The Bullet's Song: Romantic Violence and Utopia 0684809079, 9780684809076

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A hidden moral history of the twentieth century *

unfolds in William PfafF’s fascinating story of writers, artists, intellectual soldiers, and religious revolutionaries implicated in the century’s phys¬ ical and moral violence. They were motivated hy romanticism, nationalism, utopianism—and the search for transcendence. To our twenty-first century, already plunged—once again—into visionary terrorism and utopian quests, they leave a warning.... The account begins with Italy’s Futurists, who glorified war as “the world’s only hygiene”; painted speed, action, and noise; invented “found sound” and chromatic pianos; thought violence sublime; and demanded “reconstruction of the universe.” Gabriele D’Annunzio, poet, playwright, and nationalist buccaneer, created a revolutionary utopia in a Dalmatian city stolen in 1919 from Woodrow Wilson and the Versailles Treaty makers. In doing so, he invented the political style and rituals of Fascism, as well as Third World liberation. T.E. Lawrence, archaeologist and spy, guided the Arab revolt against the Turks, becoming both “Uncrowned King of Ara¬ bia” and masochist secular saint. Ernst Jiinger, artist and scientist, the German army’s most decorated hero of World War I, made heroism a political ideology and became intellectual leader of the National Cause. Hitler was a follower. In World War II Jiinger plotted Hitler’s assassination and survived to become a symbol of Franco-German reconciliation. Willi Miinzenberg, Lenin’s propaganda genius and an original member of the Comintern, invented the political “front” orga¬ nization, created the Sacco and Vanzetti case, and seduced a generation of “innocents” to the Communist cause before becoming a dissident himsd il . rf*.! waj; (continued on back flap)

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1 1 2004

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Other Titles by \^^iam Pfaff Fear, Anger and Failure: A Chronicle of the Bush Administration'’s War Against Terror, from the Attacks of September ii, 2001 to Defeat in Baghdad (2004) Barbarian Sentiments: America in the New Century (2000) The Wrath of Nations: Civilization and the Furies of Nationalism (1993) Barbarian Sentiments: How the American Century Ends (1989) Condemned to Freedom (1971)

with Edmund Stillman: Power and Impotence: The Failure of Americans Foreign Policy (1966) The Politics of Hysteria: The Sources of Twentieth-Century Conflict (1964) The New Politics: America and the End of th Postwar World (1961)

T. E. Lawrence

Gabriele D’Annunzio

Ernst Jiinger

Willi Miinzenberg

Andre Malraux

Arthur Koestler

Vladimir Peniakoff

Benito Mussolini

Eilippo Tommaso Marinetti

Che Guevara

Charles de Eoucauld

Simone Weil

The Bullet’s Song Romantic Violence and Utopia

William PfafF

SIMON & SCHUSTER

New York

London

Toronto

Sydney

SIMON & SCHUSTER Rockefeller Center 1230 Avenue of the Americas New York, NY 10020 Copyright © 2004 by William Pfaff All rights reserved, including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form. Parts of Chapters 3,8, and 10 appeared originally in a different form as “The Fallen Hero,” ^^L’Homme Engage, ” and “Terrorism” in The New Yorker. Part of Chapter 11 appeared originally in a different form as “Progress” in World Policy Journal, Vol. XII, No. 4 (Winter 1995-96). Simon & Schuster and colophon are registered trademarks of Simon & Schuster, Inc. For information about special discounts for bulk purchases, please contact Simon & Schuster Special Sales at 1-800-456-6798 or [email protected] Designed byjeanette Olender Manufactured in the United States of America I

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Pfaff, William, 1928The bullet’s song: the romance of violence and utopia / William Pfaff. p.

cm.

Includes bibliogaphical references and index. I. Social history—20th century. History—20th century. HN16.P483

2. Intellectuals—Political activity—

3. RadicaUsm—Ehstory—20th century.

2004

303.6'o94'o904—dc22 ISBN 0-684-80907-9

2004049167

I. Title.

To my beloved wife, children, and grandchildren. This is what I can leave you.

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Miinzenberg was the son of an alcoholic tavern keeper in Thuringia who accidentally killed himself. He became a barber’s 194

THE CONFIDENCE MAN

apprentice, and was to remain in many respects a rough provincial in manners, unable to speak any language except German (with a provincial accent), although at the peak of his influence as a pub¬ lisher in Berlin in the 1920s he occupied an expensive apartment, traveled in a chauffeur-driven Lincoln automobile, and moved in fashionable as well as influential circles. His “partner” (as it is now correct to say; at the period marriage was considered in radical cir¬ cles an unacceptable bourgeois institution) was a brilliant, multilin¬ gual, and beautiful Prussian intellectual, Babette Gross, whose sister was married to the son of the philosopher Martin Buber. She was part of a set of rich and distinguished German intellectual con¬ verts to the Communist cause during the Weimar period, many of whom remained faithful to the Soviet intelligence services well into the cold war. Koestler notes that in the hierarchy of the Comintern Miinzenberg was exceptional, remaining an “operator” rather than a “theo¬ rist,” who stayed out of the battles of ideological factions and fractions which “every two years or so, produced a devastating earthquake in the Communist universe. He did not maneuver for position, and the wrangles about the dialectically correct interpre¬ tation of the [Communist party] line left him cold and contemptu¬ ous.” As anyone who has worked in a large bureaucracy or business organization will recognize, the failure to maneuver for position and patronage, or to conform intellectually to the company “line” (that is, “be a team player”) is likely to prove dangerous if not fatal, and in the Comintern, this could be so literally, as in 1940 it even¬ tually proved for Willi Miinzenberg. ^>0

The young Miinzenberg, already converted to radical views, went from the shoe factory to which he had moved from the barber’s shop to work in a pharmacy in Switzerland. An avid reader, initially interested in anarchism, he entered the circle of would-be revolu¬ tionaries, eventually becoming a Leninist. He demonstrated a par-

^95

THE BULLET’S SONG

tdcular talent for organizing networks and for secret work: launder¬ ing money, obtaining false papers, moving people across borders. He had been introduced to the Bolsheviks bv Leon Trotsky, who was struck by the young German’s talents. Lenin passed him along to Karl Radek, the Polish literary intellectual who was provider of the movement’s intellectual rationales, and who was also a protege of Felix Dzerzhinsky. The group was at that point unaware of the extraordinary gift about to be bestowed upon them by the German general staff, as by the wand of a fairy godmother. Lenin, the general staff decided, this notorious political agitator in Switzerland, was to be conveyed to Russia on the supposition that as he and his followers opposed Russia’s participation in the war, an “imperialist war” in their view, they could make trouble for the Russian government in the con¬ fused circumstances that had followed the February revolution. The revolution had provoked the tsar’s abdication, followed by the Duma’s nomination of a provisional government of moderates, led by Aleksandr Kerensky.* Lenin and some of his associates were passed through Germany to Sweden in a “sealed train,” from which they continued to Peters¬ burg’s Finland Station. They began immediately to prepare the coup d’etat that the Bolsheviks were soon successfully to carry out against that provisional government. ♦rfi 3WO,;

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In the past, an explanation proposed for the crimes of intellectuals was Dostoyevskian, or Nietzschean (or pseudo-Nietzschean): that the militants are victims of pride, of a willingness to believe that su¬ perior intelligence means superior being, a superior claim on the universe, the right to use others as means to an end. The justifica¬ tion for such crimes, ostensibly corporatist, resting on doctrines of national, class, or religious destiny, is related; it holds that certain people by virtue of what they intrinsically are, or by the social group to which they belong, or by their knowledge of “objective” historical process or religious truth, possess the moral warrant to dispose of others in the general interest, as conceived by their doc¬ trine.

* They wrote that the militant “who best expresses the life of the multitude: the agent of biopolitical production and resistance against Empire [will act like Saint Fran¬ cis of Assisi, who while struggling] in opposition to nascent capitalism refused every in¬ strumental discipline, and in opposition to the mortification of the flesh (in poverty and in the constituted order)... posed a joyous life, including all of being and nature, the animals, sister moon, brother sun, the birds of the field, the poor and exploited.. . The New York Times review of Empire described it as “the next big idea” and Time called its authors “innovators to watch.” Mitchell Cohen, in Dissent, called the book a “com¬ bination of political spirituality and sing-song tiers-mondism... . While social democ¬ racy stutters, postmodernism chants. But what if the poor do not incarnate World Possibility ... ? What if the multitude is just suffering human beings?.... Then per¬ haps it would be better for the left to speak of human beings as if they were ends in themselves rather than ‘desiring machines.’ ”

THE BULLET’S SONG

The terrorist of the 1970s and 1980s claimed that he or she had a vocation to bear witness to injustice by committing injustices himself (or herself) with the intention of ending injustice. Their crimes were justified because of the larger crime they attacked. Their ac¬ tions reflected an optimism conceived in circumstances that should logically produce despair. When it is no longer possible to believe rationally in revolution¬ ary progress and the reign of justice, the terrorist may seek his solu¬ tion in an irrational commitment to their possibility. Thus the terrorist remains a recognizable moral figure, a personage not so distant from the Communist spies and assassins of the 1930s, or from the early Fascists in the 1920s, who, too, thought they were creating a new age of heroism, popular fulfillment, and individual and national nobility.

The Palestinian or Islamic suicide bomber is a culturally idiosyn¬ cratic version of the Western militant committed to one or another of the national or corporatist struggles of the day. While the Is¬ lamists make a visionary and millenarian formulation of their pur¬ poses, the origin of their conflict is a conventional one: they want to expel the United States (and Israel) from the Islamic regions. That is a simple nationalist motivation, essentially identical to that of the other anticolonial or anti-imperialist movements of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It is a campaign in which they are unlikely to succeed, but theirs is a perfectly conventional political objective, and their method, terrorism, is a classical strategy. The novelty of what they did in September 2001 (and subsequently) lay in the scale and sophistication of their action.

Whether the cause is metaphysical revolution, Maoist revolt, na¬ tionalist revindication, Palestinian liberation, or the creation of an

292

CODA: THE ROMANTIC REVOLUTIONARY

Islamic society free from the taint of Western corruption and the influence of Western power, the individual wilHngness to sacrifice self, as well as others, is and remains an inextinguishable poHtical force. The individual militant gains cause to befleve that violence demonstrates his triumph over ordinary fife: over common cow¬ ardice, common human ambitions—proof of his superiority, and through that of his right to remake the way others five, thereby re¬ quiring their gratitude. His or her steely inhumanity is a pursuit of the higher humanism that success eventually wi]l vafldate. “I am used to being thought a monster to be struggled against. That doesn’t bother me. I am a combatant. \Wien one is a revolu¬ tionary, one needs to accept the idea of bestowing death and receiv¬ ing it. To kill or be killed is the simplest thing in the world.” Thus Renato Curcio of the Italian Red Brigades. The same could be said by an Islamic suicide bomber. Another man speaks of the “subhme effect... of destructive power,” and adds, “Whatsoever is fitted in any sort to excite the ideas of pain and danger, that is to say whatever is in any sort terri¬ ble, is a source of the sublime.” But this is not an ideologically in¬ toxicated terrorist speaking; it is the great consen^ative Edmund Burke, describing a psychological reafity—a reafity at the core of romanticism, motivating the romantic subordination of thought to feeling. Bakunin, the theorist of anarchism, remarked that “the urge to destroy is also a creative urge.”

Life ordinarily is experienced as shapeless and unmalleable. Wt make our ways through random incident tow^ard a future that re¬ cedes before us, and rarely are offered an opportunity to take deter¬ mining action that would seem to give meaning to our existence. War provides such an occasion, not necessarily by providing grand causes, but small, crystalline, vital individual choices. The possibil¬ ity is provided to impose a significant form upon an indhddual Hfe,

THE BULLET’S SONG

if only by taking another’s life. This is the case with terrorists, who act on the dialectical or religious conviction that murder will clarify the existing situation for those who do not yet understand, and will therefore inspire revolution and, eventually, universal joy. They are also drawn by the appeal of life lived to the limit, the enjoyment of power that comes from a gun, the power to adminis¬ ter the dose of death to an ill society, while acknowledging that it may come in return. It is hard to turn back when you have lived like this. O joy of creation To be! O rapture, to fly And be free! Be the battle lost or won. Though its smoke shall hide the sun, I shall find my love—the one Born for me! I shall know him where he stands All alone. With the power in his hands Not o’erthrown! I shall know him by his face. By his godlike front and grace; I shall hold him for a space All my own! It is he—O my love! So bold! It is I—all thy love Foretold! It is I—O love, what bliss!

294

CODA: THE ROMANTIC REVOLUTIONARY

Dost thou ans^v^er to mv kiss? O sweetheart! WTiat is this Lieth there so cold? That is by Bret Harte (1836-1902), and is called “What the Bul¬ let Sang.”

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Virtue in classical thought is connected with tragedy. In drama, tragedy sees virtue confounded by circumstance or by the unfore-

PROGRESS

seen and paradoxical consequences of its own action, producing an outcome that evokes pity and fear, and causes catharsis, or the purg¬ ing of emotion. I am not an optimist about history, believing that the evil in his¬ tory is ineradicable, an evidence, if you are prepared to consider the matter theologically, of what John Henry Newman called the human race’s implication “in some terrible aboriginal calamity” for which there is no solution inside historical time. But neither am I a pessimist. I would like to think that what I am offering in this book is a realistic glimpse of where we stand. To conclude a discussion of soldiers, artists, revolutionaries, and terrorists with a defense of in¬ dividual and national virtue may seem odd, but my intention is to confront ideology with ethic, and to insist that the quality of a soci¬ ety is not determined by power but by the accomplishments and merits of its civilization and its members. It is essential to recognize the possibility that the disordered and morally catastrophic century in which the persons in my book lived might represent our future and not only our past. There is no serious reason at all to think that a mechanism is at work, or a program is available, to provide us with a future that in essential respects of morality and humanity will be better than the present. We are what we are. To sacrifice living human beings to make “a better world” is an act of totalitarian morality and is also futile. There is no collective solution to the human condition. The only thing we can remake is ourselves. A society’s obligation is to concern itself with its own virtue or perfection. There is an intel¬ lectual obligation to address what is, not what one wishes might be. That leaves us with the classical contention that only in virtue can we make a positive response to the human predicament.

319

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Eitingon, Max, 280-81

354

INDEX

Eliot, T. S., 271W, 323, 324

Foucauld, Charles de, 311, 312,

Emmanuel, Pierre, 331

314-17

Empire (Hardt and Negri), 290-91

France, 17-18,19

Examen de conscience (Kageneck),

colonies of, 28, 65, 67-68, 69, 233,

gin-g^n

235»314-17 Communist Party in, 208, 225,

existentialism, 245-46, 252

240-41, 267-68, 269 Fabre-Luce, Alfred, 227

cultural dominance of, 19-20, 27,

Fadeyev, A. A., 323-24

32 intellectuahsm in, 6, 222, 223-25

Faisal, Prince, 58, 66n, 67, 68, 69, 70W,

Popular Front in, 204, 225, 237

73 Farewell to Arms, A (Hemingway),

Resistance movement in, 50,146,

163

208, 222, 226, 232, 237-41, 242,

FarreU,JamesT., 270, 332

269 in World War 1,13, 27, 28, 29, 89,

Fascism: British, 32,44-45, 83-85, 89

95,163,164,166 in World War 11, 50,112-16,146,

Communism vs., 40,41, 202-3, 235, 289

208, 218-19, 237-4^9 260-61,

D’Annunzio and, 169, 174-75, 179,182 Futurism and, 9, 29, 30-31, 34, 35,

269 France, Anatole, 136 Franco, Francisco, 122, 211, 214-15,

36,41-43,174-75 Italian nationalism and, 162,188, 189,289

236,237,252,258 Frank, Joseph, 235 Frederick 11 (the Great), King of

moral appeal of, 8, 54, 292, 299 rise of, 39-45, 89, 95,104,162, i74-75»184,289 Socialism vs., 43-44,184, 202-4

Prussia, 97, loi, 104 Free Europe Committee, 32672-2772,

328,331.332-33.335 French Foreign Legion, loo-ioi, 135,

utopianism of, 3,10,41-43,45 see also Nazism

260-61 French Revolution,

Fascism (O’Sullivan), 90 Fascism in Western Europe, 1900-1945 (Kedward), 31

872,

163,181, 204,

222,243,244, 305 Freud, Sigmund, 27, 87, 217, 253, 309 Friang, Brigitte, 243

Felled Oaks (Malraux), iiin-i^n

Fuchs, Klaus, 282

Feu, Le (Barbusse), 198

Fund for Intellectual Freedom, 331-32

Field, Noel, 13,199W

Fussell, Paul, 24, 93-94

First World War, The (Strachan), 26

Futurism, 8, 9, 29-45, ^3^

Fischer, Ruth, 327

D’Annunzio and, 32,42-43,44,

Foot, Michael, 264

174-75

Forster, E. M., 56, 74-75, 217

ehtism and, 34, 36,41-43

For Whom the Bell Tolls (Hemingway),

intellectual support for, 29-31,42,

231

43

355

INDEX

Futurism (cont.)

God That Failed, The (Crossman, ed.), 265,267

manifesto of, 34-35, 36

Goebbels, Joseph, 112

violence espoused by, 29, 33-34,

Goering, Hermann, 112, 208-9

38-39.52

Goodbye to All That (Graves), 95 Gandhi, Mohandas K., 28

Gorbachev, Mikhail, 26272, 275

Garnett, David, 59

Gorky, Maxim, 225

Gay, Peter, 282

Gould, Florence Lacaze, 114,11572

Gentile, Emilio, 42-43, 175

Gould, Frank Jay, 114

Germain-Thomas, Olivier, 247

Gracq, Julien, 118

Germany:

Gramsci, Antonio, 41, 289

chivalric code in, 6, 89, 90, 95-96, 103-4,

Graves, Robert, 25, 56-57, 6672, 7172,

115-16

83-84» 85, 95

Communist Party in, 197, 200-204,

Gray, Francine du Plessix, 312

216-17,255-58

Gray, Glen, 130

East, 208

Great Britain:

Freikorps in, 90,106W-107W,

chivalric code in, 5, 52, 53,

54-55.62,72-73,74,79,81,

184 nationalism in, 8w, 10,18,19-20,

85.87

89-91, 98-99,109-10,188,189,

colonies of, 28, 64-65, 67-68, 69,

206, 207, 217-18, 254

80,181

Nazi, see Nazism

Communist Party in, 199

Occupied, 117

Fascist movement in, 32,44-45,

Romantic movement in, 6, 19-22, 27,

83-85» 89 in World War 1,13, 27-28, 29, 89,

100, III

Weimar, 9-10, 98,106W-107W,

94-95,163,164

108,12372, 184,195, 252, 253,

in World War II, 141-44, 261-62

254 in World War I, 6, 26-27, 89, 95,

Great Illusion, The (Angell), 24 Great War and Modem Memory, The

196 in World War II, 12822, 142-43, 207, 20972, 239, 240-41, 288

(Fussell), 93-94 Gregor, A. James, 30

Gibarti, Louis, 199

Gremion, Pierre, 325-26

Gibson, Robin, 7272

Grimmelshausen, Hans Jacob

Gibson, Wilfrid, 24 Gide, Andre, 32-33,119, 322

Christoph von, 17 Gross, Babette, 195,198, 203, 213,

Giolitti, Giovanni, 182 Giraud, Henri, 31672

215, 218, 219 Guevara, Ernesto (“Che”), 283-84

Girouard, Mark, 5,6,104 Giuriati, Giovanni, 174

Handful of Blackberries, A (Silone),

God, belief in, 23, 85, 125, 134,189, 232, 273»302-10, 316

230-31

Hardt, Michael, 290-91

356

INDEX

Hardy, Daphne, 260, 266, 275/2

Reichstag fire and, 203, 214

Harte, Bret, 294-95

SA forces purged by, 112,212

Heidegger,Martin, 98, in

Stalin’s alliance with, 206-7, 209/2,

Held, Henry, 329

212, 217-18, 219, 280 in World War I, 98

Hemingway, Ernest, 12-13, 163, 228, 231

Hitler: A Study in Tyranny (Bullock),

Henty, G. A., 14

207

Herzog, Roman, 121

Hobbes, Thomas, 307, 310

Himmler, Heinrich, 8/2

Ho ChiMinh, 208, 244, 247

Hindenburg, Paul von, 105-6

Hogarth, D. G., 63, 67, 77

Hiss, Alger, 13,199/2

Home Letters (Lawrence), 56

Histoire d'un Fascism Allemand

Homer, 72, 74/2, loi, 103-4

(Venner), 107/2

Hook, Sidney, 270-71, 324, 327

history:

Horace, 17

aesthetic sense of, 17-21, 29-30, 31, 241,311

Howard, Michael, 26-27, Howe, Irving, 72, 221

coincidence in, 253-56

Hughes, H. Stuart, 26, 28

evil in, 205, 302-5, 308-11

Hulten, Pontus, 31/2

Marxist analysis of, 187-88, 205,

Hussain, Sharif Ali ibn al-, 66/2, 67,

262-63, 300-301

75

reality of, 17, 20-21, 30, 21Q-11,

Hussein, Saddam, 51 Huszar, George de, 225

264-65,275

revolutionary idea of, 25-26, 29-30,

Hyde, H. Montgomery, 56/2, 75/2

96-97, 263-64 “significant form” of, 12,149

In Storms of Steel (Jiinger), 94, 97-98,

as tragedy, 96-97,133,148-49, 205, 306,309,318-19

102-3,

107/2

Inter-Allied Commission on Fiume,

Hider, Adolf;

168,169-70,174

aesthetic sensibility of, 18

International Red Aid, 192, 268

anti-Communism of, 203-4, 207-8,

International Workers Aid (TWA), 200,

211 assassination plot against, 99,113,

201, 202 Invention of Peace, The (Howard),

115,116 Chamberlain visited by, 189/2

105 Invisible Writing, The (Koestier),

Franco’s relationship with, 215/2 as Fiihrer, 10, 31, 89, 90, 97, 98-99,

267 Iraq War, 54, 128, 133

107-10,119, 190, 202, 207-8,

Irgun Zvei Leumi, 180/2, 265

313/2

Islam, 11-12, 17, 70/2, 180/2, 190,

Jiinger’s relationship with, 10, 89,

288, 292-93, 301, 303, 314-15,

90,92,119 opposition to, 92,98-99, 113, 115,

316

Israel, 67, 69, 70, 80, 252, 265-66,

116

292

357

INDEX

heroism of, 25, 52,91-92, 96-97,

Italy:

99.102- 4,

army of, 163,164,168-70,173,

in Flitler assassination plot, 99,113,

177-79 British relations with, 174,181

115,116

Catholic Church in, 162,182

Hitler’s relationship with, 10, 89,90, 92.119

Communist Party of, 41, 285 Fascist, see Fascism

influence of, 89-93,107-12

French relations of, 161-62,

Jews as viewed by, 108,115-16,

166-67,174

12072

leftist terrorism in, 285, 287, 288-89

Lawrence vs., 9, 52, 85-86, 97,187

nationalism in, 161-65,

marriage of, 107,117,12472 military career of, 97-117,187

188,189, 289 utopian movements in, 3,10

morality of, 25, 90, 95-96,106,

in World War I, 38-39,42-43,

116- 18,120-25

161-65,

as national sociaHst, 9-10,45, 89-91, 92, 98-99,104, 107-12,

in World War 11, 39-45, 288

117.119 Jabotinsky, Vladimir, 265

as naturahst, ii, 99,106,107,

Jacob,Max, 227

117- 18,187

James, Henry, 24, 27-28,157-59

rehgious convictions of, 100, no,

Japan, 128W, 202, 207, 288

120-25

Jay, Peter, 173

romantic nationalism of, 9-10, 89,

John Paul H, Pope, 303

93-97,100,106,

IIO-II

Johnson, Lyndon B., 329

as storm troop leader, 18,104-5

JoUot-Curie, Frederic, 269

warfare as viewed by, 11,18, 25, 27,

Joll, James, 33

89, 91-92, 96-97,106, III,

Josselson, Michael, 326, 328, 329, 334

116-18,12472-2572,

JournalParisien (Jiinger), 12072

303-4

Judaism, 190, 302, 303, 315

136,187,

in World War I, ii, 25, 27, 97-98,

Jiinger, Ernst, 89-125

99.102- 6,116,187 in World War II, 99,112-17

aesthetic sensibility of, 96-97, 119-20

writings of, 89-92, 94, 97-98,

backgroimd of, 99-101,12372-2422

102-3,

biography of, 100, loi, 117-18,123

113,114,116,118-20,121,12372,

chivalric ideal of, 89, 90,95-96,

12472, 303-4

103-4, 113,115-16 decorations awarded to, 18,97,

Jiinger, Gretha von Jeinsen, 107,117 Jiinger, Wolfgang, 120

105-6 education of, 99,100,101-4

Kageneck, August von, 91-93

elitism of, 93, 95-96,103-4,

Kahler, Ernst, 93

119 fame of, 89-90,106,107,121-22

Kamenev, Lev, 212,213 Kedward, H. R., 31 35S

INDEX

Keitel, Wilhelm, 114

in Spanish Civil War, 252, 258-59

Kellen, Konrad, 90

suicide of, 261, 274-75

Kennan, George E, 301, 318, 332

writings of, 228, 258-59, 260, 261, 262-65, 266, 267, 272, 273-74

Kennington, Eric, 66w, 71, 85 Kepler, Johannes, 255

Koestler, Cynthia Jefferies, 274-75

Kerensky, Aleksandr, 196

Koestler, Dorothea, 258

Kessler, Harry, 4

Kohl, Helmut, 120-21

Kirov, Sergei, 212

Korean War, 49,129,145, 268-69, 270, 323W

Koch, Stephen, 189,192,193W, 198-99, 209«, 216, 219

Koudachova, Maria Pavlova, 199 Kristol, Irving, 327-28, 334

Kochnitzky, Leon, 181 Koestler, Arthur, 251-75 as anti-Communist, ii, 216-17,

Laborey, Annette, 331

252,254,255-56,257,259-65,

Lacassin, Francis, 159

^'59-73.275.286,321,325,

Lacouture,Jean, 226-27, 234, 241,

326-27,331-32,335 background of, 251-53, 265-66,

247-48

Lang, Jack, 37

275W

Langlois, Walter G., 233

biographies of, 251-52, 275tz

Laperrine, Henri, 312, 316

birth of, 253-54

Laqueur, Walter, 93

as Comintern agent, 10,193-94, 200, 208, 2II7Z, 212, 228, 252,

Lasky,Melvin, 217, 270, 271, 321-22, 325.327-28,334

254.257-58,277

Laurie, Janet, 6iw

as Communist Party member,

Lawrence, Arnold, 59, 61, 78-79

252,254-60,275,277,278,

Lawrence, Robert, 59, 77-78

281-82

Lawrence, Sarah, 58-62, 64, 76-79, 85

in French Foreign Legion, 260-61

Lawrence, Thomas Edward

Jewish background of, 251, 265-66

(“Lawrence of Arabia”), 49-87

as journalist, 252, 253, 254-59,

aesthetic sensibility of, 51, 53-54,

265-66

71- 72

Malrauxand, 10, 228, 230, 231, 256,

Arab revolt led by, 8, 57-58, 64,

260,266-67, ^75 marriages of, 258, 260, 266, 274-75

66-73, 79, 80-81, 87, 181 author’s interest in, 8,49-50

memoirs of, 251, 253, 255-56, 267

biographies of, 51, 55-56, 60, 61,

Miinzenberg’s relationship with, 10, 193-94,

62,63-65, 72-73

211W, 214, 216-17,

birth of, 59

254^ 257-58, 272^,275, 321,

childhood of, 55, 58-62, 76-79 chivalric ideal of, 52, 53, 54-55, 62,

325 Nazism opposed by, 255, 257-58 scientific writings of, 252, 255, 257,

72- 73»7T 79.81,85,87 death of, 53, 83

273-74 self-identity of, 12, 251-53, 275

Deraa episode of, 74-75 education of, 62-63, 66, 73, 77

3S9

INDEX

Leoni, Elvira Natalia, 157

Lawrence, Thomas Edward (“Lawrence of Arabia”) {cont.)

Leo Xm, Pope, 182

Edwardian background of, 52, 53,

Levi, Carlo, 269-70 Lewis, Wyndham, 71,138

54-55.85 fabrications of, 8,12, 62-63, 73“74

Liddell Hart, Basil, 56, 72-73

fame of, 49-52, 56-57, 69, 72-74,

Lindbergh, Charles, 21 iw

79,81,87, 97

Lin Shao-shi, 247

Fascism and, 83-85

Lippmann, Walter, 268

heroism of, 8-9, 25,49-52, 53-55,

Lloyd George, David, 164,167

84-85, 87,136,148, 284

Locke, John, 304-5

illegitimacy of, 58-62, 76-81

Long Range Desert Group (LRDG), 51,142

influence of, 8-9,49-52, 56-57 Jiingervs., 9, 52, 85-86, 97,187

Loyola, Ignatius, 121

letters of, 56, 59, 60, 61-62

Lukacs, John, 252, 255, 304

Malraux’s fascination with, 8, 50,

Lumumba, Patrice, 284

225-26,227,237, 242,248

Luxemburg, Rosa, 197

'

masochism of, 60-62, 74-76, 77, 78-81

McCarthy,Joseph, 272-73, 331

military career of, 53, 55, 61, 62,

McCarthy, Mary, 312, 323-24, 325

66-74, 80-81, 83,187

Mack, John E., 56W, 61, 75-76, 86-87

name of, 8, 55, 73-74

Macmillan, Harold, 54

puritanical nature of, 52-53, 60-61,

Malaparte, Curzio, 289

74,81,87

Malory, Thomas, 6, 72

as RAF airman, 8-9, 52-53, 56, 72,

aesthetic sensibility of, 230, 232,

73- 74.79.85-87 religious background of, 59-60,

237>249

art as interest of, 222, 232-33, 235,

78-79.85 romanticism of, 8,49, 53, 72-73, 85 sexuality of, 51, 52, 56,61, 65-66, 74- 76, 80

241 background of, 2 2 6-2 7 biographical accounts of, 226-27,

warfare as viewed by, 55, 80-81, 82, 148, 149,187

233-35.244.247-48 in China, 222, 228-35, 247-48

writings of, 8-9,49, 51, 53, 55, 66,

as Communist “fellow traveler,” 12,

215.235-36.240-45,275

7^>-75» 77. 79-80,148,149 (Malraux), 232, 248

death of, 247, 249

Lean, David, 57

de Gaulle’s relationship with, 10,

Ledeen, Michael, 153,167,168,171, 172,175,176-77,178,179

Malraux, Andre, 221-49

.

22372,235, 241-47, 266-67, 26922

Lee, Robert E., 13,129

existentialism of, 245-46

Leeds, Edward, 63

fabrications by, 10, 12, 50, 97,

Lenin, V. L, 40, 57/2, 187,190,191-92, 201, 228, 285

222-23,233-35,237, 242, 247-48

INDEX

fame of, 228-29, ^33“35> ^4^ as^7^/w personality, 227, 241-42 as French Minister of Culture, 241, 247 heroism of, 50, 237, 242, 26972, 284 homme engage ideal of, 10, 11, 26, 87,

221-25,233-35,243-45

ManVFate (Malraux), 22272, 227-32,

233,235,247 M2272’fHop^

(Malraux),

22272,

237 Man the Measure (Kahler), 93

MaoTse-tung, 190, 208, 244, 247 Marcuse, Ludwig, 217 Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso, 31-42

Indochina adventure of, 232-35

as Fascist, 41-42, 289

intellectual influence of, 10, 221-25,

Fiume coup and, 174-75

233-36,243-45,324 Koestlerand, 10, 228, 230, 231, 256, 260, 266-67, 275 Lawrence admired by, 8, 50, 225-26, 227, 237, 242, 248

228, 231,

Futurism founded by, 9, 10, 31-36, 41-42, 289 as propagandist, 31, 34-38 Mari tain, Jacques, 12,122-23, 324 Marshall, George, 13

leadership of, 237, 238-39

Marx, Karl, 29, 39,139,187, 205, 253

military experience of, 225-26,

Marxism, 31, 34,40, 90,127,182,

237-40 Miinzenbergand, 10, 215, 235, 237, 275 political influence of, 221-22,

187-88, 200-201, 205, 228, 232, 255, 262-63, 275, 282, 290, 300-301,304, 307 Matheson, Christopher, 5672

228-29,233-35,243-45,

Mauriac, Fran9ois, 227

248-49

Messmer, Pierre, 147

in Resistance movement, 50, 222, 226,232, 237-41, 242 romanticism of, 8, 225-27, 241-42 in Spanish Civil War, 50, 215, 222, 231,236,237,238, 242

Metamorphosis of the Gods, The

(Malraux), 232 Meyer, Cord, 328 Michehs, Eurialo de, 176 Milosz, Czeslaw, 307, 314 Milton, John, 305, 310

Trotsky and, 228-29, ^3^? 243-44

Mint, The (Lawrence), 72, 73,148

writings of, 10, 22277-2372, 226,

Alitterrand, Frangois, 120

227-32,233,235,237, 245,

Molotov, Vyacheslav, 209, 217-18

247-48,324

Morand, Paul, 114

Malraux, Clara Goldschmidt, 232-33, 234» 235^238

Morillon, Philippe, 132 Moro, Aldo, 288

Malraux, Claude, 239

Morris, William, 71, 72

Malraux, Roland, 239

Morte d^Arthur, Le (Malory), 6n, 72

Mandarins, The (Beauvoir), 26672

Mosley, Oswald, 44-45, 83-84, 89,

Mann, Heinrich, 197, 202, 216, 321 Mann, Thomas, 27, 89-90,119, 216, 217, 260, 270 Manning, J. R, 8672

93

Mosse, George L., 18972 Mounier, Emmanuel, 223 Muller, Andre, 119

INDEX

Miinzenberg, Willi, 187-219

nationalism:

anti-Nazi activities of, 202-4,

Fascism and, 162,189, 289

216-17

German, 8w, 10,18, 19-20, 89-91,

background of, 194-95

98-99,109-10,188,189, 206,

as Comintern propagandist, lo-i i,

207, 217-18, 254

192- 95,198-99, 200, 201-20,

Italian, 161-65,1^9-78, 188,189, 289

235» 237, 254, 257-58, 268, 271, 272

poHtical impact of, 6,19, 22-29

death of, 210, 213, 216, 218-19

revolution and, 11-12,188-89,

“fellow travelers” manipulated by,

304-5

193,198-99,202,235,237

romantic, 9-10, 89,

front organizations of, 191, 200,

93-97,100,106,

IIO-II

213-14^235,237,268,321-25,

Socialism and, 9, 31, 33-34, 39,40

329-30

terrorism and, 11-12, 288-89,

in German Communist Party,

292-93

200-204, 216-17

warfare and, 26-28

Hitler as viewed by, 203-4

Nazi Conspiracy in Spain, The

Koestler’s relationship with, 10,

(Koestler), 258

193- 94, 200, 211W, 214, 216-17,

Nazism:

254> 257-58, 272^, 275, 321, 325 Malrauxand, 10, 215, 235, 237, 275

anti-Semitism of, 98,108, 115-16,

political ideology of, 195-96, 202-3,

Communist alliance with, 108,

120W, 189, 251, 252, 2^6-^y 202-8, 209, 211, 217-18, 219, 280

210 as Reichstag member, 202-3

German nationalism and, Sn, 10,18,

Spanish Civil War operations of,

19-20, 89-91, 98-99, 109-10,

211, 213-16

188,189, 206, 207, 217-18,

Stalinist purges and, 202, 203,

254

212-13,218 Mussolini, Benito:

rise of, 93, 95, 98-99,104, 106-10 Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact (1939), 206-7, 209, 217-18, 219,

D’Annunzio’s influence on, 169, 175,176, 179, 185,186 as Fascist leader, 39-45,179, 182, 186, 209, 289

280 Negri, Antonio, 290-91 Nenni, Pietro, 269

Futurism and, 31, 32, 34, 39

Neruda, Pablo, 280

as journalist, 39-40,43

Nevin, Thomas, 100, loi, 103, iii, 117-18,123W, 124

political ideology of, 7, 39-40, 161, 162,181

Newman, John Henry, 319 Nicolson, Harold, 21, 62-63, 84, 217

Nabokov, Nicholas, 324-25, 326, 334

Niebuhr, Reinhold, 301, 318

Namier, Lewis, 19

Niekisch, Ernst, 109

Napoleon I, Emperor of France, 99,

Nietzsche, Friedrich, 33, 87, iii, 291,

104, 204

307

^62

INDEX

private army of, 16,135, 142-43

nihilism, 6, 7,19, iii, 116-17, 3®7> 310

warfare as viewed by, 16,141,

Nitti, Francesco Saverio, 169,173,

145-46

in World War 1,13 7-3 8

i75»i77 Nizan, Paul, 285

in World War n, 135,139,141-48

NKVD, 212-13,

280-81,

Pershing, John J. (“Blackjack”), 14

282

Petrement, Simone, 313^, 314

Noske, Gustav, io6w

Picasso, Pablo, 269, 270

Novalis, 20

Plevitskaya, Nadyezhda, 280

Nutting, Anthony, 57

Pompidou, Georges, 247 Pound, Ezra, 138

OakiCjJack, 39

Promise and Fulfillment (Koestler),

O’Connor, Flannery, 314

266

Odyssey, The (Homer), 72, 74W

Puddington, Arch, 333W

On the Marble Cliffs (Jiinger), 112, 113

Punitive Measures,

Open Mind, The (Bemanos), 121-22

Putin, Vladimir, 190W, 193W

(Brecht), 278

Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele, 165, 166, 167

Questionnaire, 77;e (Salomon), 117^

Orwell, George, 259, 265, 325 O’Sullivan, Noel, 90

Radek, Karl, 196, 213

O’Toole, Peter, 57

Radio Free Europe (REE), 330-31,

Ottoman Empire, 23, 58, 64,66-73, 80,164-65

332W, 33372 Radio Liberty, 330-31, 33322 Rado, Alex, 211

Owen, Wilfred, 24, 94

Raleigh, Walter, 58 Paget, Mamaine, 266, 271, 273

Rathenau, Walter, 11722

Paine, Thomas, 215

rationalism, 20, 31,40, 162, 253-54,

Palestine, ii, 66-67,

300-306, 310-n

7®>

265-66, 288, 292-93

Rattigan, Terence, 57

Papini, Giovanni, 3 3

Reagan, Ronald, 33322

Partido Obrero de Unificacion

Red Brigades, 285, 287, 288-89, 290,

Marxista (POUM), 258-59, 313

293

Peace, The (Jiinger), no, in

Reed, John, 264

Peguy, Charles, 2 7

Rees, Goronwy, 11722

Peniakoff, Olga, 138-40

Regler, Gustave, 204

Peniakoff, Vladimir (“Popski”),

Reichstag fire (1933), 203, 208-9,

135-48

background of, 135,136-40

215^257

Remarque, Erich Maria, 14, 25, 94,

chivalric ideals of, 135-36 in Italian campaigns, 135,143-44

95

Return to Camelot, The (Girouard),

in North African campaigns, 135, 140, 141-48

104 Reuter, Ernst, 270 363

INDEX

in World War I, 95,163,190-91,

Revolt in the Desert (Lawrence), 55,71,

196, 201

74W, 77, 79-80

see also Soviet Union

revolution:

Russo-Japanese War, 253-54

Bolshevik, 3,40,163,180,181,184, 187-92,196, 200-201, 205, 212,

Sachs, Maurice, 227

287

Saint Marc, Helie de, 91W

cultural, 22-29, 82-83, 94“95»

Salomon, Ernst von, 108,117W

179-80

Sand, George, 243

in developing countries, 179, 283-84

Sartre, Jean-Paul, 266-68, 269, 270,

historical interpretation and, 25-26,

323

Saunders, Frances Stonor, 325

29-30, 96-97, 263-64 intellectual support for, 280-82

Scarfoglio, Edoardo, 156

moral, 240-45, 311-17, 319

Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr., 322, 324-25, 332W

nationalist, 11-12,188-89, 304“5

Schmidt, Carlos, 271

proletarian, 167,187-88, 200-201,

Schmitt, Carl, 122

205, 207-8, 300 romantic basis of, 7-8, 21-22,

Schutz, Hans, 194 Schwartz, Stephen, 280-81

277-95

terrorism and, 11-12,17,179-80,

Scott, Robert Falcon, 5 Scott-Smith, Giles, 271W

248-49, 285-94

Scum of the Earth (Koestler), 260

utopianism and, 11-12, 290-91 Rhodes, Anthony, 154,155,157,

See, Georges, 120W September nth terrorist attacks, jon,

185

Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 209, 217-18

292,301

Rimbaud, Arthur, 120

Serge, Victor, 236

Roberts, William, 71-72

Sering, Paul, 217

Roehm, Ernst, 98,112

Seven Pillars of Wisdom (Lawrence),

Rolland, Romain, 28, 197

49> 5L 55»

Romano, Sergio, 285

149

68, 70-75, 79, 82,

Rommel, Erwin, now, 113W, 142-43

Shakespeare, Frank, 333W

Roosevelt, Theodore, 13, 253

Shakespeare, WilHam, 59, 236

Rorr (Rattigan), 57

Shaw, Charlotte, 56, 59, 61-62, 76, 78,

Rothenstein, William, 71

81

Rousset, David, 269, 271

Shaw, George Bernard, 56, 57, 59, 81

Roy, Jules, 244

Shils, Edward, 327-28

Rudini, Alessandra di, 160

Shostakovich, Dmitri, 229, 323,

Russell, Bertrand, 138, 324, 325 ‘ Russia:

324

Silone, Ignazio, 208, 221, 228, 229-30,

Bolshevik revolution in, 3,40,163,

265,269,271,334

180,181,184,187-92,196,

Simpson, Colin, 7572

200-201, 205, 212,287

Siqueiros, David Alfaro, 280 364

INDEX

Sitwell, Oswald, 179

Spanish Testament ()Lots^G,r), 258-59

Sleepwalkers,

Speidel, Hans,

(Koestler), 255

Smith, Sydney, 81

11072,

113

Sperber, Manes, 217, 257, 266, 271,

Socialism:

272,327

Communism vs., 108, 203-4,

Spiritual Exercises (Loyola), 121

212

Stalin, Joseph: Hitler’s alliance with, 206-7, 20972,

Fascism vs., 43-44, 184, 202-4

212, 217-18, 219, 280

nationalism and, 9, 31, 33-34, 39, 40 utopianism of, 40,42-43, 162, 179,

political purges by, 202, 203,

181

212-13,

Socialist Realism, 235-36, 322

^3^> 243, 244, 251,

259, 262-64, 324W

Solitary in the Ranks (Hyde), 56^

as Soviet leader, 10,40,127,190,

Sontag, Susan, 29-30, 312

192, 198-99, 212-13, 225, 236,

Sorel, Georges, 33, 39

243, 244, 268

Souvarine, Boris, 23672

Stanley, Henry Morton, 100

Soviet Union:

Star of Satan, The (Bernanos), 121-22

agriculture in, 200, 201

Steffens, Lincoln, 197, 199

authoritarian regime of, 188-89

Steinberg, Julius, 217

collapse of, 210-11, 275, 290-91,

Steiner, George, 112, 309

301,307,318

Stendhal, 148-49,160 Stem Gang, i8o7z, 265, 288

Communist Party of, 212-13, 218, 236, 251, 255-56, 259, 262-64,

Stemhell, Zeev, 30-31

275,32472

Stewart, Desmond, 5672, 64, 66n, 75

German invasion of, 207, 20972,

Stewart, Donald Ogden, 199

240-41

Stone, Shepard, 329 Strachan, Hew, 26-27

international support for, 190-220, 240-45, 262-65, 268-72,

Strachey, John, 84

277-78

Straight, Michael, 13, 3 2 377

labor camps in, 262-63, 321

Strauss, Leo, 307-8

military forces of, 144, 209, 243, 280

Strindberg, August, 258

Poland invaded by, 217-18

Stromberg, Roland N., 26, 29

secret police of, 189-90,19272-9372,

Stmve, Walter, 11177

212-13,

^44’ 280-81

student rebellions (1968), 34,41-42,

Stalinist purges in, 212-13, 218, 236, 251, 259, 262-64, 324W

178,285 Stiilpnagel, Karl Heinrich von, 115

subversive activities of, 204-6

Stiilpnagel, Otto von, 113,114

U.S. relations with, 203, 273, 318

Sturm (Jiinger), 107

in World War II, no, 115,144, 206-8, 20972, 240-41 see also Russia Spanish Civil War, 50, 21172, 231, 280,

Tabachnick, Stephen E., 5677, 6277 Talmon, J. L., 20 Ten Days That Shook the World (Reed), 264

313

365

INDEX

terrorism:

United States:

intellectual support for, 288-94

chivalric code in, 6,13-14

Islamic, 11-12,17, 70W, i8ow, 288,

Communist Party in, 13,17,198,

292-93, 301

208,281,322-23

nationalism and, 11-12, 288-89,

democratic ideals of, 184,188, 301,

292-93

304-8

revolutionary, 11-12, 17,179-80,

global influence of, 7072, 280,

248-49, 285-94

290-91, 301, 306, 307

war on, 11-12, 128^, 133, 301,

pohtical atmosphere in, 272-73 race relations in, 198, 203

308-9

Thesiger, Wilfred, 50-51, 56W

terrorist threat against, 11-12,12872,

Thieves in the Night (Koestler),

133, 301, 308-9

266

in World War I, 164-65

Thirteenth Tribe, The (Koestler),

in World War n, 12872, 143

266

Urban, George, 330, 33372

Thomas, Lowell, 57

utopianism: collective action for, 11-12,40,

Thoreau, Henry David, 318 Thorez, Maurice, 208

290-91, 319

Tito, Marshal (Josip Broz), 209-10,

of Communism, 3, lo-i i, 40,

263

41-42,127,184,187-90, 205,

Todd, Ohvier, 22372, 226, 227, 236,

232, 277-78, 281-82, 299, 319

244

of Eascism, 3, lo-i i, 41-43,45

Toghatti, Palmiro, 208, 214

revolution and, 11-12, 290-91

Toller, Ernst, 108

of Sociahsm, 40,42-43,162,179,

Tolstoy, Leo, 148-49

181

Too True to Be Good (Shaw), 57

totalitarianism and, 3, 127, 187-90,

Toscanini, Arturo, 34

249, 253-54, 270^ 287, 308-9, 319

“Trail of the Dinosaur, The”

violence of, 3-4, 7-8, 15-18, 29,

(Koestler), 273-74

33-34,38-39,52,127-28,153

Treason of the Intellectuals, The (Benda), 224-25

Vecchi, Eemiccio, 174-75

Trenchard, Hugh, 5672, 73

Venner, Dominique, 10772

Trevor-Roper, Hugh, 2 70

Versailles, Treaty of, 9, 69,153,

Triolet, Elsa, 199

164-67,172-73, 180,185, 20972

Trionfo della Morte, II (D’Annunzio),

Vietnam War, 11,42,43,54,128, 129-31, 279, 283, 284, 329,

154

Trotsky, Leon, 39,196, 202, 203, 22272,

334-35

228-29,236,243-44,26272,

Vigny, Alfred de, 132-34, 135,148

280-81, 282

Villa, Pancho, 14

Twain, Mark, 6

violence:

Twilight of the Comintern, The (Carr),

of liberation, 3, 7-13, 16-17, 87

210

romantic, 3-25, 29, 49, 53, 72-73, ^66

INDEX

85,89, 93-97,

total, 4, 95, 96,146, 308-9

ICXD, IIC^II,

241-42, 277-95

violence employed in, 4, 7,15-18,

terrorist, 11-12, 17, 70W, 18072, 288,

127-28, 153

292- 93, 301

Warhol, Andy, 35, 284

utopian, 3-4, 7-8, 15-18, 29, 33-34, 38-39,52, 127-28, 153 of warfare, 4, 7,15-18,127-28,153

Warriors, The (Gray), 13072

Weil, Simone, ix, 311-14, 317 Westphalia, Settlement of (1648), 96,

Voices of Silence y The (Malraux), 232

Vorticism, 71-72, 138

204 “What the Bullet Sang” (Harte), 294-95

Wachsmann, Nikolaus, 9722, 108, 109

Widening Gyre, The (Frank), 235

Wallace, Henry, 322

Wiley, Basil, 305

Walnut Trees ofAltenburg, The

Willett, John, 138, 140-41,143,

(Malraux), 22272-2372, 225, 245, 248

144

WiUiams, Raymond, 290

Walters, Ralph, 33372

Williamson, Henry, 83-84

warfare:

Wilson, Edmund, 234, 26672

author’s experience of, 8, 14-15,

Wilson, Woodrow, 96, 164-66, 167,

49-50,129-30 casualties in, 13, 23-24,

Wilson, Jeremy, 5672, 65, 75

94-95,131,

132 chivalric code in, 4-6,124-25, 128-34 death as basis of, 12, 54, 9172, 94, 148-49

169,173

Winegarten, Renee, 290 Winter, Ella, 199 Wolff, Kurt, 218 Woodhouse, John, ii Woolley, Leonard, 65, 66

desert, 51, 66-73,141-48

Worker, The (Jiinger), iii, 12472

emotional catharsis of, 149,

World War I:

293- 94 glamor of, 25,29, 38-39, 54, 91-93

Arab Revolt in, 57, 66-73

guerrilla, 62, 67, 69, 80, 84-85,

British forces in, 13, 27-28, 29, 89,

armistice for, 95, 98-99

141-48, 283-84, 285

94-95, 163,164

ideology of, 26-28,127-28

casualties of, 13, 23-24, 94-95

industriahzed, 4, 5, 24, 164

chivalric romanticism in, 4-6, 24-25

intellectual support for, 8,17-18,

cultural revolt after, 22-29, ^2-83,

25-26, 127-28

94-95 French forces in, 13, 27, 28, 29, 89,

monasticism and, 131-34, 137, 148

95, 163, 164, 166

morahty of, 96, 127-34 necessity of, 16-18, 96-97, 98, 106,

German forces in, 6, 26-27, ^9> 95?

117-18. 148-149

196

partisan, 143, 144, 230-31, 287

heroism discredited by, 24-26

theatricality of, 8,17-18, 93-94,

intellectual support for, 23, 24-28, 224-25

134-35

367

INDEX

World War I {cont.)

German forces in, 128^, 142-43,

Italian forces in, 38-39,42-43,

207, 209W, 239, 240-41, 288

161-65,181

Italian forces in, 39-45, 288

as moral crusade, 3, 22, 96

necessity of, 127,128, 206-7

nihilism as result of, 6,44-45

“phony war” of, 112-13, 121, 238

political impact of, 22-29,4^45»

Resistance in, 50, 146, 208, 222, 226,232, 237-41, 242, 269

95,190-91

popular enthusiasm for, 23-29,

U.S. forces in, 128^2, 143

94-95,161-62 Russian forces in, 95,163,190-91,

Yankee at the Court of King Arthur^ A

196, 201

(Twain), 6

storm troops in, 18,104-5

Young, Gavin, 50

territorial disputes in, 161-65

Yugoslavia, 132,153,164-66, 178,

U.S. forces in, 164-65

180,181,185, 209-10

World War II: British forces in, 141-44, 261-62

Zborowski, Mark, 280

French forces in, 50,112-16,146,

Zinoviev, Gregori, 212,213

208, 218-19, 237-41, 260-61, 269

Zionism, 80, i8ow, 252, 265, 272, 288

S68

I

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

William Pfaff is a political columnist for The International Her¬ ald Tribune, London’s The Observer, and other newspapers. He was a political essayist for The New Yorker from 1971 to 1992. He is the author of seven previous books, including Barbarian Sentiments: How the American Century Ends, a National Book Award finalist. He lives in Paris.

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