene of most of the adventures of the protagonists, especially as they are introduced to the band of thieves headed by *Monipodio. Seville is also the scene of part of the action in Española, Celoso, and Coloquio. See also Doncellas; DQ I, 2, 8, 14, 29, 31, 39, 42, 49; DQ II, 1, 14, 22, 57; Fregona; Galatea 2; Gitanilla; Pedro 1; Poesías 26; Retablo; Rufián 1. Bibliography: Mary Elizabeth Perry, Crime and Society in Early Modern Seville (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1980); Mary Elizabeth Perry, Gender and Disorder in Early Modern Seville (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990); and Ruth Pike, Aristocrats and Traders: Sevillian Society in the Sixteenth Century (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1972).
Seville flood [Diluvio de Sevilla]. There was serious flooding of the Guadalquivir River in Seville in the years 1595, 1597, and 1603. The latter gave rise to a number of poems, including an anonymous “Romance del río de Sevilla” (“Ballad of the River of Seville”). See Retablo.
Seville Prison [Cárcel de Sevilla]. The royal prison where MC spent several months in 1597–98; it was the most famous jail in Spain. It was an impressive building inaugurated in 1569 and with sufficient capacity for some 1,500 prisoners. It is believed by many that it was during this incarceration that MC conceived and perhaps even started to write DQ I (see his comments in the prologue). It is also believed by some that MC wrote an interlude on the theme of this prison and/or a historical and sociological account of the institution (*attributed works).
Sewer of Vecinguerra in Córdoba [Caño de Vecinguerra de Córdoba]. A sewer that emptied into the Guadalquivir River in Cór
Page 672 doba. It was named after Vicente Guerra, a hero during the Reconquest of Córdoba. See DQ II, 22.
Sexuality in Cervantes. *Erotic and/or obscene themes and imagery.
Seyano. *Sejanus.
Shakespeare, William (1564–1616). English dramatist and poet. Imagine Shakespeare reading DQ. It happened, since Shakespeare and John *Fletcher collaborated on a play, entitled The History of Cardenio, or just Cardenio, based on events from DQ I, 23–46, and staged in the Royal Palace in 1613. The play was long assumed to have been lost, and for years there has been much speculation about what it might have consisted of. Now, however, it has been suggested that we have had the play all along, without realizing what it was. In 1994, manuscript specialist Charles Hamilton proposed that the play known as The Second Maiden’s Tragedy, a misogynistic revenge tragedy, and long attributed to a number of writers, but most often to Thomas *Middleton, is the ShakespeareFletcher Cardenio. His argument is based largely on his familiarity with Shakespeare’s autograph documents, especially the Bard’s will, and his analysis of the manuscript. Hamilton’s thesis is debatable and it has not been accepted by many English Renaissance scholars, but he may be right and his case certainly is interesting and worth serious consideration. Hamilton posits that Shakespeare and Fletcher wrote the play in 1611, after reading Thomas Shelton’s translation of DQ, which apparently circulated in manuscript and could easily have been available to them (DQ was cited in Middleton’s Your Five Gallants as early as 1607). Shakespeare based the main plot on Cardenio, whereas Fletcher’s subplot is derived from Curioso. After the publication and great popular success of DQ early in 1612, Shakespeare and Fletcher changed the title and names of some of the characters to what they were in the novel, but did not bother to correct the manuscript, which was merely a performance tool and never intended for publication. (The title, Second Maiden’s Tragedy, was placed on the untitled manuscript by a censor.) When it was performed in 1613, it was under the name of Cardenio (or Cardenno or Cardenna; records are inconsistent). The main characters are Govianus (changed to Cardenio), the Tyrant (Fernando), and the Lady (Luscinda); Dorotea’s character is eliminated. In the subplot, the characters (whose names are unchanged) are Anselmus, Votarius (Lotario in Curioso), the Wife (Camila in Curioso), Leonella, and Leonella’s lover Bellarius (who is not named in Curioso). Shakespeare followed the plot from MC loosely up to the point of the marriage between Fernando and Luscinda, but then brought matters to a confrontational climax in which Cardenio collapses and dies, and then Luscinda kills herself with Cardenio’s sword. In the subplot, all five characters wind up dead. What is unfortunate in Hamilton’s presentation is his campaign to promote William Shakespeare’s genius by contrasting it to the mediocrity of MC: “There is a vast disparity between their literary talents, with Shakespeare far outshining his Spanish counterpart.” For Hamilton, DQ is too long and verbose, but an amusing novel; MC is a seriously flawed writer; has too many literary lapses; uses cheap tricks; creates only simple and wooden characters; writes boring, frivolous, and soporific tales; and, above all, does not realize that good literature should end in “the clash and flash of good Toledo steel.” There is no need to denigrate MC in order to admire Shakespeare, and it is always dangerous to pretend to write authoritatively about a work you have only read in an outdated translation and about which you otherwise know nothing. The counterpart would be to lament poor unimaginative Shakespeare’s tired melodrama in comparison with MC’s brilliant psychological subtlety—but no such cheap trick will be employed here. (It might be interesting to compare Hamilton’s version of Shakespeare at work, and the text of Cardenio, with the imaginative version of both in José Carlos *Somoza’s Miguel Will.) Interestingly, both Shakespeare and MC died on April 23, 1616, but not on the same day: Spain had already adopted the Gregorian calendar by the beginning of the seventeenth
Page 673 century, but England still went by the Old Style Julian calendar, and so the death of Shakespeare, although the same date as that of MC, actually took place ten days after that of his contemporary in Spain. Bibliography: Sandra Clark, “Cervantes’ ‘The Curious Impertinent’ in Some Jacobean Plays,” Bulletin of Hispanic Studies 79 (2002):477–89; John Freehafer, “Cardenio, by Shakespeare and Fletcher,” PMLA 84 (1969):501–13; Tomás Pabón, “Cardenio en Cervantes, Shakespeare y Fletcher,” in Actas del II Congreso Internacional de la Asociación de Cervantistas, ed. Giuseppe Grilli (Naples: Instituto Universitario Orientale, 1995), 371–78; and William Shakespeare and John Fletcher, Cardenio, or The Second Maiden’s Tragedy, ed. Charles Hamilton (Lakewood, CO: Glenbridge, 1994).
Sharp, Adrienne. American shortstory writer. Sharp’s White Swan, Black Swan (2001) is a beautiful collection of short stories about the world of ballet, in which the author mixes fictional characters and events with the slightly fictionalized lives of great figures of ballet: George Balanchine, Rudolf Nureyev, Margot Fonteyn, Mikhail Baryshnikov, and others. In the story “Don Quixote,” the 59yearold Balanchine, married to his fourth wife, Tanny, a oncegreat dancer who now has polio, discovers the beautiful and talented young dancer Suzanne Farrell. Suzanne is perfect in everything she does; he trains her for a variety of roles—which she must dance with others, as he is too old. But there is one part that is perfect for him to dance with her, DQ: “He had done the ballet for Suzanne, but the story of Don Quixote was really his own.” Suzi becomes Balanchine’s obsession, and he virtually abandons his wife for her. But, of course, the inevitable happens: Suzi falls in love with and marries a younger dancer. When Balanchine attempts to drive her husband from the company, Suzi gives an ultimatum, and then leaves. At the end of the story, Balanchine is destroyed: “He was the Don without his Dulcinea, no longer capable of magic, of conjuring dragons and giants and Madonnas, the extraordinary from the ordinary. He was tired….” (See also the actual 1965 DQ ballet by *Nabokov and Balanchine.) Bibliography: Adrienne Sharp, White Swan, Black Swan (New York: Random House, 2001).
Shaver. *Master shaver.
Sheep [Ovejas y carneros]. In DQ I, 18, DQ sees a cloud of dust and imagines it to be a great army passing by. When SP points out that there must be two armies, for there is also a second cloud, DQ imaginatively describes the armies, their forthcoming battle, and many of the individual participants. It turns out that the dust is raised by sheep rather than armies, but DQ rejects that explanation when offered by SP. He charges, kills several sheep, and is stoned by the shepherds. To cure his wounds he drinks of the *balm de Fierabrás and, when SP looks into his mouth to see how many teeth he has lost, vomits in his squire’s face, only to have SP then vomit on him. DQ’s list of imaginative and comic names and sweeping evocation of European and African geography is a parodic evocation of the great battle scenes described in both epic poetry and the romances of chivalry; but it also recalls a more immediate model to be parodied: Lope de Vega’s Arcadia (1598), where there is a description that is very similar. See also DQ II, 3, 10. Bibliography: Ludovik Osterc, “La trascendencia universal del episodio del Quijote sobre los dos ejércitos (I, 18),” in Cervantes, su obra y su mundo: Actas del I Congreso Internacional sobre Cervantes, ed. Manuel Criado de Val (Madrid: Edi6, 1981), 761–66; and Pilar del Carmen Tirado, “War Games: Cervantes’s Battle of the Sheep,” in War and Its Uses: Conflict and Creativity, ed. Jüren Kleist and Bruce A.Butterfield (New York: Peter Lang, 1999), 37–46.
Sheepowner [Señor del ganado]. In Coloquio, a man who is deceived by his own shepherds who consistently kill and eat his sheep, blaming the losses on wolves.
Sheets from Holland. *Holland.
Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft (1797–1851). English novelist and essayist. Shelley maintained an interest in MC throughout her life; she included a biography of MC (the longest essay in the series) in the third volume of
Page 674 her Lives of the Most Eminent Literary and Scientific Men of Italy, Spain, and Portugal (1837); references to MC (whom she called “the writer of the most successful book in the world”), DQ, and SP appear frequently in her writings. She most often compared herself to SP, and both her husband and her father (William *Godwin) to DQ, particularly in her journal History of a Six Weeks’ Tour (1817). She conceived of her trip through parts of Europe in terms of romance and adventure: “It was acting a novel, being an incarnate romance.” Significantly, during this trip she and her husband Percy were reading and discussing DQ, as they were again during the time when she was writing Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus (1818). In that novel, arguably the first science fiction novel and certainly one of the most important fictions of the nineteenth century, she drew particularly on the figure of *Zoraida in order to create the character of Safie, a Muslim, or “Arabian,” woman, who is found in a key episode at the center of the novel, a section Shelley inserted when the draft was otherwise nearly complete, and when she had just recently finished reading DQ. In 1820, Shelley again read DQ, this time in Spanish. In two of Shelley’s other novels, the influence of MC’s work is also evident: in Lodore (1835), both of the heroines, Ethel Villiers (explicitly a DT figure) and Fanny Derham (“she had something Quixotic in her nature”), are described in terms of DQ; and in Falkner: A Novel (1837), the protagonist, John Falkner, is also described as a DQ figure. Bibliography: Erin Webster Garrett, “Recycling Zoraida: The Muslim Heroine in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein,” Cervantes 20, no. 1 (2000):133–56; and Jeanne Moskal, “‘To speak in Sanchean phrase’: Cervantes and the Politics of Mary Shelley’s History of a Six Weeks’ Tour,” in Mary Shelley in Her Times, ed. Betty T.Bennet and Stuart Curran (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), 18–37.
Shelton, Thomas. *First translations of Don Quixote.
Shepherd(s) [Pastor(es), Zagal(es)]. 1. In DQ I, 13, some 20 men who gather to attend the burial of Grisóstomo. 2. In DQ I, 41, the person who first sounds the alarm when he sees Ruy Pérez de Viedma, Zoraida, and the other escaped captives come ashore in Spain. 3. In Coloquio, the men who take in Berganza when he leaves his first master and give him the name Barcino. Rather than the idealized figures in pastoral romances, these reallife shepherds deceive their employer and kill and devour the very sheep they are supposed to guard. 4. In DQ II, 17, men who sell SP the curds and whey that he puts in DQ’s helmet just before the adventure of the lions. 5. In DQ II, 20, some 24 young men, elegantly dressed in white linen, in the celebration of *Camacho’s wedding. 6. In Persiles III, 2–4, the men and women who receive and provide assistance to Periandro and the pilgrims and the mysterious woman—Feliciana de la Voz—who asks to be hidden from her pursuers. 7. In Poesías 22, the man who listens to the lament of the inhabitant of the cave of jealousy.
Shepherd of Anfriso. *Apollo.
Shepherdesses [Pastoras, zagalas]. In DQ II, 58, the two beautiful young women who find DQ entangled in the nets that form part of their Arcadian setting.
Shershel [Sargel]. A port city in Algiers. See DQ I, 41; Persiles III, 10; Tratos 1.
Shields [Paveses]. Oblong shields large enough to protect a fighter’s entire body. During the “attack” of SP’s island, he is placed between two such shields, which are then tied together, making SP look like a tortoise. See DQ II, 53.
Shipwreck [Náufrago]. In Persiles II, 15, a sea monster encountered by Periandro and his sailors. The beast rises up out of the water and eats one of the sailors (in III, 1, it is stated that two men were eaten). In MC’s source, Olaus *Magnus, the name used for these monsters is physeter (and in Antonio de *Torquemada, físiter). It would seem that MC borrowed the term náufrago from captions used on Italian engravings of scenes of such monsters destroying seafaring ships.
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Shirley, James (1596–1666). English dramatist. Shirley’s masque The Triumph of Peace (1634) includes a brief pantomime scene in which DQ attacks the windmills while SP mimics his actions.
Shklovsky, Viktor (1893–1984). Russian theorist, critic, and novelist. In his Theory of Prose (1925), Shklovsky sets forth his influential ideas about the role of ‘estrangement’ in literature, the nature of poetic language, and a concept of the novel—DQ as a prime example—as being derived from collections of short stories, a theory of the novel explicitly disputed by M.M. *Bakhtin. His earlier autobiography/ novel Zoo; ili, Pis’ma ne o liubvi (1923; Zoo, or Letters Not about Love, or the Third Héloise) had incorporated some of these arguments, specifically including his description about how DQ was made. Bibliography: Viktor Shklovsky, Theory of Prose, trans. Benjamin Sher (Elmwood Park, IL: Oakley Archive Press, 1990).
Short story. *Novela.
Shrek. An animated film (2001; DreamWorks) based on William Steig’s novel about a loveable ogre. Shrek undertakes a slightly quixotic quest to bring back a sleeping princess named Fiona. His only companion is a loquacious donkey sidekick named Donkey who talks incessantly and who occasionally has to be told to be quiet. In one brief scene they come upon a windmill, a clear visual allusion to DQ. This is one of the more unusual DQSP pairs, and they meet up with a DT who is not quite what she appears to be.
Sicily [Sicilia, Cicilia]. A large island separated from Italy by the Straits of Messina. With Naples it formed the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and during MC’s lifetime it was a Spanish possession. The island is the scene of action for parts of Amante. See also Adjunta; Baños 1; DQ II, 1, 60; Persiles I, 18; III, 10, 12; IV, 14; Vidriera.
Sickness [Enfermedad]. In Numancia 4, an allegorical figure who appears during the destruction of the city.
Siege of Numantia, The. *Numancia, La.
Siena [Sena]. A city in westcentral Italy. It is the home of Rutilio in Persiles I, 8.
Sierpe, Calle de la. *Calle de la Sierpe.
Sierra Morena (Sierra Negra). A mountain range in southern Spain; it marks the boundary between La Mancha and Andalusia. After the adventure of the galley slaves (I, 22), DQ and SP enter the Sierra Morena in I, 23, and DQ remains there until I, 31. It is the site of DQ’s penance in I, 25, and the introduction of Cardenio and Dorotea and the beginning of their presence in the novel. See DQ I, 25, 52; DQ II, 3–4, 8–9, 13, 22, 27–28, 33; Persiles III, 6; Tratos 4. Bibliography: Edward H.Friedman, “Off the Beaten Path: Don Quijote and the Narrative Exploits in the Sierra Morena,” in Cervantes: Estudios en la víspera de su centenario, ed. Kurt Reichenberger and Roswitha Reichenberger (Kassel, Germany: Edition Reichenberger, 1994), 259–77.
Sierra Negra. In DQ I, 52, a humorous variant for *Sierra Morena in the sonnet by the academician Paniaguado.
Sierra Sánchez, María del Pilar. Spanish writer. Sierra Sánchez’s book El regreso de Don Quijote y Sancho (1998; The Return of Don Quixote and Sancho) begins when DQ and SP are hurled to earth in a crystalline meteor. God speaks to them and assures them that they were sent as heaven’s emissaries. Apparently, their purpose is to talk at length in a pretentious, affected, pseudoarchaic language about a wide variety of subjects until they are confronted by an angry mob and are stoned to death. They return to heaven, are received by God, and DQ is appointed to stand at the right hand of MC as leader of the angels and archangels. God reminds all that he is vengeful, as well as merciful, and that an ungrateful humankind should beware of his wrath. Bibliography: María del Pilar Sierra Sánchez, El regreso de Don Quijote y Sancho (Torrelavega, Spain: M. del Pilar Sierera, 1998).
Siete cabrillas. *Pleiades.
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Siete ciudades de Grecia. *Seven cities of Greece.
Siete Iglesias. *Seven Churches.
Siete maravillas del mundo. *Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
Sigismunda (Auristela). In Persiles, the female protagonist, the most beautiful woman in the world. Sigismunda (whose real name is not revealed until II, 6), Princess of Frisland, takes the name Auristela in order to hide her true identity throughout her journey to Rome in the company of her beloved Persiles (who travels under the name Periandro), Prince of Thule (Iceland). After numerous adventures in the illdefined northern regions and a trip across Europe that begins in Lisbon, they reach Rome, reveal their true identities, and marry. Auristela’s beauty is unmatched by that of any of the other beautiful women in the story. Her moral perfection is intended to be evident to all, but her occasional vanity, her unmotivated and overwhelming jealousy, and her dishonesty in dealing with Sinforosa and others undercut this perfection. Bibliography: Antonio Cruz Casado, “Auristela hechizada: Un caso de malfecio en el Persiles,” Cervantes 12 no. 2 (1992):91–104.
Siglo de Oro. *Golden Age; *Golden Age, Myth of the.
Sigüenza. A city located northeast of Madrid and south of Soria. It was the site of one of the minor universities (founded in 1472) in Spain. In comparison with Salamanca and Alcalá, the institution at Sigüenza was often the object of ridicule, as when it is noted in DQ I, 1, that Pero Pérez, the parish priest and friend of DQ, was a ‘wise man’ who had taken his degree there.
Sigura, Antonio de. An uneducated supervisor of construction who apparently was wounded by MC in a duel or some other type of armed encounter in 1569. For this, MC, last known to be in Seville, was ordered arrested and returned to Madrid where he was to have his right hand cut off. If he survived this punishment, he was to be banished from the kingdom for ten years. It has been suggested that the MC referred to here is some other person with the same name, but there is no reason to make such an assumption, especially since MC next appears in Rome, apparently having fled his native land. It has also been suggested that this document somehow proves MC’s homosexuality (*Arrabal, Fernando), but no serious MC scholar interprets it in this way. The reason for the skirmish between MC and Sigura—love, personal or family honor, insult?—can only be a matter of speculation. MC never mentions the incident in any of his writings.
Sila. *Sulla, Lucius Cornelius.
Silbatillo. In Rinconete, the servant who delivers the basket of food and wine to the home of Monipodio.
Silena. In Galatea 4–6, the name given to a shepherdess, whose real identity is never revealed, who is first loved by Lauso (perhaps representing MC himself) and later rejected by him; she does not appear in the story. MC’s ballad on jealousy (Poesías 22) also includes a shepherd named Lauso and a shepherdess named Silena, apparently a reference to the same characters as those in Galatea. MC also mentions this character in Parnaso 4. Some think that Silena is the poetic name MC used for a woman he knew in Italy in the early 1570s and with whom he had a son named *Promontorio. Given the significance of the theme of *jealousy in MC’s works, its prominent association with the name of Silena inevitably suggests that the love affair prominently involved intense feelings of jealousy. Romantic as such notions are, there is no documentary evidence for such an affair or such a child.
Silence [Silencio]. One of the allegorical figures that accompany Morpheus, god of dreams, in Parnaso 8.
Silenus [Sileno]. In Greek myth, a halfman, halfanimal (similar to, but not the same as, a satyr) who represented the spirit of wild life.
Page 677 Sometimes he is represented as the tutor of Dionysus or Bacchus, and is associated with reveling, musicmaking, and drunkenness. See DQ I, 15.
Silerio. In Galatea, a gentleman from Jerez de la Frontera, the good friend of Timbrio (*two friends), who falls in love with Nísida but ultimately marries her sister Blanca.
Silguero. In Rinconete, a hunchback tailor who is just mentioned by name.
Silk merchant [Sedero]. In DQ I, 9, the person who was originally to have purchased the manuscript of CHB, but MC bought it first.
Silla de Babieca. *Babieca’s saddle.
Silva. A verse form consisting of stanzas in which lines of seven and 11 syllables are combined in a pattern determined by the poet. Poems by MC that are written in silvas include Poesías 13, 20–21, and 33.
Silva, António José da (ca. 1707–1739). Portuguese composer and dramatist. Silva was a Portuguese converso known as o Judeu (the Jew) who was executed by the Portuguese Inquisition. His opera Vida do Grande D. Quixote de La Mancha e do Gordo Sancho Pança (1733; Life of the Great Don Quixote de La Mancha and of the Fat Sancho Panza) is based primarily on DQ II. In an interesting episode, the muse Calliope (from Galatea) appears in a cloud and recruits DQ to make a voyage to Parnassus to assist the god Apollo in his struggle with bad poets (recall MC’s Parnaso). As is frequent with eighteenthcentury versions of the DQ story, SP’s governorship of Barataria is prominent. Particularly interesting is the metatheatrical aspect of the work. In one scene, DQ asks SP if he knows where they are, and the squire responds, ‘We’re in the Theater of the Barrio Alto [a section of Lisbon].’ Bibliography: Edward H.Friedman, “The Fortunes of Chivalry: António José da Silva’s Vida do Grande D. Quixote de La Mancha e do Gordo Sancho Pança,” Cervantes 17, no. 2 (1997):80–93; and D.W.McPheeters, “El ‘Quijote’ del judío portugués António José da Silva (1733),” Revista Hispánica Moderna 34 (1968):356–62.
Silva, Don Juan de. Probably a reference to the count of Portalegre, Spanish diplomat in and later governor of Portugal, and an occasional poet. MC may have known him personally; he is praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Silva, Feliciano de (ca. 1491–ca. 1554). Spanish author of prose fiction. Silva was one of the most popular and widely read writers of fiction in the Spanish Renaissance, particularly in his continuations of two masterpieces: La Celestina and Amadís de Gaula. His Segunda Comedia de Celestina (1534; Second Comedy of Celestina) is one of the better sequels written during the period, with excellent dialogue, fine satiric comedy, and perceptively drawn characters; it is generally considered to be his best work. Silva also wrote several works (books 7, 9–11) in the ongoing multi volume Amadís cycle: Lisuarte de Grecia (1514), Amadís de Grecia (1530), Florisel de Niquea (in four installments 1532–51), and Rogel de Grecia (1535). Perhaps his most interesting fictional experiment was the incorporation (albeit in brief and only marginally integrated scenes) of pastoral elements into both his tale of love and prostitution and his chivalric stories. MC lends a certain dubious fame to Silva in DQ I, 1, when he cites a parody version of Silva’s prose style—la razón de la sinrazón (the reason of unreason)—as one of the reasons for DQ’s madness. See also the mentions of Florisel de Niquea in DQ I, 24, and Lisuarte de Grecia in DQ II, 1. Bibliography: Sydney Paul Cravens, Feliciano de Silva y los antecedentes de la novela pastoril en sus libros de caballerías (Chapel Hill, NJ: Estudios de Hispanófila, 1976); Marie Cort Daniels, “Feliciano de Silva: A SixteenthCentury ReaderWriter of Romance,” in Creation and Recreation: Experiments in Literary Form in Early Modern Spain: Studies in Honor of Stephen Gilman, ed. Ronald E.Surtz and North Weinerth (Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 1983), 77–88; and Emilio J.Sales Dasí, “Feliciano de Silva y la tradición amadisiana en el Lisuarte de Grecia,” Incipit 17 (1997):175–217.
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Silva, José Asunción (1865–96). Colombian poet. Silva’s most interesting MCrelated poem is “Futura,” an evocation of a scene from the 24th century. The setting is Frankfort, a major stop on the route of the rapid train from Liverpool to Canton. A crowd has gathered, and the mayor of the city delivers a speech in honor of the one and only God. Then he unveils a new monument to that god: SP. Silva also wrote a poem entitled “La razón de Don Quijote.”
Silva, Licenciado Don Diego de. A writer known to have contributed festive poetry for celebrations in the early seventeenth century. See Parnaso 5.
Silva y de Toledo, Juan de. Spanish romance author. Silva wrote the last original chivalric romance of the Renaissance, Policisne de Boecia (1602). It is probable that MC read the work, as there appear to be reminiscences of it in Cardenio, but it is never mentioned by name in DQ. Bibliography: P.E.Russell, “The Last of the Spanish Chivalric Romances: Don Policisne de Boecia,” in Essays on Narrative Fiction in the Iberian Peninsula in Honor of Frank Pierce, ed. R.B.Tate (Oxford: Dolphin, 1982), 141–52.
Silva y Mendoza de la Cerda, Don Rodrigo (or Ruigómez) de, Duke of Pastrana (1585–1626). Special Spanish ambassador to France who had just returned to Madrid in 1612 when MC meets him, in Parnaso 8, upon his own return from the voyage to Mount Parnassus.
Silva y Mendoza, Don Diego de, Conde de Salinas (1564–1630). A wellknown poet who is praised in Parnaso 2.
Silva y Mendoza, Don Francisco de (?– 1615). The Spanish nobleman who sponsored the Academy of Parnassus (also known as the Savage Academy) in Madrid. He is listed among the good poets in Parnaso 2.
Silvano. In Galatea 4, one of the Tagus River shepherds, praised for his erudition and discretion; he does not appear in the story.
Silvanos. *Satyrs.
Silveira, Doctor Miguel de. Royal physician and minor poet of a converso family. He is mentioned as one of the good poets in Parnaso 2.
Silver Bridge. *Laurcalco, señor de la Puente de Plata.
Silver cross [Crucifijo de plata]. In Fuerza, a crucifix stolen by Leocadia from the room where she is raped, and later a major item in her reconciliation with her rapist Rodolfo.
Silveria. In Galatea 2–3, 6, the shepherdess who is in love with Mireno but marries the wealthy Daranio. She anticipates the figure of Quiteria in DQ II, 20–21.
Silversmith [Platero]. In Vizcaíno, the merchant who certifies the value of the gold chain.
Silvestre de Almendárez, Don. In Entretenida, the cousin and fiancé of Marcela who is supposed to be returning wealthy from the Indies in order to marry Marcela, but who finds his request for a dispensation in order to marry his cousin has been denied by the pope; Cardenio also takes this identity in order to court Marcela.
Silvia. 1. In Tratos, the female lead, a Christian captive loved both by her renegade owner Yzuf and the valorous Christian Aurelio. 2. In Galatea 1, the Andalusian shepherdess who is the good friend of Teolinda, relative of Carino, and loved by Crisalvo; she does not appear in the story. 3. *Pastoral names.
Sima. *Pit.
Sima de Cabra. *Chasm of Cabra.
Simak, Clifford D. (1904–). American science fiction writer. In Simak’s Out of Their Minds (1970), Horton Smith suddenly finds
Page 679 himself in a world populated by those inventions that come out of the minds of writers and other artists: legendary monsters, literary characters, and characters from comic strips. With the help of DQ and SP, Horton vanquishes the devil and rescues his beloved Kathy. The idea of bringing together real and imaginary figures from a variety of sources seems made for science fiction, and Simak’s version joins the novels of John Myers *Myers and Philip José Farmer (as well as Eaton Stannard *Barrett) as efforts to create such a world.
Simmonds, Lois. American mother and writer. Me and Don Quixote (1987) is the title of Simmonds’s tales of her harried motherhood. In a central chapter entitled “Traveling with Don Quixote,” she discusses the difficulties of traveling with children and concludes that “within me there is a Don Quixote, jousting at sheep and windmills. He emerges not only when I travel but at other times, in other situations with my children.” At the chapter’s end, after detailing an encounter with both children and a hurricane, she concludes heroically, quixotically, with the phrase that she uses as the title of her book: “Now, me and Don Quixote, we don’t get sick.” Obviously, Simmonds identifies with DQ in what she perceives to be his bravery and willingness to accept hardships, and makes this the central chapter in her book. Bibliography: Lois Simmonds Me and Don Quixote: Selected Stones by a Mother of Many (Chicago: Adams Press, 1987).
Simón. *Saint Peter.
Simón Forte. In DQ II, 60, the father of *Claudia Jerónima.
Simonet, Julio E. Spanish architect, parapsychologist, and writer. Simonet’s “El Quijote” censurado (1996; “Don Quixote” Censured) consists of three chapters (72–74) supposedly written by MC but not included in DQ II. The most consistent theme throughout these dialogues between DQ and SP, and with other characters also involved, is DT. The first chapter is a reflection on love, with quotes from various writers interspersed with the narration; the dialogue of the second chapter, involving a magician from Toledo, alternates with mysteries of the Tarot; and the third chapter mixes narrative and critical opinion on MC’s novel. Bibliography: Julio E.Simonet, El “Quijote” censurado (Avila, Spain: Rubiños1860, 1996).
Simueque, Don. In Casamiento, a Jewish name used in a proverbial expression, the gist of which is that Don Simueque tries to marry you to his daughter, but it turns out that she is blind. The idea is: buyer beware.
Sincere. The pseudonym of *Sannazaro, Jacopo. See Parnaso 3, 7.
Siñeriz, Juan Francisco. Spanish writer. His novel El Quijote del siglo XVIII, o Historia de la vida y hechos, aventuras y fazañas de Mr. LeGrand, héroe filósofo moderno, caballero andante, prevaricador y reformador de todo el género humano: obra escrita en beneficio de la humanidad y aplicada al siglo XIX (2 vols., 1836; The Quixote of the Eighteenth Century; or, History of the Life and Deeds, Adventures and Exploits of Mr. LeGrand, Modern Philosophical Hero, Knight Errant, Transgressor and Reformer of the Whole Human Race: A Work Written in Benefit of Humanity and Applied to the Nineteenth Century) is a reactionary satire on eighteenthcentury enlightenment thought presented with a thin guise of fiction. M.Le Grand, accompanied by his squire PetitJean, begins his career in France but soon travels over the entire world spreading his ‘enlightenment’ wherever he goes. At the end of the novel he returns home, acknowledges the horrors of the French Revolution of 1789, admits his error, embraces Christianity, and dies. This long and dreary political satire is a supreme example of the worst one can do with DQ. It was renamed El Quijote de la revolución…(The Quixote of the Revolution…), with a slightly different (but still very long) subtitle in subsequent editions of 1841 and 1863, which suggests that it enjoyed a certain popularity. It was also translated into French as Le Quichotte du XVIIIe siècle, appliqué au XIX (1837; The Quixote of the 18th Century, Applied to the
Page 680 19th) and then reissued as Voyage autour du monde du Quichotte du XVIIe siècle: histoire de la vie, des aventures, des faits et des exploits remarquables de M.Le Grand (1842; Voyage around the World by the Quixote of the 18th Century: History of the Live, Adventures, Deeds and Remarkable Exploits of M.Le Grand). Bibliography: Juan Francisco Siñeriz, El Quijote del siglo XVIII, o Historia de la vida y hechos, aventuras y fazañas de Mr. LeGrand, héroe filósofo moderno, caballero andante, prevaricador y reformador de todo el género humano: obra escrita en beneficio de la humanidad y aplicada al siglo XIX, 2 vols. (Madrid: M.de Burgos, 1836).
Sinforosa. In Persiles I, 22, the younger daughter of King Policarpo is first mentioned when she crowns Periandro after his victory in the Olympic games on the island of Scinta and falls in love with him. During the long sojourn of Periandro, Auristela, and those traveling with them on Scinta, (II, 2–17), Sinforosa falls ever deeper in love with Periandro, causing Auristela to waste away and almost die of jealousy. Sinforosa agrees to help her father’s plot to gain Auristela so that she can also have Periandro, but when the plan fails and all the travelers depart, Sinforosa falls into a faint, as the action shifts definitively away from her.
Singala, José. Spanish philosopher. Singala’s Ida y vuelta de Don Quijote (1910; Don Quixote’s Round Trip) begins when SP dies and meets DQ in the afterlife. The two of them are denied entry into both heaven and hell, and go on a quest for truth. The majority of what follows is a superficial philosophical inquiry with only the thinnest guise of fiction. This is not one of the interesting sequels to DQ. Bibliography: José Singala, Ida y vuelta de Don Quijote (Palma de Mallorca, Spain: Bartolomé Rotger, 1910).
Singer and poet. *Young musician.
Singer from Thrace. *Orpheus.
Sinibaldo. In Persiles II, 21, Renato’s brother who brings news to the island of the hermits that his brother has been absolved and can return to France.
Sinon [Sinón]. In Greek myth, the soldier who convinced the Trojans that he had deserted the Greek army and advised them to bring the Trojan Horse into the city. He then signaled the Greek float to return, opened the gates of the city, and helped the Greek soldiers out of the great wooden horse. According to classical sources he was Greek, but in the time of MC he was considered to be Trojan, and therefore an archtraitor. See DQ I, 47; Entretenida 1; Gallardo 2; Pedro 2.
Siqueo. *Sychaeus.
Sir Vigilant. *Guarda cuidadosa, La.
Siralvo. In Galatea 4, one of the Tagus River shepherds, praised for his erudition and discretion; he does not appear in the story. Some suggest that he represents MC’s friend Luis *Gálvez de Montalvo.
Sireno. A shepherd from Jorge de *Montemayor’s pastoral romance La Diana. See Coloquio.
Sirens [Sirenas]. In Greek myth, female creatures who had the power to tempt men to their destruction by means of their singing. They are famously described by Homer in the Odyssey. See Parnaso 2–3.
Siria. *Syria.
Sirtes. *Syrtes.
Sister of the elderly shepherd [Hermana del anciano ganadero]. In Persiles III, 3, the woman who takes the mysterious child (of Feliciana de la Voz) to the two brothers in Trujillo, as instructed by the man (Rosanio) who left the child with the shepherds.
Sisters who work so hard. *Danaids.
Sisyphus [Sísifo]. In Greek myth, a king of Corinth. He was a master thief and the most cunning of men; he even tricked the gods of the underworld into allowing him to return to Earth. But after his eventual death, Sisyphus was condemned to spend eternity rolling a large
Page 681 rock up a hill only to have it roll down again just as it was about to reach to top. Thus any endless and unfruitful task that must be repeated is referred to as a labor of Sisyphus or as a Sisyphean task. See Coloquio; DQ I, 14; Entretenida 2; Galatea 4.
Sita. *Scythia.
Skis. In Persiles II, 18, when Periandro and his men are trapped in the ice of the *Frozen Sea, they are approached by an army of men traveling on skis, a process that is described, but the skis are not actually named. MC most probably took the exotic concept from a passage in the book by Olaus *Magnus.
Slate, Fountain of. *Fountain of Slate.
Slaughterhouse [Carnicería, Matadero]. The slaughterhouse and meat market of Seville. See Coloquio; Rinconete.
Slave(s) [Esclavo(s)]. 1. Spain did not participate in the slave trade to any noteworthy degree; rather, that lucrative activity was a primary source of income for the Portuguese. There were, however, slaves, mostly African (many of them Muslims captured in war), in Spain in the Renaissance, perhaps as many as 35,000–40,000 of them (with more in Seville than in any other city), and many wealthy households were considered incomplete without slaves. A common practice was to brand slaves (*S+clavo). At no point is there a sympathetic portrayal of a black man or woman in any of MC’s works. The overall impression one gets is of widespread racism in MC’s day, a sentiment that he may well have shared. On the other hand, slavery as an institution is presented more as a social fact than it is approvingly. It should also be recalled that MC himself was a slave in Algiers for some five years and that *freedom is a constant theme in his works. 2. In Tratos 3, three Christian prisoners taunted by Muslim children. 3. In Tratos 4, three Christians who pray to the Virgin for freedom at the end of the play; they may or may not be the same as those who appeared in the previous act. 4. In Celoso, two black and four branded white women, and one black man (*Luis), purchased by Felipo de Carrizales to serve his wife Leonora in his fortresshouse. One of the black female slaves is a Portuguese bozal (one who speaks broken Spanish) who causes a major problem for the secret lovers when she raises a false alarm. 5. In Coloquio, a black man and woman who serve in the home of the rich merchant who is Berganza’s master. Their illicit sexual relationship is morally offensive to the dog, so he bites and mauls the woman, but she tries to poison him, so he abandons the house to look for another master. 6. In Persiles III, 15, a witch in the service of Lorena who places a spell on a shirt in order to attempt to kill Domicio. 7. *Black vassals. Bibliography: José Luis Cortés López, “Aproximación a la vida del esclavo negro en la España de los siglos XV y XVI,” Studia Africana 1 (1990):39–48.
Slaves of Algiers, The. *Esclavos de Argel, Los.
Sloth [Pereza]. One of the allegorical figures that accompany Morpheus, god of dreams, in Parnaso 8.
Small time. *Great time.
Smith, Harry B. American writer. Smith’s The New Don Quixote: A Continuation of Cervantes’s Faithful Relation of the Most Marvelous Adventures of the Gallant Knight and His Faithful Squire (ca. 1892) has a spectacular beginning: “Even a poet could not have asked to see a more beautiful and balmy day than that on which Don Quixote, the immortal knight of the rueful countenance, declared his intention to make a tour of the East in search of further adventures.” It turns out, however, that the reference is not to the exotic orient, but to the eastern part of the United States, for knight and squire are in a hotel in the city of Chicago. They go to the train station and board the flying palace called the Michigan Central’s North Shore Limited and make a train trip to Detroit, Niagara, Buffalo, and New York City. During the voyage, they are introduced (by polite Muslims called porters) to the wonders of the North
Page 682 Shore Limited: their stateroom, books to read, the dining car, their sleeping berths, having their boots shined, a modern bathroom, and so forth. There are the usual misunderstandings and supposedly comic scenes, and at the stop in Niagara DQ is disappointed when the great monster Niagara refuses to meet him in singular combat. After they arrive in New York and take a cab to their hotel, SP sees a woman making strange sounds as her fingers glide over the keys of an unfamiliar device. She is not playing a musical instrument, however, but writing with a typewriter, and SP implores the damsel to use it to compose a letter to his wife. In the letter, SP praises the North Shore Limited and the generally fine accommodations available in this new country. This is followed by several pages of advertisements for hotels and other businesses along the line of the North Shore Limited. If nothing else, this little book is an interesting example of early advertising deceit. Bibliography: Harry B.Smith, The New Don Quixote (Buffalo, NY: MatthewsNorthrup, n.d.).
Smollett, Tobias (1721–71). English (but born in Scotland) novelist, poet, and translator. Smollett’s controversial translation of DQ (1755) was widely read for over a century. In the preface to The Adventures of Rodrick Random (1748), Smollett states that all modern novels are indebted to DQ. His own explicit version of the DQ story is The Adventures of Sir Launcelot Greaves (1760–62); a “greave” is the piece of armor that covers the leg from the knee to the ankle, similar to DQ’s quixote (cuisse; *name of Don Quixote). The protagonist (more reminiscent of Hudibras than DQ) falls in love with a young woman and then dresses as DQ as a way of making manifest his chivalric feelings for her; in this he is more an actor and selfpromoter than a truly quixotic fantasist. In fact, he stresses that he is not a DQ: “I am neither an affected imitator of Don Quixote, nor, as I trust in heaven, visited by that spirit of lunacy so admirably displayed in the fictitious character exhibited by the inimitable Cervantes. I have not yet encountered a windmill for a giant; nor mistaken this publichouse for a magnificent castle; neither do I believe this gentleman to be the constable; nor that worthy practitioner to be master Elizabat, the surgeon recorded in Amadis de Gaul; nor you to be the enchanter Alquife, nor any other sage of history or romance; I see and distinguish objects as they are discerned and described by other men.” Yet Greaves is called a DQ and treated as one by other characters, including his servant Timothy Crabshaw, who very much looks (and acts) the part of SP: “His stature was below the middle size: he was thick, squat, and brawny, with a small protuberance on one shoulder, and a prominent belly.” Even Dawdle, who attempts to make Greaves return home, can be compared in this role to Sansón Carrasco. Sir Launcelot Greaves may not be a great (or even a very good) novel, but it is as quixotic a narrative as any ever written. Smollett’s somewhat better novel The Expedition of Humphry Clinker (1771) similarly draws from DQ. Lismahago is explicitly a DQ: “A tall, meagure figure, answering, with his horse, the description of Don Quixote mounted on Rocinante,” who (like DQ in II, 30) falls when he meets a duke. There are other allusions and references to DQ, as well as the constant comedy of the SPlike comic linguistic forms of the letters of Tabitha Bramble and Win Jenkins. Smollett’s other novels also have clear relationships to DQ: Tom Bowling in The Adventures of Roderick Random (1748) and Hawser Trunnion in The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle (1751) both have obvious quixotic aspects. Smollett made his career out of translating, rewriting, and writing in the wake of MC and the Spanish picaresque novel. Bibliography: Martin C.Battestin, “The Authorship of Smollett’s Don Quixote,” Studies in Bibliography 50 (1997):295–321; Carmine R.Limsalata, Smollett’s Hoax: Don Quixote in England (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1956); Edward L. Niehus, “Quixote Figures in the Novels of Smollett,” Durham University Journal 40 (1979):233–43; Pedro Javier Pardo García, “La otra cara de Cervantes en la novela inglesa del siglo XVIII: Tom Jones y Humphry Clinker,” in Actas del II Congreso Internacional de la Asociación de Cervantistas, ed. Giuseppe Grilli (Naples: Instituto Universitario Orientale, 1995), 839–54; and Pilar V.Rotella, “Smollett’s Sir Launcelot Greaves as Cervantine Ro
Page 683 mance: An Honorable Failure,” Letras hispanas 1 (1994):52–65.
Smyrna [Esmirna]. A city in Turkey, on the Aegean Sea. It was supposed to be the birthplace of Homer. See Galatea 6.
Soberano Hacedor del cielo. *Sovereign Maker of Heaven.
Sobradisa. *Soliadisa.
Sobrina. *Antonia Quijana.
Sobrina de Cervantes. *Cervantes’s niece.
Sobrina de los padres de Isabel. *Niece of Isabel’s parents.
Sobrino. 1. Muslim king from Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso (*Agramante’s Camp). See Casa 3; DQ I, 45; DQ II, 1. 2. *Nephew.
Sobrino de don Antonio. *Nephew of Don Antonio.
Socorro, Manuel (1894–1979). Spanish novelist and dramatist. Socorro explicitly sets out to ‘rehabilitate’ SP, who he believes has been mistreated and misunderstood by readers and critics. His play La ínsula de Sancho en el reino de Don Quijote (1948; Sancho’s Island in the Kingdom of Don Quixote), heavy with narrative and commentary, presents a slightly curmudgeonly SP in his governorship. The play uses many lines directly from MC’s novel, but often in very different contexts from the original What is most interesting about the work is its consistent comparison of SP with the Spaniards who went to govern in the New World. Bibliography: Manuel Socorro, La ínsula de Sancho en el reino de Don Quijote (Las Palmas, Spain: Imprenta España, 1948).
Sodom [Sodoma]. In the Old Testament, a city destroyed (along with Gomorrah) by God because of the wickedness and sinfulness of its inhabitants. See Baños 1; Tratos 3.
Sofonisba. *Sophonisba.
Sojo, Eduardo (1849–1905). Argentine dramatist. Sojo, a tireless political reformer, wrote Don Quijote en Buenos Aires: Revista bufo política de circunstancias, en un acto (1884; Don Quixote in Buenos Aires: A Comic Political Review of Circumstances, in One Act), a political satire in dramatic form, in which DQ and SP have conversations with figures such as Public Opinion, several Buenos Aires newspapers, and the future Presidency. The most interesting part of the oneact play is the prologue, in which Public Opinion introduces what is to follow but is interrupted by members of the audience and is forced to cut off her remarks. Bibliography: Eduardo Sojo, Don Quijote en Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires: Imprenta de la Ciudad 1934).
Sol [Sun]. 1. The galley on which both MC and his brother Rodrigo were returning to Spain in September 1575. It was one of four vessels sailing from Naples to Barcelona under the orders of Don Sancho de *Leiva. A storm broke up the group, but three of the ships reached port safely. The only one that did not, Sol, under the command of Gaspar Pedro de Villena, was attacked (perhaps near Marseilles or the Spanish Costa Brava), by mercenary Turkish pirates, headed by Arnaut Mamí and Dalí Mamí. The Spanish resisted for some hours and several men, including Villena, were killed; the rest were finally overwhelmed and taken prisoner to Algiers. See MC’s account in Poesías 8. See also Timbrio’s narrative of capture by pirates led by Arnaut Mamí in Galatea 5, which can be read as an exaggerated and romanticized version of the incident. 2. *Sun.
Sol de Austria. *Austrian Sun.
Sol segundo. *Second sun.
Solana. *Inn of la Solana.
Solas, Las. *Alone Pearls, The.
Soldier(s) [Soldado(s)]. 1. In Numancia 1, some members of the Roman army laying siege to Numantia who hear the harangue from
Page 684 Scipio and announce the arrival of Numantian ambassadors. 2. In Gitanilla, the rash nephew of the mayor of Murcia who insults Andrés Caballero and is in turn killed by him. 3. In Rinconete, a man who employs Rinconete in the latter’s first day on the job as carrier. 4. In Gallardo 1, the man who announces the arrival of Alimuzel in Oran. 5. In Juez, the husband whose wife Doña Guiomar wants to divorce him. 6. In Guarda, the jealous guard of the house of Cristina who loses her to the sacristan Lorenzo Pasillas. 7. In DQ II, 11, one of the members of the cast of Las *Cortes de la Muerte. 8. In DQ II, 61, the men who man the galleys in the harbor of Barcelona when DQ and SP arrive at the city. 9. In DQ II, 63, two men killed during the pursuit of the Algerian pirate ship during DQ’s visit to the galley in Barcelona. 10. In Persiles I, 19, sailors who sink Arnaldo’s ship in hopes of escaping with Auristela and Transila; one kills the other, explains what they have done, and then commits suicide.
Soldino, Padre. In Persiles III, 18–19, the astrologer who predicts the battles of Lepanto and Alcazarquivir and a good future for Periandro and all those traveling with him.
Solemn ambassador. *Mercury.
Solercio. In Persiles II, 10–20, the unattractive fisherman who loves the beautiful Selviana and who joins Periandro’s group of fisherman pirates in order to go in search of their stolen women.
Soliadisa. A princess from the anonymous romance entitled Clamades y Clarmonda (1562). The name is mentioned, as that of a kingdom, in DQ I, 10, in the first printing of the novel, but in subsequent printings the name is corrected to read Sobradisa, a kingdom mentioned in Amadís de Gaula, where it is often associated with Denmark, as it is in this passage of MC’s novel. It is not known if the change was made by MC or someone else.
Solimán. 1. In Amante, not a reference Suleiman the Magnificent, but to his son Selim II. 2. *Juan (Juanico).
Solís Mejía, Juan de. Spanish poet. He is the author of one of the preliminary sonnets in Novelas. He is praised by MC in Parnaso 5.
Solís y Rivadeneyra, Antonio de (1610–86). Spanish dramatist, poet, and historian. Solís is best known for his Historia de la conquista de México (1684; History of the Conquest of Mexico). As a dramatist in the Calderón circle, he was more an imitator and adapter than a creator of original works. His play La gitanilla de Madrid (1671; The Little Gypsy Girl of Madrid) is based on Gitanilla, which is even cited in the play. As a late baroque play, and with the usual romance plot that ends in multiple marriages, Solís’s version tends toward a more classical structure, with the unities of time and place respected. Bibliography: M.Sánchez Regueira, “La Gitanilla en la novela, La Gitanilla en el teatro,” in Cervantes, su obra y su mundo: Actas del I Congreso Internacional sobre Cervantes, ed. Manuel Criado de Val (Madrid: Edi6, 1981), 437–43.
Solisdán. Probably a character invented by MC but thought by some to be a typographical error for the name of one of several legendary and fictional characters. Solisdán is the author of a comic sonnet written in *fabla to DQ as one of the prefatory verses to DQ I.
Sologub, Fyodor (Fyodor Kuz’mich Teternikov, 1863–1927). Russian symbolist poet, novelist, and dramatist. Sologub read DQ early in his youth and retained an admiration for the novel throughout his life. DT, or, better, the DT Aldonza pair, became a constant in his work, the symbolist’s most central symbol. Sologub expressed his basic position in one of his essays: the (quixotic) artist must create from base reality (Aldonza) beauty that should but does not really exist (DT). In some of his poetry Sologub modeled himself on DQ and his wife Anastasia on DT. The preface to the novel that brought him fame, Melkii bes (1907; The Petty Demon), is modeled on the final chapters of DQ
Page 685 I. In this novel the protagonist, Peredonov, is a misanthropic DQ, moved more by fear than by love or altruism. The AldonzaDT theme is also seen in the dramatic prologue to Sologub’s play Pobeda smerti (1907; Triumph of Death) where the peasant Aldonza and the king discuss the reality of Aldonza, the ideal of DT, and the role of the poet. Then, in the play Zalozhniki zhizni (1912; Hostages of Life), the tensions between ideas and reality, art and life, Aldonza and DT, and the quest for the ideal are again dramatized in the love triangle involving Mikahil, Aldonza/ Katya, and DT/Lilith. If Dostoevsky’s Idiot/DQ is the greatest Russian quixotic figure of the nineteenth century, Sologub’s obsession with DT and Aldonza is probably the greatest Russian expression of MC’s novel in the twentieth century.
Solomon [Salomón]. In the Old Testament, the Israeli king renowned for his wisdom. See Casa 2; DQ II, 45; Persiles III, 4.
Solon [Solón] (ca. 640–ca. 561 BCE). Greek statesman and poet, one of the Seven Sages of Greek tradition, known for his fairness and wisdom. See DQ II, 1.
Solón Romero, Walter (1925–). Bolivian artist. Solón Romero contributed 11 drawings of DQ and dogs for an anthology of fiction and testimony about political repression and violence entitled El Quijote y los perros: Antología del terror político (1979; Don Quixote and the Dogs: Anthology of Political Terror). None of the texts in the anthology deals specifically with DQ, but it is clear from the book’s title and the artist’s imagery throughout that the snarling dogs represent military/political repression and DQ implicitly stands for the people and/or freedom. Bibliography: Alfredo Medrano and Adolfo Cáceres Romero, eds., El Quijote y los perros: Antología del terror político (Cochabamba, Bolivia: Universitaria, 1979).
Solórzano (Don Esteban de Solórzano). In Vizcaíno, the pícaro who deceives Cristina with a false gold chain.
Solzhenitsyn, Alexandr (1918–). Russian novelist and historian. Solzhenitsyn’s Avgust chetyrnadtsatogo (1971; August 1914) features a Russian army colonel named Georgii Vorotyntsev who is quixotic in his realism (and who has Private Arsenii Blagodaryov as his SP). This realistic quixotism is particularly evident in the final chapter, where he fights the Tolstoyan romantic view that is pervasive among the other officers of the army. The VorotyntsevDQ link is symbolically captured in the windmill that for a while is prominent in the story: “Isolated, in its exposed spot slightly higher than the village, its gigantic black bulk loomed up.” Later, in one of the novel’s screen sequences, the windmill burns and, with its blades turning, crashes to the ground.
Soma. An Italian wine mentioned in Vidriera.
Somoza, José Carlos (1958–). Spanish dramatist. Somoza’s Miguel Will (1997) is the story of how William Shakespeare wrote, directed, and acted in a play based on DQ I entitled Cardenio. Shakespeare’s dilemma is how to bring DQ to the stage. At first, the actor Richard Burbage assumes he is to play DQ as a noble chivalric hero; Shakespeare, however, wants the character to be both comic and noble at the same time, which Burbage and others assure him is impossible to do on stage. But Shakespeare, obsessed with MC’s novel and convinced that he must bring its subtlety to the theater, agonizes over his dilemma. Finally, Shakespeare takes over the role of DQ himself, making him into Miguel Will, a dramatist who has gone mad and believes himself to be the author of all the great plays written by William Shakespeare. In the metadramatic public staging of Cardenio, the audience cannot understand what is happening or where the line between theater and life is drawn; apparently, the idea is that metatheater taken to such an extent was incomprehensible in the early seventeenth century. In the end, under pressure from both the public and the king to eliminate the dramatic experimentation and make the work into a conventional play, John Fletcher rewrites the play, eliminating the role of DQ.
Page 686 He offers it as a collaboration with Shakespeare, who completely rejects the work. The play ends when MC appears in a dreamlike scene to Shakespeare, thanking him for the effort and assuring him that within 500 years the two of them will be considered the greatest of all writers. Somoza’s attempt to represent the spirit of MC’s novel in the theater, make Shakespeare into a quixotic reader of DQ, and blend Shakespeare and MC into a single character is one of the most original and interesting theatrical works inspired in DQ. The reality of the *ShakespeareFletcher collaboration on Cardenio is much more prosaic than the story told by Somoza. Bibliography: José Carlos Somoza, Miguel Will (Madrid: Fundación Autor, 1999).
Son [Hijo]. In DQ II, 47, the younger child of the supposed peasant who requests SP to help him with a dowry so that he can marry *Clara Perlerina.
Son of a whore [Hijo de la puta], Don. In DQ I, 22, a name used, together with Don Ginesillo de Paropillo, by DQ to insult *Ginés de Pasamonte.
Son of Barbarrosa. *Presa.
Son of Corsicurvo [Hijo de Corsicurvo]. In Persiles I, 4, the young man who kills the barbarian governor, thus starting the general confusion and destruction of the barbarian island.
Son of Diego de la Llana. *Daughter of Diego de la Llana.
Son of Leto. *Apollo.
Son of Pedro de Lobo. *Pedro de Lobo.
Son of the earth. *Anteus.
Song of despair (Grisóstomo’s song) [Canción desesperada (Canción de Grisóstomo)]. In DQ I, 13, the title of the poem written by the defunct Grisóstomo and read in I, 14, at his funeral, where it is called simply “Grisóstomo’s Song.” A manuscript of the same poem, with slight variants, was discovered in the Biblioteca Colombina of Seville in 1867, suggesting that MC inserted into his novel a previously written work.
Sonnet [Soneto]. The most popular Italianate verse form in the Renaissance. In Spanish, the form of the sonnet comes from Petrarch and consists of two quatrains with an obligatory ABBA, ABBA rhyme scheme, and two tercets which can have a number of rhymes (e.g., CDE, CDE; or CDC, BCD); the lines are all of 11 syllables. The Petrarchan model was developed differently in England, where the standard model (called the Shakespearean sonnet) consists of three quatrains and a couplet. In addition to more than 40 sonnets included throughout MC’s prose works and his theater, the following poems are sonnets: Poesías 1–2, 6–7, 10–11, 14–15, 17–19, 24–26, 28, 30, 32, 34–35.
Sonnet about Rome. In Persiles IV, 3, there is a reference to this anonymous sonnet in which Rome is described as a den of sin and corruption. Bibliography: José Luis Garrido, “Entre Paquino, Góngora y Cervantes. Texto y contextos de un soneto anónimo contestado en el Persiles,” in Hommage à Robert Jammes, ed. Francis Cerdan, 3 vols. (Toulouse, France: Presses Universitaires du Mirail, 1994), vol. 3, 643–54.
Sophonisba [Sofonisba]. Wife of King Syphax of Numidia who convinced her husband to break his alliance with Rome. When they were defeated, she drank poison rather than be taken as a prisoner to Rome. See Galatea 4.
Sorel, Charles (1602–74). French novelist and romancewriter much influenced by Spanish literature, especially DQ (an influence that he denied) and the picaresque novel (which he admitted). Sorel’s L’Histoire comique de Francion (1623; The Comic History of Francion) also features a comic hero who is fond of reading books of chivalric adventures. Sorel explicitly imitates (even as he criticizes) DQ in Le Berger extravagant (1627–28; The Extravagant Shepherd), a satire (that even includes a book
Page 687 burning scene reminiscent of DQ I, 6) on pastoral romances in which the shepherd Lysis has a DT in the figure of his beloved Charite. Sorel’s Polyandre, histoire comique (1648; Polyandre, A Comical History) is the story of a woman who is so obsessed with the reading of DQ that she constantly cites and refers to the character and his adventures, and her family begins to worry for her sanity. Polyandre is perhaps the very first female DQ, an early anticipation of the quixotic heroines of Flaubert and others. Several of the stories included in Sorel’s collection Nouvelles françoises (1623; French Stories) are based on Amante, Celoso, Fregona, and Gitanilla. Bibliography: Leonard Hinds, Narrative Transformations from “L’Astrée” to “Le berger extravagant” (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 2002); and Otilia López Fanego, “Carlos Sorel, un admirador de Cervantes,” Anales Cervantinos 25–26 (1987–88):221–38.
Soria. City located northeast of Madrid and west and very slightly north of Zaragoza. Numantia, where the action of Numancia takes place, is just outside the city, to the northeast.
Soria, Doctor (Pedro Sanz de) (?–1607). Spanish poet praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Sorrento. An Italian port city located south of Naples. See DQ II, 49.
Sosa, Antonio de. A Portuguese friar, member of the Order of Saint John of Malta, apparently a doctor in canon law, and a captive in Algiers along with MC in the years 1577–81. Sosa is almost certainly the author of the fascinating Topografía e historia general de Argel (1612; Topography and General History of Algiers, attributed to Diego de *Haedo), an account of captivity in North Africa. Sosa and MC were undoubtedly good friends (Sosa was involved in MC’s escape attempts 2 and 4) and the former may be considered the first biographer of the latter. At one point in his book, Sosa calls particular attention to MC, writing, ‘You could write a separate history of his captivity and deeds.’ Bibliography: María Antonia Garcés, Cervantes in Algiers: A Captive’s Tale. (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2002); and Emilio Sola and José F.de la Peña, “Antonio de Sosa: un clásico inédito amigo de Cervantes (Historia y literatura),” in Actas del Primer Coloquio Internacional de la Asociación de Cervantistas, Alcalá de Henares 29/ 30 nov.–1/2 dic. 1988 (Barcelona: Anthropos, 1990), 409–12.
Sosa, Carlos. Venezuelan writer. Sosa’s Dichosa edad y siglo dichoso aquel…(1994; Happy the Age and Happy the Time…) takes its title from the first words of DQ’s Golden Age speech to the goatherds in I, 11. The novel consists of the philosophical musings of the Chronicler, Rocinante, and DQ and has relatively little fictional content or plot. The first section, the musings of Rocinante, is the most original and interesting part of the book. Bibliography: Carlos Sosa, Dichosa edad y siglo dichoso aquel…(Caracas, Venezuela: Planeta Venezolana, 1994).
Sosas. A Portuguese family name mentioned in Tratos 4.
Sôseki, Natsume. *Natsume Sôseki.
Sospecha. *Suspicion.
Sospiros y rebuznos del rucio. *Rucio’s sighs and brays.
Sotaermitaño. *Hermit.
Sotasacristán. *Subsacristan.
Soto Barahona, Licenciado. *Barahona de Soto, Luis.
Soto de Rojas, Pedro de (1584–1658). A lawyer and priest, he is known as a member of the Savage Academy, where he was the enemy of Luis Vélez de Guevara. MC includes him among the valiant defenders of Mount Parnassus in the battle with the bad poets in Parnaso 7.
Soto del Concejo. *Thicket of the Council.
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Soto Hall, Máximo (1871–1944). Guatemalan novelist. Soto Hall’s popular novel El problema (1899; The Problem) is the story of a man named Julio who returns to Costa Rica after a stay in Europe and finds that his country is full of American commercial interests and that English is the dominant language. He falls in love with his cousin Emma, but she rejects him for an American engineer. The quixotic Julio rides out to challenge the train on which Emma and her new husband are riding and is killed in the encounter. Native Hispanic culture and values are crushed by the allpowerful Yankee capitalists. Bibliography: Máximo Soto Hall, El problema, ed. Alvaro Quesada Soto and Juan Durán Luzio (San José: Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica, 1992).
Soto, Pedro de. *Soto de Rojas, Pedro de.
Souls from Purgatory [Animas (Almas) del Purgatorio]. 1. In Rufián 1, entities evoked, along with the Virgin and the psalms of David, in the prayer of Cristóbal de Lugo. 2. In Rufián 3, three spirits sent from purgatory to accompany the soul of the recently deceased Fray Cristóbal de la Cruz to heaven.
Sousa Coutinho, Andrés de. *Sousa Coutinho, Manuel de.
Sousa Coutinho, Manuel de (?–1632). Portuguese soldier and writer. Sousa Coutinho and his brother Andrés were captives in Algiers in the years 1577–79, and their ransom is remembered and commented on by the king of Algiers in Tratos 4. Back in Portugal, after separating from his wife of nearly 30 years, he entered the Dominican order, took the name of Fray Luis de Sousa, and wrote poetry and drama (and was later immortalized in a play by Almeida *Garrett). He also was the model for the character of Manuel de Sosa Coitiño in Persiles.
South Sea [Mar del sur]. The Pacific Ocean; also sometimes by extension the Indian Ocean (*Trifaldi, Countess). Pearls from the Pacific and/or the Indian Ocean were highly valued. See DQ II, 38; Parnaso 4; Persiles II, 15; Sultana 2.
Sovereign Maker of Heaven [Soberano Hacedor del cielo]. In Galatea 1, an epithet used for God.
Spain [España]. 1. With Portugal, the nation that occupies the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe. The name comes from the Phoenician Hispania. Spain, as a nation, was barely half a century old when MC was born (*Golden Age); its population in the mid to late sixteenth century was about 7,000,000. MC was both proud of his nationality, especially early in his career as a soldier, and critical of his nation’s shortcomings, particularly in some of his later writings. Since references to Spain abound throughout MC’s works, no effort has been made to note them all; see, however, the comments in Casa 1, 3; Entretenida 1; Galatea 6; Numancia 1, 4; Parnaso 1–2; Persiles I, 5; III, 6; Poesías 20; and Sultana 2. 2. In Numancia 1, an allegorical figure who praises the bravery and independence of people of the city.
Spaniard(s) [Español(es), Hombre español]. 1. In Española, men rescued from their Turkish captors and then set free by Ricaredo. 2. In Persiles IV, 5, the man who delivers to Antonio the younger the letter appealing for help written by Bartolomé from prison.
Spanish Army. *Army, Spanish.
Spanish Englishwoman [Española inglesa]. In Española, the name by which Isabel is known in Seville after her return from England.
Spanish hegemony. *Golden Age.
Spanish knights [Caballeros castellanos]. In DQ II, 12, the knights whom Sansón Carrasco, as the Knight of the Forest (later Knight of the Mirrors), boasts of having defeated: all the knights from Navarra, León, Andalusia, Castile, and La Mancha, including the most famous of all—DQ.
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Spanish Ovid [Ovidio español]. Probably a sly selfreference by MC in the sonnet written by Gandalín, squire to Amadís de Gaula, as one of the prefatory verses to DQ I. The idea seems to be that just as Ovid wrote a famous book of metamorphoses, or transformations, so in DQ does MC transform hidalgo and peasant into knight and squire.
Spanish Ovid. *Metamorfóseos o Ovidio español.
Spark, Muriel (1918–). Scottish novelist. In her first novel, The Comforters (1957), Spark takes to the extreme the remarkable scenes of DQ II, 2–4, in which DQ and SP discuss their status as literary characters with Sansón Carrasco. Caroline Rose literally overhears someone writing the novel of her life: “‘But the typewriter and the voices—it is as if a writer on another plane of existence was writing a story about us.’ As soon as she had said these words, Caroline knew that she had hit on the truth.” Just as the physical pain of *DQ’s ear undermines the romance of his chivalric fantasy, it is the physical pain she experiences that convinces Caroline that she is not completely a fictional character. At the end of the novel, she announces that she is going away on a holiday to write a novel. When someone asks what the novel is to be about, she responds, “Characters in a novel.”
Spencer, Jane. Theorist of the novel. Spencer’s book, The Rise of the Woman Novelist (1986), begins with the standard AngloAmerican assumption that the novel is an English invention: “Eighteenthcentury England witnessed two remarkable and interconnected literary events: the emergence of the novel and the establishment of the professional woman writer. The first of these has been extensively documented and debated, while the second has been largely ignored.” Spencer then goes on to modify Ian *Watt’s original “rise of the novel” thesis by documenting a convincing case for the contributions of women such as Aphra Behn, Delariviere Manley, and others to the developing novel in England. The problem, of course, is that she never considers the possibility of the existence of any sort of novel before the eighteenth century or anywhere else but grand old England; Spain and MC are never mentioned. Bibliography: Jane Spencer, The Rise of the Woman Novelist: From Aphra Behn to Jane Austen (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986).
Spender, Dale. Theorist of the novel. In Mothers of the Novel (1986), Spender attacks Ian *Watt’s classic position that the novel was created in the eighteenth century by Defoe, Fielding, and Richardson. Spender severely, and not without reason, criticizes Watt’s work that credits the canonized male writers with the creation of the genre, but she takes no issue with the matter of time or place for the beginnings of the modern novel: “Without doubt the novel came into its own during the eighteenth century.” Her criticism is directed solely against the proposition that credits the traditionally admired male writers with the creation of the genre, and she puts forth the names of no less than 100 “good” women writers from the period of the late seventeenth century through the early nineteenth century. The novel, Spender insists, has more and greater mothers than it does fathers. Nowhere in her otherwise interesting and informative book does Spender even pause to consider anything written outside of England or before the women novelists she studies; neither MC nor the writers of Spanish picaresque novels are ever mentioned. Bibliography: Dale Spender, Mothers of the Novel (London: Pandora Press, 1986).
Spies and sentinels [Espías y centinelas]. In DQ II, 61, the lookouts posted by *Roque Guinart during DQ’s visit with him and the bandits.
Spires, Robert C. Theorist of the novel. Like Alter, Spires considers DQ the starting point for any consideration of the concept of selfconscious fiction, but he adds: “It would be inadequate and something of a distortion to categorize the Quijote as merely a metafictional novel. The metaficitonal is one of many modes that play an important role in the novel. Indeed,
Page 690 the modal complexity of the Quijote may well explain why the novel continues to attract the attention of virtually each new critical school” (23). It is precisely this protean nature of DQ that allows it to be perceived as a foundational novel in every century and for every kind of novel. Bibliography: Robert C.Spires, Beyond the Metafictional Mode: Directions in the Modern Spanish Novel (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1984).
Spirit of Merlin [Espíritu de Merlín]. In Casa, the entity that addresses Bernardo del Carpio and other characters.
Spring [Primavera]. The personification of newness, growth, and flowers, as described by Elicio in Galatea 6.
Spring of the Corktree [Fuente del alcornoque]. The place where Grisóstomo is buried, at his request, for that is where he first saw the beautiful Marcela.
Squadron from Malta. *Order of Malta.
Squire(s) [Escudero(s)]. 1. In medieval times, the servant/apprentice of a knighterrant. In the Golden Age, a favored servant, usually of a good family. Often they escorted, or “squired,” the ladies of the family when they left the house. 2. In Casa 2, the man who accompanies Bernardo del Carpio, apparently replacing the Basque who had this role in the first act. 3. In DQ II, 60, a member of *Roque Guinart’s troop of bandits. When he complains that their leader is too generous in sending a group of captives on their way with their money and possessions intact, Roque kills him. 4. In DQ II, 65, the man who receives and assists Sansón Carrasco, Knight of the White Moon, after he defeats DQ. 5. In DQ II, 61, six members of *Roque Guinart’s band who accompany DQ and SP to Barcelona.
Squire Badger (1772). An anonymous English farce based on aspects of DQ, and derived from Henry *Fielding’s Don Quixote in England.
Squire of the [Knight of the] Forest [Escudero del Bosque]. In DQ II, 12, a name used by the narrator for *Tomé Cecial as squire to Sansón Carrasco, the Knight of the Forest; later he is called the *Squire of the Knight of the Mirrors.
Squire of the Knight of the Mirrors [Escudero del de los Espejos]. In DQ II, 14, a name used by the narrator for *Tomé Cecial as squire to Sansón Carrasco, the Knight of the Forest; earlier he was called the *Squire of the [Knight of the] Forest.
Stanzas from Góngora’s poem Polifemo [Estancias polifemas]. This reference in Parnaso 7 is an indication that Luis de *Góngora’s Fábula de Polifemo y Galatea (1613), must have circulated in manuscript form before publication, as the Parnaso (except for Adjunta) was complete by 1612.
Steele, Richard (1672–1729). English dramatist and essayist. In The Tender Husband; or, The Accomplished Fools (1705), Steele creates one of the first female DQs in the figure of Biddy Timpkin, who imitates the heroines of romance fictions. She is described as a “perfect Quixote in petticoats!…she governs herself wholly by romance; it has got into her very blood. She starts by rule and blushes by example.”
Steele, Wilbur Daniel (1886–1970). American writer. Steele’s short story entitled “How Beautiful with Shoes” (1932) is about a homely and dull young farm woman named Amarantha, but whom everyone calls Mary, or simply Mare. One day an escaped madman and murderer comes across her, calls her by her real name, treats her gently, and recites poetry to her. He calls her beautiful, his love, and wants to run off with her; she is, in effect, his DT. Although she is confused and frightened, and helps to have the man caught and killed, she is transformed by the experience. At the end of the story, she sits alone in her room, telling her mother and the farm hand who is to marry her to go away and leave her alone. Once again,
Page 691 contact with a DQ transforms an Aldonza into a DT. Bibliography: Wilbur Daniel Steele, The Best Stories of Wilbur Daniel Steele (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1946).
Steinarr, Steinn (1908–58). Icelandic poet. Steinarr wrote a poem entitled “Don Quijote” about the Spanish Civil War. In it DQ declares himself the enemy of the man who kills and burns (Francisco Franco). Bibliography: José Antonio Fernández Romero, “Un poema islandés sobre Don Quijote,” Anales Cervantinos 30 (1992):199–201.
Steinbeck, John (1902–68). American novelist. Steinbeck’s In Dubious Battle (1936) is set in the world of migrant farm workers and their labor struggles. In an interesting reversal of the usual DQSP pair, Mac is the experienced, pragmatic organizer who trains the newly idealistic Jim, a knighterrant who is more like SP with a quixotic squire.
Stendhal (Henri Bayle, 1783–1842). French novelist. Stendhal’s novel Le rouge et le noir (1830; The Red and the Black) features one of the great quixotic heroes of all time: Julien Sorel. Young Julien’s most distinguishing characteristic is his imagination: “His imagination, filled with the most extravagant, the most Spanish notions of what a man ought to say when he is alone with a woman, offered him in his agitation nothing but inadmissible ideas. His soul was in the clouds, and yet he was unable to break the humiliating silence.” Julien is “torn, not between vice and virtue, but between safe, comfortable mediocrity and all the heroic dreams of his youth.” His whole life consists of role playing, influenced largely by his romantic vision of Napoleon and his conviction that he is destined to be important. Bibliography: Pilar Gómez Bedate, “Las huellas del Quijote en la novela stendhaliana,” Insula 438–439 (MayJune, 1983):4–5.
Steps [Gradas]. The steps leading up to the Cathedral of Seville. It was a popular site for gossip, business, and minor illegal activities in the Renaissance (*picaresque geography). See Rinconete; Rufián 1.
Sterne, Laurence (1713–68). English novelist and sermon writer. Sterne’s monumental The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy (in nine installments, 1759–67) has been called “the most typical novel of world literature” by the Russian Formalist Viktor *Shklovsky. For all its originality, Tristram Shandy is very much derivative in theme, structure, and technique from both DQ and the Spanish picaresque novel tradition (especially Guzmán de Alfarache, La pícara Justina, and Marcos de Obregón, all novels readily available and widely read in eighteenthcentury England). The “Cervantick” (Sterne’s neologism) element in the novel is seen in different ways in almost all the characters. Most obvious is the figure of Yorick (from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, of course), a sort of elegiac DQ whose horse is a “full brother to Rosinante,” It is in connection with Yorick that Tristram makes his famous statement in praise of DQ: “The peerless knight of La Mancha, whom, by the bye, with all his follies, I love more, and would actually have gone further to pay a visit to, then the greatest hero of antiquity.” But in addition to the obviously quixotic Yorick, both Walter Shandy and Uncle Toby are DQ figures, each with his own “hobbyhorse,” Sterne’s term for a quixotic obsession, which is harmless “so long as a man rides [it] peaceably and quietly along the King’s highway, and neither compels you or me to get up behind him.” In Toby’s case, his hobbyhorse is his reading of books of military architecture that is specifically compared to DQ’s reading of romances of chivalry. Walter is the kind of quixotic systembuilder satirized in Jonathan *Swift’s Tale of a Tub. Corporal Trim is the SP of the novel, and the Widow Wadman is a singular DT figure in the latter part of the novel. The narrator Tristram makes his own quixotic effort to bring his narrative, with all its overtly Benengelian tone and many references to DQ, up to the present (recalling Ginés de Pasamonte’s lament in I, 22, that his autobiography cannot be finished until his life is over), always slipping further and further behind his goal. He
Page 692 invokes MC’s muse: “Gentle Spirit of sweetest humor, who erst did sit upon the easy pen of my beloved Cervantes.” Sterne’s final novel, A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy (2 vols., 1768), is simultaneously an autobiographical travel journal, a miscellany of the author’s observations, and a fiction. By means of allusions, citations, and general tone, the spirit of DQ runs through it. Sterne and his fellow countryman Henry *Fielding, different as they are, are the first two truly great writers to fully integrate the accomplishments of MC into their own novels. Bibliography: Edward Niehus, “Quixotic Figures in Stern,” Essays in Literature 12 (1985):41–60; Pedro Javier Pardo García, “Formas de imitación del Quijote en la novela inglesa del siglo XVIII: Joseph Andrews y Tristram Shandy,” Anales Cervantinos 33 (1997):133–64; and Walter L.Reed, “Tristram Shandy Displacement as Signification,” in An Exemplary History of the Novel: The Quixotic versus the Picaresque (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 137–61; and John M.Stedmond, The Comic Art of Laurence Sterne (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1967).
Steward [Maestresala]. The servant who takes SP off to have his beard washed in DQ II, 32. Presumably it is the same man who later assists SP during his reign as governor of Barataria (DQ II, 49, 51, 53).
Stewart, Donald Ogden (1894–1980). American humorist, dramatist, and novelist. In Stewart’s The Crazy Fool (1925) there is a peripheral character in a madhouse called DQ, who literally tilts at a windmill. When caught in the act, he apologizes, saying “I didn’t dream that anyone was looking…. I guess I’m just tilting at windmills, anyway.” Bibliography: Donald Ogden Stewart, The Crazy Fool (New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1925).
Story of IllAdvised Curiosity, The. *Curioso impertinente, El.
Straits of Hercules. *Gibraltar, Strait of Gibraltar.
Strange Story Taken from Several Authors. *Historia peregrina sacada de diversos autores.
Strauss, Richard (1864–1949). German composer. Strauss’s symphonic poem Don Quixote (1898) is one of the finest musical works to be inspired in MC’s novel. The cello has the solo role of DQ himself, and the viola represents SP. After establishing the themes, there follows a series of ten variations (windmills, sheep, Clavileño, enchanted boat, etc.) and a finale representing the death of DQ.
Street of [English name]. *Calle de [Spanish equivalent].
Strindberg, August (1849–1912). Swedish dramatist, novelist, and shortstory writer. Strindberg’s most famous play is probably Fröken Julie (1888; Miss Julie), about a young woman who is seduced by a servant and then, her “honor” ruined, she commits suicide. In the prologue to the play, Strindberg comments on the fact that we all have a little of the hidalgo or DQ within us that leads us to sympathize with the poor young woman. Shortly after this, Strindberg wrote Himmelrikets nycklar (1891; The Keys to the Celestial Kingdom), in which Saint Peter loses the keys to heaven and comes to Earth in order to seek the assistance of a locksmith in replacing the keys. The cynical smith, whose children have all just died, accompanies Peter on an allegorical quest, meeting along the way such characters as Romeo and Juliet, Tom Thumb, and Cinderella. But the most important characters they come in contact with are DQ and SP, and in fact these two are as prominent as Peter and the smith. But Strindberg’s characters are the reverse of MC’s: SP is tall and thin, while DQ is short and fat. DQ explains that times change, and people with it. He has learned much about life, has recovered his sanity, and now is ‘diabolically sane.’ DQ is now a cynical businessman who refuses to talk about his past and becomes angry whenever anyone brings up the matter of the windmills. Strindberg’s interesting and original play is quite distinctive among modern versions of DQ.
Stromboli [Estrómbalo]. A volcanic island, one of the Lipari Islands group, in the Mediterranean Sea, north of Sicily. See Parnaso 3.
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Structuralist and semiotic readings of Cervantes. Structuralist and semiotic readings of literary texts are both derived from the groundbreaking (but now outdated) linguistic theories of Ferdinand de Saussure, especially as developed by theorists such as Roland Barthes. Such readings per se are infrequent in MC studies, in spite of the fact that much recent criticism assumes several of the central tenets of one or both. Where these approaches are most common is in the area of narratology, particularly in the wake of the important work of Gerard Genette. Probably the major effort in this area is the book by José María Paz Gago, intended as the first sustained semiotic study of DQ. Bibliography: José María Paz Gago, Semiótica del “Quijote”: Teoría y práctica de la ficción narrativa (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1995).
Student(s) [Estudiante(s)]. 1. In DQ I, 44, a friend of Don Luis who tells Luis’s father that his son had left home to follow Doña Clara. 2. In Rinconete, a sacristan in the garb of a student who has his wallet and a handkerchief stolen by Cortadillo. 3. In Coloquio, the children of the merchant whom Berganza serves and their fellow students who “adopt” Berganza as a school pet, play games with him, and even sell their schoolbooks in order to buy him treats. 4. As related by MC in the prologue to Persiles, a young man who catches up with MC and friends on the way to *Esquivias and praises MC and his works. 5. In Persiles III, 10–11, two young men, students from Salamanca, dressed as captives who tell a story about their experiences as captives in Algiers. They are exposed by a local mayor who actually was a captive, but then he coaches them on how better to carry out their project.
Studentpoet. *Lorenzo de Miranda, Don.
Styx (Stygian lake) [Estigio (Laguna Estigia)]. In Greek myth, the principal river of the underworld, over which Charon conducts the souls of the dead. See Gitanilla; Poesías 30.
Suárez de Deza y Avila, Vicente. Spanish dramatist. One of his interludes is entitled La cueva de Salamanca (1663), obviously a reworking of Cueva.
Suárez de Figueroa, Cristóbal (ca. 1571ca. 1644). Spanish translator, prose writer, and poet. Suárez de Figueroa gained prominence with his fine translation of Giambattista *Guarini’s 1590 pastoral drama Il Pastor Fido (first in 1602 and then in a much improved version in 1609; The Faithful Shepherd). His most important original works are the pastoral romance La constante Amarilis (1609; The Faithful Amaryllis), like many in the genre a roman à clef, and the chauvinistic epic poem España defendida (1612; Spain Defended) on the Spanish (not Saracen) defeat of Charlemagne at the battle of Roncesvalles. He is praised for his mixture of prose and poetry in Amarilis in Parnaso 2. DQ praises El Pastor Fido in II, 62, but Suárez de Figueroa wrote a stinging condemnation of MC in his miscellany El Pasajero (1617; The Traveler), even criticizing the fact that MC continued writing up to his death, composing prologues and dedications on his deathbed. Bibliography: Marie Z.Wellington, “La constante Amarilis and Its Italian Pastoral Sources,” Philological Quarterly 34 (1955):81–87.
Suárez de Luján, Doctor. The most probable identity of the Luján praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Suárez de Sosa, Doctor. An unidentified poet praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Suárez Gasco, Francisco. An adventurer with a suspicious record hired by MC as his bondsman in 1594 when MC became a tax collector.
Suárez Pedreira, Higinio. Spanish writer. Suárez Pedreira’s La resurrección de Don Quijote de la Mancha (1946; The Resurrection of Don Quixote de la Mancha) is another one of those novels in which DQ is revived in the twentieth century and has a series of adventures, including some with modern technology (automobiles are monsters carrying captive people inside them; a train is a large serpent; a steam ship is a sea monster). DQ meets and
Page 694 spends time at the home of and in the company of the anonymous narrator of the story, whom DQ calls the Caballero Desconocido (Unknown Knight). While there, he encounters marvelous devices such as the telephone, the radio, and electric lights. Among other things, they visit the Sociedad Cervantina (Cervantine Society) in La Coruña, in Galicia, where DQ learns about the narrative structure of his book, specifically, that the Arabic historian was merely a device used by MC. After this, DQ delivers a long speech to the assembled academicians. At the end of the novel, after a visit to the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela and an airplane ride that ends in a parachute escape, both knights wind up in the madhouse of Conjo in Galicia. The novel is presented as a manuscript received by the authoreditor from the institutionalized Caballero Desconocido. Bibliography: Higinio Suárez Pedreira, La resurrección de Don Quijote de la Mancha (La Coruña, Spain: Moret, 1946).
Subligny, AdrienThomasPerdou de (1639–96). French writer. Subligny’s La fausse Clélie, histoire française, galante et comique (1670; The False Clélie, a Gallant, and Comic French Story) is the story of a woman whose quixotic reading obsession is the interminable tenvolume adventure romance Clélie, Histoire romaine (1654–61) by Madeleine de Scudéry and who comes to believe that she is Clélie herself. The romance was translated into English in 1678 with a title that makes the DQ connection much more apparent: The Mock Clélie or, Madam Quixote: Being a Comical History of French Gallantries and Novels, in Imitation of Don Quixote.
Subsacristan [Sotasacristán]. In Elección, a man who joins in the song and dance at the end of the farce.
Suckerfish (remora) [Rémora]. A species of small fish with a sucking disk on its head, which it uses to attach itself to sharks and other animals. It then feeds off scraps of food from the prey of the host animals. According to legend, if a large number of such fish attached themselves to a boat they could retard or change the course of the vessel. See Persiles I, 18; II, 17.
Suite nouvelle et veritable de l’histoire et des avantures de l’incomparable Don Quichotte de la Manche: Traduite d’un Manuscrit Espagnol de CideHamet Benengely son veritable historien (6 vols., 1722–26; New and Truthful Sequel to the History and Adventures of the Incomparable Don Quixote de la Mancha: Translated from a Spanish Manuscript by Cide Hamete Benengely, His Truthful Historian). An anonymous French sequel to DQ that had many printings and was very popular throughout the eighteenth century. The final volume is subtitled Histoire de Sancho Pansa, alcade de Blandanda (History of Sancho Panza, Mayor of Blandanda).
Sukenick, Ronald (1933–). American novelist. Sukenick is one of the leading theorists and practitioners of *postmodernism. Perhaps his bestknown novel is the outrageous Up (1968), a metafiction in which the author himself (whose name is mistakenly pronounced as Suchanitch, Subenitch, and Suckanitch) is a character writing a novel entitled The Adventures of Strop Banally (the title of an actual novel by Sukenick), the protagonist of which is compared with F.Scott *Fitzgerald’s Jay Gatsby: “Fitzgerald’s quixotic hero. He is not Quixote, he is Sancho and he knows what he is about. How should he not? Sancho has governed us for a hundred years, after all,…while Quixote, the poet, the scholar, the visionary, stands by comprehending it all quite well, but powerless to do anything except deliver fruitless warnings and offer solace after the debacle.” The author’s discussion of his novel within the novel, and especially the discussion of the end of the novel that comes at the end of the novel, is clearly within the long line of playful selfconscious fiction that begins with MC.
Suleiman the Magnificent [Solimán el Magnífico] (1494–1566). Sultan of the Ottoman Turks. After succeeding his father, Selim
Page 695 I, in 1520, Suleiman doubled the size of the Turkish empire and threatened Christian Europe. In 1541 he defeated the Spanish fleet at Algiers and in 1551 occupied Tripoli. He is referred to from time to time in Amante.
Sulla, Lucius Cornelius [Sila] (ca. 138–78 BCE). Roman general known for his vindictiveness and cruelty. See DQ I, 27.
Sullivan, Sir Arthur. *Gilbert, W.S.
Sulpicia. 1. In Cornelia, the maid of Señora Cornelia who mistakenly gives her mistress’s baby to Don Juan de Gamboa instead of Fabio, servant of the Duke of Ferrara, the baby’s father. She marries Fabio at the end of the story. 2. In Persiles II, 14, the daughter of King Cratilo of Bituania, whose husband Lampridio is killed by their servants, who also assault her; she leads the other women of the ship in their defense and they kill the entire male crew. Periandro gives Sulpicia a dozen sailors to take her and the other women back home. Later, in II, 18, 20, when Periandro and his crew are in Bituania after being trapped in the ice of the Frozen Sea, they are reunited with the 12 sailors, all of whom have been generously rewarded by Sulpicia.
Sultan. *Great Turk.
Sumo Pontífice. *Pope.
Súmulas. *Cardillo de Villalpando, Gaspar de.
Sun [Sol]. In Greek myth, Helios, the god of the Sun, who drove his chariot, pulled by four horses (*Horses of the Sun), across the sky from east to west every day. Because *Apollo is also identified with the sun, the two are sometimes confused. See DQ II, 38.
Suplemento a Virgilio Polidoro. *Polydorus Vergil.
Supreme Pontiff. *Pope.
Sur, mar del; Sur, perlas del. *South Sea.
Suspicion [Sospecha]. In Casa 2, an allegorical figure conjured up by Malgesí.
Sutil, Nuño Nisceno (pseudonym). Portuguese writer. Nisceno Sutil published Musa jocosa de varios entremeses Portugueses y castellanos (1709; Humorous Muse of Various Portuguese and Spanish Interludes), a collection of 12 short comic farces. The last work in the book is the “Entremez de Don Quixote” (“Interlude of Don Quixote”). The action takes place at an inn that is a composite of ones from DQ: the events of Maritornes, SP’s blanketing, Maese Pedro’s puppet show, and so forth have already occurred when DQ and SP come back. The innkeeper and others decide to trick DQ and the farce ends with DQ trampled by a bull and SP beaten. Bibliography: Miguel Herrero, ed., Entremés de Don Quijote (Madrid: CSIC, 1948).
Svevo, Italo (Ettore Schmitz, 1861–1928). Italian/Austrian novelist and shortstory writer. Svevo’s Senilità (1898; As a Man Grows Older) features one of the finest DT figures in modern literature in the character of Angiolina. The quixotic Emilio changes her name to Angèle or Ange in order to perfect his idealized vision of her. When he is confronted with the reality of her many lovers, he refuses to admit the fact: “No, she was incapable of deceit. The woman he loved, named Ange, was his own invention, he had created her by an effort of his own will.” Emilio’s friend Balli tries to bring Emilio back to reality and take him home, an effort that clearly reminds the reader of similar actions by the priest, the barber, and Sansón Carrasco in DQ. At one point in Svevo’s best novel, La coscienza di Zeno (1923; The Confessions of Zeno), the protagonist comments on his relationship with his brotherinlaw, Guido: “But when two people are working together it does not rest with them to decide who is to be Don Quixote and who Sancho Panza. He did all the work, and I, like a good Sancho, followed him at a leisurely pace in my accountbooks, after first submitting everything to a searching criticism.”
Swan, Earl Mathew. American writer. Swan’s short novel entitled Don Quixote Rides
Page 696 Again, or the Truth of the Story as Told by Sancho Panza (1983), is an eyewitness account of the career of DQ by the one person who was present throughout most of it: SP. Here SP is a very literate and wellread man, an erudite philosopher and downtoearth man of the people at the same time. His version of the action in DQ I is occasionally at odds with what MC wrote, but actually presents a surprisingly accurate and concise retelling of the novel. It is during the trip home, as DQ rides in a cage on the ox cart, that SP decides to write his version of the story, which, he insists, is more accurate than the one by MC. The novel’s lively, colloquial style, together with the interesting point of view of the narrator, make this a better work than many of its kind. Bibliography: Earl Mathew Swan, Don Quixote Rides Again (Smithtown, NY: Exposition Press, 1983).
Swift, Jonathan (1667–1745). Irish satirist and poet. A Tale of the Tub (1704) is Swift’s satire on religious enthusiasm, which he considers the result of the reading of the wrong kind of books, those (badly) written by modern writers, rather than the classics. Such reading leads the Moderns to try to change the world by introducing new ideas about religion and politics. The sect of the Aeolists (religious enthusiasts) who ingest and discharge wind attack the “huge terrible Monster, called Moulinavent, who with four strong Arms, waged eternal Battel with all their Divinities, dextrously turning to avoid their Blows, and repay them with Interest,” thus appropriating the windmills of DQ I, 8, for his satirical purpose. Bibliography: Pablo Carrascosa and Elisa Domínguez de Paz, “Swift, lector de Cervantes,” in Actas del Primer Coloquio Internacional de la Asociación de Cervantistas, Alcalá de Henares 29/30 nov.–1/2 dic. 1988 (Barcelona: Anthropos, 1990), 387–91; and Alicia Casado Vegas, “Don Quijote en Lilliput,” in Actas del II Congreso Internacional de la Asociación de Cervantistas, ed. Giuseppe Grilli (Naples: Instituto Universitario Orientale, 1995), 831–37.
Swineherd [Porquero]. In DQ I, 2, the peasant who blows his horn just as DQ arrives at the inn at the end of his first day of travel. DQ interprets the sound as that of a trumpet announcing his arrival at the castle.
Sword of the Perillo brand [Espada del perillo]. A famous type of short, wide sword made by Julián del Rey in fifteenthcentury Toledo. He stamped his products with the figure of a little dog (perrillo) and the trademark became famous. See DQ II, 17.
Sychaeus [Siqueo]. In Roman myth, *Dido’s uncle and husband, who was murdered by his wife’s brother Pygmalion. See Galatea 4.
Sylvia. *Pastoral names.
Syria [Siria]. Middle Eastern country on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea, the capital of which is Damascus. Formerly the area referred to by this name also included the modern nation of Lebanon. The only mention of Syria by MC is to the fine damask cloth from that area that was highly esteemed in Spain. See Persiles III, 5.
Syrtes [Sirtes]. A dangerous sand bank off the coast of North Africa and a classical synonym for a hidden danger or a known but unavoidable risk. See DQ I, 37.
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T Tabarka [Tabarca]. A small port city in Tunisia. See DQ I, 39.
Tabla Redonda. *Round Table.
Tablada. An open area in Seville near the Guadalquivir River that served as the quemadero (place where criminals and heretics were burned). It was also the location of a popular hermitage. See Española.
Tablante de Ricamonte. The chivalric romance entitled La corónica de los nobles caballeros Tablante de Ricamonte y de Jofre hijo de Donason (1513; The Chronicle of the Noble Knights Tablante de Ricamonte and Jofre Son of Donason) is an anonymous translation and prosification of a twelfthcentury Provençal romance in verse originally known in Spanish as Historia de Enrique, fi de Oliva (1498; History of Enrique, Son of Oliva). In a later edition the author is identified as Nuño de Garay. See DQ I, 16, 20.
Tácito. In Laberinto, a comic student who speaks in an affected language difficult for others to understand.
Tacitus, Publius Cornelius [Tácito] (ca. 56–ca. 117). Roman historian, often considered the greatest historian of antiquity. See Parnaso 2.
Tagarete. A small river or creek near Seville. See Parnaso 7.
Tagarinos. In North Africa, a term for Muslims from Aragon. See DQ I, 41.
Tagarote. In Rinconete, the sentinel who announces the arrival of Juliana la Cariharta to Monipodio’s house.
Tagus [Tajo]. The famous Spanish river that rises in the mountains east of Madrid, flows through Toledo, then westerly to Portugal, finally emptying into the Atlantic Ocean at Lisbon. It was celebrated in Renaissance literature and folklore for its golden sands, often mentioned by *Garcilaso de la Vega, MC, and many others. In Persiles III, 8, when the pilgrims arrive at Toledo and see the river, Periandro specifically invokes Garcilaso and his writings in praise of the river’s golden sands. See DQ I, prologue, 14, 18; DQ II, 23, 44, 48; Fregona; Galatea; Gitanilla; Parnaso 1, 2, 8; Poesías 19.
Tal de Saavedra. *Saavedra, a certain.
Tal de Solórzano. In Vizcaíno, the way the silversmith refers to the pícaro Solórzano; tal means “a certain” or “a guy named.”
Talavera de la Reina. City located southwest of Madrid and west of Toledo. It has long been particularly famous for its ceramics, generally considered the finest in Spain. In Persiles III, 6, the pilgrims spend two days there before continuing their journey toward Rome. Talavera is also the location of some of the events in the life of Ortel Banedre (Persiles III, 6–7) and the home of Luisa, the woman he marries but who runs off with her lover (and who later becomes the lover of their servant Bartolomé). See also Gitanilla; Persiles III, 16, 18, 19; IV, 1, 5.
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Talaveran pottery [Loza talaveril]. Talavera de la Reina was, and still is today, the single most important location of the manufacture of fine earthenware and ceramics in Spain. See Guarda.
Talaveran woman [La talaverana]. In Persiles IV, 5, a name used to refer to *Luisa when she is in prison in Rome.
Talia. *Muses.
Talkative god. *Mercury.
Tamar. In the Old Testament, the daughter of King David, who was raped by her brother Amnon. See Entretenida 1; Galatea 4.
Tamayo, Capitán Pedro. A completely unidentified poet mentioned in Parnaso 4.
Tame partridge and bold ferret [Perdigón manso y hurón atrevido]. The animals Don *Diego de Miranda keeps for hunting, as he tells DQ in II, 16. Partridges are sometimes used by hunters as decoys, and ferrets are often used to drive out (ferret out) rabbits and other small game from their burrows or hiding places. In II, 17, when DQ goes to face the lion, he advises Don Diego to withdraw with his partridge and ferret. The implication is that Don Diego is timid in comparison with a brave knighterrant.
Tamerlane [Tamorlán] (ca. 1336–1405). Mongol warrior, famous for his cruelty, whose conquests extended from the Volga River to the Persian Gulf. The name is used ironically in Fregona.
Tanneries. *Picaresque geography.
Tansi, Señora. In Española, a lady of the English court who is a close friend of Isabela and who teases Ricaredo.
Tansilo, Luigi [Luis] (1510–68). Italian poet. Tansilo’s posthumous Le lacrime di San Pietro (1585; The Tears of Saint Peter) was translated into Spanish by Luis *Gálvez de Montalvo and published in 1587. Tansilo is quoted by Lotario in DQ I, 33.
Tantalus [Tántalo]. The son of Jupiter, the king of Lydia. He offended the gods (there are multiple versions of how this happened) and was punished by being submerged in water up to his chin, with fruitbearing trees hanging over his head. His insatiable thirst could never be quenched, for whenever he attempted to drink of the water it receded; and his insatiable hunger could never be fulfilled, for whenever he attempted to eat, the fruit was drawn up out of reach. See Coloquio; DQ I, 14; Galatea 4; Vidriera.
Tapia, Don Pedro de. Judge of the Royal Council and member of the Inquisition. He was the father of Don Rodrigo de Tapia, to whom MC dedicated Parnaso, but it was the powerful father, and not the young son, whose favor MC wanted to curry.
Tapia, Don Rodrigo de (1599–?). A member of the Order of Santiago and son of the powerful member of the Royal Council and Inquisition, Don Pedro de Tapia. MC dedicated Parnaso to him, but clearly intended to impress his father.
Tarazana. An arsenal in Constantinople. See Sultana 3.
Tarifa. *Guzmán, Don Alonso Pérez de, el Bueno.
Tarpeian Rock [Tarpeya]. A cliff on the Capitoline Hill in Rome from which prisoners were thrown to their death. According to legend, it was from this site that the Emperor Nero watched Rome burn. In Rinconete, Juliana la Cariharta mistakenly says “marinero de Tarpeya” (“sailor from Tarpeya”) instead of “Mira Nero de Tarpeya” (“Nero looks from the Tarpeian Rock”), converting a reference to Nero from a popular song into an allusion to an (imaginary) legendary sailor. See also DQ II, 44; Entretenida 3.
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Tarquinius (the Proud) [Tarquino (el Soberbio)]: Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (sixth century BCE). The last king of early Rome, a tyrant who murdered his way to the throne and whose body was supposedly run over by his own daughter, as mentioned in DQ I, 14. But it was Tullia, the wife of Tarquinius, not his daughter, who ran over the body of her father Servio Tullius. See also Galatea 4.
Tarragona. City on the Mediterranean coast of Spain, southwest of Barcelona and northeast of Valencia. Tarragona was first founded by seafaring people from the eastern Mediterranean and became particularly important in the Roman Empire. DQA was published in Tarragona. See Comedias, dedication; DQ II, prologue.
Tárrega, Francisco Agustín (1554–1602). Spanish priest, poet, and dramatist. Tárrega was a founding member of the Valencian Academy of the Night Revelers and an important figure in the early years of the Spanish stage, particularly in Valencia. Ten of the 12 plays he is known to have written survive. It is as a formative figure in the development of theater in Spain that MC praises him in the prologue to Comedias, and the canon of Toledo praises his play La enemiga favorable (The Favorable Enemy) in I, 48. Bibliography: John G.Weiger, The Valencian Dramatists of Spain’s Golden Age (Boston: Twayne, 1976).
Tartessian fields [Tartesios campos]. Tartessos was an ancient city located on the banks of the Guadalquivir River, but its remains have never been located archaeologically. Inhabitants of Andalusia during the days of the Phoenicians were called tartesios. See DQ I, 18.
Tasa. *Preliminaries.
Tasis y Peralta, Juan Bautista de, Conde de Villamediana (1581–1622). A very highly respected poet in the style of Luis de Góngora and member of the Academy of the Idle. He was assassinated under suspicious circumstances, perhaps, as legend has it, by order of the count duke of Olivares. MC praises him highly in the list of good poets in Parnaso 2. He is mentioned again in Parnaso 8 as one of the generous Spanish counts who helped underwrite the elaborate festivities for the marriage of King Louis XIII of France to Infanta Doña Ana of Austria in Naples in 1612.
Tasso, Torquato [Torcuato Taso] (1544–95). Italian poet and literary theorist. Tasso’s masterpiece is the epic poem Gerusalemme liberata (finished by 1575 but not published until 1581; Jerusalem Delivered), which MC knew and imitated or adapted in his own play La *conquista de Jerusalén. Tasso’s writings on literary theory concentrated on such matters as the concept of mimesis, unity and variety, verisimilitude, and the marvelous, all subjects of interest and concern to MC (*literary theory in Cervantes). His pastoral play Aminta (1573) was translated into Spanish by Juan de *Jáuregui and was quite popular and influential. It has been suggested that MC and Tasso might have met during MC’s years in Italy, which is not unreasonable, but there is no documentation for such an encounter. See DQ II, 62; Parnaso 2, 5; Persiles IV, 6. Bibliography: Daniel Eisenberg, “Cervantes and Tasso Reexamined,” Kentucky Romance Quarterly 31 (1984):305–17.
Taurisa. In Persiles I, 2, the woman who tells Periandro the story of how Auristela came into the power of Arnaldo, Prince of Denmark, but then was stolen by pirates and sold to the barbarians. Later (in I, 20), Taurisa is brought ashore on an island where Periandro and his group are located. There two men fight to the death over the right to possess her, and it is discovered that she has also died. She is buried on the island.
Taylor, Elizabeth (Elizabeth Coles, 1912–1975). English novelist. In Angel (1957), the quixotic Angelica Deverell (Angel) rebels against the drab reality of her life: “She longed for a different life: to be quite grownup and beautiful and rich; to have power over many different kinds of men. To pass the time, she began to imagine herself living such a life,
Page 700 in one scene, sharply visual, after another.” She transforms her fantasies into literature by writing stories and novels set in her romantic version of ancient Greece and Rome. When she actually visits Greece, she is disappointed by the reality she sees: “It was nothing like her novels.”
Teba. A town in Andalusia, located northwest of Málaga and south and slightly west of Córdoba. See Rinconete.
Tebas. *Thebes.
Tejada, Doctor Agustín de (1567–1635). A minor poet praised in Parnaso 2.
Tejada Inn [Venta Tejada]. An inn located on the road between Toledo and Seville, near Almodóvar del Campo. See Fregona.
Tejeira, Gil Bias (1901–75). Panamanian shortstory writer. In Tejeira’s El retablo de los duendes (1945; The Spirits’ Puppet Show), there are two interesting stories continuing the events of DQ after the death of the knighterrant. In the first, “Los herederos de Don Quijote” (“Don Quijote’s Heirs”), SP avoids visiting DQ’s house after his death, but the priest and barber do so often. Of most interest is Sansón Carrasco, who marries DQ’s niece, and then dies, admitting that DQ was right all along and those who forced him to return to ‘sanity’ were wrong to do so. In the second story, “Agonía y muerte de Sancho Panza” (“Agony and Death of Sancho Panza”), Sanchica wastes her father’s money, no one will employ him, he makes daily visits to DQ’s tomb, his wife nags him constantly, and finally he simply allows himself to die. Bibliography: Gil Bias Tejeira, El retablo de los duendes (Panama City: Academia de Panama, 1945).
Telamon [Telamón]. In Greek myth, son of Aeacus and a symbol of bravery. See Gallardo 1.
Telemann, Georg Philipp. *Schiebeler, Daniel.
Telesio. In Galatea 5–6, the elderly priest who convenes and then presides over the ceremony in honor of the deceased poet Meliso.
Téllez, Fray Gabriel. *Tirso de Molina.
Tello de Sandoval, Francisco (?–1580). Inquisitor, bishop, and member of the Consejo de Indias. In Rufián, he is the inquisitor who employs Cristóbal de Lugo in Seville and then moves him to Mexico.
Tembleque. An agricultural town in La Mancha, located southeast of Toledo and northeast of Ciudad Real; it is best known for its lovely plaza mayor with its porticoes and columns. In DQ II, 31, SP tells an anecdote about a peasant and a hidalgo and makes a digression about going to Tembleque, which prompts the impatient *ecclesiastic of the duke’s house to tell him to ‘hurry back from Tembleque’ and finish his story. The phrase has become somewhat of a cliché in Spanish.
Temo, Nicolás. An error for Nicolás *Zeno.
Temor. *Fear.
Temple de Diana; Templo de Diana. *Herostratus.
Temple of the Holy Phoenix; Templo del Fénix santo. *Our Lady of San Llorente.
Templo de San Pablo. *Basilica of Saint Paul.
Tendera. *Vendor.
Tener. *Families.
Tenerías. *Picaresque geography.
Teniente. *Lieutenant.
Teniente cura. *Assistant priest.
Tenney, Tabitha Gilman (1762–1837). American novelist. Tenney’s Female Quixotism, Exhibited in the Romantic Opinions and Extravagant Adventures of Dorcasina Sheldon (3 vols., 1801) is the story of an always vul
Page 701 nerable woman named Dorcas (she poeticizes her name to Dorcasina) who has been unduly influenced by her intense reading of romances written by Samuel Richardson and others. Like DQ, she idealizes life from the books she reads, but whereas DQ goes in active search of adventure, Dorcasina tends to wait for adventures to come to her. Her maid Betty is her SP. Tenney’s parody of sentimental romances can also be read as a parody of DQ itself. Bibliography: Sally C.Hoople, “The Spanish, English, and American Quixotes,” Anales Cervantinos 22 (1984):119–42; and Cynthia J.Miecznikowski, “The Parodic Mode and the Patriarchal Imperative: Reading the Female Reader(s) in Tabitha Tenney’s Female Quixotism,” Early American Literature 25 (1990):34–45.
Tenorio Hernández. In DQ I, 18, the name of one of the men who tosses SP in a blanket in I, 17.
Teodosia de Villavicencio, Doña (Teodoro). In Doncellas, the beautiful teenager who is seduced and deceived by Marco Antonio; dressed as a man calling herself Teodoro, and with the help of her brother, she is finally united with and marries her lover.
Teógenes. In Numancia, a prominent member of the city leaders in Numantia.
Teógenes’s children [Hijos de Teógenes]. In Numancia 4, children who do not understand why they are hungry and are not fed.
Teógenes’s wife [Mujer de Teógenes]. In Numancia 4, a mother who kills her children as part of the mass suicide of the inhabitants of Numantia.
Teolinda. In Galatea, the shepherdess from the banks of the Henares River, daughter of Parmindro, who is in love with Artidoro, who is stolen from her by her sister Leonarda.
Tera. A minor tributary of the Duero River. See Numancia 1.
Terceras. *Azores.
Terceros de San Francisco. *Third Order of Saint Francis.
Tercets [Tercetos]. Stanzas of three 11syllable lines rhyming ABA and linked by the repetition of the middle rhyme as the first and last rhymes of the following stanza. MC uses tercets in Poesías 5 and 8, as well as in some poems in Galatea.
Terciado. A ruffian of Seville mentioned in Rufián 2.
Terebinto. *Valley of the Terebinths.
Terence [Terencio]: Publius Terentius Afer (ca. 193–159 BCE). Roman dramatist particularly noted for his comedies. The maxim attributed to him by DQ in II, 24, is not to be found in any of his extant works. See also Rufián 2.
Teresa Cascajo. One of the names for Teresa Panza in II, 5 (*name of Sancho’s wife).
Teresa Castrada. In Retablo, the daughter of the alderman, in honor of whose forthcoming marriage the wonder show is produced.
Teresa de Avila, Saint. *Saint Teresa de Jesús.
Teresa de Berrocal. A name mentioned in Antonio’s song in DQ I, 11.
Teresa Panza. SP’s wife. She is called by different names in DQ I (*name of Sancho’s wife), and appears only briefly in I, 52, when she angrily greets and scolds her returning husband. But in DQ II, she takes on considerably more significance. Her most important appearance is in II, 5, where she and her husband have an argument about his leaving home and his pretense to rise in social status. She insists that she will never be one of those who improperly uses the title doña before her name. Here she is a cross between a nagging wife and a shrewd pragmatist; her directness and honesty match some of the best qualities of her husband. Interestingly, in this scene, SP takes a condescending and authoritarian attitude toward her,
Page 702 correcting her language and using insulting names, much in the same way DQ frequently does with him. In II, 50, she receives letters from her governor husband and the duchess, and immediately she begins to make plans to become a lady of standing, quite the opposite of her position in II, 5. In II, 73, she receives her husband home again in much friendlier terms than she had in I, 52. See also DQ II, 7, 25, 36, 46–47, 51–52, 57, 59, 67, 70.
Teresa Panza, Doña. *Name of Sancho’s wife.
Teresa Repolla. In Retablo, the daughter of the mayor Benito Repollo.
Teresa Sancha. The name of Teresa Panza, used only in the chapter title of DQ II, 50 (*name of Sancho’s wife). A feminized form of the husband’s name was not at all uncommon at the time.
Teresa, Señora Doña. In DQ II, 50, the way the page who delivers the letter from the duchess addresses SP’s wife.
Teresaina. In DQ II, 73, the pastoral name Sansón Carrasco suggests for SP’s wife Teresa.
Teresa’s father. *Cascajo.
Teresona. In DQ II, 67, the pastoral name SP suggests for his wife Teresa.
Termodonte. *Thermodon.
Terpsichore. *Muses.
Terrachina. An Italian city located southeast of Rome, on the border between the Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples. See Persiles IV, 12, 14.
Terrazas, Francisco de. Mexican poet who wrote a poem about Cortés, only fragments of which remain. He is praised in Calliope’s song in Galatea 6.
Tersicore. *Muses.
Teruel. City in eastern Spain, northwest of Valencia and southwest of Barcelona. Teruel is particularly famous in Spanish literature as the place where the legend of a pair of tragic lovers—the amantes de Teruel—took place. See Poesías 34.
Tesalia. *Thessaly.
Teseo. *Theseus.
Tesifón. *Furies.
Tesoro de varias poesías. *Padilla, Pedro de.
Tesoro. *Treasure.
Tesoro de Venecia. *Treasure of Venice.
Testacho. A large mound of scrap, mostly broken pottery and tiles, in Rome. See Vidriera.
Testimonio de erratas. *Preliminaries.
Tethys [Tetis]. In Greek myth, a Titan and both the sister and the wife of Oceanus, another Titan. Their daughters are the Oceanids and their sons are the river gods. See Persiles I, 19.
Tetuán. A Mediterranean port city in Morocco. See DQ I, 40–41; Fregona; Juez; Sultana 3; Tratos 4.
Textual problems in Don Quixote. The text of DQ has presented scholars with a series of fascinating and difficult (perhaps insurmountable) problems. After centuries of speculation and conjecture about MC’s carelessness, missing passages, misplaced chapter titles, printing errors, and the like, a series of scholarly endeavors in the latter part of the twentieth century has finally made it possible for us to approximate the establishment of a reliable text of DQ. First came the surprising but convincing proposal by Geoffrey Stagg that MC must have relocated certain segments of the book from their original place (especially I, 11–14, which must originally have been part of the episodes in Sierra Morena, I, 23–29). Next in its impact comes the groundbreaking work of R.M.Flores, who painstakingly collated early printings
Page 703 of the novel and studied the minutia of the printing process. The precision and clarity with which he demonstrated the role of the compositors in determining specifics of the language of the first printings of the first edition of DQ is exemplary. Subsequent studies have made it possible to resolve the proper location of the passage of the *theft of SP’s ass by Ginés de Pasamonte (in I, 25), which had been omitted from the first printing of DQ I and badly placed (in I, 23) in the second printing. Other kinds of textual problems considered over the years include the division of the work into chapters, the placement of chapter titles, some apparently incorrect chapter titles, and various kinds of textual inconsistencies. It is now generally accepted that MC wrote (perhaps hurriedly) and then revised his work. There is also a series of textual problems and inconsistencies in MC’s last work, Persiles, most likely caused by the writing (in the 1590s) of the first two books, the completion of the work some two decades later, and the rush to finish the story as MC lay dying in 1616. There is no definitive edition of the *complete works of MC, and only in recent years a truly definitive (or very close to it) edition of DQ, that of Francisco Rico et al. Bibliography: R.M.Flores, The Compositors of the First and Second Madrid Editions of “Don Quijote,” Part I (London: The Modern Humanities Researach Association, 1975); R.M.Flores, “The Compositors of the First Edition of Don Quixote, Part II,” Journal of Hispanic Philology 6 (1981):3–44; José Manuel Martín Morán, El “Quijote” en ciernes: Los descuidos de Cervantes y las fases de elaboración textual (Torino, Italy: DellOrso, 1990); and Geoffrey L.Stagg, “Sobre el plan primitivo del Quijote,” in Actas del Primer Congreso Internacional de Hispanistas, ed. Frank Pierce and Cyril A. Jones (Oxford: Dolphin, 1964), 463–71.
Thackeray, William Makepeace (1811–63). English novelist. Thackeray’s The Newcomes (1853–55) is his explicitly quixotic novel, and in his correspondence, specifically from the year 1853 while he was writing the novel, Thackeray mentions that he is reading DQ and exclaims: “What a vitality in both those two characters! What gentlemen they both are! I wish Don Quixote was not thrashed so very often.” The protagonist, Colonel Newcome includes DQ among his favorite books; in India he was actually called “DQ,” and the colonel’s son, Clive, refers to his father as DQ. The colonel’s sally into politics is a quixotic attempt to challenge the status quo in the name of the way things ought to be. Thackeray’s masterpiece, Vanity Fair (1847–48), is much more a picaresque than a quixotic novel, but it has been suggested that the novel is a largescale expansion of the puppet episode of DQ II, 26.
Thalia. *Muses.
Theatrical performances. The performance of a *comedia (the general term for a fulllength theatrical production) usually began with a musical prelude, normally featuring a dance, followed by a loa, a verse introduction to the play, recited either by the autor (producer/director) or a popular and talented actor, which was designed both to introduce the play and to anticipate and disarm criticism. The play itself was divided into three acts (actos or jornadas), and between each act there was normally another dance performance or an entremés, a comic or satiric *interlude that usually ended in music and dancing. Various kinds of food and drink were sold throughout the entire performance, and all classes of society, from the highest to the lowest, avidly attended performances (*corral). Peformances took place during daylight hours, as artificial lighting was not sufficient for nighttime performances. The theaters were open virtually every day of the year except Ash Wednesday and Holy Week. Most plays were performed only for two or three days, but when a play proved particularly popular its run could last for a week or ten days. During the time when MC was active in the Madrid theater scene, between 1582 and 1587, there were some 30 active theatrical managers, or autores, in the city. Bibliography: José María Ruano de la Haza, La puesta en escena en los teatros comerciales del Siglo de Oro (Madrid: Castalia, 2000); José María Ruano de la Haza, and John Jay Allen, Los teatros comerciales del siglo XVII y la escenificación de la comedia (Madrid: Castalia, 1994); and J.E.Varey,
Page 704 Cosmografía y escenografía: El teatro español en el Siglo de Oro (Madrid: Castalia, 1987).
Thebes [Tebas]. The most important city of Boeotia in Greece and extremely prominent in myth. See Galatea 1, 4.
Theft of Sancho’s ass. In the first printing of DQ I, there is no mention of how, when, or by whom SP’s ass is stolen. In the second 1605 printing, a passage is intercalated in I, 23, in which Ginés de Pasamonte steals the rucio while DQ and SP sleep. Later in the same chapter, however, the ass is still mentioned as being in SP’s possession, and there is no mention that it is missing until I, 25, which is where the event is placed by most modern editors. The mount is recovered in I, 30 (*recovery of SP’s ass). In II, 3, SP describes the scene in some detail for Sansón Carrasco, but SP’s version is quite different from what was published earlier. Bibliography: Thomas A.Lathrop, “¿Por qué Cervantes no incluyó el robo del rucio?” Anales Cervantinos 22 (1984):207–12.
Theobald, Lewis (1688–1744). English dramatist and editor. In addition to providing the first serious edition of the works of Shakespeare (1726), Theobald is the author of Double Falsehood (1728; but performed as early as 1713), a recasting of the *ShakespeareFletcher collaboration entitled Cardenio, based on DQ I, 23–27, 33–35.
Theoreticism. *Bakhtin, M.M.
Theory and history of the novel. By simplifying and synthesizing, it is possible to sketch three basic approaches to the theory and history of the novel. These three approaches might be identified as 1) the AngloAmerican “rise of the novel,” 2) the classical “ancient novel,” and 3) the Bakhtinian “emergence of the novel.” The AngloAmerican paradigm gets its name from Ian *Watt’s important The Rise of the Novel (1957), which takes for granted that the novel “arose” for the first time in history in eighteenthcentury England in the work of Defoe, Richardson, Fielding, and others. The authority of Watt’s assumption (which was not original with him; it had been long prevalent in England and America) has rarely been challenged by scholars writing within the AngloAmerican literary tradition, and the phrase “the rise of the novel” is generally a code for the unquestioned belief that before Defoe all fiction was, at best, merely some sort of primitive protonovel, prose epic, superficial and episodic satire, and/or *romance (or antiromance). The classical position is a recent one that has grown out of the justified dissatisfaction with the imperialistic and chauvinistic AngloAmerican model. The classicists’ position is simple and clear: all long fictions are, and always have been, novels; the concept of romance is spurious, an invention of those modern scholars who want to deprive the ancient world of its rightful status as the time and place of the creation of the novel in the fullest sense of the word. It is, in their view, unjust to relegate the fictions of Heliodorus, Apuleius, et al. to mere precursor or romance status. The most extensive and persuasive articulation of this position is found in the important book by Margaret Anne *Doody, The True Story of the Novel (1996). In the work of most of these writers, the important romancenovel distinction is simply declared invalid, leaving open the option that what was written in the centuries before the modern era is as legitimately called a novel as is the most recent effort by Tony Morrison or Gabriel García Márquez. The third paradigm is best described by Mikhail *Bakhtin in some of the essays (dating mostly from the 1930s but only available in recent decades) included in The Dialogic Imagination (1981) and other writings. Bakhtin’s approach is probably the subtlest and most original understanding of the novel ever proposed. For Bakhtin, the romancenovel distinction (which he discusses in terms of ‘two stylistic lines’ of the novel) is of crucial importance. Much classical and medieval literature, particularly (but not exclusively) certain kinds of prose fiction, contain elements of novelistic discourse, but the novel per se only “emerges” in the unique circumstances of the European Renaissance with the work of Rabelais and Cervantes. There is no specific form, technique, theme, or approach to character that
Page 705 makes a text a novel; rather, the distinguishing characteristics of the novel are its heteroglossia (multiple voices) and its dialogism (multiple perspectives). After the emergence of the novel, all other more monologic genres (particularly epic poetry and drama) become “novelized,” and dialogism is a hallmark of modern literature in general. Because the novel is the genre that is defined by a dialogic worldview, it stands as the prototype of literature in general in the modern (i.e., postmedieval) world. In effect, Bakhtin lends his authority to a view of the novel that has long held sway in Hispanism: the conviction that DQ is the first work that can legitimately be called a “novel” in the multifaceted modern sense of that term (unless one wants to consider—with much justification—either Lazarillo de Tormes, 1554, or La Celestina, 1499, as a fullfledged novel). There are, it must be noted, dissenting voices within the Hispanic critical community, but, overall, Hispanists stubbornly but ineffectively argue for the primacy of DQ in the history of the novel. But since Hispanic studies have never gained the respect or prestige of the hegemonic Anglo American critical tradition, this view has not been common outside Hispanism. There are exceptions, however. Perhaps the most notable of these exceptions is Walter L. *Reed, whose important Exemplary History of the Novel (1981) recognizes “multiple” occasions on which the novel “rises,” the first of which is Renaissance Spain with two models: DQ and the *picaresque (another subgenre denigrated to superficiality and precursor status in the AngloAmerican tradition). Also noteworthy is Robert *Alter, whose Partial Magic (1975) begins with the premise that the novel is above all a selfconscious genre and that it begins with and has its most prototypical example in DQ. It is the third option, Bakhtin’s thesis of the emergence of the novel in the Renaissance, that seems most justified by an informed understanding of literary history and theory, and it is the one that underlies all consideration of the novel in general, as well as specific novels and novelists, discussed in this volume. Bibliography: Robert Alter, Partial Magic: The Novel as a SelfConscious Genre (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975); M.M.Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, ed. Michael Holquist, trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press 1981); Maurice Couturier, Textual Communication: A PrintBased Theory of the Novel (London: Routledge, 1991); Margaret Anne Doody, The True Story of the Novel (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1996); Walter L.Reed, An Exemplary History of the Novel: The Quixotic versus the Picaresque (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); Ian Watt, The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957); Ioan Williams, The Idea of the Novel in Europe 1600–1800 (London: Macmillan Press, 1979); Edwin Williamson, The HalfWay House of Fiction (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984); and Diana de Armas Wilson, Cervantes, the Novel, and the New World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
Thermodon [Termodonte]. A minor river in the Roman province of Capadocia, located on the southern shore of the Black Sea, now part of Turkey. See DQ I, 18.
Theroux, Paul (1941–). American novelist and travel writer. Theroux’s novel The Mosquito Coast (1981) presents a nearclassic quixotic hero in Allie Fox who considers himself the last real man in a decadent America. Obsessed with water and ice, Fox moves his family to Central America and attempts to construct an ice machine. Fox’s son Charlie, a sort of filial SP, echoes SP’s famous words (‘What giants,’ DQ in I, 8) when he hears his father boasting about the Indian’s reactions to his ice and asks, “What ice?” for it has all melted. Bibliography: Eduardo Urbina, “Forse altri canterà…: nuevos avatares del mito quijotesco en The Mosquito Coast (1982), Monsignor Quijote (1982) y Don Quixote (1986),” in On Cervantes: Essays for L.A.Murillo, ed. James A.Parr (Newark, DE: Juan de la Cuesta, 1991), 293–05.
Theseus [Teseo]. The hero who found his way out of the labyrinth of Crete with the help of the thread given to him by Ariadne. See DQ I, 48.
Thessaly [Tesalia]. A region of northeastern Greece known for its fertile land. The reference to the planes of Thessaly in DQ I, 43, is an
Page 706 allusion to Daphne, daughter of the river god Peneius, a nymph of that region. The reference to Apollo’s jealousy in the same passage is an invention of DQ’s. See Galatea 6.
Thetis [Tetis]. In Greek myth, a Nereid, or sea nymph, and mother of Achilles. See Coloquio.
They Might Be Giants. A film (1971) about a judge named Justin (George C.Scott) who, following the traumatic death of his wife, believes that he is Sherlock Holmes, displays a superb ability to make astounding deductions from a set of clues, and comes to believe that he is on the trail of archcriminal Professor Moriarty. Dr. Watson (Joanne Woodward), the therapist who examines him and follows his often comic quest, eventually falls in love with him. The title is, of course, an allusion to DQ’s windmill giants, and the parallel with DQ is clearly intentional.
Thicket of the Council [Soto del Concejo]. A fictional location where some of the action in Galatea 1 takes place.
Third Order of Saint Francis [Terceros de San Francisco]. The Franciscan Order was structured into three divisions. The First Order was that of the fully ordained priests. The Second Order, known as the Poor Clares (las Clarisas), was for cloistered women. The Third Order was a devotional association of laymen, which was joined by many noblemen and literary figures of MC’s day, often for social as much as, if not more than, spiritual ones. MC’s sisters Andrea and Magdalena, as well as his wife Catalina, all joined this order—as did MC himself. After a threeyear period in which he had been a novice in the order, MC took his final vows on April 2, 1616, and died less than three weeks later.
Thisbe. *Pyramus and Thisbe.
Thomas, Saint. *Saint Thomas.
Those who found Don Quixote’s verses [Los que hallaron los versos de Don Quijote]. In DQ I, 26, DQ carves verses to DT on the trees where he does his penance, and some of them are included in CHB’s text. It is mentioned that these are the ones that could be understood by ‘those who found’ them, a curious lapse in the otherwise generally omniscient narrative capabilities of CHB.
Thrace [Tracia]. An ancient region in the Balkan Peninsula, essentially the northernmost part of Greece. The Greeks considered the original inhabitants of the region a primitive, barbaric people. See DQ II, 69.
Three Arabies. *Brandabarbarán de Boliche, señor de las tres Arabias.
ThreeSkirts or ThreeTails, Countess [Condesa Tres Faldas o Tres Colas]. SP’s reference to the Countess Trifaldi in DQ II, 37. His etymology is correct: Trifaldi