The Case Book for Czech 9780893573348

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The Case Book

for Czech Laura A. Janda and Steven J. Clancy

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Preliminaries PRELIMINARIES 1 — The mission of this book Na dveřích do Beátina budoáru byla velká obdélníková samolepka s nápisem PRIVATE a asi tucet starých vodových obtisků s portréty různých hudebních skupin, přičemž četné rýhy na mnoha z nich svědčily o marných pokusech je seškrábat. Když jsem se ani po třetím zaklepání nedočkal žádné slyšitené výzvy, se slovy Mohu dál? jsem vstoupil. V pokoji panovalo dusné a temné přítmí, neboť brokátové závěsy na oknech propouštěly opravdu jen minimum světla. Chvíli mi proto trvalo, než jsem se zorientoval: celou místnost rodělovala dlouhá, asi půldruhého metru vysoká knihovna, která vybíhala z protější stěny a přímo proti vstupním dveřím byla po způsobu lodních přídí zakončena barevnou dřevěnou figurou mořské panny, jejíž poněkud expresivně vztyčené paže sloužily jako šatní věšák. V menší části pokoje byl jednoduchý pracovní kout s psacím stolem, zavaleným knihami a papíry. Zbylým dvěma třetinám dominovala originální rohová sedací sestava, zahrnující dvě obrovské amorfní hromady jakýchsi buřtovitých polštářů, dva nízké, už napohled vratké kožené taburety a jedno autentické zubařské křeslo. Roli tradičního konferenčního stolku zajímavě suplovala polovina ropného barelu firmy Texaco, stojící uprostřed čtvercového koberečku s orientálními vzory. V rozích stěn byly zavěšené velké černé reproduktory a mezi zatemněnými okny visela polystyrénová deska se spoustou ručně psaných poznámek a výstřižků z revue Vokno. Povlečení rozestlané postele, v níž čelem ke zdi ležela Beáta, bylo ovšem smutně tuctové. On the door to Beáta’s boudoir there was a large rectangular decal saying PRIVATE and about a dozen old stickers with the pictures of various bands, although numerous scratches on many of them attested to vain attempts to scrape them off. When even after knocking three times I didn’t receive any audible response, I said May I come in? and entered the room. A stuffy dark gloom pervaded the room because the brocade window dressings let in very little light, and it took me a while to get oriented. The whole room was divided by a long bookcase about five feet high, running from the opposite wall all the way to the door, where, like the bow of a ship, it was appointed with a painted mermaid, whose oddly expressive upraised arms served as coathooks. There was a workspace in the smaller part of the room, with a desk heaped with books and papers. The remaining two-thirds of the room were dominated by a creative corner seating arrangement, consisting of two enormous amorphous piles of sausage-shaped cushions, a pair of rickety-looking leather footstools and an authentic dentist’s chair. Substituting for a traditional coffee-table was half a Texaco oil barrel standing in the middle of a square rug with an oriental pattern. Large black speakers were suspended in the corners, and between the darkened windows hung a styrofoam board with lots of hand-written notes and clippings from Vokno review. The sheets of the unmade bed, where Beáta was lying facing the wall, were however depressingly ordinary. —from Výchova dívek v Čechách, by Michal Viewegh Open a Czech-English dictionary and you will find the meanings of every kind of word.1 Many dictionaries will even list translations for prefixes. But you won’t find meanings for cases in your trusty dictionary. If you are lucky, your textbook might list some meanings for each case, but chances are these entries will look rather like the disheveled décor of Beáta’s room, and be just as appealing. Take the dative case, for example. Your grammar book might tell you that the dative is used in the following contexts: for the indirect object; with the prepositions k ‘toward’ and proti ‘against’; with certain verbs such as odpovědět ‘answer’, chybět ‘be missing’, gratulovat ‘applaud’, zaplatit ‘pay’, podobat se ‘be similar to’, pomoci ‘help’, patřit ‘belong to’, věřit 1

Traditional explanations of Czech cases usually look like random lists of items.

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‘believe’, škodit ‘harm’, pomstít se ‘take revenge on’, divit se ‘be surprised at’, závidět ‘envy’, vévodit ‘rule over’; in impersonal expressions of age and comfort such as Je mi dvacet let/zima [Is me-DAT twenty-NOM years-GEN/cold] ‘I’m twenty years old/cold’. There’s no obvious pattern in such an explanation, and it doesn’t prepare you to predict what other words might be associated with the dative, or to interpret a sentence like Miminko nám pláče v noci [Baby-NOM us-DAT cries in night-LOC] ‘Our baby cries at night’. The incoherent assortments of case usage offered up in this fashion are incomplete and suggest no logical motive. There is also no logical motive for the student to try to learn them, since they don’t make sense. The only choice seems to be to memorize lists of case uses, and this proves to be a formidable if not impossible task, since it is exceedingly difficult to assimilate information if it looks to you like just so much nonsense. But entering the realm of Czech case meanings need not be as disheartening or disorienting as going into the room of a sloppy, spoiled teenager. 2 The goal of this text is to show you that there are patterns to case usage that make sense and can be learned fairly easily. This book can be used by students at any level of study, from beginner through advanced. The meanings of the grammatical cases are probably the biggest obstacle faced by Englishspeaking students trying to learn Czech.3 Even advanced learners will often run into sentences they can’t interpret. Students often know plenty of vocabulary and how to find unfamiliar words in the dictionary, and maybe they can even figure out what cases all the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives are in, but if they cannot figure out what the cases mean, the meaning of a sentence remains a mystery. The meaning of a sentence is a product of two interdependent forces: the words it contains, and the relationships they have to each other.4 In English these relationships are usually expressed by means of word order and prepositions, but in Russian this job is done by case. The words are fairly self-contained and concrete, since they can exist by themselves, outside of any sentence. The relationships that hold among words are relatively abstract and largely dependent upon context. The relationships themselves can be likened to a bare conceptual structure that is fleshed out by the actual words chosen. You can compare this to the concept sandwich, which indicates a set of relationships among bread, spreads, and fillings. By itself, sandwich is abstract, and if somebody asked you to “make a sandwich”, you would probably ask for more information. If instead the request sounded something like “give me an open-faced turkey sandwich on rye with lettuce, tomato, and mustard, hold the mayo”, you would find that more satisfactory, because you would know both the relationship (sandwich) and the specific items in that relationship (one slice of rye, mustard [not mayonnaise] for spread, filling of turkey, lettuce, and tomato). Our culture has some abstract relationships that can’t be expressed in a single word, or even in a common expression.5 Take for example the various types of games that involve two teams of people, each of which tries to control the movement of a round object into a space belonging to another team. Variations in the type of object, parts of body or implements used to move it, playing environments, rules, etc. yield specific games such as basketball, football, soccer, volleyball, field hockey, ice hockey, lacrosse, rugby, water-polo, tennis, and ping-pong. The abstract relationship that holds among all the players, objects, playing environments, and rules is so familiar that it is transparent to us. We don’t even think about it, and we apply it effortlessly even when we encounter a new game we haven’t seen before. Now, imagine that there are some people who live in a radically different culture, where there are no such sports. If you led them onto a lacrosse field and handed them some sticks and a ball, they would be utterly clueless. Without any extra help, it’s extremely unlikely that these people would start playing anything remotely like lacrosse. The sticks might seem handy for gathering apples from some nearby trees, and maybe the ball could serve as the head of a child’s doll or ritual effigy. Goodness knows what they would make of the goals. Nobody ever explained to you the principal relationship behind lacrosse or all the other games that work the same way. They didn’t have to. You saw plenty of examples all around you and 2

This text explains the coherent patterns of case meanings and can be used at any level of study. Why learning the meanings of Czech cases is an obstacle to students. 4 Czech cases show the relationships between words in a sentence. 5 Understanding Czech cases is like understanding how a game structures play. 3

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internalized the principle without even thinking about it. In order to gain the kind of understanding you have for such games, newcomers who have never been exposed to such an idea will need an explanation, not just of the principle itself, but of how it functions in various actual games. The situation of a student learning Czech is very similar to the culture-shock of these outsiders. Until you get acculturated to the games Czechs play with their cases, it is impossible for you to interpret and manipulate Czech sentences the way that Czechs do. The objective is to make you into effective players of the case game. There are challenges to face, as in any game, but they are part of the sport, and the rewards of really mastering the language far outweigh the difficulties. If a Czech asked you to explain the meaning of the English preposition for, you might be surprised and frustrated by the difficulty of this task. Even if you couldn’t give your Czech friend a satisfactory answer, that wouldn’t mean that for doesn’t mean anything or that there are lots of different fors that are not related to each other in any systematic way. Intuitively you sense that for does mean something and that all uses of for relate to that meaning. The same goes for Czechs and cases: they may not be able to tell you why all those different verbs take the dative case, but they have an intuitive sense that the dative case does mean something and the contexts in which the dative appears has to do with that meaning.

PRELIMINARIES 2 — How information is presented in this book This book will present to you the basic meanings of each case, and it will also show you all the specific uses and how they relate to the basic meaning.6 To help you focus on the cases and their meanings, all examples are presented with both a word-by-word gloss and a smooth translation. The cases will be marked with abbreviated tags in the word-by-word gloss: NOM for nominative, GEN for genitive, DAT for dative, ACC for accusative, VOC for vocative, LOC for locative (also known in some textbooks as “prepositional”), and INST for instrumental. The Czechs themselves use three systems of labels for their cases (which they call pády), all of which they learn in school: a numeric system, a system based on the case forms of the pronouns kdo ‘who’ and co ‘what’, and the Latin names of the cases (which are basically the same as our names, with adjustments made for Czech spelling).7 Here is a comparison of the three systems: Notation in this book NOM GEN DAT ACC VOC LOC INST

Numeric system

“kdo - co” system

1. (první pád) 2. (druhý pád) 3. (třetí pád) 4. (čtvrtý pád) 5. (pátý pád) 6. (šestý pád) 7. (sedmý pád)

kdo - co koho - čeho komu - čemu koho - co volání, ‘calling’ (o) kom - (o) čem kým - čím

Czech versions of Latin names nominativ genitiv dativ akuzativ vokativ lokativ/lokál instrumentál

Each case will further be associated with two labels, one of which is a word and the other a diagram. For example, the instrumental will look like this:

I INSTRUMENTAL: A MEANS 6 7

The notation and presentation of case in this book. How the Czechs label their cases by names and numbers.

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Both the word and the diagram are meant to suggest the basic meaning of the case, to give you a handle to grip your memory to. They are not definitions, nor do they imply that Czechs have such labels or think in pictograms or anything of that sort. They are merely a reference point for the process of working through the meanings. Both the word and the diagram focus only on the meaning of the case itself, which is usually embedded in a sentence that uses several cases. For example, a sentence like the following could be represented by a larger diagram in which INSTRUMENTAL: A MEANS would be only a component: Řezník krájel maso nožem. [Butcher-NOM sliced meat-ACC knife-INST.] The butcher sliced the meat with a knife.

I

N

A

However, such diagrams would quickly become clumsy and distracting. We will focus on only one case at a time instead of diagramming entire sentences this way. Most cases have submeanings related to the basic meaning; a double colon will be used to refer to a specific submeaning:

I INSTRUMENTAL:: A LABEL

When there are submeanings, they will be arranged in a network to show how they are related to each other and to the basic meaning. For example, the network of the instrumental looks like this: A LABEL A MEANS AN ADJUNCT A LANDMARK The object of this text is not to teach you the case endings for nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and numerals.8 Working through these materials will certainly reinforce your knowledge of what these paradigms look like, but there are many other books and materials for achieving that goal. Drilling 8

This book focuses on case meaning, not endings; tables of endings appear in every chapter and in the appendix.

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the endings would distract you from concentrating on the meanings. However, if you want to review the case endings at any time, there are tables in the appendix giving complete declensions for your reference, and shortened tables specific to each given case are at the beginning of each chapter. In addition to basic meanings and submeanings, metaphor plays an important role in case meaning.9 Case meaning takes as its point of departure the relationships that hold among physical objects placed or moving in space. These relationships can be metaphorically transferred to other domains such as time or social interaction, just as we see in English: English on in space: I already have dinner on the table. English on in time: I have a doctor’s appointment on Monday. English toward in space: The troops are advancing toward the border. English toward in social interaction: That director is favorably inclined toward English actresses. In these examples, time and social interaction are treated as if they were physical spaces. For the most part, Czechs use these metaphors in ways very similar to those familiar from English, though some uses might surprise you. Throughout the text mention is made of meanings that are extended to domains other than space. These metaphorical extensions, in conjunction with items specific to certain contexts, such as numerals, indirect experience, certain verbs and prepositions, are responsible for the more specific meanings that you will find nested under the basic meanings and submeanings. There are also relations that hold between the cases.10 It is not essential for you to memorize or appreciate these relations at this point, but since these relations have some influence on the descriptions they are given, a brief overview is in order. This overview is purely for purposes of general orientation; the statements it makes are abstract and will probably make more sense to you after you have completed the text. The nominative basically names an item, and has no particular designation. The instrumental is relatively peripheral to the nominative, and names an item through which something happens; it is a mere conduit, envelope, or accompaniment for something else. Both the accusative and the dative signal direction; the accusative is the destination for some item or activity, and the dative, relatively more peripheral, is a receiver or experiencer of some item or activity, usually capable of producing some further action in response. The sectioning of a part from its source is expressed by the genitive; more abstractly such sectioning can involve background elements of the setting, expressed by the locative. The vocative is very different from the other cases since it is not really a part of a sentence, but it does overlap somewhat with the naming function of the nominative. Most of the people using this book are probably already very familiar with the fact that Czech exists in two standard versions: a literary norm, known as Literary Czech, and a spoken language, known as Colloquial Czech (better thought of as two ends of a continuum of language use). In order to become proficient in Czech, a learner must master both versions, and this book acknowledges and presents examples of both Literary Czech (LCz) and Colloquial Czech (CCz). All case phenomena specific to Colloquial Czech, as well as all examples containing Colloquial Czech features will be designated CCz. The designation LCz will be used only when it is necessary to emphasize an exclusively literary case phenomenon or very bookish example. You will notice that the examples in this book are very different from the examples you have seen in other textbooks.11 That is because these are not textbook examples; not a single one of them was cooked up for this book. Our examples have been gathered from literature, periodicals, the Czech National Corpus, and the internet. Trying to learn Czech cases from traditional textbook examples is a little like trying to learn about the water cycle by studying the steam in your bathroom. It leads to the syndrome described at the beginning of this section, where you know all the words and endings, but still can’t make sense of the sentence. Most learners hit this plateau at 9

Spatial relations and metaphor motivate case meaning. The relationships between the cases. 11 The examples in this book are real, not concocted. 10

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some point, and if you’re a fast learner, you risk getting stuck there even sooner. Rather than being contrived and antiseptic, the examples in this book and exercises will expose you to the cases as they really are, raw and unadulterated. This means that the examples will be somewhat messier than the ones you are used to seeing. But hopefully this guided tour of case realia will help to make your transition from language study to language use a confident, seamless stride rather than a desperate leap into a void.

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Appendix

APPENDIX This chapter will provide you with information on how to spell the endings of all words that are marked with cases in Czech. This includes nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and numerals. “Hard-stems” and “Soft-stems” Czech has many different types of nouns and adjectives, and an important factor in this equation is the differences between so-called “hard” stems and “soft” stems. Often the endings in the “soft” paradigm are parallel to the endings in the “hard” paradigm, so it helps to know the correspondences between the two. All stems end in a consonant. If you look at the dictionary form of a noun or adjective and a vowel appears at the end of it, that vowel is an ending. Remove it to find the stem.“Hard-stems” can end in any of these consonants: b, d, f, g, h, ch, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, z. “Soft-stems” can end in: b, c, č, d/d’, j, l, m, n/ň, p, ř, s, š, t/t’, v, z, ž. Note that b, m, l, s, v, z appear on both lists and are associated with both types of stems. The vowel in case endings associated with hard stems and soft stems Frequently the case endings of hard stems will have a certain vowel, and we can predict that soft stems will have a corresponding vowel. In the list below, the vowel on the left is the one we find with hard stems, and the vowel on the right is the corresponding vowel for soft stems. Each pair of vowels is followed by a pair of examples showing where we find these correspondences for hard and soft stems. The uppercase letters refer to the cases (N=nominative, G=genitive, etc.), and the lower case letters tell you whether the ending is for singular (sg) or plural (pl), and may also indicate gender (m=masculine, f=feminine, n=neuter). The vowel e/ě is spelled ě after b, d, f, m, n, p, t, v, but e elsewhere: a vs. e/ě á vs. í e/ě vs. i o vs. e/ě u vs. i ou vs. í y  vs.i ý  vs.í

moucha ‘fly’ Nsg vs. práce  ‘work’ Nsg ta ‘that’ Nsgf vs. naše Nsgf druhá ‘second’ Nsgf vs. první ‘first’ Nsgf mouše ‘fly’ DLsg vs. práci ‘work’ DLsg moucho ‘fly’ Vsg vs. práce ‘work’ Vsg mouchu ‘fly’ Asg vs. práci ‘work’ Asg tu ‘that’ Asgf vs. naši ‘our’ Asgf mouchou ‘fly’ Isg vs. prací ‘work’ Isg rozbory ‘analysis’ Ipl vs. koši ‘basket’ Ipl stoly ‘tables’ Npl vs. psi ‘dogs’ Npl druhý ‘second’ Nsgm vs. první ‘first’ Nsgm

Vocative: a call Variations in vowels in the stems of nouns Many words in Czech have what we call “mobile e”. This is an e that appears (usually before the last consonant in the stem) when there is no ending after the stem, but is absent when there is a case ending. Here are some examples: pes ‘dog’ Nsg : psi ‘dogs’ Npl, otec ‘father’ Nsg : otce ‘father’ Gsg, deska ‘board’ Nsg : desek ‘boards’ Gpl. Unfortunately there is no easy way to know whether an e is mobile or not. The best thing to do is to look out for mobile e when you are learning words. Sometimes the vowel in a stem will be long with some case endings and short with others. So, for example, we have á vs. a in práce vs. prací ‘work’ Nsg vs. Isg, í vs. e/ě in sníh vs. sněhu ‘snow’ Nsg vs. Gsg, and ů vs. o in hůl vs. hole ‘cane’ Nsg vs. Gsg. Again, there is no good way to predict these variations. The best strategy is to learn them as you learn vocabulary. Changes in consonants When certain case endings are added to hard stems, the last consonant in the stem (or the last group of consonants) might change. This happens when we add the nominative plural ending for animate masculine nouns -i and the corresponding adjective ending -í, and we get the same effect from -ích in the locative plural. We also get changes in consonants when we add -e/ě in the dative/locative singular endings of feminine nouns. Less frequently we see consonants change when we add -e in the vocative singular of masculine nouns, but this affects only r and c (and it does not always happen). Here are examples of all of the types of consonant changes you are likely to encounter: r vs. ř k vs. c h vs. z g vs. z ch vs. š sk vs. št’ ck vs. čt’ c vs. č

sestra vs. sestře ‘sister’ Nsg vs. DLsg Petr vs. Petře ‘Peter’ Nsg vs. Vsg kluk vs. kluci, klucích ‘boy’ Nsg vs. Npl, Lpl jaký vs. jací ‘what kind of’ Nsgm vs. Nplanim kniha vs. knize ‘book’ Nsg vs. DLsg drahý vs. drazí ‘dear’ Nsgm vs. Nplanim  Olga vs. Olze ‘Olga’  Nsg vs. DLsg Čech vs. Češi, Češích ‘Czech’ Nsg vs. Npl, Lpl tichý vs. tiší ‘quiet’ Nsgm vs. Nplanim český vs. čeští ‘Czech’ Nsgm vs. Nplanim anglický vs. angličtí ‘English’ Nsgm vs. Nplanim chlapec vs. chlapče  ‘boy’Nsg vs. Vsg

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Appendix Endings for Nouns All nouns have grammatical gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter), and with very few exceptions (a handful of undeclinable borrowed words) all are declined for both number (singular, plural; though some words occur only in one of the numbers, e.g., nůžky ‘scissors’, which is plural only) and case. Each gender has its own set of characteristic paradigms, including hard-stem types, soft-stem types, and special types. Masculine paradigms in addition regularly signal animacy. The vocative has its own ending only in the singular. Below we discuss the paradigms for masculine, neuter, and feminine adding notes on case/ number endings which require commentary. The paradigms below are intended to be representative, but there is considerable variation in many paradigms, and it is often hard to establish a definitive norm. Masculine paradigms Hard stems Inanimate: rozbor ‘analysis’ sg pl N rozbor G rozboru D rozboru A rozbor V rozbore L rozboru I rozborem Animate: bratr ‘brother’ sg N bratr G bratra D bratrovi/-u A bratra V bratře L bratrovi/-u I bratrem

rozbory rozborů rozborům rozbory rozborech rozbory

pl bratři bratrů bratrům bratry bratrech bratry

Animacy If a masculine noun is inanimate, the nominative singular and accusative singular endings are the same. If a masculine noun is animate, the genitive singular and accusative singular endings are the same, and there are also special endings (-i, -é, -ové) for the nominative plural. Animacy can also affect the endings of the genitive singular, dative singular, and

Vocative: a call locative singular. Animate nouns are all male (or grammatically masculine) living creatures capable of motion (i.e., non-vegetable). In the case of very small creatures, such as bacil ‘bacillus’, mikrob ‘microbe’ animacy is open to interpretation. There are also a good number of nouns which refer to inanimate objects but display animate endings; this phenomenon is known as facultative animacy. Animal names used to refer to inanimates regularly produce this phenomenon: koníček ‘little horse; hobby’ is animate in both meanings. Most other facultative animates show some close connection to human males, in terms of appearance (sněhulák ‘snowman’, maňásek ‘puppet’), existence of homonyms referring to male humans (talián ‘Italian; Italian sausage’, which motivates facultative animacy for other sausages, such as vuřt ‘wurst’), and stereotypes of male-pattern behavior (drinking of alcohol: panák ‘shot’; smoking of cigarettes: čmoud ‘drag from a cigarette’; card-playing: ferbl ‘name of a card game’; sports: kraul ‘crawl (swimming)’; and mathematics: násobenec ‘multiplicand’). Facultative animacy primarily involves the GAsg and to a lesser extent the Npl, but does not always extend to the DLsg. Other notes concerning masculine hard stems Gsg: about 97% of inanimate masculine hard stem nouns have -u, 2% have -a, and 1% permit both endings. Nouns with -a include, obviously, all facultative animates, plus an assortment of common everyday words (zákon ‘law’, oběd ‘lunch’), some buildings (kostel ‘church’), locations (Jičín, Tachov), time periods (dnešek ‘today’, leden ‘January’), and shapes (trojúhelník ‘triangle’). DLsg: most animate nouns in this paradigm admit both endings. -ovi tends to be favored for viriles (male human referents), with rare but notable exceptions (člověk, člověku ‘person’, bůh, bohu ‘god’), and can be used for most animals. In concatenations of titles and names, the last word will have -ovi, but all others will have -u: panu doktoru Janu Novákovi‘Mr. Dr. Jan Novák’. Lsg: 90% of inanimate masculine hard stem nouns have -u, less than 1% have -e/ě, and about 9% permit both endings. The ending -e/ě can cause the consonant changes listed above, but the tendency is to use the ending -u and thus avoid such changes. More than half of the stems that permit both desinences end in -s, and others end in -z, -k, -l, -r, -ch, or -n. Among nouns that permit both desinences -e/ě is typical in the expression of familiar, predictable concrete locations, whereas -u is the default for all other uses. Vsg: We see consonant changes here for stems ending in tr and c: mistr, mistře! ‘master’, otec, otče! ‘father’. Stems ending in k, h, and ch tend to have -u instead (kluk, kluku! ‘boy’), thus avoiding consonant changes (but note these exceptions: bůh, bože! ‘god’; člověk, člověče! ‘person’).

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Appendix Npl: -i is by far the most common ending for animates and causes consonant changes: Polák, Poláci ‘Pole’. The endings -é -ové are used primarily with certain viriles: soused, sousedé ‘neighbor’; syn, synové ‘son’. Lpl: in addition to -ech, the Lpl has the variants -ích (used with some stems ending in -k, h, -ch, -b, -p, -v, -s, -z, and -l) and -ách (used with some stems in -k, -h, -ch). With -k, -h, -ch, the ending -ích causes consonant changes, although the tendency is to replace -ích with ách to avoid these changes. Compare the following Nsg and Lpl forms: práh, prazích ‘threshold’; les, lesích ‘forest’; hotel, hotelích ‘hotel’; plech, plechách ‘metal plate’. Soft stems Inanimate: koš ‘basket’ sg N koš G koše D koši A koš V koši L koši I košem Animate: malíř ‘painter’ sg N malíř G malíře D malířovi/-i A malíře V malíři L malířovi/-i I malířem

pl koše košů košům koše koších koši

pl malíři malířů malířům malíře malířích malíři

DLsg: the distribution of -ovi vs. -i is similar to that of -ovi vs. -u in the animate hard stems, although -i is somewhat more frequent in the soft paradigm than -u is in the hard paradigm. Lpl: some nouns in this paradigm have the desinence -ech: cíl, cílech ‘goal’. Stems alternating between hard and soft There are a few masculine inanimate stems that show both the hard and the soft stem endings, like kotel ‘cauldron’, which has the following forms: Gsg kotlu/-e, DLsg kotlu/-i, Asg kotel, Vsg kotli, Isg kotlem, Napl kotle/-y, Gpl kotlů, Dpl kotlům, Lpl kotlech/-ích, Ipl kotli/ -y. Nearly all stems of this type end in l or n (řemen ‘strap’, pramen ‘source’, kámen ‘stone’); one ends in t (loket ‘elbow’).

7 Special types There are two types of masculine nouns that end with a vowel in the Nsg: the hard -a paradigm and the soft -e paradigm. Both are exclusively virile (designate male humans) and therefore animate. Hard -a virile: přednosta ‘chief, head’ sg pl N přednosta přednostové G přednosty přednostů D přednostovi přednostům A přednostu přednosty V přednosto L přednostovi přednostech I přednostou přednosty Aside from the masculine DLsg -ovi, this paradigm has feminine endings in the singular, but masculine endings in the plural. Gsg, Apl, and Ipl: some stems in this paradigm end in consonant letters that do not combine with y; these forms are then spelled with i, as in nicknames such as Míša, Míši ‘Mike’. Npl: although most nouns in this paradigm use -ové, those ending in -ita and -ista use -é (husita, husité ‘Hussite’, houslista, houslisté ‘violinist’). Lpl: stems ending in -k, -h, -ch will have the ending -ích and consonant changes: sluha, sluzích ‘servant’. Soft -e virile: zachránce ‘savior’ sg pl N zachránce zachránci G zachránce zachránců D zachráncovi/-i zachráncům A zachránce zachránce V zachránce L zachráncovi/-i zachráncích I zachráncem zachránci DLsg: variation here parallels that of soft stem animate nouns. Npl: some nouns also admit -ové (soudce, soudci/-ové ‘judge’). Although a few borrowings are indeclinable (atašé ‘attaché’, zebu ‘zebu’, tangens ‘tangent’), most foreign words decline even if their stems are incongruous with the stem shape of native masculine nouns. Nouns ending in a vowel other than i/y will drop that vowel in

8

Appendix all forms other than the Nsg (and Asg for inanimates) and treat the preceding consonant as stem final; maestro thus has a stem of maestr- to which desinences are added: GAsg maestra, DLsg maestrovi, Vsg maestro, Isg maestrem, Npl maestrové, Gpl maestrů, Dpl maestrům, AIpl maestry, Lpl maestrech. Following a similar strategy, foreign nouns ending in -us, -es, and -os usually drop those segments for all other forms in the paradigm (NAsg komunismus, GDLsg komunismu, Vsg komunisme, Isg komunismem; NAsg hádes, GDLsg hádu, Isg hádem; NAsg kosmos, GDLsg kosmu, Isg kosmem). Foreign nouns and names ending in i/ y (kuli ‘coolie’, pony ‘pony’, Billy) have a mixed declension, with adjective type endings (with short vowels) in the singular (GAsg kuliho, Dsg kulimu, LIsg kulim), but primarily noun-type endings in the plural (Npl kuliové, Gpl kuliů, Dpl kuliům, Apl kulie, Lpl kuliech/ -ích/-ch, Ipl kulii/-mi). Neuter paradigms Aside from the nominative and accusative forms, the neuter endings are similar to masculine endings. Hard stems město ‘city’ sg N město G města D městu A město V město L městě/-u I městem

pl města měst městům města městech městy

Nsg: a few nouns with stems ending in -en have a bookish variant Nsg form with an abbreviated stem: břemeno/břímě ‘burden’; these nouns also have alternate endings Gsg břemena/ břemene, Dsg břemenu/břemeni, and Lsg břemenu/břemeni/břemeně (similar to the masculine kotel type above). Lsg: many nouns use only -e/ě  (with consonant changes):okno, okně ‘window’; some only -u (stems ending in -k, -h, -ch always use -u): středisko, středisku ‘center’. Lpl: as in masculine nouns, -ích can appear after velars (with type 1 alternations), and is frequently replaced by -ách. Nouns referring to paired body parts, such as rameno/rámě ‘shoulder’, koleno ‘knee’, and prsa ‘chest, breasts’ have GLpl forms ramenou/ramen, kolenou/kolen, and prsou. lítko ‘calf (leg)’ and bedro  ‘hip’and some plural-only nouns (vrátka ‘gate’) admit both neuter and feminine forms in the plural.

9 Soft stems There are two types neuter soft stems. One type involves a very small number of nouns with a paradigm of: NGAVsg/NApl moře ‘sea’, DLsg/Ipl moři, Isg mořem, Gpl moří, Dpl mořím, Lpl mořích. The other type involves a large number of nouns all of which are derived with -iště and designate places, such as: NGAVsg/NApl letiště ‘airport’, DLsg/Ipl letišti, Isg letištěm, Gpl letišt’, Dpl letištím, Lpl letištích. Special types -ět-/-at- type: slůně ‘baby elephant’ sg pl N slůně slůňata G slůněte slůňat D slůněti slůňatům A slůně slůňata V slůně L slůněti slůňatech I slůnětem slůňaty The -ět-/-at- type is primarily associated with names of offspring (kotě ‘kitten’, nemluvně ‘infant’), although this paradigm is used for some inanimates (koště ‘broom’) and at least one virile (kníže ‘prince’). -í type: nábřeží ‘waterfront’ sg N nábřeží G nábřeží D nábřeží A nábřeží V nábřeží L nábřeží I nábřežím

pl nábřeží nábřeží nábřežím nábřeží nábřežích nábřežími

The -í type paradigm includes many nouns derived from verbs (placení ‘paying’) and is otherwise often associated with collectives (křoví ‘bushes’) and nouns with abstract meaning (zdraví ‘health’); a particularly common source of neuter -í nouns are prepositional phrases (the head noun here, nábřeží is derived from the prepositional phrase na břehu ‘on the bank’).

10

Appendix Latin and Greek borrowings into the Czech neuter continue some aspects of their original declensions in Czech. Nouns ending in -o, -on, and -um drop those final segments in all forms but the NAsg and follow the standard hard declension (but those with a new “stem” ending in a vowel have some soft endings in the plural): NAVsg enklitikon, Gsg/NApl enklitika, DLsg enklitiku, Isg enklitikem, Gpl enklitik, Dpl enklitik¨m, Lpl enklitikách, Ipl enklitiky; NAVsg rádio, Gsg/NApl rádia, DLsg rádiu, Isg rádiem, Gpl rádií, Dpl rádiím, Lpl rádiích, Ipl rádii; NAVsg muzeum, Gsg/NApl muzea, DLsg muzeu, Isg muzeem, Gpl muzeí, Dpl muzeím, Lpl muzeích, Ipl muzei. Neuter nouns ending in -ma add t to form their stem: NAVsg drama, GDLsg dramatu, Isg dramatem, NApl dramata, Gpl dramat, Dpl dramat¨m, Lpl dramatech, Ipl dramaty. Some neuter borrowings do not decline: klišé, taxi, tabu. Feminine paradigms Hard stems žena ‘woman’ sg N žena G ženy D ženě A ženu V ženo L ženě I ženou

pl ženy žen ženám ženy ženách ženami

DLsg: the -e/ě ending causes consonant changes. ruka ‘arm/hand’ has the form NApl ruce and shares with noha ‘leg’ special plural forms: GLpl rukou, nohou (but note also variants Gpl noh and Lpl rukách, nohách); Ipl rukama, nohama. Soft stems růže ‘rose’ sg N růže G růže D růži A růže V růže L růži I růží

pl růže růží růžím růže růžích růžemi

11 Gpl: as a rule, stems ending in -ic have a zero ending instead of -í: ulice, ulic  ‘street’. Variation between zero and -í  is not uncommon, particularly among nouns in-yně; přítelkyně ‘girlfriend’ admits both Gpl forms: přítelkyň/přítelkyní. Feminine nouns ending in a consonant Two types of feminine nouns end in a consonant, and both are soft stem types. -e/ě type: dlaň ‘palm of hand’ sg pl N dlaň dlaně G dlaně dlaní D dlani dlaním A dlaň dlaně V dlani L dlani dlaních I dlaní dlaněmi -i type: kost ‘bone’ sg N kost G kosti D kosti A kost V kosti L kosti I kostí

pl kosti kostí kostem kosti kostech kostmi

The -e/ě type and -i type paradigms are converging, resulting in frequent variations for words of both paradigms in the desinences that do not match, cf. lod’ ‘boat’, which admits all of the following forms Gsg lodi/-ě, NApl lodi/-ě, Ipl loděmi/lod’mi. paní ‘Mrs.’ is indeclinable in the singular and has the following plural forms: NGApl paní, Dpl paním, Lpl paních, Ipl paními. Borrowed words ending in a vowel or j + a follow a mixed hard/soft declension, e.g.: Nsg idea, Gsg idey/-je, DLsg ideji, Asg ideu, Vsg ideo, Isg ideou/-jí, NApl idey/-je, Gpl idejí, Dpl ideám/-jím, Lpl ideách-jích, Ipl iedeami/-jemi. There are a few borrowed feminine indeclinable nouns: whisky, party.

12

Appendix Nouns of variable or indeterminate gender Three neuter nouns do not have neuter endings in the plural: dítě ‘child’: NAVsg dítě, Gsg dítěte, DLsg dítěti, Isg dítětem, NApl děti, Gpl dětí, Dpl dětem, Lpl dětech, Ipl dětmi oko ‘eye’ and ucho ‘ear’: both have a neuter hard stem singular (with Lsg -u) and the following plural: NApl oči uši, Gpl očí uší, Dpl očím uším, Ipl očima ušima. Three words naming holiday seasons, letnice ‘Whitsunday’, vánoce ‘Christmas’, and velikonoce  ‘Easter’, are always plural and listed in dictionaries as feminine, although they have Dpl -ům, which is characteristic of masculine and neuter paradigms: NApl vánoce, Gpl vánoc, Dpl vánocům, Lpl vánocích, Ipl vánocemi. Although the vast majority of names for people and animals have separate feminine and masculine forms, there are some words that vary in gender and paradigm depending upon the given referent: chot’ ‘spouse’ declines as a soft stem masculine animate when referring to a husband, but as a feminine type ending in a consonant when referring to a wife; nešika ‘clumsy person’ is an -a virile in reference to a male, but a hard stem feminine in reference to a female. Most other common gender words, such as člověk ‘person’ (masculine hard stem animate) and osoba ‘person’ (hard stem feminine) retain their paradigm and syntactic gender no matter whom they refer to. Rukojmí ‘hostage’ can be declined as an adjective or as an -í type neuter (Gsg rukojmího/-í). A few inanimate nouns have more than one paradigm: ‘potato’ exists as both brambor (hard stem masculine) and brambora (hard stem feminine), and esej ‘essay’ can be declined as either masculine or feminine. Colloquial Czech endings for nouns Colloquial Czech has an Ipl ending of -ama/-ěma for all three genders (replacing masculine and neuter endings in -y/-i, feminine endings in -ami/-ěmi, and yielding -ma for the vlast type of feminine nouns). Compare the literary and colloquial Czech Ipl forms for our head nouns: LCz bratry vs. CCz bratrama ‘brothers’, LCz koši vs. CCz košema ‘baskets’, LCz malíři vs. CCz malířema ‘painters’, LCz kotly/-i vs. CCz kotlama/-ema ‘cauldrons’, LCz přednosty vs. CCz přednostama ‘chiefs’, LCz zachránci vs. CCz zachráncema ‘protectors’, LCz ženami vs. CCz ženama ‘women’, LCz růžemi vs. CCz růžema ‘roses’, LCz dlaněmi vs. CCz dlaněma ‘palms of hand’, LCz kostmi vs. CCz kostma ‘bones’, LCz městy vs. CCz městama ‘cities’, LCz nábřežími vs. CCz nábřežíma ‘waterfronts’, LCz slůňaty vs. CCz slůňatama ‘baby elephants’. Other colloquial Czech features relate only to a given paradigm or group of nouns. Masculine nouns ending in -k, -h, -ch may use the CCz Lpl ending -ách instead of the LCz Ipl -ích, thus avoiding consonant changes: LCz o vojácích vs. CCz vo vojákách ‘about the

13 soldiers’. With some masculine hard stem nouns the expected Lpl -ích is regularized to ech: LCz v lesích vs. CCz v lesech ‘in the forests’. In colloquial Czech there is some preference for DLsg -ovi over -i: LCz holiči/-ovi vs. CCz holičovi/-i ‘barber’. The CCz forms chleba ‘bread’ and sejra ‘cheese’, equivalent to the Gsg partitive forms LCz chleba, sýra, have spread to the NAsg in CCz. CCz is also characterized by sporadic differences in vowel length, particularly shortening of ů and í in endings. The neuter -í paradigm (see head noun nábřeží ‘waterfront’) tends to acquire adjectival endings in colloquial Czech, creating forms such as CCz Gsg nábřežího, Dsg nábřežímu, Gpl nábřežích, all of which are represented by LCz nábřeží. The two feminine paradigms with Nsg ending in a consonant, the -e/ě type (head noun: dlaň ‘palm of hand’) and the -i type (head noun: kost ‘bone’) have become to some degree intermingled in CCz, which tends to prefer the -e/-ě type endings for all nouns of both types, creating CCz forms such as Lpl vlastích vs. LCz vlastech ‘homelands’. Endings for adjectives Adjectives are declined to match the gender, case, and number of the nouns they modify. Participles are declined like adjectives. Long form adjectives Like nouns, adjectives have both hard and soft stem paradigms. Unlike nouns, adjectives do not have vocative case forms; when an adjective appears with a noun in the vocative, the adjective is in the nominative. In combination with the Ipl of feminine and variable gender nouns having a nominal desinence in -ma, the ending for demonstratives and adjectives is also -ma rather than the customary  -mi: těma špinavýma rukama ‘with those dirty hands’. There are a few foreign borrowings that do not decline, such as fajn ‘fine’, but these are considered colloquial, and can have nativized declinable variants, such as fajnový ‘fine’. Hard stems druhý ‘second; other’ singular masculine feminine N druhý druhá G druhého druhé D druhému druhé A druhý/ druhou druhého L druhém druhé I druhým druhou

neuter druhé druhého druhému druhé druhém druhým

plural masculine feminine druhé/druzí druhé druhých druhým druhé druhé druhých druhými

neuter druhá

druhá

14

Appendix Alternants listed after the slash are used with animate nouns. The Nplmasc animate ending -í is associated with the consonant changes listed at th beginning of this appendix. Soft stems první  ‘first’

N G D A L I

singular masculine & neuter první prvního prvnímu první / prvního prvním prvním

feminine první první první první první první

plural (all genders) první prvních prvním první prvních prvními

Possessive adjectives Possessive adjectives formed from names of human males (with suffix -ův) and females (with suffix -in) use a combination of short and long endings: bratrův ‘brother’s’ singular plural masculine feminine neuter masculine feminine neuter N bratrův bratrova bratrovo bratrovy/ bratrovy bratrova bratrovi G bratrova bratrovy bratrova bratrových D bratrovu bratrově bratrovu bratrovým A bratrův/ bratrovu bratrovo bratrovy bratrovy bratrova bratrova L bratrově/-u bratrově bratrově/-u bratrových I bratrovým bratrovou bratrovým bratrovými Colloquial Czech endings for adjectives The table below shows the CCz desinences that differ from their LCz equivalents in bold face: druhej ‘second; other’ singular plural masculine feminine neuter (all genders) N druhej druhá druhý druhý G druhýho druhý druhýho druhejch D druhýmu druhý druhýmu druhejm A druhej/-ýho druhou druhý druhý L druhým druhý druhým druhejch I druhým druhou druhým druhejma

15 The soft stem adjectival paradigm distingishes CCz from LCz forms only in the Ipl, where CCz prvníma corresponds to LCz prvními ‘first’. There is, however, one soft adjective that exhibits the change of í > ej, CCz cizej ‘foreign, strange’, with plural forms GLpl cizejch, Dpl cizejm and Ipl cizejma corresponding to LCz Nsg masc cizí, GLpl cizích, Dpl cizím, Ipl cizími. CCz avoids short form adjectives (except rád ‘glad’), using only long forms for adjectives and passive participles, and appending long form endings to all but the Nsg masc and neut forms of the possessive adjectives. Thus LCz nemocen ‘ill’ has the CCz counterpart CCz nemocnej, with a paradigm like druhej above, and the same goes for passive participles, e.g., LC napsán, napsaný vs. CCz napsanej ‘written’. Aside from Nsg masc bratrův ‘brother’s’ (sometimes shortened in CCz to bratruv and occasionally realized as bratrovej) and neut bratrovo (sometimes CCz bratrový), which are the same in both registers, CCz adds the endings from the druhej paradigm to bratrov- ‘brother’s’ and sestřin- ‘sister’s’. Personal, reflexive, and interrogative pronouns All pronouns are inflected for case. Personal and reflexive pronouns can occur as enclitics, and the singular and reflexive pronouns have for the genitive, dative, and accusative cases two forms, a “long” one restricted to non-enclitic uses, and a “short” stressless enclitic one. First person ‘I, we’

N G D A L I

singular “long” “short” non-enclitic enclitic já mne mě mňe mi mne mě mně mnou

plural

my nás nám nás nás námi

Second person ‘you’ singular “long” non-enclitic N ty G tebe D tobě A tebe L tobě I tebou

plural “short” enclitic tě ti tě

vy vás vám vás vás vámi

16

Appendix Third person ‘he, she, it, they’

N G D A L I

singular masculine neuter “long” “short” “long” on ono jeho ho jeho jemu mu jemu jeho, jej jej, ho, -ň je něm něm jím jím

plural feminine “short” ho mu

ona jí jí ji ní jí

oni, ony, ona jich jim je nich jimi

The initial j- of the genitive, dative, accusative, and instrumental is replaced by n- whenever a pronoun is preceded by a preposition; because the locative case appears only with prepositions, pronouns are cited only in their n- forms. Masculine accusative jej can serve in both enclitic and non-enclitic roles; -ň is uncommon and restricted only to position after prepositions ending in a vowel: naň ‘onto him/it’. In the plural, gender is distinguished only in the nominative case: oni masculine animate, ony masculine inanimate + feminine, ona neuter. Reflexive pronoun ‘oneself’ “long” G sebe D sobě A sebe L sobě I sebou

“short” sebe si se sobě sebou

Because the reflexive pronoun typically refers to a nominative subject, it does not have a nominative (or vocative) form. Interrogative pronouns: kdo ‘who’ and co ‘what’ N kdo co G koho čeho D komu čemu A koho co, -č L kom čem I kým čím Like -ň, -č appears only after prepositions ending in a vowel: Není zač ‘Don’t mention it (lit: Not for what)’. Syntactically kdo is always masculine animate singular and co is neuter singular.

17 Possessive pronouns Můj ‘my’, tvůj  ‘your’ and svůj ‘one’s own’ share one declension type, and náš ‘our’ and váš ‘your’ share another declension type. Jeho ‘his/its’ and jejich ‘their’ are indeclinable. Její ‘her’ and čí ‘whose’ decline like soft stem adjectives. můj ‘my’ (tvůj  ‘your’ and svůj ‘one’s own’ have the same endings) singular plural masculine feminine neuter masculine feminine neuter N můj má, moje mé, moje mé, moje/ mé, moje má, moje mí, moji G mého mé mého mých D mému mé mému mým A můj/ mou, moji mé, moje mé, moje mé, moje má, moje mého L mém mé mém mých I mým mou mým mými In the nominative and accusative cases for feminine and neuter in the singular and all genders in the plural, there are variant contracted (consisting of a single long vowel) and uncontracted (consisting of oj + short vowel) forms; these forms are in free variation, although the contracted forms are more frequent in writing and uncontracted ones are encountered more often in speech. náš ‘our’ (váš ‘your’ has the same declension) singular masculine feminine neuter N náš naše naše G D A L I

našeho našemu náš/ našeho našem naším

naší naší

našeho našemu

plural masculine feminine neuter naše/ naše naše naši našich našim

naši naší naší

naše našem naším

naše našich našimi

18

Appendix Demonstrative pronoun ten ‘this, that, the’

N G D A L I

singular masculine feminine neuter ten ta to toho tomu ten/ toho tom tím

té té tu

toho tomu to

té tou

tom tím

plural masculine feminine neuter ty/ ty ta ti těch těm ty ty ta těch těmi

Ten participates in various compounds with affixed -to ‘here’, tam- ‘there’, -hle ‘look’ (emphatic), in which ten is declined as expected, among them: tento ‘this (...here)’, tamten ‘that (...there)’, tenhle ‘this/that’ , tamhleten ‘that (there emphatic)’. Ten can also be reduplicated (in which case it is declined in both positions), as in tenhleten ‘this/that (emphatic)’. Relative and other pronouns Jenž ‘which, that, who’ is a bookish relative pronoun which is declined like náš with the final -ž appearing after the endings. The adjective který ‘which, that, who’ is usually used in place of jenž. Sám ‘oneself’ is declined as a hard stem adjective (with a stem of sam-) in the genitive, dative, locative, and instrumental cases and has the following endings in the nominative and accusative: singular plural masculine feminine neuter masculine feminine neuter N sám sama samo samy/ samy sama sami A sám samu samo samy samy sama sama/-ého Všechen ‘all’ has a larger and unique paradigm (note the e > i vowel shift in the Nplmasc animate): singular plural masculine feminine neuter masculine feminine neuter N všechen všechna všechno/ všechny/ všechny všechna vše všichni G všeho vší všeho všech D všemu vší všemu všem A všechen všechnu všechno/ všechny všechny všechna vše L všem vší všem všech I vším vší vším všemi

19 The following forms in the paradigm have alternates (used more frequently in speech) in -cek, -ck-: všechen > všecek, všechna > všecka, všechno > všecko, všechnu > všecku, všechny > všecky, všichni > všicci. Colloquial Czech endings for pronouns The paradigm of the first person singular pronoun já ‘I’ is considerably simpler in CCz, since all forms, except the nominative já and instrumental mnou, can be realized as GDAL mně, with no distinction between ‘short’ enclitic and ‘long’ stressed forms (though the dative enclitic form mi, standard for LCz, also appears frequently in CCz). The CCz replacement of Ipl -mi by -ma is carried out for all plural personal pronouns, yielding CCz Ipl forms náma ‘us’, váma ‘you’ and jima ‘them’. The nominative forms of third person pronouns start with v- and the plural (as in the adjectival paradigm) shows no gender distinctions: von ‘he’, vono ‘it’, vona ‘she’, voni ‘they’. Although they are different in the nominative case, the third singular masculine and neuter pronouns von ‘he’ and vono ‘it’ share a collapsed and simplified CCz paradigm of GA jeho/ho, D jemu/mu, L něm, I jím (where this last form can also be shortened to jim). After a preposition, CCz uses only GA něj (never něho), and uses only the accusative enclitic pronoun ho (never jej), although all variants coexist in LCz. CCz frequently lengthens the the feminine accusative 3sg pronoun to CCz jí (cf. LCz ji), yielding a single form (alternating with ní) for the entire paradigm (except the nominative vona ‘she’). Possessive pronouns and the demonstrative ten ‘this’ display the same CCz correspondences characteristic of adjectival paradigms, with é > ý, ý > ej (except in the Isg), loss of gender distinctions in the plural, and replacement of Ipl -mi with -ma. For the pronouns můj ‘my’, tvůj ‘your’, and svůj ‘one’s own’ there is a strong CCz preference for uncontracted over contracted forms; thus CCz uses moje for Nsg neut/fem, Asg neut, Npl, Asg masc, and Apl, and mojí for Isg fem. The sole CCz NApl form for ‘these’ is ty; note also the CCz GDLsg fem tý and Ipl těma. Numerals Cardinal numerals All cardinal numerals are inflected for case. ‘One’  and ‘two’  also mark gender , and ‘one’ has endings for both the singular and the plural (with a meaning ‘one pair or set of’).

20

Appendix jeden ‘one’

N G D A L I

singular masculine feminine neuter jeden jedna jedno jednoho jednomu jeden/ jednoho jednom jedním

jedné jedné jednu

plural masculine feminine neuter jedny/ jedny jedna jedni jednoho jedněch jednomu jedněm jedno jedny jedny jedna

jedné jednou

jednom jedním

jedněch jedněmi

dva ‘two’ masculine NA dva GL dvou DI dvěma Oba ‘both’ shares this paradigm. tři ‘three’ and čtyři ‘four’ NA tři G tří D třem L třech I třemi

feminine + neuter dvě

čtyři čtyř čtyřem čtyřech čtyřmi

Two-digit numerals above the teens can be expressed either by listing the tens (twenties, etc.) plus ones (twos, etc.) or by use of an inverted compound consisting of ‘one’ through ‘nine’ + -a- + ‘twenty’ through ‘ninety’; thus ‘twenty-three’ can be realized as dvacet tři or třiadvacet.The numerals ‘five’- ‘nineteen’; the eight multiples of ‘ten’, ‘twenty’ - ‘ninety’ and all inverted (one-word) numerals have no ending in the nominative and accusative and -i for all other cases (GDLI). Non-inverted (two-word) numerals ending in -1, -2, -3, and 4 have the same endings as those numerals would have individually. Here are some examples:

5 8 9 10

NA pět osm devět deset

GDLI pěti osmi devíti deseti/desíti

21 11 18 20 80 25 (inverted) 25 86 (inverted) 86 21 (inverted) 21 32 (inverted) 32

jedenáct osmnáct dvacet osmdesát pětadvacet dvacet pět šestaosmdesát osmdesát šest jednadvacet dvacet jedna dvaatřicet třicet dva

jedenácti osmnácti dvaceti osmdesáti pětadvaceti dvaceti pěti šestaosmdesáti osmdesáti šesti jednadvaceti dvaceti jedn-(endings as above) dvaatřiceti třiceti dv- (endings as above)

The following four numerals have other declensions: sto ‘hundred’ is a hard stem neuter noun; note dvě stě ‘two hundred’; tisíc ‘thousand’ is a soft stem masculine noun with alternate Gpl forms tisíc and tisíců; milión ‘million’ is a hard stem masculine noun; milarda ‘billion’ is a hard stem feminine noun. Ordinal numerals All ordinal numerals are declined like adjectives; three are of the soft stem type: první ‘first’, třetí ‘third’, and tisící ‘thousandth’. Aside from the suppletive první ‘first’ and druhý ‘second’, all cardinals are formed by adding -ý, but cardinals in -e/ět have ordinals in -átý. With compound numerals all items are ordinal: stý sedmdesátý pátý ‘one hundred seventy fifth’, however this usage is quite bookish and it is more normal to use cardinal forms for numerals above ninety, followed by ordinal forms for the final two digits: sto sedmdesátý pátý. As with cardinal numerals, two-digit numerals between 21 and 99 (excluding the even tens, which consist of only one word) have two possibilities: both dvacátý třetí and třiadvacátý express ‘twenty-third’. Indefinite numerals Kolik ‘how many’, několik ‘several’, tolik ‘so many’, and mnoho ‘much, many’ all follow the same paradigm, with the desinence -a in the genitive, dative, locative, and instrumental cases. Other indefinite numerals, such as málo ‘little, few’, trochu ‘some’, hodně  ‘a lot’, are adverbial and uninflected.

22

Appendix Colloquial Czech endings for numerals Jeden ‘one’ is declined in CCz like ten, indicated above, however in counting and in compound numerals, it most frequently appears as CCz jedna: CCz jednadvacet let, dvacet jedna let vs. LCz jed(e)nadvacet let, dvacet jeden rok. CCz has a tendency to spread the ou diphthong throughout the paradigm of dva/dvě ‘two’, yielding GL dvouch, D dvoum, and I dvouma as alternates to LCz forms GL dvou and DI dvěma. The replacement of Ipl -mi by -ma motivates CCz třema ‘three’ and štyřma ‘four’, and there is a tendency to merge the genitive and locative forms of these two numerals, yielding GL třech, štyřech. Ordinal numerals exhibit the same variations in CCz that are characteristic of adjectives.

23

1. Nominative

1

N

NOMINATIVE:

A NAME

The nominative network: A NAME

AN IDENTITY

Prologue As you probably suspect, the nominative case is relatively simple and straightforward.1 It is the logical starting point both for our survey of the cases and for many sentences. In addition to its basic meaning, NOMINATIVE: A NAME, this case has just one submeaning, NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY. Whereas NOMINATIVE: A NAME has a very broad naming function, NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY has a more narrow function, targeting a characteristic of something that has already been named. You can think of NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY as being a specialized version of NOMINATIVE: A NAME, used when we want to convey more information.

NOMINATIVE: A NAME 1 — Naming and citations

N NOMINATIVE: A NAME

Because it does not have any other more specific meaning, the nominative is ideal even for use outside of a sentence, such as: pointing to an object and naming it; signs, tags, labels, titles, and similar naming devices.2 The fact that dictionaries cite nouns in the nominative case is a symptom of the nominative’s function as the primary name for an item or idea; the other case forms are all variations on the nominative, secondary and derived. The following two sentences show how NOMINATIVE: A NAME is used to point something out and to cite lists of items: Hele, opičák! [Look, monkey-NOM!] Look, a monkey! Obličeje pevně sešněrované předivem vrásek, vybledlé oči, pootevřená ústa, hle: strohá uniformita stáří. [Faces-NOM firmly laced-NOM fabric-INST wrinkles-GEN, faded eyes-NOM, slightly-opened mouths-NOM, behold: severe uniformity-NOM age-GEN.] Faces firmly laced with a fabric of wrinkles, faded eyes, slightly opened mouths; behold the severe uniformity of old age. 1 2

An overview of the nominative case. The naming function of NOMINATIVE: A NAME.

1. Nominative

2

A great variety of expressions are used to indicate names, such as jmenovat se ‘be named’, na-zvat ‘name, call’, as well as words referring to titles and signs, and these are often associated with NOMINATIVE: A NAME, as we see in these sentences: Měl dvě dcery, mladší se jmenovala Lena a byla moje spolužačka. [Had two daughters-ACC, younger-NOM self-ACC named Lena-NOM and was my classmate-NOM.] He had two daughers, the younger one was named Lena and she was my classmate. A i když je v hlubinách vesmíru ukryto nevídané množství vesmírných těles, vždy se s obdivem vracíme ke klenotu zvanému Země. [And even though is in depths-LOC universe-GEN hidden-NOM unseen multitude-NOM heavenly bodies-GEN, always self-ACC with admiration-INST return to jewel-DAT calledDAT Earth-NOM.] And even though an unseen multitude of heavenly bodies is hidden in the depths of the universe, we always return with admiration to the jewel called Earth. Je to kolektivní snímek s nápisem PRAŽSKÁ FILHARMONIE 1986. [Is it-NOM group photo-NOM with title-INST PRAGUE PHILHARMONIC-NOM 1986-NOM.] It is a group photo with the title PRAGUE PHILHARMONIC 1986. Četl jsem v novinách zajímavý článek s titulkem Rozčarování. [Read AUX in newspaper-LOC interesting article-ACC with title-INST DisappointmentNOM.] In the newspaper I read an interesting article with the title Disappointment. Although the vocative case is normally used when calling someone by first name or title, the nominative can also be used, particularly when the last name is preceded by the vocative form pane ‘Sir!’, as in:3 Pane Louka, vy jste ty práporky nevystrčil! (CCz) [Mr.-VOC Louka-NOM, you-NOM AUX those flags-ACC not-put-up!] Mr. Louka, you didn’t put up the flags!

NOMINATIVE: A NAME 2 — The mobile subject of a sentence In most sentences the nominative names the subject, the active head of most sentences.4 Because words are marked with cases, there is no need for a nominative subject to be the first item in a sentence, as in English. The thing that identifies the subject is its nominative case, not its position; no matter where it is, it can be identified as nominative and therefore subject. As we will see, the same goes for the other cases as well: since each item in a sentence is flagged with a case ending indicating its role, the order of words doesn’t matter as much. The word order we are familiar with from English is probably the most common one used in Czech, but there are many other possibilities, thanks to the fact that speakers of Czech can read the case flags no matter where they are waving. Here are some examples of nominative subjects, both at the beginnings of sentences and elsewhere:

3 4

The use of NOMINATIVE: A NAME in place of VOCATIVE: A CALL. NOMINATIVE: A NAME as the subject of a sentence isn’t always at the beginning.

1. Nominative

3

*Václav Havel jednal s kardinálem Vlkem o vztazích mezi státem a církví. [Václav Havel-NOM negotiated with Cardinal Vlk-INST about relations-LOC between state-INST and church-INST.] Václav Havel negotiated with Cardinal Vlk about relations between the state and the church. *Letošní cenu česko-německého porozumění dostanou podnikatelé z mladoboleslavské automobilky Škoda. [This-year’s prize-ACC Czech-German understanding-GEN will-get businessmen-NOM from Mladá-Boleslav car-factory-GEN Škoda-NOM.] Businessmen from the Mladá Boleslav Škoda car factory will get this year’s prize for Czech-German understanding. *Na opravenou kupoli věže chrámu svatého Víta se vrátil český lev. [To renovated cupola-ACC tower-GEN cathedral-GEN St. Vitus-GEN self-ACC returned Czech lion-NOM.] The Czech lion has returned to the renovated cupola on the tower of St. Vitus’ cathedral. Notice how we have to completely rejuggle the following sentence in order to translate it into English. In Czech there is no reason why the subject can’t come last, as asteroidy does in the first clause where it is the subject of an active verb. Because English requires the subject to come first, the only way we could keep this word order would be by passivizing the verb, and saying ‘A very serious threat is presented by asteroids which…’ Velmi vážné ohrožení představují asteroidy, které mají proletět nebezpečně blízko Země. [Very serious threat-ACC present asteroids-NOM, which-NOM have fly-through dangerously close Earth-GEN.] Asteroids which are supposed to fly dangerously close to Earth present a very serious threat. The subject of a sentence need not engage in any real action in order to serve as the source of energy for a verb; it can merely exist.5 Here is an example of NOMINATIVE: A NAME serving as the subject for the verb být ‘be’: Ten váš muž tu už zase byl. Co mu mám proboha říct? (CCz) [That your husband-NOM here already again was. What-ACC him-DAT have for-God say?] That husband of yours was here again already. What the heck should I tell him?

NOMINATIVE: A NAME 3 — Emphatic vs. omitted subject pronouns When the subject of a sentence is already known, it can be referred to by using a pronoun: já ‘I’, ty ‘you (singular and informal)’, on ‘he/it’, ona ‘she/it’, my ‘we’, vy ‘you (plural or formal)’, oni/ony/ona ‘they’.6 In Czech these pronouns are usually used for nominative subjects only when the speaker is adding emphasis, as in the following examples: Pan asistent leží kdesi v cizině vážně nemocen a vy myslíte jenom na svoji recenzi! [Mr. lecturer-NOM lies somewhere in foreign-lands-LOC seriously ill-NOM and youNOM think only about own book-review-ACC!] The lecturer is lying seriously ill somewhere abroad and all you are thinking about is your book review! 5 6

NOMINATIVE: A NAME as the subject of být ‘be’. Emphatic use of subject pronouns.

1. Nominative

4

No Jano, ty jsi prostě strašná! [Well, Jana-VOC, you-NOM are just terrible-NOM!] Well, Jana, you are just terrible! Rodiče se o mě příliš nestarali, oni si žili, jako bych nebyla. [Parents-NOM self-ACC about me-ACC much not-tried, they-NOM self-DAT lived, as AUX not-was.] My parents didn’t trouble themselves too much about me, they lived it up as if I didn’t exist. My jsme na české poměry velká firma, ale na světové poměry velice malá. [We-NOM are for Czech proportions-ACC large company-NOM, but for world proportions-ACC very small-NOM.] By Czech standards we are a big company, but by the world’s standards we are very small. Sometimes a pronoun is used alongside the nominative subject for extra emphasis. In the first two of the following sentences, this use of an “extra” pronoun is possible in both Czech and English, but in the third and fourth examples, Czech has pronouns where we can’t use them in English. Uvědomte si, že my Norové se rodíme s lyžemi na nohou. [Comprehend self-DAT, that we-NOM Norwegians-NOM self-ACC give-birth with skisINST on feet-LOC.] You have to understand that we Norwegians are born with skis on our feet. Vy, takový znalec, jak můžete tak černě posuzovat své postavení! [You-NOM, such expert-NOM, how can so blackly judge own position-ACC!] You, such an expert, how can you judge your own position so severely! On ten von Ribbentrop byl totiž příjemný a kultivovaný chlapík. [He-NOM that von Ribbentrop-NOM was after-all pleasant-NOM and cultured guyNOM.] After all, that von Ribbentrop was a pleasant and cultured guy. Ona se někdy ta demokracie nemá přehánět. [It-NOM self-ACC sometimes that democracy-NOM not-have exaggerate.] Sometimes democracy shouldn’t be exaggerated. In normal, neutral sentences, where there is no special emphasis, nominative subject pronouns are commonly dropped.7 In LCz it is generally the rule that you must drop a nominative subject pronoun that is not emphasized. Note that in Czech you generally don’t lose any information by dropping a nominative subject pronoun, because Czech verbs almost always give us plenty enough clues to figure out what the subject pronoun is even when it’s missing. Zapálil svíčku zasazenou do prázdné láhve. [Lit candle-ACC stuck-ACC to empty bottle-GEN.] He lit a candle stuck in an empty bottle. Mlčky nasedli do auta. [Silently sat to car-GEN.] They silently got into the car. 7

Non-emphatic subject pronouns are usually dropped.

1. Nominative

5

Už dávno nejsem kněz. [Already long-time am-not priest-NOM.] I haven’t been a priest for a long time already. In Colloquial Czech, however, the pronouns often appear even when they are not particularly emphatic, as we see in these sentences: Voni vás tak neznají, nevědí, že je to sranda. (CCz) [They-NOM you-ACC thus not-know, not-know, that is that-NOM fun-NOM.] They don’t know you, they don’t know that it’s a joke. Já jim to pak řeknu, rovnou do očí! (CCz) [I-NOM them-DAT that-ACC then will-tell, directly to eyes-GEN!] I’ll tell them it then, right to their face! In the examples with the missing pronouns above, there is a subject that is known to both the speaker and the hearer; in other words, the missing pronouns actually refer to specific persons.8 Sometimes, however, languages use ‘they’ to refer to no one in particular, just people in general (or the media). In English we often hear sentences like They say that’s a great movie or They say it’s supposed to rain this afternoon. Czech has equivalent expressions, but the pronoun oni ‘they’ is omitted: V každém podniku, kde se ptá po zaměstnání, říkají, že musí mít v Praze trvalé bydliště. [In every business-LOC, where self-ACC asks for employment-LOC, say, that must have in Prague-LOC permanent residence-ACC.] At every business where he asks for employment they say that he must have permanent residence in Prague. In all of the sentences in this section there is a grammatical subject, and both speaker and hearer know what it is, even if we don’t hear a pronoun coming from the speaker’s lips.9 In fact, the vast majority of Czech sentences do have nominative subjects. However, there are sentences that do not have subjects at all — some examples of subjectless sentences appear in the discussions of GENITIVE:: A WHOLE, DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER, and INSTRUMENTAL: A MEANS.

NOMINATIVE: A NAME 4 — The use of to as a “dummy it” and emphasizer English is quite consistent about having subjects for all sentences, even adding the so-called “dummy it” when there is no logical subject, as in It’s raining/cold outside (if you stop to think about it, you will realize that It really doesn’t refer to anything here).10 In Czech this kind of sentence usually doesn’t have a subject at all: Prší/je zima venku [Rains/is cold outside] ‘It’s raining/cold outside’. To can be used like English ‘that’ to refer to something (which may be rather indefinite, or represent an entire sentence or situation): To přece není možné! [That-NOM just is-not possible!] That just isn’t possible!

8

Dropped oni ‘they’ can also refer to no one in particular. Most Czech sentences have a subject, but some do not. 10 Czech to can serve as the subject of a sentence, and it can also be emphatic. 9

1. Nominative

6

Stalo se to v době, kdy jeho fotografie nebyly ještě vůbec známé. [Happened self-ACC that-NOM in period-LOC, when his photographs-NOM not-were still at-all famous-NOM.] It happened at a time when his photographs were not yet famous at all. Je to skoro čtyřiapůlkrát více než za stejné období loňského roku. [Is that-NOM almost four-and-a-half-times more than for same period-ACC last yearGEN.] It’s almost four and a half times more than for the same period last year. In addition, to can be used to add stress, either as an emphatic “dummy it” or as an emphatic sentence particle that is not really a subject. For example, Tady prší [Here rains] ‘It’s raining here’ is a neutral statement, but if it’s really coming down hard, you can add to and say To tady prší! ‘Wow, it’s really raining here!’ In that sentence and in all three examples below to is not filling a required grammatical role; all of these sentences are just fine without to, but with to they are emphatic: Co ho to jen napadlo, taková nerozvážnost! [What-NOM him-ACC that-NOM only fell-on, such imprudence-NOM!] What’s it that has gotten into him? Such imprudence! To mám ale radost! [That-NOM have but joy-ACC!] Boy, am I glad! To jsme nepředpokládali, že most by mohl být tak poškozen. [That-NOM AUX not-anticipated, that bridge-NOM AUX could be so damaged-NOM.] Well, we didn’t anticipate that the bridge could be so damaged.

NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY 1 — The Y in an X = Y sentence Even when you have already given something a name, you might want to give more information about the item, to tell us that it is a certain type of thing, or big or unusual or whatever.11 The basis of this submeaning is a simple equation of the type x = y, where y is NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY. The bond between x and y is typically the verb být ‘be’. The other item, x, is typically NOMINATIVE: A NAME, the subject of the sentence (and remember that if the subject is a pronoun, it is usually dropped). This use of NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY is traditionally known as the “predicate nominative”. In the following x = y sentences, x is Klára, domovník ‘the janitor’, slepá ulička ‘a dead-end alley’, and vy ‘you’ (even though the pronoun itself is missing). The NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY, or y, is represented by the bold-faced items below.

N NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY

11

NOMINATIVE:: AN

IDENTITY

with být ‘be’

1. Nominative

7

Klára byla dvacetiletá dívka z dobré rodiny. [Klára-NOM was twenty-year-old girl-NOM from good family-GEN.] Klára was a twenty-year-old girl from a good family. Domovník není nepřítel. [Janitor-NOM is-not enemy-NOM.] The janitor isn’t an enemy. Slepá ulička je místo mých nejlepších inspirací. [Blind alley-NOM is place-NOM my best inspirations-GEN.] The dead-end alley is the place of my best inspirations. Jste moje jediná záchrana. [Are my only salvation-NOM.] You are my only salvation. Since both terms in the x = y equation refer to the same thing, the item marked as 12

NOMINATIVE:: AN

IDENTITY can be just an adjective, adding extra information, as in:

Každý lidský život je velmi mnohoznačný. [Every human life-NOM is very ambiguous-NOM.] Every human life is very ambiguous. Ó, jste příliš skromný. [Oh, are too modest.] Oh, you are too modest. Czech has some special short forms for adjectives that are used only as NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY.13 The most common is the adjective rád ‘glad’ which is used in both CCz and LCz and has only short forms: Moje matka s přítelkyní by byly rády, kdybych už do závodního auta nesedal. [My mother-NOM with friend-INST AUX were glad-NOM, if already to race car-GEN not-sat.] My mother and her friend would be glad if I never got into another race car. Přece víš, že tě mám rád, viď? [After-all know, that you-ACC have glad-NOM, see?] But you know that I like you, right? Certain adjectives have short forms, but the use of short forms is more characteristic of LCz than of CCz. The most common short forms are hotov formed from hotový ‘ready’, jist formed from jistý ‘sure’, laskav formed from laskavý ‘kind’, nemocen formed from nemocný ‘ill’, schopen formed from schopný ‘capable’, and zdráv formed from zdravý ‘healthy’. In addition, Czech can use the short forms of participles in this way (contrasting dopis byl napsán ‘the letter was written’ with napsaný dopis ‘the written letter’). One is more likely to encounter the short form participles in LCz than CCz, but note the use of short form bit ‘beaten’ in the CCz song lyric below. Like rád, all short forms, whether of adjectives or participles, can appear only as NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY:

12 13

NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY with adjectives. NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY with short-form adjectives and participles.

1. Nominative

8

Nepudu domů, nepudu domů, doma byl bych bit! (CCz) [Not-go home, not-go home, home was AUX beaten-NOM!] I’m not going home, I’m not going home, at home I would be beaten! Během obsazení Francie byly dokumenty naštěstí zničeny. [During occupation-GEN France-GEN were documents-NOM fortunately destroyedNOM.] Fortunately the documents were destroyed during the occupation of France. V jednom z varšavských parků byl nalezen bezdomovec, který zemřel na podchlazení. [In one-LOC from Warsaw parks-GEN was found-NOM homeless-person-NOM, whoNOM died on hypothermia-ACC.] A homeless person who died of hypothermia was found in a park in Warsaw. Note that the verb doesn’t have to be být ‘be’ — other verbs, particularly position verbs, work here too. Recall our example above of the lecturer, repeated in part below. Here the verb ležet ‘lie’ does the job usually done by být ‘be’, and we still have a short form adjective nemocen ‘ill’: Pan asistent leží kdesi v cizině vážně nemocen a … [Mr. lecturer-NOM lies somewhere in foreign-lands-LOC seriously ill-NOM and …] The lecturer is lying seriously ill somewhere abroad and … In reality Czech has two kinds of x = y expressions, the relatively simple identity described here, and a different one that involves labeling x as a member of catgory y, in which case y is marked as 14 INSTRUMENTAL:: A LABEL. Here is one example for comparison: Proč nejsem ctitelem Václava Klause [Why am-not admirer-INST Václav Klaus-GEN] Why I am not an admirer of Václav Klaus This example is the title of a newspaper editorial in which the author writes about how he would like to be an admirer of Václav Klaus, but can’t at the moment, because of the way Klaus has been behaving. This use of INSTRUMENTAL:: A LABEL is more typical of LCz than CCz (which could produce Proč nejsem ctitel Václava Klause), and will be discussed in greater detail in the chapter on the instrumental case. For now it is enough to note that although both the nominative and the instrumental cases can be used to describe an item, NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY is the more neutral expression, whereas INSTRUMENTAL:: A LABEL tends to describe properties that are limited to a certain context. Remember that an identity is something that is permanent, whereas a label can be taken off and exchanged.

NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY 2 — X = Y reduced to XY The construction associated with NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY can appear in an abbreviated form, without any verb to connect the two entities.15 In this construction we see a word that refers to a generic category (like ‘bank’, ‘state’, ‘novel’) followed by the specific name or title of something in that category (like ‘Bohemia’). The word for the generic category can be in any case, but the actual name (commonly known as the appositive) can be either in the case that the generic word is in, or NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY. Thus one can say either Jdeme do banky Bohemie [Go to bankGEN Bohemia-GEN] ‘We are going to the Bohemia bank’, where the generic word banky ‘bank’ is in the genitive case, and the name of the bank Bohemie is also genitive; or one can say Jdeme do 14 15

Contrast between nominative:: an identity and instrumental:: a label with být ‘be’ NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY can be used to give specific names to examples of categories.

1. Nominative

9

banky Bohemia [Go to bank-GEN Bohemia-NOM] ‘We are going to the Bohemia bank’, where the name of the bank is appears as NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY. Here are some more examples: *Oblast zasáhla série slabých zemětřesení, která měla epicentrum v obci Nový Kostel. [Region-ACC struck series-NOM weak earthquakes, which-NOM had epicenter-ACC in town-LOC Nový Kostel-NOM.] The region was struck by a series of weak earthquakes which had their epicenter in the town of Nový Kostel. Devadesát metrů dlouhá pasáž ústí do ulice Masarykova. [Ninety-NOM meter-GEN long passageway-NOM leads to street-GEN Masaryk’sNOM.] A ninety-meter-long passageway leads into Masaryk Street. Zítra ve dvacet hodin zahraje v divadle Archa pražské Divadlo Sklep hru Besídka. [Tomorrow at twenty-ACC hours-GEN performs in theater-LOC Archa-NOM Prague Theater-NOM Sklep-NOM play-ACC Besídka-NOM.] Tomorrow at eight pm the Prague Sklep theater company will perform the play Besídka in the Archa theater.

NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY 3 — Y as a comparison with jako ‘like’ or než ‘than’ Czech jako ‘like’ can also be used to introduce an item identified with the nominative subject and marked as NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY: Připadal jsem si jako kluk. [Seemed AUX self-DAT like boy-NOM.] I felt like a boy. *Za měsíc budu mluvit jako kniha. [In month-ACC will talk like book-NOM.] In a month I’ll be talking like a book/perfectly. When a comparison is made by using a comparative adjective or adverb in Czech, the item that something is bigger or better than follows the word než ‘than’ and appears in the nominative case, as we see in the following examples: Otec hlasitě chrápal za zavřenými dveřmi a ráno vstal dříve než Petr. [Father-NOM loudly snored behind closed door-INST and morning got-up sooner than Petr-NOM.] Father snored loudly behind the closed door and in the morning he got up earlier than Petr. Na celém světě pravděpodobně neexistuje známější lék než Aspirin. [On all world-LOC probably not-exists better-known medicine-NOM than AspirinNOM.] In all the world there is probably no medicine better known than Aspirin.

1. Nominative

10

NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY 4 — Y as something perceived with vidět ‘see’ and slyšet ‘hear’ Czech has an unusual construction for saying that something can be seen or heard.16 This construction consists of the verb být ‘be’ + an infinitive verb of perception, usually vidět ‘see’ or slyšet ‘hear’ + the thing that is seen or heard marked as NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY. A typical example is Je vidět hora [Is see mountain-NOM] ‘A mountain is visible’. Z domu byla slyšet veselá hudba a hovor, který propukal v nevázaný smích. [From house-GEN was hear cheerful music-NOM and conversation-NOM, whichNOM broke-out into unhinhibited laughter-ACC.] Cheerful music was heard from the house and conversation which broke out into uninhibited laughter. The thing seen or heard looks a bit like a subject here, but the real force of the statement is a subjectless expression meaning something like ‘A mountain can be seen’, where the logic is more suggestive of a direct object. In fact, these constructions can alternatively use ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION, as we see in: Je vidět horu [Is see mountain-ACC] ‘A mountain is visible’. This use of the accusative case confirms the idea that Czechs probably don’t understand these constructions as having subjects (see more about this in the chapter on the accusative case).

Epilogue To recap: the nominative case can be used to identify someone or something by name, to name the subject of a sentence, and also to indicate what an item is. The nominative is all about naming, and it should not surprise you that the very term “nominative” is related to our English word name. Though not all Czech sentences have nominative subjects, the vast majority do, and your strategy should be to look first for a nominative subject and its verb; once you find these two items, the rest of the sentence becomes easier to unpack. The remaining chapters of this book will reveal the meanings of the other cases and demonstrate their functions. Czech operates on an austere and powerful little system, using only seven cases to describe all the possible relationships that human beings encounter in their lives. As the pieces fall into place, you will gradually become acculturated to the logic of Czech sentences, and you will find that each case takes on a life of its own.

16

NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY identifies things that are seen or heard.

1

2. Genitive

GENITIVE:

G

A SOURCE

The genitive network: A SOURCE A WHOLE

A REFERENCE A GOAL

Prologue Let’s start by looking at an example: *Pfiedseda Komunistické strany â e c h a Moravy Miroslav Grebeníãek fiekl, Ïe se komunisté nevzdávají pfiedstavy o vstupu do vlády. [President-NOM Communist Party-GEN Bohemia-GEN and Moravia-GEN Miroslav Grebeníãek-NOM said, that self-ACC communists-NOM not-give-up idea-GEN about entry-LOC to government-GEN.] The president of the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia Miroslav Grebeníãek said that the communists are not giving up on the idea of getting into the government. Here we see five uses of the genitive case in a single sentence, one that is not even particularly long or unusual. Communism these days is probably more like sand in your bathing suit — it’s hard to get rid of it entirely, but it’s not really a threat either. The genitive case, however, is quite pervasive and cannot be ignored. Here are some of its characteristics:1 ! The genitive is the most used case in Czech. The likelihood of finding sentences with five uses of any other case is considerably smaller. ! The genitive is used with over sixty prepositions (about two dozen simple prepositions and about 50 complex ones), vastly more than all the other cases combined. ! The genitive is the only case that forms chains of consecutive uses, as in our example above: Pfiedseda Komunistické strany âech a Moravy [President-NOM Communist Party-GEN Bohemia-GEN and Moravia-GEN] ‘The president of the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia’ ! The genitive is probably the most complex case in Czech, and the basic idea of the gentive is perhaps the hardest to grasp.

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The genitive case is the most frequent case, has the most prepositions, forms chains of words, and has the most complex meaning.

2. Genitive

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These might look like formidable hurdles, but our strategy is to tackle the last item on the list, the meaning of the genitive. After that, all the other “problems” will become opportunities for easy success. The uses of the genitive will be described in terms of four categories: GENITIVE: A SOURCE, 2 GENITIVE:: A GOAL, GENITIVE:: A WHOLE, and GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE. The four labels used here hint at both what the basic meaning of the genitive is and why it is so hard to make sense of it. The genitive is by nature an elusive beast, a sort of “back-seat driver” that is always handing off the responsibility of focusing attention to something else.3 When we say that something comes from a source, we generally aren’t as interested in the source as we are in the something that comes from it. The same goes for goals; while a goal is important, what we really care about is the person or thing that is headed for it. In the GENITIVE:: A WHOLE use, there is always another item that plays the role of the “part”, and of course when we are talking about something that is part of a whole, we are focusing our attention on the part more than on the whole. A reference point is something that we use to locate something else, and in its GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE use, the genitive serves as a mental address for other things. Rather than turning focus to the item it marks, the genitive deflects our focus away from it. It is this habit of retreating into the background that makes the genitive so hard to pin down. Passing the buck, by the way, also makes the chaining of genitives possible, allowing focus to bounce from one item to the next. Looking at the labels, however, it is at first hard to understand what they have in common. After all, a source and a goal seem to be opposites, and both involve movement, whereas whole and reference do not. If we compare the diagrams of the four uses, we see that the GENITIVE:: A GOAL is really the same as the GENITIVE: A SOURCE, just run in reverse, and furthermore the GENITIVE:: A WHOLE and GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE are simply the two endpoints of GENITIVE: A 4 SOURCE. More abstractly, we could say that all of the diagrams support the following definition: The genitive is a backgrounded item (big circle) that yields focus of attention to something else (small circle) which exists or maneuvers in its proximity. In order to make sense of this definition we will have to examine the many faces of the genitive in action.

GENITIVE:: A SOURCE 1 — Z, s ‘from’

G

The GENITIVE: A SOURCE meaning is always triggered by a preposition or word indicating removal or withdrawal from the genitive item. The preposition z ‘from’ is the most versatile, and is used to express departure from most physical (and metaphorical) locations, including all locations that are expressed with both v + LOC ‘in’ and na + LOC ‘on, at’ when an item is at 2

An overview of the genitive case. The genitive case diverts attention to another item. 4 An abstract definition of the genitive. 3

2. Genitive

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rest. Here are some examples of the use of z to indicate a container or location from which something is removed:5 Ona není z Prahy. [She-NOM not-is from Prague-GEN.] She is not from Prague. V‰e mi zmizelo z mozku. [Everything-NOM me-DAT disappeared from brain-GEN.] Everything disappeared from my brain. Z mikrosvûta vesniãek se vydali do svûta velk˘ch hvûzd. [From microcosmos-GEN villages-GEN SELF-ACC set-out to world-GEN big starsGEN.] From the village microcosmos they set out for the world of the big stars. In these three examples, the city of Prague, the speaker’s brain, and the microcosmos of village life serve as containers from which various items (‘she’, ‘everything’, and ‘they’) emerge. Z can also be used metaphorically to describe the sources of phenomena in the absence of physical movement through space.6 Z jakého prostfiedí vበotec pochází? [From what background-GEN your father-NOM comes?] What kind of background does your father come from? Svût zná Václava Havla z dálky. [World-NOM knows Václav Havel-ACC from distance-GEN.] The world knows Václav Havel from a distance. Pfiedtím jsem toho herce znal jenom z blbejch filmÛ. (CCz) [Previously AUX that actor-ACC knew only from stupid movies-GEN.] I previously knew that actor only from stupid movies. Although none of these examples involves real movement from a source, they are understood as metaphorical parallels to movement, and note that this is just as true of English as it is of Czech, because all of these examples can be translated with English ‘from’. Just as in English we can say that we make things from various raw materials, in Czech we can use z to refer to this process of creation, although sometimes Czechs will use z even when we wouldn’t say from, as in hrad z písku [castle-NOM from sand-GEN] which is simply ‘a sand castle’. Here are a couple of examples:7

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z + GENITIVE: A SOURCE ‘from’ in the domain of space. z + GENITIVE: A SOURCE ‘from’ in metaphorical domains. 7 z + GENITIVE: A SOURCE can indicate what an item is made from. 6

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V USA se uÏ tehdy kontaktní ãoãky dûlaly, ale pouze z tvrd˘ch látek na bázi plexiskla. [In USA-LOC SELF-ACC already then contact lenses-NOM made, but only from hard substances-GEN on basis-LOC plexiglas-GEN.] At that time in the USA contact lenses were already being made, but only from hard substances on the basis of plexiglass. Potah vûjífie se obvykle vyrábûl z kufiecí kÛÏe, hedvábí nebo papíru a Ïebra z rohoviny, slonoviny, kosti nebo dfieva. [Cover-NOM fan-GEN self-ACC usually made chicken skin-GEN, silk-GEN or paperGEN and ribs-NOM from horn-GEN, ivory-GEN, bone-GEN or wood-GEN.] The cover of a fan was usually made from chicken skin, silk, or paper, and the ribs were made from horn, ivory, bone, or wood. Time is a domain that we all have to deal with, but because we have no direct experience of time (only of its effects on us and our surroundings), most human beings understand time in terms of space.8 This use of space as a source for understanding time is very evident in Czech, and we will see many examples of this throughout the case system. Czech z ‘from’ can identify a period of time in the past that is the source of knowledge or experience, usually z mládí ‘from/since one’s youth’ or z dûtství ‘from/since childhood’, as in this example: Její kamarádka z dûtství ji také opustila. [Her friend-NOM from childhood-GEN her-ACC also abandoned.] Her childhood friend also abandoned her. A group can serve as a container or source from which one or more items are picked out, and z is often used to express selection from a group, most frequently in the phrase jeden z ‘one of’, although other words are associated with this meaning as well.9 Here are a few examples: Syn Václava Klause se stal fieditelem jednoho z nejúspû‰nûj‰ích ãesk˘ch soukrom˘ch gymnázií. [Son-NOM Václav Klaus-GEN SELF-ACC became director-INST one-GEN of mostsuccessful Czech private high-schools-GEN.] Václav Klaus’ son became the director of one of the most successful Czech private high schools. Marie Pechová b˘vala jednou z nejbliωích kamarádek Lucie Bílé. [Marie Pechová-NOM was one-INST of closest friends-GEN Lucie Bílá-GEN.] Marie Pechová used to be one of Lucie Bílá’s closest friends. Málokdo z lékafiÛ na‰i radu poslechl. [Few-NOM of doctors-GEN our advice-ACC listened.] Few of the doctors listened to our advice.

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z + GENITIVE: A SOURCE ‘from’ in the domain of time. z + GENITIVE: A SOURCE to indicate selection of something from a group.

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Nikdo z fiidiãÛ, ktefií pfied pfiechodem zastavili, mu nepfii‰el na pomoc. [No-one-NOM of drivers-GEN, who-NOM before crosswalk-INST stopped, him-DAT not-came to help-ACC.] None of the drivers who stopped at the crosswalk came to help him. Here the sources are the following groups of items: the most successful Czech private high schools, Lucie Bílá’s closest friends, doctors, and drivers at the crosswalk. From among those groups we mentally extract one, few, or no members, and we treat this mental exercise as if the items involved were actually leaving their groups, though of course they aren’t. In the next two sentences we see another kind of metaphorical use of z, in which ideas serve as sources inspiring the work of institutes and the behaviors of politicians.10 Ústavy vycházejí z hodnot, morálky a ideálÛ, které si spoleãnost osvojila. [Institutes come from values-GEN, morals-GEN and ideals-GEN, which-ACC selfDAT society-NOM adopted.] Institutes are based on the values, morals, and ideals that society has adopted. Jejich postup vychází z neomezeného sebevûdomí, které získali, kdyÏ byli zvoleni. [Their attitude-NOM comes from unlimited self-confidence-GEN, which-ACC acquired, when were elected-NOM.] Their attitude results from the unlimited self-confidence they acquired when they were elected. A related idiomatic use of z is the expression ze v‰ech sil [from all strengths-GEN] ‘with all one’s might’, as in: Kfiiãel ze v‰ech sil, ale hudba byla tak hluãná, Ïe ho stejnû nikdo nesly‰el. [Shouted from all strengths-GEN, but music-NOM was so loud-NOM, that him-ACC still no-one-NOM not-heard.] He shouted with all his might, but the music was so loud that no one heard him anyway. Lectures, courses and examinations are based upon a given subject matter, and this relationship is also expressed using z, as in: Lze tûÏko porovnávat maturitní zkou‰ku z matematiky se zkou‰kou tfieba z designu. [Possible hard compare graduation test-ACC from mathematics-GEN with test-INST for-instance from design-GEN.] It’s hard to compare a graduation test on mathematics with a test on design, for instance. Taking this sort of logic one step further, we can understand a source also as a cause, as something that motivates movement to a consequence. In English we can sometimes say things like They did it out of concern for our safety; in the following Czech example we see z used to express causation in this fashion:

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z + GENITIVE: A SOURCE to indicate inspirations, sources of knowledge, and causes.

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Z bezpeãnostních dÛvodÛ ve Velké sportovní hale sekt bude podáván v plastov˘ch lahvích. [From security reasons-GEN in Great Sports Hall-LOC wine-cooler-NOM will-be served-NOM in plastic bottles-LOC.] For security reasons, wine cooler will be served in plastic bottles in the Great Sports Hall. It is common for people to understand states of being as locations that people and other items move to and from.11 In English, for example, we can say that Sally has gone from being a lowly factory worker to CEO of the company. Czech often uses z with the verb stát se ‘become’ to describe transformations. As these examples show,this meaning of z also continues the logic of the examples we saw above concerning making items out of raw materials, but here the raw materials are people: Z taxikáfie se stal jezeìákem. CCz [From taxi-driver-GEN self-ACC became cooperative-farmer-INST.] He went from being a taxi driver to a cooperative farmer. Byl to takov˘ ãas Václava Havla. Deset let tomu, co se z disidenta stal prezidentem. [Was that-NOM such time-NOM Václav Havel-GEN. Ten-NOM years-GEN that-DAT, what-NOM SELF-ACC from dissident-GEN became president-INST.] That was Václav Havel’s time. It’s been ten years since he went from being a dissident to become president. TakÏe díky ‰patn˘m fotkám se z vás stal milionáfi. [So thanks-to bad photographs-DAT SELF-ACC from you-GEN became millionaireNOM.] So thanks to the bad photographs you became a millionaire. With the verb b˘t ‘be’we see only the endpoint of a transformation, the situation in which a person or object has attained a new state of being. Here is a typical example: Byla z nich známá dvojka. [Was from them-GEN famous pair-NOM.] They were a famous pair. Pfied deseti lety by nikdo nevûfiil tomu, Ïe z té nenápadné dívky bude jednou nejÏádanûj‰í filmová hereãka. [Before ten years-INST AUX noone-NOM not-believed that-DAT, that from that inconspicuous girl-GEN will-be once most-desired movie actress-NOM.] Ten years ago no one would have believed that that inconspicuous girl would one day be the most desired movie actress.

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z + GENITIVE: A SOURCE to indicate transformations.

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The preposition z is associated with the following verbs (note that English from often parallels this association): obvinit/obviÀovat z ‘accuse of, indict for’, po-tû‰it se z ‘enjoy, derive pleasure from’, zotavit/zotvovat se z ‘recover from’, vylouãit/vyluãovat z ‘exclude, remove from’, vyfiadit/vyfiaìovat/vyfiazovat z ‘discard, remove from service’, vyobcovat z ‘ostracize from’, exkomunikovat z ‘excommunicate from’, vymanit/vymaÀovat se z ‘extricate oneself from’.12 Here are a couple examples of how these verbs and z interact: KvÛli mrakÛm by se Venu‰ané nikdy nemohli tû‰it z pohledu na krásy hvûzdné oblohy. [Due-to clouds-DAT would SELF-ACC Venutians-NOM never could-not enjoy from view-GEN on beauties-ACC starry sky-GEN.] Due to the clouds, Venutians could never enjoy a view of the beauty of a starry sky. John Lennon byl ze ‰koly vylouãen a vûnoval se v˘hradnû hraní. [John Lennon-NOM was from school-GEN expelled-NOM and devoted SELF-ACC exclusively playing-DAT.] John Lennon was expelled from school and devoted himself exclusively to playing.

GENITIVE:: A SOURCE 2 — S ‘off of, down from’, zpod ‘from beneath’, and zpoza ‘from behind’ The three prepositions s ‘off of, down from’, zpod ‘from beneath’, and zpoza ‘from behind’ are all closely related to z ‘from’ both in meaning and use. The preposition s ‘off of, down from’ can be thought of as a version of z specific to surfaces that serve as source locations.13 S is used only to describe physical removal, and it is always possible to replace s with z. The following examples show how s is usually used: Já se tu válím s Honzou po kopcích, do kopce funím a s kopce se kutálím. [I-NOM SELF-ACC here roll with Honza-INST along hills-LOC, to hill-GEN puff and from hill-GEN SELF-ACC roll.] I’m bounding about the hills here with Honza, puffing uphill and rolling downhill. SÀal po jídle mandolínu se zdi — byla povû‰ena na zlaté lnûné ‰ÀÛfie. [Took-off after meal-LOC mandolin-ACC from wall-GEN — was hung-NOM on gold flaxen cord-LOC.] After the meal he took the mandolin from the wall — it was hanging on a flaxen gold cord. Spadl jsem se stromu zády na kofien a pátefi se prolomila dovnitfi do tûla, takÏe do‰lo k poru‰ení míchy. [Fell AUX self-ACC from tree-GEN back-INST on root-ACC and spine-NOM self-ACC broke into to body-GEN, to happened to injury-DAT spinal-cord-GEN.] I fell out of a tree landing on my back on the root and my spine broke inward in my body, so the spinal cord was injured. 12 13

Verbs associated with z + GENITIVE: A SOURCE. s + GENITIVE: A SOURCE ‘off of, down from’ can always be replaced by z + GENITIVE: A SOURCE.

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However, the tendency is to use z instead of s even in contexts that have the specific meaning associated with s, as we see in these examples: Loni v ãervenci sesadil Peta Samprase z tenisového trÛnu. [Last-year in July-LOC unseated Pete Sampras-ACC from tennis throne-GEN.] In July of last year he unseated Pete Sampras from the tennis throne. Ze stûny sundává paní KuÏelková obraz v rámeãku. [From wall-GEN takes-off Mrs. KuÏelková picture-ACC in frame-LOC.] Mrs. KuÏelková takes a framed picture off of the wall. Zpod ‘from beneath’ is used just as one would expect:14 Hasiã zpod trámÛ vytáhl dítû s pfieraÏenou nohou a mrtvého muÏe. [Firefighter-NOM from-beneath beams-GEN pulled-out child-ACC with broken legINST and dead man-ACC.] The firefighter pulled a child with a broken leg and a dead man out from under the beams. V noci byla taková zima, Ïe se nedala vystrãit ani ruka zpod pefiiny, aby neumrzla. [In night-LOC was such cold-NOM, that self-ACC not-gave stick-out even hand-NOM from-beneath comforter-GEN, so-that not-froze.] It was so cold in the night, that you couldn’t even stick your hand out from under the comforter without it freezing. Since seeing and looking are understood metaphorically as visual journeys, it is also possible to look out from beneath something using the Czech preposition zpod: Jason nefiíkal nic, jen se na ni díval zpod k‰iltu své baseballové ãepice. [Jason-NOM not-said nothing-ACC, just self-ACC on her-ACC looked from-beneath brim-GEN own baseball cap-GEN.] Jason didn’t say anything, he just looked at her from beneath the brim of his baseball cap. The preposition zpoza describes motion ‘from behind’ something marked as GENITIVE: A SOURCE. This preposition can also describe the virtual motion of looking as well as the movement of sound from a source:15 Malé dítû vykouklo zpoza vozu. [Small child-NOM peeked-out from-behind vehicle-GEN.] A small child peeked out from behind the vehicle.

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zpod + GENITIVE: A SOURCE ‘from beneath’. zpoza + GENITIVE: A SOURCE ‘from behind’.

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2. Genitive “Nemám ãas,” ozvalo se zpoza dvefií. [“Not-have time-ACC,” responded self-ACC from-behind door-GEN.] “I don’t have time,” came the reply from behind the door.

GENITIVE:: A SOURCE 3 — Od ‘(away) from’ When a human being serves as GENITIVE: A SOURCE, you can usually expect to see the preposition od.16 In this use od + GEN is associated with both k + DAT ‘to’ and u + GEN ‘by, at’, which are used when a person is a destination or a location. So when speaking of a person like lékafi, one would say: ·la jsem k lékafii [Went AUX to doctor-DAT] ‘I went to the doctor’; Byla jsem u lékafie [Was AUX at doctor-GEN]; and Pfii‰la jsem od lékafie [Came AUX from doctor-GEN] ‘I came from the doctor’s.’ Here are a few examples of how od is used with people: Recept dostanete pouze od lékafie. [Prescription-ACC get only from doctor-GEN.] You can only get a prescription from a doctor. Dívce se podafiilo získat od matky bílou halenku a bílou plizovanou sukni. [Girl-DAT self-ACC succeeded get from mother-GEN white blouse-ACC and white pleated skirt-ACC.] The girl was able to get a white blouse and a white pleated skirt from her mother. Here is an example of a more metaphorical usage where people are GENITIVE: A SOURCE: VÏdycky, kdyÏ ji vidím v televizi, tak jsem hrdej, Ïe je od nás, Ïe je na‰e. (CCz) [Always, when her-ACC see in television-LOC, then am proud-NOM, that is from usGEN, that is ours-NOM.] Whenever I see her on television, I am proud that she is from us, that she is ours. Whenever location is expressed in terms of u ‘by’ + GEN (see below under 17 REFERENCE), removal from that place is expressed with od.

GENITIVE:: A

Odstrãil se ve svém pojízdném kfiesle od stolu. [Pushed-away self-ACC in own riding chair-LOC from desk-GEN.] He pushed his chair on wheels away from the desk. When stable locations are described, od can signal how far something is ‘away’ from something else, as we see here:

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od + GENITIVE: A SOURCE ‘from’ in the domain of space. od indicates removal from a location marked as u + GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE.

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V Atlantickém oceánu, 978 km od Lisabonu a 545 km od bfiehÛ severní Afriky, leÏí Madeira. [In Atlantic Ocean-LOC, 978-ACC km-GEN from Lisbon-GEN and 545-ACC km-GEN from shores-GEN northern Africa-GEN, lies Madeira-NOM.] Madiera lies in the Atlantic Ocean, 978 km from Lisbon and 545 km from the shores of northern Africa. If you take some y away from some x, that can imply that the y belongs to the x, and as a consequence od can signal belonging, particularly of something that can be separated, like a key from a lock, as in the common expression klíã od domu [key-NOM from house-GEN] ‘the key to the house’.18 Here is an example of how this works: Víno záfiilo ve sklenkách od hofiãice jako krev. [Wine-NOM glowed in jars-LOC from mustard-GEN like blood-NOM.] The wine glowed in the mustard jars like blood. Just as in English we use from to indicate the starting point of a list of things, as in from A to Z or from soup to nuts, Czech od can also mark the beginning of a range of relevant items, usually in combination with pfies + ACC or (aÏ) po + ACC, as we see in this example:19 V jedenácti kapitolách autofii podávají nástin dûjin Starého svûta od prehistorie po souãasnost. [In eleven chapters-LOC authors-NOM present outline-ACC history-GEN Old WorldGEN from prehistory-GEN along present-ACC.] In eleven chapters the authors present a history of the Old World from prehistoric times to the present. Od can be used in the domain of time to express when something begins.20 In this use, od often appears together with do ‘until’, as we see in this example: Aquapark bude dnes i zítra otevfien od deseti do dvaceti hodin. [Aquapark-NOM will-be today and tomorrow open-NOM from ten-GEN to twenty hours-GEN.] Today and tomorrow the Aquapark will be open from ten am until eight pm. Czech can use the verb li‰it se ‘differ’ with od to express how one thing differs from another (note that our logic of using English from parallels the Czech use of od), and note also the expression na rozdíl od [on difference-ACC from] ‘as opposed to’:21 Jeden prvek se od druhého li‰í v mnoha smûrech. [One element-NOM self-ACC from other-GEN differs in many directions-LOC.] One element differs from another in many ways. 18

od + GENITIVE: A SOURCE can indicate belonging. od + GENITIVE: A SOURCE can indicate the first item in a series. 20 od + GENITIVE: A SOURCE can indicate a time when something begins. 21 li‰it se od, na rozdíl od + GENITIVE: A SOURCE ‘differ from’, ‘as opposed to’. 19

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Na rozdíl od ãápÛ ãern˘ch absolvují ãápi bílí podstatnû del‰í cesty a ãasto doletí aÏ na jih Afriky. [On difference-ACC from storks black-GEN complete storks-white-NOM considerably longer trips-ACC and often fly up-to to south-ACC Africa-GEN.] As opposed to black storks, white storks complete considerably longer trips and fly all the way to the south of Africa. In metaphorical uses, od, like English from, can identify the source of feelings, as in this sentence:22 Pozdravuji Vás od srdce a tû‰ím se, Ïe Vás brzy uvidím. [Greet you-ACC from heart-GEN and enjoy self-ACC, that you-ACC soon see.] I greet you from my heart and look forward to seeing you soon. Various substances can cause our things to be dirty or stained, thus serving as the source of a laundry or other cleaning challenge, motivating uses like skvrny od krve [stains-NOM from blood-GEN] ‘blood stains’ and the following example:23 Ráno je‰tû ãistû vyprané obleãení bylo celé od bláta zepfiedu i zezadu. [Morning still cleanly laundered clothing-NOM was all-NOM from mud-GEN front and back.] Even in the morning the freshly laundered clothing was already muddy both front and back. The most significant idioms involving od include kreslit/ãrtat od ruky [draw/sketch from handGEN] ‘draw/sketch free-hand’, vafiit od oka [cook from eye-GEN] ‘cook by instinct (without measuring ingredients)’, ‰patnû/blbû od Ïaludku [bad/stupid from stomach-GEN] ‘sick to one’s stomach’. Here are a couple of examples:24 Bylo mi ‰patnû od Ïaludku a vzadu na jazyku jsem cítila pachuÈ Ïluãi. [Was me-DAT badly from stomach-GEN and in-back on tongue-LOC AUX sensed aftertaste-ACC bile-GEN.] I was sick to my stomach and at the back of my tongue I sensed the aftertaste of bile. PÛdorys kuchynû naãrtnûte od ruky, ale náãrt opatfiete pfiesn˘mi rozmûry. [Plan-ACC kitchen-GEN sketch from hand-GEN, but sketch-ACC provide exact dimensions-INST.] Make a free-hand sketch of the kitchen, but provide the exact dimensions with the sketch. By itself, od ruky [from hand-GEN] just means that something (usually work) goes well, as we see in this sentence: 22

od + GENITIVE: A SOURCE can indicate the source of feelings and motives. od + GENITIVE: A SOURCE can indicate a substance that dirties something. 24 Idiomatic uses of od + GENITIVE: A SOURCE. 23

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2. Genitive

Radûji si ráno pfiivstanu, práce mi jde dopoledne lépe od ruky. [Preferably self-DAT early get-up, work-NOM me-DAT goes morning better from handGEN.] I prefer to get up early, work goes better for me in the morning. In both Czech and English we can take a break from something, signalling a separation understood as if it were a physical separation, as in this example: Ale jeden den v t˘dnu je tfieba dát si volno od normálního Ïivota. [But one day-ACC in week-LOC is necessary give self-DAT free-time-ACC from normal life-GEN.] But one day a week it is necessary to give oneself a break from normal life.

GENITIVE: A SOURCE 4 — Withdrawal In addition to prepositions, some other words trigger the use of GENITIVE: A SOURCE.25 Like the prepositions, they all indicate motions of withdrawal from the genitive item, whether due to fear or disgust. Mothers commonly expresse withdrawal using GENITIVE: A SOURCE when they chastise children by saying Nech toho! [Leave that-GEN!] ‘Stop it/Leave that alone!’ Here is a table of the words you are likely to encounter, followed by a few examples: bát se

‘fear, be afraid of’

leknout/lekat se nabaÏit se

vystfiíhat/vystfiíhávat se ‘refrain from, avoid’ vy-varovat/ vyvarovávat se ‘be frightened of’ vzdát/vzdávat se ‘get tired of’ za-litovat

obávat se

‘be apprehensive of’

ost˘chat se dûsit se pozb˘t/pozb˘vat pustit/pou‰tût se stranit se ‰títit se

‘be shy of’ ‘be terrified of’ ‘lose’ ‘let go of’ ‘avoid’ ‘shun’

chránit se

za-nechat/ zanechávat stydût se zbavit/zbavovat (se) zdrÏet/zdrÏovat se z-hrozit se zfiíci/zfiíkat se

‘avoid’ ‘escape from, avoid’ ‘give up’ ‘regret, be sorry about’ ‘relinquish, leave’ ‘be ashamed of’ ‘rid (self) of’ ‘abstain from’ ‘be horrified at’ ‘renounce’

Jak to, Ïe se Frank bojí lásky, a nebojí se Ïivota? [How it-NOM, that SELF-ACC Frank-NOM fears love-GEN, but not-fears self-ACC life-GEN?] How is it that Frank is afraid of love but is not afraid of life?

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Words indicating withdrawal can trigger GENITIVE: A SOURCE.

2. Genitive

13

Proã jsme se vzdali vÛdcovské pozice ve svûtû? [Why AUX SELF-ACC gave-up leader’s position-GEN in world-LOC?] Why have we given up our position of leadership in the world? Bratr zanechal sv˘ch kreslífisk˘ch ambicí a zaãal psát scénáfie. [Brother-NOM gave-up own painting ambitions-GEN and began write screeplaysACC.] Brother gave up his ambitions of becoming a painter and began writing screenplays. Pánové se vût‰inou chtûjí zbavit jen sv˘ch tukov˘ch pol‰táfiÛ na bocích a pivních bfiich. [Men-NOM SELF-ACC primarily want get-rid-of only own fat pillows-GEN on hipsLOC and beer bellies-GEN.] Men for the most part only want to get rid of their love-handles and beer bellies. Od poloviny století Krumlov zvolna pozb˘val stfiedovûkého charakteru. [From middle-GEN century-GEN Krumlov-NOM gradually lost medieval characterGEN.] Beginning in the middle of the century Krumlov gradually lost its medieval character.

GENITIVE:: A GOAL 1 — Do ‘to’

G

As its name suggests, GENITIVE:: A GOAL identifies an item that is approached. Like GENITIVE: A SOURCE, GENITIVE:: A GOAL is always triggered by a preposition or other word. By far the most common of all of these is the preposition do ‘to’, which can be applied to the domains of space and time, as well as metaphorical realms. Here are two examples of how do indicates an approach in terms of physical space: KdyÏ chci jet do Rakouska, tak jedu. [When want go to Austria-GEN, then go.] If I want to go to Austria, then I’m going. Jan si stûÏuje a usedá do svého kfiesla. [Jan-NOM self-DAT complains and sits to his armchair-GEN.] Jan complains and sits down in his armchair. Note that it doesn’t matter how long the journey is. In the first example we have a trip to Austria, but in the second example the “trip” is only that of Jan’s backside on the way to his chair. What does matter is how the endpoint of the journey is expressed in Czech. Do can and will be used whenever the corresponding final location is expressed using v + LOC ‘in’. After I have traveled

2. Genitive

14

to Austria, I can say Jsem v Rakousku [Am in Austria-LOC] ‘I am in Austria’; and after Jan’s body has traveled to his seat, we can say Jan sedí v kfiesle [Jan-NOM sits in armchair-LOC] ‘Jan is sitting in his armchair.’ Do can indicate the direction of motion even when there is no verb involved as in this example: Stafiec otevfiel dvefie do kuchynû. [Old-man-NOM opened door-ACC to kitchen-GEN.] The old man opened the kitchen door. Do is the antonym of z, and they often appear together, just like English from…to: “Z jednoho snu do druhého,” ‰eptala si. [“From one dream-GEN to another-GEN,” whispered self-DAT.] “From one dream to another,” she whispered to herself. Although the primary meaning of the verb dát is ‘give’ (motivating its use with DATIVE: A RECEIVER), this verb also serves as an all-purpose equivalent for English put, place. This secondary meaning of the verb gives life to many uses of the combination dát do + GENITIVE:: A GOAL ‘put in (a place)’, which can be used to descibe both the physical placement of objects and also the metaphorical act of putting things in a certain state (usually that of good order). In this example of dát do a WWII veteran expresses his frustration with the Soviet army when in 1968 this ally turned its aggression on the Czechs: Vracím Vám v‰echna vyznamenání úãastníka Velké vlastenecké války a dávám je do muzea na pamûÈ toho, Ïe lidé, ktefií nás osvobodili, stali se na‰imi okupanty. [Return you-DAT all medals-ACC participant-GEN Great Patriotic War-GEN and give themACC to muzeum-GEN on memory-ACC that-GEN, that people-NOM, who-NOM us-ACC liberated, became self-ACC our occupiers-INST.] I’m returning all my medals from the Great Patriotic War and putting them in a museum as a memorial to the fact that the people who liberated us later occupied our country. One can also throw oneself into one’s work or other activities, and this is done with the same expression, just by adding se, to form dát se do or with pustit se do: Rozdali karty a pustili se do hraní. [Distributed cards-ACC and let self-ACC to playing-GEN.] They dealt out the cards and set about playing. Physical blows are delivered to one’s body or to a part of the body using do as well, motivating uses like those in the three examples below. This use of do is so well entrenched that you don’t even need a verb, as we see in Do hlavy ne! [To head-GEN no!] ‘Don’t hit me in the head!’

2. Genitive

15

Tfii holohlavci do nûho kopali, ale nikdo z kolemjdoucích mu nepomohl. [Three skinheads-NOM to him-GEN kicked, but no-one-NOM from passersby-GEN him-DAT not-helped.] Three skinheads were kicking him, but none of the passersby helped him. Vyskoãil a vyuÏil pfiíleÏitost, aby Itala kopl do bfiicha. [Jumped-up and used opportunity-ACC, so-that Italian-ACC kicked to stomach-GEN.] He jumped up and took advantage of the opportunity to kick the Italian in the stomach. Dostáváte do drÏky? Od koho? [Get to mouth-GEN? From whom-GEN?] Do you get slugged in the jaw? By whom? Other, less violent, items can also be delivered to a person’s body parts using do + GENITIVE:: A GOAL, as in this example: *Jak˘si mladík mi strká do ruky modr˘ papírek. [Some young-man me-DAT sticks to hand-GEN blue paper-ACC.] Some young man sticks a blue piece of paper in my hand. The use of do can be extended to metaphorical domains where there is no real movement involved, as we see in the following examples (but note that the association with v + LOC is maintained, since that is how the end result is expressed): Fischer vyhrál volby do Senátu s rekordní pfievahou. [Fischer-NOM won election-ACC to Senate-GEN with record predominance-INST.] Fischer won election to the Senate with a record lead. Ruská mafie proniká stále hloubûji do evropsk˘ch finanãních a podnikatelsk˘ch struktur. [Russian mafia-NOM penetrates constantly deeper to European financial-GEN and entrepreneurial structures-GEN.] The Russian mafia is penetrating ever deeper into European financial and entrepreneurial structures. There is a related, though somewhat idiomatic use of do with mluvit ‘talk’ which can be used when you want someone to mind their own business, as in Prosím tû, do toho nemluv! [Ask youACC, to that-GEN not-talk!] ‘Please stay out of this!’ Translation from one language into another also occasions the use of do, as in this sentence: Kvalita pfiekladu do matefiského jazyka b˘vá zpravidla lep‰í, neÏ kdyÏ tent˘Ï pfiekladatel pfiekládá do cizího jazyka. [Quality-NOM translation-GEN to mother tongue-GEN is as-a-rule better-NOM, than when same translator-NOM translates to foreign language-GEN.] As a rule the quality of translation into one’s mother tongue is better than when the same translator translates into a foreign language.

2. Genitive

16

In the domain of time, do can simply treat the timeline as a type of metaphorical space, or it can indicate a deadline or a time when something ends, as in these examples:26 *Musíme jít daleko do minulosti, abychom mohli dÛkladnûji analyzovat, proã komunistické systémy byly neÏivotné. [Must go far to past-GEN, AUX could more-thoroughly analyze, why communist systems-NOM were inanimate-NOM.] We have to go far into the past in order to do a more thorough analysis of why the communist systems were unable to thrive. *V Praze 13 má do tfií let vyrÛst rozsáhl˘ aquapark. [In Prague-LOC 13-NOM has to three years-GEN grow-up extensive water-parkNOM.] An extensive water park is supposed to appear in Prague 13 within three years. Podle spolupracovníkÛ od rána do veãera tvrdû pracuje. [According-to co-workers-GEN from morning-GEN to night-GEN hard works.] According to his co-workers, he works hard from morning til night. In other realms do can express an extreme limit, comparable to English all the way up to or to the very, as in this example:27 Vím do posledního nervu, co je jeho úzkost. [Know to last nerve-GEN, what-NOM is his anxiety-NOM.] I know to my very last nerve what his anxiety is like. Do appears in a number of important idioms, such as: b˘t nûkomu do pláãe [be someone-DAT to crying-GEN] ‘make someone feel like crying’, b˘t nûkomu do Ïertu [be someone-DAT to jokeGEN] ‘make someone feel like joking’, Co je vám/ti do toho? [What-NOM you-DAT to thatGEN?] ‘What’s it to you?’, do toho se neplet’(te) [to that-GEN self-ACC not-weave] ‘don’t get involved/mind your own business’, dát nûco do pofiádku/kupy [give something-ACC to orderGEN/heap-GEN] ‘put something in order, fix something up’. Here are a few examples:28 “Tfieba MarÈané,” nutil se Prokop zaÏertovat, ale opravdu nebylo mu do Ïertu. [“Maybe Martians-NOM,” forced self-ACC Prokop-NOM joke, but really not-was himDAT to joke-GEN.] “Maybe Martians,” Prokop forced himself to make a joke, but he really didn’t feel like joking. Nech to b˘t, nepou‰tûj se do toho, nepleÈ se do toho — aÈ to zÛstane, jak to je. [Leave that-ACC be, not-let self-ACC to that-GEN, not-mix self-ACC to that-GEN, may that-NOM stay, how that-NOM is.] Leave it be, don’t get involved in it, don’t get mixed up in it — let it stay the way it is. 26

do + GENITIVE:: A GOAL means ‘into, within, until’ in the domain of time. do + GENITIVE:: A GOAL can indicate an extreme limit. 28 Idiomatic uses and verbs associated with do + GENITIVE:: A GOAL. 27

2. Genitive

17

Nevíte o nûkom, kdo by to tady dal do pofiádku? [Not-know about someone-LOC, who-NOM ACC this-ACC here give to order-GEN?] Don’t you know anyone who could fix this? Proã nehrajete, proã prostû nedáte do kupy kapelu, abyste mohli hrát? [Why not-play, why simply not-give to heap-GEN band-ACC, so-that could play?] Why don’t you play, why don’t you just put together a band, so that you can play? There are a few verbs associated with do that indicate getting into something in a metaphorical way, such as zamilovat se do ‘fall in love with’, dát se do ‘set about doing something’, and pustit se do ‘set about doing something’, zapojit se do ‘get involved in something’. No a potom jsem se zamilovala do Martina. [Well and then AUX SELF-ACC fell-in-love to Martin-GEN.] Well and then I fell in love with Martin. Teì se radûji dáme do jídla, máme uÏ hlad. [Now self-ACC rather give to food-GEN, have already hunger-ACC.] Now let’s get going with the food, we’re already hungry. Do niãeho se nechci zapojit. [To nothing-GEN SELF-ACC not-want get-involved.] I don’t want to get involved in anything. Wishes can be directed toward given times when it is hoped that they will be realized, motivating the idiomatic use of do with po-pfiát ‘wish’, as in this example: V‰em ãtenáfiÛm dûkujeme za pfiízeÀ, kterou nám vûnovali v tomto roce a do nového roku pfiejeme mnoho osobních i pracovních úspûchÛ. [All readers-DAT thank for goodwill-ACC, which-ACC us-DAT bestowed in this yearLOC and to New Year-GEN wish many personal-GEN and work successes-GEN.] We thank all our readers for the goodwill they have bestowed on us this year and wish them much personal and professional success in the New Year.

GENITIVE:: A GOAL 2 — Approach Two groups of words denote various kinds of approach and are associated with the gentive case.29 For one group the use of the genitive is mandatory, but for the second group the accusative case is preferred, and the genitive is relatively bookish, characteristic of LCz. In both groups significant number of words are prefixed with do-, which like the preposition do, indicates approach. Many of the verbs on these lists and the list of words meaning withdrawal above have se, which also helps to motivate the use of the genitive, since verbs with se rarely

29

Some words denoting inclinations and metaphorical approaches require GENITIVE:: A GOAL.

18

2. Genitive

have accusative direct objects (the only common exceptions are uãit se ‘study’ and dozvûdût se ‘find out’). Words that Require the Genitive dbát (ãeho or na co) ‘pay attention to, have concern for’ doãkat se ‘wait for’ domoci/domáhat se ‘demand, exact’ dopustit/dopou‰tût ‘commit (a bad act)’ se dotknout/dot˘kat se ‘touch’ dovolat/dovolávat se ‘invoke, call’ doÏadovat se ‘beg for, demand’ drÏet se ‘hold on to’ hledût si ‘attend to’ hodn˘ ‘worthy of’ chopit/chápat se chytit/chytat se nadát se/nadít se schopn˘

t˘kat se

‘concern, pertain to’

ujmout/ujímat se

‘take up, assume’

váÏit si v‰imnout/v‰ímat si vyãkat /vyãkávat

‘have respect for’ ‘notice’ ‘wait for’

zastat/zastávat se

‘stand up for, advocate’ ‘ask, inquire’ ‘seize, take possession of’ ‘participate in’

‘take hold of, seize’

zeptat/ptát se zmocnit/zmocÀovat se ‘get caught on, cling zúãastnit/ to’ zúãastÀovat se ‘expect’ Ïádostiv˘ ‘capable’

‘greedy, eager for’

Here are a few examples to illustrate these words in action: Pfiicházející náv‰tûvníci mávali zakoupen˘mi lístky a doÏadovali se vstupu, aby na vlastní oãi spatfiili uprchlou gorilu. [Arriving visitors-NOM waved purchased tickets-INST and demanded SELF-ACC entry-GEN, so-that on own eyes-ACC saw runaway gorilla-ACC.] The arriving visitors waved the tickets they had purchased and demanded entry so that they could see the runaway gorilla with their own eyes. Koncem listopadu se únosci zmocnili Boeingu 767 letícího z Etiopie do Keni a pfiesmûrovali ho na Komorské ostrovy. [End-INST November-GEN SELF-ACC hijackers-NOM seized Boeing 767-GEN flying-GEN from Ethiopia-GEN to Kenya-GEN, and redirected it-ACC to Comoros islands-ACC.] In late November hijackers seized a Boeing 767 flying from Ethiopia to Kenya and redirected it to the Comoros Islands. Patrnû pod vlivem zvy‰ující se hladiny hormonÛ si zaãal v‰ímat dívek. [Apparently under influence-INST increasing-GEN self-DAT level-GEN hormones-GEN SELF-ACC began notice girls-GEN.] Apparently under the influence of increasing hormone levels he started noticing girls.

19

2. Genitive

Kdosi hrál Chopina, av‰ak vÏdy na stejném místû se znovu a znovu dopou‰tûl jedné a téÏe chyby. [Somebody-NOM played Chopin-ACC, however always on same place-LOC SELF-ACC again and again committed one-GEN and same error-GEN.] Somebody was playing Chopin, but again and again he made one and the same error in the same place. Asijská hospodáfiská krize se Spojen˘ch státÛ prozatím dotkla jen okrajovû. [Asian economic crisis-NOM SELF-ACC United States-GEN for-the-time-being touched only marginally.] For the time being the Asian economic crisis has only affected the United States marginally. Ptala jsem se Filípka, jestli by chtûl bratfiíãka, nebo sestfiiãku, ale chce pejska, takÏe nemÛÏu slouÏit. (CCz) [Asked AUX SELF-ACC Filípek-GEN, whether AUX wanted little-brother-ACC, or little-sister-ACC, but wants doggie-ACC, so cannot serve.] I asked Filípek whether he wants a little brother or a little sister, but he wants a doggie, so I can’t help him. âeho se t˘kaly ty nepfiíjemné diskuse? [What-GEN SELF-ACC concerned those unpleasant discussions-NOM?] What were those unpleasant discussions about?

cenit si dob˘t/dob˘vat dosáhnout/ dosahovat po-pfiát potfiebovat

Verbs that Can Govern the Genitive or the Accusative ‘appreciate’ po-/vy-uÏít/ po-/vy- ‘use, enjoy’ uÏívat; uÏít si ‘gain, get’ poÏívat (LCz) ‘enjoy’ ‘reach, gain’ za-Ïádat ‘desire, demand’ ‘wish’ ‘need’

zneuÏít/zneuÏívat

‘abuse’

Since the use of the genitive with these verbs is more characteristic of LCz than of CCz, examples tend to have a literary character.30 All of these sentences reflect a style not usually found in CCz, and some have additional features (such as the use of jenÏ ‘who’ instead of kter˘ and the word jiÏ ‘already’ instead of uÏ) that mark them as LCz. V poledne dosahuje teplota ãtyfiiceti stupÀÛ ve stínu. [In noon-LOC reaches temperature-NOM forty degrees-GEN in shade-LOC.] At noon the temperature reaches forty degrees in the shade. 30

Some words denoting inclinations and metaphorical approaches can use either GENITIVE:: A GOAL or ACCUSATIVE:

A DESTINATION.

2. Genitive

20

K vládnutí Saddám pouÏívá v‰ech moÏn˘ch, ãasto stalinistick˘ch, metod. [To reigning-DAT Saddam-NOM uses all possible-GEN, often stalinist, methodsGEN.] To maintain his power, Saddam uses all possible methods, often stalinist ones. Nikdo neví pfiesnû proã: v‰ichni, ktefií byli poblíÏ, kdyÏ se jako dvanáctiletá dívka rozhodla uÏívat pro sebe tohoto jména, jiÏ zemfieli. [No-one-NOM not-knows exactly why: everyone-NOM, who-NOM was close, when SELF-ACC like twelve-year-old girl-NOM decided use for self-ACC that name-GEN, already died.] No one knows exactly why: everyone who was close to her when as a twelve-year-old girl she decided to use that name for herself, has already died. VyuÏívá transparentnosti laminátÛ k pfiekvapiv˘m optick˘m úãinkÛm ‰perkÛ-objektÛ, jeÏ jsou zdrobnûl˘mi sochami. [Uses transparency-GEN glass-fibers-GEN to surprising optical effects-DAT jewelsobjects-GEN, which-NOM are miniature sculptures-INST.] He uses the transparency of glass fibers to produce the surprising optical effects of the jewel-objects that are miniature sculptures. Jeden nejmenovan˘ politik chtûl této situace zneuÏít, aby si udûlal jméno. [One unnamed politician-NOM wanted this situation-GEN abuse, so-that SELF-DAT made name-ACC.] An unnamed politician wanted to abuse this situation in order to make a name for himself.

GENITIVE:: A WHOLE 1 — ‘Of’, possession, and color

G

In this submeaning the genitive is a whole of which something else is a part.31 This accounts for all the uses of the genitive that can be translated as ‘of’, as well as numerical quantifications indicating amounts of things. By far the most common use of the genitive is what we call its “bare case” usage, where it is not triggered by any other word.32 In this pristine state the genitive can indicate possessors, wholes (in relation to parts), and other kinds of ‘having’ relationships that can motivate a meaning of ‘of’.

31 32

GENITIVE:: A WHOLE can indicate ‘of’ and numerical quantification. GENITIVE:: A WHOLE means ‘of’.

2. Genitive

21

Perhaps the most basic use of GENITIVE:: A WHOLE is to identify wholes that parts belong to.33 In the physical realm we have parts of discrete objects (feet of mortals and gates of palaces), as in the first example below. More abstractly one could say that purity is part of the water and healthy development is part of the carp, as in the second example; and that meaning is part of forests just as life is part of people, as in the third example. In the domain of time, seasons can be understood as parts of the year, as illustrated in the fourth example. Noha obyãejného smrtelníka se nesmûla dotknout bran královského paláce. [Foot-NOM ordinary mortal-GEN self-ACC not-dared touch gates-GEN royal palaceGEN.] The foot of an ordinary mortal was not allowed to touch the gates of the royal palace. Pro zdrav˘ v˘vin kaprÛ je velmi dÛleÏitá ãistota vody. [For healthy development-ACC carp-GEN is very important-NOM purity-NOM waterGEN.] The purity of the water is very important for the healthy development of carp. V˘znam lesÛ pro Ïivot lidí je obrovsk˘. [Meaning-NOM forests-GEN for life-ACC people-GEN is enormous-NOM.] The meaning of the forests for people’s lives is enormous. Na‰e partnerství skonãilo na jafie minulého roku. [Our partnership-NOM ended on spring-LOC last year-GEN.] Our partnership ended in the spring of last year. Since a part belongs to a whole, it can also be thought of as a possession of the whole, and GENITIVE:: A WHOLE is often used for this meaning, translatable into English with either the possessive form in ’s, or with of, as in these examples:34 ManÏelka britského premiéra oãekává ve sv˘ch pûtaãtyfiiceti letech ãtvrté dítû. [Wife-NOM British Prime-Minister-GEN expects in own forty-five years-LOC fourth child-ACC. The British Prime Minister’s wife is expecting her fourth child at the age of forty-five. *âlenové svûtového v˘konného orgánu by nemuseli b˘t vybíráni podle toho, z jaké zemû pocházejí. [Members-NOM world executive body-GEN AUX not-had-to be chosen-NOM according-to that-GEN, from what country-GEN come.] The members of a world executive body would not have to be chosen according to what country they are from.

33 34

GENITIVE:: A WHOLE GENITIVE:: A WHOLE

expresses parts ‘of’ wholes. expresses possession.

22

2. Genitive

*V˘stava svûtoznámého malífie Alfonse Muchy byla otevfiena v Prostûjovû. [Exhibit-NOM world-famous painter Alfons Mucha-GEN was opened-NOM in Prostûjov-LOC.] An exhibit of the world-famous painter Alfons Mucha opened in Prostûjov. Metaphorical expressions of possession are also possible, as we see in this example: Na‰el jsem Ïenu svého srdce. [Found AUX woman-ACC own heart-GEN.] I found the woman of my heart. Images and jobs are also possessions of a sort, and again the Czech corresponds to English of, as we see in these two examples:

GENITIVE:: A WHOLE

KdyÏ jsem jim ukazoval obrázek císafie Karla a jeho manÏelky Zity, asi si mysleli, Ïe jsem blázen. [When AUX them-DAT showed picture-ACC emperor Karel-GEN and his wife ZitaGEN, probably self-DAT thought, that am crazy-person-NOM.] When I showed them a picture of the emperor Karel and his wife Zita, they probably thought I was crazy. Dánská královna vám pr˘ v Ïertu nabídla místo dvorního ‰a‰ka. [Danish queen-NOM you-DAT allegedly in joke-LOC offered position-ACC court jester-GEN.] The Danish queen allegedly offered you the position of court jester as a joke. Of course the Czech GENITIVE:: A WHOLE shares much of the range of meanings of English of, namely belonging to a category, being of a type.35 Here are some examples: Muzeum vlastní sbírky textilu, fotografií, a zemûdûlského náfiadí a náãiní. [Museum-NOM owns collections-ACC textiles-GEN, photographs-GEN, and agricultural tools-GEN and implements-GEN.] The museum owns collections of textiles, photographs, and agricultural tools and implements. Rusko je zemí paradoxÛ, která nesná‰í a souãasnû bezmeznû obdivuje v‰e, co je cizí. [Russia-NOM is land-INST paradoxes-GEN, which-NOM not-endures and at-same-time endlessly admires everything-ACC, what-NOM is foreign-NOM.] Russia is a land of paradoxes that cnnot endure yet at the same time endlessly admires everything foreign.

35

GENITIVE:: A WHOLE

expresses membership in a category.

2. Genitive

23

Zv˘‰ené odpafiování povrchu tûla vyvolává pocit chladu. [Increased evaporation-NOM surface-GEN body-GEN produces feeling-ACC coolnessGEN.] Increased evaporation of the body’s surface produces a feeling of coolness. Czech characteristically uses the GENITIVE:: A WHOLE to describe colors of objects, using the logic of the English phrase a horse of a different color:36 Zvlá‰tû vysoko jsou cenûny kvûty pupurové a levandulové barvy a vÛbec nejv˘‰e kvûty modré barvy. [Especially highly are valued-NOM flowers-NOM purple-GEN and lavender colorGEN and entirely most-highly flowers-NOM blue color-GEN.] Purple and lavender flowers are especially highly valued, and most of all blue flowers.

GENITIVE:: A WHOLE 2 — Events, idioms, and chains The items that participate in an event (subject, object, action) share a common bond, a special relationship. In English this relationship is expressed by of, and in Czech by the GENITIVE:: A 37 WHOLE. In this first example, the event is setkaly se dûti ‘the children met’, which is reduced to setkání dûtí [meeting-NOM children-GEN] ‘the meeting of children’. This event links the action setkání ‘meeting’ to the subject dûti ‘children’: *V Praze se uskuteãnilo setkání dûtí, které se narodily pomocí asistované reprodukce — ze zkumavky. [In Prague-LOC self-ACC took-place meeting-NOM children-GEN, who-NOM selfACC were-born help-INST assisted reproduction-GEN — from test-tube-GEN.] In Prague there was a meeting of children who were born with the help of assisted reproduction — from a test-tube. In this next example, the event is Jozef Ja‰ík pojídal ‰vestkové knedlíky ‘Jozef Ja‰ík ate plum dumplings’, and the phrase pojídání ‰vestkov˘ch knedlíkÛ ‘eating of plum dumplings’ reduces it to a relationship between the action pojídání ‘eating’ and the object ‰vestkové knedlíky ‘plum dumplings’: *Jozef Ja‰ík se stal vítûzem leto‰ní Velké ceny Vizovic v pojídání ‰vestkov˘ch knedlíkÛ, kdyÏ jich bûhem hodiny spofiádal 123. [Jozef Ja‰ík-NOM self-ACC became victor-INST this-year’s Grand prize-GEN VizoviceGEN in eating-LOC plum dumplings-GEN, when them-GEN during hour-GEN consumed 123-ACC.] Jozef Ja‰ík became the victor of this year’s Vizovic plum-dumpling eating Grand Prize when he polished off 123 of them in an hour.

36 37

GENITIVE:: A WHOLE GENITIVE:: A WHOLE

describes color. indicates participation in an event.

2. Genitive

24

The common greeting Co je nového? [What-NOM is new-GEN?] ‘What’s new?’ is an idiomatic use of GENITIVE:: A WHOLE.38 As the following examples show, GENITIVE:: A WHOLE can be used this way with a variety of words related to co ‘what’, including cosi ‘something’, nûco ‘something’, and nic ‘nothing’: To v‰e je pro nûho cosi cizího. [That all-NOM is for him-ACC something-NOM foreign-GEN.] For him all that is something foreign. Tady je po‰ta docela nûco neobvyklého ve svûtû samoty. [Here is mail-NOM altogether something-NOM unusual-GEN in world-LOC isolationGEN.] Here in the world of isolation mail is something altogether unusual. Vidím jen tmavé stûny. Nic pfiívûtivého. [See just dark walls-ACC. Nothing-NOM welcoming-GEN.] I see just dark walls. Nothing welcoming. As mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, the genitive is the one case that can be repeated to form chains.39 It is specifically the GENITIVE:: A WHOLE in its bare case usage that makes this posible. Here is a chain of four consecutive genitive items: *Databanka ãesk˘ch “nej” pelhfiimovského Muzea rekordÛ a kuriozit âeské republiky uÏ eviduje rekordy v nejrÛznûj‰ích kategoriích a disciplínách, ale nejvy‰‰í âech v ní chybí. [Databank-NOM Czech “mosts”-GEN Pelhfiimov Museum-GEN records-GEN and curiosities-GEN Czech Republic-GEN already has-on-file records-ACC in most-varied categories-LOC and disciplines-LOC, but tallest Czech-NOM in it-LOC is-missing.] The databank of Czech “mosts” of the Pelhfiimov Museum of Records and Curiosities of the Czech Republic already has on file records in all kinds of categories and disciplines, but the tallest Czech is missing in it. Strings of GENITIVE:: A WHOLE are not unusual in Czech, and unfortunately they often translate into clumsy trails of of in English.

GENITIVE:: A WHOLE 3 — Trigger words and phrases Several dozen words and phrases regularly behave like prepositions triggering the use of 40 GENITIVE:: A WHOLE in Czech. Nearly all of these words and phrases have meanings that include English of. These words and phrases are encountered very often in Czech, and are well worth learning. The following table is a collection of the most common words and phrases associated with GENITIVE:: A WHOLE: 38

GENITIVE:: A WHOLE in idiomatic expressions. The chaining capacity of GENITIVE:: A WHOLE. 40 GENITIVE:: A WHOLE can be triggered by many words and phrases. 39

25

2. Genitive

formou

‘in the form of’

prostfiednictvím

koncem na bázi

‘at the end of’ ‘on the basis of’

‰koda uprostfied

na dnû na konto

‘on the bottom of’ ‘on account of’

uvnitfi v centru

na pokraji na principu

‘on the brink of’ ‘on the principle of’

v duchu v mezích

na úãet na újmu na úkor

‘on the account of’ ‘to the detriment of’ ‘to the detriment of’

v oblasti v prÛbûhu v rámci

na úseku na vrcholu na základû následkem po stránce po vzoru

‘for the space of’ ‘at the height of’ ‘on the basis of’ ‘as a result of’ ‘with respect to’ ‘following the pattern of’ ‘under the heading of’ ‘under the name of’

v roli v zastoupení vãetnû ve formû ve sféfie ve smyslu

‘by means of, through’ ‘a waste of’ ‘in the middle of, among’ ‘inside of’ ‘in the center, downtown of’ ‘in the spirit of’ ‘within the bounds of’ ‘in the field of’ ‘in the course of’ ‘in the framework of’ ‘in the role of’ ‘on behalf of’ ‘including’ ‘in the form of’ ‘in the sphere of’ ‘in the sense of’

vinou

‘due to’

z hlediska

‘from the point of view of’ ‘at the beginning of’

pod hlaviãkou pod jménem pod vedením pod zá‰titou pomocí

‘under t h e zaãátkem leadership of’ ‘under t h e zásluhou protection of’ ‘with the help of, by ze stanoviska means of’

‘as a result of’ ‘from the point of view of’

Some of these entries are the instrumental forms of words (and themselves conventionalized examples of INSTRUMENTAL : A MEANS): formou ‘in the form of’ následkem ‘as a result of’, pomocí ‘with the help of, by means of’, prostfiednictvím ‘by means of, through’, and most of the rest are prepositional phrases (or result historically from prepositional phrases) using na, v, and po + LOCATIVE: A PLACE, pod + INSTRUMENTAL:: A LANDMARK, or z + GENITIVE: A SOURCE. Here are some examples to give you a feeling for how these words and phrases are used: Jihokorejská firma Daewoo se ocitla na pokraji bankrotu. [South-Korean company-NOM Daewoo-NOM SELF-ACC appeared on brink-LOC bankruptcy-GEN.] The South Korean Daewoo company found itself on the brink of bankruptcy.

2. Genitive

26

Jste na vrcholu kariéry, máte v‰echno, o ãem vût‰ina lidí jen sní. [Are on height-LOC career-GEN, have everything-ACC, about what-LOC majorityNOM people-GEN only dreams.] You are at the height of your career, you have everything that most people only dream about. Soud ho uznal vinn˘m — na základû velmi sporn˘ch svûdectví — a vyfikl nejtûωí trest: ‰ibenici. [Court-NOM him-ACC recognized guilty-INST — on basis-LOC very questionable testimonies-GEN — and pronounced harshest punishment-ACC: gallows-ACC.] The court found him guilty — on the basis of very questionable testimonies — and pronounced the harshest sentence: the gallows. Jejich souãasná karma je následkem minul˘ch ÏivotÛ. [Their present karma-NOM is result-INST past lives-GEN.] Their present karma is a result of their past lives. Jednotlivé aparáty jsou pomocí rádiov˘ch vln propojeny s poãítaãem. [Separate devices-NOM are help-INST radio waves-GEN connected-NOM with computer-INST.] Separate devices are connected with the computer by means of radio waves. Cestou v pustinû uprostfied skal se ozvaly v˘stfiely a mikrobus zastavil. [Trip-INST in desert-LOC among cliffs-GEN SELF-ACC resounded shots-NOM and minivan-NOM stopped.] On the trip in the desert shots rang out among the cliffs and the minibus stopped. VÛbec netu‰íte, jaká boufie se odehrává uvnitfi mého tûla. [Not-at-all not-suspect, what storm-NOM SELF-ACC takes-place inside my bodyGEN.] You have no idea what kind of a storm is brewing inside my body. Sem nemají pfiístup Ïádní cizinci vãetnû novináfiÛ. [Here not-have entrance-ACC no foreigners-NOM including journalists-GEN.] No foreigners, including journalists, can come in here.

GENITIVE:: A WHOLE 4 — Amounts A part of a whole can be interpreted as an amount of the whole.41 In this use, the gentive is viewed as a set of objects or as a substance, and portions of the genitive item are measured out. This accounts for the use of GENITIVE:: A WHOLE with numerals, with words meaning ‘add’, ‘subtract’, ‘full’, ‘enough’, as well as what we call “partitive” uses. Numerals come in many types. There are integers, fractions, and indefinite numerals such as kolik ‘how many’, nûkolik ‘several’, trochu ‘some’, tolik ‘so many’, mnoho ‘many/much’, málo 41

GENITIVE:: A WHOLE expresses quantification with numerals and other quantifiers.

2. Genitive

27

‘few/little’, více/víc ‘more’, ménû/míÀ ‘fewer’. There are also many other words indicating amounts, like pár ‘a couple’, fiada ‘a lot’, nedostatek ‘lack’, dost ‘enough’, and hojnost ‘abundance’ which behave just like numerals. Here is a sampling of quantifiers with GENITIVE:: AWHOLE: Str˘ãku, nedal bys mi milión dolarÛ, abych mûl nûco do zaãátku? [Uncle-VOC, not-gave AUX me-DAT million-ACC dollars-GEN, so-that had something-ACC to start-GEN?] Uncle, won’t you give me a million dollars so that I will have something to start out with? Mnoho cizincÛ Ïijících dlouhodobû v âeské republice se probudilo do nového roku a zjistilo, Ïe v zemi pob˘vají ilegálnû. [Many foreigners-GEN living-GEN long-time in Czech Republic-LOC SELF-ACC awoke to new year-GEN and discovered, that in country-LOC reside illegally.] Many foreigners who had lived in the Czech Republic for a long time woke up on New Year’s day to discover they were residing in the country illegally. Potfiebujete víc Ïivota a míÀ politiky. [Need more-ACC life-GEN and less-ACC politics-GEN.] You need more life and less politics. Otec vÛbec nesná‰el nedostatek aktivity. [Father-NOM not-at-all not-endured lack-ACC activity-GEN.] Father could not endure lack of activity at all. Já mám dost sebedÛvûry a smûlosti. [I-NOM have enough-ACC self-confidence-GEN and daring-GEN.] I have enough self-confidence and daring. V dobû Ïelezné byla zalesnûna témûfi polovina suchého zemského povrchu. [In age iron-LOC was forested-NOM almost half-NOM dry Earth’s surface-GEN.] In the iron age almost half of the Earth’s dry land was forested. In the following two examples, note that the quantifiers (Kolik and tisíce) and the quantified (nov˘ch vûcí and jich) do not have to appear in sequence in a sentence; the case endings do the job of making the connection clear: Kolik ty zase vidí‰ nov˘ch vûcí! [How-many-NOM you-NOM again see new things-GEN!] How many new things you are seeing! Byly jich tisíce a generál je v‰echny bûhem nûkolika mûsícÛ vyzbrojil a vycviãil. [Were them-GEN thousands-NOM and general-NOM them all-ACC during several months-GEN armed and trained.]

28

2. Genitive

There were thousands of them and the general armed and trained them all in the course of a few months. Any container can likewise serve to quantify the amount of matter it can hold, motivating the use of GENITIVE:: A WHOLE to mark objects and substances when triggered by words designating containers, as in these examples: Pohledná dívka podává stráÏcÛm budovy láhev ‰ampanského. [Pretty girl-NOM hands guards-DAT building-GEN bottle-ACC champagne-GEN.] A pretty girl hands a bottle of champagne to the building guards. Kdosi pfiiná‰í ko‰ík buchet a jin˘ zase z venkova ta‰ku jitrnic. [Someone-NOM brings basket-ACC sweet-buns-GEN and other-NOM again from country-GEN bag-ACC sausages-GEN.] One person brings a basket of sweet buns and another brings a bag of sausages from the country.

GENITIVE:: A WHOLE 5 - Implied amounts There are some words that do not designate an amount themselves, but imply that an amount is involved (often translatable into English as ‘some’); these words have meanings relating to increasing, decreasing, and being or becoming full.42 Czech uses GENITIVE:: A WHOLE with these words because they imply the manipulation of an amount of something. Here is a table of these words, grouped into words meaning ‘increase’ or ‘decrease’, the adjective meaning ‘full’, verbs of consumption in na- se that mean ‘get one’s fill of’, and verbs of consumption in pfie- se that mean ‘get too much of’. Words implying amounts Verbs meaning ‘increase’ or ‘decrease’ dodat/dodávat ‘add’ pfiidat/pfiidávat ‘add’ ub˘t/ub˘vat ‘decrease’ Adjective meaning ‘full’: pln˘ Verbs of consumption in na- se nabumbat se (CCz) ‘get a drink of’ nad˘chat se ‘breathe in a quantity of’ nalokat se ‘breathe in a quantity of’ napít se ‘get a drink of’ naÏrat se ‘eat enough of’ (animal or vulgar) Verbs of consumption in pfie- se pfiecpat se ‘overstuff oneself’ 42

GENITIVE:: A WHOLE

pfiib˘t/pfiib˘vat ubrat/ubírat

‘increase’ ‘reduce’

nacpat se naãichat se

‘stuff oneself’ ‘smell a quantity of’

najíst se

‘eat enough of’

napapat se (CCz) nasytit se

‘eat enough of’ ‘get enough of’

pfiesytit se

‘get too much of’

is used with words that imply amounts.

29

2. Genitive pfiejíst se

‘eat too much of’

pfieÏrat se

‘eat too much of’ (animal or vulgar)

The verbs in the first group are used in constructions that lack a subject, so the verbs themselves have the “default” neuter third-person singular agreement (in other words, they behave as if the subject were ono ‘it’). The item that is increasing or decreasing is marked GENITIVE:: A WHOLE. Here are a few examples of this construction: Mnozí lidé tedy ztratili víru v politiky: ubylo i obãanÛ ochotn˘ch vefiejnû se angaÏovat. [Many people-NOM consequently lost faith-ACC in politicians-ACC: decreased also citizens-GEN willing-GEN publicly SELF-ACC engage.] As a result, many people lost faith in politicians, and the number of citizens willing to become publicly engaged also decreased. Je tohle dÛvod, proã skautÛ ub˘vá? [Is that-NOM reason-NOM, why scouts-GEN decreases?] Is that the reason why there are fewer and fewer scouts? Poãet telefonátÛ na policii se nesniÏuje, pfiib˘vá anonymÛ. [Number-NOM phone-calls-GEN to police-ACC SELF-ACC not-decreases, increases anonymous-callers-GEN.] The number of phone calls to the police is not decreasing, and the number of anonymous callers is increasing. Note that not all verbs meaning ‘increase’ or ‘decrease’ use the G E N I T I V E:: A WHOLE construction. In the last example above the verb sniÏovat se ‘decrease’ appears with a subject marked NOMINATIVE: A NAME. The use of GENITIVE:: A WHOLE with the adjective pln˘ ‘full’ parallels our own use of English of with full. In Czech this association has spawned an idiomatic expression mít nûãeho plné zuby [have something-GEN full teeth-ACC] ‘be fed up with something (literally ‘have one’s teeth full of something’)’. Here are some examples of both pln˘ and this idiom: Tak fieknûte — není ta ãe‰tina plná skvûl˘ch barvit˘ch slov a obrazn˘ch rãení? [So say — not-is that Czech -NOM full-NOM terrific colorful words-GEN and figurative sayings-GEN?] So say — isn’t Czech full of terrific colorful words and figurative sayings? Mûl jsem plné zuby únavného a navíc bezv˘sledného jednání s úfiedníky, tak jsem ‰el rovnou za starostou. [Had AUX full teeth-ACC tiresome-GEN and furthermore fruitless negotiation-GEN with officials-INST, so AUX went straight beyond mayor-INST.] I was fed up with tiresome and furthermore fruitless negotiations with officials, so I went straight to the mayor. The prefix na- can indicate that something is done in quantity; when it and se are added to verbs describing taking substances into the body (by breathing, drinking, or eating), the resulting word

2. Genitive

30

means‘get one’s fill of’ (or even too much of) and the substance that is consumed appears as GENITIVE:: A WHOLE. The following examples illustrate these verbs: Nechcete se napít pramenité vody z na‰í vlastní studny? [Not-want self-ACC drink spring water-GEN from our own well-GEN?] Don’t you want to take a drink of spring water from our very own well? Maminãin˘ch vdoleãkÛ s jahodovou marmeládou se nikdy nemohu nasytit. [Mother’s doughnuts-GEN with strawberry jam-INST self-ACC never not-can getsated.] I can never get enough of mom’s strawberry jam doughnuts. MuÏ v Novodvorské ulici se nad˘chal zplodin, ale lékafii se podafiilo jej zachránit. [Man-NOM in Novodvorská Street-LOC self-ACC inhaled waste-products-GEN, but doctor-DAT self-ACC succeeded him-ACC save. A man on Novodvorská Street inhaled a lot of waste products, but the doctor managed to save him. The prefix pfie- always indicates that a line has been crossed, in this case the upper limit of what one’s belly can hold. All of the verbs with pfie- se in our table above refer to overeating, and as we saw for the na- se verbs, the item that is consumed is marked as GENITIVE:: AWHOLE. Here is an example: Po veãefii, kdy jsme se pfiejedli ústfiic, nás ãekala tûÏká noc s velk˘mi bolestmi bfiicha. [After dinner-LOC, when AUX self-ACC over-ate oysters-GEN, us-ACC waited hard night-NOM with great pains-INST stomach-GEN.] After a dinner at which we ate oysters to excess, a hard night with great stomach pains awaited us. Sometimes an amount can be implied even when there is no word suggesting a quantity. 43 In these instances, the amount is either a small amount, equivalent to English some, or an unexpectedly large amount, equivalent to a lot. The use of GENITIVE:: A WHOLE to designate small amounts is archaic for most words in Czech. It used to be possible to encounter phrases like Dej mi vody [Give me-DAT water-GEN] ‘Give me some water’, but this kind of usage is now unusual even in LCz; in CCz one would say instead Dej mi vodu [Give me-DAT waterACC] or Dej mi trochu vody [Give me-DAT some-ACC water-GEN]. There are two important exceptions, however: chléb ‘bread’ and s˘r ‘cheese’. For these two words the use of GENITIVE:: A WHOLE to mean ‘some’ is very common, and in CCz the genitive forms chleba and sejra have practically eclipsed the nominative and accusative forms, so that you hear only chleba and sejra as subjects and direct objects in all contexts, even when there is no implication of an amount. Here are is an example to illustrate:

43

By itself, GENITIVE:: A WHOLE can express small or large amounts.

31

2. Genitive Podala mu vody, chleba. [Gave him-DAT water-GEN, bread-GEN.] She gave him some water and some bread.

GENITIVE:: A WHOLE can also be used to indicate unusually large numbers of objects, as we see in this example: V‰ude bylo pûkn˘ch holek, radost pohledût! [Everywhere was pretty girls-GEN, joy-NOM look!] There were so many pretty girls everywhere, it was a joy to look at them!

GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE 1— Dates and other reference points

G

In the fourth and final meaning of the genitive, the focus of our attention is located near the genitive item, from which it is separated.44 This combination of proximity and separation allows the genitive to serve as a reference point in various domains of time, and space, or to represent an item that is not available. In the domain of time, the most obvious use of the GENITIVE:: A 45 REFERENCE is with dates, which serve as temporal reference points for events: Pojistka mi skonãí patnáctého ledna. [Insurance-NOM me-DAT ends fifteenth-GEN January-GEN.] My insurance runs out on January 15th. Dnes je sedmnáctého fiíjna. [Today is seventeenth-GEN October-GEN.] Today is October 17th. In addition to calendar dates, Czech can use periods that act as settings:

GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE

to refer to other time

Slibuju Vám, Ïe budu leto‰ního roku Va‰í nejpilnûj‰í a nejhodnûj‰í Ïaãkou. [Promise you-DAT, that will-be this year-GEN your most-diligent and best-behaved student-INST.] I promise you that this year I will be your most diligent and best behaved student.

44 45

GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE serves as a reference point in time and space , and for expressions of lack. The use of GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE to express dates in the domain of time.

2. Genitive

32

Otec byl toho dne neklidn˘. [Father-NOM was that day-GEN not-calm-NOM.] Father was not calm that day. Scházíme se pravidelnû kaÏdého pÛlroku uÏ asi pût let. [Meet self-ACC regularly every half-year-GEN already five-ACC years-GEN.] We’ve been meeting regularly every six months for about five years already. When a time period is alluded to by mentioning phenomena or people connected with a given era, za + GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE ‘during the time of’ locates the event of a sentence in the proximity of the associated time period.46 Common examples of this use of za include za války [during war-GEN] ‘during the war’ and za komunistÛ [during communists-GEN] ‘during the communist era (literally ‘during the time of the communists’)’. Here are a couple of contextualized examples: Za minulého reÏimu tûlesnû postiÏení lidé zÛstávali “schovaní”. [During previous regime-GEN bodily sticken people-NOM remained “hidden-NOM”.] During the previous regime handicapped people were kept “hidden”. Dnes je u nás situace hor‰í neÏ za komunistÛ. [Today is by us-GEN situation-NOM worse-NOM than during communists-GEN.] Today our situation is worse than it was during the communist era. The preposition bûhem + GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE is a more all-purpose equivalent of English during and can be used with all kinds of words to mark temporal reference points, as we see in these examples:47 Vûzni mají bûhem práce pfiísnû zakázáno oslovit kolemjdoucí. [Prisoners-NOM have during work-GEN strictly forbidden address passersby-ACC.] Prisoners are strictly forbidden to talk to passersby when they are working. V roce 1971, bûhem bojÛ o nezávislost Bangladé‰e, situaci je‰tû zhor‰ila vlna uprchlíkÛ. [In year-LOC 1971, during battles-GEN for independence-ACC Bangladesh-GEN, situation-ACC yet worsened wave-NOM refugees-GEN.] In 1971, during the battles for an independent Bangladesh, a wave of refugees made the situation even worse. Jak se zmûnila tato zemû bûhem jednoho století? [How SELF-ACC changed that country-NOM during one century-GEN?] How has that country changed in the course of a century? Over a dozen prepositions locate items in space with reference to GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE as being near, alongside, around, next to, etc.48 Many of these prepositions operate in other domains, such as time (especially kolem ‘around’) or concepts (dle, podle ‘according to’). 46 47

za + GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE ‘during the time of’. bûhem + GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE ‘during’.

33

2. Genitive

blízko daleko dle kolem kromû místo nedaleko

‘near’ ‘far from’ ‘according to’ ‘around’ ‘except’ ‘instead of’ ‘not far from’

okolo poblíÏ podél podle u vedle vnû

‘around’ ‘near’ ‘along’ ‘according to’ ‘near, by, at’ ‘next to’ ‘outside of’

The following examples display some of the range of these prepositions: Jifií Barto‰ka je dle sv˘ch vlastních slov drogovû závisl˘. [Jifií Barto‰ka-NOM is according-to own own words-GEN on-drugs dependent-NOM]. According to his very own words, Jifií Barto‰ka is addicted to drugs. ¤ez se vede kolem ucha, aby byly jizviãky nenápadné, kÛÏe se vypne a pfiebyteãná je odstranûna. [Cut-NOM SELF-ACC leads around ear-GEN, so-that were scars not-obvious-NOM, skin-NOM SELF-ACC draws-tight and excess-NOM is removed-NOM.] The cut goes around the ear so that the scars won’t be obvious, the skin is drawn tight and the excess is removed. KdyÏ chtûjí nakoupit maso, jezdí na farmu nedaleko Toronta — je tam pr˘ asi o dva dolary levnûj‰í. [When want buy meat-ACC, ride to farm-ACC not-far-from Toronto-GEN — is there allegedly about by two dollars-ACC cheaper-NOM.] When they want to buy meat, they go to a farm not far from Toronto — it is supposedly about two dollars cheaper. Samozfiejmû se v‰e zaãne toãit okolo dítûte a jeho potfieb. [Of-course SELF-ACC everything-NOM will-begin revolve around child-GEN and his needs-GEN.] Of course everything will begin to revolve around the child and his needs. Obrovsk˘ meteorit dopadá poblíÏ severního pólu. [Enormous meteorite-NOM will-hit near North Pole-GEN.] The enormous meteorite will hit the ground near the North Pole. Pracovala jsem tehdy v obchodû vedle tetovacího salónu a dostali jsme darem od ‰éfa poukázky na tetování. [Worked AUX then in shop-LOC next-to tatoo parlor-GEN and received AUX giftINST from boss-GEN coupons-ACC for tatooing-ACC.] At the time I was working in a shop next to a tatoo parlor and we got free tatoo coupons from the boss. 48

GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE

with prepositions.

2. Genitive

34

In addition to these basic meanings, some of these prepositions are used in metaphorical extensions, so that for example okolo can be used for approximations (much as around is used in this way in English), and vedle can mean ‘in addition to, aside from’, as we see in these examples: Její koníãek ji stojí okolo patnácti set korun mûsíãnû. [Her hobby-NOM her-ACC costs around fifteen hundred crowns-GEN monthly.] Her hobby costs her around fifteen hundred crowns a month. Vedle angliãtiny zní hojnû i nûmãina. [Next-to English-GEN sounds plentifully also German-NOM.] In addition to English, German is heard a lot. The preposition u ‘near, by, at’ has both a spatial meaning and an idiomatic one that indicates location at someone’s place. Here are some examples of both uses: Nejradûji usedám u hofiícího krbu a poslouchám muziku. [Most-gladly sit by burning hearth-GEN and listen music-ACC.] I like best of all to sit by a burning hearth and listen to music. V poslední dobû se prudce zv˘‰il poãet krádeÏí v autech zaparkovan˘ch u lesa. [In latest time-LOC self-ACC sharply increased number-NOM thefts-GEN in cars-LOC parked-LOC by forest-GEN.] Recently there has been a sharp rise in the number of thefts from cars parked near the forest. Tati, myslí‰, Ïe bych u tebe moh pfiespat? (CCz) [Daddy-NOM, think, that AUX by you-GEN could sleep-over?] Daddy, do you think I could sleep over at your place? The meaning of ‘at someone’s place’ can be extended to include much larger entities than a single household. In this sentence u nás [by us-GEN] literally means something like ‘in our country’: Dnes je u nás situace hor‰í neÏ za komunistÛ. [Today is by us-GEN situation-NOM worse-NOM than during communists-GEN.] Today our situation is worse than it was during the communist era. Attributes and parts of items can be conceived of as located ‘at’ items, motivating uses of u like the following:

2. Genitive

35

Pfiíslu‰níci elity u pfiírodních národÛ tfieba vÛbec neumûjí ãíst a psát. [Members-NOM elite-GEN by primitive nations-GEN perhaps entirely not-know-how read and write.] It’s possible that members of the elite of primitive nations don’t even know how to read or write. Location ‘at’ something can imply that people are engaging in an activity normally associated with an item. Here the participants are not just located near some beer, but most likely enjoying heated discussion while drinking in a pub: MuÏi dûlají rádi politiku u piva, ale konkrétní vûci nechávají na nás. [Men-NOM do gladly politics-ACC at beer-GEN, but concrete things-ACC leave for usACC.] Men like to conduct politics over beer, but they leave the concrete things to us.

GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE 2 — Lack As we have already seen above under GENITIVE:: A WHOLE, the genitive case in Czech is associated with quantification.49 Taken to its logical extreme, the notion of separation characteristic of GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE would imply absolute separation and inaccessibility, here interpreted as negative quantification, or lack. Note that separation does not necessarily imply non-existence, it just means that we aren’t in contact with the genitive item. The most common way for Czech to express ‘lack’ with GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE is by using the preposition bez ‘without’.50 Here are some examples of how this preposition is used: Chut’ zelí je‰tû zlep‰í hroznové víno bez jadérek. [Flavor-ACC cabbage-GEN further improves grapes-NOM without seeds-GEN.] Seedless grapes will further improve the flavor of the cabbage. âeská spofiitelna by bez pomoci státu jiÏ neexistovala. [Czech savings-bank-NOM AUX without help-GEN state-GEN already not-existed.] The Czech Savings Bank would not exist anymore without the state’s help. Bodyguard podává svému chránûnci balíãek fotografií a on je bez mrknutí oka podepisuje. [Bodyguard-NOM hands own ward-DAT packet-ACC photographs-GEN and he-NOM them-ACC without batting-GEN eye-GEN signs.] The bodyguard hands his ward a packet of photographs and he signs them without batting an eye. This use of GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE to indicate ‘lack’ is also associated with negated verbs, and therefore sometimes called “the genitive of negation”.51 In modern Czech the genitive of 49

GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE can express lack. bez + GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE ‘without’. 51 GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE with negated verbs. 50

2. Genitive

36

negation survives primarily in a few fixed phrases like Nemám slov [Not-have words-GEN] ‘I have no words (I am tongue-tied)’, Nemohl dechu popadnout [Not-could breath-GEN catch] ‘He couldn’t catch his breath’, and Není divu [Is-not surprise-GEN] ‘That’s no surprise’. Ocassionally GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE can still be found, more often in LCz texts than in CCz conversation. Here are a few examples: Jenom Vás prosím, abyste opravdu nikde a nikomu niãeho nefiíkal. [Just You-ACC ask, so-that really nowhere and no-one-DAT nothing-GEN not-said.] I’m just asking you to really not say anything to anyone anywhere. Ve Va‰em lístku není ani slova o tom, vûfiíte-li mi. [In your letter-LOC is-not even word-GEN about that-LOC, believe-whether me-DAT.] There isn’t even one word in your letter about whether you believe me. Není vlastnû dÛvodÛ, abychom pfií‰tích dvacet let neÏili krásnû. [Is-not actually reasons-GEN, so-that next-GEN twenty-ACC years-GEN not-lived beautifully.] There’s actually no reason why we shouldn’t live well for the next twenty years.

Epilogue The word genitive is related to generation and genesis, and all these words are derived from a Latin root meaning ‘give birth’. Indeed giving birth is the means by which living creatures such as ourselves serve as sources for more of our kind. The genitive is used for a variety of maneuvers and manipulations involving removal, withdrawal, and locating an item in reference to another. The genitive case is also very concerned with quantity, be it positive or negative, as well as with the measure of time. Against the backdrop of the genitive we have seen repeatedly that physical space is often used as a metaphor for understanding time and other domains (including the elusive realm of the emotions) — this is a theme that will continue throughout the book, since the dative, accusative, instrumental, and locative all have spatial meanings that are likewise used in metaphorical extensions. Many of the concepts associated with the genitive case are familiar from the conceptual structure of English; even the ideas that strike us as foreign make sense in the overall structure of the genitive case, because even though the genitive is quite complex, all the parts fit together to make a coherent whole. Understanding the whole helps you orient to the individual meanings of the genitive because you have a structure to relate those meanings to. Even if you don’t memorize all the meanings right off, you will now have a “feel” for the genitive, and you’ll be surprised how well your new-found intuitions will serve you.

2

The Dative Case

Feminine declension nouns

Masculine declension nouns Neuter declension nouns Adjectives

Pronouns

Possessives

Numerals

Chapter: a designation 1

3

Margin notes:

D

DATIVE:

A RECEIVER

The dative network: AN EXPERIENCER A RECEIVER A COMPETITOR

1. A dative item is one that can react or exert forces of its own. 2. The dative pronoun si ‘to/ for oneself’ plays a special role in Czech. 3. An overview of the dative case. 4. DATIVE: A RECEIVER

PROLOGUE Imagine for a moment that you are playing Mad Libs, and you are asked to supply some words, so you suggest flowerpot, mud puddle, and refrigerator. Then the leader of the game reads the story: “Philanthropists are people who like to help flowerpots. Some of them are very gullible and will believe every mud puddle they meet. These do-gooders will even give a refrigerator their last dime.” Although they are all grammatically correct, these sentences are not representative of the ordinary repertoire of English. The fun of this game in fact consists in creating nonsensical sentences such as these. The three Mad Libs sentences created here are strange because there is a clash between the expectations of constructions containing help, believe, and give and words like flowerpot, mud puddle, and refrigerator which fail to meet these expectations. All three constructions presume that the object is most likely to be a human being. Help is meaningless to a flowerpot because it cannot appreciate the benefit it receives. A mud puddle doesn’t have a story to tell and cannot inspire belief. A refrigerator cannot do anything with money, so there is no point in giving it any. The reason that inanimate objects don’t work in these contexts is that they are incapable of serving as the subjects of further action. If you were to play this round of Mad Libs in Czech, you would put all three words in the dative case because the verbs pomáhat ‘help’, věřit ‘believe’, and dát ‘give’ would require you to do so, but they still wouldn’t make any more sense in Czech than in English.(mn1) The dative case shows that all three contexts have something in common, and as we saw above, they all share the expectation that the dative item is capable of being a subject. This doesn’t mean that all dative items are going to be human or even animate, but it does mean that when you are dealing with a dative item, it is likely to be able to react or at least to exert forces of its own. The dative pronoun si ‘for/to oneself’ is very prominent in Czech, and given the fundamental expectation that an item marked with the dative case is capable of serving as a subject, it is easy to see why.(mn2) The inherent meaning of the pronoun and the case meaning of the dative are very compatible: inherently this pronoun refers always to the

expresses the indirect object. 5. DATIVE: A RECEIVER in the context of giving. 6. The indirect object can act as the subject for a further action. 7. DATIVE: A RECEIVER in the context of metaphorical giving. 8. Idioms with dát/dávat ‘give’ + DATIVE: A RECEIVER. 9. Words meaning ‘transfer’ or ‘make available’ trigger DATIVE: A RECEIVER. 10. DATIVE: A RECEIVER in the context of metaphorical transfer. 11. Dative pronoun si with synonyms of

4

The Dative Case

‘give’. 12. Dative pronoun si can indicate reciprocal giving. 13. Vzít/brát si can mean both ‘take’ and ‘marry’. 14. DATIVE: A RECEIVER in the context of creation. 15. DATIVE: A RECEIVER in the absence of ‘give’ in formulaic expressions. 16. DATIVE: A RECEIVER in the absence of ‘give’ in formulaic expressions. 17. DATIVE: A RECEIVER can express the indirect object without a direct object. 18. “Missing” direct objects include signals, money and gifts, and the self. 19. DATIVE: A RECEIVER in the context of giving verbal messages. 20. DATIVE: A RECEIVER in the context of giving gestural, written, or electronic signals. 21. DATIVE: A RECEIVER in the context of giving money or gifts. 22. DATIVE: A RECEIVER in the context of giving the self. Margin notes 23. ???? n./a

subject of the sentence it is in, which means that it is always referring to an item that has already proven its potential to be a subject, and is therefore an ideal candidate for the dative case. In fact, si is used in Czech very frequently, far more than most grammar books let on. You can use si in a sentence any time an action affects the subject, or is done for the subject, particularly if it is done for the subject’s enjoyment. Perhaps because it is such a little word, si sneaks into many sentences that wouldn’t normally contain ‘for oneself’ or the equivalent in English, giving its behavior a rather “phantom” flavor from our perspective. The special role of si will be noted repeatedly in this chapter. There are three basic meanings to the dative, all of which involve the dative’s capacity to interact with its surroundings.(mn3) The first two meanings are relatively passive, involving receiving or losing objects (DATIVE: A RECEIVER) and absorbing experiences (DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER), whereas the third one is relatively active, involving exerting equal, superior, or lesser strength in relation to something else (DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR). These three meanings are not entirely separate and discrete. Instead they overlap in significant ways because they are so closely related to each other. It might be easier to understand the relationships between the meanings if we remember how our own English word give behaves: we can give something to someone (like DATIVE: A RECEIVER), we can give someone all our love or give them a hard time (like DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER), and we can also give someone a challenge or just give in to them (like DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR). As you read through this chapter, notice how many of the Czech words associated with the dative case can be translated or paraphrased using English give.

DATIVE: A RECEIVER 1 — The indirect object

D Dative:a receiver DATIVE: A RECIEVER involves the transfer of an object from one thing or person to another, as in Sally gave the book to John.(mn4) The thing or person on the receiving end (John) is marked with the dative. You might recognize this as the indirect object (the direct object, of course, is the book, marked in the accusative). As we will see, Czech has a lot of ways to extend the idea of the indirect object. For example, you can sometimes have an indirect object (DATIVE: A RECEIVER) without an obvious direct object (ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION). And you can even run the transaction in reverse and mark the loser as an indirect object (with DATIVE: A RECEIVER) in the same way that you mark the recipient. But let’s start with some straightforward examples. Giving is a universal experience of human interaction, and it serves as the logical starting point for the meanings of the dative.(mn5) The Czech verb for ‘give’ is dát/dávat (which

Chapter: a designation 1 can take many prefixes), and the following example illustrates its use with the dative: (1)

“Dám ti půlku svých peněz, když mi dáš tu roli v novém filmu,” usmála se hvězdička. [“Give you-DAT half-ACC own money-GEN, when me-DAT give that role-ACC in new film-LOC,” smiled self-ACC star-NOM.] “I’ll give you half my money if you give me that role in the new film,” smiled the star.

This example contains two instances of giving, as outlined here: Subject

Verb

Indirect Object

Direct Object

movie star

gives

to director

money

director

gives

to movie star

the role

You can also see that both the director and the movie star are much more than passive destinations for the money and the role.(mn6) In both instances we presume that they are going to do something with what they have received: the director can buy something with the money, and the movie star will be able to play the role and advance her career. Even if they fail to do anything, the fact that they could do something is crucial here. Giving need not involve tangible objects.(mn7) In English we can offer more abstract, metaphorical “gifts”, such as power and humor, and the same goes for Czech: (2)

Hrajeme hru, že politici jsou profesionálové, kterým dáme moc, a oni už vše zařídí. [Play game-ACC, that politicians-NOM are professionals-NOM, whom-DAT give power-ACC, and they-NOM already everything-ACC manage.] We’re playing a game that politicians are professionals to whom we give power, and then they take care of everything.

(3)

Pán Bůh mi dal dost značný dar humoru. [Lord God-NOM me-DAT gave enough considerable gift-ACC humor-GEN.] The Lord God gave me a considerable gift of humor.

The verb dát/dávat ‘give’ + DATIVE: A RECEIVER participates in numerous idioms motivated as extensions of the meanings of ‘give’ and the dative case.(mn8) For example, if someone is bothering you, you can say Dej mi pokoj! [Give me-DAT peace-ACC!] ‘Leave me alone (literally: Give me peace)!’. If they still don’t get the message, you might need to take the advice of the phrase dát někomu najevo, že… [give someone-DAT clear, that…] ‘make it clear to someone that…’, and insist on no uncertain terms that you don’t want to be disturbed. A person who is puzzled might say: Nedává mi to žádný smysl [Not-gives me-DAT that-NOM any sense-ACC] ‘That doesn’t make any sense to me’. The Czech equivalent of our English idiom give credence to something is dávat něčemu váhu, literally ‘give weight to something’. A hypothesis can be introduced by saying Dejme tomu, že… [Give that-

24. DATIVE: A RECEIVER in the context of taking. 25. DATIVE: A RECEIVER in the context of taking the self.

5

6

The Dative Case DAT, that…] ‘Let’s assume that…’. Caution can be suggested by using the idiom dát si pozor [give self-DAT attention-ACC] ‘watch out, be careful’. Finally dát si ‘have, order (food) (literally: give oneself)’ is used in the setting of meals with menus of choices. Here are a couple of examples of idiomatic uses of dát/dávat. (4)

Nedávám anketám velikou váhu: přitahují lidi snadnějšího názoru, jimž se chce odpovídat. [Not-give surveys-DAT great weight-ACC: attract people-acc simpler opinion-GEN, who-DAT SELF-ACC wants answer.] I don’t give surveys much credence: they attract people with simple opinions who feel like answering.

(5)

Dal ti snad toto své přání nějakou formou najevo? [Gave you-DAT perhaps that own wish-ACC some form-INST clear?] ‘Did he make his wishes clear to you somehow?’

Acts of transferring objects from one party to another are fairly widespread; in English, for example we can send, offer, supply, and deliver things to other people.(mn9) We can even extend this idea of making something available to someone to words like buy (She bought me a ticket) and show (He showed me his report card). These words aren’t exact synonyms of give, but they share the same basic conceptual structure, and it is no surprise that in Czech words like these will also have dative indirect objects, as we see in the following table and examples: Synonyms and Near Synonyms of dát/dávat ‘give’ adresovat

‘address’

cpát (CCz) ‘prescribe, order’ darovat; dárek

‘shove at, force upon’ předepsat/předepisovat ‘give as a gift; gift’

předložit/předkládat

dedikovat

‘dedicate’

přenechat/přenechávat‘leave, entrust to’

‘present’

dodat/dodávat; dodávka ‘pass (in sports)’ doporučit/doporučovat‘recommend’

přikázat/přikazovat

‘assign (a task)’

dopřát/dopřávat

přinést/přinášet

‘bring’

‘grant, give’

‘add, deliver; delivery’přihrát/přihrávat

doručit/doručovat ‘deliver’ ‘remind (someone of something)’ hodit/házet ‘throw’

připomenout/připomínat

koupit/kupovat

připsat/připisovat

‘buy’

‘give (credit), at-

Chapter: a designation 1 tribute’ nabídnout/nabízet; nabídka ‘promise (to give’ nadělit/nadělovat ‘bestow’ na-diktovat ‘dictate’ ‘lend; loan’ navrhnout/navrhovat ‘propose’

‘offer’

přislíbit/přislibovat

přivodit/přivozovat

‘cause, inflict’

půjčit/půjčovat; půjčka sehnat/shánět

naznačit/naznačovat ‘give (hint, suggestion)’ ‘suggest’ nechat/nechávat ‘leave (for)’ svěřit/svěřovat

‘get’ v-sugerovat ‘entrust’

obětovat; oběť ‘bestow’ objasnit/objasňovat

‘sacrifice to/for; sacrifice’

udělit/udělovat

‘explain, make clear’ ukázat/ukazovat

‘show’

obstarat/obstarávat

‘find, obtain, get (for)’ uložit

‘give (a task, charge)’

odevzdat/odevzdávat ‘hand in’

umožnit/umožňovat

‘make possible’

odkázat/odkazovat

‘bequeath, will’

věnovat

‘give as a gift’

odnést/odnášet

‘take to’

v-nutit

‘force upon’

opatřit/opatřovat

‘obtain, get (for)’

vrátit/vracet

‘return’

podat/podávat

‘hand, serve’

vybrat/vybírat

‘choose’

po-přát; přání

‘wish’

vydat/vydávat

‘surrender’

poskytnout/ poskytovat

‘provide’

vyložit/vykládat

‘interpret, explain’

poslat/posílat ‘send’ ‘give compensation for’ postoupit/postupovat ‘pass, submit’

vynahradit/vynahrazovat vystavit/vystavovat

‘issue (a document)’

prezentovat

‘present’

vysvětlit/vysvětlovat

‘explain’

prodat/prodávat

‘sell’

zařídit/zařizovat

‘arrange’

prokázat/prokazovat

‘render, do for’

zasvětit/zasvěcovat

‘dedicate, donate’

7

8

The Dative Case předat/předávat

‘hand over’

způsobit/způsobovat

‘cause’

(6)

Jeden Američan mu za kytaru nabídl tisíc dolarů. [One American-NOM him-DAT for guitar-ACC offered thousand-ACC dollarsGEN.] An American offered him a thousand dollars for his guitar.

(7)

Hodili jsme mu hrst dolarů, aby nás nechal na pokoji. [Threw AUX him-DAT handful-ACC dollars-GEN, so-that us-ACC left on peaceLOC.] We threw him a handful of dollars so that he would leave us alone.

(8)

Dostal jsem stipendium, které tehdy poskytovala francouzská vláda kosovským studentům. [Got AUX stipend-ACC, which-ACC then provided French government-NOM Kosovo students-DAT.] I got a stipend which the French government was providing for students from Kosovo at the time.

(9)

Jestliže nevíte, co koupit svému dítěti pod stromeček, pak pro vás připravily Lidové noviny malý výběr z dětských vánočních dárků, které jsou letos nejprodávanější na předvánočním trhu. [If not-know, what-ACC buy own child-DAT under tree-ACC, then for you-ACC prepared Lidové noviny small selection-ACC from children’s Christmas presentsGEN, which-NOM are this-year most-sold on pre-Christmas market-LOC.] If you don’t know what to buy your child for Christmas, Lidové noviny has prepared a sampling of the hottest selling children’s Christmas gifts on the market.

Transfer of objects with a variety of verbs also lends itself to abstract, metaphorical usage.(mn10) Acts like giving a person a new identity, adding picturesque beauty, and sacrificing one’s private life involve a transfer that is more fictive than actual, but still the connection with giving is clear: (10) Armáda mi obstarala úplně novou totožnost, stal jsem se příslušníkem francouzského zpravodajského týmu. [Army-NOM me-DAT got completely new identity-ACC, became AUX self-ACC member-INST French press team-GEN.] The army got me a completely new identity, I became a member of the French press team. (11) Jarní slunce dodává chaloupce malebnost. [Spring sun-NOM adds farmhouse-DAT picturesqueness-ACC.] The spring sun adds picturesqueness to the farmhouse.

Chapter: a designation 1

(12) Ona ale sportu obětovala celý svůj soukromý život. [She-NOM however sport-DAT sacrificed whole own privat life-ACC.] She however sacrificed the whole of her private life to sport. Several of these verbs can be used when a subject obtains items for itself, occasioning the use of the Czech dative pronoun si, which is particularly frequent with the following verbs, as the examples below attest: (mn11) dobýt/dobývat si self’ dovolit/dovolovat si

‘obtain’

po-přát si

‘allow oneself, dare’ pořídit/pořizovat si

‘wish, want for one‘acquire’

koupit/kupovat si ‘buy oneself’ přivodit/přivozovat si ‘bring upon oneself, contract’ obstarat/obstarávat si ‘find, obtain, get oneself’ sehnat/shánět si ‘get oneself’ vybrat/vybírat si ‘choose for oneself’ odnést/odnášet si understand’ opatřit/opatřovat si

‘take home’

vysvětlit/vysvětlovat si ‘explain to oneself;

‘obtain, get oneself’

zařídit/zařizovat si

‘arrange for oneself’

(13) Vítěz si odnese finanční odměnu a láhev šampanského. [Champion-NOM self-DAT takes financial reward-ACC and bottle-ACC champagneGEN.] The victor will take home a financial reward and a bottle of champagne. (14) Podle průzkumu na pražských středních školách si jedenáct procent experimentujících opatřuje drogu přímo ve škole. [According study-GEN on Prague high schools-LOC self-DAT eleven-NOM percent-GEN experimenting-GEN get drug-ACC directly in school-LOC.] According to a study in Prague high schools, eleven percent of those who experiment with drugs get their drugs right in school. (15) Jak si vysvětlujete to, že se vrací například zájem o hudbu z osmdesátých let? [How self-DAT explain that-ACC, that self-ACC returns for-example interest-NOM about music-ACC from eighty years-GEN?] How do you make sense of the fact that for example interest in eighties’ music is coming back in? The pronoun si can also be used with verbs meaning ‘give’ and their synonyms to indicate reciprocal giving — when two or more people give things to each other, as in this example: (mn12)

9

10

The Dative Case

(16) Vždycky o Vánocích si posíláme dárky. [Always at Christmastime self-DAT send presents.] We always send each other presents at Christmastime.

In addition to the verbs that are related to ‘give’, quite a few verbs cannot have any indirect object other than si. These verbs have meanings like ‘want’, ‘keep’, ‘need’, ‘demand’ and the like that imply that someone is getting or trying to get something for themselves. The use of si is not always required for all of these verbs, but it is extremely common. Here is a table of these verbs, along with a couple of examples to show how they work: hledět si představovat si chtít si sion of’ naklonit/naklánět si ‘take possession of’ osvojit/osvojovat si

‘keep in good order for oneself’ p ř e d s t a v i t / ‘imagine (literally: set before oneself)’ ‘want for oneself’ přisvojit/přisvojovat si ‘adopt, take posses‘win (a person) over’ přivlastnit/přivlastňovat si ‘acquire’

vynutit/vynucovat si

‘require, get by force’

podmanit/podmaňovat si ‘subjugate, capture for oneself’ vyžádat/vyžadovat si ‘require, demand, take, exact’ po-nechat si ‘keep for oneself’ zasloutžit/zasluhovat si ‘deserve’ potřebovat si ‘need’ za-žádat si ‘demand’ připustit/připouštět si ‘consider’ over’

získat/získávat si

‘get; win (a person)

(17) Nehoda si vyžádala dva mrtvé a devět zraněných. [Accident-NOM self-DAT exacted two dead-ACC and nine-ACC wounded-GEN.] The accident exacted two dead and nine wounded. (18) Mír se Sýrií je nemožný, pokud si Izrael ponechá Golany. [Peace-NOM with Syria-INST is impossible-NOM, as-long-as self-DAT Israel-NOM keeps Golan-Heights-ACC.] As long as Israel keeps the Golan Heights, peace with Syria is impossible. As the last few batches of examples show, English translations often don’t have any equivalent for si, since it is obvious that the recipient is also the subject, and si isn’t really required for Czech, either, much of the time, but that doesn’t stop the Czechs from peppering their sentences with this pronoun at the slightest provocation. The verb vzít/brát si ‘take’ works the same way, but unlike the verbs just above, it can have indirect objects other than si (however, other indirect objects are the person or item that loses possession of something, not the one that receives it, as we will see in the

Chapter: a designation 1 section on taking verbs below).(mn13) The use of si is very common with this verb, even in contexts where it would be extremely awkward to translate si into English. Here is a pair of examples: (19) Vzal si cigaretu a hned si ji zapálil. [Took self-DAT cigarette-ACC and immediately self-DAT it-ACC lit.] He took a cigarette and lit it immediately. (20) Vypil jsem několik litrů vody, vzal si pár acylpirinů a zalezl do postele. [Drank AUX several-ACC liters-GEN water-GEN, took self-DAT couple-ACC aspirins-GEN and crawled-in to bed-GEN.] I drank several liters of water, took a couple of aspirin and crawled into bed. In addition, vzít/brát si is an idiom meaning ‘marry’ in Czech, similar in some ways to English take unto oneself, but vastly more common: (21) Chudák Ivana, ta si užije, jestli si ho vezme. [Poor-person-NOM Ivana-NOM, that-NOM self-DAT suffer, if self-DAT him-ACC takes.] Poor Ivana, she is going to suffer if she marries him. Another way to give someone something is by creating the gift for the person.(mn14) If I say I’ll bake you a cake for your birthday, I’m promising to bring the cake into existence so that you will receive it; in Czech you would be marked DATIVE: A RECEIVER. All kinds of words involving making things can be recruited for this purpose, such as building, cooking, sewing, etc. Here’s an example: (22) Celou cestu domů si říkal, že by měl fence vymyslet nějaké úplně jiné měkčí a mazlivější jméno. [Whole way-ACC home SELF-DAT said, that AUX had dog-DAT think-up someACC completely different softer-ACC and cuddlier name-ACC.] The whole way home he was saying to himself that he should think up some completely different, softer and cuddlier name for the dog. Verbs of creation are used in the idiomatic construction nechat/nechávat si + verb of creation (ušít ‘sew’, postavit ‘build’, etc.) + item created (šaty ‘clothes’, vilu ‘villa’) with the meaning ‘have something made for oneself’, as in this example: (23) Sám si na ruku nechal vytetovat vlastní obraz. [Self-NOM him-DAT on arm-ACC let tattoo own picture-ACC.] He had his own picture tatooed on his arm. Czech has an idiomatic expression meaning ‘ask a question’ that requires the person being addressed to be an indirect object marked DATIVE: A RECEIVER: položit/klást otázku/otázky (literally: lay question/questions).(mn15) Here is an illustration of how this expression works:

11

12

The Dative Case

(24) Shlukovali se kolem ní a kladli jí nemožně naivní otázky. [Clustered self-ACC around her-GEN and laid her-DAT impossibly naive questions-ACC.] They clustered around her and asked her impossibly naive questions. The force of the dative case is so strong that the role of DATIVE: A RECEIVER comes through loud and clear even when there is no verb at all, as in formulaic expressions like Sláva Bohu! [Glory-NOM God-DAT] ‘Glory to God!’ or the old communist greeting Čest práci! [Honor-NOM work-DAT!] ‘Honor to work!’.(mn16)

DATIVE: A RECEIVER 2 — INDIRECT OBJECTS WITHOUT DIRECT OBJECTS Some uses of the DATIVE: A RECEIVER submeaning are not indirect objects in the classic sense because they don’t have any ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION direct objects.(mn17) However, they do involve the transfer of something to a receiver, even if that something is not explicitly named in the accusative case, and for this reason we can think of these uses as being very close relatives to the indirect object. Usually the “missing” direct objects can be found in the meaning of the verb; for example, verbs of communication all involve the transfer of a signal to a receiver, and these verbs take the dative case.(mn18) When you contribute to a worthy cause, it is not necessary to specify that you gave money; we still understand the charitable organization as the receiver even when the money is not mentioned. It is also possible for something to bring itself to a receiver, in which case the “missing” direct object is the subject of the sentence. Each of these types of indirect objects will be taken up below. There is quite a selection of words that express delivering signals to receivers.(mn19) For convenience they can be broken down into two groups: those that involve talking and those that do not. In most instances you can easily recover the “missing” direct object by restating these words as ‘give a signal to X’, where signal is the direct object and X is the DATIVE: A RECEIVER. Because the signal is already implicit in the word, we can skip right over it and go directly to the receiver. This table contains some of the communication words associated with the dative that you are likely to encounter: Verbs of Communication by Means of Talking dobrořečit ‘remind’ kondolovat přisvědčovat nadat/nadávat

‘bless, eulogize’

připomenout/ připomínat

‘give condolences’ ‘consent’ ‘scold, abuse’

přisvědčit/ přitakat/přitakávat

‘say yes’

nařídit/nařizovat

‘command’

přizvukovat

‘second’

odmlouvat

‘talk back to’

rozkázat/rozkazovat

‘order’

Chapter: a designation 1

odpovědět/odpovídat ‘answer, correspond to’ ‘say’ odvětit (LCz) ‘reply’ slíbit/slibovat; slib

říci/říkat ‘promise’

ozvat/ozývat se

‘respond’

po-blahopřát

‘congratulate’

tykat

‘say ty to’

po-děkovat

‘thank’

vyčinit (CCz)

‘tell off’

po-gratulovat

‘congratulate’

vyhrožovat

‘threaten’

po-hrozit

‘threaten’

vyhubovat (CCz)

‘bawl out’

pochlebovat

‘fawn upon’

vykat

‘say vy to’

po-chlubit se

‘boast’

vynadat

‘insult’

po-lichotit

‘flatter’

vyprávět/vypravovat

‘tell’

po-modlit se; modlitba ‘pray; prayer’

vytknout/vytýkat

‘reproach’

po-přát

‘wish, greet’

vy-zpovídat se

‘confess’

po-radit; rada

‘advise; advice’

zalhat/lhát

‘lie’

poručit/poroučet

‘command’

rouhat se

‘blaspheme’

po-stěžovat si

‘complain’

spílat

‘curse at’

povědět/povídat

‘tell’

zavdat/zavdávat

‘say a toast to’

po-žehnat

‘bless’

za-volat

‘call, telephone’

pravit (LCz)

‘tell, say’

zlořečit

‘curse’

prominout/promíjet

‘forgive’

žalovat

‘complain’

The following three examples illustrate how communication words involving talking are used with the dative: (25) Někteří kritici vytýkají prezidentovi, že mluvil nekonkrétně. [Some critics-NOM reproach president-DAT, that spoke not-concretely.]

13

14

The Dative Case Some critics reproach the president for speaking in abstractions. (26) *Mám radost, že když náš Honza odjede do New Yorku, za dva dny mi zavolá jakoby nic. [Have joy-ACC, that when our Honza-NOM goes to New York-GEN, in two daysACC me-DAT calls, like nothing-NOM.] I’m happy that when our Honza goes to New York, he calls me two days later as if it was no big deal. (27) Prezident Havel sportovcům pogratuloval a poděkoval jim za vzornou reprezentaci vlasti. [President Havel-NOM athletes-DAT congratulated and thanked them-DAT for exemplary representation-ACC country-GEN.] President Havel congratulated the athletes and thanked them for their exemplary representation of the country. Many of these verbs can be used with the dative reflexive pronoun si in its reciprocal meaning, such as tykat si/vykat si ‘say ty/vy to each other’, povídat si ‘converse with each other’, and vytýkat si ‘reproach each other’. Related words, such as díky ‘thanks to’ and slib ‘promise’, often require the dative just like the verbs in our table: (28) Díky konstrukci nabízí Mazda Demio uvnitř opravdu dostatek prostoru jak pro přepravu cestujících, tak třeba i atypického nákladu. [Thanks construction-DAT offers Mazda Demio inside really enough space-GEN both for transporting-ACC passengers-GEN, and perhaps even atypical load-GEN.] Thanks to its construction, the Mazda Demio really provides enough space both for transporting passengers and even for an atypical load. The verb říkat can be used with DATIVE: A RECEIVER to indicate the use of names, as in Říkají mu “Čmelák” [Say him-DAT “Bumblebee”-NOM] ‘They call him “Bumblebee”, and in this example: (29) Evropské komisi se začíná stále častěji říkat “evropská vláda”. [European Commission-DAT self-ACC begins continually more-often say “European Government”-NOM.] People are beginning more and more often to call the European Commission the “European Government”. Communication through bodily gestures and electrical signals is likewise directed to DATIVE: A RECEIVER. Here is a table of common verbs followed by an example so you can see the parallel with verbs of verbal communication: (mn20) Verbs of Communication by Means of Messages and Signals

Chapter: a designation 1 aplaudovat

‘applaud’

připít/připíjet; přípitek‘drink to, toast’

brnknout (CCz)

‘phone’

signalizovat; signál

‘signal’

odepsat/odepisovat; dopis ‘laugh at’ mávnout/mávat ‘wave’

‘write back; letter’

u-/za-smát se

vysmát/vysmívat se

‘ridicule, mock’

napsat/psát

za-salutovat

‘salute’

‘write’

po-kynout ‘nod, wave’ ‘telephone’ posmívat se ‘make fun of, taunt’ ‘send telegram; telegram’ přikývnout/ přikyvovat ‘nod’

za-telefonovat; telefonát za-telegrafovat; telegram

za-tleskat

‘applaud’

(30) Posluchači v zcela zaplněném Národním divadle vstoje dlouho aplaudovali mezzosopranistce Dagmar Peckové. [Listeners-NOM in entirely filled National Theater-LOC standing for-a-long-time applauded mezzosopranist-DAT Dagmar Pecková-DAT.] The audience in the packed National Theater gave mezzosopranist Dagmar Pecková a long standing ovation. Like the verbal communication verbs, these verbs often use si to mean ‘each other’, as in dopisovat si ‘correspond (write letters to each other)’. In both Czech and English there are some verbs that mean ‘give money or goods’, such as pay , reward and contribute to.(mn21) Because the idea that money or goods are involved is already part of the word, it doesn’t need to appear as an accusative direct object, just like the signals above. Here are some of the words you can expect to see with DATIVE: A RECEIVER, along with an example to illustrate: Verbs that Mean ‘give money or goods’ obětovat ‘contribute, make sacrifice to’ odvděčit/odvděčovat se ‘return a favor’ odměnit/odměňovat (se) ‘compensate, reward’ oplatit/oplácet ‘repay’ odplatit/odplácet (se) ‘repay’ přispět/přispívat; příspěvek ‘contribute; contribution’ odsloužit se ‘requite’ za-platit ‘pay’

(31) Rodiče nám přispěli na koupi nového bytu.

15

16

The Dative Case [Parents-NOM us-DAT contributed for purchase-ACC new apartment-GEN.] Our parents made a contribution to us toward the purchase of a new apartment. (32) Za provedené služby stavební firmě zaplaťte až po důkladné kontrole provedené práce. [For completed services-ACC building company-DAT pay only after thorough check-LOC completed work-GEN.] Pay the building company for services rendered only after the completed job has been checked thoroughly.

DATIVE: A RECEIVER 3 — GIVING THE SELF As an alternative to presenting something to a DATIVE: A RECEIVER, the subject can simply present itself, and this can impact the receiver in two ways.(mn22) The subject can physically bring itself to the receiver, or it can bring itself merely to the perception of the receiver, usually with verbs meaning ‘appear (in a dream)’, ‘seem’, ‘make an impression’. Here are some words that commonly indicate the giving of the self to a DATIVE: A RECEIVER: Words Meaning ‘give self to’ dostačit/dostačovat pertain’ na-rodit se

‘be sufficient’

příslušet

‘be owed, belong to,

‘be born’

stačit

‘be enough’

stát/stávat se

‘happen’

nadběhnout/ nadbíhat ‘overtake, outrun’ nadejít/nadcházet ‘entrust self’ náležet (LCz) ‘happen to’ obětovat se

‘overtake, get there before’

svěřit/svěřovat se

‘be proper to, fall upon’

udát/dít se

‘sacrifice self’

ukázat/ukazovat se

‘show self to’

oddat/oddávat se

‘devote self’

věnovat se

‘dedicate self’

patřit

‘belong’

vnutit/vnucovat se

‘force self on’

pro-jevit se ‘be traitor, sell self’ představit/ představovat se

‘appear’

zaprodat/zaprodávat se

‘introduce self’

zasvětit/zasvěcovat se ‘dedicate oneself to’

přihodit se

‘happen’

zbýt/zbývat

přiblížit/přibližovat se ‘approach, get close to’

‘be left for’ zdát se

17 ‘seem’ připadnout/připadat snu)

‘accrue; happen; seem’ ‘appear to (in a dream)’

zjevit/zjevovat se (ve

(33) V červnu se mi narodila holčička. [In June-LOC self-ACC me-DAT was-born little-girl-NOM.] I had a baby girl in June (literally: In June a baby girl was born unto me). (34) Volný čas tráví sháněním originálních nahrávek, fotografií, informací — prostě všeho, co jim umožní přiblížet se své rockové či popové hvězdě. [Free time-ACC spend searching-for-INST original recordings-GEN, photographsGEN, information-GEN — simply everything-GEN, what-NOM them-DAT enables get-close-to own rock-DAT or pop star-DAT.] They spend their free time searching for original recordings, photographs, information — in short, everything that will enable them to get close to their rock or pop star. (35) Již několik let se v rámci svých nadací věnuje handicapovaným dětěm a dětěm z dětských domovů. [Already several-ACC years-GEN self-ACC in framework-LOC own foundationsGEN dedicates hadicapped children-DAT and children-DAT from children’s homes-GEN.] For several years already in connection with his foundations he has been dedicating himself to handicapped children and children from orphanages. (36) Od té chvíle se myšlence na emigraci oddal celou duší. [From that time-GEN self-ACC idea-DAT on emigration-ACC devoted whole soulINST.] From that time on he devoted himself to the idea of emigration with all his soul. A number of adjectives play off this same idea of giving the self. Here are some of them, along with illustrations of how they function in context: Adjectives Relating to Giving the Self dostupný

‘accessible’

srozumitelný

‘comprehensible’

jasný

‘clear’

zjevný

‘conspicuous’

přístupný

‘accessible’

známý

‘familiar’

(37) Pokud text není srozumitelný všem čtenářům, pozbývá sdělnosti. [If text-NOM is-not comprehensible-NOM all readers-DAT, reduces communicative-function-GEN.]

18

The Dative Case If a text is not comprehensible to all readers, its communicative function is reduced. (38) Cestovní kancelář Fischer se v letošním roce zaměřila na nabídku zájezdů cenově dostupných i rodinám s dětmi. [Travel agency-NOM Fischer-NOM self-ACC in this year-LOC focused-attention on offer-ACC trips-GEN pricewise accessible-GEN even families-DAT with children-INST.] This year the Fischer travel agency has focused attention on offering trips affordable even for families with children.

DATIVE: A RECEIVER 4 — INDIRECT OBJECTS WITH ‘TAKE’ As we have seen with the apparently “opposite” meanings of GENITIVE: A SOURCE and GENITIVE:: A GOAL, sometimes languages treat opposites as though they were similar in an abstract way.(mn24) A similar logic is at work in the dative case, where Czech marks both the receiver in an act of giving and the loser in an act of taking in the same way, using DATIVE: A RECEIVER. For example, in Czech one can say both Bratr mu dal poslední korunu [BrotherNOM him-DAT gave last crown-ACC] ‘His brother gave him his last crown’ and Bratr mu vzal poslední korunu [Brother-NOM him-DAT took last crown-ACC] ‘His brother took his last crown from him’. Czech exploits the paralells between dát/dávat ‘give’ and vzít/brát ‘take’ quite consistently, as we see in these examples: (39) Chová se jako malé dítě, když mu berou jeho oblíbenou hračku. [Behaves self-ACC like small child-NOM, when him-DAT take his favorite toyACC.] He’s behaving like a small child does when someone takes away his favorite toy. (40) Následný vývoj v Čechách po změně režimu v roce 1989 vzal mnohým lidem iluze o rychlém a hlavně bezbolestném přechodu od socialismu k tržnímu kapitalismu. [Subsequent development-NOM in Bohemia-LOC after change-LOC regime-GEN in year-LOC 1989-NOM took many people-DAT illusions-ACC about rapid-LOC and especially painless transition-LOC from socialism-GEN to market capitalismDAT.] The subsequent development in Bohemia after the change in regime in 1989 took away many people’s illusions about a rapid and especially a painless transition from socialism to market capitalism. Note that the person from whom something is taken is often not mentioned in English (as in the first example above), or is mentioned as the initial possessor of the item that is removed (as in the second example above). Like dát/dávat ‘give’, vzít/brát ‘take’ has a number of synonyms and near-synonyms that also occasion the use of DATIVE: A RECEIVER. As is evident from the table below, these

19 verbs focus primarily on taking that victimizes the original owner; most of these verbs are better thought of as synonyms of ‘steal’ than of ‘take’, and there is palpable overlap between this use of DATIVE: A RECEIVER and the use of DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER with words meaning ‘harm’. Synonyms and Near-synonyms of ‘take’ čmajznout (CCz)

‘swipe’

štípnout (CCz)

‘pinch’

konfiskovat

‘confiscate’

u-krást

‘steal’

odcizit/odcizovat

‘misappropriate’

vyfouknout (CCz)

‘snatch away’

odebrat/odebírat

‘take away’

vyrvat/rvát

‘wrest from’

odejmout/odnímat

‘take away’

vy-trhat; vytrhnout

‘yank away’

odstranit/ odstraňovat vyvlastňovat sebrat/sbírat

‘remove’ ‘expropriate’ ‘take away’

vyvlastnit/ zabavit/zabavovat

‘seize’

šlohnout (CCz)

‘pinch’

zcizit/zcizovat

‘appropriate’

(41) Občas mi ukradnou bicykl. [Occasionally me-DAT steal bicycle-ACC.] Occasionally they steal my bicycle. (42) Muž odmítl peníze vydat, otevřel dveře auta a snažil se vytrhnout útočníkovi zbraň. [Man-NOM refused money-ACC hand-over, opened door-ACC car-GEN and tried self-ACC yank-away attacker-DAT weapon-ACC.] The man refused to hand over the money, opened the car door and tried to yank away the attacker’s weapon. (43) Komunisté v padesátých letech často násilím vyvlastnili soukromým zemědělcům značné majetky a přeměnili je na jednotná zemědělská družstva. [Communists-NOM in fifty years-LOC oftem violence-INST appropriated private farmers-DAT considerable properties-ACC and transformed them-ACC to unified agricultural cooperatives-ACC.] In the fifties the communists often appropriated from private farmers considerable property by violence and converted it into collective farms. As we saw above the notion of ‘giving’ can be present when something is created for someone else. The same kind of logical extension applies to taking — if you destroy something

20

The Dative Case that belongs to someone, you have in effect taken that something away, motivating use of DATIVE: A RECEIVER to mark the owner of something that gets demolished, as we see in this example: (44) Stoletá voda v roce 1995 zničila domy téměř všem obyvatelům vesnice Troubky. [Hundred-year water-NOM in year-LOC 1995-NOM destroyed houses-ACC practically all residents-DAT village-GEN Troubky-NOM.] The hundred-year flood of 1995 destroyed the houses of nearly all the residents of the village of Troubky. (45) Městský soud projednává kuriózní případ, kdy sedmdesátiletý důchodce rozbil svému sousedovi téměř všechna okna. [City court-NOM processes curious case-ACC, when seventy-year-old retiree-NOM broke own neighbor-DAT practically all windows-ACC.] The city court is processing the curious case of a seventy-year-old retiree who broke nearly all of his neighbor’s windows. One can also take something from oneself, and once again dative si steps in to play this role, most commonly with verbs like odříci/odřeknout/odříkat si and odepřít/odpírat si both of which mean approximately ‘give up, refuse (to take)’. Here are some examples for weight watchers and smokers, people who are often faced with denying themselves what they crave: (46) Ten další zákusek sis mohl odříci, začínáš se podobat svému otci. [That further pastry-ACC self-DAT-AUX could refuse, begin self-ACC look-like own father-DAT.] You could have refused that extra pastry, you’re beginning to look like your father. (#)

Akce Den proti kouření by měla kuřákům pomoci odepřít si svoji denní dávku nikotinu alespoň na jeden den. [Action-NOM Day-NOM against smoking-DAT AUX had smokers-DAT help giveup self-DAT own daily dose-ACC nicotine-GEN at-least for one day-ACC.] Anti-Smoking Day should help smokers give up their daily dose of nicotine at least for one day.

DATIVE: A RECEIVER 5 — TAKING THE SELF The parallels between ‘give’ and ‘take’ extend also to the relationship between words that mean ‘give oneself to’ and those that mean ‘take oneself from’, motivating the use of DATIVE : A RECEIVER with words that indicate various kinds of escape, loss, and estrangement.(mn25) Like the approximate synonyms of vzít/brát ‘take’ above, most of these words imply some kind of harm done to the indirect object marked DATIVE: A RECEIVER. Words Meaning ‘take self from’

21

chybět

‘be missing’

odcizit/odcizovat se, cizí ‘flee’ nedostávat se ‘not be enough of’

uniknout/unikat

‘leak, escape’

‘be(come) alienated’ upláchnout (CCz) uplynout

‘flow away, elapse’

u-prchnout/prchat

‘flee’

odporoučet se

‘take one’s leave of’

ustoupit/ustupovat

‘make way for’

odrodit se

‘defect’

utéci/utíkat

‘run away’

odrůst/odrůstat

‘outgrow’

vyhnout/vyhýbat se

‘avoid; steer clear of’

vymanit/vymaňovat se ‘free oneself from’ propadnout/propadat se ‘disappear’ vymknout/vymykat se ‘wrench loose’ scházet ‘be missing’ vzdálit/vzdalovat se ‘become estranged from’ uhnout/uhýbat (se) ‘dodge, make way for’zdrhnout/zdrh(ov)at (CCz) ‘run off on’ ujet/ujíždět ‘ride away (causing one to miss a train, bus, etc.)’ zemřít ‘die on’ ujít/ucházet ‘escape’ z-mizet ‘disappear on’ umřít/umírat

‘die on’

ztratit/ztrácet se

‘get lost on’

(47) Nevyhnutelným konfliktům se společnost nesmí vyhýbat, k tomu ale potřebuje zralé a kurážné politiky. [Inescapable conflicts-DAT SELF-ACC society-NOM dares-not avoid, to that-DAT however needs mature-ACC and courageous politicians-ACC.] Society must not try to avoid inescapable conflicts, but for this it needs mature and courageous politicians. (48) Na okamžik ztuhl, ochromen čímsi nepoznaně silným, ale pak se té síle vymanil a vyběhl za tím jemu nejdražším hlasem. [For instant-ACC stiffened, paralyzed something-INST inconceivably powerfulINST, but then self-ACC that power-DAT freed and ran after that-INST him-DAT most-dear voice-INST.] For an instant he stiffened up, paralyzed by something inconceivably powerful, but then he freed himself from that power and ran after the voice that was most dear to

Margin notes 1.1 D A TIVE :: AN EXPERIENCER expresses an item exposed to benefit, harm, possession and need, external forces, ease and difficulty, and obligation and desire. 1.2 D A TIVE :: AN EXPERIENCER in the context of benefit. 1.3 D A TIVE :: AN EXPERIENCER

with líbit se ‘like’. 1.4 D A -

22

The Dative Case

TIVE ::

him.

AN

EXPERIENCER

with chutnat ‘taste good’ used for food and drink. 1.5 Idiomatic use of DATIVE :: AN

DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER 1 — BENEFIT

D

EXPERIENCER

with jít to express ‘suit, work for’. 2.1

DATIVE:: AN

DATIVE::AN EXPERIENCER Something happens to a DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER, and the dative item absorbs that experience.(mn1.1) You can think of this as a diluted version of DATIVE: A RECEIVER; here the dative doesn’t get or lose something, instead it gets just an experience of something. Words meaning ‘show’ and ‘appear to’ are transitional examples, demonstrating the link between DATIVE: A RECEIVER and DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER. We use the dative case for experiences because the DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER is capable of appreciating the impact of whatever action or state it is exposed to. Experiences can be good and bad, thus benefiting or harming the DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER. Possession and need are also common experiences, and then there are many miscellaneous experiences that don’t fit into neat categories. Let’s start with the good experiences that bring benefit to the DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER. Kindness comes in many forms, and there is a wealth of ways in which something or someone can bring benefit.(mn1.2) Here is a table of words that you can expect to see accompanied by DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER:

si in the context of benefit for the self. 2.2 DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER si with verbs of enjoyment prefixed in po- and za-. 2.3 DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER si with verbs meaning ‘assume a position’. 2.4 DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER si with verbs expressing relief and urgency. 2.5 DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER si with verbs expressing awareness and capability. 3.1

klapnout/klapat (CCz) ‘go well’

EXPERIENCER

DATIVE:: AN

in the context of harm. 3.1 DATIVE:: AN

Verbs Expressing Benefit asistovat

‘assist’

po-vést se

‘be lucky’

dovolit/dovolovat ceed’ hodit se

‘allow, permit’

po-/vy-/z-dařit se

‘do well, thrive; suc-

‘suit’

prominout/promíjet

‘forgive’

jít

‘suit, work for’

prospět/prospívat

‘benefit’

přisluhovat

‘assist, serve’

EXPERIENCER

EXPERIENCER

with verbs of physical harm prefixed in na-. 4.1

DATIVE:: AN

kondolovat ‘serve’ konvenovat (CCz) ‘suit’ nadržovat

‘sympathize with, condole’

sloužit

‘suit, be convenient to, comply with’

slušet

‘patronize, favor’

svědčit

‘be good for’

ulehčit/ulehčovat

‘relieve’

napomoci/napomáhat ‘help with’

23 EXPERIENCER can

padnout

‘suit, look good on’

ulevit/ulevovat

‘relieve’

po-dařit se ‘satisfy’ po-lahodit

‘do well, be lucky, succeed’

vyhovět/vyhovovat

‘please’

za-chutnat

‘taste good’

pomoci/pomáhat

‘help’

za-líbit se

‘appeal to’

po-přát

‘wish (well), be kind’ zamlouvat se

‘appeal to’

Here are some examples of relatively concrete assistance given to a DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER: (49) Nám to zatím se ženou klape. (CCz) [Us-DAT that-NOM now with wife-INST work-well.] Right now things are going well for my wife and I. (50) *Pražskému týmu kuchařů se podařilo připravit 2125 palačinek. [Prague team-DAT cooks-GEN self-ACC succeeded prepare 2125-ACC pancakesGEN.] The Prague team of cooks managed to prepare 2125 pancakes. (51) Armáda v socialistickém Československu sice měla sloužit lidu, ve skutečnosti však byla nástrojem komunistické moci. [Army-NOM in socialist Czechoslovakia-LOC after-all had serve people-DAT, in reality-LOC however was instrument-INST communist power-GEN.] The army in socialist Czechoslovakia was, after all, supposed to serve the people, however in reality it was an instrument of communist power. The following examples illustrate how benefit can be rendered in a relatively metaphorical sense: (52) Nejen zraku, ale i hmatu může lahodit umělecké dílo. [Not-only sight-DAT, but even touch-DAT can please artistic work-NOM.] A work of art can be pleasing not only to the sight, but also to the touch. (53) Kancelář prezidenta by uvítala takového kandidáta, který by konvenoval její názorům a umožňoval jí zasahovat do řízení ústavu. [Office-NOM president-GEN AUX welcomed such candidate-ACC, who-NOM AUX complied its views-DAT and enabled it-DAT intervene to management-GEN institute-GEN.] The office of the president would welcome a candidate who complies with their views and helps them intervene in the management of the institute.

express possession of a body part. 4.2 DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER si can express the subject’s possession of a body part. 4.3 DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER can express possession of items other than body parts. 4.4 DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER expresses having an end with konec. 5.1

DATIVE:: AN

in the context of external forces. 5.2 DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER expresses age. 5.3 DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER expresses exposure to environmental and emotional conditions. 5.4 DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER expresses indifference with být … jedno. 5.5 DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER expresses need with třeba and nezbytné. EXPERIENCER

6.1 Things happen to DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER

with stát/stávat se. 6.2 Various actions can be un-

24

The Dative Case

dertaken for the benefit of DA TIVE :: AN EXPERIENCER. 6.3 Dative pronoun si emphasizes that the subject is affected by an event. 6.4 DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER

suggests that an activity is happening to a person. 7.1

DATIVE:: AN

In addition to these verbs, a great number of adjectives expressing positive qualities and inclinations can be used with the dative in a similar fashion, among them milý ‘nice, pleasant’, nápomocný ‘helpful’, příjemný ‘pleasant’ vzácný ‘precious’, užitečný ‘useful’, vděčný ‘thankful’. Here are a couple of examples: (54) Vážení posluchači, mám tu čest přivítat mezi námi nám tak vzácného hosta — pana prezidenta Václava Havla. [Esteemed listeners-VOC, have that honor-ACC welcome among us-INST us-DAT such precious guest-ACC — Mr. president Václav Havel-ACC.] Ladies and Gentlemen, I have the honor of welcoming a guest who is very special to us — president Václav Havel. (55) Mohu vám být ve vaší záležitosti nějak nápomocen? [Can you-DAT be in your matter-LOC somehow helpful-NOM?] Can I be helpful to you in some way in this matter?

EXPERIENCER can

imply interest, aggression, or solidarity.

To express ‘like’ (any attraction weaker than full-blown love, which is of course milovat ), Czech uses verbs meaning ‘appeal to, please’, especially líbit se, with the dative, and the logical structure of the sentence is the inverse of what we have in English, so Ty se mi líbíš [You-NOM SELF-ACC me-DAT please] really means ‘I like you’.(mn1.3) Here’s an example of how this works in Czech: (56) Mladé holky se chlapovi líbí pořád. [Young girls-NOM self-ACC guy-DAT please always.] A guy always likes young girls. (57) Chtěla jsem se mu líbit, nevěděla jsem, že líčení u žen nesnáší, a také jsem netušila, že červená barva ho dokáže rozzuřit jako býka. [Wanted AUX self-ACC him-DAT please, not-knew AUX, that makeup at womenGEN not-endures, and also AUX not-suspected, that red color-NOM him-ACC manages enrage like bull-ACC.] I wanted him to like me, I didn’t know that he can’t stand makeup on women, and I also didn’t suspect that the color red could enrage him like a bull. Odd as it may seem, the verb líbit se cannot be used to describe liking food and beverages (unless you only want to refer to the way they look); if the subject is caloric consumables, the only correct choice is chutnat ‘taste good’.(mn1.4) Here’s an example for good measure: (58) *Pivo mu chutná, ale je drahé. [Beer-NOM him-DAT tastes-good, but is expensive-NOM.] He likes beer, but it’s expensive. The use of the verb jít with the dative to mean ‘suit, work for’ is idiomatic, but then so is the use of English go in phrases like go well with.(mn1.5) In this example, the thing that is

25 ‘going’ is the studying, though in English we don’t always bother mentioning the person who is having the experience: (59) Nenech se rušit, chtěl jsem se jen přesvědčit, jak ti jde studium. [Not-let self-ACC disturb, wanted AUX self-ACC just convince, how you-DAT goes studying-NOM.] Don’t let me disturb you, I just wanted to see how the studying was going. Jít can be used in combination with the preposition o + ACC to describe what someone cares about, or is concerned with, what their main point is. Here is an example of this usage with DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER: (60) *Jde mu o obranu klasiků proti módním trendům na amerických univerzitách. [Goes him-DAT about defense-ACC classics-GEN against fashionable trends-DAT at American universities-LOC.] He’s concerned about defending the classics from the fashionable trends at American universities. Some benefit verbs associated with approval can appear either with an accusative direct object or with an infinitive, in addition to the item marked DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER. These verbs include: dovolit/dovolovat ‘allow’, povolit/povolovat ‘permit’, přijmout/přijímat ‘accept’, schválit/schvalovat ‘approve’. The first two examples below the approved items are things represented as accusative direct objects (projekt ‘project’ and vše ‘everything’), and in the third one the approved item is an action described by a verb (ukončit ‘finish’). As we see in th first example, this use of DATIVE: AN EXPERIENCER can also suggest possession. (61) Projekt nám musí mimo jiné schválit i ministerstvo životního prostředí. [Project-ACC us-DAT must among other-ACC approve also ministry-NOM life environment-GEN.] Among other things, the Ministry of the Environment must also approve the project for us (= approve our project). (62) Nesmíš mu vše dovolovat, jednou by se ti to mohlo vymstít. [Not-must him-DAT everything-ACC allow, once would self-ACC you-DAT thatNOM could have-bad-consequences.] You mustn’t allow him everything, one day there could be terrible consequences. (63) Příznivé počasí nám dovolilo ukončit stavbu před termínem. [Favorable weather us-DAT allowed finish construction-ACC before deadline-INST.] The favorable weather allowed us to finish construction before the deadline.

DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER 2 — BENEFIT FOR THE SELF It is the nature of human beings to want to increase their own pleasure and capacities when-

26

The Dative Case ever possible, and this occasions the use of the Czech dative pronoun si, since such activities involve persons providing benefit for themselves.(mn2.1) In most cases, the verbs involved also exist without si (except the position verbs below), but si transforms their meaning to reflect the self-indulgence it implies. The verb užít/užívat si ‘enjoy’ is very representative of the use of the si to express benefit for oneself. By itself, užít/užívat means simply ‘use’, but if we use something self-indulgently, then we use it in order to enjoy it. The verb žít ‘live’ can aquire the self-indulgent meaning ‘live it up’ simply by adding si. Here are examples of how si expresses enjoyment with these two verbs: (64) *Hezky si užíte konec léta. (CCz) [Nicely self-DAT use end-ACC summer-GEN.] Enjoy the rest of the summer! (65) *Žili si tam jako bohové. [Lived self-DAT there like gods-NOM.] They lived it up there like gods. Similarly, the verb hrát ‘play’ is fairly non-specific and can be used in a variety of contexts (for playing games, sports, musical instruments, etc.). However, if Czechs want to talk about what children do when they play, they will almost always use hrát si to emphasize the fact that this kind of play is done for the fun of it. Certain other activities like throwing or kicking a ball can be done just for fun, and Czech adds si to the verbs házet ‘throw’ and kopat ‘kick’ to produce házet si ‘throw for fun’ and kopat si ‘kick for fun’. Here is an example from an article on cloning: (66) *Hrát si na Boha se nevyplatí. [Play self-DAT on God-ACC self-ACC not-pays.] It doesn’t pay to play God. There are many other activities that can be enjoyed, usually in pleasurable quantities.(mn2.2) The prefixes po- and za- frequently combine with si and verbs describing enjoyable activities to produce verbs that mean ‘enjoy doing something, have a nice time doing something’. The most common verbs of this type are gathered in the table below, although Czechs are capable of creating more verbs according to this pattern whenever the mood strikes them.

pobesedovat si ‘have a nice chat’ podebatovat si

Verbs of Enjoyment with po- si ‘have a nice conversation’

popovídat si

‘enjoy a debate’

popřát/popřávat si

‘indulge oneself’

pohovořit si

‘have a nice talk’

poskočit si

‘have a romp with’

pohrát/pohrávat si

‘have some fun’

pospat si

‘get a good sleep’

27 pochutnat/pochutnávat si ‘relish, get a good taste of’ posvítit si na + ACC ‘take a good look at’ poležet si ‘lie about a bit’ povykládat si ‘have a nice chat’

zabafat si

Verbs of Enjoyment with za- si ‘have some puffs’ zalenošit si

zaběhat si

‘have a run’

zalétat si

zahrát/zahrávat si ‘enjoy some skiing’ zahubovat si

‘do some playing’

zalyžovat si/zalyžařit si

zajezdit si

‘go for a ride’

zaplavat si

‘go for a swim’

zakouřit si

‘have a smoke’

zarybařit si

‘enjoy some fishing’

‘do some grumbling’ zaplakat si

‘be lazy for a while’ ‘go for a fly’

‘have a good cry’

Here are some examples to give you a feel for how these verbs are used: (67) *Na palačinkách si pochutnali návštěvníci oslav svatého Vavřince, patrona kuchařů a cukrářů. [On pancakes-LOC self-DAT tasted visitors-NOM celebration-GEN St. VavřinecGEN, patron-GEN cooks-GEN and confectioners-GEN]. Visitors to the celebration of St. Vavřinec, patron saint of cooks and candy-makers, enjoyed eating the pancakes. (68) “Moji chlapi” si zajezdili na horských kolech z půjčovny hotelu, já jsem si raději poležela na sluníčku. [“My boys-NOM” self-DAT rode on mountain bikes-LOC from rental-office-GEN hotel-GEN, I-NOM AUX self-DAT rather lay on sun-LOC.] “My boys” enjoyed going for a ride on mountain bikes from the hotel rental office, but I instead enjoyed laying around in the sun. (69) Maminko, šla bych si tak ráda na chvilku k tobě zaplakat. [Mom-VOC, went AUX self-DAT to gladly for moment-ACC to you-DAT cry.] Mom, I would really like to go to you for a moment and have a good cry. There are four verbs that mean ‘take a position’, all of which require si: dřepnout si ‘squat’, sednout/sedat si ‘sit down’, lehnout/lehat si ‘lie down’, stoupnout/stoupat si ‘stand up’.(mn2.3) The connection with benefit for the self is obvious for the first three verbs, since squatting, sitting, and lying down are all things that we do to increase our comfort. The fourth verb, stoupnout/stoupat si ‘stand up’, might seem a bit puzzling until we remember that this is not the usual, neutral verb that Czechs use for standing up — the verb most normally used is vstát/vstávat. Stoupnout/stoupat si is used only in contexts where a stand-

28

The Dative Case ing position is the most convenient one. For example when a mother is helping a small child get dressed, she might say Tak si stoupni! ‘So get up!’, emphasizing that the dressing will be easier to accomplish while standing. Other contexts would include stepping up to a counter or other raised surface so that one can get something. The following examples show the obligatory use of si with verbs meaning ‘assume a position’: (70) Včera mě ošklivě bolela hlava, šla jsem si brzy lehnout. [Yesterday me-ACC wickedly hurt head-NOM, went AUX self-DAT early lie.] Yesterday I had a wicked headache and went to bed (literally: lay down) early. (71) Dřepni si někam na bobek a přestaň otravovat! [Squat self-DAT somewhere on berry-ACC and stop bothering!] Go squat somewhere and stop being a pest! People do a variety of things in response to stress: they hurry up, voice their needs, complain, and rest.(mn2.4) All of these activities help a person who feels some urgency or need for relief, and are thus beneficial. Here are some Czech verbs of this type that are associated with si: Verbs of Relief and Urgency with si dovolit/dovolovat si

‘be able to afford’

po-stěžovat si

‘complain’

naříkat si

‘lament’

povzdechnout si

‘heave a sigh’

oddechnout si ‘take a breather’ po-/za-stesknout/stýskat si ‘complain about’ odpočinout/odpočívat si ‘rest’ přispíšit si; pospíšit si ‘hurry up’ odskočit si ‘relieve oneself (go to the bathroom)’ přivstat/přivstávat si ‘get up a little earlier than usual’ po-hovět si ‘lounge, take a rest’ říci si ‘say what one needs’ stýskat si

‘complain’

(72) “Velkým problémem hlavního města jsou psí výkaly”, posteskl si primátor Jan Koukal. [“Big problem-INST” capital center-GEN are dog droppings-NOM”, complained self-DAT mayor Jan Koukal-NOM.] “Dog droppings are a big problem in the capital city,” complained mayor Jan Koukal. Knowing about something and knowing what to do or think about it are valuable experiences for people, ones that tend to attract the use of Czech si.(mn2.5) Here are common verbs of this type that you are likely to encounter, followed by a few examples. You might notice that several of these verbs also exist without si, although their si and non-si mean-

29 ings are quite different from each other. Cenit, for example, means ‘estimate, assess’, whereas cenit si means ‘appreciate’, a meaning that relates the estimation to the benefit it brings to the person doing the estimation. Without si, myslet means ‘think’ in the sense of ‘engage in a thought process, use one’s brain’, but myslet si means ‘think’ in the sense of ‘have an opinion’. Verbs of Awareness and Capability That Use si cenit si uvědomovat si myslet si ‘respect’ oblíbit/oblibovat si

‘appreciate, have a high opinion of’ ‘realize, be aware’ ‘think, have an opinion’ ‘take a fancy to’

vědět si rady

u v ě d o m i t / vážit si ‘know how to’

poradit si s + INST ‘know how to use something, consult with’ všimnout/všímat si ‘notice’ považovat si (CCz) ‘appreciate’ vzpomenout/vzpomínat si ‘remember’ představit/představovat si ‘imagine’ zamanout si (CCz) ‘take into one’s head’ při-pamatovat si ‘remember’ zamilovat/zamilovávat si ‘take a fancy to’ umínit si ‘take into one’s head’ zapamatovat si ‘memorize, fix in memory’ usmyslet si ‘set one’s mind on’

(73) Dále já si uvědomuju, že kousek od chvály a pocty je vždycky schovaná nějaká ostuda. (CCz) [Further I-NOM self-DAT realize, that piece-ACC from praise-GEN and honorGEN is always hidden-NOM some embarrassment-NOM.] I also realize that not far from praise and honor there is always some hidden embarrassment. (74) Mnoho lidí si, jako i já, myslí, že životní cíle této společnosti i cesta k nim jsou špatné. [Many people-GEN self-DAT, like also I-NOM, think, that vital goals-NOM this society-GEN and path-NOM to them-GEN are bad-NOM.] Many people like myself think that this society’s vital goals and the path to them are bad. In a weaker sense, our behavior is something that we do for ourselves, following our own design (whether ultimately good or bad), and Czech has two verbs meaning ‘behave, perform’ which use the dative si, počínat si and vést si.

30

The Dative Case (75) Obě české tenistky si na turnaji v Moskvě vedly dobře a postupují do druhého kola. [Both Czech tennis-players-NOM self-DAT on tournament-LOC in Moscow-LOC performed well and progress to second round-GEN.] Both Czech tennis players performed well at the Moscow tournament and are progressing to the second round.

DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER 3 — HARM Czech has a rich variety of expressions for harm inflicted upon a DATIVE :: AN EXPERIENCER.(mn3.1) Some of the most common ones are in this table. You will notice that po-hrozit ‘threaten’ shows up both here and under verbs of communication under DATIVE: A RECIPIENT above. This verb is just as ambiguous in Czech as it is in English; a threat can be construed either as a message delivered to a DATIVE: A RECEIVER or as a physical reality endured by a DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER. Verbs Expressing Harm hnusit se

‘be disgusting’

vadit

‘bother’

nesedět

‘bother’

vyhrožovat

‘threaten’

po-hrozit

‘threaten’

za-bránit

‘impede, hamper’

po-mstít se

‘take revenge on’

zakázat/zakazovat

‘forbid’

překážet

‘be in the way’

závidět

‘envy’

ublížit/ubližovat znechucovat (se) u-křivdit ‘evoke disgust’ u-škodit

‘hurt’ znechutit/ ‘make (be) disgusting’ ‘do someone an injustice’

z-ošklivit (se)

‘harm’

(76) Zakázali mi jezdit do zahraničí. [Forbade me-DAT ride to foreign-countries-GEN.] I was forbidden to go abroad. (77) Vyšetřovatel jej již obvinil z obecného ohrožení spáchaného z nedbalosti, za což mu hrozí až pět let vězení. [Investigator-NOM him-ACC already indicted for general menace committed-GEN from negligence-GEN, for which-ACC him-DAT threatens up-to five-ACC years jail-GEN.] The investigator has already indicted him for general menace due to negligence, for which he can get up to five years in jail (literally: he’s threatened with up to five

31 years in jail). Although just about any adjective expressing a negative quality can inspire the use of DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER, the following four adjectives assume this role with particular frequency: nepříjemný ‘unpleasant’, odporný ‘disgusting’, protivný ‘repulsive’, trapný ‘bothersome’, as we see in the following examples: (78) Učitel nesmí, i když je to někdy obtížné, dělit žáky podle toho, kdo je mu milý nebo protivný. [Teacher-NOM not-dares, even when is that-NOM sometimes difficult, divide students-ACC according-to that-GEN, who-NOM is him-DAT dear-NOM or repulsive-NOM.] Even though it is sometimes difficult, a teacher must not divvy up his students according to who is dear to him and who is repulsive. (79) Slavné japonské suši může být pouze podle popisu některým lidem odporné, avšak po ochutnání často změní názor. [Famous Japanese sushi-NOM can be only according-to description-GEN some people-DAT disgusting-NOM, however after tasting-LOC often change opinionACC.] Based solely on a description, the famous Japanese sushi is disgusting to many people, however they often change their minds after they taste it. Like the benefit verbs, there are some verbs describing harm that frequently have an accusative direct object or infinitive verb tagging along in addition to the DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER. The most common verbs of this type all mean ‘refuse’: odmítnout/odmítat, odříci/odřeknout/odříkat, and odepřít/odpírat. The item refused in the first example below is expressed as an accusative direct object (jasnou penaltu ‘a clearly deserved penalty kick’), but in the second example the refusal involves an action, expressed as a verb (podepsat ‘sign’). (80) Poté, co rozhodčí odepřel mužstvu Slavie jasnou penaltu, propukly na stadionu emoce. [After, what-NOM referee-NOM refused team-DAT Slavie-NOM clear penaltykick-ACC, burst-out at stadium-LOC emotions-NOM.] Emotions burst out at the stadium after the referee refused the Slavie team a clearly deserved penalty kick. (81) Matka mi odmítla podepsat domácí úkol plný chyb. [Mother-NOM me-DAT refused sign home assignment-ACC full-ACC mistakesGEN.] Mother refused to sign the homework assignment full of mistakes for me (= my assignment). Getting a beating is certainly experienced as harm, motivating the use of

DATIVE:: AN

32

The Dative Case EXPERIENCER.(mn3.2)

If you take a Czech verb meaning ‘deliver a blow’ and add the prefix na- (which here means ‘do a quantity of something’), you can get a verb which means ‘to hurt a person’, and the person is marked as DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER. Verbs of Physical Punishment in nanabít

‘beat’

napohlavkovat

‘slap’

nafackovat

‘slap’

nařezat

‘whack’

nakopat

‘kick’

nasekat

‘whip’

namlátit

‘thrash’

natlouci

‘beat’

naplácat

‘spank’

natřískat

‘beat’

(82) Pokud policista například nafackuje malému děcku, je otázka, jestli toto povolání může nadále vykonávat. [If policeman-NOM for-example slaps small child-DAT, is question-NOM, if that profession-ACC can further perform.] If, for example, a policeman slaps a small child, the question arises as to whether he can continue in his job. (83) Otec býval prchlivý, často se tak rozzuřil, že zbil matku, a když nabil mamince, namlátil obyčejně i nám. [Father-NOM was hot-headed-NOM, often self-ACC so enraged, that beat-up motherACC, and when beat-up mom-DAT, thrashed usually also us-DAT.] Father was hot-headed, often he would get so enraged that he beat mother up, and when he beat up mom, he usually thrashed us too. Although we are more likely to do things for our enjoyment, and Czech has many verbs to prove it, people do distress themselves, as evidenced by verbs of harm with si,such as hnusit si ‘be sickened at’ and ošklivit si ‘be disgusted by’. Here’s an example of involuntary distress: (84) *Peklo si prožil devatenáctiletý horolezec, který čtyři dny čekal na záchranu. [Hell-ACC self-DAT lived-through nineteen-year-old mountain-climber-NOM, whoNOM four days-ACC waited for rescue-ACC.] A nineteen-year-old mountain climber who had to wait four days to be rescued went through hell.

DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER 4 — POSSESSION

33 In English we talk about our body parts by using possessive forms like my, your, her, but when Czechs express the relationship between a person and a body part, they will often use dative forms like mi [me-DAT] ‘me’, ti [you-DAT] ‘you’, and jí [her-DAT] ‘her’.(mn4.1) This is possible because whenever something happens to a part of your body, you experience that event, playing the role of DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER. This is true for all manner of events directed toward body parts, whether beneficial, harmful, or neutral. For many types of events it would actually be strange to use the possessive form in Czech, since this would seem to deny that a person had any experience of something that happened to their body. For example, you can say Zlomil jí ruku [Broke her-DAT arm-ACC] ‘He broke her arm (literally: He broke the arm to her)’, but you cannot normally replace jí with the possessive její ‘her’ in this sentence, because this sounds as if the woman in question were somehow alienated from her own arm (perhaps it was cut off before he broke it?). Here are some examples of how DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER indicates the relationship between a person and his or her body parts: (85) Kvidovi poklesly koutky úst, ale byl odhodlán svou pravdu hájit. [Guido-DAT drooped corners-NOM mouth-GEN, but was determined-NOM own truth-ACC defend.] The corners of Guido’s mouth drooped, but he was determined to defend his point. (86) Hlavou mu během oněch deseti, dvaceti vteřin proletělo dobrých padesát podstatných jmen ženského rodu. [Head-INST him-DAT during those ten-GEN, twenty seconds-GEN flew-through good-GEN fifty-NOM substantive nouns-GEN feminine gender-GEN.] During those ten or twenty seconds a good fifty feminine nouns flew through his head. (87) Sliny se mu sbíhaly a kouř valící se z mokrého dřeva mu vehnal slzy do očí. [Saliva-NOM self-ACC him-DAT ran and smoke-NOM rolling self-ACC from wet wood-GEN him-DAT drove-in tears-ACC to eyes-GEN.] His mouth was watering, and the smoke pouring from the wet wood brought tears to his eyes. Of course it is always possible for people to do things to their own body parts, especially when attending to personal hygiene or as the result of an accident, and once again Czechs have an occasion to use the dative pronoun si.(mn4.2) In these instances the use of si is mandatory, since the use of a possessive form would imply that someone else’s body part was involved (and that the other party had no experience of the event). The following is a list of common phrases in which si indicates that the given body part belongs to the subject of the sentence, and a few actual examples are presented to show how these phrases function in real sentences. Common Expressions with si Used to Mark Possession na-krémovat si boty

‘polish one’s shoes’

34

The Dative Case

narazit/narážet si palec

‘stub one’s toe’

ostříhat si nehty

‘clip one’s nails’

podvrtnout si kotník

‘sprain one’s ankle’

pohmoždit si rameno

‘bruise one’s shoulder’

rozbít/rozbíjet si koleno

‘skin one’s knee’

u-mýt si ruce

‘wash one’s hands’

utřít/utírat si ruce

‘wipe one’s hands’

vy-čistit si zuby

‘brush one’s teeth’

vyvrtnout si prst

‘dislocate one’s finger’

zlomit si nohu

‘break one’s leg’

(88) Matka si utřela ruce do utěrky a nalistovala v časopise stránku se zatrženým textem. [Mother SELF-DAT wiped hands to dishcloth-GEN and turned-pages in magazineLOC page-ACC with crossed-out text-INST.] Mother wiped her hands on a dishcloth and turned to a page in the magazine where the text was crossed out. (89) Nejlepší český fotbalista, který si zlomil nohu na konci sezóny, se v současné době doléčuje. [Best Czech soccer-player-NOM, who-NOM self-DAT broke leg-ACC on end-LOC season-GEN, self-ACC in present time-LOC completes-treatment.] The best Czech soccer player, who broke his leg at the end of the season, is still recuperating at the present time. (90) Každou neděli jsme se museli podrobit stejnému rituálu: vykoupat se, umýt si hlavu, vyčistit si zuby, ostříhat si nehty. [Every evening-ACC AUX self-ACC had submit same ritual-DAT: bathe self-ACC, wash self-DAT head-ACC, clean self-DAT teeth-ACC, cut self-DAT nails-ACC.] Every week we had to submit to the same ritual: take a bath, wash our heads, brush our teeth, and cut our nails. It is possible to find examples of DATIVE::AN EXPERIENCER being used to indicate possession of an item other than a body part, particularly if the item is removed, destroyed, or significantly damaged.(mn4.3) The case of removal has already been covered in our discussion of

35 the verb vzít/brát ‘take’ and its near-synonyms, which, as we saw, can be extended to include destruction. Damage overlaps somewhat with harm, and the dative is particularly likely to appear if the possessed item is important enough to the possessor to cause an experience of suffering, as in Bratr mi naboural auto [Brother-NOM me-DAT crashed carACC] ‘My brother crashed my car’. Here’s an example to illustrate this use: (91) Nejdřív mi dvě rakety spadly na dům a pak ruští vojáci odnesli všechno, co zůstalo. [First me-DAT two rockets-NOM fell on house-ACC and then Russian soldiersNOM took everything-ACC, what-NOM remained.] First two rockets fell on my house, and then the Russian soldiers took everything that was left. In English we say that things have ends (as well as beginnings and middles), and this notion of possessing an endpoint justifies expressions like There’s no end to those problems or I’ll put an end to that.(4.4) In a parallel fashion it is possible to use the dative case in Czech in conjunction with the word konec in the phrases ne-být + DAT + konec and u-dělat +DAT + konec, as in: Není těm problémům konec ‘There’s no end to those problems’ and Udělám tomu konec ‘I’ll put an end to that’. Here’s an authentic example of how DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER marks the possessor of an end: (92) Česká dálkařka Šárka Kašparková ve finále bohužel třikrát přešlápla a to byl konec všem nadějím na medaili. [Czech long-jumper Šárka Kašparková-NOM in finals-LOC unfortunately threetimes overstepped a that-NOM was end-NOM all hopes-DAT for medal-ACC. Unfortunately the Czech long-jumper Šárka Kašparková stepped over the line three times during the finals and that was the end of all hopes for a medal.

DATIVE:: AN and need

EXPERIENCER

5 — Age, environment, emotions,

This use is a grab-bag for all kinds of other experiences encountered by a DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER.(mn5.1) The logic here is that something is happening in the outside world that is causing a change or a feeling in the DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER. A constant force exerted by external reality is the unrelenting march of time.(mn5.2) As a result we age, and in Czech we experience this process in the dative case. This is why we ask Kolik je vám let? [Howmany is you-DAT years-GEN?] ‘How old are you?’ and we reply Je mi dvacet let [Is meDAT twenty-NOM years-GEN] ‘I am twenty years old’. Here are examples of how age is expressed in context: (93) Vážená redakce, za necelý měsíc mi bude osmdesát let, ale stále čtu se zaujetím váš časopis. [Esteemed editorial-board-VOC, in not-whole month-ACC me-DAT will-be eightyNOM years-GEN, but still read with interest-INST your periodical-ACC.] Dear Editor, in less than a month I will be eighty years old, but I still read your

36

The Dative Case periodical with interest. (94) Když je některým hokejistům třicet let, jsou tak otlučení, že musí vrcholový sport opustit. [When is some hockey-players-DAT thirty-NOM years-GEN, are so battered-NOM, that must top-performance sport-ACC abandon.] When some hockey players are thirty years old they are so beaten up that they have to abandon top-performance sport. Environmental conditions can induce feelings of heat and cold, as in Je jí zima/horko [Is her-DAT cold/hot] ‘She feels cold/hot’, a host of emotions, as in Je mi smutno/Není mi k smíchu [Is me-DAT sad/Is-not me-DAT to laughter-DAT] ‘I feel sad/I don’t feel like laughing’, as well as nausea, as in Bylo mu nevolno/blbě [Was him-DAT uneasy/weird] ‘He felt sick to his stomach’. Here is a sentence illustrating this use of DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER: (mn5.3) *Je nám líto, ale váš dotaz nebyl úspěšný. [Is us-DAT sorry, but your inquiry-NOM was-not successful-NOM.] We are sorry, but your inquiry was not successful. DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER is commonly associated with the phrase být jedno, literally ‘be one’ in an idiom that expresses the feeling of indifference, as in this example: (mn5.4) (95) To nám může bejt celkem jedno, pane Louka. (CCz) [That-NOM us-DAT can be entirely one-NOM, Mr.-VOC Louka-NOM.] That won’t matter to us, Mr. Louka. In contrast to apathy, one can also express need this way, by using DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER with třeba ‘necessary’, as in this example: (mn5.5) (96) Je ti to třeba, v tvém věku stále takto riskovat a ničit si zdraví? [Is you-DAT that-NOM necessary, in your age-LOC constantly this-way risk and ruin self-DAT health-ACC?] Do you need, at your age, to keep risking and ruining your health this way?

DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER 6 — Beneficiaries and victims Ultimately, anything that happens can happen to someone, and of course that someone will be expressed as DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER. This use of the dative case is particularly frequent with the generic verb for ‘happen’ stát/stávat se. Here’s an example of how this works: (mn6.1)Občas se nám stávalo, že v podniku, kde jsme se sešli a pustili písničky na přenosném gramofonu, začali lidi reagovat, tančit a děkovat.[Occasionally SELF-ACC us-DAT happened, that in establishment-LOC, where AUX self-ACC gathered and played songs-ACC on portable record-player-LOC, began people-NOM react, dance and thank.]It occasion-

37 ally happened to us that in the establishment where we gathered and played songs on a portable record-player people began to react, dance and say “thank you”.There are additionally all manner of actions that can be done for someone’s benefit, such as opening a door for someone, making calls for someone, or even washing the dishes for someone.(mn6.2) At this point we see an overlap between DATIVE: A RECEIVER and the “benefit” uses of DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER. Here are a few examples of acts done for the benefit of others:Tak mi je pojď najít, ty chytrá![Then me-DAT them-ACC come find, you-NOM smart-NOM!]Then come and find them for me, you smart-alec!Sypu rybkám v akváriu sušené mšice.[Pour fish-DAT in aquarium-LOC dried aphids-ACC.]I pour out dried aphids for the fish in the aquarium.*Maminka odešla dcerkám pro helmičky, tatínek vypustil rodinné psy a připravil kola.[Mother-NOM went daughters-DAT for helmets-ACC, father-NOM et-out family dogsACC and prepared bicycles-ACC.]The mother went to get the helmets for her daughters, and the father let the family dogs out and prepared the bicycles. The dative pronoun si is often added to sentences just to emphasize that the subject was affected by some event.(mn6.3) In both of the examples below the dative pronoun could easily be removed and the sentences would be perfectly grammatical. But dative si is there to provide some extra information, reminding us that the subject was impacted by the event. (97) Já si dělám všechno sám. [I-NOM self-DAT do everything-ACC self-NOM.] I do everything all by myself. (98) Líbí se vám hudba šedesátých let natolik, že si ji pouštíte doma? [Please self-ACC you-DAT music-NOM sixties years-GEN so-much, that self-DAT it-ACC play at-home?] Do you like sixties music so much that you play it at home? (99) Fotbalisté Realu Madrid přijeli do Brazílie na mistrovství světa napravit reputaci, kterou si zkazili mdlými výkony v lize. [Soccer-players-NOM Realu Madrid arrived to Brazil-GEN on championship-ACC world-GEN repair reputation-ACC, which-ACC self-DAT spoiled mediocre performances-INST in league-LOC.] The Realu Madrid soccer players have come to Brazil for the world championship to repair the reputation which they spoiled with mediocre performance in the league. In Czech you can add se to many ordinary verbs and use the DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER to describe how the subject is experiencing an action.(mn6.4) The grammatical implication here is that instead of the subject performing the action, the action is something that is happening to the subject. In the next example it would certainly be possible to say instead Jak chodíš v těch nových botách? [How walk in those new shoes-LOC?] ‘How do you walk in those new shoes?, but by adding se to the verb and putting the logical subject in the dative case, the author of this sentence emphasizes that the experience of walking is being imposed on the person by the shoes: (100)*Jak se ti chodí v těch nových botách?

38

The Dative Case [How self-ACC you-DAT walks in those new shoes-LOC?] How do you like walking in those new shoes? The verb that is used most commonly this way is za-chtít ‘want’, which with the dative case and se takes on a meaning of ‘feel like’, as we see in these two examples: (101)Chce se mu něco dodat, ale po chvilce váhání si to nechá pro sebe. [Wants self-ACC him-DAT something-ACC, but after moment-LOC hesitationGEN self-DAT leaves for self-ACC.] He feels like adding something, but after hesitating for a moment he keeps it to himself. (102)Nechtělo se mu daleko od lidí. [Not-wanted self-ACC him-DAT far from people-GEN.] He didn’t feel like being far from people. The idiom být tomu zvykem [be that-DAT custom-INST] ‘be customary’ also uses the dative and also falls within the purview of experiencing doing something: (103)Naše nemocnice vykonávají mnohem větší rozsah a objem péče, než je tomu v Evropě zvykem. [Our hospitals-NOM provide much-INST larger range-ACC and scope-ACC careGEN, than is that-DAT in Europe-LOC custom-INST.] Our hospitals provide a much larger range and scope of care than is customary in Europe.

DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER 7 — Alleged beneficiaries and victims Odd as it may seem, the dative case can even be used to allege that something happened to someone even when they weren’t involved at all.(mn7.1) This use of the dative case is commonly referred to as the “ethical dative”. When the dative is used this way, it is never grammatically required. Instead, the speaker is using the dative case in order to capture the hearer’s attention, or to express aggression or solidarity. The first example comes from the movie Kolja — Louka is sitting alone in his apartment, phoning women, and with every one he uses the same line: (104)Tak se ti mi udělalo nějak smutno, a že víš, na koho jsem si vzpomněl? [So self-ACC you-DAT me-DAT made somehow sad, and that know, on who-ACC AUX self-DAT remembered?] Well, you know, I was feeling kind of sad, and guess who I started thinking about? Louka’s feeling of loneliness has never been experienced by or affected the woman he is talking to, but he wants her to care about it, and thus in a sense he offers her his story, as if

39 she were participating in it. In another part of the movie, Louka is summoned to Státní bezpečnost (State Security) in connection with his feigned marriage to a Russian woman, and his interrogator uses the dative case in this aggressive assertion: (105)Tak vy jste se nám oženil, pane Louka! [So you-NOM AUX self-DAT married, Mr.-VOC Louka-NOM!] So you got married on us, Mr. Louka! The marriage is of course none of the interrogator’s business — he wasn’t there and had nothing to do with it — but he asserts his authority by presenting the whole act to himself and his team, saying in effect ‘we’re in charge, and what you do is our business’. If the person being addressed is understood as a victim rather than as a perpetrator, nám ‘us’ can be used to sympathize and soothe. Thus if a child is crying over a pile of ruined toys, an adult might say the following, even if s/he is not a co-owner of the toys, never witnessed the event, and really has nothing to do with it: (106)*Ty zlé děti nám rozbily hračky, vid’ [Those naughty children-NOM us-DAT broke toys-ACC, see?] Those naughty children broke our toys, didn’t they?

1.1

D A

-

TIVE:: A COMPETI-

compares the nominative subject with the dative as a potential subject of a further action. 1.2 D A TIVE:: A COMPETITOR and the nominative subject vary in the relative forces they exert. D A 1.3 T I V E : : TOR

ACOMPETITOR

Here the dative nám ‘us’ really means ‘I sympathize with you, I feel your pain.’ On occasion, it is possible to use more than one ethical dative in a sentence. Here is an example of two ethical datives (ti and mi ), plus one dative used to express possession (si ):

can indicate an equal competitor. 1.4 D A T I V E : :

(107)Pustila jsem dceru na hory, a ona ti si mi zlomila nohu! (CCz) [Let AUX daughter-ACC on mountains-ACC, and she-NOM you-DAT self-DAT me-DAT broke leg-ACC!] I let my daughter go to the mountains, and, you know what, she broke her leg on me!

ACOMPETITOR

The full force of the dative in this sentence might be conveyed this way: she broke her leg and I’m going to have to take care of her, and I want you to listen to this and feel sorry for me!

ACOMPETITOR

DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR 1 — MATCHING FORCES

can express matched forces in association with adjectives. 1.5 D A T I V E : : can express matched forces in association with prepositions. 2.1

DATIVE ::

ACOMPETITOR

D DATIVE::A COMPETITOR

can indicate a competitor with an advantage. 3.1 The prepositions k, kvůli, and vůči describe a relationship subor-

40

The Dative Case

dinate to DA TIVE:: A COMPETITOR. 3.2 k + DATIVE:: A

COMPETITOR

‘to, toward, for’. 3.3 k + DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR is used with human destinations. 3.4 k + DATIVE:: A

COMPETITOR

with non-human destinations means ‘toward, in the direction of’. 3.5 Metaphorical uses of k + DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR to indicate tendencies, purpose, and relationships. 3.6 k + DATIVE:: A

COMPETITOR

expressing belonging and adding ‘to’. 3.7 k + DATIVE:: A

COMPETITOR

used events. 3.8 k +

with DATIVE::

in phrases and idioms. 3.9 kvůli + DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR ‘because of, for the sake of’. 3.10 vůči + DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR ‘to, towards, in the face of, for’.

Remember that the hallmark of the dative is that a dative item has the potential to do something. Grammatically, this means the dative item can potentially be the subject of a sentence, a role usually marked with the nominative case. The fact that a dative item is potentially a nominative item implies a comparison between the dative and the nominative.(mn1.1) The uses of the DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR exploit just this comparison, for here we see the dative item in competition with a nominative item. All possible combinations are realized, so the dative and the nominative can either be equal in strength or one can be stronger than the other. When the two items are evenly matched they participate in a symmetrical relationship as equal competitors. If the dative item is more powerful than the nominative, it exerts a force to which the nominative item submits; here the dative has some kind of advantage over the nominative.(mn1.2) If instead the nominative is superior, it dominates the dative. These three logical outcomes will be termed “matching forces”, “submission”, and “domination” below. In identifying an equal competitor, the meaning of the DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR overlaps somewhat with the benefit meaning of DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER, particularly if the two parties are equally engaged in some harmonious activity.(mn1.3) Here are some words that typically trigger the meaning of roughly equally matched forces, as well as examples of how they are used: Words Expressing Matched Forces čelit (LCz)

‘face, confront’

rovnat se

‘equal’

kompenzovat

‘compensate’

stačit

‘keep up with’

konkurovat ‘compete against’ ‘match, be able to compete’ korespondovat ‘correspond to’

vyrovnat/vyrovnávat se vzdorovat

‘defy’

odolat/odolávat

‘resist’

vzepřít/vzpírat se

‘oppose’

odplatit/odplácet

‘repay, retaliate’

za-/u-bránit se

‘resist’

A COMPETITOR

4.1

odpovědět/ odpovídat ‘correspond to; answer’ ‘oppose’ podobat se ‘be similar’ za-oponovat

‘oppose’

po-mstít se

‘take revenge on’

‘oppose’

překážet

‘be in the way’

z-protivit se

DATIVE ::

ACOMPETITOR

can indicate a weaker competitor who is taken advantage of.

(108)Žádná žena patrně neodolala jeho kouzlu. [No woman-NOM apparently not-resisted his charm-DAT.] Apparently no woman could resist his charm.

za-odporovat

41

(109)Státní delegace uctila ve Varšavě památku židovských bojovníků, kteří téměř měsíc vzdorovali německým okupantům. [State delegation-NOM honored in Warsaw-LOC memory-ACC Jewish fightersGEN, who-NOM nearly month-ACC defied German invaders-DAT.] In Warsaw the state delegation honored the memory of the Jewish fighters who defied the German invaders for nearly a month. (110) *Pokud jde o McDonalda, shodli jsme s Martinem, že jejich hamburgery se řízku nevyrovnají, ale hranolky mají docela dobré. [As-long-as goes about McDonald’s-ACC, agreed self-ACC with Martin-INST, that their hamburgers-NOM self-ACC not-match cutlet-DAT, but french-fries-ACC have quite good-ACC.] Concerning McDonald’s, Martin and I agreed that their hamburgers are no match for a cutlet, but their french fries are pretty good. Several adjectives express a similar meaning, and also occasion the use of DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR, as we see in this small table and the following example: (mn1.4) Adjectives Expressing Matched Forces analogický

‘analogical’

protivný

‘repulsive’

odporný

‘repulsive’

rovný

‘equal’

podobný

‘similar, resembling’

(111) Už vám někdo řekl, že jste podobný poslanci Ivanu Pilipovi? [Already you-DAT someone-NOM said, that are similar-NOM member-of-parliament-DAT Ivan Pilip-DAT?] Has anyone ever told you that you look like Ivan Pilip, the member of parliament? In addition to the verbs and adjectives listed above, a number of prepositions and prepositional phrases express relationships of meeting or opposition, and of course these words occasion the use of DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR: (mn1.5)

na odpor

Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases Expressing Matched Forces ‘in resistance to’ proti ‘against’

naproti

‘opposite’

úměrně (k)

napříč

‘athwart, transversely’ v tvář

‘proportionately to’ ‘to face’

42

The Dative Case navzdory

‘in spite of’

v ústrety

‘to meet’

oproti

‘as opposed to’

vstříc

‘meeting’

podobně

‘similar’

vzdor

‘in spite of’

(112) Paní starostka nechala vybudovat krásné byty pro staré lidi hned naproti škole, aby se mohli dívat na děti. [Madame mayor-NOM let build beautiful apartments-ACC for old people-ACC immediately opposite school-DAT, so-that self-ACC could look at children-ACC.] The mayor had beautiful apartments built for old people right across from a school so that they could look at the children. (113) Našli se i tací, kteří se nebáli veřejně vystoupit proti tomuto násilí a zveřejnit své názory. [Found self-ACC even such-NOM, who-NOM self-ACC not-feared publicly speakout against this violence-DAT and publicize own opinions-ACC.] There were even some people who were not afraid to speak out in public against this violence and to publicize their opinions. The preposition proti ‘against’ is also frequently seen in combination with other compatible words, such as ob-hájit se proti ‘defend oneself from’, bojovat; boj proti ‘battle against’, and protestovat proti ‘protest against’.

DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR 2 — SUBMISSION Submission has many entailments, among them belief and obedience.(mn2.1) If you submit yourself to someone, you will trust this person, you will fall under the influence of this person, being surprized and amazed at their acts, and you may even become obsessed with or envious of this person. The object of such subservient behavior need not be a person, of course, though it will always be something that can exert a powerful force, such as drugs or authority (usually political or religious). Learning can also be understood as a submissive behavior, in which one yields one’s intellect and efforts to a body of knowledge and its proponents. In Czech, you as a nominative subejct will surrender yourself to a dative item, a competitor with an advantage. Like the matched forces above, submission is expressed in conjunction with both verbs and adjectives (there are only two common adjectives, however, and both are related to verbs in the table, so they are included there). Some lists and examples are provided to give you a feel for how this works: Words Expressing Inclination/Submission dostát/dostávat

‘be true to, honor’

podřídit/podřizovat se ‘subordinate self to’

43 důvěřovat

‘trust’

podvolit/podvolovat se ‘submit to, comply’

dvořit se

‘woo, court’

pokořit/pokořovat se ‘surrender to’

holdovat (CCz)

‘give in to, indulge’

po-rozumět

‘understand’

hovět

‘give in to, indulge’

povolit/povolovat

‘give in to, indulge’

klanět se; poklona propadat kořit se (LCz)

‘bow to’ propadnout/ ‘become obsessed with, addicted to’ ‘cringe before’ přisluhovat

náležet ‘adapt to’ na-učit se

‘belong, be proper to’ přizpůsobit/ přizpůsobovat se ‘learn’

naslouchat

‘listen to’

obdivovat se; obdiv

‘admire; admiration’ stranit

‘side with someone’

otročit

‘slave for’

ustoupit/ustupovat

‘yield to’

sloužit; služba

‘assist, pander to’

‘serve; service’

poddat/poddávat se ‘submit to’ ful to’ po-divit se ‘be indebted to; grateful’ podkuřovat ‘toady to’

u-věřit; věrný

‘believe; loyal, faith-

‘be surprised’

vděčit; vděčný

vzdát/vzdávat se

‘surrender to’

podlehnout/podléhat ‘succumb to’

za-holdovat

‘pay homage to’

podlézat

zavděčit/zavděčovat se ‘be obliging to’

‘kowtow to’

podrobit/podrobovat se ‘envy’

‘submit, conform to’ závidět

(114) Děti školního věku se musí ve třinácti letech podrobit povinné lékařské prohlídce. [Children-NOM school age-GEN self-ACC must in thirteen years-LOC submit mandatory medical examination-DAT.] At age thirteen, school-age children must submit to a mandatory medical examination. (115) Vždy se v hloubi duše obdivoval mužům a ženám, kteří přežili koncentrák a dokázali dále normálně žít. [Always self-ACC in depth-LOC soul-GEN admired men-DAT and women-DAT, who-NOM survived concentration-camp-ACC and managed further normally live.]

44

The Dative Case In the depths of his soul he always admired men and women who had survived the concentration camp and managed to live normally afterward. (116) České armádě důvěřuje 56% občanů České Republiky. [Czech army-DAT trusts 56%-NOM citizens-GEN Czech Republic-GEN.] 56% of the citizens of the Czech Republic trust the Czech Army. Reciprocal uses are possible for some of these verbs, occasioning the use of si, often in combination with navzájem ‘mutually’, as we see in these examples: (117) Předpokladem skutečné komunikace je schopnost naslouchat si navzájem. [Precondition-INST real communication-GEN is ability-NOM listen self-DAT mutually.] The precondition for real communication is the ability to listen to each other. (118) Když se nad tím zamyslím, musím přiznat, že s mojí sestrou jsme si začali rozumět až v dospělosti. [When self-ACC above that-INST think, must admit, that with my sister-INST AUX self-DAT began understand only in adulthood-LOC.] When I think about it, I have to admit that my sister and I began to understand each other only in adulthood. (119) Podle posledních průzkumů veřejného mínění si ženy častěji než muži myslí, že by si manželé měli být navzájem věrni. [According-to latest polls-GEN public opinion-GEN self-DAT women-NOM moreoften than men-NOM think, that AUX self-DAT spouses-NOM had be mutually faithful.] According to the latest public opinion polls, more women than men think that spouses should be faithful to each other. There is an important preposition that expresses the idea of matching forces, vůči ‘in the face of, against, to, toward’. Unfortunately we don’t have a similar preposition in English, so the glosses for vůči are not very helpful or even contradictory. Looking at examples is probably the only good way to get a sense of what it means. Even though we can translate all the uses in these sentences using ‘to’, the meaning of vůči is clearly much more specific: (120)Je zcela přirozené, že v určitém věku jsou děti v opozici vůči svým rodičům. [Is entirely natural-NOM, that in certain age-LOC are children-NOM in oppositionLOC to own parents-DAT.] It is entirely natural for children of a certain age to be opposed to their parents. (121) Díky nadměrnému užívání antibiotik jsou mnohé bakterie vůči běžným antibiotikům rezistentní. [Thanks excessive use-DAT antibiotics-GEN are many bacteria-NOM to common antibiotics-DAT resistant-NOM.]

45 Due to the excessive use of antibiotics, many bacteria are resistent to common antibiotics. (122) *Redakce měla tento článek vrátit a velmi takticky podotknout, že některé pasáže mohou být ofenzivní vůči části obyvatelstva. [Editorial-board-NOM had that article-ACC return and very tactfully point-out, that certain passages-NOM can be offensive-NOM to part-DAT population-GEN.] The editors should have returned the article and very tactfully pointed out that certain passages might be offensive to some of the population.

DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR 3 — PREPOSITIONS EXPRESSING INCLINATION/SUBMISSION Although there are only three prepositions associated with DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR in the meaning of inclination/submission — k ‘to, toward, for’, kvůli ‘because of, for the sake of’, and vůči ‘to, towards, in the face of, for’ — they are sufficiently complicated and unlike any English equivalents to merit their own section. All three prepositions point us toward something that can exert influence, guiding the nominative subject’s action.(mn3.1) Approach, as opposed to arrival, implies some level of subordination. When you reach a destination by means of k + DAT, you will have to interact with it rather than just arriving at it.(mn3.2) Movement to non-human destinations is achieved via do + GEN or na + ACC, but movement to a human destination requires k + DAT, because a human being exerts forces rather than just serving as a passive endpoint for movement, as we see in this example, where the doctor will supposedly do something if someone comes to complain about insomnia: (mn3.3) (123) Navíc si většina lidí vůbec nemyslí, že by s nespavostí měli chodit k lékaři. [Furthermore self-DAT majority-NOM people-GEN at-all not-think, that AUX with insomnia-INST had go to doctor-DAT.] Furthermore, most people really don’t think that they should go to a doctor for insomnia. The same principle applies to metaphorical movement as well. In this next example, no one really moves; there is instead a transfer of loyalties that is understood as movement to people, requiring k: (124) Radikálně levicoví voliči pochopitelně přešli ke komunistům. [Radically left voters-NOM of-course went-over to communists-DAT.] Of course the radical left voters have gone over to the communists. One of the important distinctions between a non-human destination and a human one is that when we arrive at a person, we do not enter or otherwise physically encroach upon them, we just come nearer, going in that person’s direction. This idea can be extended to physical locations in space, especially if the location is a prominent landmark (a role that a window serves in a room), as the following example attests.(mn3.4) Here, the editor does not enter

46

The Dative Case the window, he just walks up to it: (125) Redaktor vítězně přešel k otevřenému oknu, zabubnoval prsty na parapet a roztržitě vyhlédl na ulici. [Editor-NOM victoriously walked-over to open window-DAT, drummed fingersINST on ledge-ACC and distractedly looked-out on street-ACC.] The editor walked victoriously over to the open window, drummed his fingers on the ledge and looked out into the street. Movement is used metaphorically to understand changes that take place in many domains, such as that of socio-economic status in the example below. Here the common phrase dostat/ dostávat se k ‘get to’ is used to describe movement toward better employment. (126) Chci se jen dostat k pořádný práci. (CCz) [Want self-ACC only get to real work-DAT.] I just want to get a real job. If you are simply moving in the direction of something, then that something is serving as a landmark guiding your movement (rather than as a mere destination), and this occasions the use of k both in combination with směrem ‘in the direction’ and by itself, as in the next two examples: (127) Mobilizuje veškerou svou inteligenci, vynalézavost a důvtip, vykročil otec směrem k domu. [Mobilizing all own intelligence-ACC, resourcefulness-ACC and ingenuity-ACC, stepped-out father-NOM direction-INST to house-DAT.] Mobilizing all his intelligence, resourcefulness and ingenuity, father stepped out in the direction of the house. (128) Všichni se nedůvěřivě sklonili ke svým sklenkám. [Everyone-NOM self-ACC in-disbelief leaned to own glasses-DAT.] Everyone leaned toward their glasses in disbelief. K can also appear in the absence of movement, in a situation where the final location obtains, in which case it can describe a fixed spatial relationship. The following quote is from a woman’s recollections of the Soviet invasion. Here the woman has already reached the sidewalk, and k describes her feeling of being fastened to it, unable to intervene to save a man’s life: (129)*Zůstávám stát, hrůza mě přikovala k chodníku. [Remain stand, horror-NOM me-ACC shackled to sidewalk-DAT.] I just stand there, horror has chained me to the sidewalk. Metaphorically, movement in the direction of something can be understood as an inclination or tendency, as we see here: (mn3.5)

47

(130)Mezinárodní výzkumy ukazují, že novináři mají statisticky významný sklon k nezdravému životnímu stylu. [International studies-NOM show, that journalists-NOM have statistically significant propensity-ACC for unhealthy life style-DAT. International studies show that journalists have a statistically significant propensity for an unhealthy life style. In the domain of purpose, directing energies toward some end is often best translated as having or doing something for something else in English, as we see in the next example, where the qualifications are present for driving: (131)Parlament schválí novelu zákona o odborné způsobilosti k řízení motorových vozidel. [Parliament-NOM approves ammendment-ACC law-GEN about expert qualification-LOC for driving-DAT motorized vehicles-GEN.] Parliament will pass an amendment about the expert qualifications for driving motorized vehicles. Relationships are of course a type of inclination, and a great variety of relationships can be expressed using the preposition k, just as we use the prepositions to and toward in combination with words like relation and relationship. The two relationships present in the following example both involve forces that order human existence: the first is the relationship of people (journalists) toward their rights, and the second is their relationship to their employers: (133)Čeští žurnalisté jsou v převážné většině lhostejní ke svým oprávněným nárokům ve vztahu k zaměstnavatelům. [Czech journalists-NOM are in overwhelming majority-LOC apathetic-NOM to own legitimate rights-DAT in relation-LOC to employers-DAT.] The vast majority of Czech journalists are apathetic concerning their legitimate rights in relation to their employers. The use of k to express the relationship of belonging is particularly well-motivated, since the notion of subordination is very strong; note also that patřit ‘belong’ is consistently associated with the dative case (see the table of verbs in the previous section), whether or not it is used in combination with k, as illustrated here: (mn3.6) (134)Novinářská profese podle světových statistik patří z hlediska zdraví a střední délky života k nejohroženějším profesím vůbec. [Journalistic profession-NOM according-to world statistics-GEN belongs from viewpoint-GEN health-GEN and average length-GEN life-GEN to most-endangered professions-DAT altogether.] According to world statistics concerning health and average lifespan, journalism belongs among the most endangered professions.

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The Dative Case When something is added, the item it is added to is generally rather greater in importance, itself inspiring the addition. The phrase k tomu [to that-DAT] ‘in addition to that, into the bargain, to go with it’ plays upon this concept. Here’s an example of how it is used: (135)Řím si sice nadělil grandiózní ohňostroj, ale neposkytl k tomu žádnou veřejnou toaletu. [Rome self-DAT admittedly bestowed grandiose fireworks-ACC, but not-provided to that-DAT any public toilet-ACC.] It’s true that Rome treated itself to grandiose fireworks, but it didn’t offer any public toilets to go with it. Events frequently structure our lives, forcing us to interact with them. In the next pair of examples, there are two events involved.(mn3.7) One is an anniversary, the birthday of a political figure, and the other is the successful completion of a task. (136)V listopadu 1948 publikoval snad upřímně míněné verše ke Gottwaldovým narozeninám. [In November-LOC 1948 published probably sincerely intended verses-ACC to Gottwald’s birthday-DAT.] In November 1948 he published what were probably sincerely intended verses on the occasion of Gottwald’s birthday. (137)Supervizor jednání pogratuloval oběma představitelům k dobře odvedené práci. [Supervisor-NOM negotiations-GEN congratulated both representatives-DAT to well delivered work-DAT.] The negotiations supervisor congratulated both representatives on a job well done. The preposition k participates in a number of prepositional and other phrases, among them: (mn3.8) v poměru k ‘in relation to’, vzhledem k ‘in relation to; due to’, nehledě k ‘ignoring’, se zřetelem k ‘with regard to’, směrem k ‘heading toward’ (see above), ve směru k ‘in the direction of’, s přihlédnutím k ‘out of consideration for/of’, ve vztahu k ‘in relation to’, přijít k sobě ‘regain consciousness’, přiznat se k ‘admit to’, náchylný k ‘having a tendency to’. The next three sentences illustrate how some of these phrases are used: (138)On sám se rozhodl ve straně zůstat s přihlédnutím k tomu, že měl dva syny, kteří studovali. [He-NOM self-NOM self-ACC decided in party-LOC stay with consideration-INST to that-DAT, that had two sons-ACC, who-NOM studied.] He himself decided to stay in the party out of consideration for the fact that he had two sons in school. (139)Dalším problémem jsou projevy rasismu ve vztahu k občanskému soužití a zaměstnanosti. [Further problem-INST are expressions-NOM racism-GEN in relation-LOC to civic coexistence-DAT and employment-DAT.]

49 Expressions of racism in relation to civic coexistence and employment are another problem. (140)Přiznám se k tomu, že mě nebavilo chodit na povinné schůze a sedět tam celou hodinu. [Admit self-ACC to that-DAT, that me-ACC not-pleased go to mandatory meetings-ACC and sit there whole hour-ACC.] I admit that I didn’t like going to mandatory meetings and sitting there for a whole hour. Numerous idioms in Czech include the use of k, among them the expression být k + DATIVE: A COMPETITOR (e.g., smíchu, nevydržení) ‘be (funny, unbearable; literally ‘be for laughter, not bearing it)’; and the use of neuter singular verb forms of dojít/docházet k + DATIVE: A COMPETITOR which really means nothing more than ‘be; happen’. Here are two examples of each type: (141)K rozvodu se sestra odhodlala až po třech letech, kdy jejich soužití už bylo k nevydržení. [To divorce-DAT self-ACC sister-NOM resolved only after three years-LOC, when their cohabitation-NOM already was to not-bearing-DAT.] My sister resolved to get a divorce only after three years, when their cohabitation had already become unbearable. (142)Řada českých normalizačních komedií je z dnešního pohledu spíše k pláči než k smíchu. [Series-NOM Czech normalization comedies-GEN is from today’s viewpoint-GEN rather to crying-DAT than to laughter-DAT.] From today’s perspective, many Czech normalization-era comedies are more sad than funny. (143)K havárii černobylské elektrárny došlo šestadvacátého dubna 1986 v jednu hodinu a třiadvacet minut. [To accident-DAT Chernobyl power-plant-GEN happened twenty-sixth-GEN 1986 at one hour-ACC and twenty-three-ACC minutes-GEN.] The Chernobyl power plant accident took place on April twenty-sixth 1986 at one twenty-three pm. (144)Proti prognózám nedošlo k žádným velkým překvapením. [Against prognoses-DAT not-happened to any big surprises-DAT.] Despite the prognosis, there weren’t any big surprises. Availability is expressed in a similar fashion, using the construction být k mání/sehnání [be to having-DAT/getting-DAT] ‘be available’, as in these sentences: (145)Na internetu je nyní k mání nová píseň Davida Bowieho.

50

The Dative Case [On internet-LOC is now to having-DAT new song David Bowie-GEN.] David Bowie’s new song is now available on the internet. (146)Dnes lze již jen stěží uvěřit, že na sklonku osmdesátých let nebyl v socialistickém Československu k sehnání toaletní papír a že tento problém musela řešit vláda na mimořádném zasedání. [Today possible already only with-difficulty believe, that on decline-LOC eightieth years-GEN was-not in socialist Czechoslovakia to getting-DAT toilet paper-NOM and that this problem-ACC had solve government-NOM at extraordinary sessionLOC.] Today it is really hard to believe that toward the end of the 80s there was no toilet paper available in socialist Czechoslovakia and that the government had to solve this problem in an extraordinary session. The preposition kvůli ‘because of, for the sake of’ continues our theme of uniting opposites, since it combines both a sense of cause and a sense of ultimate aim.(mn3.9) Although this may seem contradictory, we can understand that if there is an event, a contributing factor might be either a cause or an intended target, and sometimes it doesn’t matter. I might fall into a ditch because you pushed me from behind, or I might fall in because you pulled me from below — either way, you contributed to my fall, and Czech kvůli is an umbrella term that can cover both situations. Here are two examples of kvůli, one illustrating the “push” meaning, describing how a scandal can cause job insecurity, and another illustrating the “pull” meaning, describing a writer’s goal in terms of pleasing himself rather than others. In both instances kvůli + DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR identifies a force (like a scandal or a goal) to which an item (like a person) yields: (147)V roce 1998 se jeho pozice na japonském ministerstvu financí zatřásla kvůli korupčnímu skandálu. [In year-LOC 1998 SELF-ACC his position-NOM at Japanese ministry-LOC finances-GEN shook because-of corruption scandal-DAT.] In 1998 his position at the Japanese ministry of finances was shaken up because of a corruption scandal. (148)A dokonce i toto vše, co píšu, není kvůli tobě, ale kvůli mně. [And after-all even that everything-NOM, what-ACC write, is-not for-the-sake-of you-DAT, but for-the-sake-of me-DAT.] And after all even everything I write is not for your sake, but for mine.

DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR 4 — DOMINATION Domination reverses the imbalance of power between the nominative and the dative that we saw in the preceeding two sections on submission, this time tipping the scales in favor of the nominative item, which then wields influence over the dative item.(mn4.1) The list of verbs involved is not very large, perhaps because opportunities to dominate are fewer than

51 those to match or submit to the influence of others. Here are the verbs you are likely to encounter, plus a few examples for good measure. Verbs Expressing Domination dominovat

‘dominate’

vévodit

‘rule over’

předsedat

‘preside over’

vládnout

‘govern’

těšit se ‘have at one’s disposal, take advantage of’ ‘impress’ učarovat/učarovávat ‘enchant, bewitch’

za-imponovat

(149)Tak jsem mu šel ukázat, že to zmáknu — a úplně mi to učarovalo. (CCz) [So AUX him-DAT went show, that that-ACC manage — and completely me-DAT that-NOM enchanted.] So I went to show him that I could handle it — and it completely enchanted me. (150)*Krystýnka Kotyzová se těší pozornosti První dámy České Republiky. [Krystýnka Kotyzová-NOM self-ACC comforts attention-DAT First Lady-GEN Czech Republic-GEN.] Little Krystyna Kotyzová takes advantage of the attention of the First Lady of the Czech Republic. (151)Vznikají společnosti, které hodlají dominovat světovému filmovému průmyslu a zejména Hollywoodu. [Appear companies-NOM, which-NOM intend dominate world film industry-DAT and as-well Hollywood-DAT.] Companies are appearing which intend to dominate the world film industry and Hollywood as well. (152)Koupil jsem si elektrickou kytaru, snažil jsem se s ní zaimponovat holkám, jenže je to nezajímalo. (CCz) [Bought AUX self-DAT electric guitar, tried AUX self-ACC with it-INST impress girls-DAT, but them-ACC that-NOM not-interested.] I bought myself an electric guitar and tried to impress girls with it, but that didn’t interest them.

EPILOGUE Our human capacity to perceive, appreciate, and react to the world around us is the foundation upon which the whole of the dative case is built. It should not surprise you that the name dative comes from the Latin word for ‘give’, since giving is the defining concept of

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The Dative Case human interaction, be it the presentation of gifts, the giving of good and evil, or the give and take of competition. We are never entirely passive: we take money, understand messages, interpret dreams, and struggle against the forces imposed upon us, matching them, submitting to them, or prevailing over them. In Czech, as opposed to English, people see themselves as subject to atmospheric, temporal, and emotional factors in their environment, since being hot, twenty years old, and sad are all things that happen to people as DATIVE:: EXPERIENCERS, rather than characteristics of them (as in English). Czech insists on treating people differently from all other items that serve as destinations, and people require the use of k + DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR rather than do + GENITIVE:: A GOAL or na + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION. Surrender can take place on a variety of levels, entailing yielding one’s behavior, beliefs, intellect, and sense of awe. The dative case unites the concepts of giving and taking, providing a single grammatically efficient construction for both. Throughout the dative case the liberal use of the pronoun si reminds us that when we do something, often we do it for ourselves; this self-indulgent tendency of human nature is therefore manifest in Czech, although it is usually passed over in silence in English.

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2

The Accusative Case

Feminine declension nouns

Masculine declension nouns Neuter declension nouns Adjectives

Pronouns

Possessives

Numerals

Chapter: a designation 1

ACCUSATIVE:

A

A DESTINATION

The accusative network: A DESTINATION

A DIMENSION

PROLOGUE The accusative case can do two things: it can take you to a place (= ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION), or it can take you through a space (= ACCUSATIVE:: A DIMENSION).(mn0.1) Just as running onto a stage and jumping through a hoop can be all folded into one continuous action, the two meanings of the accusative are really two halves of a continuum without a precise boundary between them. Above all else, the accusative describes a destination, and this is equally true for both of its meanings. The relationship between the two meanings of the accusative is noticeably different from those that we see in the other cases with multiple meanings (the nominative, instrumental, dative, and genitive). Rather than being relatively discrete and independent (but related), the meanings of the accusative are like the two ends of a megaphone. The basic meaning of ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION is the biggest, least specific meaning; it does not analyze its object in any way(mn0.2). An item marked by ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION is just a destination, its structure is of no particular interest. ACCUSATIVE:: A DIMENSION, however, focuses on a destination extended through space, time, or some other dimension. The accusative operates on a scale from general to specific, and the boundary between the submeanings is rather diffuse. Another hallmark of the accusative case is the way it deploys prepositions(mn0.3). With all other cases, each preposition is associated with only one submeaning. Not so the accusative. It is not uncommon for prepositions to be associated with both meanings of the accusative case. An important role of accusative prepositions is to identify the trajectory that is taken on the way to a destination or along a dimension. The table on the following page will give you some idea of how versatile prepositions are in the accusative case, and the individual uses of each will be discussed in the sections below.

ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION 1 — Destinations in various domains ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION operates in four primary domains: space, time, action, and purpose. In the spatial domain, ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION is a destination of physical motion, the point at which someone or something appears at the end of a journey. In terms of time, ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION expresses a temporal destination, the point at which

A A force (arrow) arrives at an ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION (circle labeled A)

3

4

The Accusative Case Distribution of prepositions between the meanings of the accusative case ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION ACCUSATIVE:: A DIMENSION na v o po pro před za nad pod mezi mimo přes ob

‘(on)to; for; at; toward’ ‘to; in; into; for; on ; at’ ‘against; for’ ‘up to; for’ ‘for; due to; because of’ ‘to a place in front of; before’ ‘to a place behind; (catching) on, by; for’ ‘to a place above; beyond’ ‘to a place under, below; less than’ ‘to a place among, between’ ‘past; outside of; besides; except’ ‘across; more than’ ‘every other; one away’

na

‘to; at; for; approximately’

o po

‘by (amount of difference’ ‘all through’

za

‘in; during’

mimo přes skrz s

‘in spite of’ ‘across; all through; avoiding; in spite of’ ‘through’ ‘measuring up to, capable of’

an event appears in the timeline. In the domain of action, ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION is the destination of an activity — what we usually call the direct object. In the domain of purpose, ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION designates the target of some intention, and its meaning is roughly equivalent to the English word for. The use of ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION that is easiest for us to grasp is spatial destinations because this is its most concrete meaning. We can think of all the other meanings as being based on or derived from spatial destinations via metaphor. Some secondary extensions are obviously closely linked to space, such as scales, lists, categorizations, and measurements, since all of these involve ordered arrangements of items, where some are closer together and others further apart. Evidence from many languages shows that time is usually understood as a kind of metaphorical space; in fact the timeline is itself a metaphorical model that uses spatial relations to describe relations in the domain of time. English is chock-full of expressions that bear witness to how we use space to understand time, in conventional phrases like on Monday, in two weeks, through next Friday, and in expressions like summer is just around the corner and the holidays are coming up soon. Although the details of how space is used as a model for time differ between Czech and English, the basic idea is the same. Unfortunately we do not share with Czech the extension of the notion of a destination to the domains of action and purpose, so we have to stretch our imaginations in unfamiliar directions in order to understand these applications of ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION. In the domain of action, we can imagine a transfer of energy taking place, such that the energy goes from the subject to the direct object, its destination. In this sentence, the subject is the thieves, the action is stealing, and this action is directed toward the automated teller, which is the direct object expressed as ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION: (1)

Lupiči ukradli celý bankomat. [Thieves-NOM stole whole automated-teller-ACC.] The thieves stole a whole automated teller.

5 In addition to directing an action toward something, one can also direct intention toward something, thus expressing ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION in the domain of purpose. This usually happens when we do something for someone, for a purpose, or for a reason. The most common use of ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION is the direct object, which is expressed without a preposition. All other uses of ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION require the presence of a preposition, and most prepositions are active in more than one domain. The table presents an overview of the domains the prepositions operate in. Each preposition and its domains will be discussed in turn below. The Domains of Prepositions Used with ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION Domains space, purpose na ‘(on)to; for; at; toward’ space, time, states of being, v ‘to; in; into’ purpose space, endeavors o ‘against; for’ space, time, scales, lists po ‘up to; for’ purpose, cause pro ‘for; due to; because of’ space, legal status před ‘to a place in front of; before’ space, time, purpose, priorities, za ‘to a place behind; (catching) on, replacements by; for’ space, measurement nad ‘to a place above; beyond’ space, jurisdiction, amounts pod ‘to a place under, below; less than’ space, categorization mezi ‘to a place among, between’ space, lists mimo ‘past; outside of; besides; except’ space, time, amounts, přes ‘across; more than’ relationships space, time ob ‘every other; one away’

ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION 2 — The direct object As mentioned above, the destination of the activity expressed by a verb in a sentence is what we traditionally call the direct object. Many sentences have both an agent (something that does something) and a patient (something that has something done to it), and the patient, also known as the direct object, is in the accusative case because the action moves along an imaginary path from the agent to the patient. Actions of movement are directed at the telephone receiver and the furniture in the two examples below, and cleaning action is also directed at the apartment in Prague, motivating the expression of all of these items as ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION. (2)

Položil se zaklením sluchátko, vrátil se do vyhřáté postele, ale usnout už nemohl. [Put-down with cursing-INST receiver-ACC, returned self-ACC to warmed bedGEN, but fall-asleep already couldn’t.] He cursed and put down the receiver and went back to his warm bed, but he couldn’t fall asleep again.

6

The Accusative Case (3)

Byt v Praze vyklidil, nábytek přestěhoval na chatu. [Apartment-ACC in Prague-LOC cleaned-out, furniture-ACC moved to cottageACC.] He cleaned out the apartment in Prague and moved the furniture to the cottage.

In addition to directing an action at something that already exists, we can bring something into existence, directing our energy toward the end product of some creative activity. The following two sentences contain examples of creation; in the first sentence (describing a woman’s philanthropic efforts for the benefit of soldiers) the socks are produced by knitting, but of course the soldiers and shirts already exist, as do the snapshots when they are being sent (though they, too are direct objects here); the second sentence contains an idiom based on the fact that films are created by winding. (4)

Fotografovala je a snímky posílala rodinám, pletla ponožky a zašívala khaki košile. [Photographed them-ACC and snapshots-ACC sent families-DAT, knitted socksACC and mended khaki shirts-ACC.] She photographed them and sent the snapshots to their families, knitted socks, and mended khaki shirts.

(5)

Ona působí nejčastěji jako výtvarnice, ale natáčí také filmy. [She-NOM works mostly as graphic-artist-NOM, but winds also films-ACC.] She works mostly as a graphic artist, but she also makes films.

This formula of agent + verb + patient/direct object, where the direct object is ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION will work for just about any verb (except the ones that govern the genitive, dative, or instrumental for some special reason explained in those chapters), and even for verbs that don’t involve any real “action”, as we see in these examples: (6)

Přímo z okna ložnice mohu dalekohledem pozorovat život v lese. [Directly from window-GEN bedroom-GEN can binoculars-INST observe life-ACC in forest-LOC.] I can observe life in the forest through binoculars right from my bedroom window.

(7)

Nikdy jsem neměla vysokého partnera, ani mě nelákají klasičtí hezouni. [Never AUX not-had tall partner-ACC, nor me-ACC not-attracted classic goodlooking-men-NOM.] I’ve never had a tall partner, nor do the classic good-looking men attract me.

Thanks to the fact that the direct object is marked with the accusative case (and thus usually distinct from the nominative agent/subject), the subject, verb, and direct object can be presented in just about any order. Here are a couple of examples of word orders that won’t usually work in English (at least not with active verbs): (8)

Nobelovou cenu získal objev přenosu signálů mezi buňkami. [Nobel prize-ACC earned discovery-NOM transfer-GEN signals-GEN between cells-INST.]

7 The discovery of the transfer of signals between cells earned the Nobel prize. (9)

Půjčky na školné by měl garantovat stát. [Loans-ACC for tuition-ACC AUX had guarantee state-NOM.] The state should guarantee tuition loans.

Even the direct object is not immune to idiomatic constructions. A very common idiom is modeled after German syntax, the expression mít někoho/něco rád [have someone/something-ACC glad-NOM] ‘like someone/something’. Here is an example: (10)

Mám ráda čokoládu, naštěstí na mně není znát, kolik jí sním. [Have glad-NOM chocolate-ACC, fortunately on me-LOC isn’t known, how-muchACC it-GEN eat.] I like chocolate, and fortunately you can’t tell by looking at me how much of it I eat.

The verb mít ‘have’ appears in an idiomatic construction with the neuter singular short form passive participle of verbs. The most common constructions of this type are mít (něco) uděláno ‘have (something) done’, mít otevřeno/zavřeno ‘be open/closed (store or building)’, mít uklizeno ‘be done cleaning up’, mít zakázáno ‘be under orders not to, be forbidden to (do something)’. (11)

Pro mnoho žen je stále hlavním cílem mít doma za každou cenu uklizeno. [For many-ACC women-GEN is still main goal-INST have at-home for any priceACC cleaned-ACC.] Many women still see their most important goal as keeping the house clean at all costs.

(12)

Před Vánoci budou mít naše supermarkety otevřeno stejně jako loni 24 hodin denně. [Before Christmas-INST will have our supermarkets-NOM opened-ACC same like last-year 24-ACC hours-GEN daily.] Just like last year our supermarkets will be open 24 hours a day before Christmas.

(13)

Ale znáte děti, nejvíce je láká právě to, co mají zakázáno. [But know children-ACC, most them-ACC attracts precisely that-NOM, what-NOM have forbidden-ACC.] But you know how children are, they are most attracted precisely by what they are forbidden to do.

The verb dělat can also mean ‘work’, and it is possible to use it with the name of a profession expressed as ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION to say what kind of job a person has. Here is an example that shows how this works: (14)

S tak výrazným talentem jsem se za celou dobu, co dělám trenéra, ještě nesetkal. [With such remarkable talent-INST AUX self-ACC for all time-ACC, what-ACC work trainer-ACC, still not-encountered.]

8

The Accusative Case I’ve never before encountered such remarkable talent in all the time I’ve worked as a trainer. Bodily pain is usually expressed by saying that a body part hurts a person, marking the person as ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION; thus the following example literally means ‘the tooth hurt me’: (15)

Rozbolel mě zub, já se na to soustředil a nemohl jsem usnout. [Hurt me-ACC tooth-NOM, I-NOM self-ACC on that-ACC focused and couldn’t AUX fall-asleep.] My tooth started to hurt, I focused on it and I couldn’t fall asleep.

In Czech, ideas are said to fall upon people, who are the accusative direct objects of this experience, conveyed by the verb napadat/napadnout ‘get an idea, occur to’ (literally ‘fall on; attack’). Here are two examples of how this works: (16)

Pelikána bílého zná každý ze zoo a málokoho napadne, že ho může vidět i ve volné přírodě. [Pelican white-ACC knows everyone-NOM from zoo-GEN and hardly-anyoneACC falls-on, that it-ACC can see also in free nature-LOC.] Everyone knows the while pelican from the zoo, and it hardly ever occurs to anyone that one can see it in the wild too.

(17)

Co ho to jen napadlo, taková nerozvážnost! [What-NOM him-ACC that-NOM only fell-on, such imprudence-NOM!] What’s gotten into him? Such imprudence!

There is an unusual construction that has no subject, but uses ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION following the verbs vidět ‘see’ and slyšet ‘hear’, as in Je vidět horu [Is see mountainACC] ‘The mountain is visible’ or Je slyšet hudbu [Is hear music-ACC] ‘Music can be heard’. The sense of the direct object is more potential than actual in these sentences (since there is no mention of the person who actually does the seeing or hearing), and it is possible to use NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY instead (so one can alternatively say Je vidět hora or Je slyšet hudba). (18)

Šeřilo se brzy, mraky se spojovaly a za chvíli nebylo vrcholky kopců vůbec vidět. [Got-dark self-ACC early, clouds-NOM self-ACC joined and in while-ACC notwas tops-ACC hills-GEN at-all see.] It got dark early, the clouds came together and in a short time the hilltops could not be seen.

(19)

Nepodařilo se mu určit ani místo, ani směr, odkud bylo slyšet hudbu. [Not-succeeded self-ACC him-DAT determine neither place-ACC, neither direction-ACC, from-where was hear music-ACC.] He wasn’t able to determine the place or the direction from which the music was heard.

9 Occasionally you will encounter ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION in the absence of any verb at all. Many greetings are simply words marked with the accusative case, as in the table below. Because these greetings are used so frequently, there is no need to repeat the entire sentence they belong in, which would be Přeji Vám/Ti + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION [Wish you-DAT + …-ACC] ‘I wish you a/the…’. The part that repeats is predictable, so it is deleted, and what we have left is just the content of the wish, itself always accusative: Dobrou chuť! Dobrou noc! Dobré ráno/jitro! Dobrý den! Dobrý večer!

Greetings Using ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION ‘Bon appetit!’ Příjemnou zábavu! ‘Good night!’ Šťastnou cestu! ‘Good morning!’ Šťastný Nový rok! ‘Good day!’ Veselé Vánoce! ‘Good evening!’ Všechno nejlepší!

‘Have a good time!’ ‘Bon voyage!’ ‘Happy New Year!’ ‘Merry Christmas!’ ‘All the best!’

(20)

“Dobrou noc,” houkla svým hlubokým hlasem a otočila se ke mně zády. [“Good night-ACC,” boomed own deep voice-INST and turned self-ACC to meDAT back-INST.] “Good night,” she boomed in her deep voice and turned her back on me.

(21)

Dobrý večer, vážení diváci, vítám vás v divadle Járy Cimrmana. [Good evening-ACC, dear viewers-VOC, welcome you-ACC in theatre-LOC Jára Cimrman-GEN.] Good evening, dear viewers, I welcome you to the Jára Cimrman theatre.

The interjection na ‘here, take this…’ (not to be confused with the preposition na) is also frequently followed by ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION even though there is no verb. Thus, if someone wanted to help you up a steep path they might hold out their hand and say: Na, ruku! ‘Here, take my hand!’. (22)

Na, ruku! Chyť se jí a už se více neboj, já tě ochráním. [Here, hand-ACC! Grab self-ACC it-GEN and already self-ACC more not-fear, INOM you-ACC protect.] Here’s my hand! Grab onto it and don’t be afraid anymore, I’ll protect you.

(23)

Na, míč! A hoď mi ho hezky nazpátek! [Here, ball-ACC! And throw me-DAT it-ACC nicely back!] Here’s the ball! And throw it back to me nicely!

ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION 3 — COMING AND GOING WITH CZECH PREPOSITIONS There is a serious disconnect between Czech and English, because whereas in English people just go to a place (with the exception of a few situations like walking into a room), in Czech there are three options, depending upon the destination: na + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION, do + GENITIVE:: A SOURCE, or k + DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR. This system of expressions for going to a place is paralleled by similar systems for being at a place and for coming from a

10

The Accusative Case place, and it is worth looking at all three of these systems as a group, since they do a lot of work in Czech. One distinction is fairly easy to make: destinations that are human beings always use the series of constructions that begins with k + DAT. When a destination is understood as the upper surface of a solid object, the preposition will be na + ACC. When the destination is understood as a container that is entered, the preposition is do + ACC. However, most destinations are not people, the top surfaces of solids, or the interiors of containers, and this is where the trouble begins. Non-human destinations are either “na words” or they are “not na words” (meaning that they use do + GEN), and there is no easy way to tell which is which (though there are some guidelines on how to identify the “na words” in the chapter on the locative case). There is one thing you can count on: if you know which preposition is used for an item that is a destination, then you will also know what preposition is used for a location at the same item, as well as what preposition is used for movement from that item. So, if you have a “na word”, movement to is na + ACC, location at is na + LOC, and movement from is z + GEN. If what you have is not a “na word”, movement to is do + GEN, location at is v + LOC, and movement from is z + GEN. If your destination is a human being, movement to is k + DAT, location at is u + GEN, and movement from is od + GEN. This table presents the systematic relationships of prepositions, with pošta ‘post office’ serving as our example of a “na word”, škola ‘school’ as our example of a non-“na word”, and lékař ‘doctor’ as our example of a human destination: Prepositions Used for Movement and Rest GOING TO A PLACE

“na words”: pošta na + ACC Dcera šla na poštu. ‘My daughter went to the post office.’

non-“na words”: škola do + GEN Děti šli do školy. ‘The children went to school.’

human beings: lékař k + DAT Otec šel k lékaři. ‘Father went to the doctor.’

non-“na words”: škola v + LOC Děti byly ve škole. ‘The children were at school.’

human beings: lékař u + GEN Otec byl u lékaře. ‘Father was at the doctor’s.’

non-“na words”: škola z + GEN Děti přišly ze školy. ‘The children came (back) from school.’

human beings: lékař od + GEN Otec přišel od lékaře. ‘Father came (back) from the doctor’s.’

BEING AT A PLACE

“na words”: pošta na + LOC Dcera byla na poště. ‘My daughter was at the post office.’ CO MING FROM A PLACE

“na words”: pošta z + GEN Dcera přišla z pošty. ‘My daughter came (back) from the post office.’

ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION 4 — na ‘(on)to; for; at; toward’ As mentioned above, the primary spatial meaning of na + accusative: a destination refers to movement to the upper surface of something, to a position ‘on’ something, as in this sentence, where the lion has been put back on the top of the cupola:

11 (24)

*Na opravenou kupoli věže chrámu svatého Víta se vrátil český lev. [To renovated cupola-ACC tower-GEN cathedral-GEN St. Vitus-GEN self-ACC returned Czech lion-NOM.] The Czech lion has returned to the renovated cupola on the tower of St. Vitus’ cathedral.

Na + ACC is also used for all destinations that are “na words”, as we see in these examples: (25)

Jeli jsme na chalupu, udělali táborák, a náš pes si k němu přitáhl mrtvého králíka. [Went AUX to cottage-ACC, made bonfire-ACC, and our dog-NOM self-DAT to it-DAT dragged dead rabbit-ACC.] We went to our cottage, made a bonfire, and our dog dragged a dead rabbit over to it.

(26)

Kdo dojede na nádraží vyzvednout babičku? [Who-NOM goes to train-station-ACC pick-up grandmother-ACC?] Who is going to go to the train station to pick up grandmother?

It doesn’t matter how short the “trip” is; movements over very small distances can occasion the use of na + ACC, as we see in these examples: (27)

Po půlhodině čtení pokládám knihu na noční stolek a usínám. [After half-hour-ACC reading-GEN lay book-ACC on night table-ACC and fallasleep.] After reading for half an hour I put the book on the night table and fall asleep.

(28)

Sedl si na kámen u cesty a unavené nohy natáhl před sebe. [Sat self-DAT on rock-ACC by road-GEN and tired legs-ACC stretched before selfACC.] He sat down on a rock by the road and stretched out his tired legs in front of him.

Czechs have grammaticalized the notion of seeing as a kind of virtual journey, understood as vision reaching out to places, using na + ACC with verbs like dívat se and koukat to mean ‘look at, watch’, as we see in these sentences: (29)

Dívat se na dva dvacetileté vedoucí se za ruce je poněkud jiné než pohled na dva šedesátníky, kteří činí totéž. [Look self-ACC at two twenty-year-olds-ACC leading-ACC self-ACC by handsACC is somewhat other-NOM than view-NOM on two sixty-year-olds-ACC, whoNOM do the-same-ACC.] Looking at two twenty-year-olds holding hands is somewhat different than seeing two sixty-year-olds doing the same thing.

(30)

Příští čtyři dni ji nečeká nic jiného, než tady sedět a koukat na televizi. [Next four days-ACC her-ACC not-waits nothing-NOM other-GEN, than here sit and look at television-ACC.]

12

The Accusative Case For the next four days she’ll have nothing to do except to sit here and watch television. Many other kinds of actions can likewise be understood as being directed or focused toward some item, and a variety of verbs indicating gestures, attention, expectation, and emotion are commonly associated with na + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION, as evidenced in this table:

Words Associated with na + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION ‘pay attention to’ soustředit/soustřeďovat ‘concentrate on’ se na dbát na ‘pay attention to’ dorazit/dorážet na ‘attack’ spolehnout/spoléhat se ‘depend on’ na hněvat se na ‘be furious with’ šklebit se ‘make a face at’ kouknout/koukat (se) na ‘look at’ špulit se ‘pout at’ (CCz) mávnout/mávat na ‘wave at’ těšit se na ‘look forward to’ mrknout/mrkat na ‘wink at’ usmát/usmívat se na ‘smile at’ naříkat na ‘complain about’ vzpomenout/vzpomínat ‘remember’ si na navyknout/navykat si na ‘get used to; get zapomenout/zapomínat ‘forget’ addicted to’ na odpovědět/odpovídat na ‘give an answer to’ za-útočit na ‘attack’ počkat/čekat na ‘wait for’ zeptat/ptát se na ‘inquire about’ po-dívat se na ‘look at’ zlobit se na ‘be angry with’ po-stěžovat si na ‘complain about’ zvyknout/zvykat si na ‘get used to’ reagovat na ‘react to’ žalovat na ‘complain about’ rozpomenout/rozpomína ‘recollect’ žárlit na ‘be envious of’ t se na dát/dávat pozor na

The concept of being directed toward something can be carried over to the domain of time, where we see various kinds of evidence of movement in time, as in phrases like odložit/ odkládat něco na zítřek [postpone something-ACC to tomorrow-ACC] ‘put something off until tomorrow’, táhne na devátou [pulls to ninth-ACC] ‘it will soon be nine o’clock’, and v noci na dnešek [in night-LOC to today-ACC] ‘last night (literally: in the night that led to today)’. This logic also applies to the use of na + ACC in telling time, so čtvrt na pět [quarter-NOM to five-ACC] ‘a quarter past four’ and tři čtvrtě na deset [three quartersNOM to ten-ACC] ‘a quarter to ten’ are conceptually motivated as meaning “one quarter toward five” and “three quarters toward ten”. Parting greetings like Na shledanou!, Na viděnou!, and Na slyšenou! (all of which can be used to say ‘Goodbye!’) depend on na’s ability to refer to some future time when we will see or hear each other again. In some time expressions na simply refers to a given time when something happens (rather than specifying something upcoming), as in: na podzim [to autumn-ACC] ‘in autumn’, na den svatého Jana [to day-ACC Saint John-GEN] ‘on Saint John’s day’, and na Velikonoce [to EasterACC] ‘at Easter time’.

13 (31)

“Brzy na shledanou,” rozloučila se a zavěsila. [“Soon to see-ACC,” took-leave self-ACC and hung-up.] “See you soon,” she took her leave and hung up.

(32)

Odjezd byl stanoven přesně na osmou hodinu. [Departure-NOM was set-NOM exactly for eighth hour-ACC.] The departure was set for exactly eight o’clock.

(33)

Na Vánoce se chystáme jako každoročně k rodičům na Šumavu. [For Christmas-ACC self-ACC plan like every-year to parents-DAT to ŠumavaACC.] We’re planning to go to see our parents in Šumava at Christmastime, like we do every year.

Movement in an direction can be interpreted as a reach toward something, and indeed the verb sáhnout/sahat (usually pronounced šáhnout/šahat in CCz) ‘reach’ is regularly associated with na + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION. If something is within reach, we can use the expression být na dosah (ruky)/na dostřel [be to reach-ACC (hand-GEN)/to shootingrange-ACC] ‘be in reach (arm’s length away)/in shooting range’. This notion of reach can be applied in the visual domain, producing phrases like vidět (až) na dno [see (up-to) to bottom-ACC] ‘see (all the way) to the bottom’. If you get rained on, your clothes might get wet, but if you get caught in a downpour, you will ‘get drenched to the skin’, in Czech promoknout na kůži [drench to skin-ACC]. Extremely bad financial management can also ‘lead someone to poverty’, přivést někoho na mizinu [lead someone-ACC to povertyACC]. This notion of reaching an extreme limit motivates numerous phrases that can all be understood as ‘an X on the verge of Y’, for example dům na spadnutí [house-NOM to collapsing-ACC] ‘a house on the verge of collapse’ and člověk na smrt nemocný [personNOM to death-ACC sick-NOM] ‘a sick person on the verge of death’. Taken one step further, we see utter completion of a trip in a metaphorical domain, as in shořet na prach/ popel [burn-up to dust/ash-ACC] ‘burn to the ground (so that nothing remains)’, and na vlas stejný [to hair-ACC same-NOM] ‘perfectly identical (literally: the same down to a hair)’, which can also be used as an adverb written as one word: navlas. Cooking and coloring can also bring items to final states (here: softness and blackness) as their destinations, as we see in the expressions vejce na měkko [eggs-NOM on soft-ACC] ‘soft-boiled eggs’ (also written as one word: naměkko) and obarvit na černo [color on black-ACC] ‘color black’. The latter expression, na černo ‘illegally’ can be used idiomatically to describe shady operations on the black market. Here are some examples of various kinds of metaphorical reaches: (34)

Kvido zdořile šeptem poděkoval a přesunul se blíže k jevišti, aby na písmena lépe viděl. [Guido-NOM politely whisper-INST thanked and moved self-ACC closer to stageDAT, so-that to letters-ACC better saw.] Guido politely whispered his thanks and moved closer to the stage so that he could see the letters better.

14

The Accusative Case (35)

Stánek, který si pronajal vietnamský obchodník, shořel na popel, nic se nepodařilo zachránit. [Stand-NOM, which-ACC self-DAT rented Vietnamese shopkeeper-NOM, burnt to ash-ACC, nothing-NOM self-ACC not-managed save.] The stand which the Vietnamese shopkeeper had rented burnt to the ground, nothing could be saved.

(36)

Transplantace už byla téměř na spadnutí, našli jsme vhodného dárce. [Transplant-NOM already was almost to collapsing-ACC, found AUX appropriate donor-ACC.] The transplantation almost fell through, but we found an appropriate donor.

People don’t go to destinations only in order to change their location; often there is something at that destination that they want, something that they go there for. This is certainly the case when Czechs use phrases like jít na pivo/na houby [go for beer-ACC/for mushroomsACC] ‘go for beer/go mushroom-hunting’. Many items are designated for certain purposes, and this is also often expressed using na + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION, so kartáček na zuby [brush-NOM for teeth-ACC] ‘toothbrush’ is literally a ‘brush for teeth’, and this pattern is quite productive, yielding phrases like pytel na uhlí [sack-NOM for coal-ACC] ‘coal sack’, sklenice na víno [glass-NOM for wine-ACC] ‘wine-glass’, hon na lišku [chaseNOM for fox-ACC] ‘fox hunt’, and šaty na všední den [clothes-NOM for everyday dayACC] ‘everyday clothes’. Just like English, if something is available for purchase, in Czech we say it is na prodej [for sale-ACC] ‘for sale’, and if something is offered as a model, we say na příklad [for example-ACC] ‘for example’. Also parallel with English is na svůj věk [for own age-ACC] ‘for his/her age’, as in Je na svůj věk čilý [Is for own age-ACC agileNOM] ‘He’s agile for his age’. (37)

Na houby chodím na podzim v každé volné chvilce, ale musím říct, že je nerad jím. [For mushrooms-ACC go on autumn-ACC in every free moment-LOC, but must say, that them-ACC not-glad eat.] I go mushroom-hunting every chance I get in the fall, but I have to say that I don’t like eating them.

(38)

U moře v každém případě musíte použít krém na opalování s vysokým ochranným faktorem. [At sea-GEN in every case-LOC must use lotion-ACC for tanning-ACC with high protection factor-INST.] At the sea you must always use sun-tan lotion with a high protection factor.

(39)

Japonci vystaví v Karviné závod na výrobu jízdních kol. [Japanese-NOM exhibit in Karviná factory-ACC for manufacture-ACC riding wheels-GEN.] The Japanese will exhibit a bicycle manufacturing factory in Karviná.

15 In designating purposes, na can indicate movement of the will to produce a desired effect. Here we see ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION fleshed out as an object toward which an agent directs its will, its sense of purpose. Usually this takes the form of somebody doing something for something or somebody (or perhaps for a reason). This kind of ‘for’ is most commonly expressed by the preposition na, though v, o, pro, and less frequently za are deployed for this purpose. The stock phrase pít na zdraví někoho [drink for health-ACC someone-GEN] ‘drink to someone’s health’ demonstrates how na operates in the domain of purpose, and here are some further examples: (40)

Evropská unie přispěla na vybudování cyklostezky v Liberci 20 milionů korun. [European Union-NOM contributed for construction-ACC bike-path-GEN in Liberce-LOC 20-ACC million-GEN crowns-GEN.] The European Union contributed 20 million crowns for the construction of a bike path in Liberce.

(41)

Československá obchodní banka poskytne Českým drahám úvěr 900 milionů korun na nákup kolejových vozidel a na opravy tratí. [Czechoslovak Commercial Bank-NOM provides Czech Railways-DAT loan-ACC 900 million crowns-GEN for purchase-ACC railroad cars-GEN and for repairsACC rail-lines-GEN.] The Czechoslovak Commercial Bank will provide the Czech Railways with a 900 million crown loan for the purchase of railroad cars and for repair of the rail lines.

(42)

Prostředky na hubení mravenců poskytne obvodní úřad obyvatelům postižených domů zdarma. [Means-ACC for killing-ACC ants-GEN provides district office-NOM inhabitantsDAT affected houses-GEN free.] The district office will provide ant-killing substances to inhabitants of affected houses for free.

When one attempts to do something, one is directing energies toward something, and na + ACC can indicate various kinds of attempts, including attempts on someone’s life: (43)

Rusko předalo Spojeným státům složku bývalé sovětské tajné služby KGB o stále ne zcela vysvětleném atentátu na prezidenta Kennedyho. [Russian-NOM handed-over United States-DAT file-ACC former Soviet secret service-GEN KGB about still not entirely explained assassination-attempt-LOC on president Kennedy-ACC.] Russia handed over to the United States a file of the former Soviet secret service KGB about the assassination attempt on president Kennedy, which still hasn’t been entirely explained.

The na + ACC prepositional phrase is an essential ingredient in numerous idiomatic phrases, all of which are motivated as metaphorical extensions of directed movement in various domains. In the realm of ideas, discussions, and convictions, we have the expressions na

16

The Accusative Case druhou stranu [on other side-ACC] ‘on the other hand’ (but note in Czech this expression stands alone, it is not preceded by anything equivalent to English on the one hand), vzít na vědomí [take to consciousness-ACC] ‘take into consideration’, přijít na něco [come on something-ACC] ‘come to … (an idea/realization)’. The domains of emotions and interpersonal relations exert their powers in phrases like mít vliv na někoho [have influenceACC on someone-ACC] ‘have an influence on someone’, mít/nechat si něco na památku [have/leave self-DAT something-ACC to memory-ACC] ‘have/keep something as a memento’, mít na někoho vztek [have on someone-ACC fury-ACC] ‘be furious with someone’, and vy-kašlat se na někoho/něco [cough self-ACC on someone/something-ACC] ‘not give a damn about someone/something’. In the sphere of decision making and mental capacity we have the phrases vzít si něco na starost [take self-DAT something-ACC to careACC] ‘take responsibility for something’, mít/být na vybranou [have/be to chosen-ACC] ‘have a choice’, and vědět jak na to [know how to that-ACC] ‘know how to do (something)’. (44)

Dostal jsem od dětí na památku polštářek a krásné keramické zvonečky. [Got AUX from children-GEN for memento-ACC little-pillow-ACC beautiful ceramic bells-ACC.] I got a little pillow and some beautiful ceramic bells from the children as a memento.

(45)

Měli jsme na vybranou buď přijmout nižší životní úroveň v Londýně, nebo zůstat na venkově. [Had AUX to chosen-ACC either accept lower life level-ACC in London-LOC, or stay at country-LOC.] We had a choice between accepting a lower standard of living in London or staying in the country.

(46)

Zkuste přijít na lepší řešení! [Try come to better solution-ACC!] Try to come up with a better solution!

ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION 5 — v ‘to; in; into; for; on; at’ The use of v + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION to indicate physical movement in space is very limited, generally encountered only in fixed phrases, like bít se v prsa [beat self-ACC in chest-ACC] ‘beat one’s chest’ (where the chest is the destination of the beating) and složit ruce v klín [fold hands-ACC in lap-ACC] ‘fold one’s hands in one’s lap’ (where the lap is the destination of the folded hands). V +ACC is more active in metaphorical spaces, as in the phrases vejít ve známost [enter into acquaintance-ACC] ‘enter into an acquaintance’, upadnout v zapomenutí [fall into oblivion-ACC] ‘fall into oblivion’, and vstoupit v platnost [enter into effect-ACC] ‘go into effect’. Like na, v can sometimes indicate an activity that goes to an extreme, as in rozpadnout se v prach [disinegrate self-ACC into dust-ACC] ‘disintegrate into dust’ and propuknout v smích [burst into laughter-ACC] ‘burst into laughter’.

17 (47)

Herečka Lída Bárová neupadla v zapomenutí, přestože poslední film natočila v roce 1956. [Actress Lída Bárová-NOM not-fell into oblivion-ACC, in-spite-of-the-fact-that last film-ACC wound in year-LOC 1956.] The actress Lída Bárová has not fallen into oblivion, in spite of the fact that she made her last film in 1956.

(48)

Vyhláška o novém územním plánu vstoupí v platnost patrně až prvního ledna příštího roku. [Decree-NOM about new territorial plan-LOC enters into effect-ACC apparently only first-GEN January-GEN next year-GEN.] Apparently the decree about the new territorial plan will not go into effect until January first of next year.

In both Czech and English we think of states of being as locations, so a transformation is something that brings us into a new state, and a number of Czech verbs use v + ACC to describe these changes, such as: měnit se v ‘change into’, obrátit/obracet (se) v ‘turn (oneself) into’, and proměnit/proměňovat (se) v ‘transform (oneself) into’. (49)

Princův polibek proměnil odpornou ropuchu v překrásnou princeznu. [Prince’s kiss-NOM turned disgusting toad-ACC into beautiful princess-ACC.] The prince’s kiss turned the disgusting toad into a beautiful princess.

(50)

Tlak na Tajwan se mění v hrozby vojenskou okupací. [Pressure-NOM on Taiwan-ACC self-ACC changes into threats-ACC military occupation-INST.] The pressure on Taiwan is changing into threats of military occupation.

The direction of hopes and beliefs follows the same pattern, as we see with the verbs doufat v ‘hope for’ and věřit v ‘believe in’. Also in the domain of mental activity, we can use the idiom vzít/brát v úvahu [take into consideration-ACC] ‘take into consideration’. And although the use of v in the domain of purpose is relatively rare, there one common phrase that operates in this domain, ve prospěch [for benefit-ACC] ‘for the benefit of’, which is of course followed by GENITIVE:: A WHOLE. Here are a few examples of v + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION in the domains of mental activity and purpose: (51)

Věřím v očistnou sílu bankrotů, nových začátků. [Believe in cleansing power-ACC bankrupcies-GEN, new beginnings-GEN.] I believe in the cleansing power of bankrupcies, of new beginnings.

(52)

V úvahu je třeba vzít také fakt, že kartáče v automatických myčkách na auto působí značnou silou. [Into consideration-ACC is necessary to take also fact-ACC, that brushes-NOM in automatic washers-LOC for car-ACC operate considerable force-INST.] It is also necessary to take into consideration the fact that the brushes in automatic car washes operate with considerable force.

18

The Accusative Case The bulk of v’s work is done in the domain of time, where it is the most common preposition used to designate the temporal destinations of events that happen on given days and at given hours of the day, answering the question Ve který den? [On what day-ACC?] ‘On what day?’ and V kolik hodin? [At how-many-ACC hours-GEN?] ‘At what time?’. If we are successful in our race with time, we are včas ‘on time’, an adverb likewise built on the concept of the temporal destination. In comparison with English, this combination of events with temporal destinations seems exotic, since we are accustomed to thinking of events as taking place in temporal locations instead (we say on what day, not into what day and at what time, not into what time). The presence of verbal aspect (perfective and imperfective verbs) may play a major role in this conceptualization of the relationship between events and times. In English we have merely verbs, indicating nothing more than mere action out of context, whereas in Czech, verbs come complete with aspect, which organizes action into events. It is as if action does not exist in the raw in Czech, but is always pre-packaged as events, be they perfective or imperfective. These evets can be understood as metaphorical objects capable of metaphorical movement, objects with an existence prior to the timeline, which they then enter at given days and hours — their temporal destinations. Here are some examples of how v + ACC is used in the domain of time: (53)

Svatba se koná na Staroměstské radnici v sobotu v jedenáct hodin dopoledne. [Wedding-NOM self-ACC takes-place at Old-Town town-hall-LOC on SaturdayACC at eleven-ACC hours-GEN morning.] The wedding is taking place at the Old Town town hall on Saturday at eleven o’clock am.

(54)

Havárie se stala v neděli v pět ráno v ulici V zálesí u zastávky městské hromadné dopravy. [Accident-NOM self-ACC happened on Sunday-ACC at five-ACC in-morning in street-LOC V zálesí by stop-GEN municipal mass transit-GEN.] The accident happened on Sunday at five in the morning on V zálesí street near a municipal mass transit stop.

ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION 6 — o ‘against; for’ O describes the point of impact when one item comes in contact with another; this preposition indicates the destination of collisions, both of physical objects and of wills. The following table gives a sampling of the verbs that use o to describe physical contact: Words Associated with Physical Uses of o + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION bouchnout/bouchat (se) ‘bang (oneself) against’ praštit (se) o ‘bump (oneself) against’ o brknout/brkat o (CCz) ‘stumble over’ škobrtnout/škobrtat o ‘stumble over’ (CCz) klopýtnout/klopýtat o ‘stumble over’ třísknout/třískat o ‘slam against’ mrštit o ‘fling against’ udeřit (se) o; úder o ‘strike (oneself) against’ opřít/opírat se o ‘lean on’ uhodit (se) o ‘hit (oneself) against’ s-/po-pálit se o ‘burn oneself on’ zakopnout/zakopávat o ‘trip over’

19 Here are a few examples to give you a feel for how this works: (55)

Při pádu se asi pořádně uhodila o hranu stolu. [During fall-LOC self-ACC probably hard hit against edge-ACC table-GEN.] When she fell she probably hit herself hard against the edge of the table.

(56)

Bezpečnostní ventil na sporáku zajistí, aby děti nemohly omylem pustit plyn či se popálit o rozžhavené plotýnky. [Safety valve-NOM on stove-LOC ensures, that children-NOM not-could by-mistake turn-on gas-ACC or self-ACC burn against red-hot burners-ACC.] The safety valve on the stove ensures that children could not turn on the gas by accident or burn themselves on red-hot burners.

(57) Opírala se o bok dodávkového forda a nastavila obličej paprskům poledního slunce. [Leaned self-ACC against side-ACC delivery Ford-GEN and set face-ACC rays-DAT midday sun-GEN.] She leaned against the side of the Ford truck and turned her face toward the rays of the midday sun. In the metaphorical spaces of human endeavors, o indicates items that people seek contact with, whether by competing, requesting, or simply caring. Here is a list of verbs, followed by some examples of metaphorical uses of o + ACC: Words Associated with Metaphorical Uses of o + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION ‘be worried about’ připravit/připravovat ‘deprive a person of’ někoho o bojovat o; boj o ‘fight for’ přít se o; pře o ‘argue over; argument over’ dbát o ‘take care of’ roz/po-dělit se s někým o ‘share with someone’ hádat se o; hádka o ‘fight over’ snažit se o ‘try to get’ hlásit se o ‘claim’ soudit se o ‘go to court over’ spor o ‘argument over’ jít o ‘concern’ starat se o; starost o ‘take care of; concern over’ nouze o ‘need for, scarcity of’ stát o ‘care about’ strach o ‘fear concerning’ pečovat o; péče o ‘take care of; care for’ ucházet se o ‘compete for’ pokusit/pokoušet se o; ‘attempt to get’ usilovat o; úsilí o ‘attempt to get; efforts pokus o to get’ po-prosit o; prosba o ‘ask for; request for’ zajímat se o; zájem o ‘be interested in; interest in’ požádat o ‘request’ za-žádat o; žádost o ‘request’ bát se o

(58)

Chcete se na kongresu znovu ucházet o post místopředsedy? [Want self-ACC at congress-LOC again compete for post-ACC vice-presidentGEN?] Do you want to compete for the post of vice president again at the congress?

20

The Accusative Case (59)

Obracím oči k nebi s němou prosbou o pomoc. [Turn eyes-ACC to heavens-DAT with mute request-INST for help-ACC.] I turn my eyes toward the heavens with a mute request for help.

(60)

Zájem o hypotéky v České Republice se za první pololetí meziročně zdvojnásobil. [Interest-NOM in mortgages-ACC in Czech Republic-LOC self-ACC during first half-year-ACC since-last-year doubled.] When compared with last year, during the first half of the year interest in mortgages in the Czech Republic doubled.

(61)

Americký imperialismus usiloval o zničení zemí tábora míru. [American imperialism-NOM attempted for destruction-ACC countries-GEN campGEN peace-GEN.] American imperialism attempted to destroy the countries of the peace camp.

The construction jít o can be variously translated as ‘concern’, ‘be about’, or even just ‘be’, as is the case in the following sentence: (62)

Šlo o největší pouliční bitvy v Praze od 21. srpna 1968. [Went for biggest street battles-ACC in Prague-LOC from 21st-GEN August-GEN 1968.] They were the biggest street battles in Prague since August 21, 1968.

ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION 7 — po ‘up to; for’ Po + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION (often used in combination with až ‘all the way’) usually means ‘up to’ a certain point. Some activity is progressing through some space, and the accusative item is its destination, the place where it stops. Activity can reach up to a certain point in space, time, and other domains, as these examples show: (63)

Na cestě na tábořiště jsme se bořili po kolena do sněhu. [On way-LOC to campsite-ACC AUX self-ACC sank up-to knees-ACC to snowGEN.] On the way to the campsite we were sinking up to our knees in the snow.

(64)

Je po uši zamilovaný do toho obrazu. [Is up-to ears-ACC in-love to that picture-GEN.] He is up to his ears in love with that picure.

(65)

Dokument se zabývá vývojem ekologické situace v Čechách v období od roku 1990 po současnost. [Document-NOM self-ACC concerns development-INST ecological situation-GEN in Bohemia-LOC in period-LOC from year-GEN 1990 up-to present-time-ACC.] The document is concerned with the development of the ecological situation in Bohemia for the period from the year 1990 up to the present.

21 Idiomatically, we use po in the fixed phrases po prvé [for first-ACC] ‘for the first time’, po druhé [for second-ACC] ‘for the second time’, etc., and po každé [for each-ACC] ‘each time’ (these phrases can be written as one word: poprvé, podruhé, pokaždé), as we see in these sentences: (66)

Teprve podruhé v historii Wimbledonu prohrál nasazený muž číslo dvě už v prvním kole. [Only for-second-ACC in history-LOC Wimbledon-GEN lost seeded man-NOM number two-NOM already in first round-LOC.] It was only the second time in the history of Wimbledon that the number two seeded man lost in the first round.

(67)

Postupně se vloupal do dvou vozů, pokaždé vytrhal kabely a chtěl odjet. [Consecutively self-ACC broke-into do two cars-GEN, for-each-ACC tore-out cables-ACC and wanted ride-off.] He broke into two cars in a row, and each time he tore out the cables and wanted to ride off.

ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION 8 — pro ‘for; due to; because of’ The preposition pro + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION operates primarily in the domain of purpose, and is the most common equivalent of English for. (68)

Loni jsem pracoval pro muzeum v Sydney. [Last-year AUX worked for muzeum-ACC in Sydney.] Last yeat I worked for a museum in Sydney.

(69)

Armáda spásy provozuje v České Republice sedm azylových domů pro bezdomovce. [Army-NOM salvation-GEN runs in Czech Republic-LOC seven-ACC asylum homes-GEN for homeless-people-ACC.] The Salvation Army runs seven shelters for the homeless in the Czech Republic.

(70)

Darovali mu totiž mimo jiné staré rozbité rádio, které se podle jejich vlastních slov mělo stát “indikátorem synova smyslu pro elektroniku”. [Gave him-DAT you-see among other-ACC old broken radio-ACC, which-NOM self-ACC according-to their own words-GEN had become “indicator-INST son’s sense-GEN for electronics-ACC”.] Well among other things, they gave him an old broken radio, which they themselves said was supposed to be an “indicator of our son’s sense for electronics”.

Since things can be done for a reason, the concept of pro can be extended to the domain of causation, where it means ‘because of’, as in this example:

22

The Accusative Case (71)

Pro jeho zatvrzelost, se kterou se pustí do řešení každého problému, mu přátelé začali říkat buldok. [Because-of his obstinacy-ACC, with which-INST self-ACC lets to solution-GEN every problem-GEN, him-DAT friends-NOM started call bulldog-NOM.] Because of the obstinacy with which he throws himself into the solution of every problem, his friends started to call him a bulldog.

ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION 9 — Proximate destinations There are five prepositions in Czech that can be used with either INSTRUMENTAL:: A LANDMARK or ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION: před ‘before’, za ‘behind’, nad ‘above’, pod ‘below’, and mezi ‘between, among’. When these prepositions are used to describe proximate locations, they are used with the instrumental case, but when they are used in the context of movement, they are associated with the accusative case and in their spatial meanings indicate movement to a proximate location. Here are examples of how these prepositions are used in describing physical destinations: (72)

Stoupl si před obraz a pečlivě si jej prohlížel. [Stepped self-DAT before picture-ACC and carefully self-DAT it-ACC examined.] He stepped up to the picture and examined it carefully.

(73)

Schoval se za dveře a ona, jakmile vešla, si ho vůbec nevšimla. [Hid self-ACC behind door-ACC, and she-NOM, as-soon-as entered, self-DAT himGEN at-all not-noticed.] He hid behind the door and when she came in she didn’t notice him at all.

(74)

Ten obraz si dal zarámovat a pověsil si ho do pracovny nad stůl. [That picture-ACC self-DAT gave frame and hung self-DAT it-ACC to study-GEN above desk-ACC.] He had that picture framed and hung it above the desk in his study.

(75)

Schovala dopis a plyšového medvídka pod polštář. [Hid letter-ACC and stuffed bear-ACC under pillow-ACC.] She hid the letter and the stuffed bear under the pillow.

(76)

Pro dokonalé vylisování vložte čerstvý květ asi na týden mezi stránky starého telefonního seznamu nebo nějakého katalogu. [For perfect pressing-GEN lay fresh flower-ACC about for week-ACC between pages-ACC old telephone list-GEN or some catalog-GEN.] To do a perfect pressing, lay a fresh flower for about a week between the pages of an old telephone book or a catalog.

Of these five prepositions, za is the most frequent and most involved in various extensions and special phrases. Sitting down is of course a movement toward a destination, motivating

23 phrases like sednout si za stůl/volant [sit-down self-DAT behind table-ACC/steering-wheelACC] ‘sit down at a table/at the wheel of a vehicle’. We place our hands behind things when we wish to get a grip on them, and this notion is captured in phrases like vzít za ‘take by the’ and chytit se za ‘catch hold of, grasp’, illustrated in this example: (77)

Měl jsem ho rovnou chytit za límec a nepustit, dokud vše po sobě neuklidí. [Had AUX him-ACC right-away grab by collar-ACC and not-let-go, until everything-ACC after self-LOC not-cleans-up.] I should have grabbed him by the collar right away and not let him go until he cleaned up everything after himself.

The placement of one item behind another is also characterisic of how we accomplish replacements and substitutions, so it is no surprise that za + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION turns up here as well, most frequently with words indicating transactions and exchanges, as in these two sentences: (78)

Jeden Američan mu za kytaru nabídl tisíc dolarů. [One American-NOM him-DAT for guitar-ACC offered thousand-ACC dollarsGEN.] An American offered him a thousand dollars for the guitar.

(79)

Dvacáté století zaplatilo velkou cenu za vyřešení několika historických otázek. [Twentieth century-NOM paid large price-ACC for solution-ACC several historical questions-GEN.] The twentieth century paid a high price for the solution to several historical questions.

When we can’t exchange money for goods, we might fight for what we want, and here Czech also uses za + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION: (80)

Pražské matky byly první nezávislou organizací, která bojovala za čistější ovzduší v hlavním městě. [Prague mothers-NOM were first independent organization-INST, which-NOM fought for cleaner air-ACC in capitol city-LOC.] The Prague mothers were the first independent organization which fought for cleaner air in the capitol city.

If one person replces another by stepping into their shoes and representing them, we get a use of za + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION translatable as on behalf of, or for, as in this sentence: (81)

Za stávkující studenty promluvil při prvním setkání zástupců Občanského fóra Martin Mejstřík. [For striking students-ACC spoke at first meeting-LOC representatives-GEN Civic forum-GEN Martin Mejstřík-NOM.] At the first meeting of representatives of Civic forum Martin Mejstřík spoke on behalf of the striking students.

24

The Accusative Case Representation entails the taking on of responsibility, a concept that appears in conjunction with odpovídat za ‘be responsible for’ as well as the idiom X-NOM za Y-ACC nemoci ‘X isn’t responsible for Y/can’t help doing Y’, as we see in the following two examples: (82)

Kdo za to odpovídá? [Who-NOM for that-ACC answers?] Who is responsible for that?

(83)

Děti s lehkou mozkovou dysfunkcí nemohou za své často hyperaktivní chování. [Children-NOM with mild brain dysfunction-INST cannot for their-ACC often hyperactive behavior-ACC.] Children with mild brain dysfunction cannot help their often hyperactive behavior.

We can mentally categorize people and objects by assigning them to given groups. In Czech this is metaphorically accomplished by placing people behind designations, as evident in phrases like pokládat/považovat někoho za + ACC ‘consider someone to be’, prohlásit/ prohlašovat někoho za + ACC ‘declare someone to be’, uznat/uznávat někoho za + ACC ‘recognize someone as’, as we see in these sentences: (84)

Pokládali jsme ho za přítele, on však naší důvěry zneužil. [Considered AUX him-ACC for friend-ACC, he-NOM however our trust-GEN abused.] We considered him a friend, but he abused our trust.

(85)

Předseda ústřední volební komise prohlásil volby za právoplatné. [President-NOM central election committee-GEN declared election-ACC for legalACC.] The president of the central election committee declared the election legal.

Categorizations are essential to idiomatic phrases like jít za svědka [go behind witnessACC] ‘serve as a witness’, dát/přijmout za vzor [give/accept behind model-ACC] ‘give/ take as a model’, and vzít si za muže/ženu [take self-DAT behind husband-ACC/wifeACC] ‘take to be one’s husband/wife’: (86)

Požádal mě, abych mu šel za svědka na svatbu. [Asked me-ACC, so-that him-DAT went for witness-ACC to wedding-ACC.] He asked me to serve as a witness at his wedding.

(87)

Přicházeli další a další mládenci, kteří si ji chtěli vzít za ženu, ale princezna všem odpovídala stejně. [Came more-NOM and more young-men-NOM, who-NOM self-DAT her-ACC wanted take for wife-ACC, but princess-NOM everyone-DAT answered same.] There came more and more young men who wanted to marry her, but the princess gave everyone the same answer.

25 The preposition před ‘before’ is rarely extended to non-spatial uses, though it does appear in reference to the domain of legal responsibility, parallel to our English concept of responsibility before the law. Here is an example: (88)

Podle důvěryhodných zdrojů bude brzy předvolán před soud a obviněn z korupce a padělání účetních knih. [According-to trustworthy sources-GEN will-be soon summoned-NOM before courtACC and accused-NOM from corruption-GEN and falsification-GEN accounting books-GEN.] According to trustworthy sources, he will soon be summoned to court and accused of corruption and falsification of accounting books.

When the preposition nad ‘above’ is extended to non-spatial uses, it generally refers to something that exceeds a limit set by the item marked ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION, as in the title of a popular fairy tale, Sůl nad zlato [salt above gold-ACC] ‘Salt is more precious than gold’. Other typical expressions include: to je nad lidské síly [that-NOM is above human strengths-ACC] ‘that exceeds human strength’, je to nad můj rozum [is that-NOM above my understanding-ACC] ‘that’s beyond my understanding’, není nad upřímnost [not-is above honesty-ACC] ‘nothing’s better than honesty’, je nad slunce jasnější [is above sunACC brighter-NOM] ‘it’s brighter than the sun’, nade vší pochybnosti [above all doubtsACC] ‘beyond a doubt’. (89)

Stovky hodin ročně odslouží lékaři v Česku nad rámec svého úvazku. [Hundreds-ACC hours-GEN yearly serve doctors-NOM in Czech-lands-LOC above scope-ACC own duty-GEN.] Every year doctors in the Czech lands serve hundreds of hours beyond the scope of their duty.

The preposition pod ‘under’ is active in the domains of jurisdiction and quantity, both of which are paralleled by uses of English under, as demonstrated in these examples: (90)

Pod kompetenci členských států spadají rozhodnutí v oblasti mzdové politiky. [Under jurisdiction-ACC member states-GEN fall decisions-NOM in area-LOC wage policies-GEN.] Decisions in the area of wage policies fall under the jurisdiction of the member states.

(91)

Počítejte s tím, že pod sto šilinků oběd či večeři v Rakousku nepořídíte. [Count with that-INST, that under hundred-ACC shillings-GEN lunch-ACC or dinner-ACC in Austria-LOC not-buy.] You can be sure that you won’t be able to buy lunch or dinner in Austria for under one hundred shillings.

When extended beyond spatial uses, mezi ‘between’ most frequently refers to the domain of relationships, as illustrated in this sentence:

26

The Accusative Case (92)

Je v našem zájmu přát ruskému národu co nejrychlejší integraci mezi ostatní evropské národy. [Is in our interest-LOC wish Russian nation-DAT EMPH swiftest integration-ACC among other European nations-ACC.] It is in our interests to wish the Russian nation the swiftest possible integration with other European nations.

ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION 10 — Destinations Reached by Passing and Crossing The prepositions mimo ‘past; outside of; besides; except’, přes ‘across; more than’, and ob ‘every other; one away’ all describe paths that pass or cross a destination. Although mimo can be used to describe movement ‘past’ some item, as in prošel mimo naše okna [went past our windows-ACC] ‘he went past our windows’, mimo is more used to describe a static location corresponding to English outside of, encountered in phrases like žijou mimo Prahu [live outside-of Prague-ACC] ‘they live outside of Prague’, and in this example: (93)

Spoustu času stráví mimo nemocnici jako soudní znalkyně. [A lot-ACC time-GEN spends outside hospital-ACC like court expert-NOM.] She spends a lot of time outside of the hospital as an expert witness.

The use of mimo can be extended to describe non-spatial domains that do not contain an item, as in phrases like: je mimo nebezpečí [is outside-of danger-ACC] ‘s/he’s out of danger’, to je mimo diskusi [that-NOM is outside-of discussion-ACC] ‘that’s beyond the scope of the discussion’. In the domain of time, mimo describes a time when something does not happen, and corresponds best to English except, as in this example: (94)

Muzeum je přístupné veřejnosti každý den mimo pondělí. [Museum-NOM is accessible-NOM public-DAT every day-ACC except MondayACC.] The museum is open to the public every day except Monday.

When used to describe motion through physical space, přes ‘across’ indicates that something has reached the opposite side of an item, as in this sentence: (95)

Velké části aktivistů se nepodařilo projet přes české hranice. [Large portion-DAT activists-GEN self-ACC not-succeeded ride across Czech borders-ACC.] A large portion of the activists did not succeed in getting across the Czech borders.

In the domain of time, přes describes a limit that is exceeded, generally in terms of how long something lasts or how old someone is, as in this sentence:

27 (96)

Je mu přes padesát, ale občas se chová jako malý kluk. [Is him-DAT across fifty-ACC, but sometimes self-ACC behaves like little boyNOM.] He’s over fifty, but sometimes he behaves like a little boy.

This use of přes to identify a temporal limit has been conventionalized in the adverb přesčas ‘overtime’. Přes can also be used to express competition in the metaphorical construction jeden přes druhého [one-NOM across another-ACC] ‘each one [more] than the other, as we see in this sentence: (97)

Skini házeli po policistech kameny a láhve a jeden přes druhého skandovali rasistická hesla. [Skinheads-NOM threw at policemen-LOC rocks-ACC and bottles-ACC and oneNOM across other-ACC chanted racist slogans-ACC.] The skinheads threw rocks and bottles at the policemen and chanted racist slogans, each one louder than the other.

Like mimo and přes, ob describes passing something, but with the added meaning that the item passed is actually skipped in order to proceed to the next item in a series. The best way to render the meaning of this word in English is with the phrase every other. Here is an example to demonstrate how this works: (98)

Celý rukopis byl číslován ob stránku, takže v nakladatelství došlo k chybnému řazení obrázků k příslušným textům. [Whole manuscript-NOM was numbered-NOM against page-ACC, so in publishing-house-LOC happened to wrong arrangement-DAT pictures-GEN to appropriate text-DAT.] The whole manuscript had been numbered only on every other page, so there was an error in arranging the pictures with the corresponding text at the publishing house.

Ob can be extended to the domain of time, where it indicates an interval of time that is commonly skipped between two events in a series. The next example illustrates ob den [every-other day-ACC] , written here as a prepositional phrase; this collocation can also appear written as one word, obden ‘every other day’, which behaves like an adverb. (99)

Manžel ob den zajede pro nákup a já musím vymyslet, jak všechny nakrmit. [Husband-NOM against day-ACC goes for shopping-ACC and I-NOM must think, how everyone-ACC feed.] My husband does the shopping every other day, and I have to think about how to feed everyone.

28

The Accusative Case

ACCUSATIVE:: A DIMENSION 1 — Measured domains As we said at the outset, the accusative case is a relatively fluid concept. There is no clear boundary between ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION and ACCUSATIVE:: A DIMENSION. There is a tendency, however, for the item marked by ACCUSATIVE:: A DIMENSION to take on dimensions of its own, rather than being treated like an unanalyzed, unidimensional point, as is the case with ACCUSATIVE: A DESA force (arrow) moves through TINATION. The dimensions of the “dimensions” we will an ACCUSATIVE:: A DIMENSION look at have a wide range of quantitative and qualitative (circle labeled A) measures, such as length, duration, number, cost, and amount. The hallmark of the ACCUSATIVE:: A DIMENSION is that the action of the verb extends over some dimension of the item that it marks. In its bare usage, ACCUSATIVE:: A DIMENSION can refer to the distance traveled or the length of time consumed by an activity, as in ujet třicet kilometrů [ride thirty-ACC kilometersGEN] ‘ride thirty kilometers’ or spát celou noc [sleep all night-ACC] ‘sleep all night’. The following three examples illustrate these distance and duration uses of ACCUSATIVE:: A DIMENSION:

A

(100) Obdivuhodná jízda šlapacím autíčkem se podařila muži, který ujel šest set kilometrů z Mnichova do Drážďan. [Remarkable trip-NOM pedal car-INST self-ACC succeeded man-DAT, who-NOM rode six-ACC hundred-GEN kilometers-GEN from Munich-GEN to Dresden-GEN.] A remarkable pedal car trip was completed by a man who rode six hundred miles from Munich to Dresden. (101) Státní delegace uctila ve Varšavě památku židovských bojovníků, kteří téměř měsíc vzdorovali německým okupantům. [State delegation-NOM honored in Warsaw-LOC memory-ACC Jewish fightersGEN, who-NOM nearly month-ACC defied German invaders-DAT.] In Warsaw the state delegation honored the memory of the Jewish fighters who defied the German invaders for nearly a month. (102) Přiznám se k tomu, že mě nebavilo chodit na povinné schůze a sedět tam celou hodinu. [Admit self-ACC to that-DAT, that me-ACC not-pleased go to mandatory meetings-ACC and sit there whole hour-ACC.] I admit that I didn’t like going to mandatory meetings and sitting there for a whole hour. A variety of prepositions are employed with ACCUSATIVE:: A DIMENSION to indicate the units of measurement or the domains for which something is valid: na, za, po, skrz, and přes, each of which will be discussed in turn below.

29 The most versatile preposition used for identifying relevant domains is na ‚which might be variously translated as ‘to, in, for, by, in, on, at, from’. Perhaps its most basic use involves units of measurement in constructions such as: vážit něco na kila [weigh something-ACC in kilos-ACC] ‘weigh something in kilos’, prodávat něco na metry/na váhu [sell something-ACC by meters-ACC/by weight-ACC] ‘sell something by the meter/by weight’, šít něco na míru [sew something-ACC to measure-ACC] ‘sew something to measure’, práce na týden [work-NOM for week-ACC] ‘a week’s worth of work’. Thus kilos are the units of the domain relevant for weighing, meters and weight are the domains of measurement used for selling goods, measurements provide the domain for sewing, and the time period of one week is the domain that explains how much work there is. Here are some authentic examples of how phrases like this are used: (103) Zákon o podnikání právnických osob byl “šitý na míru” podnikání malých firem. [Law-NOM about business-activities-LOC legal persons-GEN was “sewn-NOM on measure-ACC” business-activities-DAT small companies-GEN.] The law about the business activities of legal persons was tailored to the business activities of small companies. (104) Měl jsem práci na týden a kvůli dvoudenní dovolené jsem musel pracovat i po večerech. [Had AUX work-ACC for week-ACC and due-to two-day holiday-DAT AUX had work also during evenings-LOC.] I had a week’s worth of work and due to the two-day holiday I had to work in the evenings too. An idiom that works this way is běžet na plné obrátky [run on full revolutions-ACC] ‘run at full speed’. Units of measurement reperesent series of items, and na can be used to indicate other kinds of serialized domains, such as the mathematical series of numbers taken to various exponents, the serializing of payments or chapters into installments, and the serializing of actions that can be done two or more times, as we see in these examples: (105) Matematický výraz a krát a můžeme vyjádřit jako a na druhou, zapsáno a2. [Mathematical expression-ACC a times a can state as a to second-ACC, writtenNOM a2.] We can state the mathematical expression a times a as a to the second power, written as a2. (106) Moldavské ministerstvo školství koupilo do škol počítače na výhodné splátky. [Moldavian ministry-NOM education-GEN bought to schools-GEN computers-ACC for advantageous installments-ACC.] The Moldavian Ministry of Education bought computers for the schools on an advantageous installment plan.

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The Accusative Case (107) Jana Svobodová vydává třetí část románu na pokračování o životě císaře Ferdinanda I. Štaufského. [Jana Svobodová-NOM publishes third part-ACC novel-GEN to continuation-ACC about life-LOC emporer Ferdinand I. Štaufský-GEN.] Jana Svobodová is publishing the third part of her serialized novel about the life of emporer Ferdinand I. Štaufský. (108) Těsto můžete použít na dvakrát, stačí uložíte-li nepoužitou část těsta v pevně uzavřené nádobě do chladničky. [Dough-ACC can use to twice, is-enough put-whether unused part-ACC doughGEN in firmly closed container-LOC to refrigerator-GEN.] You can use the dough twice, all you have to do is to put the unused part of the dough into a firmly closed container in the refrigerator. The human body provides various domains where characteristics can be realized, such as: slepý na jedno oko [blind in one eye-ACC] ‘blind in one eye’, kulhat na levou nohu [limp on left leg-ACC] ‘limp on the left leg’, nemocný na plíce [sick on the lungs-ACC] ‘sick in the lungs’, nastydnout na ledviny [catch-cold on kidneys-ACC] ‘get chilled in the kidneys’, je mi zima na nohy [is me-DAT cold-NOM on legs-ACC] ‘my legs are cold’, padlý na rozum [fallen on reason-ACC] ‘out of his mind’, vidět na vlastní oči [see on own eyesACC] ‘see with one’s own eyes’, hezký na pohled [pretty on appearance-ACC] ‘pretty to look at’. Here are some representative examples: (109) Při chůzi nepatrně kulhal na levou nohu, a když stál na jedné noze, trochu se předkláněl dopředu. [At walk-LOC slightly limped on left leg-ACC, and when stood on one leg-LOC, alittle self-ACC leaned forward.] When walking he limped slightly on his left leg, and when he stood on one leg, he leaned forward a bit. (110) Byla na pohled hezká, ale takových bylo všude dost. [Was on look-ACC pretty-NOM, but such-GEN was everywhere enough-NOM.] She was pretty to look at, but there were plenty like that everywhere. (111) Policie hledá svědky, kteří na vlastní oči viděli dopravní nehodu, která se stala včera na křižovatce ulic Moskevská a Slovinská. [Police-NOM looks witnesses-ACC, who-NOM on own eyes-ACC saw traffic accident-ACC, which-NOM self-ACC happened yesterday at intersection-LOC streetsGEN Moskevská-NOM and Slovinská-NOM.] The police are looking for eye-witnesses to the traffic accident that took place yesterday at the intersection of Moskevská and Slovinská streets. In combination with adjectives (usually accompanied by the word příliš ‘too, excessively’), na can mean ‘too X for Y’, as in this example where the pants are ‘too big for me’:

31 (112) I prodavač nesměle naznačoval mé matce, že ty kalhoty jsou na mě příliš velké, ale ona jako by neslyšela. [Even salesman-NOM gingerly hinted my mother-DAT, that those pants-NOM are for me-ACC too big-NOM, but she-NOM like AUX not-heard.] Even the salesman gingerly hinted to my mother that those pants were too big for me, but she acted like she didn’t hear. The verb hrát ‘play’ can be applied to various domains. When music is involved, na + ACC identifies the instrument that is played; in conjuction with si, hrát describes imaginative play, and na + ACC tells us the domain of imaginative characters that is targeted in play. Here is one example of each use of hrát with na: (113) Od šesti let hraje na klavír. [From six years-GEN plays on piano-ACC.] He has been playing the piano since age six. (114) Hrát si na policajty a zloděje patřilo k jeho nejoblíbenějším činnostem v dětském domově. [Play self-DAT on cops-ACC and robbers-ACC belonged to his most-favorite acitivites-DAT in children’s home-LOC.] Playing cops and robbers was one of his favorite things to do at the orphanage. Na + ACC can be used to decribe causes in cause-and-effect situations, where desires, orders, or advice serve as causes inspiring in turn various actions that serve as effects. There is a sense of balance here, such that the effect (response) applies to the domain of the cause (request). If the person who makes the request is expressed, they appear in the genitive case. Typical constructions with na + cause are: udělat něco na přání/rozkaz/radu rodičů [do something-ACC on wish-ACC/command-ACC/advice-ACC parents-GEN] ‘do something in response to one’s parents’ wish/command/advice’, vaříme na přání [cook on wishACC] ‘we cook to order’, na objednávku [on order-ACC] ‘on/to order’. Here are a couple of examples: (115) Na rozkaz prezidenta může být armáda uvedena do stavu bojové pohotovosti. [At order-ACC president-GEN can be army-NOM led-NOM to state-GEN battle readiness-GEN.] The army can be put in a state of battle readiness at the president’s order. (116) Na přání posluchačů opakujeme nyní záznam silvestrovského pořadu “Pojd’te se s námi zasmát”. [At wish-ACC listeners-GEN repeat now recording-ACC New-Year’s-Eve programGEN “Come self-ACC with us-INST laugh”.] At the request of our listeners we will now rebroadcast a recording of the New Year’s Eve program “Come laugh with us”.

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The Accusative Case Diseases are the most common cause of death, and na + ACC is commonly used to mark causality in this way, in phrases such as zemřít na infarkt/rakovinu [die on heart-attackACC/cancer-ACC] ‘die from a heart attack/cancer’. Here is an example of this usage: (117) Američanovi nepomohl ani rychlý převoz do nemocnice, kde skonal na krvácení do mozku. [American-DAT not-helped even rapid transportation-ACC to hospital-GEN, where died on hemorrhage-ACC to brain-GEN.] Not even rapid transportation to the hospital could help the American who died there from a brain hemorrhage. The idea of cause-and-effect evokes a transaction, where one item triggers another. There are numerous give-and-take transactions that play on a similar theme and also use na + ACC, such as: na stvrzenku [on receipt-ACC] ‘in exchange for a receipt’, na kauci [on bail-ACC] ‘on bail’, na zástavu [on security-ACC] ‘on security (of)’. The following two sentences illustrate give-and-take transactions, where the items offered in order to achieve a goal (the receipt needed to return something at a store, or the bail needed to get out of jail) are marked by na + ACC: (118) Vydal jí peníze na stvrzenku, netušíc, že je falešná. [Gave her-DAT money-ACC on receipt-ACC, not-suspecting, that is forged-NOM.] He issued her the money according to the receipt, and did not suspect it was a forgery. (119) Žádost jednoho z Francouzů, aby byl propuštěn na kauci dvou milionů korun, nedávno městský soud zamítl. [Request-ACC one-GEN of Frenchmen-GEN, so-that was released-NOM on bailACC two million crowns-GEN, recently municipal court-NOM rejected.] The municipal court recently rejected the request of one of the Frenchmen that he be released on a bail of two million crowns. The preposition za continues the theme of exchange, and can be used to express ratios, for example, how many units of distance can be traveled in a given time, where the time appears as za + ACC, best translated as ‘per’. Here a number of units in one domain (time in this example) corresponds to a number of units in another domain (distance): (120) Po dokončení koridoru Praha-Břeclav budou České dráhy dosahovat vyšší traťové rychlosti, počítá se až se 160 km za hodinu. [After completion-LOC corridor-GEN Prague-Břeclav-NOM will Czech railwaysNOM attain higher rail speed-GEN, counts self-ACC up-to with 160 km-INST for hour-ACC.] After the completion of the Prague-Břeclav corridor, the Czech railways will attain a higher rail speed, expected to go as high as 160 km per hour. Other kinds of measures can be accumulated over time as well, as we see in this example, where economic indicators are measured for the duration of a month:

33 (121) Obchodní bilance České Republiky vykázala za srpen schodek 15,6 miliardy korun. [Trade balance-NOM Czech Republic-GEN showed for August-ACC deficit-ACC 15.6 billion crowns-GEN.] The trade balance for the Czech Republic for August showed a deficit of 15.6 billion crowns. The preposition za can also refer to a period of time that must be completed before something can take place, as in this sentence, where a century must pass before UN representatives can be directly elected: (122) Václav Havel navrhl, že za sto let by mohlo existovat jakési shromáždění OSN, přímo volené všemi obyvateli zeměkoule. [Václav Havel-NOM suggested, that in hundred-ACC years-GEN would could exist some-sort-of assembly-NOM UN-GEN, directly elected-NOM all inhabitantsINST globe-GEN.] Václav Havel suggested that in a hundred years there might exist an assembly of the UN directly elected by all the globe’s inhabitants. Like za, the preposition po is frequently used in the domain of time to describe durations, temporal dimensions that are filled with an activity. In the following two examples, the duration of a trip is filled with laughter, and the duration of years is filled with puppetry: (123) Otec se po celou dobu jízdy smál podivným smíchem. [Father-NOM self-ACC during whole time-ACC trip-GEN laughed strange laughINST.] Father laughed a strange laugh the whole trip. (124) V Praze zemřel Luboš Homola, který po léta vodil loutku Špejbla. [In Prague-LOC died Luboš Homola-NOM, who-NOM during years-ACC led marionette Špejbl-ACC.] Luboš Homola, who for years performed with the marionette Špejbl, has died in Prague. When a dimension has to be negotiated, it can serve as a barrier through which an item moves, and Czech uses the preposition skrz ‘through’ to describe this sort of interaction with an intervening object. Physical motion through space can be described this way, as in expressions like jít skrz les [walk through forest-ACC] ‘walk through the forest’, or the popular tongue-twister Strč prst skrz krk! [Stick finger-ACC through neck-ACC!] ‘Stick your finger through your neck!’. Visual voyages can also involve barriers or intervening objects, as in phrases like dívat se na někoho skrz prsty [look self-ACC on someone-ACC through fingers-ACC] ‘look at someone through one’s fingers’, and dívat se na něco skrz brýle/lupu [look self-ACC on something-ACC through glasses-ACC/magnifying glassACC] ‘look at something through one’s glasses/a magnifying glass’. The next two examples describe a metaphorical journey through the legal domain and a visual journey reaching from a hunter’s eyes to his prey:

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The Accusative Case (125) Právníci to nemají lehké, k jejich profesi patří prodírat se skrz houštiny zákonů, z nichž některé si dokonce protiřečí. [Lawyers-NOM that-ACC not-have easy-ACC, to their profession-DAT belongs force-way self-ACC through thickets-ACC laws-GEN, from which-GEN someNOM self-DAT even contradict.] Lawyers don’t have it easy, their profession entails forcing one’s way through thickets of laws, some of which are even contradictory. (126) Seděl nehnutě v houští a skrz mlází pozoroval statného jelena. [Sat motionlessly in thicket-LOC and through undergrowth-ACC observed robust stag-ACC.] He sat motionlessly in the thicket and observed the robust stag through the undergrowth. When an item is traversed but not actually penetrated, we use the preposition přes ‘(all) across’ to indicate that the expanse of a domain is affected by an activity. This preposition frequently appears when some kind of punishment is delivered to a body part, as in the common phrase dostat přes ruku [get across hand-ACC] ‘get slapped on the hand’. Here is an example containing a variation on this theme: (127) Když si bral již čtvrtý kousek dortu, matka nevydržela a plácla svého cvalíka přes ruku. [When self-DAT took already fourth piece-ACC cake-GEN, mother-NOM not-resisted and slapped own tubby-boy-ACC across hand-ACC.] When he took a fourth piece of cake, mother couldn’t hold off any longer and slapped her tubby boy’s hand.

ACCUSATIVE:: A DIMENSION 2 — COST, COMPARISON, AND APPROXIMATION The accusative case comes in handy for describing costs, comparisons, and approximations. Cost is a dimension that is fully engaged (since the full price must be paid), and similarly, comparisons and approximations require measurement along a domain, rather than a mere endpoint. Like distance and duration, cost can be measured without any preposition at all, and the verb stát ‘cost’ typically appears with the amount marked in the bare accusative case, as in these two examples: (128) Měsíční jízdenka na MHD stojí dvěstě deset korun. [Month ticket-NOM on municipal-mass-transit-LOC costs two-hundred ten-ACC crowns.] A one-month municipal mass-transit ticket costs two hundred ten crowns.

35 (129) Nový dům stál Pospíšilovy balík peněz, ale štěstí v něm stejně nenašli. [New house-NOM cost Pospíšil-family-ACC package-ACC money-GEN, but happiness-ACC in it-LOC still not-found.] The new house cost the Pospíšil family a heap of money, but they didn’t find happiness in it anyhow. The preposition o, in combination with ACCUSATIVE:: A DIMENSION, describes an amount by which an item changes or differs. In the domain of space, this construction can be used when an item has moved from an original position, with o + ACC marking the distance of the shift in location, as in this example, where the difference in position equals one step: (130) Musím ustoupit o krok dozadu, jinak mě tančící dvojice porazí. [Must step-away by step-ACC backward, otherwise me-ACC dancing couple-NOM knock-down.] I must take a step backward, otherwise the dancing couple will knock me down. We can use the same preposition in the domain of time to describe events that are shifted from one place to another along the timeline, whether forward or backward. Thus, if an event actually took place a day earlier than expected, one could say that it happened o den dříve [by day-ACC earlier] ‘a day earlier’. Postponement, which moves planned events in the opposite direction along the timeline, also uses the preposition o, as in this sentence: (131) Původní termín operace musí být odložen o den. [Original date-NOM operation-GEN must be postponed-NOM by day-ACC.] The original date of the operation must be postponed by a day. The preposition o ‘by’ can operate in the metaphorical spaces created by scales and measures, where it describes the amount by which given measurements differ, such as when a phenomenon increases or decreases. In this example, the amount of criminal activity rises, and o marks the amount by which the new measurement differs from the previous one: (132) Na Olomoucku stoupla hospodářská kriminalita až o sto procent. [On Olomouc-area-LOC went-up economic criminal-activity up-to by hundredACC percent-GEN.] In the Olomouc area economic criminal activity has increased by as much as one hundred percent. The measurement of differences along scales is an essential ingredient in the making of comparisons, and for this reason the preposition o ‘by’ is frequently associated with comparative forms in Czech, marking the amount by which an item is measured as being more or less on a given scale, as in phrases like sestra je o rok starší, než já [sister-NOM is by year-ACC older-NOM, than I-NOM] ‘my sister is a year older than I am’ and ty šaty jsou o deset dolarů dražší [that outfit-NOM is by ten-ACC dollars-GEN more-expensive-NOM] ‘that outfit is ten dollars more expensive’. Here’s a real example to try on for size:

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The Accusative Case (133) Nadechla se a do tváří se jí vracela o něco zdravější barva. [Inhaled self-ACC and to cheeks-GEN self-ACC her-DAT returned by somethingACC healthier color-NOM.] She took a deep breath and a somewhat healthier color returned to her cheeks. Two prepositions, mimo and přes, can be used to mean ‘in spite of’. Here the item marked as ACCUSATIVE:: A DIMENSION has some essential mass, something that must be reckoned with, a dimension to deal with. One has to overcome this entity in order to arrive at a contrary outcome, and this implies a comparison between the accusative entity and the actual result. For mimo ‘in spite of’, the most typical domain is that of anticipation, with the common phrase mimo očekávání [in-spite-of expectation-ACC] ‘in spite of/contrary to expectation’, which appears in this example: (134) Zcela mimo očekávání se na tribuně objevil i prezident Václav Havel. [Entirely in-spite-of expectation-ACC self-ACC at tribunal-LOC appeared also president Václav Havel-NOM.] Against all expectation, president Václav Havel also appeared at the tribunal. The preposition přes ‘in spite of’ tends to operate in domains of limiting factors and prohibitions, motivating uses like přes své stáří je čilý [in-spite-of own age-ACC is agile-NOM] ‘he’s agile in spite of his age’, and přes zákaz [in-spite-of prohibition-ACC] ‘in spite/ defiance of the prohibition’. The prepositional phrase přes to [in-spite-of that-ACC] ‘in spite of that/anyway’ can also be written as one word: přesto, and can be enlarged in the phrase přesto přese všecko ‘for all that’. Here is an example of how přes is used: (135) I přes zákaz používat mobilní telefon při řízení motorového vozidla je stále mnoho řidičů, kteří telefonují  za jízdy . [Even in-spite-of prohibition-ACC use mobile telephone-ACC during driving-LOC motor vehicle-GEN is still many-NOM drivers-GEN, who-NOM telephone during ride-GEN.] In spite of the prohibition on using mobile telephones while driving motor vehicles, there are still many people who make telephone calls while driving. Approximations involve a comparison of an actual amount with a nearby round figure or familiar value. The preposition na can be used to mean ‘approximately’, in phrases like na prst silný [approximately finger-ACC thick] ‘about the thickness of a finger’, and with numerals, as in these examples: (136) V Severní Bosně působí na šest set českých vojáků. [In Northern Bosnia-LOC are-engaged approximately six-ACC hundred-GEN Czech soldiers-GEN.] Approximately six hundred Czech soldiers are engaged in Northern Bosnia. (137) Týden lyžování v Rakousku vás v hlavní sezóně přijde až na deset tisíc. [Week-NOM skiing-GEN in Austria-LOC you-ACC in main season-LOC comes up-to approximately ten-ACC thousand-GEN.]

37 A week of skiing in Austria during the peak season will run you up to about ten thousand. The preposition s can be used to express approximate capacity or capability as measured against another item. This preposition usually appears when we are considering whether someone is ‘up to’ a certain task or able to compete with another person, as in the common phrases být s to něco udělat [be up-to that-ACC something-ACC do] ‘be up to doing something’ and kdo s koho [who-NOM up-to who-ACC] ‘who is as good as (or better than) who’. Here are some examples of how these phrases behave in real contexts: (138) Premiér Miloš Zeman nebyl s to odpovědět na otázky novinářů. [Prime-minister Miloš Zeman-NOM not-was capable that-ACC answer to questions-ACC journalists-GEN.] Prime Minister Miloš Zeman was’t able to answer the journalists’ questions. (139) Volby rozhodnou kdo s koho. [Election-NOM decides who-NOM capable who-ACC.] The election will decide who is as good as (or better than) who.

EPILOGUE The word accusative is not very helpful in summing up this case, although you can think of the parallel between the force of an accusation being released upon the accused and the force of a verb being released upon an object. Accusation is indeed one kind of directed activity, and the accusative case is all about directed activity, particularly motion. Directed motion occupies a prominent place in the linguistic imagination of Czechs, and they make a much crisper distinction between motion and location than we do in English. It doesn’t matter how short the trip is: even the travel of our backside to a seat or the travel of a book to the place we lay it on our night table is described as a movement with a destination. Just looking at something constitutes a visual voyage. Our understanding of time is patterned after how we perceive space, motivating the conclusion that if a journey has a spatial destination, then an event has a temporal destination as well. Change to a new state is comprehended as movement to a new location. Although one may merely go to a destination, alternatively one may also travel through a dimension, measuring and comparing the extent of phenomena in a variety of domains. The accusative case gets us through difficulties, past obstacles, all the way to our ultimate goals.

2

The Vocative Case

Feminine declension nouns

Masculine declension nouns Neuter declension nouns Adjectives

Pronouns

Possessives

Numerals

Vocative: a call

VOCATIVE:

V

A CALL

PROLOGUE The vocative is by far the simplest case in Czech. It has only one meaning and is not associated with any prepositions, verbs or other “trigger words”. In fact many people will argue that the vocative doesn’t even deserve to be called a case at all because it doesn’t participate in the formation of sentences, but rather stands at the edge of sentences, offset from actual sentences by a comma. This is because all the other cases give us information about the relationship of the words they mark to other elements in a sentence (for example, the nominative case can tell us that an item is the subject of a verb, the genitive can tell us that one item is a whole of which another item forms a part, the dative can tell us that an item is an indirect object, the accusative can tell us that an item is a direct object, the locative can provide adverbial information about the setting of an event, and the instrumental can tell us about the means used to bring an event about). The vocative doesn’t give us any information about grammatical relationships of this kind, because its purpose is entirely pragmatic — it tells us instead about the relationship of the person speaking to someone else. The purpose of the vocative case is precisely to let someone know that the speaker is talking to them rather than about them, and its meaning adds up to nothing more than ‘Hey, you!’. Because calling someone by their name and stating the name of a person or thing are very similar actions, the vocative can be replaced by NOMINATIVE: A NAME, as mentioned in the chapter on the nominative case. Thus even in its sole and minimal meaning, the vocative is dispensable, since the nominative can stand in for it.

VOCATIVE: A CALL Since the vocative is not a part of a sentence, it often stands alone, when people call each other’s names to greet them or get their attention, as in this example: (1)

“Jiříku!”, uvítala mě maminka. [“Jiřík-VOC!”, greeted me-ACC mother-NOM.] “Jiřík!”, my mother greeted me.

V VOCATIVE: A CALL (circle labeled V)

If a person has a messge to deliver after getting someone’s attention, they can insert a brief pause (signalled by a comma) to separate the vocative form from the sentence that contains the message, as in this example: (2)

Maminko a tatínku, ať už to mám za sebou, klidně mně můžete nasekat na zadek. [Mom-VOC and Dad-VOC, may-it-be already that-ACC have behind self-ACC,

3

4

The Vocative Case calmly me-DAT can spank on bottom-ACC.] Mom and Dad, I want to get this over with, you can just go ahead and spank me. Although the vast majority of vocative forms you are likely to hear or read will involve names for people, it is entirely possible to create and use vocative forms for nouns that designate inanimate objects, as evidenced in this sentence, where the writer offers advice to the World Bank: (3)

Světová banko, přestaňte vydávat 92 procent svého dopravního pozpočtu na motorovou dopravu, motoristickou infrastrukturu a výstavbu masivních silnic! [World Bank-VOC, stop spend 92-ACC percent-GEN own transportation budgetGEN on motor-vehicle transportation-ACC, motor-vehicle infrastructure-ACC and construction-ACC massive highways-GEN!] O World Bank, stop spending 92 percent of your transportation budget on motor vehicle transportation and infrastructure, and the construction of massive highways!

You might have noticed that the vocative case has no plural forms. When groups of people are addressed, as in Vážené dámy a pánové! [Esteemed ladies-NOM and gentlemen-NOM!] ‘Ladies and gentlemen!’, the nominative case forms must be used, even though the context is expressly vocative. Here is an example of how a plural nominative form is obliged to take on vocative function: (4)

Vážení posluchači, mám tu čest přivítat mezi námi nám tak vzácného hosta — pana prezidenta Václava Havla. [Esteemed listeners-NOM, have that honor-ACC welcome among us-INST us-DAT such precious guest-ACC — Mr. president Václav Havel-ACC.] Dear listeners, I have the honor of welcoming a guest who is very special to us — president Václav Havel.

EPILOGUE The vocative case is so named because it is merely a vocalization used to evoke a reaction (and the three words vocative, vocal, and evoke are all related to each other through a common root). The vocative is a defective case both grammatically (it doesn’t refer to any grammatical relationships at all, unlike other cases) and formally (it doesn’t have any plural forms and can be replaced by the nominative). But the vocative is very handy for getting people’s attention, and you’ll never get through a day in the Czech Republic without hearing it many times over. It’s a ubiquitous yet very simple part of Czech that stems from our human need for verbal interaction, since there’s no point in talking to someone unless you can get their attention.

Vocative: a call

5

2

The Locative Case

Feminine declension nouns

Masculine declension nouns Neuter declension nouns Adjectives

Pronouns

Possessives

Numerals

Locative: a place

L LOCATIVE:

A PLACE

PROLOGUE LOCATIVE: A PLACE is a setting, locating an item in space, time, or a metaphorical domain. The locative is the only case in Czech that always requires a preposition, and is therefore sometimes called the “prepositional case”. Five prepositions are associated with LOCATIVE: A PLACE: na ‘on; at’, v ‘in’, při ‘by, near; during; with’, o ‘about; leaning on; during; with’, and po ‘after; along, around; for; each’. The meanings of these prepositions are based on human experience of physical location in the domain of our three-dimensional environment. However, all of these prepositions are active in other domains, such as time, states of being, and quantification. We will look at each preposition in turn and discuss how LOCATIVE: A PLACE weaves its web of meaning.

LOCATIVE: A PLACE 1 — na ‘on; at’

L

In its most basic use in the domain of physical space, na + LOCATIVE: A PLACE refers to a location on an object that has a surface, such as a desk, chair, floor, cot, or tray — the surfaces that serve as na + LOCATIVE: A PLACE locations in the following three examples:

(1) Na stole byste měli mít svoji viditelnou vizitku, nebo stojánek se jménem, aby návštěvník An item (small circle) is in a věděl, s kým jedná. LOCATIVE: A PLACE (circle labeled L) [On desk-LOC should had have own visible business-card-ACC, or stand-ACC with name-INST, so-that visitor-NOM knew with whom-INST deals.] You should have a your business card visible on the desk, or a stand with your name, so that visitors will know who they are dealing with. (2)

Chlapec stojí na židli, jako stál prve na podlaze, a pozoruje střechy a věže města. [Little-boy stands on chair-LOC, like stood at-first on floor-LOC, and observes roofs-ACC and towers-ACC city-GEN.] The little boy stands on the chair just as he stood before on the floor and observes the roofs and towers of the city.

(3)

V malebných zátočinách odpočívají na lehátkách turisté, kteří chtějí pohodlí na tácu jako chlazené martini.

3

4

The Locative Case [In picturesque hideaways-LOC rest on cots-LOC tourists-NOM, who-NOM want comfort-ACC on tray-LOC like chilled martini-ACC.] Tourists who want comfort on a tray like a chilled martini rest on cots in picturesque hideaways. Since attachment is something that happens on a surface, na + LOCATIVE: A PLACE can also be used to express an attachment or connection to something; notice that English ‘on’ shares this capacity in these examples and their translations below: (4)

Téměř každý návštěvník si z pouti na provázku odnáší balónek plněný plynem. [Almost every visitor-NOM self-DAT from fair-GEN on string-LOC takes balloon-ACC filled-ACC gas-GEN.] Almost every visitor takes home from the fair a helium balloon on a string.

(5)

Na služebních vizitkách není vhodné uvádět telefon a adresu do bytu. [On business cards-LOC is-not appropriate cite phone-number-ACC and addressACC to apartment-GEN.] It is not appropriate to cite one’s home phone number and address on business cards.

The vast majority of locations in Czech are signalled by either na + LOC or v + LOC, but this distinction does not correlate to our distinction in English between on, at, and in, except when we are dealing with locations that are obviously surfaces (requiring na) or containers (requiring v). Unfortunately many locations are neither surfaces nor containers, and students are usually told that they will just have to memorize all the “na-words” in Czech. While it is true that there are no solid rules you can rely on to predict the use of na vs. v with 100% accuracy, we can offer some generalizations that work pretty well, and point out some glaring exceptions to watch out for. Locations that can be thought of as surfaces, like islands and mountain ranges tend to use na + LOC. Locations that are regions or are associated with the countryside are not thought of as having tightly defined boundaries, and are used with na + LOC. The suffix -iště forms neuter nouns describing locations that are conceived of as surfaces, and all words with this suffix use na + LOC, as do points of embarkation for travel and all sorts of generalized locations lacking firm boundaries, like the points on a compass. Certain significant buildings and locations relating to administration, trade, and education use na + LOC. Na + LOC is also the norm for most organized events and many significant time junctures as well. The table below provides a representative sample of “na-words” of these types, plus important exceptions that use v + LOC instead. It is followed by examples to illustrate each grouping of “na-words”.

Locative: a place

A Categorization of Common “na-words” Locations that are islands, peninsulas, mountain ranges, clearings, and other places thought of as regions na ostrově ‘on an island’ na Kubě ‘in Cuba’ na Madagaskaru ‘in Madagascar’ na Sicílii ‘in Sicily’ na Hawaji ‘in Hawaii’ na Kypru ‘in Cyprus’ na poloostrově ‘on a peninsula’ na Floridě ‘in Florida’ na Krymu ‘in the Crimea’ na Aljašce ‘in Alaska’ na Kavkaze ‘in the Caucasus’ na Urale ‘in the Urals’ na Šumavě ‘in the Š umava na pasece ‘in a clearing’ mountains’ na mýtině ‘in a clearing’ na louce ‘in a meadow’ na náměstí ‘on a square’ na hřbitově ‘in a cemetery’ na stadióně/u ‘at a stadium’ na farmě ‘on a farm’ na venkově ‘in the country’ na chalupě ‘at a cottage’ na samotě ‘in a secluded spot’ na pláži ‘on the beach’ na chatě ‘at a cabin’ na vesnici ‘in a village’ But note the use of v with: v Japonsku ‘in Japan’ v Tatrách ‘in the Tatra mountains’ v Alpách ‘in the Alps’ v Krkonoších ‘in the G iant mountains’ v Austrálii ‘in Australia’

Points of embarcation for travel and words ending in -iště na nádraží ‘at the train station’ na nástupišti na letišti ‘at the airport’ na stanici na hřišti ‘at a playground’ na pracovišti na schodišti ‘on the stairs’ na smetišti na sídlišti ‘in the housing na pískovišti development’

Compass Points and Other Generalized Locations na východě ‘in the east’ na jihu ‘in the south’ na hranici ‘on the border’ na slunci ‘in the sun(shine)’ na místě ‘in place’

na na na na na

západě severu mezi čerstvém vzduchu obloze

‘on the train platform’ ‘at the station/stop’ ‘at the workplace’ ‘at the dump’ ‘in the sandbox’

‘in the west’ ‘in the north’ ‘on the boundary line’ ‘in the fresh air’ ‘in the sky’

5

6

The Locative Case

Significant Administrative, Trade, and Academic Buildings and Units na poště ‘at the post office’ na hradě na zámku ‘in/at the castle/estate’ na faře na burze ‘at the na trhu (stock-)exchange’ na univerzitě ‘at the university’ na fakultě na oddělení ‘in the department’ na průmyslovce ‘in the technical na střední škole college’ But note the use of v with: ve škole ‘in the school’ v továrně v ústavu ‘in the institute’ v institutu ve skladu ‘in the warehouse’ Events and Certain Significant Time Junctures: na plesu ‘at a dance’ na schůzi ‘at/in a meeting’ na zasedání ‘at/in a meeting/session’ na koncertě ‘at a concert’ na kongrese/u ‘at a congress’ na pouti ‘at a fair; on a pilgrimage’ na mši ‘at mass’ na olympijských hrách ‘at t he O lympic Games’ na procházce ‘on a walk’ na obědě ‘at lunch’ na úsvitě ‘at dawn’ na začátku ‘at the beginning’ But note use of v with: v práci ‘at work’ v zimě

‘in the winter’

‘in/at the castle’ ‘in the parish’ ‘at the market(place)’ ‘in the school/unit’ ‘in the high school’

‘at/in the factory’ ‘in the institute’

na bále na konferenci

‘at a ball’ ‘at a conference’

na představení na exkurzi na slavnosti

‘at a performance’ ‘on an excursion’ ‘at a celebration’

na přednášce

‘at a lecture’

na na na na

dovolené jaře sklonku konci

v penzi v létě

‘on vacation’ ‘in the spring’ ‘at the end/close’ ‘at the end’ ‘on a pension; retirement’ ‘in the summer’

in

(6)

Na plážích fouká vítr, který zvedá písek. [On beaches-LOC blows wind-NOM, which-NOM raises sand-ACC.] A wind that raises the sand blows on the beaches.

(7)

“Moji chlapi” si zajezdili na horských kolech z půjčovny hotelu, já jsem si raději poležela na sluníčku. [“My boys-NOM” self-DAT rode on mountain bikes-LOC from rental-office-GEN hotel-GEN, I-NOM AUX self-DAT rather lay on sun-LOC.] “My boys” went for a ride on mountain bikes from the hotel rental office, but I instead lay around in the sun.

Locative: a place (8)

Pracovní síla je v Česku pětkrát lacinější než na Západě. [Work strength-NOM is in Bohemia-LOC five-times cheaper-NOM than on WestLOC.] Labor in Bohemia is five times cheaper than in the West.

(9)

Na pracovišti přednostně platí pravidla podřízenosti a nadřízenosti. [On workplace-LOC primarily are-valued rules-NOM subordination-GEN and superiority-GEN.] The primary rules in the workplace are those of subordination and superiority.

(10)

Ono je lepší sedět na voze a přitom jet než sedět někde na mezi a přitom být pořád na jednom místě. [It-NOM is better-NOM sit on vehicle-LOC and at-the-same-time ride than sit somewhere on boundary-LOC and at-the-same-time be still on one place-LOC.] It is better to sit in a vehicle and be riding than to sit somewhere on a boundary and just be in one place.

(11)

Celý proces je pečlivě konzultován a promýšlen na výročních zasedáních, konferencích a multilaterálních schůzkách všech možných mezinárodních institucí. [Whole process-NOM is carefully dicussed-NOM and thought-through-NOM at annual sessions-LOC, conferences-LOC, and multilateral meetings-LOC all possible international institutions-GEN.] The whole process is carefully discussed and considered at annual sessions, conferences, and multilateral meetings of every kind of international institution.

Cities and countries are thought of as bounded spaces and therefore as metaphorical containers (remember that both city limits and country borders have been associated with walls in the past), so cities and countries are not “na-words”; they use v + LOC. Whereas most cities, and countries use v + locative: a place, some use na: na Buchlově ‘in Buchlov’, na Kladně ‘in Kladno’, na Dobříši ‘in Dobříš’, na Moravě ‘in Moravia’, na Slovensku ‘in Slovakia’, na Ukrajině ‘in Ukraine’, na Smíchově ‘in Smíchov’, na Hradčanech ‘on the Castle grounds’, na Zvíkově ‘in Zvíkov’, na Hané ‘in Haná’. Balconies and attics use na: na balkóně ‘on the balcony’, na půdě ‘in the attic’. Here are some others that are hard to explain, but happen to correspond to English ‘on’: na poradě ‘on the agenda’, na cestě ‘on the way’, na rohu ‘on the corner’. Na + LOC is also evident in metaphorical uses, where we see that the notion of placement on a surface is extended to other domains. Buildings stand on foundations fashioned from stone, and metphorically ideologies stand on conceptual foundations. Events can be understood as consisting of a beginning, middle, and end, each understood as an open spaces where people experiencing an event may be located. Here are examples of the metaphorical extension of na + LOC: (12)

Každá ideologie musí stát na nějakém reálném základě. [Every ideology-NOM must stand on some real foundation-LOC.] Every ideology must stand on some real foundation.

7

8

The Locative Case (13)

Jsme zase jakoby na počátku. [Are again as-if on beginning-LOC.] It’s as if we were at the beginning again.

Although the vast majority of words designating locations can be used only with na or only with v, there are a few words that can be used with both prepositions. These words can be grouped in two categories: for one set of words, the use of na or v seems to make no discernable difference in the meaning of the phrase; for the second set, although both prepositions are used, phrases with na are associated with a different meaning than correlated phrases with v. We will look at each set of words in turn, starting with those that do not show any significant difference in meaning with the two prepositions, a situation known as “free variation”. Words that can use both na and v without Significant Difference in Meaning na/v horách ‘in the mountains’ na/v poli na/v zahradě ‘in the garden’ na/v okrese na/v koleji ‘in the dormitory’ na/v podniku na/ve dvoře na/v závodě

‘in the courtyard’ ‘at/in the factory’

na/ve vrátnici

‘in the field’ ‘in the district/county’ ‘in the company/at t he business’ ‘at the doorman’s post’

The following pairs of examples illustrate the synomymous meaning characteristic of “free variation” for three of these words: na/v horách ‘in the mountains’, na/v zahradě ‘in the garden’, and na/ve vrátnici ‘at the doorman’s post’. Czechs generally agree that na and v are interchangeable in these kinds of sentences. (14)

Pamatuji si i na dobrý časy, když jsme bydleli na horách, a na ty špatný se snažím zapomenout. (CCz) [Remember self-DAT also on good times-ACC, when AUX lived on mountainsLOC, an on those bad-ACC self-ACC try forget.] I remember the good times too, when we lived in the mountains, and I try to forget the bad ones.

(15)

V horách se pohybuji velmi nejistě, zimní radovánky a lyže mi nic neříkají. [In mountains-LOC self-ACC move very uncertainly, winter festivals-NOM and skis-NOM me-DAT nothing-ACC not-say.] I move very awkwardly in the mountains, winter festivals and skis do nothing for me.

(16)

Při práci na zahradě jsou nebezpečná hluboká a úzká poranění kůže. [At work-LOC at garden-LOC are dangerous-NOM deep-NOM and narrow wounds-NOM skin-GEN.] Deep and narrow skin wounds are dangerous when working in the garden.

(17)

Svěřte odborné firmě náročnější zásahy, které se v zahradě provádějí na jaře a na podzim.

Locative: a place [Entrust expert company-GEN more-demanding tasks-ACC, which-NOM self-ACC in garden-LOC carry-out at spring-LOC and to autumn-ACC.] Entrust the more demanding tasks that are carried out in the garden in spring and autumn to an expert company. (18)

Přijde návštěva, na vrátnici se zapíše a pak se může téměř nerušeně pohybovat po budově. [Comes visitor-NOM, at front-desk-LOC self-ACC signs and then self-ACC can almost undisturbed move along building-LOC.] A visitor comes and, signs in at the front desk and then that person can move about the building almost undisturbed.

(19)

Ve vrátnici byla práce zdánlivě lehčí, i když ji noční služby vysilovaly. [In front-desk-LOC was work-NOM seemingly easier-NOM, even when it-ACC night duties-NOM depleted.] Work at the front desk was seemingly easier, even though the night duties took much of one’s strength.

For a larger group of words, the choice of na or v is not at all random, but brings with it a choice between different meanings. This table compares the meanings associated with na and v. In the case of some of these words, items can physically be either on the surface or within the confines of the location: země ‘ground’, řeka ‘river’, and moře ‘sea’. However, the use of na vs. v with the remaining words does not follow any strict logic; it is simply an idiomatic distinction that must be learned. The table is followed by examples illustrating the distinct uses of na zemi ‘on land, on the earth, on the ground’ vs. v zemi ‘in a country; in the ground’ and na ulici ‘outside, in the street’ vs. v ulici ‘on X street’.

Words That Can Use Both na and v , But Show Discernible Difference in Meaning when used with na when used with v na ulici vs. v ulici ‘outside, in the street’ ‘on X street’ na světě vs. ve světě ‘(first, best, etc.) in the world’ ‘in the world’ na zemi vs. v zemi ‘on land, on the earth, on the ‘in a country; in the ground’ ground’ na patře vs. v patře ‘on the Xth floor’ ‘on the floor’ na bytě vs. v bytě ‘(tenants) at the apartment’ ‘at home, inside, i n t he apartment’ na srdci vs. v srdci ‘on one’s conscience’ ‘in one’s heart’ na pokoji vs. v pokoji ‘in one’s room’ ‘in the room’ na řece vs. v řece ‘at/by/on the river’ ‘in the river’ na moři vs. v moři ‘at/by the sea, at sea’ ‘in the sea’

(20)

Policisté vyslýchané osoby kromě jiného bili pěstí do břicha, na zemi do nich kopali a přikládali jim revolver k hlavě. [Policemen-NOM interrogated persons-ACC except other-GEN beat fist-INST to stomach-GEN, on ground-LOC to them-GEN kicked and put them-DAT revolverACC to head-DAT.]

9

10

The Locative Case Among other things, the policemen beat persons under interrogation in the stomach with their fists, kicked them on the ground, and put a revolver to their head. (21)

Provozovatelé obou mobilních sítí v zemi se snaží výhodnými nabídkami přilákat další zákazníky. [Operators-NOM both mobile networks-GEN in country-LOC self-ACC try advantageous offers-INST attract further customers-ACC.] The operators of both mobile telephone networks in the country are trying to attract more customers with advantageous offers.

(22)

Jako každý zahradkář jsem šťastný, mám-li na jaře všechny sazeničky a semínka v zemi. [Like every gardener-NOM am happy-NOM have-whether on spring-LOC all seedlings-ACC and seeds-ACC in ground-LOC.] Like every gardener, I’m happy when I have all the seedlings and seeds in the ground in the spring.

(23)

Na ulici poletovaly drobné sněhové vločky. [On street-LOC fluttered little snow flakes-NOM.] Little snowflakes fluttered outside.

(24)

Co já pamatuji, bydlel odjakživa v naší ulici. [What-ACC I-NOM remember, lived always in our street-LOC.] As far as I can remember, he always lived on our street.

A significant number of words in Czech are typically followed by the preposition na + LOCATIVE: A PLACE. Some of these words have obvious parallels to English phrases, but many do not and some might seem altogether counter-intuitive. Here is a list of na + LOC phrases you can expect to encounter: Words that can trigger na + LOCATIVE: A PLACE jet/jezdit/jízda na koni; na kole plout/plavba na lodi trvat na něčem; na svém šetřit na něčem vařit na plynu; na másle psát na stroji; na počítači počítat na prstech urážka na cti přibývat na váze pozbývat na síle myšlenka/myslet na práce/pracovat na závislost/zá-viset na usnést/usnášet se na zákonu vynutit co na kom založit/zakládat (se) na

‘ride a horse; a bike’ ‘sail on a boat’ ‘insist on something; on having it one’s own way’ ‘be frugal about something’ ‘cook with gas; fry in butter’ ‘type on a typewriter; on a computer’ ‘count on one’s fingers’ ‘slander (literally: offence on honor)’ ‘gain weight’ ‘lose strength’ ‘thought/think about’ ‘work on’ ‘dependence/depend on’ ‘pass a law’ ‘force a thing out of a person’ ‘base (be based) on’

Locative: a place The following sentences demonstrate how these phrases behave in context: (25)

Vyprávěla nám příběh prodavače kol, který neuměl jezdit na kole, protože neudržel rovnováhu. [Told us-DAT story-ACC salesman-GEN bicycles-GEN, who-NOM not-knew ride on bicycle-LOC, because not-kept balance-ACC.] She told us the story of a bicycle salesman who couldn’t ride a bicycle because he couldn’t keep his balance.

(26)

Vaření na plynu je až dvakrát rychlejší než na klasickém sporáku. [Cooking on gas-LOC is up-to twice faster-NOM than on traditional stove-LOC.] Cooking with gas is up to twice as fast as with a traditional stove.

(27)

S každým dítětem přibrala na váze. [With each child-INST added on weight-LOC.] She gained weight with each child.

(28)

Obviněný stále trvá na tom, že svědkova výpověď se nezakládá na pravdě. [Accused-NOM constantly insists on that-LOC, that witness’ testimony-NOM selfACC not-bases on truth-LOC.] The accused continues to insist that the witness’ testimony is not based on truth.

(29)

Vše závisí na výsledku druhého utkání USA-Kuvajt. [All-NOM depends on result-LOC second match-GEN USA-Kuwait.] Everything depends on the result of the second match between the USA and Kuwait.

The verb mít ‘have’ combines with the preposition na + LOC in numerous idiomatic phrases, one of which is motivated by a physical location, that of clothes on one’s body (note that our English idiom have on is based on the same logic): mít na sobě (šaty) [have on self-LOC (clothes-ACC)] ‘have on, be wearing (clothes)’. Other mít na + LOC idioms are metaphoric, treating domains such as thought and control as locations: mít něco na paměti [have something-ACC on memory-LOC] ‘remember something’, mít něco na mysli [have something-ACC on thought-LOC] ‘be thinking about something’, mít něco na starosti [have something-ACC on concern-LOC] ‘be responsible for something’, mít něco na háku [have something-ACC on hook-LOC] ‘find something easy to do, know something well’, mít podíl na něčem [have share-ACC on something-LOC] ‘have a share of something, take part in something’ . Here are two examples, one to illustrate each type of idiom: (30)

Ukradli mi novou zimní bundu, kterou jsem měl všeho všudy dvakrát na sobě. [Stole me-DAT new winter coat-ACC, which-ACC AUX had all-GEN everywhere twice on self-LOC.] They stole my new winter coat which I had only worn twice.

11

12

The Locative Case (31)

Stále mám na paměti, co mi řekl otec při mém odchodu z domova. [Still have on memory-LOC, what-ACC me-DAT said father-NOM at my departure-LOC from home-GEN.] I still remember what my father said to me when I left home.

Another set of idiomatic expressions has the structure být na + LOC and refers primarily to states of being or times in which items are metaphorically located, such as: být na odchodu [be on departure-LOC] ‘be on the way out’, být na živu (also spelled as one word: naživu) [be on living-LOC] ‘be alive’, být na tom dobře/špatně [be on that-LOC well/badly] ‘be doing well/badly’, být na něčím místě [be on someone’s place-LOC] ‘be in someone’s shoes’, být/žít na volné noze [be/live on free leg-LOC] ‘be free/freelancing’, být na čase [be on time-LOC] ‘be the time (for something)’. Here are a few sentences to illustrate the být na + LOC idioms: (32)

Zápasnických pravidel se tam nedostává, kdo je po boji na živu, ten prostě vyhrává. [Competition rules-GEN self-ACC there not-gets, who-NOM is after battle-LOC on life-LOC, that-NOM just wins.] There aren’t any rules to the game, who ever is alive after the battle is the one who wins.

(33)

Zdravotně je na tom dost špatně, neobejde se bez stálé pečovatelky. [Healthwise is on that-LOC rather badly, not-manages self-ACC without constant nurse’s-aide-GEN.] Healthwise he is doing rather badly, he cannot manage without a nurse’s aide at all times.

(34)

Mne by také nikdo nepřesvědčil, kdybych byl na vašem místě. [Me-ACC would also no-one-NOM not-convince, if-AUX was on your place-LOC.] Nobody would convince me either if I were in your shoes.

(35)

Začala na prknech hradeckého divadla, pak dva roky byla na volné noze. [Started on boards-LOC castle theater-GEN, then two years-ACC was on free legLOC.] She started on the stage of the castle theater, then did freelance work for two years.

(36)

Je nanejvýš na čase přiznat, že Německo je zemí imigrace. [Is highest on time-LOC acknowledge, that Germany-NOM is country-INST imigration-GEN.] It is high time to acknowledge that Germany is a country of imigration.

Finally, if you catch someone voicing unjustifiable complaints, you can respond by saying simply Co na tom? [What-NOM on that-LOC?] ‘What about it?/That doesn’t matter’.

Locative: a place

LOCATIVE: A PLACE 2 — v ‘in’ In its basic sense, the preposition v + LOCATIVE: A PLACE ‘in’ identifies an enclosed place in three-dimensional space. This place can be defined by boundaries, such as the walls of a room, the fabric encasing a purse, or the sides of a box, as we see in this example: (37)

V předsíni našla kabelku, v kabelce krabičku, v krabičce hodinky. [In foyer-LOC found purse-ACC, in purse-LOC little-box-ACC, in little-box-LOC watch-ACC.] In the foyer she found a purse, in the purse she found a little box, and in the little box she found a watch.

As this next example demonstrates, v + LOC is also the preposition of choice when the location is an enveloping substance (here it is blood where the lycopene is present): (38)

Při vyšší spotřebě rajčat a račatových výrobků se zvyšuje koncentrace lykopenu v krvi. [At higher consumption-LOC tomato products-GEN self-ACC rises concentrationNOM lycopene-GEN in blood-LOC.] When large quantities of tomato products are consumed the concentration of lycopene in the blood goes up.

The use of v + LOC is considerably more prevalent than the use of na + LOC, and v is the preposition of choice for a vast number of locations that are not “na-words”, even though they may not look like containers to you or me. This includes all kinds of bounded spaces such as cities, countries, buildings, and forests, as demonstrated in these examples: (39)

Mám sice ve městě nový ateliér, ale tady na Sázavě se snažím být co nejvíce. [Have though in city-LOC new studio-ACC, but here on Sázava-LOC self-ACC try be what-NOM most.] Though I do have a new studio in the city, I try to spend as much time as possible here in Sázava.

(40)

Hřiby, které našel v lese, nasušil na zimu. [Mushrooms-ACC, which-ACC found in forest-LOC, dried for winter-ACC.] He dried the mushrooms which he found in the forest for winter use.

(41)

Pro chlapce nejspíš najdou místo v některém dětském domově v Sovětském svazu. [For boy-ACC most-likely find place-ACC in some orphanage-LOC in Soviet Union-LOC.] They will probably find a place for the boy in an orphanage in the Soviet Union.

(42)

V Českých Budějovicích nejsou v lékárnách k sehnání jodové tablety určené obyvatelstvu v případě jaderné havárie.

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The Locative Case [In České Budějovice-LOC not-are in pharmacies-LOC to locating-DAT iodine tablets-NOM designated-NOM population-DAT in case-LOC nuclear disaster-GEN.] In České Budějovice there aren’t any iodine tablets in the pharmacies for the population to use in case of a nuclear disaster. The last sentence above contains a metaphorical use of v + LOC which has an exact equivalent in English: v případě ‘in case’; other metaphorical uses of this preposition will be presented below. Though it may seem counter-intuitive, heights are often expressed using v + LOC; two examples of this usage appear in the following sentence: (43)

Ve výšce, kam dosahuje vrchol Mont Everestu, tedy v necelých 9.000 metrech nad mořem, nalévají stevardky šampaňské do plastových pohárků. [In height-LOC, where reaches summit-NOM Mount Everest-GEN, that-is in notwhole 9,000 meters-LOC above sea-INST, pour stewardesses-NOM champagneACC to plastic cups-GEN.] At the height reached by Mount Everest, that is almost 9,000 meters above sea level, stewardesses pour champagne into plastic cups.

The world is full of metaphorical locations that use the preposition v + LOC, including the domains of politics, areas of expertise, language, and states of being. As the following examples attest, there is a great deal of overlap in metaphorical imagination between Czech and English here, and the correspondence between v + LOC and in is pretty good: (44)

V politických kruzích to sice už vřelo, ale život běžného člověka byl stejný jako dříve. [In political circles-LOC that-NOM after-all already boiled, but life-NOM ordinary person-GEN was same-NOM as earlier.] Yes, things were already cooking along in political circles, but the life of an ordinary person was the same as it had been before.

(45)

Vláda chce poskytnout pracovní povolení vysoce kvalifikovaným expertům v oblasti informatiky. [Government-NOM wants provide work permit-ACC highly qualified experts-DAT in area-LOC information-science-GEN.] The government wants to provide work permits to highly qualified experts in the area of information science.

(46)

Pták zmizí, ozve se klení v andulčí řeči a za pár minut vypochoduje vzteklé zvíře před nábytek. [Bird-NOM disappears, resounds self-ACC cursing-NOM in canary language-LOC and in pair-ACC minutes-GEN marches out furious beast-NOM before furnitureACC.] The bird disappears, one hears some curses in canary language, and in a few minutes the angry beast marches out in front of the furniture.

Locative: a place (47)

Zeď, která je v havarijním stavu, bude ještě letos opravena na nejnutnějších místech. [Wall-NOM, which-NOM is in disastrous state-LOC, will-be still this-year repaired-NOM on most-necessary places-LOC.] The wall, which is in a disastrous state, will be repaired in the most necessary places this year.

A large number of words in Czech are typically followed by the preposition v + LOCATIVE: A PLACE. Some of them have obvious parallels to English phrases, but many do not, and some might seem rather surprising. Here is a list of v + LOC phrases you can expect to encounter, followed by illustrative examples of how they appear in context: Words that can trigger v + LOCATIVE: A PLACE lišit se v rozdíl v pokračovat/pokrok v zvítězit/vítězství v hledat štěstí/smysl v úspěch v zhlížet se v odborník v vyznat se v záliba v zklámat se v u-slyšet v rozhlase u-vidět v televizi turnaj v házené mistrovství světa v kopané

‘differ in’ ‘difference in’ ‘make progress/progress in’ ‘be victorious/victory in’ ‘search for happiness/meaning in’ ‘success in’ ‘take a fancy to’ ‘expert on’ ‘know (a lot) about’ ‘fondness for’ ‘be disappointed by’ ‘hear on the radio’ ‘see on television’ ‘volleyball tournament’ ‘soccer world championship’

(48)

Jeden chemický prvek se od druhého liší v mnoha směrech. [One chemical element-NOM self-ACC from other-GEN differs in many directions-LOC.] Each chemical element differs from any other one in many ways.

(49)

Kdo se v tom má vyznat? [Who-NOM self-ACC in that-LOC has make-sense?] Who is supposed to make any sense out of that?

(50)

Nejstarší dcera má zálibu v hudbě, prostřední výborně maluje. [Oldest daughter-NOM has fondness-ACC in music-LOC, middle-NOM excellently paints.] Our oldest daughter has a fondness for music, and our middle daughter is an excellent painter.

(51)

Jen co Bohoušek začne trénovat na zimní turnaj ve vybíjené, půjdou kila dolů. [Only what-NOM Bohoušek-NOM starts train for winter tournament-ACC in dodgeball-LOC, go kilograms-NOM down.] As soon as Bohoušek starts training for the winter dodgeball tournament, his weight will go down.

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The Locative Case When implemented in the domain of time, v + LOCATIVE: A PLACE tends to be associated with extended periods of time ‘in’ which events can be located, and the use is indeed very similar to the temporal use of in in English. Here are some representative examples: (52)

V září uspořádali rakouští ekologičtí aktivisté tři blokády hranic. [In September-LOC organized Austrian ecological activists-NOM three blockadesACC borders-GEN.] In September Austrian ecological activists organized three border blockades.

(53)

S kompletní rekonstrukcí radnice počítá až v příštím roce. [With complete reconstruction-INST town-hall-GEN counts only in next year-LOC.] The complete reconstruction of the town hall is not expected until next year.

(54)

Soubor Harmonia Mozartiana Pragensis hraje hudbu, která byla ve své době velice oblíbená ve šlechtických rezidencích. [Ensemble-NOM Harmonia Mozartiana Pragensis-NOM plays music-ACC, whichNOM was in its time-LOC very popular-NOM in aristocratic residences-LOC.] The Harmonia Mozartiana Pragensis ensemble plays music that was very popular in its time in aristocratic residences.

(55)

Lékaři doporučují výživu s nízkým obsahem alergenů i v druhém půlroce života. [Doctors-NOM recommend nourishment-ACC with low content-INST allergensGEN in second half-year-LOC life-GEN.] Doctors recommend nourishment with low allergen content in the second six months of life.

(56)

Nikdo dnes neumí spolehlivě říct, zda informační technologie v budoucnu lidstvo zachrání anebo zničí. (CCz) [No-one-NOM today not-can dependably say, whether technology-NOM in futureLOC humanity-ACC saves or destroys.] Today nobody can say for sure whether technology will save or destroy humanity in the future.

In the course of a given length of time an action can be repeated numerous times; the Czech formula X-krát v Y-LOC expresses X times a Y (where Y is a period of time). Here is an example of how this formula is applied in a real context: (57)

V letošním roce se poprvé hraje třikrát v týdnu a někteří hráči toho mají dost. [In this-year’s year-LOC self-ACC for-the-first-time plays three-times in week-LOC and some players-NOM that-GEN have enough-ACC.] This year is the first time that they are playing three times a week and that’s a lot for some of the players.

V + LOC can also be used to indicate the age at which a person achieves or experiences something, as we see in this sentence:

Locative: a place (58)

Ve čtyřech letech čtrnáctý tibetský dalajlama byl oficiálně prohlášen vůdcem tibetského národa. [In four years-LOC fourteenth Tibetan Dalailama-NOM was officially proclaimedNOM leader-INST Tibetan nation-GEN.] At the age of four the fourteenth Tibetan Dalailama was officially proclaimed the leader of the Tibetan nation.

A number of adverbial expression and complex prepositions contain v + LOC. Here are the most common phrases of this type, along with a few examples to illustrate their usage: Adverbs and complex prepositions v protikladu k + DAT v rozporu s + INST ve skutečnosti v podstatě v důsledku + GEN ve srovnání s + INST v souvislosti s + INST v souhlase s + INST v hotovosti

‘in contrast with’ ‘contrary to’ ‘actually’ ‘essentially’ ‘as a result of’ ‘in comparison with’ ‘in connection with’ ‘in accordance with’ ‘(in) cash’

(59)

V důsledku náhodného vypadnutí zbraně došlo k výstřelu a zranění kolemjdoucího chodce. [In result-LOC accidental falling-GEN firearm-GEN happened to shooting-DAT and wounding-DAT passing-by pedestrian-GEN.] A firearm was accidentally dropped and as a result it went off and a passerby was wounded.

(60)

Ve srovnání se začátkem října se citelně ochladilo. [In comparison-LOC with beginning-INST October-GEN self-ACC noticeably gotcolder.] In comparison with the beginning of October, it has gotten noticeably colder.

(61)

Muž přišel o milion korun v hotovosti. [Man-NOM came against million-ACC crowns-GEN in cash-LOC.] The man lost a million crowns in cash.

There are some fixed phrases that contain v + LOC, notably v tom to vězí [in that-LOC that-NOM sticks] ‘that’s just the point’ and přijít ve věci [come in thing-LOC] ‘to come in connection with (and issue)’. Here is an example of how the latter phrase is used: (62)

V jaké věci přicházíte? [In what thing-LOC come?] What business brings you here?

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The Locative Case Like na + LOC, v + LOC plays a role in idioms with the verbs mít ‘have’ and být ‘be’; these include stock phrases like mít někoho v lásce [have someone-ACC in love-LOC] ‘be fond of someone’, mít něco v úmyslu [have something-ACC in intention-LOC] ‘intend to’, mít něco ve zvyku [have something-ACC in habit-LOC] ‘be in the habit of doing something’, být v dobré náladě [be in good mood-LOC] ‘be in a good mood’, být v plné síle [be in full strength-LOC] ‘be in one’s prime’, být v teple [be in warmth-LOC] ‘be in a warm place’. Additionally, být v can be combined with the locative forms of words denoting articles of clothing to express ‘be wearing’. Here are a few sentences containing idiomatic expressions built upon the construction v + LOC: (63)

Tehdy jsem studovala na výtvarné škole, měla jsem totiž v úmyslu stát se sochařkou. [Then AUX at art school-LOC, had AUX since in intention-LOC become selfACC sculptor-INST.] I was studying at an art school at the time because I intended to become an artist.

(64)

Má ve zvyku dělat věci podle svého, bez ohledu na názory ostatních. [Has in habit-LOC do things-ACC according-to own-GEN, without considerationGEN for opinions-ACC others-GEN.] He has a habit of doing things his own way, without consideration for others’ opinions.

(65)

A zase hrajou Dvořáka a zpěvačka opět vykročí v lodíčkách na vyšším podpatku ke svému stanovišti. [And again play Dvořák-ACC and singer-NOM again steps-out in pumps-LOC on higher heel-LOC toward own post-DAT.] And they are playing Dvořák again and the singer steps out again toward her post in her high-heeled pumps.

LOCATIVE: A PLACE 3 — při ‘by, near; during; with’ The sense of association that allows us to use na + LOC to describe a balloon on a string is very similar to the central idea of the preposition při ‘by; near’, and this idea of association gets extended to space, time, and metaphorical domains. Here are a couple of concrete examples illustrating the basic spatial meaning of při: (66)

Z obou stran stojí při silnici dopravní značky se zákazem vjezdu. [From both sides-GEN stand by road-LOC traffic signs-NOM with prohibitionINST entry-GEN.] Traffic signs prohibiting entry stand on both sides of the road.

(67)

Mnozí houbaři neváhají i přes zákaz vjíždět do lesa autem, místo aby ho nechali stát někde při kraji. [Many mushroom-hunters-NOM not-hesitate even despite prohibition-ACC ride-in to forest-GEN car-INST, instead AUX it-ACC left stand somewhere by edge-LOC.] Many mushroom-hunters don’t hesitate to ride into the forest in their car in defiance of the prohibition instead of leaving it somewhere near the edge.

Locative: a place As we have seen elsewhere, speakers of both Czech and English can conceive of states of being as metaphorical spaces where people and other items are located. In these examples, being při životě and při vědomí, literally ‘in life’ and ‘in consciousness’ means that someone is in the state of being alive or conscious: (68)

Při životě mě držela myšlenka na děti. [By life-LOC me-ACC held thought-NOM for children-ACC.] Thoughts of the children kept me alive.

(69)

Prezident je již opět při plném vědomí a komunikuje s okolím. [President-NOM is already again by full consciousness-LOC and communicates with surroundings-INST.] The president is now fully conscious again and communicating with those around him.

The central idea of association can be extended to refer to all kinds of accompaniment, motivating phrases like pracovat při umělém světle/svíčce [work by artificial light-LOC/ candle-LOC] ‘work in artificial light/by candlelight’, mít něco při sobě [have somethingACC at self-LOC] ‘have something with you’, přísahat při [swear at] ‘swear by’. The next three sentences give you a flavor for how při + LOC can be used to indicate accompaniment: (70)

Sedí při svíčce u stolku spisovatel a za zvuků hudby z Čajkovského Louskáčka kouří a píše. [Sits by candle-LOC by desk-GEN writer-NOM an during sounds-GEN musicGEN from Tchaikovsky’s Nutcracker-GEN smokes and writes.] The writer sits in the candlelight at his desk and smokes and writes to the sounds of music from Tchaikovsky’s Nutcracker.

(71)

Nezapomeňte však na to, že při umělém světle vypadají téměř všechny barvy jinak. [Not-forget however on that-ACC, that by artificial light-LOC look almost all colors-NOM otherwise.] Don’t forget however that in artificial light almost all colors look different.

(72)

Nemám při sobě momentálně dost peněz. [Not-have by self-LOC momentarily enough-ACC money-GEN.] I don’t have enough money with me at the moment.

Czech commonly uses při + LOC in the domain of time, where this preposition temporally associates two items, giving us to understand that they are simultaneous. This use of při can be variously translated as ‘when’, ‘while’ and ‘during’ in English, as we see in these sentences:

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The Locative Case (73)

Při vyšší spotřebě rajčat a račatových výrobků se zvyšuje koncentrace lykopenu v krvi. [At higher consumption-LOC tomato products-GEN self-ACC rises concentration-NOM lycopene-GEN in blood-LOC.] When large quantities of tomato products are consumed the concentration of lycopene in the blood goes up.

(73)

Při používání komerčních výrobků je nutné pozorně číst složení a vybírat si. [At use-LOC commercial products-GEN is necessary-NOM carefully read composition-ACC and choose self-DAT.] When using commercial products it is necessary to read the ingredients carefully and be selective.

(74)

S ruměncem ve tváři přiznal, že je příliš citlivý, než aby mohl asistovat při takové operaci. [With blush-INST in cheek-LOC admitted, that is too sensitive-NOM, than so-that could assist during such operation-LOC.] With a blush in his cheek he admitted that he is too sensitive to be able to assist during such an operation.

(75)

Když člověk hodně chce, můži si školu dodělat i při zaměstnání. [When person-NOM much wants, can self-DAT school-ACC finish even during employment-LOC.] If a person really wants to, one can finish school while working.

The concept of simultaneity is so salient for this preposition that the phrase při čemž, which can also be written as one word, přičemž, functions as an adverb meaning‘while’: (76)

Uklonil se, při čemž smekl čepici. [Bowed self-ACC, during what-LOC took-off cap-ACC.] He bowed and at the same time took off his cap.

Při + LOC has its share of idioms and fixed phrases. Here is a table collecting some of the most prevalent expressions of this type, followed by a few examples: Idiomatic expressions using při + LOC být při smyslech být při síle být při chuti být při všem být při ruce být při tom, když být při starém při nejlepší vůli při této příležitosti při nejmenším/přinejmenším

‘be in one’s right mind, sane’ ‘have one’s strength’ ‘have a good appetite’ ‘be present at everything’ ‘be handy, nearby’ ‘be there, when’ ‘be the same as before’ ‘with the best will; as much as I would like to’ ‘given that opportunity’ ‘at the very least’

Locative: a place (77)

V podstatě je vše při starém, jen se změnily jmenovky na dveřích. [In essence-LOC is everything-NOM by old-LOC, just self-ACC changed nameplates-NOM on doors-LOC.] Everything is basically the way it was before, just the names on the doors have changed.

(78)

Byla z toho láska na první pohled, při první příležitosti spolu uprchli a dali se oddat. [Was from that-GEN love-NOM at first sight-ACC, by first opportunity-LOC together ran-away and gave self-ACC marry.] It was love at first sight, at the first opportunity they ran away together and got married.

(79)

Včera dostal vysoké teploty a musí přinejmenším tři dny ležet v posteli. [Yesterday got high temperatures-ACC and must at-least-LOC three days-ACC lie in bed-LOC.] He spiked some high temperatures yesterday and must lie in bed for at least three days.

LOCATIVE: A PLACE 4 — o ‘about; leaning on; during; with’ In the domain of space, o + LOCATIVE: A PLACE conveys a sense of support, an item upon which someone or something leans. The next three examples demonstrate some typical spatial uses of o + LOC: chodit o holi/berlích [walk leaning-on cane-LOC/crutches-LOC] ‘walk with a cane/on crutches’, stoj o rukou [stand on hands-LOC] ‘handstand’, skok o tyči [jump on pole-LOC] ‘pole-vault’: (80)

Byli tam pacienti na vozících, jiní chodili o berlích a další se pohybovali pomocí chodítek. [Were there patients-NOM on wheelchairs-LOC, others-NOM walked on crutchesLOC and others-NOM self-ACC moved help-INST walkers-GEN.] There were patients there in wheelchairs, others walked on crutches, and still others moved with the help of walkers.

(81)

Jiný relaxuje při hudbě nebo tím, že udělá třeba stoj o rukou. [Other-NOM relaxes by music-LOC or that-INST, that does maybe stand on handsLOC.] Someone else relaxes to music or perhaps by doing a handstand.

(82)

Skok o tyči jsem zvládl technicky dobře, ale skočil jsem málo. [Jump on pole-LOC AUX managed technically well, but jumped AUX little.] Technically I managed the pole-vault well, but I didn’t jump high enough.

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The Locative Case Like při, o carries with it a strong sense of accompaniment (note that in English we say that someone walks with a cane, parallel to Czech o holi, for example). Unlike při, however, o can refer to composite features of an item, such as how many parts it has or what its weight or size is, since features can be understood as things that accompany an item. This idea motivates phrases such as byt o dvou pokojích [apartment-NOM with two rooms-LOC] ‘a two-room apartment’, hra o pěti jednáních [play with five acts-LOC] ‘a five-act play’, kniha o váze 5 kg [book-NOM with weight-LOC 5 kg-GEN] ‘a book weighing 5 kg’, plátno o délce 1m [canvas-NOM with length-LOC 1m-GEN] ‘a canvas 1m long’. Here are a couple of authentic examples of how o + LOC can designate the features with which something is endowed: (83)

Měl tehdy byt o pěti pokojích, vysokých a světlých, v pracovně nový psací stůl a knihovnu plnou knížek. [Had then apartment-ACC with five rooms-LOC, tall-LOC and light-LOC, in study-LOC new writing desk-ACC and bookcase-ACC full-ACC books-GEN.] At the time he had an apartment with five rooms that were light with high ceilings, in his study there was a new desk and a bookcase full of books.

(84)

Posbírali mnoho zlatých předmetů o celkové váze asi třiceti tun a odeslali je domů do Španělska. [Gathered many-ACC gold objects-GEN with total weight-LOC about thirty tonsGEN and send them-ACC home to Spain-GEN.] They gathered many gold objects weighing altogether about thirty tons and sent them home to Spain.

Occasionally o + LOC identifies accompanying situations rather than features. The two most common phrases of this type are o hladu [with hunger-LOC] ‘while going hungry’, and o samotě [with seclusion-LOC] ‘alone’. Here are some examples: (85)

Kubelkovi shánějí krmivo pro dobytek, aby nezůstal přes zimu o hladu. [Kubelkas-NOM try-to-get fodder-ACC for livestock-ACC, so-that not-remained across winter-ACC with hunger-LOC.] The Kubelkas are trying to get fodder for the livestock so that it doesn’t go hungry over the winter.

(86)

Sedával o samotě a oddával se myšlenkám, s nimiž se nikomu nesvěřoval. [Sat with seclusion-LOC and gave self-ACC thoughts-DAT, with which-INST selfACC noone-DAT not-confided.] He used to sit alone and indulge in thoughts which he never confided to anyone.

An accompanying situation like hunger or seclusion can be understood as part of the setting of an event. Settings also include times when events take place, and o + LOC is sometimes used to describe the times that serve as the backdrop for actions, primarily when these times are either major seasonal landmarks, such as holiday or vacation time, or an hour of the day (although in the case of times of day the use of v + ACC is much more frequent). Thus we

Locative: a place encounter phrases such as o Vánocích [during Christmastime-LOC] ‘at Christmastime’, o prázdninách [during vacation-LOC] ‘over vacation’, o šesté hodině [during sixth hourLOC] ‘at six o’clock’, o půlnoci [during midnight-LOC] ‘at midnight’. Here are a couple of complete sentences for good measure: (87)

Rodinná pohoda a atmosféra nám nejvíce chyběly o Vánocích. [Family comfort-NOM and atmosphere-NOM us-DAT most lacked during Christmastime-LOC.] We missed the comfort and atmosphere of family most at Christmastime.

(88)

Čaj se podával skutečně o páté hodině. [Tea-NOM self-ACC served really at fifth hour-LOC.] Tea really was served at five o’clock.

Perhaps the most common use of the preposition o + LOC is usually translated as ‘about’, and refers to the domain of topics for oral and written communication and thought. In this connection o + LOC is associated with a wide variety of words that identify thinking, talking, reading, and writing. Here is a table of these words, followed by some example sentences: Words Associated with o + LOCATIVE: A PLACE ‘about’ číst o ‘read about’ přednášet; přednáška o dozvědět se o ‘find out about’ předpokládat něco o hovořit; hovor o jednat o

‘talk; conversation about’ ‘deal with’

lhát o mlčet o mluvit o

‘lie about’ ‘keep silent about’ ‘talk about’

pochybovat; pochyby o povědět/povídat (si) o po-radit se o

‘have doubts about’ ‘talk about’ ‘take counsel on’

přemýšlet o přesvědčit/přesvědčovat někoho o psát o uvažovat o vědět o vyjádřit/vyjadřovat se o vyprávět/vypravovat o vyslovit se o zpráva o

‘lecture on’ ‘assume something about’ ‘think about’ ‘convin c e somebody about’ ‘write about’ ‘consider, think about’ ‘know about’ ‘express one’s views about’ ‘tell a story about’ ‘give one’s opinion of’ ‘news about’

(89)

Měl jsem přednášet o jaderné energii. [Had AUX lecture about nuclear energy-LOC.] I was supposed to lecture about nuclear energy.

(90)

Chci se o tom klukovi aspoň něco dozvědět. [Want self-ACC about that boy-LOC at-least something-ACC find-out.] I want to find out something about that boy.

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The Locative Case (91)

Legenda vypráví o misce, která byla čirou náhodou nalezena v písku. [Legend-NOM tells-story about bowl-LOC, which-NOM was sheer chance-INST found-NOM in sand-LOC.] The legend tells about a bowl found in the sand by sheer chance.

LOCATIVE: A PLACE 5 — po ‘after; along, around; for; each’ of uses. Po is active in the domains of space, time, quantification, desire, and causation, and has its share of idioms as well. In its basic spatial meaning, po corresponds best to English along or around, designating an item that serves as a path determining where something moves. Here are some concrete examples from the domain of space: (92)

Jděte rovně po této cestě a za lesem se dejte do prava. [Go straight along this path-LOC and beyond forest-INST self-ACC give to rightGEN.] Go straight along this path and on the other side of the forest take a turn to your right.

(93)

Přijeli do Frankfurtu už ve středu a večer šli na procházku po městě. [Arrived to Frankfurt-GEN already in Wednesday-ACC and evening-ACC went on walk-ACC along city-LOC.] They arrived in Frankfurt on Wednesday and in the evening they went for a walk around the city.

(94)

Sprintoval po žulové dlažbě náměstí, naplněn hněvivou láskou. [Sprinted along granite pavement-LOC square-GEN, filled-NOM furious loveINST.] He sprinted along the granite pavement of the square, filled with furious love.

(95)

Apaticky pozorovala mouchu lezoucí po stole. [Apathetically observed fly-ACC crawling-ACC along table-LOC.] She apathetically observed a fly crawling along the table.

Alternatively, po + LOC can indicate the part of the body along which motion is realized. This is particularly common when the motion is somehow atypical (i.e., not walking along on your feet, bt using other body parts to effect motion). Standard phrases of this type include: jít po špičkách/kolenou/čtyřech [go along tips-LOC/knees-LOC/four-LOC] ‘go on tip-toe/one’s knees/all fours’, plazit se po břiše [crawl self-ACC along belly-LOC] ‘crawl along on one’s belly’, skákat po jedné noze [jump along one leg-LOC] ‘hop on one leg’, skočit po hlavě [jump along head-LOC] ‘dive head-first’. (96)

Plížila se po kolenou, aby ji snad nezasáhla oknem zbloudilá kulka. [Crawled self-ACC along knees-LOC, so-that her-ACC probably not-struck window-INST stray bullet-NOM.] She crawled on her knees so as not to be hit by a stray bullet coming in through the window.

Locative: a place (97)

Neskákejte po hlavě do neznámé vody, nikdy nevíte, co se skrývá pod hladinou. [Not-jump along head-LOC to unknown water-GEN, never not-know, what-NOM self-ACC hides under surface-INST.] Don’t jump head-first into unknown waters, you never know what is hiding beneath the surface.

(98)

Šeptá, jde po špičkách, šaty si nadzvedla, aby nešustily. [Whispers, goes along tips-LOC, dress-ACC self-DAT lifted, so-that not-rustled.] She whispers, walks on tiptoe with her dress lifted so it won’t rustle.

A desired destination likewise determines the path one must take to attain it, and po can be used to mean that someone is reaching out after an item, going for it. As the table and following examples show, this can involve both physical reaching as well as the metaphorical equivalents of searching, longing, desire, and demand. Notice that the item sought after can be either something someone wants or a person or group they are going after in order to get what they want.

Words associated with po + locative: a place meaning ‘reach, desire’ dychtit po ‘crave’ sáhnout po ‘reach for’ chňapat po (CCz) ‘grab at’ shánět se/sháňka po ‘search for’ chtít po ‘want, expect from’ slídit po ‘track; search for’ lapat po (dechu) ‘grab at (gasp for toužit/touha po ‘desire’ breath)’ pátrat po ‘search for’ volat po ‘demand’ poptat se/poptávka ‘inquire/inquiry žádat po ‘demand’ po about’ prahnout po ‘pine for’ žízeň po ‘thirst for’ vymáhat po ‘demand from’

(99)

V chladnoucí vodě se otřese a začne se shánět po osušce. [In cooling water-LOC self-ACC shakes and begins self-ACC search along towelLOC.] He shakes in the cooling water and begins to search for a towel.

(100) Policie dosud bezvýsledně pátrá po pachatelích ozbrojené loupeže v Plzni. [Police-NOM until-now without-result searches along perpetrators-LOC armed robbery-GEN in Plzeň-LOC.] The police are still searching unsuccessfully for the perpetrators of an armed robbery in Plzeň. (101) Dobře znáte touhu našich národů po svobodě, humanitě a spravedlnosti. [Well know desire-ACC our nations-GEN along freedom-LOC, humanity-LOC, and justice-LOC.] You know well our nations’ desire for freedom, humanity, and justice.

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The Locative Case (102) Vyčíslenou předběžnou ztrátu 700 tisíc korun budou ČSA vymáhat po výtržníkovi. [Calculated anticipated loss-ACC 700 thousand crowns-GEN will ČSA-NOM demand along trouble-maker-LOC.] ČSA will demand the calculated anticipated loss of 700 thousand crowns from the trouble-maker. (103) Nemůžete po úřadech chtít, aby během roku snížily o padesát procent svoje rozpočty. [Not-can along offices-LOC want, so-that during year-GEN reduced by fifty-ACC percent-GEN own budgets-ACC.] You can’t expect the offices to reduce their budgets by fifty percent in the course of a year. (104) Netrpělivé volání po změnách může naši společnost vrátit o deset (a více) let zpátky. [Impatient calling along changes-LOC can our society-ACC return by ten-ACC (and more) years-GEN backwards.] Impatient demands for changes can set our society back by ten (or more) years. When used metaphorically, po + LOC identifies an item according to which an activity is realized. For example, chutnat po česneku [taste along garlic-LOC] ‘taste like garlic’describes a taste experience that parallels the experience of tasting garlic; poznat po hlase [recognize along voice-LOC] ‘recognize by one’s voice’ describes a recognition that follows the contours of a familiar voice; and dělat něco po starém způsobu [do somethingACC along old way-LOC] ‘do something the old way’ describes an activity that follows an established pattern. Here are some authentic Czech sentences, involving a smell that parallels that of hot almonds, decoration according to an English model, and a life style that follows one’s own wishes: (105) Kůra po rozetření voní po hořkých mandlích. [Bark-NOM after rubbing-LOC smells along hot almonds-LOC.] When rubbed, the bark smells like hot almonds. (106) Prostějovské domy s prostornou vstupní halou po anglickém vzoru byly zařízeny kompletně podle jeho návrhu. [Prostějov houses-NOM with spacious entrance hall-INST according-to English style-LOC were outfitted-NOM completely according-to his design-GEN.] The houses of Prostějov with the English-style spacious entrance halls were completely outfitted according to his design. (107) Od sedmnácti jsem z domova, jsem zvyklá žít po svém. [From seventeen-GEN am from home-GEN, am used-NOM live according-to ownLOC.] I’ve been away from home since I was seventeen, I’m used to living my own way. Let us return for a moment to the domain of space, in which an item serves as a path for movement. If instead of just one item, we have several, and they are discontinuous, then we

Locative: a place wind up with movement involving a number of paths from one item to another. In the next example, the item marked by po + LOC is stores, which are located in various places, thus determining an overall path consisting of shorter paths from one store to the next. In this way we get a distributed movement, something like a connect-the-dots pattern: (108) Zatímco žena chodí po obchodech, čekám v parku na lavičce a v klidu si přečtu noviny. [While wife-NOM walks along stores-LOC, wait in park-LOC on bench-LOC and in peace-LOC self-DAT read newspaper-ACC.] While my wife is walking from store to store, I wait on a bench in the park and read the newspaper in peace. This distributional meaning can be extended to quantitative domains, where a given numeral designates a group of something, and an activity proceeds from one such grouping to another. Here a phrase like umírat po tisících [die along thousands-LOC] has a meaning best translated as ‘die by the thousands’; conceptually it is as if we imagine one set of a thousand dying, then the next, then the next, etc., similar to the stores that were visited in a series in the preceeding example. The use of po + LOC with numerals is quite common; here is a sample sentence: (109) Ryby po stovkách až tisících vyplavaly na hladinu břichami vzhůru. [Fish-NOM along hundreds-LOC up-to thousands-LOC rose-up on surface-ACC bellies-INST up.] Fish in the hundreds and thousands rose to the surface belly-up. If an activity is performed on a series of items, we can also interpret this as being an activity that happens ot each item, thus suggesting distributed amounts (generally translated as ‘apiece’) or rates of activity. Here are two examples of this type: (110) Koupili jsme po čtyřech stovkách akcie Buzuluku Komárov. [Bought AUX along four hundreds-LOC stocks-ACC Buzuluk-GEN KomárovNOM.] We bought Buzuluk Komárov stocks for four hundred apiece. (111) Půjčku od spořitelny by spláceli po sedmi tisících měsíčně tři roky. [Loan-ACC from bank-GEN AUX paid-off along seven thousand-LOC monthly three years-ACC.] They would pay off the loan from the bank at a rate of seven thousand per month for three years. In both spatial and other domains, po + LOC signals an item which has a given shape or other feature that is used as a pattern, or followed. This sense of following transfers quite logically to the domain of time, where something that follows an event is something that takes place after that event. The use of po + LOC to mean ‘after’ in the domain of time is extremely common; here are some examples:

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The Locative Case (112) Cítím se utahaný, už si také nemohu zdřímnout po obědě. [Feel self-ACC exhausted-NOM, already self-DAT also not-can nap after lunchLOC.] I feel exhausted, I can’t take a nap after lunch anymore. (113) Tablety je nutno užívat po jídle. [Tablets-ACC is necessary use after food-LOC.] The tablets must be taken after eating. (114) Po bohoslužbě v místním kostele bude celý den probíhat lidová veselice. [After service-LOC in local church-LOC will-be all day-ACC take-place folk merrymaking-NOM.] After the service in a local church, a traditional party will take place, lasting a whole day. The meaning of temporal sequencing has become conventionalized in the adverbs potom and poté, both of which mean ‘afterward; then’ and both of which are built from prepositional phrases which would be literally translated as ‘after that’. Here is an example sentence for each word: (115) Zajde si k holiči, potom do čistírny vyžehlit šaty a může vyrazit. [Goes self-DAT to barber-DAT, after-that-LOC to cleaners-GEN iron clothes-ACC and can leave.] He’ll go to the barber and then to the cleaners to get his clothes ironed and he can leave. (116) Požár vypukl několik hodin poté, co FBI, která farmu od února obléhala, zaútočila. [Fire-NOM broke-out several-ACC hours-GEN after-that-LOC, what-NOM FBINOM, which-NOM from February-GEN surrounded, attacked.] The fire broke out several hours after the FBI, which had surrounded the farm since February, attacked. After an event has taken place, we can say that it is over, that we are done with it, and Czechs can use po + LOC to fill this role as well, motivating idiomatic phrases like: už je po všem [already is after everything-LOC] ‘it’s all over now’, je po něm [is after him-LOC] ‘he’s done for (dead)’, mít po vojně/zkouškách [have after army-LOC/exams-LOC] ‘be done with one’s army service/exams’. Here is an example of an idiomatic use of po + LOC: (117) Žádný strach, už je po všem. [No fear-ACC, already is after everything-LOC.] Don’t be afraid, it’s all over now. Some words are strongly associated with the sequencing of events, particularly with the notion of one event taking place after or following from another, especially zbýt/zbývat po ‘remain, be left over after’, následovat po ‘follow, happen after’, and nastoupit po ‘succeed

Locative: a place (someone to a post)’. Human beings tend to associate the sequence of events with their causation, assuming that prior events cause the things that folow them to happen. This fact motivates the use of po + LOC to identify the cause or source of something, making it possible to say things like: zhubnout po nemoci, bylo mu špatně po salámu, dolíčky po neštovicích, smutek po matce, dům po rodičích, zdědit po, jmenovat se po, být po někom. In phrases like this there is no sharp distinction between the meaning ‘after’, and the sense of causation — both meanings are present. (118) Každá návštěva Karlštejna končila stejně, vždycky nám bylo špatně po párcích, všichni zvraceli. [Every visit-NOM Karlštejn-GEN ended same, always us-DAT was badly after hotdogs-LOC, everyone-NOM threw-up.] Every visit to Karlštejn ended the same way, we always got sick from the hotdogs and everyone threw up. (119) Mohlo to být i horší, říkal si. Mohla mít například dolíčky po neštovicích. [Could that-NOM be even worse-NOM, said self-DAT. Could have for-example pock-marks-ACC after smallpox-LOC.] It could be worse, he told himself. She could have pock-marks from smallpox, for example. (120) A co jste zdědil po rodičích? [And what-ACC AUX inherited after parents-LOC?] And what did you inherit from your parents?

EPILOGUE Czech tends to view locations as surfaces (with na) or as containers (with v). However, since even in physical space many locations are not unambiguously either surfaces or containers, Czech uses conceptual conventions to choose between these two options. Thus any location that is unbounded and/or has some vertical elevation can be construed as a surface. Any location that is understood as bounded is a potential container. Time is often understood as a container, whereas events are surfaces (at least when we attend them — however, we can talk about their contents with v). The nearby location of při suggests a close association, which can involve the duration something occupies or a state of being it is in. The preposition o reminds us that thinking and talking have their own domain, with topics serving as locations for pondering and discussing, and Czechs lump this concept together with the notions of leaning upon an item for support, the constituent parts of something, and the presence of major landmarks in the calendar. With the preposition po, we take the idea of motion following the contours of a path and extend that to other activities following the contours of featuers of sounds, smells, and ways of doing things. Following in the domain of time of course means happening after, and we tend to presume that a prior state causes one that follows after, recognizing the former as a source. The locative case demonstrates very clearly how agile Czech is in taking locational concepts derived from spatial relations and implementing them in other domains. Indeed, this is a recurrent theme all through the case system.

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2

The InstrumentalCase

Feminine declension nouns

Masculine declension nouns Neuter declension nouns Adjectives

Pronouns

Possessives

Numerals

Chapter: a designation 1

INSTRUMENTAL:

I

A MEANS

The instrumental network:

A LABEL A MEANS AN ADJUNCT A LANDMARK

PROLOGUE The instrumental is a complex case, but the idea behind it is fairly simple(mn0.1). You can think of it as an accessory for something else. The instrumental is a peripheral attachment for something else. The peripheral accessory named by the instrumental can be associated either with an activity or with another item(mn0.2). When an item in the instrumental case is associated with an activity, we have INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS, and the instrumental item is a conduit for the activity. When an item in the instrumental case is attached to another item, it serves as an address for that item; this can be done by tagging it in some way, in which case we have INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL, by identifying something to which it is joined, in which case we have INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT (here we use the Czech preposition s ‘with’), or by locating it in reference to a landmark, in which case we have INSTRUMENTAL::A LANDMARK (used with the prepositions před ‘in front of’, za ‘behind’, nad ‘over’, pod ‘under’, and mezi ‘between’). Your first task when confronted with an item in the instrumental case will be to figure out which part of the network it is using. If any of the prepositions (s, před, za, nad, pod, mezi) are present, you can put this task behind you, since you will have INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT with the preposition s, and INSTRUMENTAL::A LANDMARK with the remaining prepositions. If not, you will need to think about whether the instrumental is being used to augment the description of an activity (INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS) or the description of a thing (INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL). The explanations and examples below should help you get used to looking for this difference.

INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS 1—A map of the mental leaps involved Though INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS always designates a conduit for action, there is an intricate web of specific uses, and it is worth mapping them out ahead of time before diving right into them. INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS can be divided into two smaller groups: one takes

3

4

The InstrumentalCase the concept of a path as its point of departure (sections 2-7), and the other focuses on the agents of actions (section 8). The following diagram might help you think about how the ideas in the first group (the “path” group) are organized: path > facilitator/instrument/cause > item under control > item appreciated positively/negatively A path, because it facilitates movement, can also be conceived of as a facilitator for action, an instrument, or a means (think of our English expression a way to do things, where we also understand means and instruments in terms of a path by using the word way). The presence of a means to do something (or just a path to follow) can also inspire an action, and thus be understood as a cause (think, A force (arrow) passes through INSTRUMENTAL: A MEANS for example, of the cliché answer for why one (circle labeled I) should climb Mount Everest: “Because it is there”—the implication is that the presence of the tallest mountain causes people to climb it). The fact that instruments are objects under our control motivates the mental leap from instrument to item under control. Finally, an item under control can be variously appreciated, and as a result we use the instrumental with certain verbs meaning ‘enjoy’ and ‘despise’. The next six sections will take you through all these mental leaps, with enough examples and explanations to ensure a safe landing for every jump.

I

INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS 2—Paths through space When an instrumental item is associated with a verb, its purpose is to tell us something about the means by which the verbal activity takes place(mn2.1). It can be thought of as a channel for realizing the activity of the verb. The instrumental item thus serves as a conduit for the flow of energy named by the verb. This can involve simply passing through a space or following a path, as in these two sentences (mn2.2): *Jugoslávskou ulicí odjíždí šest prázdných policejných antonů. [Yugoslavia Street-INST ride-off empty police vans-GEN.] Six empty police vans ride off down Yugoslavia Street. Jedou živou odpolední Prahou. [Ride lively afternoon Prague-INST.] They ride through Prague, which is lively in the afternoon. Sound can also move through a space, as we see in this example: Za pár minut zavřískalo sálem novorozeně mužského pohlaví. [In pair-ACC minutes-GEN screamed hall-INST newborn-NOM male sex-GEN.]

5 In a couple of minutes the scream of a newborn of the male sex rang out through the hall. If there are obstacles that one has to make one’s way through, they can also appear as INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS to indicate a path, as we see with the crowd in this example: *Proplétám se davem a slyším kolem sebe hlavně italštinu, španělštinu a řečtinu. [Weave self-ACC crowd-INST and hear around self-GEN primarily Italian-ACC, Spanish-ACC and Greek-ACC.] I weave through the crowd and around me I hear primarily Italian, Spanish, and Greek. Obstacles can also stand in one’s visual path, as we see in this sentence: Ležel v trávě a pozoroval přivřenými víčky hnědozelený svět stébel, kamínků, písku. [Lay in grass-LOC and observed half-shut eyelids-INST brown-green world-ACC stalksGEN, pebbles-GEN, sand-GEN.] He lay in the grass and observed through half-shut eyelids the brown and green world of stalks, pebbles, and sand. A path can have various trajectories, including ones that go off to the side, like in this sentence: Dědeček Kvida odvlekl stranou. [Grandfather-NOM Guido-ACC dragged-off side-INST.] The grandfather dragged Guido off to one side. And while one is on a path, various things can happen as well, just as in English we can say that someone did something on their way somewhere. Note the parallel between Czech and English in this example: Dítě se cestou rozplakalo. [Child-NOM self-ACC way-INST burst-out-crying.] The child burst out crying on the way. A path can lead through an opening, as in the folk verse Kočka leze dírou, pes oknem [CatNOM crawls hole-INST, dog-NOM window-INST] ‘The cat crawls through the hole and the dog through the window’. As the next two sentences show, sound can also travel through a window, and merely looking through an opening is treated in the same way as actually travelling through it: Uslyšel podivné neznámé hřmění, které se do bytu snášelo oknem odkudsi z temné oblohy. [Heard strange unfamiliar rumbling-ACC, which-NOM self-ACC to house-GEN carried window-INST from-somewhere from dark sky-GEN.] He heard a strange unfamiliar rumbling coming in through the window from somewhere in the dark sky. Tvrdila, že ji tím sklem pozorují stovky očí.

6

The InstrumentalCase [Claimed, that her-ACC that glass-INST watch hundreds-NOM eyes-GEN.] She claimed that hundreds of eyes were watching her through the glass. A path can of course be conceived of abstractly, giving us examples like this one(mn2.3): Peking se nemíní vydat cestou hegemonismu a politiky z pozice síly. [Peking-NOM self-ACC not-intends take-off way-INST hegemonism-GEN and politicsGEN from position-GEN strength-GEN.] Peking has no intention of going down the path of hegemonism and power politics. In both English and Czech we think of life as a journey along a path; this makes it possible for us to talk of the path of life and life’s obstacles. Because life is a path, a Czech can substitute life for path to get: Tvůj otec odjel do Evropy, kde žil životem bohatého mladého muže. [Your father-NOM left to Europe-GEN, where lived life-INST rich young man-GEN.] Your father went to Europe, where he lived the life of a rich young man. In this example, life is the path along which living is realized. Living goes down the path of life.

INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS 3—Paths through time and discontinuous paths Throughout this book we have seen that speakers of Czech (and English) understand time as a kind of metaphorical space(mn3.1). This metaphorical analogy applies to INSTRUMENTAL::A MEANS as well, and here we see that just as stretches of space can serve as paths for movement, stretches of time can serve as paths for activity. Dnem navrácení majetku vypršelo právo na úhradu škody. [Day-INST returning-GEN property-GEN expired right to compensation-ACC damageGEN.] The right to receive compensation for damage expired on the day the property was returned. Poslední dobou trpěla některými dýchacími obtížemi a nevylučovala zcela možnost, že má rakovinu plic. [Latest period-INST suffered several breathing difficulties-INST and not-excluded entirely possibility-ACC, that has cancer-ACC lungs-GEN.] Lately she has suffered several incidents of difficult breathing and has not been ruling out the possibility that she has lung cancer. Rolf očekával povolávací rozkaz každým dnem. [Rolf-NOM expected draft order-ACC every day-INST.]

7 Rolf was expecting his draft order to come any day. Úderem této hodiny oba rodiče provokativně šeptají. [Stroke-INST that hour-GEN both parents-NOM provocatively whisper.] At the stroke of the hour both parents whisper provocatively. Time expressions like časem [time-INST] ‘with time, after a time’, dnem i nocí [dayINST and night-INST] ‘day and night’ verge on being adverbs: Ale časem se biskupovi začalo po Španělsku tak stýskat, že sám poprosil král o uvolnění z funkce. [But time-INST self-ACC bishop-DAT began along Spain-LOC so miss, that self-NOM asked king-NOM for release-ACC from function-GEN.] But in time the bishop became so homesick for Spain that he himself asked the king to release him from his post. Expanses of both time and space can appear in the plural, creating locations for objects and events(mn4.1): Až doma jsem zjistil, že nová pračka je místy rezavá a příliš hlučná. [Only at-home AUX realized, that new washing-machine-NOM is places-INST rusty-NOM and too noisy-NOM.] I didn’t realized until I got home that the new washing machine was rusty in places and too noisy. Anarchisté a skini se chvílemi navzájem častovali nadávkami. [Anarchists-NOM and skinheads-NOM self-ACC moments-INST mutually entertained insults-INST.] The anarchists and the skinheads at times entertained each other with insults.

INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS 4—Path > facilitator/instrument/cause Let’s go back again to that idea of a path(mn5.1). In an abstract sense, a path is something that facilitates movement; the existence of a way to go makes it possible for you to go. We can get more mileage out of the concept of facilitation by doing some substitutions. Instead of looking only at movement, we can expand our view to include any activity named by a verb. And instead of looking only at paths as facilitators, we can look at anything that makes activity possible. By taking the original concept of path for movement and extending it to facilitator for activity we open up a wide horizon of ideas. All other uses of INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS take advantage of this horizon, empowering the instrumental case to signify a wide variety of instruments and agents of actions. The use of the word cesta ‘way’ in the following example demonstrates that the connection between a ‘way’ as a path and a ‘way’ as a means to do something is just as strong in Czech as it is in English: *Nejsem lingvista, ale naučil jsem se v různé dokonalosti šesti jazykům, nepočítaje latinu,

8

The InstrumentalCase tvrdou cestou—žil jsem v těch respektivních zemích. [Am-not linguist-NOM, but learned AUX self-ACC in various perfection-LOC six languages-DAT, not-counting latin-ACC, hard way-INST—lived AUX in those respective countries-LOC.] I’m not a linguist, but I have learned to varying degrees of proficiency six languages, not counting Latin, the hard way—I lived in the respective countries. We will start with instruments facilitating action. Examples of concrete physical instruments are fairly common(mn5.2): *Stovky radikálů zaútočily na policejní jednotky dlažebními kostkami, tyčemi i zápalnými láhvemi; policisté odpovídali slzným plynem, vodními děly a obušky. [Hundreds-NOM radicals-GEN attacked on police units-ACC paving stones-INST, clubsINST, and incendiary bottles-INST; police-NOM answered tear gas-INST, water cannons-INST and nightsticks-INST.] Hundreds of radicals attacked the police units with paving stones, clubs, and Molotov cocktails; the police answered with tear gas, water cannons, and nightsticks. Babička si skleničku obalila papírovým ubrouskem. [Grandmother-NOM self-DAT glass-ACC wrapped paper napkin-INST.] Grandmother wrapped the glass up with a paper napkin. These next three examples are fairly typical metaphorical extensions of the idea of a physical instrument(mn5.3): Tři roky jezdí do ciziny vydělávat striptýzem. [Three years-ACC rides to foreign-lands-GEN earn striptease-INST.] For three years she has been going abroad to make money by doing striptease. Celé vystoupení vyvrcholilo dvěma hity z nejslavnějšího Santanova alba. [Whole performance-NOM culminated two hits-INST from most-famous Santana’s albumGEN.] The whole performance culminated in two hits from Santana’s most famous album. Špatnou komunikací mezi ministerstvy vysvětluje prezident, proč česká pomoc obětem tureckého zemětřesení dorazila tak pozdě. [Poor communication-INST between ministries-INST explains president-NOM, why Czech help-NOM victims-DAT Turkish earthquake-GEN arrived so late.] The president explains why Czech help for Turkish earthquake victims arrived so late by citing poor communication among the ministries. Now let’s try something a bit more challenging: Praha se hemží vyprávěnými i kreslenými vtipy o Dáše Havlové. [Prague-NOM self-ACC swarms told-INST and drawn jokes-INST about Dáša Havlová-

9 NOM.] Prague is swarming with jokes and cartoons about Dáša Havlová. Dneska se to tady hemží cvokama. (CCz) [Today self-ACC that-NOM here swarms weirdos-INST.] This place is swarming with weirdos today. In these sentences, Prague is swarming because it is filled with jokes and cartoons, and this place is swarming because of the abundance of weirdos. The jokes, cartoons and weirdos produce the action that is perceived as swarming, so we can also understand these sentences as meaning that Prague is swarming by means of jokes and cartoons or this place is swarming by means of weirdos. This use of the instrumental is very much parallel to English with in phrases like the air was buzzing with bees, the yard was crawling with ants, the sky was glittering with stars. The instrument used can be very close to home, including a part of one’s own person, like the mind and the heart: Odpustit rozumem není vždy totéž jako odpustit srdcem. [Forgive mind-INST is-not always same like forgive heart-INST.] Forgiving with the mind is not always the same as forgiving with the heart. Sensations of smell and taste are produced by means of various aromatic substances, and it is common for the source of a smell or taste to appear as an item marked instrumental:a means in conjunction with verbs like vonět ‘smell (nice)’, být cítit ‘have a smell’, páchnout ‘smell bad’, smrdět ‘stink’, and chutnat ‘taste’. Here is are some examples: Dřevo židle praštělo a silně vonělo pryskyřicí. [Wood-NOM chair-GEN cracked and strongly smelled resin-INST.] The wood of the chair cracked and smelled strongly of resin. Pravej mužskej je vždycky drobet přivožralej, trošku je nastydlej a kapánek smrdí močůvkou. (CCz) [Real male-NOM is always bit drunk-NOM, a-little is sick-with-cold-NOM and trifle stinks sewer-water-INST.] A real man is always a trifle drunk, has a bit of a cold, and stinks a little like sewer-water. Because instruments are used to bring about effects, an instrument can also be conceived of as a cause for something. For example, in English, if can say Addiction was the instrument of her destruction, we mean that addiction caused her destruction. This logical extension applies to the Czech INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS as well, as we see in this example: Hanbou jsem chtěla utéct. [Shame-INST AUX wanted run-away.] I wanted to run away for shame/Shame made me want to run away.

10

The InstrumentalCase

INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS 5—Actions facilitated by instruments Expressions using INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS of the type ‘produce an action by means of X’ are quite common(mn6.1). Here is an example: “Zatracení chlapi,” řekla Beth napjatým, zlobným hlasem. [“Blasted men-NOM,” said Beth-NOM tense, angry voice-INST.] “Blasted men,” Beth said in a tense, angry voice. Often the instrumental item represents something necessary to the performance of the action. The following combinations are standard fare: házet oštěpem hýbat rukama

‘throw a javelin’ krčit rameny ‘shrug one’s shoulders’ ‘move one’s hands’ kynout/po-kývat hlavou ‘nod one’s head’

lomit rukama ‘wring one’s hands’ mrkat očima ‘blink one’s eyes’ per’ točit klikou ‘turn a doorknob’ vrhat koulí‘put the shot (track & field)’ klátit nohama ‘shake one’s legs’ hodit kamenem ‘throw a stone’ bouchat dveřmi ‘slam a door’

mávat rukou ‘wave one’s hand’ mrštit novinami ‘whack with a newspatřást hlavou třepat křidly vrtět ocasem pátrat očima

‘shake one’s head’ ‘flap one’s wings’ ‘wag one’s tail’ ‘search with one’s eyes’

These collocations, many of which involve body parts, function to some extent as fixed phrases in Czech. Here are a few of them presented in context: Očima bedlivě pátral po obloze. [Eyes-INST carefully searched along sky-LOC.] He searched the sky carefully with his eyes. Chlapec ještě pokýval hlavou, ale vzápětí už jím otřásl výbuch osvobozujícího pláče. [Boy-NOM still nodded head-INST, but suddenly already him-INST shook explosionNOM liberating weeping-GEN.] The boy was still nodding his head when suddenly an explosion of liberating weeping convulsed him. The use of INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS to mark an item necessary to the performance of an action is not limited to the standard combinations listed above; it can be used creatively in the description of all kinds of actions, as we see in this sentence: Chlapec si zkušeně olízl ukazováček, aby mohl snáze listovat stránkami. [Boy-NOM self-DAT expertly licked index-finger-ACC, so-that could more-easily turn pages-INST.]

11 The boy licked his index finger expertly, so that he could turn the pages more easily. It is possible for a whole person to be subjected to this kind of movement, expressed in a subjectless sentence like Petrem škublo ‘Petr shuddered’ (although note that when a body part is involved, it is instrumental and the person is marked DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER, as in škublo mu rukou ‘His arm twitched’). Ippolit, který při závěru přednášky usnul na pohovce, najednou procitl, škubl sebou, usedl, rozhlédl se a zbledl. [Ippolit-NOM, who-NOM at conclusion-LOC lecture-GEN fell-asleep on couch-LOC, suddenly woke-up, shuddered self-INST, sat-up, looked-around self-ACC and paled.] Ippolit, who had fallen asleep on the couch at the conclusion of the lecture, suddenly woke up, shuddered, sat up, looked around, and went pale. Vehicles are the necessary instruments of transportation just as languages are the necessary instruments of human communication, and both situations can motivate the use of INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS, as these two examples demonstrate: Letěli do Karlových Varů, jezdili parníkem na Slapy. [Flew to Karlovy Vary-GEN, rode steamboat-INST to Slapy-ACC. They flew to Karlovy Vary and rode a steamboat to Slapy. Nevím, zda kniha byla psána dánsky nebo eskymáckou grónštinou. [Not-know, whether book-NOM was written-NOM in-Danish or Eskimo GreenlandishINST.] I don’t know whether the book was written in Danish or in Eskimo Greenlandish.

INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS 6—Questions, comparisons, adverbs Note that in many of the examples of INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS in the sections above, it is possible to apply the question How? In what way? The instrument describes how the action takes place, enabling us to ask about it, even when we don’t know what it is. Here’s a simple, fairly straightforward example, a question you can expect to hear frequently; you can think of it as meaning ‘By what means can I help you?’: Čím vám mohu pomoci? [What-INST I-NOM can you-DAT help?] How can I help you? Čím [What-INST] is not restricted to this fixed expression and can be used more creatively, as in this example: Čím se společnost vnitřně řídí? [What-INST self-ACC society-NOM internally directs?] How does society direct itself internally?

12

The InstrumentalCase

Questions and answers usually share similar constructions, so it stands to reason that the answer to Čím? [What-INST] ‘How?’ will also involve INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS, even when it does not specify an item we would recognize as an instrument. Tím [That-INST] ‘By that means’ can serve as an all-purpose filler here, followed by a že clause containing an action or item that answers the question of how something is done. In this example, commentary on the narrator’s laziness is used as the means for responding to an inquiry: Na můj dotaz to komentoval tím, že jsem liknavý v přístupu ke vzniku finanční policie. [On my inquiry-ACC that-ACC commented that-INST, that am sluggish-NOM in approachLOC to development-DAT financial police-GEN.] In response to my inquiry he commented (by saying) that I am sluggish in my approach to developing a financial policing system. The use of tím ‘by that means’ to introduce any event as a means for accomplishing something opens the gate for a huge range of actions and behaviors to serve as the means for doing things. Something can be said by using a shout, a whine, whisper, as in the first example below; and more nebulous forms of action can also be referenced, as we see in the second example: Polohlasem si předčítal jakýsi anglický text. [Half-whisper-INST self-DAT recited some English text-ACC.] He was reciting some English text to himself in a half-whisper. Dal ti snad toto své přání nějakou formou najevo? [Gave you-DAT perhaps that own wish-ACC some form-INST clear?] Perhaps he made his wishes clear clear to you in some way? The use of the instrumental to describe how an action is performed has become so conventional that for some words the instrumental case form is considered an adverb of manner; here are some examples(mn7.1): Instrumental Forms that Serve as Adverbs náhodou [chance-INST] ‘by chance, by coincidence, happens to’ tím pádem [that case-INST] ‘in that case, consequently’ tím způsobem [that way-INST] ‘in that way, thus’ málem [little-INST] ‘nearly, almost’ rodem [birth-INST] ‘by birth, native’ původem [origin-INST] ‘by origin’ jednou [one-INST] ‘once’ rázem [blow-INST] ‘all at once’ kolem [circle-INST] ‘around’ oklikou [detour-INST] ‘by means of a detour’ většinou [majority-INST] ‘for the most part, primarily’ krokem [step-INST] ‘at a walking pace’

13 mnohem [much-INST] právem [right-INST] darem [gift-INST] celkem [whole-INST]

‘much (more)’ ‘by rights, justly’ ‘as a gift, for free’ ‘on the whole, altogether’

Víš, že ti ta barva náhodou sluší? [Know, that you-DAT that color-NOM chance-INST suits?] Did you know that that color happens to look good on you? Poznáte u nás Čecha na ulici podle oblečení? Většinou ano, podle špatných bot. [Recognize by us-GEN Czech-ACC on street-LOC according-to clothes-GEN? MajorityINST yes, according-to bad shoes-GEN.] Can you recognize a Czech by his clothes on our streets? For the most part, yes, by his bad shoes. Tatínek byl rodem z Vodňan, maminka z Vysočiny. [Dad-NOM was birth-INST from Vodňany-GEN, mom-NOM from Vysočina-GEN.] Dad was a native of Vodňany, mom was from Vysočina. Despite the fact that these words are all listed as adverbs in dictionaries, some of them can often be found in combination with modifying adjectives, such as čirou náhodou ‘by sheer coincidence’ and velkou oklikou ‘by means of a big detour’. The presence of adjectives indicates that the connection between these adverbs and the instrumental case forms of their corresponding nouns is still alive and productive, as these examples prove: Rozhodla se zjistit, zda čirou náhodou nebyly v New Yorku ve stejné době a nepotkaly se někde. [Decided self-ACC find-out, whether sheer coincidence-INST not-were in New York-LOC in same time-LOC and not-met self-ACC somewhere.] She decided to find out whether by sheer coincidence they had not been in New York at the same time and met somewhere. Každý bojí přiblížit se k jezeru, velkou oklikou je lidé obcházejí. [Every-NOM fears approach self-ACC to lake-DAT, big detour-INST it-ACC people-NOM go-around.] Everybody is afraid to go near the lake, people take a big detour around it. A common idiom used as an adverb also makes use of INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS: vzhůru nohama [up legs-INST] ‘upside-down’, literally ‘up by means of the legs’. Až přijedu, obrátíme město vzhůru nohama. [When come, turn city-ACC up legs-INST.] When I come, we’ll turn the city upside-down. The adverb křížem krážem ‘criss-cross; this way and that way’ is likewise a product of the

14

The InstrumentalCase

Margin notes: 0.1 An overview of the instrumental case. 0.2 The instrumental case marks an item associated with an activity or another item. 1.1 Overview of conduit meanings of INSTRUMENTAL: A MEANS. 2.1 I NSTRUMENTAL: A MEANS as a conduit for an activity. 2.2 I NSTRUMENTAL: A MEANS as a path (conduit) through space. 2.3 I NSTRUMENTAL: A MEANS as an abstract path. 3.1 I NSTRUMENTAL: A MEANS as a path through time. 4.1 Plural paths — INSTRUMEN TAL : A MEANS in places and at times. 5.1 INSTRUMEN TAL: A MEANS as a facilitator, instrument, or means. 5.2 INSTRUMEN TAL: A MEANS with physical instruments. 5.3 INSTRUMEN TAL: A MEANS with metaphorical instruments. 6.1 INSTRUMEN TAL: A MEANS can express the item necessary for an action. 7.1 Adverbs expressing INSTRUMENTAL: A MEANS.

instrumental case: the first segment, křížem, is the instrumental form of kříž ‘cross’, but the second is a pseudo-instrumental form—there is no word *kráž in Czech at all (just like English, which doesn’t otherwise have the word criss). The adverbs najednou and pojednou, both of which mean ‘suddenly, all at once’, as well as namátkou ‘at random’ and rovnou ‘directly’ are also inspired by the instrumental case; but Czech has no *najedna, *pojedna, *namátka, or *rovna. Myslivec chodí křížem krážem, ale žádného zajíce nevidí. [Hunter-NOM walks cross-INST criss-INST, but no rabbit-ACC not-sees.] The hunter walks about criss-cross, but he doesn’t see a rabbit. A number of prepositions are similarly built from instrumental forms, as cited in the following table (mn7.2). Note that kolem is both an adverb and a preposition, since one can say both Šla kolem ‘She was walking around/by’ and Přišla kolem osmé ‘She came at around eight o’clock’. Instrumental Forms that Serve as Prepositions během [run-INST] + GEN ‘during’ formou [form-INST] + GEN ‘in the form of’ kolem [circle-INST] + GEN ‘around’ koncem [end-INST] + GEN ‘at the end of’ následkem [result-INST] + GEN ‘as a result of, because of’ počátkem [beginning-INST] + GEN ‘at the beginning of’ pomocí [help-INST] + GEN ‘with the help of, by means of’ prostřednictvím [intermediary-INST] + GEN ‘by means of, through’ směrem k [direction-INST to] + DAT ‘in the direction of’ vinou [guilt-INST] + GEN ‘due to’ vlivem [influence-INST] + GEN ‘due to’ vzhledem k [view-INST to] + DAT ‘in view of’ začátkem [beginning-INST] + GEN ‘at the beginning of’ zásluhou [merit-INST] + GEN ‘as a result of’ In all instances there is a strong and dynamic relationship between these prepositions and the corresponding instrumental case forms, and it would be impossible to overlook the contibution of the instrumental to their meanings, as we see in these examples: *Následkem nízkých sklízní, zaviněných vlivem počasí, hrozí zvýšení ceny chleba. [Result-INST low harvests-GEN, caused influence-INST weather, threatens rise-NOM price-GEN bread-GEN.] Because of the small harvest, caused by the weather, there is a threat of a rise in the price of bread. Předtím se osoby se stejným křestným jménem rozlišovaly pomocí tzv. nedědičných příjmení (Václav, řečený Vácha). [Earlier self-ACC persons with same given name-INST differentiated help-INST so-called

15 uninherited surnames-GEN (Václav-NOM, called-NOM Vácha-NOM).] Earlier persons with the same given name were differentiated by means of so-called uninherited surnames (Václav, called Vácha). Šéf křesťanských demokratů prý svoji stranu nyní vede prostřednictvím mobilních telefonů. [Head-NOM Christian democrats-GEN supposedly own party-ACC now leads intermediary-INST mobile telephones-GEN.] Supposedly the head of the Christian Democrats is now leading his party by means of mobile telephones. There are two idiomatic constructions that depend on the pairing of items marked instrumental:a means to identify the manner in which things are done: čím… tím… [what-INST… that-INST…] ‘the (more)… the (more)…’ and dílem… dílem… [part-INST… partINST…] ‘partly… partly…’ Čím… tím… is always used with comparitive forms and creates sentences equivalent to English phrases like The more the merrier, The bigger the better. Dílem… dílem… is used to describe things with a mixed nature or uneven quality. The following two examples illustrate these two idiomatic constructions: Čím víc o tom přemýšlel, tím naléhavěji se mu vracela stejná otázka. [What-INST more about that-LOC thought, that-INST more-insistently self-ACC himDAT returned same question-NOM.] The more he thought about it, the more insistently the same question kept coming back to him. Povaha Kristových výroků je směs, která pochází dílem z tohoto světa, dílem ze světa onoho. [Nature-NOM Christ’s pronouncements-GEN is mixture-NOM, which-NOM originates part-INST from this world-GEN, part-INST from world other-GEN.] The nature of Christ’s pronouncements is a mixture which comes partly from this world, and partly from beyond this world.

INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS 7—Control, manipulation, enjoyment, and suffering An instrument is an item that an agent controls and manipulates, so it should be no surprise that words indicating control and manipulation are often associated with INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS(mn8.1). This includes various types of management (be they thrifty or wasteful), replacements, and various kinds of filling, both concrete and metaphorical (indicating interest or even obsession with something). Although the logical connection of these words to the meaning of the instrumental case is clear, their grammatical connection to INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS is not exclusive. Most of these words can be used with a different case, or with the preposition s ‘with’ + INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT, as indicated in the table. By the way, vládnout can also be associated with DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR, but its meaning is somewhat different. One can say vládnout někomu ‘govern someone’ with the dative; but with the instrumental, the item is almost always inanimate, yielding vládnout něčím ‘use

7.2 Prepositions expressing INSTRUMENTAL: A MEANS. 8.1 Words associated with INSTRUMENTAL: A MEANS express control, manipulation, and emotional reactions. 9.1 I NSTRU MENTAL : A MEANS used to mark a passive agent. 9.2 Comparison of passive and active. 9.3 Ambiguity between conduit and passive agent uses of INSTRUMENTAL: A MEANS. Label 1.1 Relation of INSTRUMENTAL: A MEANS to the other uses of the instrumental. 1.2 I NSTRU MENTAL:: A LABEL with nonpermanent labels. 1.3 I NSTRU MENTAL:: A LABEL with words meaning ‘be’, ‘become’. 1.4 I NSTRU MENTAL:: A LABEL used to mean ‘is like’. 1.5 I NSTRU MENTAL:: A LABEL with words meaning ‘apply a

16

The InstrumentalCase

label’.

something masterfully’.

Adjunct 1.1 INSTRUMENTAL:: AN ADJUNCT with s ‘with’. 1.2 s + INSTRUMENTAL:: AN ADJUNCT with companions. 1.3 s + INSTRUMENTAL:: AN ADJUNCT with interpersonal relationships.

Words Indicating Control and Manipulation být si jist(ý) (also GEN) ‘be sure of’ opatřit se ‘provide onself with’ disponovat ‘have at one’s disposal’ pln(ý); naplněn(ý) (also GEN) ‘full’

2.1 s +

INSTRU-

MENTAL:: AN AD-

with objects, abstractions, and attributes. 2.2 Idiomatic uses of s + INSTRUMENTAL:: AN ADJUNCT that parallel English. 2.3 Idiomatic uses of s + INSTRUMENTAL:: AN ADJUNCT with not English parallels. 2.4 Use of s + INSTRUMENTAL:: AN ADJUNCT for the second member of a pair. JUNCT

Landmark 1.1 Overview of INSTRUMENTAL:: A LANDMARK. 1.2 před + IN STRUMENTAL:: A LANDMARK ‘in front of, before’ in the domain of space. 1.3 před + IN STRUMENTAL:: A LANDMARK ‘be-

hospodařit (also s) ‘manage’ plýtvat ‘waste’ marnit (also ACC)‘waste’posedlý ‘obssessed by’ mrhat (also ACC) ‘waste’šetřit ‘save’ nacpat/nacpávat se (CCz) (also GEN) ‘stuff oneself with’ vládnout ‘use masterfully’ nahradit/nahrazovat (co) ‘replace (something) with’ zaměnit/zaměňovat (co) (also za + ACC) ‘replace (something) with’ na-plnit (se) (also GEN) ‘(be) filled’ zaměstnávat se; zaměstnaný ‘be occupied, busy with’ nasytit/nasycovat se (also GEN) ‘eat one’s fill of’ zanést/zanášet se ‘be concerned, obsessed with; get filled with’ obchodovat (also s) ‘trade in’ zásobit/zásobovat (koho or se) ‘supply (someone or oneself) with’ obírat se (also s) ‘be occupied, concerned with’ zaujatý ‘absorbed in’ Here are some examples of how these words are used with INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS: Výrobce určitě disponuje všemi nezbytnými výpočty a nejspíš i příslušným počítačovým systémem. [Manufacturer-NOM surely has-at-disposal all necessary calculations-INST and probably also appropriate computer system-INST.] Surely the manufacturer has all of the necessary calculations at his disposal, and probably an appropriate computer system as well. Nechceme plýtvat penězi na experimenty. [Not-want waste money-INST on experiments-ACC.] We don’t want to waste money on experiments. Dědeček po babiččině odjezdu naplnil lednici uzenými jazyky, telecími játry a vepřovými kotletami. [Grandfather-NOM after grandmother’s departure-LOC filled refrigerator-ACC smoked tongue-INST, calf’s liver-INST and pork cutlets-INST.] After grandmother left, grandfather filled the refrigerator with smoked tongue, calf’s liver, and pork cutlets. Being involved in something can be a cause for joy or woe, and a number of Czech words with these meanings are associated with INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS. Like the control and manipulation words above, some of these words can be alternatively used with s ‘with’ + INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT, and some use other cases and/or preposition + case combina-

17 tions, as indicated below. The words that mean ‘be interested in’ are a transitional type, for they overlap with both lists. Words Indicating Enjoyment and Suffering dojat(ý) ‘touched (emotionally) by’ pohrdat ‘despise’ holedbat se (LCz) ‘flaunt’ postižen(ý) ‘afflicted, handicapped with’ honosit se ‘glory in, boast of’ po-těšit se (also DAT; z + GEN; na + ACC) ‘enjoy’ překypovat ‘be bursting (with emotion)’ chlubit se (also s) ‘boast of’ pyšnit se ‘be proud of’ chvástat se‘brag of’ rozptýlit/rozptylovat se ‘enjoy, distract oneself with’ kochat se (also v + LOC) ‘delight in’ rozstonat se (also s; na + ACC) ‘become ill with’ ochořet ‘become ill with’ spokojen(ý) (also s) ‘satisfied with” okouzlit/okouzlovat se ‘be charmed by’ onemocnět ‘become ill with’ trpět (also s) ‘suffer’ opovrhnout/opovrhovat ‘scorn’ vychloubat se ‘boast of’ po-bavit se‘have a good time with’ zabývat se (also s) ‘be interested in’ Matka překypovala dobrou náladou, citovala hojně z divadelných her. [Mother-NOM bursted good mood-INST, recited much from theatrical plays-GEN.] My mother was bursting with good feelings, reciting many lines from theatrical plays. Pan Hlavatý, důchodce a astmatik, se rád nechával okouzlit chlapcovou zdvořilostí. [Mr. Hlavatý-NOM, pensioner-NOM and asthmatic-NOM, self-ACC glad-NOM allowed charm boy’s politeness-INST.] Mr. Hlavatý, a pensioner and an asthmatic, liked to let himself be charmed by the boy’s politeness.

fore, ago’ in the domain of time. 1.4 The use of před + INSTRUMENTAL:: A LANDMARK in the domain of morality and justice. 2.1 za + INSTRUMENTAL:: A LANDMARK ‘beyond, behind’. 2.2 za + INSTRUMENTAL:: A LANDMARK ‘going after’. 2.3 za + INSTRUMENTAL:: A LANDMARK in the domain of time. 3.1 nad +

IN -

STRUMENTAL:: A L A N D M A R K

‘above’. 3.2 nad +

IN -

STRUMENTAL:: A LANDMARK in the

Poruchami spánku trpí stále víc lidí. [Defects-INST sleep-GEN suffer constantly more-NOM people-GEN.] More and more people suffer from trouble sleeping.

domain of emotions and thoughts. 3.3 nad + IN STRUMENTAL:: A LANDMARK can express control ‘over’.

INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS 8—The passive agent

STRUMENTAL:: A

The examples we have seen of the conduit meaning of INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS are based on this model: a nominative subject + a verb (or adjective) + an instrumental conduit + whatever else is in the sentence. INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS participates in another construction, which looks like this: a nominative subject + (verb být—this item may be missing) + passive participle + instrumental passive agent (mn9.1) + whatever else is in the sentence. Czech passive participles are words like: u-dělán/u-dělaný ‘done’, sledován/sledovaný ‘followed’, prominut(ý) ‘forgiven’, začat(ý) ‘begun’, od-souzen(ý) ‘convicted’, vy-pit(ý) ‘drunk up’, u-pečen(ý) ‘baked’. Passive participles tell about something being done to an item, by someone or something else, and that someone or something else is the passive agent. Given what we already know about the instrumental case, it is no surprise that Czechs use it to mark the passive agent, since it is the someone or something by means of which an action

4.1 pod +

IN -

‘under’. 4.2 pod + IN STRUMENTAL:: A LANDMARK can express subordination, protection, and both covert and overt identities. LANDMARK

5.1 mezi +

IN -

STRUMENTAL:: A

‘between, among’.

LANDMARK

18

The InstrumentalCase takes place. Often there is an obvious correlation between passive participles and active verb forms (mn9.2). For example, it is possible to say Jak české, tak slovenské velvyslanectví spoluorganizovala kongres [How Czech-NOM, thus Slovak embassy-NOM coorganized congress-ACC] ‘Both the Czech and Slovak embassies coorganized the congress’. Stated this way, we use an active verb, spoluorganizovala ‘coorganized’, and the agent is expressed as a nominative subject, Jak české, tak slovenské velvyslanectví ‘Both the Czech and Slovak embassies’. This might be a normal sentence to find in the context of a discussion of the activities of the embassies, however, in an article describing the congress, we find the following sentence, which uses byl ‘was’ + the passive participle spoluorganizován ‘coorganized’, and marks the agent as INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS: *Kongres byl spoluorganizován jak českým, tak slovenským velvyslanectvím. [Congress-NOM was coorganized-NOM how Czech-INST, thus Slovak embassy-INST.] The congress was coorganized by both the Czech and the Slovak embassies. Similarly, while one could say Pedagogický úspěch rozradostnil učitelku [Pedagogical success-NOM delighted teacher-ACC] ‘Pedagogical success delighted the teacher’, in a sentence like the following one where the focus is already on the teacher, it is more normal to use a passive participle and instrumental agent. Notice that in this example the verb být ‘be’ is absent: “Jakpak že ne!” smála se učitelka, rozradostněná svým pedagogickým úspěchem. [“How that not!” laughed self-ACC teacher-NOM, delighted-NOM own pedagogical success-INST.] “Why not!” laughed the teacher, delighted by her own pedagogical success. In the next sentence once again the passive participle and instrumental agent are used to maintain focus on the topic of discussion, which is the statues, rather than the sculptors who executed the enlargements: *Sochy Dvořáka a Masaryka od již zemřelých autorů existovaly v menším měřítku a byly dodatečně zvětšovány jinými sochaři. [Statues-NOM Dvořák-GEN and Masaryk-GEN from already deceased artists-GEN existed in smaller scale-LOC and were subsequently enlarged-NOM other sculptors-INST.] Statues of Dvořák and Masaryk rendered by already deceased artists existed on a smaller scale and were subsequently enlarged by other sculptors. In English heavy use of passive forms is stigmatized as a characteristic of legal or bureacratic prose, and the same is true for Czech. The following two examples give you a taste for how these forms are used in administrative contexts in Czech: *Smlouva z roku 1927, která zamezovala dvojí občanství, byla vypovězena všemi stranami před několika lety. [Treaty-NOM from year-GEN 1927, which-NOM restricted dual citizenship-ACC, was re-

19 pudiated-NOM all parties-INST before few years-INST.] The 1927 treaty which restricted dual citizenship was repudiated by all parties a few years ago. *Návrhy podané parlamentem, vládou nebo prezidentem Ústavní soud předřazuje, aby byly rychle vyřízeny. [Proposals submitted-ACC parliament-INST, government-INST or prezident-INST Constitutional Court-NOM prioritizes, so-that were quickly handled-NOM.] The Constitutional Court prioritizes proposals submitted by the parliament, the government, or the president, so that they can be handled quickly. Note that in the last example above, the passive participle is not nominative, it is accusative, and the item it refers to (the proposals) is actually the direct object of the sentence. In fact, a passive participle accompanied by an instrumental agent can appear in any role in a sentence. In the following sentence the participle is marked GENITIVE:: A WHOLE; you can think of it as deriving from a passive sentence like Tabu byla vyhlášena babičkou [Taboos-NOM were declared-NOM grandmother-INST] ‘The taboos were declared by Grandmother’ and related to the active version Babička vyhlásila tabu [Grandmother-NOM declared taboos-ACC] ‘Grandmother declared the taboos’: Postupně se ale okruh babičkou vyhlášených tabu stále více rozšiřoval. [Gradually self-ACC however range-NOM grandmother-INST declared taboos-GEN continuously more expanded.] However the range of taboos declared by Grandmother was gradually and continuously expanding. There are a few ways in which the conduit and passive agent type of instrumental overlap(mn9.3). For one thing, it is fairly common for adjectives to be used to express being in a certain state, and this is something that they share with past passive participles (which are, after all, adjectives derived from verbs). Take an example like: Dnešní večer bude pozoruhodný akustickým vystoupením kapely Hudba Praha. [Today’s evening-NOM will-be remarkable-NOM acoustic performance-INST band-GEN Music-NOM Prague-NOM.] This evening will be remarkable due to the acoustic performance of the Prague Music band. Is the evening using the band’s performance as a tool to make itself remarkable, or is the performance the agent in bringing about this state of remarkableness? It probably doesn’t matter. For another thing, sometimes even when you have a passive verb form, an instrumental item can identify either an instrument or an agent, and sometimes you can’t tell for sure. Take a look at this example: *Je nežádoucí, aby z české politiky byli novým volebním systémem vyloučeni unionisté a lidovci.

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The InstrumentalCase [Is not-desirable-NOM, so-that from Czech politics-GEN were new electoral system-INST excluded-NOM unionists-NOM and populists-NOM.] It is not desirable that unionists and populists be excluded from Czech politics by the new electoral system. Is the new electoral system an agent that is actually working to exclude certain people, or are others using the new system as an instrument to produce this exclusion, or is exclusion just happening, and the new system is the means by which it is occuring? Once again, it doesn’t really matter; this sentence can be used to make any of those assertions. One of the beauties of language is that there is room for ambiguity and overlap. There are some rare constructions in Czech that contain no subjects, and one of them uses INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS to identify a raw force that brings about an event. With the “raw force” use of the instrumental case, you get sentences based on the model of “something happened by means of X”, where X is the instrumental item, but there is no actual agent in signt. The effect is rather similar to the ambiguous examples just above, where we see a blurring of the distinction between the conduit and passive agent uses of INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS, and is also similar to the “swarming” use discussed in section 4. However, unlike the passive agent use, “raw force” uses active (not passive) verb forms that are always neuter singular, the “default mode” for verbs that have no subject. “Raw force” is typically used to describe agentless events that are best understood as involuntary sensations, as demonstrated by these examples: Roztřáslo ho zimou. [Shook him-ACC cold-INST.] He was shaken by the cold. Polilo ho horkem. [Poured him-ACC heat-INST.] A sensation of heat poured over him. Hned mě zamrazilo novou hrůzou. [Instantly me-ACC froze new horror-INST.] I was instantly paralyzed by a new horror.

INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL 1—Being, becoming, seeming INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS is devoted to empowering Czechs to express how an item can cause or facilitate the action of a verb(mn1.1). The remaining uses of the instrumental, INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL, INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT, and INSTRUMENTAL::A LANDMARK, relate the instrumental item not to a verb, but to another item. The type of relationship, however, remains the same. The instrumental is something peripheral in relation to something else: an accessory, a companion, or a backgrounded landmark. Although a label can be permanent, it doesn’t have to be, and is often associated with a certain period of time for which it is valid(1.2). A label tells you how to categorize some-

21 thing, what set of things it belongs to. Very often INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL is used with verbs like být ‘be’ or stát/stávat se ‘become’ to describe labels with varying degrees of impermanence. The world of politics is a good place to look for unstable nomenclatures, as the next few examples attest. The first example below is the title of an editorial by a person who had once admired Václav Klaus, but then wrote an article telling why he changed his mind. In the second and third examples the items marked with the instrumental are titles associated with political posts, transitory labels by definition: Proč nejsem ctitelem Václava Klause. [Why not-am admirer-INST Václav Klaus-GEN.] Why I am not an admirer of Václav Klaus. *Kdo byl premiérem, který předal Havlovi prezidenstský úřad? [Who-NOM was prime-minister-INST, who-NOM handed-over Havel-DAT presidential office-ACC?] Who was the prime minister that handed over to Havel the office of the president? *Novou kanadskou velvyslankyní v České Republice se stane Margaret Huberová. [New Canadian ambassador-INST in Czech Republic-LOC self-ACC become Margaret Huber-NOM.] Margaret Huber will become the new Canadian ambassador in the Czech Republic. In the examples above, INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL is limited in its application over time. A label may also be limited in its application to a specific context. The following sentence is taken from an article on suicide, and the claims it makes about Monday and May apply only to that context, although within that context they may be permanent: *Kritickým dnem je pro sebevrahy pondělí a nejčernějším měsícem květen. [Critical day-INST is for suicide-victims-ACC Monday-NOM and darkest month-INST May-NOM.] Monday is a critical day for suicide victims and May is the darkest month. This next example shows both a contextual limitation of INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL, where Enlgish is official only for aviation, as well as a conventional usage in the phrase být otázkou života a smrti [be question-INST life-GEN and death-GEN] ‘be a question of life and death’. *Angličtina je oficiální řečí v aviatice, kde dokonalé porozumění je otázkou života a smrti. [English-NOM is official language-INST aviation-GEN, where perfect understanding-NOM is question-INST life-GEN and death-GEN.] English is the official language in aviation, where perfect understanding is a question of life and death. All kinds of items can be labeled as reasons or causes for something beign the way it is, and this kind of categorization is conventionalized when the words důvodem [reason-INST]

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The InstrumentalCase ‘reason’ and příčinou [cause-INST] ‘cause’ are used with the verb být, as illustrated in this example: Příčinou zdravotních potíží novinářů jsou trvalý stres, nepravidelná strava, sedavý způsob zaměstnaní. [Cause-INST health problems-GEN journalists-GEN are constant stress-NOM, irregular food-NOM, sedentary means-NOM employment-GEN.] The causes of journalists’ health problems are constant stress, irregular eating habits, and a sedentary work style. Note also that INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL can be used even in the absence of a verb, as in this newspaper headline for an editorial suggesting a candidate for the presidency: Jakub Trojan prezidentem České Republiky. [Jakub Trojan-NOM president-INST Czech Republic-GEN.] Jakub Trojan for president of the Czech Republic. A definition is a type of delimitation, the statement of the appropriate application of a label, and the use of INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL is frequent in sentences that present definitions: Údery NATO byly promyšlenou a úspěšnou akcí. [Strikes-NOM NATO-GEN were thought-through-INST and successful action-INST.] The NATO strikes were a well-thought through and successful action. Člověk je zřejmě od přírody tvorem chamtivým, který chce stále víc. [Man-NOM is obviously from nature-GEN creature avaricious-INST, who-NOM wants still more.] Man is obviously by nature an avaricious creature who always wants more. There are many words that serve more or less as synonyms of být ‘be’ and stát/stávat se ‘become’ and share this construction of NOMINATIVE: A NAME + verb + INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL, and all roughly mean ‘X is a Y’, where X is a specific item, and Y is the category used to label it(mn1.3). Here are some of these words: Expressions of Being and Becoming Associated with INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL cítit se (also jako) ‘feel like’ tvářit se (also jako) ‘pretend to be’ dělat se ‘act like’ vy-učit se (also jako) ‘study to become’ narodit se (also jako) ‘be born as’ ukázat/ukazovat se (also jako) to be’ pro-jevit se‘appear to be’ zdát se ‘seem to be’ slout (LCz) ‘be called’ zemřít (also jako) ‘die as’ stavět se ‘pretend to be’ zůstat/zůstávat ‘remain’ Here are a few examples of these verbs with INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL:

‘show self

23 Byl to Čech, ale cítil se Američanem. [Was that-NOM Czech-NOM, but felt self-ACC American-INST.] He was a Czech, but he felt he was an American. V mládí jsem se učil hrobařem, jezdit s hlínou, jezdit s trakařem, kopat hroby byl můj ideál. [In youth-LOC AUX self-ACC studied grave-digger-INST, drive with dirt-INST, drive with wheelbarrow-INST, dig graves-ACC was my ideal-NOM.] When I was young I studied to be a gravedigger, driving a wheelbarrow around with dirt and digging graves was my ideal. Vyprávěla jsi mi, že jsi měla známost s policejním detektivem a že zůstal tvým přítelem. [Told AUX me-DAT, that AUX had aquaintance-ACC with police detective-INST and that remained your friend-INST.] You told me that you made the acquaintance of a police detective and that he has remained your friend. The two verbs ukázat/ukazovat se ‘show self (to be)’ and zdát se ‘seem (to be)’ don’t just stand in for být ‘be’, but instead seem to require that být appear in combination with them, as in this example: Gordon se jí zdál být ideálním partnerem. [Gordon-NOM self-ACC her-DAT seemed be ideal partner-INST.] Gordon seemed to her to be the ideal partner. When a label is applied metaphorically, INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL has the power to invoke a comparison, stating that ‘X is like a Y’, in cases where we know that X cannot literally be a Y(mn1.4). Of course we know that mother is not literally a picture, nor is Zeman literally a locomotive, but we can use INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL to make the comparisons present in the following two sentences: V tu chvíli se maminka, která jinak byla obrazem tiché pokory, přímo rozběsnila. [In that time-ACC self-ACC mother-NOM, who-NOM otherwise was image-NOM quiet submission-GEN, downright got-enraged.] At that moment mother, who was otherwise the image of quiet submission, became downright enraged. Zeman je lokomotivou, která táhne vlak ČSSD. [Zeman-NOM is locomotive-INST, which-NOM pulls train-ACC ČSSD.] Zeman is the locomotive which pulls the ČSSD train. INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL can be applied in the absence of být ‘be’ or any other triggering word. Note its use in the following two examples, where it has a meaning similar to English ‘like’ or ‘as’:

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The InstrumentalCase Slzy mi tekly proudem a cítila jsem se hluboce nešťastná. [Tears-NOM me-DAT flowed stream-INST and felt AUX self-ACC deeply unhappy-NOM.] My tears flowed like a stream and I felt deeply unhappy. Jirko, kamaráde, kdo ti stál modelem? Nějakej vzpěrač nebo boxer těžký váhy? (CCz) [Jirka-VOC, friend-VOC, who-NOM you-DAT stood model-INST? Some weightlifterNOM or boxer-NOM heavy weight-GEN?] Jirka, my friend, who modeled for you? A weightlifter or a heavyweight boxer? It is also common for verbs with meanings like ‘appoint’, ‘choose’, ‘make’ to apply the INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL to the items marked as their accusative direct objects. Here is a table and a few examples to show you how this works(mn1.5): Words Meaning ‘Apply a Label’ Associated with INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL u-činit ‘make’ jmenovat ‘name’ u-dělat ‘make’ mít ‘have someone who is’ ustanovit (also jako) ‘appoint’ nominovat (also jako) ‘nominate’ uznat/uznávat (also jako) ‘recognize as’ po-tvrdit ‘confirm’ vybrat/vybírat (also jako) ‘choose as’ prohlásit/prohlašovat ‘proclaim (to be)’ vyhlásit/vyhlašovat ‘declare’ vy-světit (also na + ACC) ‘ordain’ z-volit (also za + ACC) ‘elect’ *Jeho osobní statečnost, morální autorita, filozofické zaměření a porozumění pro problémy společnosti i jednotlivce jej činí jedinečným kandidátem. [His personal courage-NOM, moral authority-NOM, philosophical attitude-NOM and understanding-NOM for problems-ACC society-GEN and individual-GEN him-ACC make unique candidate-INST.] His personal courage, moral authority, philosophical attitude and understanding for the problems of society and the individual make him a unique candidate. *Čerchovské hvozdy byly vyhlášeny národní přírodní rezervací. [Čerchov forests-NOM were declared-NOM national nature reserve-INST.] The Čerchov forests were declared a national nature reserve. Ve čtyřech letech čtrnáctý tibetský dalajlama byl oficiálně prohlášen vůdcem tibetského národa. [In four years-LOC fourteenth Tibetan Dalailama-NOM was officially proclaimed-NOM leader-INST Tibetan nation-GEN.] At the age of four the fourteenth Tibetan Dalailama was officially proclaimed the leader of the Tibetan nation.

INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT 1—Companions It is no accident that the two relationships expressed in English by the word with can both be translated using the instrumental case in Czech(mn1.1). Honza řezal maso nožem

25 [Honza-NOM cut meat-ACC knife-INST] ‘Honza cut bread with a knife’ is of course an example of INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS, whereas Honza mluvil s učitelem [Honza-NOM talked with teacher-INST] ‘Honza was talking with the teacher’ is an example of INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT. In Czech the use of the preposition s ‘with’ is generally reserved for INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT to introduce an accomplice, companion, or other peripheral adjunct to an item of more central importance. Just about any activity a person engages in can become a joint project when there is someone else to share it with, as we see in these examples(mn1.2): Nechtěl bys s většími dětmi recitovat pěkné básničky? [Not-wanted AUX with bigger children-INST recite nice poems-ACC? Wouldn’t you like to recite some nice poems with the bigger children? Many activities that are part of interpersonal relationships require a partner to engage with. All of the words below can use s ‘with’ to name such a partner(mn1.3): Expressions of Engagement Associated with INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT bavit se s ‘talk with’ sejít se s; schůze ‘meet with; meeting’ bojovat; boj s ‘fight with’ setkat/setkávat/stýkat se s; styk s ‘meet with; relationship with’ dohodnout/dohadovat se s; dohoda s ‘make an agreement with’ seznámit/seznamovat se s ‘become acquainted with’ domluvit se s; domluva s ‘make an agreement with’ sympatizovat s ‘sympathize with’ smluvit/smlouvat se s; smlouva s ‘make a treaty with’ hraničit s ‘border on’ snášet se s ‘get along with’ jednat s ‘deal/negotiate with’ konflikt s ‘conflict with’ souhlasit; souhlas s ‘agree; agreement with’ konzultovat; konzultace s ‘consult; consultation with’ soupeřit s ‘vie with’ kooperovat s; kooperace s‘cooperate with; cooperation with’ sousedit s ‘be neighbors with’ ladit s; soulad s ‘harmonize with; harmony with’ milovat se s ‘make love with’ soutěžit s ‘compete with’ o-ženit se s‘get married to’ spojit/spojovat se s; spojení s ‘join, connect with’ paktovat se; pakt s‘enter into an arrangement with’ spolčit/spolčovat se s ‘join forces with’ podělit se s ‘share with’ spolupracovat; spolupráce s ‘collaborate with’ po-hádat se s ‘argue with’ spřátelit se; přátelství s ‘make friends; friendship with’ po-hovořit; rozhovor s ‘have a conversation with’ srazit/srážet se s; sraz ‘collide with; meeting’ políbit/líbat se s ‘exchange kisses with’ srovnat/srovnávat (se) s ‘compare, reconcile with’

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The InstrumentalCase po-radit se s ‘consult with’ střetnout/střetat se s; střet s ‘clash with’ povídat si s ‘converse with’ tahat se s ‘wrangle with’ tančit; tanec s ‘dance with’ pro-mluvit s ‘talk with’ válčit; válka s ‘make war with’ přít se; pře s ‘argue; argument with’ vycházet s ‘get along with’ rozdělit/rozdělovat se s ‘share with’ vyrovnat/vyrovnávat se s ‘settle accounts with’ rozejít/rozcházet se; rozchod s ‘part ways; parting with’ zápasit; zápas s ‘wrestle; competition with’ roz-loučit se s ‘say goodbye to, part with’ ztotožnit/ztotožňovat s; totožný s ‘identify with; identical to’ sblížit/sbližovat se s ‘come together with’ zůstat/zůstávat s ‘stay with’ svatba s ‘wedding with’ The following examples illustrate the use of INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT with these words: Matka i otec se mnou zase mluví. [Mother-NOM and father-NOM with me-INST again talk.] My mother and father are talking with me again. Obchody prezentují kolekce tak, aby obleky ladily s košilemi, kravatami i dalšími doplňky včetně bot. [Stores-NOM present collections-ACC thus, so-that suits-NOM harmonized with shirtsINST, ties-INST, and other accessories-INST including shoes-GEN.] The stores present their collections making sure that the suits go with the shirts, ties, and other accessories, including shoes. Kostní dřeň dárce nebyla s příjemcovou zcela totožná. [Bone marrow-NOM donor-GEN was-not with recipient’s-INST entirely identical-NOM.] The donor’s bone marrow was not entirely identical to the recipient’s. Paradigma spojené s minulým režimem je nenávratně pryč. [Paradigm-NOM joined-NOM with former regime-INST is irrevocably gone.] The paradigm associated with the former regime is gone for good. Several complex prepositions are motivated by the idea of engagement and are combined with s + INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT, as evidenced in this table and the following example: Complex Prepositions Associated with INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT v rozporu s‘in conflict with’ v souvislosti s ‘in connection with’ v souhlase s ‘in agreement with’ v spojení s ‘in connection with’ v souladu s ‘in harmony with’ ve srovnání s ‘in comparison with’ V souvislosti s posledním skandálem Jirásková uvedla, že byla ujištěna, že je všechno v

27 pořádku. [In connection-LOC with latest scandal-INST Jirásková-NOM stated, that was assuredNOM, that is everything-NOM in order-LOC.] In connection with the latest scandal Jirásková stated that she had been assured that everything was ok. Czech is not entirely fastidious about distinguishing between the meaning of accompaniment associated with s + INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT and the meaning of conduit meaning of the prepositionless INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS. As a result, there is strong overlap between these two uses of the instrumental case, evidenced by the extension of the preposition s to contexts that include INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS. This tendency to “overuse” s is particularly strong in CCz, where s can sometimes be inserted even when the instrumental case marks an instrument, as in Přijeli jsme s autem (CCz) [Came AUX with car-INST] ‘We came by car’ (compare this with the LCz version Přijeli jsme autem). In section 8 of INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS, we noted a number of verbs indicating control/manipulation and enjoyment/suffering which often appear both with INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS and with s + INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT. These verbs are further indication of the overlaps between these two meanings of the instrumental case. The following table gathers these verbs together: Overlap Between INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS and INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT hospodařit s ‘manage’ rozstonat se s ‘become ill with’ chlubit se s ‘boast of’ trpět s ‘suffer with’ obchodovat; obchod s ‘trade in’ zabývat se s ‘be interested in’ obírat se s ‘be occupied, concerned with’ The adjective spokojený ‘satisfied’ can likewise be used either in conjunction with INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS or with s + INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT.

INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT 2—Idioms and other uses The use of the preposition s ‘with’ is not limited to human companions; it can be used with objects, abstractions, and attributes, much as with is used in English (mn2.1). Here are some examples: *Víza budou udělována na delší dobu a s možností více vstupů do země. [Vizas-NOM will-be issued-NOM for longer period-ACC and with possibility-INST more entries-GEN to country-GEN.] Vizas will be issued for a longer period and with the possibility of multiple entries into the country. Bylo to druhý rok, kdy jachta kotvila v přistavu na Sibiři, na území s nekonečnými a pustými lesními porosty tajgy. [Was that-NOM second year-NOM, when yacht-NOM anchored in harbor-LOC at Siberia-

28

The InstrumentalCase LOC, at territory-LOC with endless-INST and empty forest growths-INST taiga-GEN.] It was the second year that the yacht was anchored at harbor in Siberia, in a territory with endless and empty forests of the taiga. The phrase mít něco společného s [have something-ACC common-GEN with] is fairly frequent and transparently patterned after the same idea as its English equivalent ‘have something in common with, something to do with’; here is an example of how it is used: S tou firmou už nemám nic společného. [With that company-INST already not-have nothing-ACC common-GEN.] I don’t have anything to do with that company anymore. The preposition s + INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT is an essential component of a number of idiomatic expressions in Czech, and fortunately most of these idioms have close parallels in English(mn2.2). The idiom Co je s tebou/vámi/ní…? [What-NOM is with you-INST/youINST/her-INST…?] What’s with you/her…? has the same structure as its English equivalent and is extremely common. Just as in English we talk about doing something with an item in Czech we can use INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT in phrases like u-dělat něco s něčím [do something-ACC with something-INST] ‘do something with something’ and dát/dávat si s něčím práci [give self-DAT with something-INST work-ACC] ‘take pains with something’. English with is parallel to Czech s when we talk about taking and having things with us, but in Czech the person is always expressed by the reflexive instrumental pronoun sebou, as in vzít něco s sebou [take something-ACC with self-INST] ‘take something with oneself’, and mít něco s sebou [have something-ACC with self-INST] ‘have something with oneself’. Starting, hesitating, and reckoning can all be done with something, as in the Czech expressions začít/začínat s něčím [start with something-INST] ‘start with something’, zaváhat s něčím [hesitate with something-INST] ‘hesitate with something’, počítat s něčím [reckon with something-INST] ‘reckon with something/count on something’. The construction vypadat (dobře/špatně) s + INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT is approximately equivalent to English look (good/bad) with in the sense of giving a prognosis or a progress report; for example, one might say S naším výletem do Rakouska to vypadá špatně, nemáme na to [With our trip-INST to Austria-GEN it-NOM looks bad, not-have for it-ACC] ‘Things are looking bad with our trip to Austria, we can’t afford it’. Even some more complex idiomatic constructions show that Czech and English follow transparently similar patterns, for example obrátit se s prosbou/žádostí na někoho [turn self-ACC with request/demandINST to someone-ACC] ‘turn to someone with a request/demand’, házet si s míčem [throw self-DAT with ball-INST] ‘play (by throwing) with a ball’, jít k lékaři s [go to doctor-DAT with] ‘go to a doctor with (an ailment marked INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT)’, and ležet v nemocnici s [lie in hospital-LOC with] ‘be in the hospital with (a disease marked INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT)’. Just as in English we can say that a person does things with various emotions, in Czech we can use expressions like s chutí [with taste-INST] ‘with gusto’, s radostí [with pleasure-INST] ‘with pleasure’, and s odvahou [with courageINST] ‘with courage (also used to encourage people, like Go for it!)’. Tak co s tebou dneska je?

29 [So what-NOM with you-INST today is?] So what’s with you today? A few idiomatic uses of Czech s + INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT lack obvious parallels with English(mn2.3). For example, the construction zacházet s can mean ‘treat’ when the instrumental item is a person who is being treated well or badly, or it can mean ‘use masterfully’ when the instrumental item is an inanimate object which the subject has a special talent for using. If you are holding something and someone wants to take it out of your hands, the phrase S dovolením! [With permission-INST!] ‘May I?/Please, allow me!’ is a polite way to state their request. When talking about the day on which a future event is expected to take place, it is possible to use s + a day of the week marked INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT, with a meaning very similar to English come, as in S pondělkem vyrazíme na pláž [With MondayINST take-off for beach-ACC] ‘Come Monday we’ll take off for the beach’. If someone is exaggerating, Czechs will say that the person is speaking (using a verb like mluvit orříkat) s nadsázkou [with exaggeration-INST]. S nadsázkou se říká, že po zkušebních letcích patří žurnalistika k nejvíce rizikovým povoláním. [With exaggeration-INST self-ACC, that after test pilots-LOC belongs journalism-NOM to most risky professions-DAT.] It is said with some exaggeration that journalism belongs to the most risky professions after test pilots. The farewell greeting spánembohem ‘goodbye’ is built from the phrase s Pánem Bohem [with Lord God-INST], meaning ‘(May you go) with the Lord God’. An even more peculiar construction teams the instrumental up with the dative case to describe something that happens to two people who are thought of as a couple(mn2.4). One member of the pair is either the speaker (‘I’) or the hearer (‘you’) and is referred to as plural (even though this person is obviously singular) using the dative pronouns nám or vám. The other member of the pair (usually a spouse or significant other) appears as s + INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT. Thus one could ask Jak se vám se ženou daří? [How self-ACC you-DAT with wife-INST thrives?] ‘How are you and your wife doing?’, and in response you might hear something like: Nám to zatím se ženou klape. (CCz) [Us-DAT that-NOM now with wife-INST work-well.] Right now things are going well for my wife and I. This use of the instrumental to indicate the second person of a couple is also possible when the speaker is the first person of the couple and is also the subject of the sentence, provided that the subject pronoun is not used. In this construction, the verb appears in the my ‘we’ form, as we see with the verb Jdeme ‘go’ in this example: *Jdeme se s manželem podívat k Nuselskému mostu. [Go self-ACC with husband-INST look to Nusel Bridge.]

30

The InstrumentalCase My husband and I are going to the Nusel Bridge to take a look.

INSTRUMENTAL::A LANDMARK 1—před ‘in front of, before, ago’ Five Czech prepositions are used with the INSTRUMENTAL::A LANDMARK to describe the peripheral location of one item in alignment with another item or items(mn1.1). Two of these prepositions view this alignment in a horizontal plane: před ‘in front of’ and za ‘behind’. Two more are exactly parallel to these, but view the alignment in a vertical plane: nad ‘above’ and pod ‘below’. The fifth preposition, mezi ‘between, among’ uses two or more items to establish the alignment independent of any geographic orientation. In terms of physical location, před ‘in front of, before’ + INSTRUMENTAL::A LANDMARK identifies an item that serves as a peripheral landmark for another item(mn1.2). In these examples, people are located in front of a church and a mirror, respectively: *Před kostelem svaté Ludmily posedává unavená mládež s transparentem “Nenásilná demonstrace”. [In-front-of church-INST Saint Ludmila-GEN sits weary youth-NOM with banner-INST “Non-violent demonstration-NOM”.] In front of the church of Saint Ludmila sit weary young people with a banner saying “Nonviolent demonstration”. Když doma před zrcadlem cvičívá, dítě trénuje s ní. [When at-home in-front-of mirror-INST practices, child-NOM trains with her-INST.] When she practices at home in front of the mirror, her child trains with her. If a human being serves as a landmark in this way, they are often understood as a witness to whatever event is placed before them, so Czechs will say things like Nebudeme se hádat před dětmi [Will-not argue self-ACC in-front-of children-INST] ‘We aren’t going to argue in front of the children’. Here’s another example: Před nimi živá skutečná zvířata skákala, plazila se a létala tak blízko, že cítili jejch pach a viděli každý jejich chlup. [In-front-of them-INST live real animals-NOM jumped, crawled and flew so close that they smelled their scent-ACC and saw every their hair-ACC.] Real live animals jumped, crawled, and flew so close in front of them that they could smell their scent and see every hair on their bodies. In the domain of time, před means ‘before’ when referring to events, as in před odjezdem [before departure-INST] ‘before leaving’, or ‘ago’ when referring to periods of time, as in před rokem [before year-INST] ‘a year ago’, or can appear in the fixed phrase před tím, než [before that-INST, than] ‘before’, as illustrated in these two examples, where the landing of a plane serves as a temporal landmark for a crash, and a week is a period of time prior to which some boasting took place (mn1.3): Trosky Airbusu A320 ční z mělké vody u pobřeží Bahrajnu, kam se letoun společnosti Gulf

31 Air zřítil krátce před přistáním při letu z Káhiry. [Wreckage-NOM Airbus-GEN A320 projects from shallow water-GEN by coast-GEN Bahrain-GEN, where self-ACC plane-NOM company-GEN Gulf Air-NOM crashed shortly before landing-INST during flight-LOC from Cairo-GEN.] The wreckage of an Airbus A320 sticks out of the shallow water off the coast of Bahrain, where the Gulf Air plane crashed shortly before landing on a flight from Cairo. Ještě před týdnem se rybáři chlubili, jak vyzráli na pytláky. [Still before week-INST self-ACC fishermen-NOM boasted, how duped on poachers-ACC.] Just a week ago the fishermen were boasting about how they had gotten the better of the poachers. The idiomatic construction mít něco před sebou [have something-ACC before selfINST] ‘have something before oneself/have yet to deal with something’ describes a future event (often an upcoming challenge) by conflating the domains of space and time. Here the subject stands on an imaginary time line facing the future and sees something that is coming up. Alternatively, the instrumental item can be the event itself, and the meaning is very similar, as in mít před svatbou [have before wedding-INST] which might be translated as ‘have a wedding coming up’. Here are examples of how these constructions are used: Mám před sebou stěhování do nového bytu, moc se na to těším, ale současně se obávám všech komplikací s tím spojených. [Have before self-INST moving-ACC to new apartment-GEN, much self-ACC on thatACC look-forward, but at-the-same-time self-ACC fear all complications-GEN with thatINST connected-GEN.] I have the move into the new apartment coming up, I’m really looking forward to it, but at the same time I’m afraid of all the complications connected with it. Mají před svatbou, ale chovají se, jakoby spolu byli alespoň dvacet let. [Have before wedding-INST, but behave self-ACC, as-if together were at-least twentyACC years-GEN.] Their wedding is coming up, but they behave as if they had been together at least twenty years. Preferences invoke an imaginary space where some items are placed before others, indeed the Czech word přednost ‘preference’ is even built from the preposition před. The positioning of items in this metaphorical space is evident in the construction dát/dávat někomu/něčemu přednost před někým/něčím [give someone/something-DAT preferenceACC before someone/something-INST] ‘prefer someone/something over someone/something’. Here is an example of how this construction is used: Svět dal přednost stabilitě před ochranou občanů v totalitních režimech. [World-NOM gave preference-ACC stability-DAT before protection-INST citizens-GEN in totalitarian regimes-LOC.] The world preferred stability over the protection of citizens in totalitarian regimes.

32

The InstrumentalCase

In the metaphorical space of confrontation, před is often used to describe what a person does in the face of a given challenge. Here are some common phrases involving před: utéci/ utíkat před nepřítelem [flee before enemy-INST] ‘flee from an enemy’, chránit/schovat se před zimou [protect/hide self-ACC before cold-INST] ‘protect oneself from/get out of the cold’, mít před někým strach [have before someone-INST fear-ACC] ‘be afraid of someone’, ostýchat se před někým [be-shy self-ACC before someone-INST] ‘be shy of someone’, mít před někým respekt [have before someone-INST respect] ‘respect someone’, stydět se sám před sebou [shame self-ACC self-NOM before self-INST] ‘be ashamed of oneself’, stát v úžasu před něčím [stand in amazement-LOC before something-INST] ‘be amazed at something’. Na moje doporučení, že by se měly schovat před zimou do auta, odpověděly: “Přežily jsme vězení, přežijeme všechno…” a smály se. [On my recommendation-ACC, that AUX self-ACC had hide before cold-INST to carGEN, answered: “Lived-through prison-ACC, live-through everything-ACC…” and laughed self-ACC.] In response to my recommendation that they go in the car to get out of the cold, they answered: “We lived through prison, we can live through everything…” and laughed. Všichni stojí v úžasu před rychlostí, s jakou Vladimir Putin zdánlivě nezadržitelně míří směrem vzhůru. [Everyone-NOM stands in amazement-LOC before speed-INST, with which-INST Vladimir Putin-NOM apparently unstoppably aims direction-INST upward.] Everyone is amazed at the speed with which Vladimir Putin is apparently unstoppably aiming upward. Zároveň se vytrácí i “přivírání oči” před nevěrou. [At-same-time self-ACC disappears also “shutting-NOM eyes-GEN” before adulteryINST.] At the same time the tendency to “shut one’s eyes” in the face of adultery is also disappearing.

INSTRUMENTAL::A LANDMARK 2—za ‘beyond, behind’ Za + INSTRUMENTAL::A LANDMARK indicates a spatial alignment that is the opposite of před (mn2.1). The landmark is an item that is between us and another item which is ‘behind’ or ‘beyond’ it. Here are a couple of examples of za used to locate items in space. Při přistání letoun zachytil křídlem o přistávací plochu a po několika kotrmelcích skončil jako obří ohnivá koule v kukuřičném poli za letištěm. [During landing-LOC plane-NOM knocked wing-INST against landing surface-ACC and after several somersaults-LOC ended like giant fiery ball-NOM in corn field-LOC behind airport-INST.] During landing the plane knocked its wing against the airstrip and after several somersaults

33 ended up as a giant ball of fire in a corn field behind the airport. Pracoval venku za domem, a když jsem ho chtěla zavolat k obědu, už  tam nebyl. [Worked outside behind house-INST, but when AUX him-ACC wanted call to lunch-DAT, already there not-was.] He was working outside behind the house, but when I wanted to call him to lunch, he wasn’t there anymore. The meanings of some words in combination with za + INSTRUMENTAL::A LANDMARK have become somewhat specialized. For example, when the landmark in question is a city, this phrase will describe the outskirts or environs, as in za Prahou [behind Prague-INST] ‘outside of Prague’. Note also that za rohem [behind corner-INST] means ‘around the corner’. Here are examples of each type of usage: Stopoval jsem za Sušicí, nikdo mě nebral, tak jsem si lehl do trávy a pozoroval mraky. [Hitchiked AUX behind Sušice-INST, noone-NOM me-ACC not-took, so AUX self-DAT lay to grass-GEN and watched clouds-ACC.] I was hitchiking outside of Sušice and nobody picked me up, so I lay down in the grass and watched the clouds. “Čao!” řekla na rozloučenou a zmizela za rohem. [“Bye!” said for parting-ACC and disappeared behind corner-INST.] “Bye!” she said at parting and disappeared behind the corner. The notion that za identifies a barrier between us and another item is capitalized on in the Czech idiomatic construction mít něco za lubem [have something-ACC behind strip-ofwood-INST] ‘have something up one’s sleeve/be up to no good (literally: ‘have something behind a piece of wood’)’. Tvářil se trochu potměšile, s výrazem člověka, který má něco za lubem. [Made-face self-ACC a-bit deceitfully, with expression-INST person-GEN, who-NOM has something-ACC behind strip-of-wood-INST.] He made a rather deceitful face, with the expression of a person who is up to no good. There are three spatial uses of za that are especially worth noting because they serve not only to describe where a person is, but also what they are doing. One is za volantem [behind wheel-INST] ‘behind the wheel of a car (acting as the driver)’, another is za stolem [behind table-INST] ‘at the table (while working on something or eating a meal)’. In the case of the third expression, za školou [behind school-INST] ‘playing hookey’, the location is actually irrelevant—the person may be anywhere (except in school, of course). Seděla za volantem nablýskaného auta z dovozu, značkové kalhoty a svetřík obepínaly její udržovanou postavu. [Sat behind wheel-INST polished car-GEN from import-GEN, designer pants-NOM and sweater-NOM enclosed her well-maintained figure-ACC.]

34

The InstrumentalCase She sat behind the wheel of a polished imported car, designer pants and a sweater enclosed her well-maintained figure. Seděl za otlučeným stolem a něco si prohlížel se skloněnou hlavou. [Sat behind bent-up table-INST and something-ACC self-DAT examined with inclined head-INST.] He was sitting at a bent-up table and looking at something with his head inclined. Matka se až na třídních schůzkách dozvěděla, že jsem čtrnáct dní  byl zaškolou. [Mother-NOM self-ACC only at class meetings-LOC found-out, that AUX fourteen-ACC days-GEN was behind school-INST.] It wasn’t until she went to meet my teachers that my mother found out that I had been playing hookey for fourteen days. Just as we use ‘behind’ with the word ‘follow’, so do Czechs associate za + INSTRUMENTAL::A LANDMARK with following and going to(mn2.2). The following examples demonstrate this use in physical movement through space, in sequential action along the dimension of time, and in the domain of adventures, respectively: V těsném závěsu za ním následoval vyhublý pes. [In close hanging-LOC behind him-INST followed emaciated dog-NOM.] Close behind him followed an emaciated dog. Kouřili cigaretu za cigaretou. [Smoked cigarette-ACC after cigarette-INST.] They smoked cigarette after cigarette. Turisté zas vytáhli zpod sedadel vaky a láhve a odešli za novými dobrodružstvími. [Tourists-NOM again pulled-out from-beneath seats-GEN baguettes-ACC and bottles-ACC and left after new adventures-INST.] The tourists got their baguettes and bottles out from under the seats again and left in pursuit of new adventures. Za is the antonym of před not only in the domain of space, but also in the domain of time(mn2.3). Whereas mít něco před sebou [have something-ACC before self-INST] ‘have something before oneself/have yet to deal with something’ describes a future event that has to be faced, mít něco za sebou [have something-ACC behind self-INST] ‘have something behind oneself/be done with something’ describes a past event that one has survived. Here is an example for good measure: Když už dívka reprezentuje USA, má za sebou nejméně deset podobných soutěží doma. [If already girl-NOM represents USA-ACC, has behind self at-least ten-ACC similar contests-ACC at-home.] If a girl is representing the USA, she has at least ten similar contests behind her at home.

35 Because we often think of causes as being hidden, they can also be expressed with this preposition. In the following example, the narrator is looking for whatever it is that has brought about political success, the reason hiding behind the obvious result: Co stojí za jeho fenomenálním politickým úspěchem? [What-NOM stands behind his phenomenal political success-INST?] What is behind his phenomenal political success?

INSTRUMENTAL::A LANDMARK 3—nad ‘above, over’ In the vertical plane, nad locates an item ‘above, over’ another item(mn3.1). The use of this preposition in the doman of space is just what we would expect: *Budí mě helikoptéra, která krouží nad středem Prahy. [Wakes me-ACC helicopter-NOM, which-NOM circles above center-INST Prague-GEN.] I am awakened by a helicopter circling over the center of Prague. Lampička nad jeho hlavou ozáří zarámovanou fotografii na stěně. [Lamp-NOM above his head-INST illuminates framed photograph-ACC on wall-LOC.] The lamp above his head illuminates the framed photograph on the wall. Cities are frequently built on waterways, and a number of Czech cities are named using the construction X(city)-NOM nad Y(river)-INST, for example Ústí nad Labem, literally ‘Ústí above the Elbe’, and Jablonec na Jizerou, literally ‘Jablonec above the Jizera’. We imagine graphs and scales as having a vertical dimension, so if one item is more or better than another, it will be higher on the scale. Excellence and victory depend on exceeding a norm, on reaching a higher point on a scale, and this concept has found its expression in the Czech use of nad + INST with words like vynikat ‘excel’, z-vítězit ‘conquer, be victorious’ , and vítězství ‘victory’. Here is an example: V prvním finálovém utkání Východní  konference NBAzvítězilo Chicago nad Orlandem. [In first finals match-LOC Eastern conference-GEN NBA was-victorious Chicago-NOM over Orlando-INST.] Chicago was victorious over Orlando in the first match of the finals of the NBA Eastern conference. As with English ‘over’, nad identifies a vantage point that has certain implications(mn3.2). It is a location from which one can experience certain emotions, as well as the emotional distance that gives us space to think about things, motivating phrases like radovat se nad ‘rejoice over’, lítost nad ‘regret concerning’, zamyslet se nad ‘meditate on’. A position ‘above’ an item facilitates manipulation and control(mn3.3). Control over an item can be wielded by legal or governmental authority, as in the following example: Co přináší televizním moderátorům pocit moci nad politikem?

36

The InstrumentalCase [What-NOM brings television moderators-DAT feeling-ACC power-GEN over politicianINST?] What gives television moderators a feeling of power over a politician?

INSTRUMENTAL::A LANDMARK 4—pod ‘under, below’ Opposing nad in the vertical plane is pod ‘under, below’(mn4.1). Once again we will look first at examples of how this preposition indicates physical locations: *Policejní autobusy a antony se řadí rovnou pod našimi okny. [Police buses-NOM and vans-NOM self-ACC line-up right under our windows-INST.] Police buses and vans line up right under our windows. V koruně nejbližší jabloně se pod narůžovělými květy už zřetelně rýsovala příští letní jablka. [In crown-LOC nearest apple-tree-GEN self-ACC under rosy blossoms-INST already clearly foreshadowed next summer apples-NOM.] The next crop of summer apples was already clearly foreshadowed beneath the rosy blossoms in the crown of the nearest apple tree. The metaphorical space of numbers and statistics motivates using pod to indicate amounts that are lower than others, as in this example: *Růst hrubého domácího produktu České republiky je pod průměrem kandidátských zemí Evropské Unie. [Growth-NOM gross domestic product-GEN Czech Republic-GEN is below average-INST candidate countries-GEN European Union-GEN.] The growth of the gross domestic product of the Czech Republic is below the average of coutries that are candidates for the European Union. Just as nad gave us the perspective of control ‘over’, pod can conversely describe being ‘under’ control(4.2): Všechny operace se prováděly pod kontrolou České spořitelny. [All operations-NOM self-ACC carried-out under control-INST Czech Savings-Bank-GEN.] All operations were carried out under the control of the Czech Savings Bank. Čtyřicet minut se budou noví kandidáti na řidičský průkaz potit pod dohledem zkušebního komisaře u praktického testu jízdy. [Forty-ACC minutes-GEN self-ACC will new candidates-NOM for driver’s license-ACC sweat under supervision-INST testing officer-GEN at pratical test-GEN ride-GEN.] New candidates for driver’s licenses will have to sweat for forty minutes under the supervision of the testing officer at their road tests. Restrictions, threats, and punishments are understood of as being imposed from on high;

37 they are the conditions under which we are forced act, and the use of pod + INST is well motivated to describe such situations, as these three sentences demonstrate: Se zbraní a pod pohrůžkou násilí donutil zatím nezámý pachatel pokladní, aby mu vydala peníze. [With weapon-INST and under threat-INST violence-GEN forced still unknown criminalNOM teller-ACC, so-that him-DAT issued money-ACC.] With a weapon and under threat of violence an unknown criminal forced a teller to issue him money. Léčba drogově závislého může být úspěšná pouze pod podmínkou, přizná-li si on sám, že lécení potřebuje. [Treatment-NOM by-drugs dependent-GEN can be successful-NOM only under conditionINST, admits-if self-DAT he-NOM self-NOM, that treating-ACC needs.] The treatment of a person dependent on drugs can be successful only under the condition that the person himself admits that he needs to be treated. Vstup na trávníky v areálu zahrady je zakázán pod pokutou dvou set korun. [Entrance-NOM on lawns-ACC in complex-LOC garden-GEN is prohibited-NOM under fine-INST two hundred crowns-GEN.] Entrance to the lawns in the garden complex is prohibited and carries a fine of two hundred crowns. Strikingly similar to Engish is the stock phrase řízení auta pod vlivem alkoholu [driving-NOM car-GEN under influence-INST alcohol-GEN] ‘driving a car under the influence of alcohol’, which is equally disastrous in both cultures. Czech also shares with English the concept under pressure, as we see in this example: Producenti jsou pod stále větším tlakem konkurence a musejí spojovat své síly, aby obstáli. [Producers-NOM are under constantly greater pressure-INST competition-GEN and must join own forces-ACC, so-that survive.] The producers are under ever increasing pressure due to competition and they must join forces in order to survive. Since a name or title typically goes on top of something, pod can indicate the name given to companies, products, and people, as in these examples: Fúzí  obou bank vznikne nový subjekt, který bude působit podobchodním jménem Bank Austria Creditanstalt jako univerzální banka. [Fusion-INST both banks-GEN appears new entity-NOM, which-NOM will function under commercial name-INST Bank Austria Creditanstalt as universal bank-NOM.] Due to the fusion of both banks, a new entity will appear which will function under the commercial name of Bank Austria Creditanstalt as a universal bank. Jedním z obchodních triků je změnit obal zastaralého výrobku a uvést ho s bombastickou

38

The InstrumentalCase reklamou na trh pod novým jménem. [One-INST from commercial tricks-GEN is change packaging-ACC outmoded productGEN and introduce it-ACC with bombastic advertising-INST to market-ACC under new name-INST.] One trick of commerce is to change the packaging of an outmoded product and introduce it to the market under a new name with bombastic advertising. Populární dívčí  skupinu Spice Girls opustila jedna ze zpěvaček vystupující pod pseudonymem Ginger Spice. [Popular female group-ACC Spice Girls left one-NOM from singers-GEN performing-NOM under pseudonym-INST Ginger Spice.] One of the singers, who performed under the pseudonym of Ginger Spice, has left the popular female group, the Spice Girls.

INSTRUMENTAL::A LANDMARK 5—mezi ‘between, among’ The preposition mezi ‘between, among’ is used in spatial and metaphorical domains in ways very similar to its English counterparts(mn5.1). Here are a few examples: Kvůli opravě trati nebudou jezdit vlaky mezi Masarykovým nádražím a Dejvicemi. [Due-to repair-DAT rails-GEN not-will ride trains-NOM between Masaryk station-INST and Dejvice-INST.] Due to repairs on the rails, there will not be any trains running between Masaryk station and Dejvice. Bloudil jsem mezi šedivými paneláky, marně jsem hledal, v kterém domě vlastně bydlí. [Wandered AUX among gray pre-fab-buildings-INST, in-vain AUX searched, in which building-LOC actually lives.] I wandered among the gray pre-fab apartment houses, searching in vain for the one she lived in. Like all the other prepositions associated with INSTRUMENTAL::A LANDMARK, mezi can be used in metaphorical domains. In the following two sentences economic competition is understood as a battle takng place between producers, and alienation is understood as a fungus growing between two people, thus the domains of money and emotion are understood as metaphorical spaces where items can be placed: Tvrdý boj se rozpoutal mezi největšími světovými producenty tvrdého alkoholu. [Tough battle-NOM self-ACC broke-out among biggest world producers-INST hard alcohol-GEN.] A tough battle has broken out among the world’s biggest producers of hard liquor. Odcizení mezi mnou a matkou roste jako muchomůrka po vydatném dešti. [Alienation-NOM between me-INST and mother-INST grows like toadstool-NOM after substantial rain-LOC.]

39 The alienation between me and my mother is growing like a toadstool after a substantial rain. Difference implies some separation between two or more items, a conpcept used by the phrase rozdíl mezi ‘difference between’: *Jaký je rozdíl mezi informací a pravdou? [What-NOM is difference-NOM between information-INST and truth-INST?] What is the difference between information and truth? When we move to the metaphoical space of time, mezi + INST can be used to describe the sequencing of a time or event relative to two other temporal landmarks. Here a morning meeting is scheduled to begin between two times: Ranní porada začíná mezi devátou a půl desátou dopoledne. [Morning meeting-NOM starts between ninth-INST and half tenth-INST morning.] The morning meeting starts between nine and nine-thirty. Mezi + INST participates in its share of idiomatic expressions. Ones you are likely to endcounter include mezi dveřmi [between door-INST] ‘in the doorway’, zůstane to mezi námi [remains that-NOM between us-INST] ‘let’s keep this to ourselves’, mezi čtyřma očima [between four eyes-INST] ‘between the two of them/us (a private conversation)’, prohodit mezi řečí [toss between speech-INST] ‘mention in passing’, mezi jiným [between other-INST] ‘among other things’, číst mezi řádky [read between lines-INST] ‘read between the lines’, and procedit mezi zuby [strain between teeth-INST] ‘say through clenched teeth (in anger)’.

INSTRUMENTAL::A LANDMARK 6—Adverbs A number of adverbs are built from the prepositions associated with

INSTRUMENTAL::A

LANDMARK, and all of them are obviously motivated by the meanings of the instrumental that

we have just reviewed. Most of these adverbs are derived from prepositional phrases, and most of them describe relationships in the domain of time. mezitím předem především předtím zatím zatímco

[between-that-INST] ‘in the meantime, meanwhile’ [before-INST] ‘ahead of time, in advance’ [before-all-INST] ‘above all, primarily’ [before-that-INST] ‘beforehand’ [behind-that-INST] ‘in the meantime, for the time being, at present’ [behind-that-INST-what-NOM] ‘while’

Here are some sentences to demonstrate how these adverbs behave in context: ()

Předem děkuji za kladné vyřízení mé žádosti. [Before-INST thank for positive settlement-ACC my request-GEN.]

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The InstrumentalCase I thank you in advance for a positive settlement of my request. () Parlament si nepřízeň vysloužil především proto, že poslanci se podle občanů starají hlavně o své zájmy. [Parliament-NOM self-DAT disfavor-ACC earned before-all-INST because, that delegates-NOM self-ACC according-to citizens-GEN care mainly about own interests-ACC.] Parliament has earned its disfavor primarily because the citizens feel that the delegates care mainly about their own interests. ()

Objem obchodů na burze se zatím nedá odhadnout. [Volume-NOM trade-GEN at stock-exchange-LOC self-ACC behind-that-INST not-gives estimate.] The volume of trade at the stock exchange cannot be estimated at present.

EPILOGUE The meaning of the word instrumental is transparent to us, and it’s a good name for this case because Czechs use it not only for instruments, but for a variety of items instrumental to whatever a sentence describes: a path for motion, a way to do something, a time to do it, the agent or cause of an event, the category something falls in, a companion or opponent, a landmark for locating something. This survey of the instrumental case has also given us a peek into the conceptual world of Czech. It is a world where vehicles are the instruments of transportation and languages are the instruments of speech, a world where we walk a fine line between wielding control of our surroundings and falling prey to their ability to give us delight or suffering, a world where appearances can behave the same as what actually exists, a world where we can stand on a timeline and consider the things we’ve been through and the things we still have to look forward to, a world where power is up and submission is down. It is also a world where we can engage with others in a great variety of activities, be they harmonious or not. Overall, the instrumental case is a coherent whole, a well-functioning unit with a logic of its own, and part of the greater case system of Czech. Hopefully this chapter and this book will offer you a way to navigate this system, giving you the landmarks you need to further explore it on your own and become a confident, masterful user of case.

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Can be used at any level of study from elementary to advanced Russian Can be used in conjunction with any textbook or other course materials Can be used for independent study by anyone who is interested in maintaining and improving their Russian Individual chapters on each case with major case usages explained in a use-by-use fashion The book may be read through from beginning to end or in sections or used as a reference Future projects include The Aspect Book for Russian as well as Case and Aspect Books for other Slavic languages

All examples in the text and exercises are drawn from a database of naturally occurring Russian sentences Examples represent a variety of genres and topics Focus is on Case usage, not endings, but tables of case endings are included at the beginning of each chapter and in a comprehensive Appendix Accompanying CD-ROM for both Windows and Macintosh platforms Exercises for each chapter are presented in three difficulty levels to facilitate the use of the book and CD-ROM with different years of study CD-ROM contains male and female nativespeaker recordings of all examples Publication expected in late 2000 or early 2001

The Case Book for A decade of research on Russian case semantics has come together in a valuable new pedagogical tool through the work of Laura Janda and Steven Clancy. The Case Book for Russian, a textbook and exercises, presents the Russian case system in terms of structured semantic wholes. This method of explanation is easily accessible to students and provides a coherent conceptual framework that accounts for the rich and often confusing details of Russian case usage. Throughout the text, the basic meanings of the cases are illustrated with examples from a large database of Russian prose, compiled specifically for this project. Examples in the text and exercises were taken from a variety of sources (primarily books and newspapers of the past decade) and are representative of multiple genres and fields (fiction, current events, contemporary history, politics, law, economics, science and medicine, etc.).

Russian

The aim of the text is to familiarize students with the variety of case usage by using real Russian sentences as opposed to the controlled language of traditional textbook examples. By confronting real case samples in an unadulterated form, students can learn to make sense of the systematic meanings of case in a fashion that will approach the understanding of a native speaker. The accompanying exercises continue the presentation of the text and challenge students to implement the concepts they have learned. The interactive version (CD-ROM for Macintosh and Windows platforms or internet-based access), contains recordings of all examples by both male and female native speakers, playable at the click of a button. As students work through the exercises, they can easily consult the electronic version of the text for quick reference and can print out summary sheets of completed assignments to hand in for class.

The Case Book for Russian FEATURES All example sentences are fully parsed and translated to help with difficult vocabulary. Tables compile information such as verbs and prepositions and the cases they govern

Headings, text, and example sentences are arranged on the page in a user-friendly fashion 52

The Accusative Case

Accusative: a destination 1

on a scale from general to specific, and the boundaries between submeanings are rather diffuse. The distribution Another hallmark of the accusative case is the way it deploys prepositions. With all of prepositions other cases, each preposition is associated with only one submeaning. Not so the accusaamong the tive. It is not uncommon for prepositions to use two or even all three meanings of the meanings of the accusative. This table will give you some idea of how versatile prepositions are in the accusative case. accusative case, and the individual uses of each will be discussed below. Distribution of prepositions among the meanings of the accusative case ACCUSAIVE: A DESTINATION ACCUSATIVE:: A DIMENSION ACCUSATIVE:: AN ENDPOINT ◊ ‘in, into; on, at; for’ Œ¡ ‘to, on, onto; on, at; for’ ⁄¡ ‘behind; for’ œ ‘against’ ¥œ ‘up to; after, to get’ ¥œƒ ‘under, toward; for use as’ ¥∂œ ‘for’

◊ ‘in, during; like’ Œ¡ ‘for, lasting; to’ ⁄¡ ‘during’ œ ‘with’ ¥œ ‘through; each’ ¥œƒ ‘like; to the tune of’ ¥∂œ ‘about’ ∑ ‘approximately’ ∑À◊œ⁄ÿ ‘through’ fiÅ∂≈⁄ ‘through’

◊ ‘in, at; at the end of’ ⁄¡ ‘away; by the end of’

fiÅ∂≈⁄ ‘across, after; in’

ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION 1 — ◊ ‘in, into’ DESTINATION is invoked in the domains of space, time, action, and purpose.

Clear headings provide reference points and state the main idea of each section

ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION in the domain of space is explored in sections 1-6.

◊ + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION in

ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION operates in four domains: space, time, action, and purpose. In the spatial domain ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION is ¡ destination of physical motion; in terms of time it is a temporal destination, a time when something happens; in the domain of action it is the destination of a verbal activity — what we usually call the direct object; and in the do}IYn of purpose its meaning is roughly equivalent to the English A force (arrow) arrives at an word for . In the domain of space, ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION (circle labeled A) always requires a preposition to tell us what sort of trajectory is envisioned. The prepositions that can appear here are: ◊ ‘to, into’, Œ¡ ‘to, onto’, ⁄¡ ‘to the far/back side of’, œ ‘against’, ¥œ ‘after, to get’, ¥œƒ ‘to the underside of, approaching’, and ¥∂œ ‘for’. We will look at each preposition, including its metaphorical uses, in turn. Physical movement through space in the direction of or entering something is the most basic use of ◊ expressing ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION.

A

G

ñ∏¡ ƒÅ◊π¤À¡ ∂ÄŒÿ¤≈ πfiÇá∑ÿ ◊ …» ÀÃÄ∑∑≈, ¡ ¥œ∏ÉÕ ¥≈∂≈¤ÃÄ ◊ ƒ∂π«Ñ¿ ¤ÀÉÃπ. [That girl-NOM earlier studied in their class-LOC, but later transferred to another school-ACC.] That girl used to study in their class, but later she transferred to another school .

ÌÄÕ¡ ¥œ¥Äá ◊ ∑πÕ¡∑¤Åƒ¤…™ ƒÉÕ. [Mama-NOM wound-up in lunatic asylum-ACC.] Mama wound up in a lunatic asylum .

We often spend so much time learning the prepositions in Russian that we neglect the fact that it also has postpositions. Just as a preposition is a word that comes before other words, a postposition is a word that comes after other words. All the postpositions associated with the accusative case are used to express time with ACCUSATIVE:: AN ENDPOINT, and appear in the last section of this chapter.

ACCUSATIVE: A

ACCUSATIVE: A The last example shows that Russian will often express the idea of moving toward a destina- DESTINATION with motion in tion even when the equivalent English doesn’t7. Here’s another typical example: Russian, conceived of as Ò ∂¡⁄ƒÅá∑ÿ … Ã≈«ÃÄ ◊ ¥œ∑∏ÅÃÿ. [I-NOM got-undressed and lay-down in bed-ACC.] location in I got undressed and lay down in bed. English.

Many kinds of motion, large and small, may be conceived of as showing direction. Here are some examples that you might not expect to use the accusative, given the way we think of them in English. Still, they do show directed motion, and thus the logic of using ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION is justified. πƒÄ∂ ◊ «∂πƒÿ, ∑∏πfiÄ∏ÿ ◊ ƒ◊≈∂ÿ [blow-NOM to chest-ACC, knock to door-ACC] a blow to the chest , to knock on a door

Ò À¡À ∑πÕ¡∑¤Åƒ¤…™ ⁄¡»ÃÉ¥¡Ã ◊ áƒÉ¤…. [I-NOM like crazy-person-NOM began-clapping to palms-ACC.] I started clapping my hands like a crazy person. Of course, in addition to moving oneself, one can also move other objects to accusative destinations, as in the following example: ˜¡Œ Áœ« œ∏∂Å⁄¡Ã ∑≈∫Å Ñ»œ … œ∏ƒÄà ◊ ∫œ∂ƒÅÃÿ. [Van Gogh-NOM cut-off self-DAT ear-ACC and sent to brothel-ACC.] Van Gogh cut off his ear and sent it to the brothel .

A DESTINATION

Notes in the grey margins provide concise summaries of text content

A SOURCE A WHOLE

For more information, contact: [email protected] [email protected] • Available Soon •

◊ + ACCUSATIVE:

with ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION is also used when the motion is more imaginary than actual, as in metaphorical the following to examples: motion.

Figures and case networks summarize case usages and provide a visual mnemonic for learning

An item (small circle) departs from a GENITIVE: A SOURCE (circle labeled G)

The Case Book for Russian Textbook, Exercises and Interactive CD-ROM Laura A. Janda Steven J. Clancy

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Ï…¤ÿ 7 ¥∂œ√ÅŒ∏œ◊ ÿƒÅ™ ◊á∂¡⁄…Ã… ÷≈ÃÄŒ…≈ ◊á≈»¡∏ÿ ◊ ƒ∂π«Ç≈ Õ≈∑∏Ä. the domain of [Only 7-NOM percent-GEN people-GEN expressed desire-ACC move to other places- space means ‘in, ACC.] into’. Only 7 percent of the people expressed a desire to move to other places .

A REFERENCE A GOAL

The Genitive Case