The Buddhist Architecture of Gandhāra 9789047412571, 9047412575

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THE BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE OF GANDHARA

Kurt Behrendt - 978-90-47-41257-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 10:42:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

HANDBOOK OF ORIENTAL STUDIES HANDBUCH DER ORIENTALISTIK SECTION T\\'O

INDIA INDIEN EDITED BY

J. BRONKHORST VOLU11E SEVENTEEN

THE BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE OF GANDHARA

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THE BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE OFGANDHARA BY

KURT A. BEHRENDT

BRILL LEIDEN· BOSTON 2004

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This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Behrendt, Kurt A., 1964The Buddhist architecture of Gandhara / by Kurt A. Behrendt. p. cm. - (Handbook of oriental studies. Section two. India. ISSN O169-9377 ; v. I 7 = Handbuch der Orientalistik, lndien) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 90-04-11595-2 (hardback: alk. paper) I. Architecture, Buddhist-Gandhara (Pakistan and A(~hanistan) 2. Sculpture, Gandhara-Gandhara (Pakistan and A(~hanistan) 3. Sculpture, Buddhist-Gandhara (Pakistan and Afghanistan) I. Title. II. Handbuch der Orientalistik. Zweite Abteilung. Indien ; I 7. Bd. NA6010.72.G36B44 2003 722'.4-dc22 2003045119

ISSN O169-9377 ISB:\T 90 04 13595 2 © Copyright 2003 by himinklijke Brill J\

·1: Leiden, 7he Netherlands

All rights reserved. No part ef this publication mqy be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval ~stem, or transmitted in a,ry form or by a,ry means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Brill provided that the appropriate fies are paid directly to 7he Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910 Danvers AJA 01923, USA. Fees are suiject to change. PRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS

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To Ludovico and Viviana

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CONTENTS

List of Illustrations .. ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ....................... ...... .......... xv Acknowledgrrients ......... .......... ....................... ............................. . xxvn Introduction ..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ...... ..... ...... ...... ...... ..... Chapter One: Overview of Greater Gandhara ..... ...... ...... ..... 1.1 Historic Survey of Archaeology in Gandhara ...... ...... 1.2 Geography of Greater Gandhara and the Distribution of Buddhist Sites ... ..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... 1.2.1 Major Buddhist Sites in the Peshawar Basin: Ancient Gandhara .... ..... ...... ...... ...... ..... .. 1.2.2 The Buddhist Complexes of Taxila ................ l.2.3 Buddhist Remains in the Swat Valley: Ancient Udayana .............................................. 1.3 Characteristic Architectural Features of Gandharan Buddhist Centers ............................................................ 1.3. l The Main Stupa ................................................ l.3.2 Small Stupas ........................................................ 1.3.3 Stupa Shrines and Direct-Access Relic Shrines .................... ........................... ....... 1.3.4 Direct-Access Main Stupas ................................ 1.3.5 Distribution of Sculpture in the Sacred Area ............. ...... ................................... 1.3.6 Monasteries ........................................................ Quadrangular Monasteries ... ...... ..... ....... ... .. ...... Mountain Viharas .............................................. Chapter Two: Architecture and Sculpture from Phase I ...... 2.1 The Mauryan Period in Gandhara ............................ 2.2 Phase I Architectural Evidence .................................... 2.2.1 Dharmarajika Complex in Taxila: Phase I .... 2.2.2 Buddhist Structures in the Taxila City of Sirkap: Phase I .......... ..... ...... ..... ...... ...... .. ... ... 2.2.3 Butkara I in Swat: Phase I .............................. 2.3 Architectural Links to the Indian Buddhist Tradition During Phase I ............................................

1 12 16 22 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 31 33 33 37 39 39 41 41 45 47 50

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2.3.1 The Phase I Stupa ............................................ 2.3.2 Use of Columns During Phase I .................... 2.3.3 Phase I Sculpture .............................................. 2.4 Conclusions About the Nature of Phase I Material from Northwest India .................................... Chapter Three: The Development of Relic Shrines: Phases I and II ... .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. ... .. ... .. ... .. .. .. .. ... ... 3.1 Chinese Pilgrims' Accounts of Direct-Access Relic Shrines in Gandhara ... ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..... .. .... .. . 3.2 Architectural Evidence for Direct-Access Relic Shrines in and around Sirkap: Phases I and II ...... .. 3.3 Two-Celled Stupa Shrines and Direct-Access Shrines: Phases I and II .............................................. Chapter Four: The Phase II Sacred Area .............................. 4.1 Taxila: Phase II Architectural Evidence ...................... 4.1.1 Kalawan: Phase II Architecture ...................... 4.1.2 The Dharmarajika Complex: Phase II Architecture and the Relic Shrine ........... ....... 4.1.3 Dharmarajika Satellite Monastic Complexes: Phase II Architecture .................... 4.1.4 Mohra Moradu: Phase II Architecture 4.1.5 Pippala: Phase II Architecture ........................ 4.2 Peshawar Basin: Phase II Architectural Evidence ...... 4.2. l Ranigat: Phase II Architecture ........................ 4.3 Swat: Phase II Architectural fa'idence ........................ 4.3.1 Butkara I: Phase II Architecture ...................... 4.3.2 Panr: Phase II Architecture .............................. 4.3.3 Saidu: Phase II Architecture ............................ 4.3.4 Butkara III: Phase II Architecture .................. 4.3.5 Marjanai: Phase II Architecture ...................... 4.4 Architectural Organization and Development of the Sacred Area in Taxila, the Peshawar Basin, and Swat During Phase II ................................ Chapter Five: The Phase II Distribution and Function of Sculpture .. .... ... ... ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... ... ... .. .. .. ... .. ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. 5.1 The Issue of Provenance: Late 19th and Early 20th Century Photo Documentation of Gandharan Sculpture .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. . 5.2 Narrative Reliefs from Phase II: In Situ Evidence 5.2. l Sculpture from Phase II Main Stupas: Takht-i-bahi:' and Saidu ....................................

51 55 56 59 61 61 65 73 77 79 81 84 93 94 95 96 97 99 99 101 102 104 105

107 l 09

112 114 115

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IX

5.3

Evidence of Phase II Original Sculptural Placement .......... .......... ...... ............. .... ..... ....... ...... ......... 5.3.1 Upper Nathou Sacred Area: Original Sculptural Placement ....... ....... ..... .... .. ...... ......... 5.3.2 Lower Nathou Sacred Area: Original Sculptural Placement ... .... ............ ............ ...... ... 5.3.3 Sikri: Original Sculptural Placement .............. 5.3.4 Karkai: Original Sculptural Placement ............ 5.3.5 Marjanai: Original Sculptural Placement ........ 5.4 The Phase II Small Stupa: Sculptural Embellishment and a Proposed Reconstruction .. .... ..... ....... ..... ...... ..... 5.4.1 The Base ............................................................ 5.4.2 The Drum: Developments in the Narrative Tradition ............................................................ 5.4.3 The False Gable: The Focal Narrative .......... 5.4.4 The Dome, Harmika, and Chattravalz ................ Chapter Six: Phase III Architecture and Sculpture from Taxila ............................................................................ 6.1 Introduction to the Phase III Developments in the Sacred Areas and Monasteries of Taxila and the Peshawar Basin .. ................... ........... ...... ...... .... 6.2 The Phase III Increase in Patronage .......................... 6.3 Taxila: Phase III Architectural and Sculptural Evidence ........................................................................ 6.3.1 The Dharmarajika Complex: Possible Late Phase II Image Shrines ....... ...... ...... ......... 6.3.2 The Dharmarajika Complex: Early Phase III Stupas with Axial Image Shrines ....... ...... ..... .... 6.3.3 The Dharmarajika Complex: Phase III Monasteries ............ ...... ...... ................. ........... .... 6.3.4 The Dharmarajika Complex: Phase III Image Shrines Along the Northern Avenue .............. 6.3.5 The Dharmarajika Complex: Phase III Additions to the Prada¼i,1},apatha and Main Stupa ........... .... ...... ................. ............. .... . 6.3.6 The Dharmarajika Complex: Late Phase III Architecture .. ..... ..... ...... ...... ................ ...... ...... .... 6.3. 7 Kalawan: Phase III Architecture and the Relic Shrine ......... ... ........ ..................... ...... .. ..... 6.3.8 Jauliafi: Phase III Architecture and the Image Shrine ..... ........... ...... ..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...

116 116 11 7 118 119 120 121 124 127 132 133 135

135 137 141 142 144 145 146

149 150 154 156

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6.3.9

:Mohra Mora.du: Phase III Architecture and Additive Imagery ...................................... 6.4 Phase III Taxila: Site Typologies and Religious Affiliation ....... .................... ...................... .......... ............. 6.5 The Phase III Small Stupa ..... .. .... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ...... 6.6 Phase III Use of Images and Relics in Quadrangular Monasteries .............................. ............. . 6.6.1 Phase III Use of Personal Devotional Images in Monasteries ..................... ................. 6.6.2 l\Ionastic Images: Phase III Pedestal Images and Image Shrines Built in Pre-existing Residential Cells .. ...... ..... ..... ...... .... 6.6.3 l\Ionastic Images: Late Phase III Gandhakuti Image Niches ....................... ........... Chapter Seven: Phase III and IV Architecture in the Peshawar Basin ..... ...... ............ .... .... .. .... .. ...... ..... ..... ...... ...... ... 7.1 Mekhasanda: Phase II and III Architecture ....... ...... ... 7.2 Takht-i-bahf: Architecture ............................................ 7.2.1 Takht-i-bahf: Phase II Remains ...................... 7.2.2 Takht-i-bahf: The Earliest Phase III Remains .............................................................. 7.2.3 Takht-i-bahf: The Second Period of Phase III Construction .. ... ... ...... ..... ... .. .. .... ...... .. 7.2.4 Takht-i-bahf: Late Phase III Construction 7.2.5 Takht-i-bahf: A Summary of Its Development ......... ... ... .. .. .... .. ...... ..... ..... ...... ....... 7.2.6 Takht-i-bahf Patronage and the Phase III :Multiplication of Sacred Areas ........................ 7.3 Thareli: Phase II and III Architecture ........................ 7.3.1 Thareli: Mountain Vilziiras ................................ 7.3.2 Thareli: l\fonastic Small Sacred Areas ............ 7.4 Jamal Garhf: Phase II and III Architecture .............. 7.5 Ranigat: Phase II to Phase IV Architecture .............. 7.6 Phase IV: The Decline of Buddhism .......................... Chapter Eight: Phase III Sculpture in the Peshawar Basin ........................................................................................ 8.1 Loriyan Tangai: Loose Sculpture ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ...... 8.2 Takht-i-bahf: Loose Sculpture ...................................... 8.2.1 Takht-i-bahf: The Upper and Lower Sacred Areas: Loose Sculpture ............ ........... .

159 161 163 166 16 7

169 17 1 175 177 181 182 183 185 186 188 189 191 194 195 197 200 204 211 212 215 216

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XI

8.2.2

Takht-i-bahf: Sacred Area XX: Loose Sculpture· .......................... ......... ..... .. .... ........ ...... 8.2.3 Takht-i-bahf: Two-Celled Shrine XXIII: Loose Sculpture ....... ....... .... ..... ........................ . 8.2.4 Takht-i-bahf Small Sacred Area XIV: Loose and In Situ Sculpture ...... ...... ...... .......... 8.3 Loose Sculptural Finds from the Sahrf-Bahlol Sites ................................................................................ 8.3.1 Sahrf-Bahlol B: Loose Sculpture ...................... 8.3.2 Sahrf-Bahlol C: Loose Sculpture ...................... 8.3.3 Sahrf-Bahlol D: Loose Sculpture .................... 8.4 Thareli: Loose Sculpture ....... ...... ...... ..... ..... ....... ...... .... 8.5 Mekhasanda: Loose Sculpture ...... ..... ..... ...... ...... .......... 8.6 Ranigat: Loose Sculpture .............................................. 8. 7 In Situ Imagery from Sites in the Peshawar Basin and Swat ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... .. ... ..... ...... .... .. ...... ..... 8. 7.1 Sikri: In Situ Sculpture and the Architectural Organization of the Site ............ 8. 7.2 Sahrf-Bahlol: Some Possible In Situ Sculpture .... ...... ..... ....... ..... ...... ..... ...... ...... .. ... ..... 8. 7. 3 Mekhasanda: In Situ Sculpture ................. ....... 8. 7.4 Thareli: In Situ Sculpture ................................ 8. 7.5 Saidu: In Situ Sculpture .................................. Chapter Nine: Buddhist Architecture and Sculpture of Gandhara: Conclusions .... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ...... ...... ..... ..... 9.1 Phase I ............................................................................ 9.2 Phase II .......................................................................... 9.3 Phase III ........................................................................ 9.4 Late Phase III and Phase IV ...................................... Appendix A: The Four-Phase Chronological System .............. Al Phase I ............................................................................ Al. 1 Phase I Dating Evidence from Sirkap ............ Al.2 Phase I Character of Masonry in Taxila ........ Al.3 Phase I Structural Types .................................. A2 Phase II ....... ...... ...... ..... ...... ..... ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... ...... .... A2. l Phase II Dating Evidence ................................ A2.2 Phase II Character of Masonry in Taxila ...... A2.3 Phase II Structural Types ................................ A3 Phase III ...... ...... ........... ..... ..... ....... ..... ..... ...... ...... ...... .... A3. l Phase III Dating Evidence ..............................

218 219 220 221 222 222 223 224 226 226 228 228 230 231 232 233 234 235 237 244 253 255 256 256 258 259 259 259 260 261 262 262

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A3.2 Phase III Character of l\Iasonry in Taxila A3.3 Phase III Structural Types .............................. A4 Late Phase III ...... ................. ...... ....... ..... ............... ..... ... A4. l Late Phase III-Phase IV Character of Masonry in Taxila ............................................ A4.2 Late Phase III Structural Types ...................... AS Phase IV A5. l Phase IV Dating Evidence .............................. A5.2 Phase IV Structural Types .............................. Appendix B: Dating Gandharan Sculpture ... ..... ..... ..... ...... ...... B 1 Relative Chronological Development from Narrative Sculpture to Iconic Images and the Development of Mudras: Phase II to Late Phase III ........................................................................ B2 Dating Gandharan Sculpture on the Basis of Stucco Evidence: Phases III and IV .......................... B3 Dating Monumental Schist Devotional Icons of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas: Late Phase III ...... ..... ..... B4 Schist Images with Inscribed Dates .. ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... BS The Sravasti Devotional Icons: Phases III and IV .... Appendix C: Reuse of Images and Its Bearing on the Dating of Gandharan Sculpture ........ ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... .... C 1 First Period of Reuse: Phase III ............. ..... .... ....... ..... C2 Second Period of Reuse: Late Phase III and Phase IV ....... ...... ................. ... .. ... ... ...... ..... ..... ...... ...... ... Appendix D: Numeric Count of Sculpture Types from Some Peshawar Basin Sites ........ .. ... ....... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ... D 1 Loriyan Tari.gai .................... .. ...... ............ ..... ....... ..... ..... D2 Takht-i-bah1 .................................................................. D2. l Takht-i-bahf Upper and Lower Sacred Areas IV-V ........................................................ D2.2 Takht-i-bahf Sacred Area XX ........................ D2.3 Takht-i-bah1 Two-Celled Shrine XXIII .......... D2.4 Takht-i-bah1 Small Sacred Area XIV ............ D3 Sahr1-Bahl6l Sites .......................................................... D3. l Sahr1-Bahl6l A .................................................. D3.2 Sahr1-Bahl6l B .................................................. D3.3 Sahr1-Bahl6l C .................................................. D3.4 Sahr1-Bahl6l D

264 265 266 266 267 267 267 268

274 277 281 281 284 288 290 292 296 296 297 297 298 299 299 300 300 300 30 I 301

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302 D4 Thareli D5 l'vfekhasanda ................................................................. . 303 D6 Ranigat ......................................................................... . 303 Glossary ..................................................................................... . 305 Bibliography ............................................................................... . 31 l Index ........................................................................................... . 323

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

1. Plan of Dharmarajika complex, Taxila (modified from Marshall, 1951, pl. 45). 2. Plan of Takht-i-bahf (Peshawar basin) main sacred areas and quadrangular monastery, showing all periods of construction (modified from Hargreaves, 1914, pl. XVII). 3. Map of Greater Gandhara (modified from Foucher, 1905, 627). 4. Map of major Taxila sites (modified from Marshall, 1951, pl. 1). 5. Chart of the phase chronological system in relation to architectural types, sculptural development, and Taxila masonry. 6. Major Buddhist sites in Taxila, the Peshawar Basin, and Swat and their approximate occupation phases. 7. Numismatic chronology for the coins mentioned in this work (after Errington, 2000). 8. Reconstructed phase II small stupa. A-conjectural base with atlantes, lions, and elephants; B-base with pilasters; C-circular step with lotus band; D-band of narrative reliefs; E-band with pseudo-vedika relief; F-band with figures under arches; Gfalse gable relief; H-garland band; I-dome with lotus motif; ]-four faced hannika with narrative reliefs; K-upper steps of hannika; L-chattravali and support rods (Behrendt, line drawing by W. Hipsman).

Architecture, Plans, and Sculpture from T axila 9. Sketch showing main Taxila masonry types; phase I rubble masonry, phase II diaper masonry, phase III semi-ashlar masonry, and late phase III double-course semi-ashlar masonry. Note the thin flat pieces of waste rock (herein referred to as interstitial chips) (modified from Marshall, 1916, fig. I). Sirkap 10. Plan of part of the city of Sirkap, Taxila (modified from Marshall, 1951, pl. 10).

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

11. Double-eagle stupa, block F, Sirkap, Taxila (after Marshall, 1916, pl. 27). 12. Inscribed garland holder from Sirkap Block J, square 148.51, Stratum II, Taxila. A: ¾ view, B: side view (line drawings by W. Hipsman after Marshall, 1951, pl. 213, no. 11, Marshall 1960, pl. 19).

A1ohra l'vlaliarafi 13. Plan of Mohra Maliaraii A temple, Taxila. A-front porch, B side rooms, C rear cella, D-circumambulatory path, P-platform (modified from Marshall, 1951, pl. 120 A). Ja,:z{j,ial Sites 14. Plan ofJai:ic;lial C temple, Taxila (modified from Marshall, 1951, pl. 44). 15. Plan of.Jai:ic;lial B sacred area, Taxila. Note the plinth and shrine in court T (modified from Marshall, 1951, pl. 91 ). Dharmarajika Complex 16. Plan of Dharmarajika monastic area, Taxila (modified from Marshall, 1951, pl. 61). 17. Elevation of Dharmarajika main stupa from east, Taxila. Note the east image shrine. Inset shows the trilobe trapezoidal niches (modified from Marshall, 1951, pl. 46b, c). 18. Kl stupa, Dharmarajika complex, Taxila, detail shmving a seated Buddha on the east facade in an axial trilobcd niche. The masonry of this stupa was produced during the transitional period from diaper to semi-ashlar (Marshall, 1916, pl. 12b). 19. Dharmarajika complex, Taxila, N 18 shrine. This doublc-semiashlar image shrine contains the frTt of a monumental stucco Buddha, as well as an added seated Buddha to the left and an added standing Buddha to the right (Marshall, 1918, pl. 2). Kalawan 20. Plan of Kalawan sacred area and monasteries, Taxila, ,vith phase II and phase III construction indicated (modified from Marshall, 1951, pl. 72). Akhaurz and Khader A1ohra Sites 21. Plan of Akhaurf A (Chir lope A) sacred area and monastery, Taxila (modified from Marshall, 1951, pl. 67a). Kurt Behrendt - 978-90-47-41257-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 10:42:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIO:\!S

XVII

22. Plan of Akhaur1 B (Chir tope B), sacred area and monastery, Taxila (modified from Marshall, 1951, pl. 676). 23. Small copper seated bodhisattva, found in cell 18 of the Akhaurf B monastery, Taxila (ASIDGS 1921-22 no. 74, courtesy of the British Library). 24. Plan of Akhaurf C (Chir tope C), sacred area and monastery, Taxila (modified from Marshall, 1951, pl. 68a). 25. Plan of Khader Mohra D 1, sacred area and monastery, Taxila (modified from Marshall 1951, pl. 686). 26. Plan of Khadcr Mohra D2, sacred area and monastery, Taxila (modified from Marshall 1951, pl. 69a). Jaulian 27. J auliafi plan of sacred area and monastery, Taxila, showing all periods of construction (modified from Marshall, 1951, pl. 101 ). 28. Jauliafi D 1 stupa, Taxila, west face showing phase III stepped format with rows of stucco figures including atlantes, lions, elephants, and Buddhas exhibiting dharmacakra mudra and dhyana mudra (photo by K. Behrendt). 29. EI gandhakufi niche in the entranceway to the Jauliafl monastery, Taxila (Warburg Institute). 30. In situ schist plaque showing the Buddha flanked by worshippers, Jauliafi monastery niche in cell 2, Taxila (Warburg Institute). 31. Trapezoidal doorway in the Jauliafi monastery, Taxila (ASIDGS 1917-18 no. 158, courtesy of the British Library). Mohra A1oriidu 32. Plan of Mohra Moradu sacred area and monastery, Taxila (modified from Marshall, 1951, pl. 93). 33. General view of Mohra Moradu main stupa and vihara, Taxila (photo by K. Behrendt). 34. Over-life-size stucco seated Buddha that was added to the plinth of the Mohra Moradu main stupa, Taxila; note the depiction of the alms bowl (the Alkazi Collection of Photography). 35. Multiple additive stucco sculptures attached to the side of the stairway of the main stupa ofMohra Moradu, Taxila (Warburg Institute). 36. Two over-life-size stucco seated Buddha images on pedestal B2 in front of Mohra Mora.du monastery cell 2, Taxila (Warburg Institute). 37. Gandhakuti image niche S7, from the entranceway of the Mohra Moradu monastery, Taxila (\Varburg Institute). Kurt Behrendt - 978-90-47-41257-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/08/2023 10:42:08PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

38. Standing schist bodhisattva from cell 8 of the Mohra Mora.du monastery, Taxila (' \'arburg Institute).

Pippala 39. Plan of the Pippala sacred area and monastery, Taxila, with phase II and III structures indicated (modified from I\Iarshall, 1951, pl. 98a). 40. Small stupa in cell 31 of the Pippala monastery, Taxila (ASIDGS 1921-22, no. 79, courtesy of the British Library). Kuna la 41. Plan of Kuna.la stupa and monastery, Taxila (modified from Marshall, 1951, pl. 86). Bhamala 42. Plan of Bhamala sacred area and monastery, Taxila (modified from Marshall, 1951, pl. 114). 43. Stucco Paraniroa'(la image found in situ, southeast corner of base plinth of Bhamala main stupa, Taxila; length is approximately 1.3 m (line drawing by W. Hipsman after Marshall, 1951, pl. 118b). Architecture and Sculpture from the Peshawar Basin Takht-i-bahz 44. Plan of Takht-i-bahf main sacred area and outlying mountain viharas, Peshawar basin (modified from Hargreaves, 1914, pl. XVII and Bulletin qf the Research Center for Silk Roadology, 2000: 41 ). 45. General view of main sacred area of Takht-i-bahf, Peshawar basin, seen from southwest. Note the massive foundation of the extended court and assembly hall (Hargreaves, 1914, pl. XVIlla). 46. Takht-i-bahf, looking east, showing construction in the lower sacred area (court V). Note the Pl main stupa, stucco decoration of many of the small stupas, and the reuse of phase III devotional icons (ASIFC 190, courtesy of the British Library). 47. Monumental shrines along the southern edge of lower sacred area V, Takht-i-bahf, Peshawar basin. On the left is monumental image shrine 1\13 (note the visible socket holes for affixing a stucco image) and the largest image shrine to the right is I\11

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

48.

49.

50.

51.

52. 53.

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(11.2 m tall). The Pl main stupa and some small stupas are visible in the foreground (photo by K. Behrendt). Small stupa P37 in court XX, Takht-i-bahI, Peshawar basin. Note the row of in situ stucco images of standing Buddhas under trapezoidal arches, some of which display the varada mudra (ASIFC 85 7, courtesy of the British Library). Two heads and four sets of in situ feet of monumental Buddha images against the south wall of court XX; note the sockets in the wall for attaching the stucco images; Takht-i-bahI, Peshawar basin (ASIFC 859, courtesy of the British Library). Detail showing heads and in situ feet of three monumental Buddha images against the south wall of court XX, Takht-ibahI, Peshawar basin (ASIFC 860, courtesy of the British Library). In situ image base showing historic Buddhas and Maitreya from shrine c in court XIV, Takht-i-bahI, Peshawar basin (ASIFC 960, courtesy of the British Library). In situ image base from shrine d in court XIV, Takht-i-bahI, Peshawar basin (ASIFC 961, courtesy of the British Library). Three plaques from two-celled shrine T4 in court XXIII, Takhti-bahI, Peshawar basin. The first shows the Buddha in dharmacakra mudra flanked by haloed worshipers, the second shows the Buddha seated on a lotus throne flanked by bodhisattvas, and the third shows the Buddha in a pseudo-architectural frame flanked by kneeling haloed figures, making it akin to SravastI composite images. The first two plaques have filleted frames, while the third has the same kind of base molding and is of a similar scale (ASIFC 943, courtesy of the British Library).

Sahn-Bahlol Sites 54. Plan of SahrI-Bahlol Site A, Peshawar basin (modified from Spooner, 1909, pl. XXXVI). 55. Row of in situ images consisting of one Buddha and seven bodhisattvas, north fahrendt and P. Brancaccio (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, in press).

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THE PHASE II SACRED AREA

4.4

107

Architectural Organization and Development ef the Sacred Area in Taxi/a, the Peshawar Basin, and Swat During Phase II

Buddhism grew as an important religious movement in Gandhara during phase II. Many new centers were established, and a wide range of new architectural forms were developed to serve Gandharan interests and needs. Gandhara no longer looked to north India for architectural inspiration, nor to the west for new architectural forms. At this early date, Buddhism was just beginning to spread into central Asia from the northwest. In phase II the Kushans united Gandhara and north India, and during this period the volume of foreign trade increased greatly. During phase II, relics, reliquaries, and the stupas that housed them were the primary objects of devotion. To understand the dominant religious currents of this period, we must look at the use of relic monuments in the sacred areas of Buddhist sites. Scholars have concentrated on the "narrative" sculpture produced during phases I and II, but have lost sight of the fact that this imagery functioned primarily to embellish relic monuments and thus was not itself the focus of worship. The phase II popularization of relic shrines can be seen most clearly in Taxila at sites like the Dharmarajika complex (fig. 1) or Kalawan (fig. 20) or in Swat at Butkara I (fig. 97), Butkara III (fig. 100), and Marjanai (fig. 106). In phase II, the main stupa was approached via relic-dominated avenues, or the entire sacred area was enclosed by two-celled relic shrines. At the Dharmarajika, a devotee would have encountered an apsidal stupa shrine, five twocelled shrines, 85 five stupas, and the elaborate R direct-access relic shrine before entering the prada¼i,:wpatha, which in turn was lined with multiple shrines that probably contained relics. At Butkara I in Swat, a large, elevated two-celled shrine (the Great Building) was placed opposite the main stupa. A north-south passageway connected this monumental relic shrine with the main stupa prada¼i,:wpatha. The circumambulatory path was gradually enclosed by a forest of columns, some with relic deposits, and small stupas. At all of these centers, stupas and relic shrines were configured to create a dramatic religious

85 Even though the GS-6 and L structures are slightly off the actual processional path, they must have been used in conjunction with this approach.

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experience that would have been heightened by the narrative and symbolic sculptural reliefs that further emphasized the relic. Although north Indian Buddhist sites shared this interest in the Buddha's relics, direct-access relic shrines were much more common in Gandhara at this time, while stupas with enlarged (enterable) relic chambers seem to have been a Gandharan innovation. 86 In the Peshawar basin, at Ranigat, the only site having clearly identifiable phase II architecture (figs. 78, 79, 80), the modest-sized main stupa can be compared to similar monuments at sites in Swat like Panr (fig. 103) or Marjanai (fig. 106). On the basis of this pattern, the small main stupa St 10 in the Thareli lower sacred area D (fig. 69) and the Takht-i-bahf Pl stupa in lower stupa court V (figs. 2, 46) can be dated as phase II (see section 7.2.1 Takht-i-bahf: Phase II Remains; section 7.3 Thareli: Phase II and III Architecture). In Taxila the phase II main stupas are generally much larger, except for those constructed within monastic courtyards: stupa A at Pippala (fig. 39) and stupa C at Khader Mohra D2 (fig. 26). Limited space in the sacred areas may have driven the construction of secondary main stupas. Studies on the phase II narrative sculpture have focused on identifying the stories recounted in the many panels recovered from sites in the Peshawar basin and Swat. Little attention has been paid to how they figured in the devotional architectural setting of a Buddhist sacred area, because scant evidence remains for this kind of reconstruction. This sparse evidence, however, is crucial for understanding the early development of the Buddhist tradition in Greater Gandhara.

86 The circa 5th century C.E. main stiipa at :\lohenjo Daro in the Sind has an enterable relic chamber (see Chapter 3). After the 5th century C.E. a few stiipa.s were constructed in north and west India the may have had enterable relic chambers, the sites of Sopara and Kushinagara being of particular interest.

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CHAPTER FIVE

THE PHASE II DISTRIBUTION AND FUNCTION OF SCULPTURE

Because so much controversy surrounds the chronology of Greater Gandharan sculpture, it is important to begin with some simple questions. What sculpture can be attributed to phase II; i.e., can a category of sculpture be recognized and dated to this time period? Assuming this is possible, where was this sculpture placed, what kinds of in situ evidence survive, and what does this tell us about the overall sculptural embellishment of phase II monuments? Finally, is it possible to reconstruct the phase II main stupa, small stupa, and twocelled shrine? If so, what does this tell us about how the early Buddhist community used this imagery? It appears that much of the schist narrative sculpture was carved during phase II (see Appendix B and section 5.4.2 The Drum: Developments in the Narrative Tradition) and that it was placed primarily on the small stupas crowding the sacred areas, as well as on small stupas placed in shrines (fig. 8). Surprisingly few narrative reliefs were executed at a scale that would be appropriate for main stupas (thus most must have been devoid of narrative reliefs), with the exception of the main stupa at Saidu and possibly the upper P2 main stupa at Takht-i-baht (see section 5.21 Sculpture from Phase II Main Stupas: Takht-i-bahf and Saidu). In the Peshawar basin, black schist was used for both sculpture and decorative architectural elements; in Swat, green schist was also employed. The overall jewel-like appearance of the decorated small stupas was at times enhanced with gold leaf applied to key sculptural elements. 1 In the Taxila area, schist was not available; the relatively few stone sculptures recovered from these sites appear to have been imported from nearby Peshawar basin production centers. 2 In effect,

There are many instances of small traces of gold still adhering to schist imagery. Thousands of phase II schist sculptures and architectural fragments were found at sites like Thareli, Ranigat, and Takht-i-ba.hi" alone (see Appendix D). 1

2

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this means that the Taxila evidence is less helpful for understanding the development of schist sculptural production than the Peshawar basin sites, which of course are not as well documented. Although stucco and lime were used to finish masonry structures throughout the northwest, stucco imagery did not become common until phase III. There are, however, a few stucco sculptures from Taxila and the Peshawar basin that can be directly compared to the phase II schist narrative reliefs. 3 The narratives would have been placed in a band around the drums of these small stupas so that devotees could read them in the process of circumambulation (figs. 8, 121 ). Additional narrative elements were placed in false gable reliefs and on four sides of the harmika (figs. 122, 87, 95B). These figurative panels appeared on stupas together with supporting elements such as atlantes, lions, and elephants; decorative bands that include figures carrying garlands; pseudo-vedikas shown in relief; checkerboard and floral motifs; domes embellished with lotus patterns; and chattravali (see section 5.4 The Phase II Small Stu.pa: Sculptural Embellishment and a Proposed Reconstruction and figs. 85, 93, 95). While some of these stupa embellishments, such as lions supporting stupa bases, false gables, and harmika reliefs, remained popular during phase III, a radical transformation sometime near the end of phase II made stupas ringed with narratives obsolete. \Vhen iconic images became popular and began to appear within the sacred areas, in independent image shrines or affixed to preexisting structures, the practice of illustrating the Buddha's actions in narrative panels became superfluous. \Veil-preserved phase III stupas with in situ sculptural embellishment such as those in the sacred areas of Jauliaii. (fig. 28), Takht-i-bahf (fig. 46), and Ali l\Iasjid (fig. 96) are adorned with row upon row of iconic Buddhas and bodhisattvas. Narrative references, when present at all, have been reduced to a few hand gestures (mudras) that refer to the major events surrounding the Buddha's enlightenment and role as a teacher (see section 6.5 The Phase III Small Stu.pa). Narrative sculpture that recounted the life and actions of the Buddha appears to have been created as an attestation of individ-

3 A small group of stucco reliefa depicting jiitakas were found in situ in the RI shrine attached to pedestals at the Dharmarajika complex; a few small stucco narrative scenes under little arches survive from Takht-i-bahf; and a unique depiction of the first sermon can be found at Thareli (see Appendix B).

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ual faith. In the hope of gathering merit for oneself or family, Buddhist devotees in Gandhara would sponsor the construction of small stupas and shrines. A handful of inscriptions, such as the copper plate record from Kalawan (see section 4.1.1 Kalawan: Phase II Architecture) speak of this practice. A rare inscription on the base of a narrative relief from Begram, showing the Buddha sitting in abhaya mudra and flanked by devotees, reads " ... gift of Antarf; through this root of bliss [may it be] for the worship of [her] father." 4 While such a donative statement is open to a range of interpretations, it does seem that Antarf paid for a single element of a stupa embellishment and that the offering was made for the spiritual benefit of her father. The architectural evidence demonstrates that devotion was centered on relics during phase II, as is illustrated by the diffusion of stupas and relic shrines. 5 In a small panel from an unknown site in Buner, we get a sense of the nature of this kind of devotional activity from an illustration of a group of monks and lay devotees circumambulating a small stupa (fig. 120). This emphasis on relics is also seen in the stories depicted; commonly, a sequence includes the Parinirva!la, his coffin, the cremation, the display of the relics (a bellshaped object covered by a cloth sitting on a throne), the division of relics, the transportation of relics, and finally a stupa under worship, like the Buner example (fig. 108). In these pictorial accounts, a scene is commonly devoted to the veneration of the Buddha's relics, thus mirroring actual practices that we know took place in the phase II sacred area (see section 3.1 Chinese Pilgrims' Accounts of Direct-Access Relic Shrines in Gandhara).

4 " ••• y(e) A(m)tariye danammuhe imq1a kusamulqia pituno pujae (bhavatu)." S. Konow, "Kharoshti Inscription on a Begram Bas-Relief," Epigraphica lndica XXII (1933-34): 11-15. While the narrative art from Afghanistan is broadly related to that from Pakistan, far less is known about its development or chronology. Some Afghan narrative panels were being produced as late as phase 111, judging from their iconographic sophistication. 5 Relics have been recovered from many small stupas in Gandhara, but they are not always present. \,Vhile relics were looted by treasure hunters who destroyed small stupas looking for reliquaries where coins could be found, it seems that some small stupas actually were built without any relics at the core. Nonetheless, they would have been understood as relic structures by the religious community.

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5.1

The Issue ef Provenance: lo,te 19th and Early 20th Century Photo Documentation ef Gandharan Sculpture

The earliest excavations in Gandhara yielded great quantities of schist sculpture; although some documentation exists for finds of the 19th century and more for those of the early 20th, it addresses issues different from those that confront us today. 6 In the earliest period, sculpture, coins, and reliquaries were collected by various military officers; many of these items ended up in the major colonial museums in Peshawar, Lahore, and Calcutta, as well as the British Museum in London. 7 At that time it was the practice to group the narrative panels on the basis of subject and the large devotional images by iconography. In other words, the original combination of different pieces was deemed irrelevant, and the sculpture that embellished a given sacred area or stupa was separated and mixed with other loose finds, obscuring our understanding of regional workshops and localized religious traditions. Confusion about Gandharan chronology has its roots in this practice. While these museums attempted to keep records of provenance (multiple numbering systems were established), much of the information known to the scholars of the time was lost between the 1880s and 1920s. 8 Although more care was taken as the importance of documentation became clear, by then the sculpture from the largest sites in the Peshawar basin had already been taken away from its original context. Fortunately, it is possible to reconstruct the provenance of many of the Peshawar basin schist sculptures on the basis of labeled photographs taken at the time of their excavation. 9 A key part of this endeavor is a group of pictures taken by Alexander Caddy and

6 For an extensive discussion of 19th and early 20th century documentation on Gandhara, see Errington, "The \Vestern Discovery of the Art of Gandhara." 7 Gandharan sculpture also went to museums in Bombay, Madras, Lucknow, Allahabad, and, following Partition, Chandigarh. 8 The British colonial museums were understaffed at a time when an enormous number of Gandharan Buddhist sculptures were being collected. 9 Numbers painted on many sculptures can be correlated to archived documents and lists. See E. Errington, "Addenda to Ingholt's Gandharan Art in Pakistan," Pakistan Archaeowgy 26, no. 2 (1991); "Towards Clearer Attributions of Site Provenance for Some 19th Century Collections of Gandhara Sculpture," in South Asian Archaeology 1987, ed. M. Taddei (Rome: Isl\1£O, 1990); and "The Western Discovery of the Art of Gandhara," 309-70, 45 I -90.

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M. Senart between 1882 and the 1890s. 10 Together with other relevant images, these photographs were assembled as the Archaeological Survey of India Indian Museum series. 11 Several group photographs from this period show the assembled sculptures from a given site, providing an essential tool for understanding the regional schools. Typically, only well-preserved sculptures were photographed, along with major architectural elements. Group photos exist for the sites of Koi Tangai, Loriyan Tangai (figs. 85, 88, 89), Mala Tangai, Mian Khan, Mir Jan, upper and lower Nathu (figs. 93, 95), Sanghao Rhode, Sanghao Chinlai, and Sanghao Nullah, and individual sculptures were photographed from the sites of Sikri and Kafirkot. Major H. H. Cole, who excavated some of these sites, published two reports, one including plans (figs. 92, 94) and the other providing photo documentation and descriptions of some sculpture 12 (see sections 5.3.1 Upper Nathou Sacred Area: Original Sculptural Placement and 5.3.2 Lower Nathou Sacred Area: Original Sculptural Placement). The first two important collections of Gandharan art sent to Europe were lost. One, consisting of pieces from Jamal Garhr assembled by Sir Clive Bayley, was destroyed when the Crystal Palace in London burned down in 1866. In 1885 Cunningham sent to England a large collection that must have contained material from Jamal Garhf; it was lost at sea when the steamer Indus sank off the coast of Sri Lanka. 13 It seems probable that some of the sculpture photographed by Caddy and Senart was on the Indus; thus, these early photographs are all the more valuable. The group photos provide us with specific information about sacred areas that are no longer extant. Some of these photos depict nearly 1° Caddy's name appears on many of the Archaeological Survey of India Indian Museum series photographs held in the India Office of the British Library, but much earlier H. H. Cole mentioned that he employed M. Senart to take 32 photographs of sculptures of Sanghao, Mian Khan, and Nathu for his publications (Cole, Memorandum on Ancient Monuments in Eusef;:,ai, 11; and Greeco-Buddhist Sculptures from Yusf;:;ai). The photographs taken by Senart were later attributed to Caddy. 11 The Indian Museum series of Gandharan finds survives as a labeled, intact set of about 250 photos, now housed in the India Office of the British Library. Many of these photographs are also in the Warburg Institutes photo archive, the British Museum's holdings, and the Alkazi collection's Fluke Album. 12 I thank Elizabeth Errington for providing me with copies of these two reports, which have otherwise not survived in the scholarly record: Cole, Memorandum on Ancient Monuments in Eusefzai; and Greeco-Buddhist Sculptures from Yusft,ai. 13 J. Burgess, 77ze Gandhara Sculptures: A Selection ef Illustrations in twenry-jive Plates from the British and Lahor Museums (London: W. Griggs, 1899), 1.

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complete assemblages of sculptures recovered from individual small stupas that arguably fall into phase 11 14 (fig. l 08). We also can get an idea of the impact that the multiple standing Buddhas and bodhisattvas from phase III must have had. Two group photos from Loriyan Tangai show the complete group of large schist icons that would have stood in the sacred area of a Peshawar basin site (figs. 88, 89). These group photos, especially those from the sites mapped by Cole, offer us considerable new evidence for understanding the use of phase II and III schist sculpture. By the beginning of the 20th century the Frontier Circle of the Archaeological Survey of India started to compile extensive photo documentation of their excavations undertaken between 1904 and 1920, producing more than 1,600 labeled prints. A few hundred more images of Gandharan sculpture appear in the Northern Circle series and the Director General series. 15 A small fraction of these photographs appeared in Archaeological Survey of India Annual Reports; the vast majority were unpublished and unstudied. I\Iany photographs were originally taken for full-length excavation reports that were never completed. Reports like the one compiled by l\Iarshall for Taxila were planned for the sites of Takht-i-bahf and Jamal GarhL The Archaeological Survey of India photographs also document sculptural remains from Sahrf-Bahlol, Shah-j1-k1-c;lher1, and many other minor sites, but without assigning much importance to the architectural remains.

5.2

.Narrative Reliefs _ji-om Phase II: In Situ Evidence

Although many phase II narrati,·e reliefs and associated sculptures have been found in Greater Gandhara, only a handful have been found in situ or in contexts \\-here their original locations can be inferred. In part this is because narrative sculpture was often reused in ancient times as structures fell into ruin or were refurbished (see Appendix C). Clandestine digging has also disrupted many sites. However, some documentation does exist for the distribution of nar-

Behrendt, "Narrative Sequences in the Buddhist Reliefs from Gandhara." A set of all the Archaeological Survey of India photos of the various circles and those compiled in conjunction with the Annual Reports are housed in the India Office of the British Library. 14

15

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rative reliefs and other associated phase II sculptures from the Peshawar basin sites of Takht-i-bahi, upper and lower Nathou, Sikri, and Karkai, and in Swat from Saidu, Marjanai, and Butkara III. Much of this sculpture was found within stupa shrines, where it was more protected, and most of it originally was affixed to small stupas; however, some can be related to free-standing small stupas within the sacred areas and in two instances to main stupas. 5.2.1

Sculpture from Phase II Main Stupas: Takht-i-bah'i and Saidu

On the basis of scale, a strong argument can be made that the majority of Gandharan stone narrative panels were affixed to small stupas; most of the panels are only 10-25 cm high. However, a few narrative reliefs are big enough to have been attached to main stupas, and in at least two instances such sculpture was found adjacent to main stupas. In his 1864 report, H. Bellew noted that at Takht-ibahi many fragments of scenes sculpted on tablets of blue slate surrounded the P2 main stupa (fig. 2); he surmised that the tablets occupied niches in the sides of the stupa; unfortunately, these specific reliefs can no longer be identified. Bellew described the reliefs as having representations of various religious and domestic ceremonies; i.e., they probably depicted narrative events in the Buddha's life. 16 If this account is accurate, it is significant, because the only other documented instance of narrative sculpture is the scenes attached to a main stupa at Saidu in Swat (fig. 105). 17 The Saidu reliefs, are large and fragmentary, and they do not contain anthropomorphic depictions of the Buddha.

16 Bellew, A General Report on the Yusefzais, 131; Errington, "The Western Discovery of the Art of Gandhara," 111. 17 Faccenna, Saidu Sharif, the Sacred Area, 535; D. Faccenna et al., fl Fregio Figurato dello Stupa Principale nell'Area Sacra Buddhista di Saidu Sharif I (Swat, Pakistan), vol. XXVIII, IsIAO Reports and Memoirs (Rome: IsIAO, 2001). At Butkara I, 16 niches (15 are extant) ring the drum of the Butkara I GSt4/I encasement of the main stupa, each containing a large green schist figural panel (14 of the 16 survive), and relic deposits were found behind each of these reliefs. These panels were not equally spaced and are of different sizes, suggesting that they were reused (see Appendix C) (Faccenna, Butkara I, vol. 3, no. I, 83). Unfortunately, the sculptural representations are so splintered that the original image can only be made out in one instance, niche QI. This relief has been identified as a depiction of the "adoration of the Buddha," and on the basis of this relief it has been suggested that the set of 16 panels also would have related to the life of the Buddha (Faccenna, Butkara I, vol. 3, no. I, 83. It is my opinion that this relief post-dates the phase II narrative

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5. 3 Evidence

5.3.1

ef Phase II Original Sculptural Placement

Upper Nathou Sacred Area: Original Sculptural Placement

In 1882 Cole excavated the upper and lower sacred areas of a site called Nathou on the northern edge of the Peshawar basin. Although the site is no longer extant, we do have his report and plan (figs. 92, 93). 18 Within the confines of the sacred area of upper Nathou, Cole reported recovering 79 sculptures; on his plan the schist images were found at points marked A, and stucco images at points marked B. 19 In the case of upper Nathou, two group photos of the sculpture were taken, 20 the most representative of which is illustrated here (fig. 93). Additional photographs and discussion appeared in a second Cole publication. 21 The schist sculpture found at points marked A on the plan appears to have originally been attached to stupas 1-3, all of which were free-standing structures of central importance to this sacred area. The schist sculpture appears to have been created primarily during phase II, as the narrative panels and other decorative elements are suitable for phase II stupas. The reliefs must have been part of the original embellishment of these stupas, because they can be grouped into coherent sets, i.e., multiple pieces that formed a single sculptural element. The following groups of sculptures can be recognized in the photo documentation of this site (fig. 93): a set of ten mediumsized narrative panels (A); 22 a set of two panels containing four narrative scenes (B); a band of standing figures (eight pieces) (C); a second band of standing figures (five pieces) (D), a band of figures under arches (two pieces) (E, not shown in fig. 93); eight small reliefs tradition, because it shows many similarities with later phase III iconic depictions. Beyond the fact that no specific narrative event is indicated, the hierarchically large central Buddha is worshipped in the top row by three Buddhas (identifiable by their u~f~ and halos) (Behrendt, "Narrative Sequences in the Buddhist Reliefs from Gandhara"). 18 A survey of this area conducted by Kyoto University under the direction of S. Kuwayama located a group of remains that could be upper and lower Nathou, but these data need to he cross-checked with Cole's plans. 19 Cole, Afemorandum on Ancient Jfonuments in Eusqftai, 15. 20 ASil\l nos. 1105-1115; Cole, Greeco-Buddhist Sculptures .from Yuifzai, pl. I 0. 21 Ibid., 54-5, pl. 10-19. Three sculptures appearing in plates 17 and 18 actually were excavated at Sanghao Rhode at this time by Cole. 22 This set of reliefs is addressed in detail in Behrendt, "Narrative Sequences in the Buddhist Reliefs from Gandhara."

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depicting atlantes (F); five lions (G, not shown in fig. 93); one false gable (H); one hannika relief (I); a set of four ya/,yf images (J); one very small seated Buddha (K); three small seated bodhisattvas (L, two shown in fig. 93); and three small to medium-sized standing bodhisattvas (M, one shown in fig. 93). The sculptures are primarily from phase II. Only five devotional icons were found (K-L), all small, and no late architectural features appear in Cole's plan. Further, the recognizable sets of images indicate that this sculpture must have formed the original embellishment of at least two and more probably three small to medium-sized stupas 23 (see section 5.4 The Phase II Small Stiipa: Sculptural Embellishment and a Proposed Reconstruction). This is in agreement with the plan, which seems to indicate that the schist imagery was found around three stupas. 5.3.2

Lower Nathou Sacred Area: Original Sculptural Placement

In the sacred area of lower Nathou, which is no longer extant, 24 Cole excavated three small chapels, where he found a body of schist and stucco sculpture (fig. 94; shrines 1-3). Along with a brief summary of the excavation, a plan was drawn and the sculpture was photographed as a group and in detail (fig. 95). In his report Cole noted the presence of 79 sculptures (apparently schist) and seven plaster heads, the schist images found at points marked A on his plan and the stucco images at those marked B. From his plan it appears that schist and stucco images were found in all three shrines. Because much of the schist sculpture shown in the photographs can be roughly placed in phase II and the stucco iconic imagery in phase III, it seems that some of the sculpture was part of the original decoration while other images were donated at a later time or were reused. The shape of the chapels indicated in Cole's plan suggest that shrine l was an image shrine, because it is U-shaped in plan and has an open fac;ade; however, no image large enough to fill this 23 The existence of at least two stupas is indicated by two sets of narrative reliefs (a group of ten related narrative panels and a two-panel set. The three bands of standing figures and figures under arches appear to have come from three different stupas. 24 Cole, Memorandum on Ancient Monuments in Eusefzai, 15-16, plan 7; Greeco-Buddhist Sculptures from Yus.feai, 53-4, 56-7, pl. 6, 14, 20-23. ASIM photos 1100-1104.

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shrine was recovered. The other two chapels have small, projecting front walls, with a C-shaped plan that is more characteristic of the single-celled relic shrines (see Chapter Three and section 7.3 Thareli: Phase II and III Architecture). This hypothesis is corroborated by the type of sculpture recovered. About 25% of this material is a mixture of phase II and III sculpture that could well have been reused prior to its deposition in these shrines, a feature characteristic of sculptural assemblages from relic shrines (see Appendix C). The remaining 75% consists of sets of related reliefs that originally embellished at least two small stupas and include (fig. 95): a set of three narrative panels, 25 along with the associated pilasters (A); a set of two harrnika reliefs, one showing a figure supporting triratna wheels and the other a depiction of the Parinimal},a (B); a band made up of nine panels showing figures supporting a garland (E); a set of 11 panels with figures under arches (F); a set of two panels with figures under arches (D); a set of two panels with rows of figures (G); and a set of four pseudo-vedika reliefs (H). All of these reliefs would have adorned small to medium-sized stupas. Also significant is a large false gable relief made up of multiple schist panels (C), which must have originally been attached to a large stupa (fig. 95; four of the five known pieces are visible in this photograph). 26 Note that structure 5 could not be the base of such a stupa, because it lacks projections adjacent to the stairs and has a rectangular plan. 5.3.3

Sikri: Origi,nal Sculptural Placement

Harold Deane conducted what appears to have been a careful excavation of the site of Sikri in 1888, and a plan was made recording the locations of some sculpture. Photos were taken and a report was published. Unfortunately, the site is no longer extant, the report has been lost, the known photographs of material from this site, which were not part of the Archaeological Survey of India compilation, do not form a coherent set, and group photos of sculpture were not taken. However, the plan is known from fragments and early photographs (fig. 90), and many sculptures now in the Lahore museum

25 Two panels show the Buddha and worshipers, and the third depicts the first meditation of Siddhartha. 26 The top of the false gable appears in ASI.'.\1 1102. Four of the narrative panels depict scenes in the palace, and the fourth shows the Great Departure.

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can be attributed to this site. 27 On the basis of the types of structures recorded in the plan and the actual recovered sculpture, it appears that Sikri was active during phase II and the middle part of phase III. A large single-celled stupa shrine (Rl) that contained the famous stiipa whose set of 13 narrative panels are now in the Lahore museum probably dates to phase II. Although the present order of the Sikri panels and the form of the stiipa are the product of modern restoration, three photos taken circa 1890 do show the ordering of the reliefs in the earliest restoration (fig. 91 ). 28 Because the Sikri stupa was reconstructed near the time when Harold Deane was working in the northwest, it seems feasible that the original order of the reliefs was retained, although this supposition should be treated cautiously. 29

5.3.4

Karkai: Origi,nal Sculptural Placement

The Peshawar basin site of Karkai was excavated in 1874, and a plan was made; a report documents the locations of some sculpture, but no photographs were taken. 30 In what appears to be the monastic area, stupa shrine G is described as containing a small round stiipa 2 m in diameter, tapering to 0.6 m at a 2 m height (its stepped

27 Deane, Memorandum on Excavations at Sikri, Yusafe,ai. For the restored plan and an extended discussion of this site and its sculpture, see Dar, "The Sikri Sculptures." 28 It has been assumed that Deane found the Sikri stupa intact, although in other instances where narrative reliefs have been found in stupa shrines (Marjanai and Butkara III), they have been lying around the stupa in haphazard arrangements, obscuring the original order. The Sikri stiipa was first reconstructed near the site at the Mardan Session Court in the Garden, and later outside the Lahore Museum (Dar, "The Sikri Sculptures," 21-23. The three photographs in the India Office of the British Library (photos 449/61, 62, 66) record the reconstruction in one of these two early outside locations. One of these photos appears in A. Foucher, "Les Bas-Reliefs du Stiipa de Sikri (Gandhara)," Journal Asiatique, no. 2 (1903): pl. 1, and a second in Burgess, 7he Gandhara Sculptures: A Se/,ection ef Illustrations in twenty-jive Plates from the British and Lahar Nfuseums, pl. 4. 29 Two photos now in the Warburg Institute show that the relief order was maintained when the Sikri stupa was subsequently rebuilt inside the Lahore Museum. For a more complete discussion of this set, including the ordering of specific reliefs, see Behrendt, "Narrative Sequences in the Buddhist Reliefs from Gandhara." 30 R. Skene Grant, "Report on the Exploration of the Buddhist Ruins near Harkai Yusafzai, During the Months of March and April 1874, by the 9th Company Sappers and Miners Under the Command of Lieutenant Skene Grant, R. E., Pury'ab Public Works Department Proceedings, Civil Works, No. 17-A: Appendix a, 1-4," in E. Errington, "The Western Discovery of the Art of Gandhara and the Finds of Jamalgarhf," (Ph.D. thesis, London University, 1987). This report and other early accounts related to the site of Karkai are addressed in Errington's thesis, 138-46.

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profile is visible in the A-B cross section of the site). From the description, it appears that this shrine had a trabeated domed roof 31 that was probably similar to the roof of the single-celled stupa shrine D6 from Thareli (fig. 70). Skene Grant noted that the decoration of the Karkai stupa consisted of "a number of circular rings of masonry, one above the other, and decorated with bas-reliefs ... all much defaced." 32 Later in the report, he said that these bas-reliefs were found within the shrine around the stupa. 33 Thus, although we do not have these specific reliefs for comparison, the Skene Grant report does provide useful information about the shape of the stupa and the apparent distribution of reliefs on its surface. 5.3.5

Mmjanai: Original Sculptural Placement

A recent excavation in Swat at the site of Marjanai (fig. 106) uncovered a two-celled stupa shrine that contained considerable sculpture and several relic caskets (fig. 107). 34 This well-preserved two-celled stupa shrine at Marjanai has standing walls 2.35 m high, with traces of plaster paving on the floor and on the base of the stupa. 35 Stone slabs in the corners of the shrine suggest that it may have had a trabeated domed roof, like the D6 stupa shrine at Thareli (fig. 70). Some of the sculpture found within this shrine certainly represents heterogeneous donations or reuse, but a set of eight narrative panels (fig. 108) and a set of five panels with figures under arches may have formed part of the original decoration of the stupa. 36 The eight narrative panels share a common scale, material, and style, and the excavators noted that the curvature of the reliefs corresponds to that of the drum of the stupa.37 These reliefs recount the Buddha's life as follows: a scene showing a feast (probably the meal served after 31 Elsewhere in the Karkai report the arches are described as being "built evidently in the ordinary Buddhist style, each row of stones projecting slightly above that beneath it until the opening was spanned'' (Skene Grant, "Exploration of the Buddhist Ruins at Takht-i-bai," 4-1-0). 32 Ibid. 33 Ibid., 441. 34 Khan, "Preliminary Report of ~Iarjanai," 2, 8-10. 35 Ibid., 9-10. 36 This assemblage was first noted in 1\1. Taddei, "Recent Archaeological Research in Gandhara: The New Evidence," in Sources of Gandharan Buddhism: Archaeology, Art and Texts, ed. K. Behrendt and P. Brancaccio (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, in press). 37 Ibid.

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the interpretation of the horoscope) (fig. 108), the birth, first bath, return to Kapilavastu from Lumbini, Siddhartha in school, offering of grass, the Parinirvii!l,a and the cremation, and finally the division of relics. These stupa panels would have been read in the course of circumambulation, from right to left. The story that unfolds within this group of narrative sculptures is a familiar one, emphasizing events surrounding the Buddha's birth and death. It directs attention to the corporal presence of the Teacher and the circumstances ultimately leading to the placement of the relic within the stupa. 38 In the case of Marjanai, we can reconstruct the appearance of the stupa. It has a high base surmounted by a projecting molding, then a vertical drum section, another molding, and then the dome, which is poorly preserved at the top. It is unclear how exactly the narrative images were attached, but several loose (reused?) late stucco fragments were found in situ on the first molding, a position where we could imagine the schist narrative ringed the stupa in an earlier period. 39

5.4

The Phase II Small Stu.pa: Sculptural Embellishment and a Proposed Reconstruction

Having a clear understanding of what a phase II small stupa looked like is centrally important to establishing a clear idea of how these early sacred areas functioned. Certainly this is the best source for determining phase II devotional activities; given an architectural context, it should help us to form a more complete picture of the religious life. The reconstruction proposed here (fig. 8) is based on multiple strands of evidence. A few well-preserved phase II stupas are Pippala stupa H (figs. 39, 40), Marjanai stupa 3 (figs. 106, 107), several stupas in shrines at Butkara III (figs. 100, 102), and some stupa bases from Ranigat (figs. 78, 80). All but the Ranigat stupas

38 This sequence is addressed in detail in Behrendt, "Narrative Sequences in the Buddhist Reliefs from Gandhara." 39 At Butkara III (fig. JOO), 42 pieces of sculpture were reported within the twocelled stupa shrines, apparently composed in two tiers (Rahman, "Butkara III," 700). No specific locations appear in the preliminary report, and photographs of the sculpture have yet to be published.

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have round bases, multiple horizontal moldings, and high domes that were crowned with umbrellas, giving us a vivid idea of how tall and imposing even the smaller stupas must have been. Because no phase II stupa survives with in situ reliefs, the most accurate sources for reconstruction are the depictions that exist within the phase II narrative relief sculpture. Considerable progress has been made in this direction by D. Faccenna in his discussion of the reconstruction of the main stupa at Saidu (fig. 105). 40 Although the small stupas follow a different developmental pattern, this foundation is invaluable. Stupas are shown in 31 reliefs, and structural information can also be gleaned from more than 15 model stupas and stupa-shaped reliquaries. 41 The Buner relief (fig. 120) is fairly typical, although better preserved than most. This relief is only 13 cm tall, but it is possible to distinguish the elevated parts of the stupa, commonly lost in the archaeological record. Above the square base are multiple bands of decorative sculpture interspersed with plain areas; crowning the structure are a lotus dome, decorated harmika, and chattraval'i. The stupa in this tiny relief provides a summary view of what a structural stupa would have looked like; the narrative reliefs and the false gable were not indicated because of the small scale of the panel. Nevertheless, this kind of evidence is most useful for understanding the vertical ordering of sculptural elements. Even more helpful are the many relief sculpture, themselves, which offer numerous clues to their placement. Many pieces of carved schist would have been required for a complete sculptural assemblage and would have made these small phase II stupas quite expensive (see fig. 8). From the sets of sculpture preserved in the early photographic evidence compiled by the Archaeological Survey of India, a small to medium-sized stupa might have required the following. Lions, elephants, or atlantes would have adorned the base (a set of eight atlantes [fig. 93, F] was found at upper Nathou, and a large set of 14 was reported fromjamal Garhi:). 42 A set of narratives would have encircled the lower part of the drum Faccenna, Saidu Sharif, the Sacred Area, 531-71. Twenty-seven of these, some of which are in private collections, appear in Faccenna, pis. 265-85. See also Zwalf, Gandhara Sculpture, color pl. 11. AIIS negative nos. 788.10 (Takht-i-bah1), 436.47a; American Academy of Benares negath·e no. Al.36A; ISEAO negative no. R/1716 (Peshawar l\Iuseum); l\lizuno and Higuchi, eds., Thareli, pl. 9.10. 42 Errington, "The \\'estern Discovery of the Art of Gandhara," 228. 40

41

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(a good example is a set of ten narrative panels from the upper Nathou sacred area [fig. 93, A], though longer groups are known, such as an 18-scene set from Loriyan Ta:t_1gai). 43 Above the narrative, some sort of decorative band was usually present, pseudo-vedikas being the most common (such as the set of four from the lower Nathou area [fig. 95, HJ). The next tier could be filled with one of the following three related types of sculpture: (1) a row of figures under arches (lower Nathou has a set of 11 such panels [fig. 95, F]); (2) less common but directly related, rows of figures like the set of eight fragments from upper Nathou (fig. 93, C); (3) as an alternative for the upper register of the stupa drum, a band with figures carrying garlands, such as the set of nine from lower Nathou (fig. 95, E), though this motif might as easily have encircled the dome in a higher register, as is the case with the Buner relief (fig. 120). False gables were often affixed to the drum or to the lower part of the dome; commonly these complex narrative compositions were fabricated of single pieces of schist, although there were also multi-piece compositions such as at lower Nathou, where an example made of five panels was photographed (fig. 95, C, four pieces shown). The square harmika commonly would have had four narrative panels, one facing each direction, usually showing some variation of the birth, enlightenment, first sermon, and Parinirva,:ta (figs. 87, 95; B, two pieces shown). This kind of sculptural evidence suggests that a single small to medium-sized stupa could have had as many as 50 sculpted schist elements adorning its surface, not even taking into account the many requisite moldings. The fact that so much narrative sculpture has been recovered in the Peshawar basin and Swat is somewhat misleading, because it indicates that more phase II stupas were built than was actually the case (see Appendix D). Careful examination of the total corpus of sculpture recovered from these regions suggests that only a moderate number of such stupas was ever constructed and that the period of the production of schist small stupas complete with multiple narrative panels must have been limited. The relief panels used to adorn small stupas can be separated into several categories. In the case of medium-sized phase II stupas, such as those in the upper Nathou sacred area or the Sikri stupa, the narrative panels, moldings, and decorative elements attached to the drum

43

Behrendt, "Narrative Sequences in the Buddhist Reliefs from Gandhara."

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would have been carved on separate pieces of schist. However, for small stupas, these elements were combined on single slabs of stone (herein referred to as stacked reliefs). The stacked reliefs provide useful contextual evidence, because commonly series of two or three narrative panels were combined with the above decorative bands, moldings, and so on (fig. 121 ). Also helpful is the fact that the sculptures encircling the drums of small-diameter stupas were carved on slightly curved panels.H Therefore, we can easily identify the panels used to adorn the drum of the stupa. For some very small stupas, the reliefs were cut into the edge of a single round piece of schist; a stack of such disks has been used for the conjectural reconstruction of the drum section of a small stupa from Loriyan TaQgai now in the Indian museum (fig. 86). Reliefs also appear on flat panels that presumably were attached to square stupa bases, 45 or more probably to the square step immediately above the base. Schist imagery would have been affixed to masonry stupas using nails and metal clamps; many reliefs have drilled holes, and in a few instances nails have been found in place. 46 The panels also had tines and sockets so that separate schist elements could be fitted together, and mason's marks seem to indicate the order in which these images were to be arranged.47 5.4.1

The Base

In Gandhara the base appears to have functioned to define the sacred space of the stupa much as the vedikas did at north Indian sites like San.cf or Bharhut. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that when freestanding vedikas do appear in the Gandharan context, they are

H Because the curvature of these relit-Cs can be measured, the diameter of the domes of the stupas can be extrapolated. Domes ranged in diameter from as little as a half meter to perhaps as large as 3 meters. Beyond a diameter of approximately 3 meters, the curvature of the reliefs becomes difficult to detect. If the diameter was sufficiently large, it would have been unnecessary for the sculptor to curve the relief at all. 45 Although theoretically they could also adorn large-diameter stupas, the small scale of the reliefs often precludes this conclusion. 46 At Marjanai a relief of figures under arches was found with the nail still in the hole (Khan, "Preliminary Report of '.\larjanai," IO, pl. 22b. Stein mentioned that a nail for affixing sculpture was found at Takht-i-bahI in court XIV (Stein, "Excavations at Sahri-Bahlol," I 08). 47 For a summary of construction evidence, see Zwalf, Gandhara Sculpture, 50-63.

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along the top of the base or around the drum (see section 2.3.1 The Phase I Stupa). This distinction appears to be a defining factor for reconstructing the phase II stupa base. Three categories of phase II Gandharan stupas can be recognized, all of which have different bases: ( 1) main stupas on high bases accessed by stairways attached to a front projection; many of these stupas also have columns on the four corners of the base (figs. 101, 104, 105); (2) small stupas, found in sacred areas, usually on square bases, but without attached stairways (figs. 2, 46, 78, 80, 120); and (3) small stupas placed in relic shrines, which in phases I and II never had square bases;48 in these instances the enclosing shrine appears to define the sacred space, rendering the base superfluous. For example, although the stupa depicted in the Buner relief (fig. 120) has a square base, its upper superstructure is nearly identical to the round-base stupas preserved in shrines from Pippala, Marjanai, and Butkara III (figs. 39, 40, 106, 107, 100, 102). Except for the square base in the Buner example, all the stupas share the lower stepped register and similar sets of upper moldings and recessed bands. If this hypothesis regarding round stupas is correct, then the base is not truly part of the stupa; rather, the upper circular superstructure is the relic monument. In contrast, the unenclosed phase II stupas from Ranigat's east sacred area (figs. 78, 80) have square bases like the Buner relief. Other factors also suggest that the base functioned to define sacred space, in this sense as a separate structural element. This may explain why relic chambers often were placed at the height of the base. It could also be the underlying reason that pilasters commonly appear on stupa bases from all periods in Gandhara; they may be making an architectural reference to defining the sacred space of the stupa. It has even been suggested that the base was fabricated to elevate the stupa so that it would be visible from a greater distance. 49 Sculptural depictions nearly always show stupas with square bases, the only exception being a single example from Butkara I that shows a small stupa with a round base, but in this instance it is housed within a shrine (fig. 99). In six out of the 31 relief examples, stairways

48 For example, middle to late phase III square-based stupas are found in shrines at Dharmarajika (shrines R5, N 16) and at Kalawan (shrine A 16). 49 G. Fussman suggested this function during a panel discussion of a paper at the conference "On the Cusp ofan Era: Art in the Pre-Kushan World," Nov. 8-12, 2000, Kansas City.

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are shown, indicating that a main stupa is being depicted. This group can be expanded to 20 examples if we include representations of stupas with pillars on the corners of the base. This leaves only 11 reliefs, some of which almost certainly show small stupas, the Buner example being among them. The stupa in the Buner relief has a molding at the very bottom, then a plain section topped by a cornice that imitates wooden architectural beams (termed herein a pseudo-beam cornice). This arrangement seems very like that of the many extant stupa bases found in the Peshawar basin and Swat; typically in the real stupas, the plain base was fabricated out of masonry and finished in plaster, whereas the pseudo-beam cornice was commonly constructed of multiple small pieces of schist and also finished in plaster. The square bases are undecorated in all but two of the reliefs; in these instances, flowers fill this section. 50 The phase II stupa H in shrine 31 at Pippala has large stucco lotus flowers set between pilasters encircling its base (figs. 39, 40). 51 The relief sculpture showing stupas does not help us to understand how schist sculptures were integrated into the bases of small stupas. The obvious categories of sculpture that almost certainly were attached to this part of the stupa include lions, elephants, and atlantes. These figures must have supported the base in some fashion, while at the same time differentiating the stupa from the sphere of the mundane world. The set of eight small atlantes (fig. 93, group F) 52 and the set of five lions found in the upper sacred area of Nathou probably were affixed to one of the stupas indicated in Cole's plan of the site (fig. 92). It is difficult to determine the location of the atlantes, lions, and elephants because extant phase II stupas such as those at Ranigat (fig. 80) do not provide hints as to their placement. However, considerable phase III stucco evidence shows that lions (fig. 96) or a combination of lions and atlantes (fig. 28) or elephants and atlantes served as transition elements between stories within the base. Typically, phase III stupas are stepped; in essence, these stupas have multiple

° Faccenna,

Saidu Sharif, the Sacred Area, pl. 266c, 77a; see also 66a. Similar lotuses set between columns but executed in schist were found in the Peshawar basin at Sanghao Rhode (ASI:\I photo nos. 1137, 1138) and at Sanghao Chinlai (ASI:\I photo no. I 032). For a discussion of the dating of the Pippala H stupa and shrine, see ~Iarshall, Taxila, 366. 52 At Jamal GarhI 14 schist atlantes were recovered in 1873 and another 15 in 1920 (Errington, "The \\'estern Discovery of the Art of Gandhara," 228, fig. 8.22. 5

51

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bases. The lowest and largest base provides a sanctified platform for the second base, which in turn provides a base for the more sacred area of the dome. The transitional zones between stiipa bases are clearly marked; the figures are shown lifting the stiipa up and separating it from the mundane world. In a similar fashion, immediately above the step of the first base are, in some cases, rows of lions supporting the next level, as can be seen in the Ali Masjid example (fig. 96). 53 While it is clear that the stepped base is a phase III development (see section 6.5 The Phase III Small Stupa), leaving the phase II stupa form in question, the atlantes, lions, and elephants supporting bases probably originated in the earlier period. In the small phase II stupa reconstruction proposed here (fig. 8), atlantes, lions, and elephants are shown in register A, but, as noted above, the relationship to the lower moldings is not understood.

5.4.2

The Drum: Developments in the Narrative Tradition

The small stiipa depiction in the Buner relief (fig. 120) provides a hint about how schist panels of different kinds were originally affixed to masonry stupas. Although considerable expense and effort were invested in the narrative panels, making them probably the most important element adorning the phase II stupa, other bands of relief sculpture encircled the drums of small stupas in upper registers; prominent are pseudo-vedikas, floral motifs, rows of devotees, figures under arches, and figures supporting garlands (fig. 8, zones D-H). Above the square base is a circular stepped platform decorated with a crosshatch pattern and flowers (fig. 8, zone C). On top of this step is a vertical-walled drum that tapers inward at the top, forming the dome of the stiipa; in the Buner relief (fig. 120), three bands of ornamentation are visible: a plain register, followed by a pseudo-vedika, and just below the dome a wavy garland. ·where exactly should we expect to find the narrative band in relation to these other elements? On the basis of the curvature of panels, it is certain that the majority of the narrative reliefs were affixed to the drum of the stupa. 54 However, in some instances narratives are found on flat pieces of schist.

Atlantes also appear in Ha and false gable reliefs. 17

18

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pieces of schist Buddha and bodhisattva icons. The much more limited stucco remains, which seem to belong also to phase III, include 35 heads, a mere 123 fragments of various figures, and 210 architectural fragments.

D5

Mekhasanda 22

Like Thareli, Mekhasanda was excavated in the 1960s, and all of its sculptural material was photographed. This smaller site contained far less material. The schist phase II remains include five large narrative panel fragments and 15 minor pieces, four significant pieces of false gable reliefs, and 210 schist architectural fragments. The schist phase III finds include three standing Buddhas, four bases of standing Buddhas, six Buddha heads, three standing bodhisattvas, three bases of standing bodhisattvas, one seated bodhisattva, one seated bodhisattva with crossed ankles, and two heads. In addition, there are 21 small fragments of Buddha and bodhisattva sculptures. The stucco production is composed of 99 heads, 80 sculptural fragments, one monumental Buddha head, and a fragment of a second monumental Buddha head. There are 200 stucco architectural fragments and 44 stone elements used to support stucco architectural elements.

D6

Ranigat 23

Ranigat was excavated in the 1980s and was fully photographically documented. As this site was denuded of sculpture throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the following count must be considered incomplete. Moreover, conditions unfavorable for the preservation of stucco have left us almost no record of this category of sculpture. There are 78 intact schist narrative panels and 209 recognizable fragments (some of these must belong to harmika friezes). No intact false gable reliefs were reported, but 64 fragments attest to their presence. Mizuno, ed., Mekhasanda, pis. 35-66. To avoid the possibility of recounting sculptures, the only material considered is that which appears in photographs in Nishikawa, Ranigat. 22

23

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Dating to phase II (and to some extent phase III) are I 73 small schist heads and no fewer than 448 fragments of small schist figures, many of which were parts of narrative panels. Corresponding to these figures are 1212 schist architectural fragments and 131 elements of vedikas. Also found were six large fragments of pillar capitals. The schist phase III devotional icons consist of 29 standing Buddhas, seven bases for standing Buddhas, I 7 seated Buddhas (five of which are in dharmacakra mudrii), seven heads, nine standing bodhisattvas, four bases of standing bodhisattvas, 12 seated bodhisattvas (one in dharmacakra mudrii, three with crossed ankles, and one seated on a stool with a pendant leg), and three bodhisattva heads. Also found were two large donor figures and 131 fragments of schist devotional icons. Although no Sravastf figures were found, 35 fragments attest that this late phase III category of sculpture was present at the site. Stucco finds arc limited to 15 medium-sized heads, 121 small heads, and 228 small fragments of figures. Also documented in these photographs are 58 large coins and 74 small coins.

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GLOSSARY

additive image An image that was placed, where space permitted, against a wall in a sacred area or vihara courtyard that had no shrine-like enclosures (figs. 35, 36). assembly hall A square hall found at most Gandharan sites; many were large enough to require a set of four internal pillars to support the roof. In many cases, the hall is attached to the monasteries, but in some instances it is by itself. The exact function of these chambers is not known; their association with monasteries suggests that monks may have assembled in them. Bactria Ancient name for a region in Afghanistan.

chattraval'i Stacked umbrellas that sheltered the vertical axis of a stupa. Their presence is also linked to creating a proper auspicious environment for housing a relic. diaper masonry A masonry type used in Taxila, the Peshawar basin, Swat, and Afghanistan in which large, roughly shaped stones were set into beds and small chips of stone filled the interstices (fig. 9). In the Taxila area, this masonry type can be used to date a monument to phase II. direct-access relic A relic that was openly displayed rather than being placed in the inaccessible core of a stiipa; e.g., the skull bone of the Buddha that was on display at Hac;lc;la. direct-access relic shrine A shrine that displayed a relic that could be viewed and sometimes handled (figs. 118, 119).

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GLOSSARY

direct-access stupa A stupa with an oversized relic chamber that could be entered; e.g., the A4 main stupa at Kalawan in Taxila (fig. 20). donors Lay men and women, monks, royalty, and merchants (and sometimes whole villages) who contributed money to Buddhist establishments and commissioned structures, such as stupas, shrines, monasteries, and imagery (narrative in the early periods and iconic later on).

gandhakuti iconography The sculptural assemblage of iconic images found in middle to late phase III monastic image shrines; typically, a central Buddha flanked by a complex assemblage of secondary divine figures, bodhisattvas, donors, and in several cases attendant Buddhas (fig. 29). Gandhara An ancient region in northwest Pakistan bounded to the north by Swat (ancient Udayana), to the west by Afghanistan (ancient Nagarahara and Bactria), and to the east by the Indus river and ultimately Kashmir; herein referred to as the Peshawar basin. Greater Gandhara A cultural region that includes the Peshawar basin, Swat, Taxila, Afg·hanistan, and Kashmir. false gable Trilobed focal panels that have stacked narrative compositions (fig. 122). iconic devotional image Usually a Buddha or bodhisattva; may display some narrative elements, such as a teaching gesture, but docs not have a narrative function. image shrine Enclosure for iconic image of the Buddha, a bodhisattva, or some other Buddhist deity. Kabul basin Agricultural region in Afghanistan; now includes the modern city of Kabul.

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kaffjur ashlar masonry Finely cut rectangular stones that fit tightly together without mortar; in Taxila, indicates phase I construction (fig. 11). main stupa Central large stupa characteristic of Greater Gandharan sacred areas; with a monastery, usually the first structure built when a new site was founded. monastery Residential structure used to house monks (see vihiira). monastic area The part of a site used primarily by monks for housing and private worship; would include vihiiras or monasteries as well as adjacent structures such as monastic small sacred areas and terraces reserved for the monks. monastic small sacred area Small stupas, commonly at the juncture of several mountain viharas. In later centuries image shrines were built around the perimeter. This type of monastic sacred area is found only in the Peshawar basin. mountain vihiira Two- to three-story building with two to four rooms per floor, having a small front porch, in which monks lived; commonly, these monasteries had massive foundations because they were built on steep mountain hillsides (figs. 68, 76). narrative sculpture Depiction in schist, most often of the life of the Buddha, although jiitakas are sometimes also shown. Peshawar basin Modern name for the ancient region of Gandhara.

prada/,yi1J,apatha Architectural passageway that provided a sanctified path for circumambulation around a stupa or relic monument. pseudo-beam cornice Type of molding, resembling a wooden beam, commonly used on small and large stupas.

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GLOSSARY

pseudo-vedika Depiction of a vedika commonly used as an embellishing element on phase II small stupas (fig. 8, register E; fig. 121, middle register). quadrangular vihara Rectangular multi-storied structure with a central courtyard surrounded by a verandah and residential cells (fig. 27). relic shrine Any shrine that contained a relic. sacred area Public part of a Buddhist site, including main stupa, various small stupas, relic shrines, and image shrines; always the most important area for devotees, and the place where the most expensive donations were made. schist Green to black metamorphic stone used m Gandhara for sculpture and masonry. semi-ashlar masonry A Taxila masonry type characteristic of phase III composed of a layer of large, roughly shaped stones set on a layer of stable, brickshaped rectangular ashlar blocks, with small chips of stone filling the spaces between the large blocks to create a level surface for the layer (fig. 9). Sravastf composite devotional images Usually a large, centrally placed Buddha in dhannacak:ra mudra seated on a lotus throne surrounded by multiple secondary figures; commonly includes a lotus pond below with devotees. The central Buddha is often surrounded by bodhisattvas and secondary Buddhas; in some instances, Buddhas and bodhisattvas are shown in the act of self-multiplication. Sravastf composite reliefs are arranged in complex architectural spaces (figs. 126, 127). Sravasfi miracle narrative scenes Phase II narrative depictions of the multiple miracles said to have occurred at Sravastf. Sravasfi plaques Small relief sculptures that typically have many characteristics of the larger Sravastf triad and Sravastf composite reliefs, such as

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lotus thrones and pseudo-architectural elements. In some instances, the central Buddha is surrounded by multiple radiating figures of Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and other gods. Often the Sravasfi plaques are simply miniature versions of the Sravastf triad iconography (fig. 53). Sravastf triad devotional images Reliefs that generally depict a central Buddha in dharmacakra mudra seated on a lotus throne flanked by bodhisattvas (fig. 125); sometimes these groups are set in pseudo-architectural settings. stacked narrative reliefs Multiple narrative scenes and other embellishing bands, such as pseudo-vedikas and figures under arches, cut into single slabs of stone (fig. 121 ). Typically, the lower register has a band of narrative reliefs, the middle has a pseudo-vedika, and the top shows figures under arches or sometimes rows of figures.

stupa court The part of the public sacred area made up of the main stupa and surrounding small stupas, relic and stupa shrines, and, in later periods, image shrines.

stupa shrine Architectural relic temple that houses a stupa (figs. 99, 106, 107) Swat High river valley north of the Peshawar basin; known as Udayana in ancient times. Taxila Ancient center, known through inscriptional and textual evidence and positively identified through archaeological excavation. It includes the cities of Sirkap, Sirsukh, and Bhir Mound, as well as more than a dozen important Buddhist sites. two-celled shrine Shrine used to house stupas and direct-access relics; a front porch (often open) or antechamber led to a back room, which housed the relic or stupa. Examples are the G5~6 shrine at the Dharmarajika complex and the two-celled stupa shrines at Marjanai (figs. 1, 103, 107).

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GLOSSARY

Udayana Ancient name for the Swat valley.

Vihara Structure used to house monks; also called a monastery.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abbreviations AUS - American Institute of Indian Studies ASI - Archaeological Survey of India ASIFC - Archaeological Survey of India Frontier Circle (series) ASIM - Archaeological Survey Indian Museum (series) ASIDG - Archaeological Survey of India Director General (series) ASIAR - Archaeological Survey of India Annual Report

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