The Basics of Caring Research 9789463005951, 9789463005968, 9789463005975, 9463005978

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The Basics of Caring Research

Bold Visions in Educational Research Volume 54

Series Editors: Kenneth Tobin, The Graduate Center, City University of New York, USA Carolyne Ali-Khan, College of Education & Human Services, University of North Florida, USA Co-founding Editor: Joe Kincheloe (with Kenneth Tobin) Editorial Board: Barry Down, School of Education, Murdoch University, Australia Daniel L. Dinsmore, University of North Florida, USA Gene Fellner, College of Staten Island, City University of New York, USA L. Earle Reybold, College of Education and Human Development, George Mason University, USA Stephen Ritchie, School of Education, Murdoch University, Australia Scope: Bold Visions in Educational Research is international in scope and includes books from two areas: teaching and learning to teach and research methods in education. Each area contains multi-authored handbooks of approximately 200,000 words and monographs (authored and edited collections) of approximately 130,000 words. All books are scholarly, written to engage specified readers and catalyze changes in policies and practices. Defining characteristics of books in the series are their explicit uses of theory and associated methodologies to address important problems. We invite books from across a theoretical and methodological spectrum from scholars employing quantitative, statistical, experimental, ethnographic, semiotic, hermeneutic, historical, ethnomethodological, phenomenological, case studies, action, cultural studies, content analysis, rhetorical, deconstructive, critical, literary, aesthetic and other research methods. Books on teaching and learning to teach focus on any of the curriculum areas (e.g., literacy, science, mathematics, social science), in and out of school settings, and points along the age continuum (pre K to adult). The purpose of books on research methods in education is not to present generalized and abstract procedures but to show how research is undertaken, highlighting the particulars that pertain to a study. Each book brings to the foreground those details that must be considered at every step on the way to doing a good study. The goal is not to show how generalizable methods are but to present rich descriptions to show how research is enacted. The books focus on methodology, within a context of substantive results so that methods, theory, and the processes leading to empirical analyses and outcomes are juxtaposed. In this way method is not reified, but is explored within well-described contexts and the emergent research outcomes. Three illustrative examples of books are those that allow proponents of particular perspectives to interact and debate, comprehensive handbooks where leading scholars explore particular genres of inquiry in detail, and introductory texts to particular educational research methods/issues of interest to novice researchers.

The Basics of Caring Research

Edited by Satu Uusiautti and Kaarina Määttä University of Lapland, Finland

A C.I.P. record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN: 978-94-6300-595-1 (paperback) ISBN: 978-94-6300-596-8 (hardback) ISBN: 978-94-6300-597-5 (e-book)

Published by: Sense Publishers, P.O. Box 21858, 3001 AW Rotterdam, The Netherlands https://www.sensepublishers.com/ All chapters in this book have undergone peer review. The following chapters are reprinted here with permission: Chapter 1: Määttä, K., & Uusiautti, S. (2015). Two perspectives on caring research: Research on well-being and researcher well-being. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 66, 29–41. Chapter 7: Määttä, K., Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, M. (2014). A story of an ideal study process at the University of Lapland, Finland. Global Journal of Human Social Science, 14(1), 83–89. Chapter 8: Uusiatti, S. (2016). Scientific publishing as the arena of power and caring. International Journal of Research Studies in Education, 5(1), 75–86. Cover photo by Sari Oikarainen Printed on acid-free paper All Rights Reserved © 2016 Sense Publishers No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Prefacevii Part 1: Time for Caring Research, Time for Well-Being 1. What Is Caring Research? Kaarina Määttä and Satu Uusiautti

3

Part 2: Positive Resources as the Foundation of Caring Research and Well-Being 2. Teaching Children with Joy Taina Rantala, Satu Uusiautti and Kaarina Määttä

21

3. Success at Work Is about Engagement and Hope Satu Uusiautti and Kaarina Määttä

33

4. Love Never Fades Kaarina Määttä

45

5. Flourishing in Indigenous Cultural Contexts Satu Uusiautti

61

Part 3: Caring Research Community and Resources 6. A Caring Supervisor Kaarina Määttä

79

7. A Story of an Ideal Study Process Kaarina Määttä, Satu Uusiautti and Marju Määttä

91

8. Scientific Publishing as the Arena of Power and Caring Satu Uusiautti

103

9. The Definition and Task of Mediating Sámi Research Pigga Keskitalo and Erika Sarivaara

119

Part 4: Epilogue 10. Caring Research and Its Future Challenges Satu Uusiautti and Kaarina Määttä

137

Original Articles

145

PREFACE

As the demands and challenges in the academic world seem to increase all the time, it is necessary to stop and think how to approach well-being in science? Is there such a thing as caring research? The Basics of Caring Research is based on a conference that we organized at the University of Lapland in October 2014. The name of the conference was “Gaining Strength from Caring Research” and it was a huge success. In the context of the conference, we developed the concept of caring research. First of all, caring research means research that aims to promote well-being. It is focused on a good quality of life where people’s mutual caring lays the foundation for the well-being of individuals and communities. Caring research is based on human strengths and socially active life. However, caring research does not only mean the promotion of the research target’s well-being. People who do caring research share the passion and enthusiasm to influence positively and collaborate. Caring research includes the opportunity and joy of working and researching together. Thus, caring research is manifested in the relationships between researchers, supervisors, students, and other experts, and their mutual open and respectful interaction. The book defines what caring research is and analyzes how and why to do it. The structure of the book is as follows: While Part 1 defines the core purposes and concepts of caring research in a two-dimensional manner, Parts 2 and 3 provide research examples of these two dimensions. Finally, Part 4 summarizes and continues developing the concept and concludes the book by giving ideas of the usability of caring research now and in the future. In other words, the book has four main chapters. In Part 1, the editors of the book, Satu Uusiautti and Kaarina Määttä describe the connection of caring research with research on well-being. The chapters in Part 2 introduce possible targets and themes of caring research across human lifespans and the importance of caring research in positive development and support of resources and human strengths. Taina Rantala et al. describe how joy in teaching can lead to better learning outcomes and well-being in teachers and students. Satu Uusiautti and Kaarina Määttä then discuss the importance of engagement and hope in work. The chapter is based on numerous studies about success and positive development at work. The part continues by introducing the significance of love in later phases of life, based on research by Kaarina Määttä. Finally, the part is complemented by yet another perspective on positive emotions and development as the foundation of caring research, namely that of flourishing in various cultural contexts. Satu Uusiautti discusses the possibility of positive indigenous psychology especially from the viewpoint of education. The four core positive resources are important for human well-being, but there are many others, too, such as happiness,

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PREFACE

satisfaction, gratitude, or other positive strengths. These themes were selected in the book to provide a glance at the wide spectrum of possible positive strengths, resources, and emotions, that can enhance positive development in various contexts and in various areas of life. Part 3 describes the elements of how to do caring research. Caring research covers the academic community, supervision, students, and research publication. Based on her long and successful career as a supervisor of PhD students, Kaarina Määttä reveals ten facts of caring supervision. She answers questions such as what constitutes a good supervision relationship, how to support PhD students’ progress, and what makes a caring supervisor. In addition to supervisors and professors, students make an important—the most important part—of a caring research community. Määttä, Uusiautti, and Marju Määttä illustrate an ideal study process based on student data collected at the University of Lapland. There is no research without publishing it, and therefore, collaboration in scientific publishing is an inseparable part of research work. Satu Uusiautti contemplates the possibility of caring collaboration in many levels (incl. writing, reviewing, publishing) of scientific publishing. Part 3 ends with a viewpoint on indigenous research. Pigga Keskitalo and Erika Sarivaara introduce a new concept of mediating Sámi research. They remind how important it is to develop suitable research methods that are applicable in indigenous contexts. Part 4 concludes the book by discussing the future challenges and opportunities of caring research. *** We hope that this book will function as a guide to the world of well-being research. It also illustrates how a multidimensional phenomenon caring research fundamentally is. The book serves as a text book in, for example, research studies in psychology and educational and behavioral sciences, and as a useful tool to develop supervision of various academic theses. The idea of caring research contributes new viewpoints to research and its quality in Finland and abroad. The Basics of Caring Research is based on academic research conducted in Finland and all chapters included have gone through international, scientific peerreview processes. Therefore, they are of extremely high quality. Together they form an entity that contributes to the scientific discussion and supports research and teaching in higher education. We want to thank all contributors for their inspiring collaboration when compiling this book. No doubt our research teams are examples of caring research community! We also wish to thank Dr. Tanja Äärelä for her expertise, insightful advice and help during the internal review of the book and coordinator Paula Niemelä for her help with the formatting of this book.

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PART 1 TIME FOR CARING RESEARCH, TIME FOR WELL-BEING

KAARINA MÄÄTTÄ AND SATU UUSIAUTTI

1. WHAT IS CARING RESEARCH?

ABSTRACT

Caring research is a new concept that is discussed and defined from two supplementary perspectives: (1) as research aiming at promoting well-being and (2) as a caring research community that cares for the researcher well-being and reciprocal relationships between colleagues and between supervisors and students. The caring research ideology contributes a comprehensive viewpoint to the world of academic research because it also pays attention to the actual research process within the research community. This well-being focused approach can serve as a means to flourish within the ever-increasing demands of the academic world. Keywords: caring research, positive psychology, researcher well-being, supervision, well-being at work Many of us involved in research have faced the current tendency in the academic world: competition for research funding between universities and individual researchers and research groups, prompt graduation and study processes among university students, and demands on high-quality yet the-faster-the-better publication of research results among graduates and researchers are characteristics that seem to determine the way research is conducted in these days. Indeed, high pressures for measurable results have been described, for example, by Roth (2002) who used the term “publish or perish” when referring to professors’ careers. Publishing should be international, too, because these “seafarers” produce much more funding to universities than “islanders” who prefer working within the borders of their own nation (Kubiatko, 2013). Likewise, reading and citing readings in grant proposals or reports are considered crucial (Tenopir, Mays, & Wu, 2011). At the same time, universities compete for talented applicants and many universities have to think about methods to increase their attractiveness in the eyes of students, their future researchers in order to stay competitive (Määttä, Uusiautti, & Määttä, 2014). How to do that if the message mainly delivered tells about tightening pressures, competitive atmosphere, and pure self-interest among researchers? Likewise, new kinds of expectations are targeted to research, too. Today’s societal changes, globalization, and uncertainty about the future shake the well-being of people and communities (Diener, 2009). Research should provide answers to how to face the future without people losing trust in their own abilities to survive and

S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä (Eds.), The Basics of Caring Research, 3–18. © 2015 Scientia Socialis. All rights reserved.

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solve threats of well-being (e.g., Cohn & Fredrickson, 2010). People have always looked for happiness and success in their lives, and this goal has not become any less significant in the lives of modern people. The aforementioned two current challenges made us think about the concept of caring research. The concept was born based on (1) the authors’ research work after being involved in positive psychological research for several years and (2) collaboration in the authors’ research team: the mutual support, encouragement, and productivity even within a current competition situation stirred interest in us and we decided to analyze it further. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss: what is caring research and how to define it? In the authors’ researcher team, many researchers had to choose research themes that pursue enhancing good quality of life humanly and socially; in other words, themes illustrating mutual care and concern that provide the foundation for wellbeing in individual people and communities. Wish to influence positively and trust in human strengths also reflected on the interaction within the research group. The researchers showed that feeling positive emotions toward work produced not only a quantitative improvement by increasing efficiency, but also a qualitative one by making a better outcome that results from the virtue of pride, belief, and commitment to one’s job. How to reach satisfaction and optimal performances and quality research by enhancing positive feelings and states at universities (see also Isen & Reeve, 2006; Winter & Sarros, 2002) is the question viewed through the concept of caring research. CARING RESEARCH

Positive Psychology as the Basis of Caring Research Caring research is viewed here based on the ideas of positive psychology. Gable and Haidt (2005) briefly define positive psychology in the following terms: “Positive psychology is the study of the conditions and processes that contribute to the flourishing or optimal functioning of people, groups, and institutions” (p. 104). The aim of positive psychology is to study the reasons why people feel joy, show altruism, and create healthy families and institutions. Research themes such as well-being, happiness, quality of life, and positive feelings have been introduced by positive psychology, which has provided research concerning not only positive characteristics and feelings, but also the institutions that enhance the discovery of positive feelings and strengths (Seligman et al., 2005). The branch of positive psychology is concerned with facilitating good lives and enabling people to be at their best (see, e.g., Achor, 2010; Csikszentmihalyi, 2008; Linley, Willars, & Biswas-Diener, 2009; also Uusiautti & Määttä, 2015)—research that aim at positive influence (see also Beveridge, 2005; Seligman, 2009). In addition to its positive purposes, caring research can be defined as a positivelyperceived research process constituting of supportive and trustful interaction and 4

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relationships, illustrating positive organizational behaviors (e.g., Luthans, 2002; Rego, Ribeiro, Pina, & Jesuino, 2011; Uusiautti & Määttä, 2013a). These dimensions will be defined next. Dimensions of Caring Research What is caring research, then? It is possible to understand the concept as follows: (1) caring research as research aiming at promoting well-being and (2) caring research as research work manifested by mutual support, encouragement, and collaboration between researchers. The former focuses on themes promoting a good quality of life and well-being. This kind of research is interested in, for example, discovering elements of reciprocal care and help among human beings, structures of positive development, and opportunities to use human strengths and draws from positive resources, as well as the bases of flourishing communities and societies. However, as the latter element suggests, caring research is not just about caring about the research target. As we see it, caring research is conducted by researchers who share the interest in and enthusiasm about positive influencing and mutual care. Thus, caring research appears as the joy and opportunity to do research together in an open and supportive academic environment. Caring research comes true in respectful collaboration between researchers, supervisors, students, and other experts at every phase of research work. When the aforementioned two viewpoints are put together, the caring research approach covers all aspects of a research process. Next, we will discuss in detail what these dimensions of caring research entail. We will present examples of caring research themes as well as of caring research community. CARING RESEARCH THEMES

Caring research wants to promote the well-being of people and communities. This interest can be further discussed as several research themes. Next, some important well-being-focused themes are discussed, such as resources in the human lifespan and positive development, positive emotions as the source of well-being, wellbeing after crises and adversities, as well as resources in work and professional development, and organizational well-being. The following themes are based on our studies and interests in the field of positive psychological research. Resources as the Foundation of Positive Development and Achievements Lifespans of people who could be considered positive examples from whom we could learn and benefit others (e.g., Magnusson & Mahoney, 2006). It is, therefore, relevant to analyze whether the lifespans of positively acting people differ from those of others, and, if they do, to find out how (Uusiautti & Määttä, 2015). This kind of research pursues determine the elements of positive development along human beings’ lifespans. 5

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For example, child research can be defined (see Uusiautti & Määttä, 2013b) as research about, with, and by children (see Alderson, 2001; Mayall, 2008), and especially, for children (Prout, 2005). Questions of how to enhance children’s growth and development, and for example, their discovery and use of signature strengths (Seligman, 2011) illustrate approaches in which researchers’ interests are in positively-focused research for children. Actually, the need for such research is recognized and well-justified: according to Seligman (2009), it would function not only as a buffer against malaise and depression but also increase life satisfaction and well-being, promote learning quality, academic success, and creative thinking, enhance the emergence of supportive adult-child and peer relationships, and increase tolerance of diversity (see also Huebner et al., 2009; Schreiner, Hulme, Hetzel, & Lopez, 2009; Webster-Stratton & Reid, 2004). This approach as caring research and well-being promoting research is to study how people can reach achievements and succeed by using positive resources. Some examples of positive strategies and courses of lives in individuals are introduced by studies about straight-A students’ lives (Salmela & Uusiautti, 2013), female leaders’ career developments (Hyvärinen, Uusiautti, & Määttä, 2015), long-lasting marriages (Määttä, Anglé, & Uusiautti, 2014), awarded top workers’ lifespans (Uusiautti, 2008; Uusiautti & Määttä, 2015), and in lifelong learning (Purtilo-Nieminen & Määttä, 2011). Positive Emotions as the Source of Well-being Positive emotions also make an important research theme and connect caring research with well-being. “Moods and emotions, which together are labeled affect, represent people’s on-line evaluations of the events that occur in their lives” (Diener et al., 1999, p. 277). For example, Fredrickson’s (2001) broaden-and-build model of positive emotions explains why the propensity to experience positive emotions has evolved into a ubiquitous feature of human nature and how positive emotions might be tapped to promote individual and collective well-being and health. According to Isen (2003; see also Isen & Reeve, 2006), positive feelings sustain intrinsic motivation and help with successfully performing pleasing work tasks and new challenges as well as enjoying them. Positive emotions serve as markers of flourishing or optimal well-being (Fredrickson, 2001), and research on experiences can be useful for measuring well-being (Kahneman & Krueger, 2006; Kahneman et al., 2004). In educational contexts, joy of learning (see, e.g., Lähteenmäki, 2013; Rantala & Määttä, 2011) has been a topical research theme. Similarly, in Finland (Keskitalo, Uusiautti, & Määttä, 2013; Uusiautti & Määttä, 2014) and abroad (e.g., Craven & Bodkin-Andrews, 2006; Purdie et al., 2000; Sandage, Seminary, Hill, & Vang, 2003) positive psychological approaches have been used for finding means to enhance indigenous peoples’ well-being and flourishing. Our perspective is bound to educational and psychological research paradigms. However, we believe that 6

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whatever the paradigm, genuine aspirations to conduct ethically sustainable and positively-toned research naturally aim at benefitting the research target or phenomenon. Well-being after Crises and Adversities Caring research does not close eyes from difficulties, hardships, or crises. Instead, it is relevant to study how people can overcome these kinds of challenging situations and crises and what the role of positive strategies and strengths are in these events and processes (see e.g., Ryff & Singer, 2003). Special topics can be named with quite a wide range: surviving with various states such as anorexia (Savukoski, Määttä, & Uusiautti, 2014), narcolepsy (Karjalainen, Nyrhilä, Määttä, & Uusiautti, 2013), or other illnesses and health problems (e.g., Aspinwall & Tedeschi, 2010; Tugade, Fredrickson, & Feldman Barrett, 2004); surviving with various developmental disorders, such as autism (Kangas, Uusiautti, & Määttä, 2012) or reading difficulties (Vanninen & Määttä, 2013); and surviving with various events and situations in life, such as bullying at school (Hoisko, Uusiautti, & Määttä, 2014), grief and death (e.g., Bosticco & Thompson, 2005; Stein, Trabasso, Folkman, & Richards, 1997), war (e.g., Ai, Tice, Whitsett, Ishisaka, & Chim, 2007; Hobfoll et al., 1991), and crimes (Davis, Hoffman, & Quigley, 1988; Jiang & Winfree, 2006; Äärelä, Uusiautti, & Määttä, 2014). Organizational Well-being and Professional Development Work forms a major part of most people’s daily lives, and therefore, it is important to study flourishing at work and opportunities to develop professionally so that work could become a source of satisfaction and self-fulfillment in life. Examples of such positive studies related to work are analyses of awarded Finnish top workers and their positive development (Uusiautti, 2008) and the success of enterprises (Uusiautti, 2015) as well as continuing education among the unemployed (PietiläLitendahl & Uusiautti, 2014). We have also studied the professional development of vocational teachers (Koski-Heikkinen, Määttä, & Uusiautti, 2014), early childhood education teachers (Happo, Määttä, & Uusiautti, 2012), elementary education teachers (Uusiautti & Määttä, 2013c, 2013d), and special education teachers (Lakkala, Uusiautti, & Määttä, 2014; Sipilä & Määttä, 2011). At an institutional level, it is equally important to study how institutions can enhance human beings’ positive behaviors and development, and well-being by caring. Organizational psychological constructs can either increase or impede the experiences of positive emotions and subjective well-being (e.g., Diener, Oishi, & Lucas, 2009). Numerous studies focus on finding out positive organizational behaviors, leadership processes, and well-being promoting activities and work arrangements (e.g., Bakker & Schaufeli, 2008; Luthans, Avolio, Avey, & Norman, 2007; Syväjärvi et al., 2014; Uusiautti, 2013). 7

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A CARING RESEARCH COMMUNITY

The second viewpoint to caring research is related to the conductors of the research and to the research community. There are many ways of approaching this issue. Psycho-Social Dimensions of Research Work and Community Turner, Barling, and Zacharatos (2002) illustrated the psycho-social elements of a work community with a theory called “the Healthy Work Model” (HWM). Healthy work systems require good external environments and develop strategies for good work practices (e.g., autonomy, teamwork, and leadership) that enhance positive psychological processes and other mechanisms (e.g., trust, perceived control, and organizational commitment) in order to increase healthy outcomes (e.g., well-being and proactivity). Likewise, according to Rego et al. (2011), fostering organizational virtuousness (e.g., through honesty, interpersonal respect, and compassion) improves workers’ affective well-being and promotes a more committed workforce. When considering caring research, it is, however, worth noticing that while research work per se can be the most motivating and satisfying, the work environment includes numerous agents and elements that need to be considered (see e.g., Houston, Meyer, & Paewai, 2006; Winter & Sarros, 2002). The caring research approach can, thus, be identified within the research on positive organizational behavior (POB) (see Luthans, 2002; Youssef & Luthans, 2007). Luthans (2002) defines POB as “the study and application of positively oriented human resource strengths and psychological capacities that can be measured, developed, and effectively managed for performance improvement in today’s workplace” (p. 59). Collaboration among Researchers The support and encouragement from colleagues can be of irreplaceable value not only for a worker’s own success and well-being at work, but also for the well-being and success of the whole work unit or work community. However, an academic community does not always represent such a positive work environment as described above. Competition, self-interest, and belittling of other’s achievements lead to hostile academic work environment and suspiciousness between researchers (see e.g., Kramer, 1999). It is difficult to build co-operation between the research staff when the situation has already gotten out of hand and mistrust is the dominating attribute of the community. Ferres, Connell, and Travaglione (2004) point out, how at its best, working together, helping each other, and pursuing shared goals can provide researchers’ with a sense of meaning that we referred to already in the introduction of this chapter. Perceived meaningfulness covers positive outcomes in one’s own and co-workers’ well-being (Liu, Siu, & Shi, 2010). Perceiving this positive outcome can act as a 8

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significant component of common good and well-being alongside the positive achievements in research work. Indeed, perceived meaningfulness is connected with a sense of meaningful doing, often manifested as flow that is an autotelic experience, total feeling of becoming absorbed by one’s doing and that contributes to one’s perception of satisfaction with life (Csikszentmihalyi, 2008). Positive Atmosphere in Research Teams There are numerous studies that discuss ways to alleviate the tense atmosphere in workplaces. The caring research approach draws from the positive. For example, Kinjerski and Skrypnek (2006) have listed factors that are associated with individuals’ experiences of spirit at work. Factors vary from inspiring and supportive leadership practices to shared vision and purpose as well as an intention to contribute to the overall good of society, and from positive workplace culture to positive connections between all members and a sense of community in the organization, not forgetting opportunities for members to pursue professional and personal growth and to fulfill their own personal mission through work, and appreciation and regard for the contributions made by its members (Kinjerski & Skrypnek, 2006, pp. 290–291). According to the study by Winter and Sarros (2002) in Australian universities, an academic work environment is motivating when roles are clear, job tasks are challenging, and supervisors exhibit a supportive leadership style. They suggest that in universities, “a crucial leadership challenge for heads of departments is to assign job tasks efficiently and effectively (managerial values) while recognising and maintaining the importance of professional job growth and collegial relations (academic values)” (Winter & Sarros, 2002, p. 255) and conclude that “[b]y demonstrating support for staff motivation, leaders can establish a context whereby academics feel more inclined to help the university reach its goals” (Winter & Sarros, 2002, p. 256). According to several studies (see, e.g., Egan et al., 2009; Kezar & Kinzie, 2006; Mayya & Roff, 2004), good and supportive atmosphere makes research work seem meaningful and inspiring. Writing and Publishing Together According to Kramer (1999), mutual trust has a number of important benefits for organizations and their members, and this applies to the academic communities as well. A good practical example of the open-minded collaboration in the sense of caring research is writing and publishing together with colleagues about one’s own or the team’s joint research and related findings (see also Uusiautti, 2014). In the field of educational sciences, research work often represents itself downright a one-man-effort, working alone in a researcher’s chamber with a laptop as the only company. Writing research articles tends to follow this pattern of lonely toil; the mistrust between researcher colleagues and fear of someone stealing your ideas being not the least of worries inhibiting collaboration (cf. e.g., Kramer, 1999; McAllister, 9

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1995). However, co-writing can be very beneficial. First, your own analyses and conclusions can become more profound than if you were writing along. Overall, having a trustworthy colleague read your text is beneficial. Within a team, you can find possibilities in your data that can lead to true innovations, new concepts, theories, and illustrations, or even new fields. Likewise, teamwork can ease the pain of working with the paper after getting reviews; sharing the work makes the work seem lighter. It is also wise to reflect on the reviewers’ comments and their aptness with your co-authors: the criticism may not be that crushing when you do not have to wonder them by yourself. Finally, if and when the paper becomes accepted, the joy becomes doubled when writing in team. Happy events are experienced more positively with other people (Seligman, 2011) due to human beings’ social nature (Bercheid, 2003). Supervision Changes in the university education also necessitate special attention to the training of PhD students (Enders, 2005). Caring supervision is important both in doctoral research and post-doctoral research. Frank Pajares claimed already in 2001 that construct drawn from positive psychology can well explain student achievement and overall positive self-confidence and optimism: he also pointed out that “such students are more likely to regard themselves and to show regard to others” (Pajares, 2001, p. 34). According to Kezar and Kinzie (2006), quality begins with an organizational culture that values high expectations and shows respect for diverse learning styles, and where instruction builds in active learning, assessment and prompt feedback, collaboration, adequate time on task, and out of class contact with faculty. University-level studies are demanding and students need special support and guidance (Egan et al., 2009). In her studies on the supervision of doctoral theses, Määttä (2012) represented that the supervisor’s resources can be divided into four dimensions of Will, Knowledge, Actions, and Proficiency, each contributing to the supervision relationship. Will means the supervisor’s commitment to supervision, whereas knowledge refers to the substance knowledge and/or the mastery and ability to comprehend the overall structure. Actions are to ensure that the contents meet the scientific quality requirements. Proficiency comprises positive and supportive supervision methods and personality. A supervisor can emphasize different features depending on his or her own style and on the student’s work habits and needs (see Richardson, 2005). Supervision is not likely to succeed if one of the aforementioned resources is completely missing. The caring research approach covers all phases of supervision, but only if supervisors are willing to adopt the caring attitude drawing from the recognition of human strengths and well-being. Supervision can develop in the positive direction if university teachers and professors evaluate their own development as supervisors (Emilsson, 2007), reflect on and diversify supervision practices (McCallin & Nayar, 10

What is Caring Research?

2012), and plan supervision together with students to enhance their inspiration and opportunities to succeed in research (Manathunga, 2005). Based on her practical experience and research, Määttä (2012) has introduced the pedagogy of supervising doctoral thesis and pointed out that during the dissertation process, the relationship between the supervisor and the doctoral student changes and varies. A supervisor has to help a PhD student discreetly in a constructive and respective manner. How to be a critical but safe mirror for a PhD student who struggles with his or her research? Along with the research process, the ability to supervise and to be supervised becomes constantly challenged, too (Määttä, 2012). But, as the supervision relationship is reciprocal, it is also important that the PhD student thinks of thanking the supervisor for good guidance (Määttä, 2014). Mutual gratitude and appreciation are likely to increase the sense of well-being in the partners of the supervision relationship (see, e.g., Otake et al., 2006), which we argue to be one of the important factors of caring research. CARING RESEARCH IS AN ATTITUDE AND A WAY OF ACTION NEEDED IN TODAY’S RESEARCH WORK

In research, a healthy and fair competition is good and necessary for the development of science itself (e.g., as competition for research funding through evaluation of research plans), but the pressures for finding funding, publishing, and reaching achievements can turn against themselves easily. Rigorous peer-reviews, critical expert evaluations, and strict funding application processes cannot mean that they have to be devastating, embarrassing, and partial—quite the opposite (Uusiautti, 2015). There are, for example, certain ethical rules that Benos et al. (2003) call “the etiquette of review” that every scientific referee, regardless of academic discipline, must strictly follow (see in detail Chapter 8 in this book). The academic community should follow these principles more widely in research collaboration, not just regarding reviews of article manuscripts. Caring research is, therefore, about mutual respect and positive elements in researcher interaction, such as honesty, trustworthiness, confidentiality, and constructiveness that are not only connected with better relationships at the work unit and higher engagement, but also with highquality work outcomes (see Ferres, Connell, & Travaglione, 2004; Schofield, 1998; Uusiautti & Määttä, 2015), high-quality research in this case. This leads us to the conclusion of how the caring research approach affects the quality of research. Caring research does not adopt any particular methodology or data collection technique, but critically questions and reflects on all aspects of the research process (cf. also Darbyshire, MacDougall, & Schillerp, 2005), including research ethics (e.g., Knapp & Vande-Creek, 2006). We suggest that researchers should develop a set of strategic values that guide their decision and action as researchers (see also Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2003). It is necessary to contemplate how to find suitable ethical working methods for the research. There is not just one

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exact answer to this question: all depends on the research context, target, and select method (Creswell, 2009). Naturally, the authors’ viewpoint is based on research work in educational and behavioral sciences, and especially, in positive psychology. This orientation has influenced the way the concept of caring research is discussed here. However, it has also provided a very important approach to view research in general, namely the one seeing research as an arena of caring, flourishing, cooperation, and well-being. Eventually, caring research is merely about an attitude that one adopts when acting as a part of the academic community than any approach typical of one specific field of research. The conclusion is that caring research means profoundly quality research because this approach covers not only the research work targeted to investigate a phenomenon or target, but also the wider context where the research is conducted, especially referring to the well-being producing potential that lies in the collaboration between researchers (including students and supervisors)—if only we are brave enough to trust each other and indulge in the joy of doing research together. This idea is based on the finding that positive experiences about one’s own doing make for one of the most central dimensions of good performance (Uusiautti & Määttä, 2015; see also Liden, Wayne, & Sparrowe, 2000). Thus, caring research does not shun achievements, competition, or struggle, but reminds the academic community of the possibilities of positive collaboration (see also Achor, 2010; Myers & Diener, 1995). Indeed, Quick (1999) has also pointed out the connection between feeling good and high performance, and their contribution to high levels of well-being. At its best, caring research can become a means to find well-being and to increase well-being through research. REFERENCES Äärelä, T., Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, K. (2014). Young prisoners’ experiences of the positive factors of small group teaching during their basic education – toward the pedagogy of preventing social exclusion. Journal of Studies in Education, 4(4), 45–67. doi:10.5296/jse.v4i4.6452 Achor, S. (2010). The happiness advantage. The seven principles of positive psychology that fuel success and performance at work. New York, NY: Crown Business. Ai, A. L., Tice, T. N., Whitsett, D. D., Ishisaka, T., & Chim, M. (2007). Posttraumatic symptoms and growth of Kosovar war refugees: The influence of hope and cognitive coping. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2(1), 55–65. doi:10.1080/17439760601069341 Alderson, P. (2001). Research by children: Rights and methods. International Journal of Social Research Methodology: Theory and Practice, 4(2), 139–153. Aspinwall, L. G., & Tedeschi, R. G. (2010). The value of positive psychology for health psychology: Progress and pitfalls in examining the relation of positive phenomena to health. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 39(1), 4–15. doi:10.1007/s12160-009-9153-0 Bakker, A. B., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2008). Positive organizational behavior: Engaged employees in flourishing organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 29(2), 147–154. doi:10.1002/job.515 Benos, D. J., Kirk, K. L., & Hall, J. E. (2003). How to review a paper? Advances in Physiology Education, 27(2), 47–52. doi:10.1152/advan.00057.2002 Bercheid, E. (2003). The human’s greatest strength: Other humans. In L. G. Aspinwall & U. M. Staudinger (Eds.), The psychology of human strengths. Fundamental questions and future directions for a positive psychology (pp. 37–48). Washington, DC: APA.

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What is Caring Research? Beveridge, S. (2005). Children, families and schools. Developing partnerships for inclusive education. New York, NY: RoutledgeFalmer. Bosticco, C., & Thompson, T. L. (2005). Narratives and story-telling in coping with grief and bereavement. OMEGA Journal of Death and Dying, 51(1), 1–16. doi:10.2190/8TNX-LEBY-5EJY-B0H6 Cohn, M. A., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2010). In search of durable positive psychology interventions: Predictors and consequences of long-term positive behavior change. The Journal of Positive Psychology: Dedicated to furthering research and promoting good practice, 5(5), 355–366. doi:10.1080/17439760.2010.508883 Craven, R. G., & Bodkin-Andrews, G. (2006). New solutions for addressing indigenous mental health: A call to counsellors to introduce the new positive psychology of success. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 16(1), 41–54. doi:10.1375/ajgc.16.1.41 Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design. Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2008). Flow. The psychology of optimal experience. New York, NY: HarperPerennial. Darbyshire, P., MacDougall, C., & Schiller, W. (2005). Multiple methods in qualitative research with children: More insight or just more? Qualitative Research, 5(4), 417–436. doi:10.1177/1468794105056921 Davis, G. L., Hoffman, R. G., & Quigley, R. (1988). Self-concept change and positive peer culture in adjudicated delinquents. Child and Youth Care Quarterly, 17(3), 137–145. doi:10.1007/BF01083856 Diener, E. (Ed.). (2009). The science of well-being. New York, NY: Springer. Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2009). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and life  satisfaction. In S. J. Lopez & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology (pp. 187–194). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125(2), 276–302. Egan, R., Stockley, D., Brouwer, B., Tripp, D., & Stechyson, N. (2009). Relationships between area of academic concentration, supervisory style, student needs and best practices. Studies in Higher Education, 34(3), 337–345. doi:10.1080/03075070802597143 Emilsson, U. M. (2007). Supervision of supervisors: On developing supervision in postgraduate education. Higher Education Research and Development, 26(2), 163–179. doi:10.1080/07294360701310797 Enders, J. (2005). Border crossings: Research training, knowledge dissemination and the transformation of academic work. Higher Education, 49(1/2), 119–133. doi:10.1007/s10734-004-2917-3 Ferres, N., Connell, J., & Travaglione, A. (2004). Co-worker trust as a social catalyst for constructive employee attitudes. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 19(6), 608–622. doi:10.1108/ 02683940410551516 Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-andbuild theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226. doi:10.1037/0003066X.56.3.218 Gable, S., & Haidt, J. (2005). What (and why) is positive psychology? Review of General Psychology, 9, 103–110. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.103 Happo, I., Määttä, K., & Uusiautti, S. (2012). Experts or good educators – or both? The development of early childhood expertise in Finland. Early Childhood Development and Care, 182(3–4), 487–504. doi:10.1080/03004430.2011.646719 Hobfoll, S. E., Spielberger, C. D., Breznitz, S., Figley, C., Folkman, S., Lepper-Green, B., Meichenbaum, D., Milgram, N. A., Sandler, I., Sarason, I., & van der Kolk, B. (1991). War-related stress: Addressing the stress of war and other traumatic events. American Psychologist, 46(8), 848–855. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.46.8.848 Hoisko, S., Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, K. (2014). How to overcome bullying at school? In K. Määttä & S. Uusiautti (Eds.), Time for health education (pp. 101–114). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Houston, D., Meyer, L. H., & Paewai, S. (2006). Academic staff workloads and job satisfaction: Expectations and values in academe. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 28(1), 17–30. doi:10.1080/13600800500283734

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K. määttä & s. uusiautti Huebner, E. S., Gilman, R., Reschly, A. L., & Hall, R. (2009). Positive schools. In S. J. Lopez & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of positive psychology (pp. 561–568, 2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hyvärinen, S., Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, K. (2015). From a novice to an expert. Finnish female leaders’ eventful career developments. Journal of Studies in Education, 5(1), 1–26. doi:10.5296/jse.v5i1.6756 Isen, A. M. (2003). Positive affect as a source of human strength. In L. G. Aspinwall & U. M. Staudinger (Eds.), A psychology of human strengths. Fundamental questions and future directions for a positive psychology (pp. 179–196). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Isen, A. M., & Reeve, J. (2006). The influence of positive affect on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: Facilitating enjoyment of play, responsible work behavior, and self-control. Motivation and Emotion, 29, 297–325. Jiang, S., & Winfree, L. T. (2006). Social support, gender, and inmate adjustment to prison life insights from a national sample. The Prison Journal, 86(1), 32–55. doi:10.1177/0032885505283876 Kahneman, D., & Krueger, A. B. (2006). Developments in the measurement of subjective well-being. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20(1), 3–24. doi:10.1257/089533006776526030 Kahneman, D., Krueger, A. B., Schkade, D. A., Schwarz, N., & Stone, A. A. (2004). A survey method for characterizing daily life experience: The day reconstruction method. Science, 306(5702), 1776–1780. doi:10.1126/science.1103572 Kangas, S., Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, K. (2012). Social interaction among children with ASD. International Journal of Early Childhood Special Education, 3(2), 160–174. Karjalainen, S., Nyrhilä, A.-M., Määttä, K., & Uusiautti, S. (2013). Going to school with narcolepsy – Perceptions of families and teachers of children with narcolepsy. Early Child Development and Care, 184(6), 869–881. doi:10.1080/03004430.2013.821984 Keskitalo, P., Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, K. (2013). How to make the small indigenous cultures bloom? Special traits of Sámi education in Finland. Current Issues in Comparative Education, 15(1), 52–62. Kezar, A. J., & Kinzie, J. L. (2006). Examining the ways institutions create student engagement: The role of mission. Journal of College Student Development, 47(2), 149–172. doi:10.1353/csd.2006.0018 Kinjerski, V., & Skrypnek, B. J. (2006). Creating organizational conditions that foster employee spirit at work. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 27(4), 280–295. doi:10.1108/ 01437730610666037 Knapp, S. J., & VandeCreek, L. (2006). Practical ethics for psychologists: A positive approach. Washington, DC: APA. Koski-Heikkinen, A., Määttä, K., & Uusiautti, S. (2014). The birth and development of vocational education teachers’ (VET) professional identity. International Journal of Research Studies in Education, 3(5), 446–463. Kramer, R. M. (1999). Trust and distrust in organizations: Emerging perspectives, enduring questions. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 569–598. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.569 Kubiatko, M. (2013). On the problematic of “research islands” (Part 1). Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 53, 5–6. Lähteenmäki, S. (2013). Miten elämä kantaa – narratiivinen tutkimus puhevammaisten CP-nuorten elämän tarinoista [Life carries on – Narrative research on the life stories of youth with CP and related speech disorders] (PhD Dissertation). University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland. Lakkala, S., Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, K. (2014). How to make the neigbourhood school a school for all? Finnish teachers´ perceptions of educational reform aiming toward inclusion. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 16(1), 46–56. doi:10.1111/1471-3802.12055 Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., & Sparrowe, R. T. (2000). An examination of the mediating role of psychological empowerment on the relations between the job, interpersonal relationships, and work outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(3), 407–416. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.85.3.407 Linley, A., Willars, J., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2010). The strengths book. Be confident, be successful, and enjoy better relationships by realizing the best of you. Coventry: CAPP Press. Liu, J., Siu, O. L., & Shi, K. (2010). Transformational leadership and employee well-being: The mediating role of trust in the leader and self-efficacy. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 59(3), 454–479. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2009.00407.x

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What is Caring Research? Luthans, F. (2002). Positive organizational behavior. Developing and managing psychological strengths. Academy of Management Executive, 16(1), 57–72. Luthans, F., Avolio, B. J., Avey, J. B., & Norman, S. M. (2007). Positive psychological capital: Measurement and relationship with performance and satisfaction. Personnel Psychology, 60(3), 541–572. Määttä, K. (2012). The pedagogy of supervising doctoral theses. In K. Määttä (Ed.), Obsessed with the doctoral theses. Supervision and support in the phases of dissertation process (pp. 143–160). Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers. Määttä, K. (2014). Välittävä ohjaus väitöskirjatyössä [Caring supervision of doctoral thesis]. In K. Määttä & S. Uusiautti (Eds.), Voimaa välittävästä tutkimuksesta. Kasvatusalan konferenssi 6.-7.10.2014 [Strength from caring research. Educational Conference 6–7 Oct 2014] (pp. 9–20). Rovaniemi: University of Lapland. Määttä, K., Anglé, J., & Uusiautti, S. (2014). How to have a long-lasting multicultural marriage? Introducing the accumulation theory of multicultural romantic relationships. Journal of Social Sciences (COES&RJ-JSS), 3(3), 381–398. Määttä, K., Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, M. (2014). A story of an ideal study process at the University of Lapland, Finland. Global Journal of Human Social Science, 14(1), 83–89. Magnusson, D., & Mahoney, J. L. (2006). Holistinen lähestymistapa myönteisen kehityksen tutkimuksessa [Holistic approach in research of positive development]. In L. G. Aspinwall & U. M. Staudinger (Eds.), Ihmisen vahvuuksien psykologia [A psychology of human strengths] (pp. 232–250). Helsinki: Edita. Manathunga, C. (2005). The development of research supervision: “Turning the light on a private space”. International Journal of Academic Development, 10(1), 17–30. doi:10.1080/13601440500099977 Mayall, B. (2008). Conversations with children. Working with generational issues. In P. Christensen & A. James (Eds.), Research with children: Perspectives and practices (pp. 109–122). New York, NY: Routledge. Mayya, S. S., & Roff, S. (2004). Students’ perceptions of educational environment. Education for Health, 17(3), 280–291. doi:10.1080/13576280400002445 McAllister, D. J. (1995). Affect- and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 38(1), 24–59. McCallin, A., & Nayar, S. (2012). Postgraduate research supervision: A critical review of current practice. Teaching in Higher Education, 17(1), 63–74. doi:10.1080/13562517.2011.590979 Myers, D. G., & Diener, E. (1995). Who is happy? Psychological Science, 6(1), 10–19. Otake, K., Shimai, S., Tanaka-Matsumi, J., Otsui, K., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2006). Happy people become happier through kindness: A counting kindnesses intervention. Journal of Happiness Studies, 7(3), 361–375. doi:10.1007/s10902-005-3650-z Pajares, F. (2001). Toward a positive psychology of academic motivation. The Journal of Educational Research, 95(1), 27–35. doi:10.1080/00220670109598780 Pietilä-Litendahl, P., & Uusiautti, S. (2014). Finding empowerment through continuing training – Spanish Women’s Perceptions. Journal of Studies in Education, 4(1), 154–171. doi:10.5296/jse.v4i1.4800 Prout, A. (2005). The future of childhood. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Purdie, N., Tripcony, P., Boulton-Lewis, G., Fanshawe, J., & Gunstone, A. (2000). Positive self–identity for indigenous students and its relationship to school outcomes. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Purtilo-Nieminen, S., & Määttä, K. (2011). Admission to university – Narratives of Finnish open university students. International Journal of Continuing Education and Lifelong Learning, 3(2), 43–55. Quick, J. C. (1999). Occupational health psychology: The convergence of health and clinical psychology with public health and preventive medicine in an organizational context. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 30, 123–128. Rantala, T., & Määttä, K. (2011). Ten thesis of the joy of learning at primary schools. Early Child Development and Care, 182(1), 87–105. doi:10.1080/03004430.2010.545124 Rego, A., Ribeiro, N., Pina, M., & Jesuino, J. C. (2011). How happiness mediates the organizational virtuousness and affective commitment relationship. Journal of Business Research, 64(5), 524–532. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2010.04.009

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K. määttä & s. uusiautti Richardson, J. T. E. (2005). Students’ approaches to learning and teachers’ approaches to teaching in higher education. Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Experimental Educational Psychology, 25(6), 673–680. doi:10.1080/01443410500344720 Roth, W. M. (2002). Editorial power/authorial suffering. Research in Science Education, 32, 215–240. Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B. (2003). Ironies of the human condition: Well-being and health on the way to mortality. In L. G. Aspinwall & U. M. Staudinger (Eds.), A psychology of human strengths. Fundamental questions and future directions for a positive psychology (pp. 271–288). Washington, DC: APA. Salmela, M., & Uusiautti, S. (2013). Finnish straight-A graduates’ perceptions of the smoothness of their study paths. Journal of Studies in Education, 3(4), 21–41. doi:10.5296/jse.v3i4.4270 Sandage, S. J., Seminary, B., Hill, P. C., & Vang, H. C. (2003). Toward a multicultural positive psychology: Indigenous forgiveness and Hmong culture. The Counseling Psychologist, 31(5), 564–592. doi:10.1177/0011000003256350 Savukoski, M., Määttä, K., & Uusiautti, S. (2014). How to use positive psychology to beat anorexia? In K. Määttä & S. Uusiautti (Eds.), Time for health education (pp. 85–100). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Schofield, P. (1998). It’s true: Happy workers are more productive. Works Management, 51(12), 33–35. Schreiner, L. A., Hulme, E., Hetzel, R., & Lopez, S. J. (2009). Positive psychology on campus. In S.  J.  Lopez & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of positive psychology (pp. 569–578). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seligman, M. E. P. (2009). Positive education: Positive psychology and classroom interventions. Oxford Review of Education, 35(3), 293–311. doi:10.1080/03051980902934563 Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish. A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. New York, NY: FreePress. Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress. Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60(5), 410–421. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410 Sipilä, A. K., & Määttä, K. (2011). Can facilitated communication method support autistic people according to the facilitators’ opinions? Psychology of Language and Communication, 15(1), 1–26. doi:10.2478/v10057-011-0001-5 Stein, N., Trabasso, T., Folkman, S., & Richards, R. A. (1997). Appraisal and goal processes as predictors of psychological well-being in bereaved caregivers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 872–884. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.4.872 Syväjärvi, A., Uusiautti, S., Perttula J., Stenvall, J., & Määttä, K. (2014). The reification of caring leadership in knowledge organization. Research Journal of Organizational Psychology and Education Studies, 3(2), 83–105. Teddlie, C., & Tashakkori, A. (2003). Major issues and controversies in the use of mixed methods in the social and behavioral sciences. In A. Tashakkori & C. Teddlie (Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods in social & behavioral research (pp. 3–50). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Tenopir, C., Mays, R., & Wu, L. (2011). Journal article growth and reading patterns. New Review of Information Networking, 16(1), 4–22. doi:10.1080/13614576.2011.566796 Tugade, M. M., Fredrickson, B. L., & Feldman Barrett, L. (2004). Psychological resilience and positive emotional granularity: Examining the benefits of positive emotions on coping and health. Journal of Personality, 72(6), 1161–1190. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2004.00294.x Turner, N., Barling, J., & Zacharatos, A. (2002). Positive psychology at work. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 715–728). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Uusiautti, S. (2008). “Tänään teen elämäni parhaan työn.” Työmenestys Vuoden Työntekijöiden kertomana (PhD Dissertation). University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland. Uusiautti, S. (2013). An action-oriented perspective on caring leadership: A qualitative study of higher education administrators’ positive leadership experiences. International Journal of Leadership in Education: Theory and Practice, 16(4), 482–496. doi:10.1080/13603124.2013.770077 Uusiautti, S. (2014). Tiedejulkaiseminen voiman ja välittämisen näyttämönä [Scientific publication, the scene of power and caring]. In K. Määttä & S. Uusiautti (Eds.), Voimaa välittävästä tutkimuksesta [Strength from caring research] (pp. 45–54). Rovaniemi: University of Lapland.

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What is Caring Research? Uusiautti, S. (2015). Menestyvä ja hyvinvoiva yritys positiivisen psykologian valossa. Yritysjohdon ja työntekijöiden käsityksiä menestyksestä [A successful enterprise showing well-being in the light of positive psychology. Leaders’ and employees’ perception of success]. Helsinki: BoD. Uusiautti, S. (2015). The pressure of academic publishing. In S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä (Eds.), Critical eye on education (pp. 79–96). Tallinn: United Press Global. Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, K. (2013a). Does success at work produce well-being and happiness or vice versa? The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Organizational Studies, 7(3), 11–25. Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, K. (Eds.). (2013b). How to study children? Methodological solutions of childhood research. Rovaniemi: Lapland University Press. Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, K. (2013c). How to train good teachers in Finnish universities? Student teachers’ study process and teacher educators’ role in it. European Journal of Educational Research, 1(4), 339–352. Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, K. (2013d). Significant trends in the development of Finnish teacher training from the 1860s to 2010. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 21(59), 1–19. Uusiautti S., & Määttä, K. (2014). Alkuperäiskansan vahvuuksista menestymiseen – positiivisen psykologian näkökulmia saamelaisopetukseen [From the indigenous people’s stregths to success – positive psychological viewpoints to Sámi education]. In P. Keskitalo, S. Uusiautti, E. Sarivaara, & K. Määttä (Eds.), Saamelaispedagogiikan ydinkysymysten äärellä [Core questions of the Sámi pedagogy] (pp. 137–156). Rovaniemi: Lapland University Press. Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, K. (2015). The psychology of becoming a successful worker. Research on the changing nature of achievement at work. New York, NY: Routledge. Vanninen, P., & Määttä, K. (2013). Secondary education students with reading disability – findings from two remedial training experiments. Studies for the Learning Society, 3(1–2). doi:10-2478/sls-20130003 Webster-Stratton, C., & Reid, M. J. (2004). Strengthening social and emotional competence in young children—The foundation for early school readiness and success. Infants and Young Children, 17(2), 96–113. Winter, R., & Sarros, J. (2002). The academic work environment in Australian universities: A motivating place to work? Higher Education Research & Development, 21(3), 241–258. doi:10.1080/0729436022000020751 Youssef, C. M., & Luthans, F. (2007). Positive organizational behavior in the workplace: The impact of hope, optimism, and resilience. Journal of Management, 33(5), 774–800. doi:10.1177/ 0149206307305562

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Kaarina Määttä, PhD, works as a professor of educational psychology and a vicerector at the University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland. Her research interests include caring teacherhood and teacher training, the pedagogy of supervision of doctoral theses, love and human relationships as well as positive psychology and human resources. Her latest publications include Obsessed with Doctoral Theses (K. Määttä, Ed., Sense Publishers, Rotterdam, 2012) and Early Child Education and Care in Finland (K. Määttä & S. Uusiautti, Eds., Routledge, New York, 2013). Satu Uusiautti, PhD, works as an associate professor of education at the University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland, and is an adjunct professor of educational psychology at the University of Helsinki, Finland. Her research interests include success at work and in various areas of life, positive development and positive educational

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psychology as well as human flourishing and strengths. Her latest publications include, for example, The Psychology of Becoming a Successful Worker. Research on the Changing Nature of Achievement at Work (S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä, Routledge, New York, 2015) and Critical Eye on Education (S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä, Eds., United Press Global, Tallinn, 2015).

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PART 2 POSITIVE RESOURCES AS THE FOUNDATION OF CARING RESEARCH AND WELL-BEING

TAINA RANTALA, SATU UUSIAUTTI AND KAARINA MÄÄTTÄ

2. TEACHING CHILDREN WITH JOY

ABSTRACT

What has joy have to do with teaching and learning? This chapter reviews the concept of joy of learning. The purpose is to discuss the emergence of joy in learning situations and teachers’ opportunities to create a learning atmosphere in which joy is present. As the conclusion, pupils’ self-directed learning and teachers’ self-esteem are considered the key factors of learning and well-being in pupils in numerous ways. Keywords: joy, joy of learning, learning, teaching, self-directed learning The importance of joy to learning is a well-established notion. In Finland, Haavio (1954) has analyzed the relationship between joyfulness and learning from a historical perspective because already Augustine emphasized the significance of joyful teaching “God loves a joyful teacher” and “let us all teach with joy” in his historical analysis of the relationship between joyfulness and learning. Although, for example, the recent results from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) have shown the excellence of the Finnish school system and teacher training (Lavonen & Laaksonen, 2009), the fact that pupils do not enjoy being at school has aroused concern in Finland already for two decades (Ahonen, 2005). As Finnish educationalists, we are concerned about this phenomenon and probably share the concern with our international colleagues as well; pupils’ maladjustment is not just Finland’s problem (e.g., Hargreaves et al., 2009; Kashdan & Yuen, 2007). On the other hand, emotions, contentment, and experiences of joy at school are topical research themes in Finland (Juurikkala, 2008; Korpinen, 2007a, 2007b) and abroad (Black, 2008; Melanson, 2007). This chapter reviews viewpoints to joy in schooling. It leans on a study on emotions at school, the joy of learning as the main concept (Rantala, 2005). Furthermore, we wanted to contribute the teacher-researcher’s voice in the educational discourse to support those ordinary teachers who does not get their voices heard easily (e.g., Malin, 2003). How to find joy from the classroom based on the idea that one of the features of good teacher hood is optimism (see also Huebner et al., 2009; Määttä & Uusiautti, 2012)? In order to be able to teach with joy—as presented, for example, by Haavio (1954)—the teacher has to have courage, boldness, self-esteem, and selfknowledge (Uusiautti & Määttä, 2013).

S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä (Eds.), The Basics of Caring Research, 21–31. © 2016 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

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The purpose of this chapter is to illustrate the manifestation of joy of learning through select viewpoints: Self-directed learning can be seen as the core of active joy to possibly emerge (Rantala, 2005). However, self-directed learning environment in classroom requires something from the teacher too. The teacher’s self-esteem is always related with educational optimism which lays the foundation for the respect the teacher expresses toward pupils. Educational optimism and good self-esteem are a teacher’s tools for achieving learning goals. The teacher can influence this process with his or her action and, first and foremost, with positive and encouraging interaction. The core factor of a teacher’s work is strong self-esteem. Teachers who genuinely use their personality at work enable authentic interaction and can provide personalized support for pupils. As the classroom forms a social learning environment, a teacher who has a positive self-image can create encouraging atmosphere in the classroom (Korpinen, 1996; Määttä & Uusiautti, 2012). Joy and self-esteem go hand in hand; this will be discussed in detail in the Conclusion. JOY BRINGS ORDER IN LIFE

Already Aristotle emphasized that all human action pursue the experience of joy (Aristotle, 1981). Indeed, joy represents the prototype of the family of positive emotions that has been studied and analyzed increasingly (e.g., Isen, 2001, 2003). The philosopher of joy, Spinoza, regards joy and sorrow as the basis of all feelings (Spinoza, 1677/1994). Spinoza considers joy as the transition toward greater perfection. Joy appears as self-appreciation, hope, trust, recognition, and peace of mind (see also Csikszentmihalyi, 2008). The most important form of joy is, however, active joy that is significantly related to voluntary action and active thinking (Pietarinen, 2001). Despite all fancy dreams of youth, fame, and richness, the core of these dreams is that we want them to make us happy and joyful. It is notable that materialistic wellbeing and national equilibrium do not automatically increase joy unlike one would first think (see Polak & McCullough, 2006; Twenge, 2006). In the midst of among tragedies and chaos, people more often define themselves happy rather than sad because joy can also be used as defense1 (Varila & Viholainen, 2000). Joy can be defined as a positive basic emotion. Positive emotions are the basis of order and well-being (Isokorpi & Viitanen, 2001; Varila & Viholainen, 2000). Happiness, joy, and contentment create harmony and order, and provide strength to encounter other people (Isokorpi & Viitanen, 2001). JOYFUL PERSONALITY

Joy can also be analyzed as an element of human personality, and one way of approaching the wide field of emotions has been to connect emotions with temperament and moods (Rosenberg, 1998). Keltikangas-Järvinen (2004a) defines

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temperament into innate difference that is connected with the personal way of reacting. A human being’s personality develops within the interaction between environment and innate temperament. Temperament partly explains emotional experiences, which means that personal features are significant, for example, when experiencing joy. Negative and positive emotions emerge in different situations, and various temperaments explain why people differ from each other when experiencing these emotional states. Temperament defines how people control emotions and how they adjust to different situations (Puttonen, 2004). Therefore, people differ also by their ability to experience joy. Some people have the ability, but that alone does not define what brings joy, and how and when one rejoices (Varila & Viholainen, 2000). For example, a healthy, extrovert, selfrespecting and religious human being reports more likely experiences of joy and happiness than others (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). People’s cognitive features, resources, and personality also influence on the experience of joy of work (Varila & Viholainen, 2000). While some people experience momentary joy, others perceive joy through their life choices. For some, joy means bubbling and unruly emotions whereas others appreciate calm and steady feelings of joy. Likewise, some people experience joy more easily than others. Although people differ in their experiences and expressions of joy, there are also situations that cause joy to everyone (Varila & Viholainen, 2000). THE IMPORTANCE OF JOY IN LEARNING SITUATIONS

Joy is worth courting in learning situations and at school because joy has plenty of consequences improving the quality of learning both at the individual and communal level (Seligman et al., 2009). Often it is difficult, downright impossible, to distinguish individual benefits from communal benefits; when joy affects positively someone’s learning and working, the situation has positive consequences to the whole community. Joy spreads. Joy provides strength to a learner to face and surpass difficult situations. Vitality and optimism can be produced by oneself with active reflection, which makes the experience of joy desirable to reach over and over again. Learners are likely to commit themselves to communities and learning situations that provide them with experiences of joy. Thus, joy connects learners with their learning processes and learning situations. The feeling of joy is a comprehensive and integrating emotion during which mutual, communal goals can be reached faster. Joy is a positive emotion that develops the individual person and the community as it enhances social interaction (Rantala, 2005). However, it is way too black-and-white to argue that positive emotions always enhance learning and that negative emotions always hinder learning. Negative emotions can also function as catalysts in learning situations helping the learner to focus his or her attention to the content of learning. Emotional experiences influence also remembering that can cut both ways. Because emotional experiences 23

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are important to a learner, he or she surely remembers them. In these cases, learning can be hindered if the experience includes previous unpleasant learning experiences2 (Isokorpi & Viitanen, 2001). Likewise, Csikszentmihalyi (1997) emphasizes the dualistic feature of emotions: they can be positive and charming or negative and compelling. Emotions help us make decisions that are good for us. Certain emotions can function as negative and positive factors in learning processes. For example, competitiveness is a complex problem in relation to learning: in some situations activates and maintains action but for some people it can hinder or stop action. Positive emotions are mainly beneficial for learning and act as catalysts (Csikszentmihalyi & Hunter, 2003; Hakkarainen et al., 2004; Isokorpi & Viitanen, 2001; Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002; Meyer & Turner, 2002). The importance of joy in a learning situation is the most clearly seen when the situation lacks it. AUTONOMOUS ACTION PRODUCES JOY

One feature of action that produces joy is the opportunity to act autonomously, in a self-directed manner (Knowles, 1975; see also Candy, 2004). School work is perceived meaningful and encouraging when a learner has dreams and goals toward which he or she pursues; finding tasks meaningful is crucial for the experience of joy. According to self-determination theory (SDT), people are by nature active and selfmotivated, curious and interested, vital and eager to succeed (Deci & Ryan, 2008) and therefore, self-determination is linked with the feeling of joy: performing well in meaningful tasks is personally satisfying and rewarding (see also Uusiautti, 2013). Small goals and achievements function as catalysts when proceeding toward bigger goals. Instead of singular learning projects, learning projects should be viewed as a series of consequent functions. Dividing a task into a series of subsequent functions serves the perceived meaningfulness of a learning project. This leads closer to higher-level goals because it increases the learner’s self-direction (cf. Ryan & Deci, 2000). Moreover, the harvest is not reaped at once but the meaning becomes realized in the long run (Varila & Viholainen, 2000). The proverbs such as “no pain, no gain” or “all is well that ends well” seem to be connected with the experience of joy of learning. The joy of learning is experienced at school more likely after a long-term effort (Rantala, 2005). Active joy that emerges from one’s own action can be cognitive in nature and thus joy has emerged as a result of one’s persistent effort (Csikszentmihalyi, 2008; Varila & Viholainen, 2000). Joy that results from one’s active action strengthens the sense of self-direction. Self-direction is one of the meta-cognitive processes through which the learner can direct and regulate his or her action. What matters is the series of learning projects following the emergence of a skill. The series of learning projects does not always include similar learnable skills but what is crucial is the sense of self-direction produced by the series (Varila & Viholainen, 2000). 24

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Self-direction is a criterion of good learning. Self-directed pupils participate in the planning, achieving, and evaluating of their own learning goals (Sahlberg & Leppilampi, 1994; Pintrich, 2003). The development of pupils’ self-direction can be supported with scaffolding (Bliss, Askew, & Mcrae, 1996). The term “scaffolding” relates to guidance of learning and emphasizes the guide’s role as the supporter of thinking and learning processes. The guide involves in the learning process when a pupil’s skills are not good enough to have a task performed well (Järvelä & Salovaara, 1998). Scaffolding has been studied especially in the contexts of creating modern learning environments (Chen et al., 2003; Roschelle & Pea, 1999). Scaffolding encourages the learner toward self-directed learning (Chen et al., 2003). Scaffolding allows pupils to perform a task first assisted after which they can perform it independently. According to Egberg (2003), learners’ abilities develop when they are given more and more challenging as their skills develop. Scaffolding support learners until they have sufficient skills for performing the task independently (Larkin, 2001). Then, learners have the possibility of acting at the limits of their talents, because once they have learned the strategies, they can reach the potential goals that they could not aspire without the necessary skills provided by guidance. However, the goal must be reachable (Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Actually, the concept of self-directed learning is usually connected with adult education (Merriam, 2001; Varila & Viholainen, 2000). Still, self-direction is a feature that develops and that can be learned. Therefore, the concept of self-direction and self-directed learning must be considered already in elementary education. Other pupils are more self-directed than others, which means that teachers have to notice various needs for guidance in various pupils (Järvelä & Salovaara, 1998). Varila and Viholainen (2000) warn about viewing the concept of self-direction just through two opposite dimensions that define a learner either unskillful, helpless, and teachable or responsible, committed, and active with no need for a teacher’s guidance. Selfdirected learning is not learning without the teacher’s support. The opposite of selfdirected learning is a learning process directed from outside where someone else decides the goals of learning and teaching and the ways the goals can be achieved (Varila & Viholainen, 2000). In addition, Sahlberg and Leppilampi (1994) combine good and efficient learning with the concept of self-direction. Likewise, Varila and Viholainen (2000) emphasize the meaning of self-direction as the basis of active joy of work, which can be seen similar to the idea of joy of learning. Varila and Viholainen highlight the importance of independent action when discussing features of good work. Work is perceived encouraging and positive when an employee has a chance to participate in planning and evaluation of his or her work (Laubach, 2005; see also Latham & Pinder, 2005)—and this seems to concern learning, too. Although self-directed learning and self-direction are positive phenomena, self-direction must be analyzed critically. According to Varila and Viholainen (2000), the goals of a self-directed employee can resemble the employer’s goals. The old proverb says that―He who pays the 25

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piper calls the tune||. On the other hand, opportunity to participate in planning and realizing the goals increases the employee’s positive attitude and commitment, and the same phenomenon occurs in the classroom context among students as well (Rantala, 2005). Although the concept of self-direction has numerous equivalents, such as autonomous learning (e.g., Chan, 2001), contract learning (e.g., Kasworm, 1983), independent learning (e.g., Moore, 1973), inquiring method (e.g., Healey, 2005), and self-education (e.g., Cleary & Hogan, 2001), a successful learning process leads to a common outcome: self-directed learning process produces a positive emotional experience. Self-directed learning projects involve carefully-planned evaluation of goals, which means that after the learning process, it will be possible to evaluate how well the goal has been achieved (Varila & Viholainen, 2000). Csikszentmihalyi (1997, 2000) emphasizes clear goals as one of the prerequisites of flow. Goals help communal development too. Isokorpi and Viitanen (2001) view goals as positive, finished actions through which the community develops and becomes more versatile. EVERY HUMAN-BEING HAS THE NEED TO REJOICE

Because of the numerous, ambiguous concepts and researchers’ contradictory viewpoints, the history of emotion research is challenging to analyze (Rantala, 2005; Schutz & Lanehart, 2002). Despite the diverging viewpoints, emotion researchers have agreed upon the spontaneous nature and avoidance of voluntary control (Varila, 2004). People’s aspiration toward positive emotional experiences is common to the viewpoints: a negatively perceived experience directs away from a learning situation whereas a positive emotion invites to the situation. Consequently, people increase their energy in order to have more positive emotions in situations they find pleasant (Varila & Viholainen, 2000). Indeed, a human being pursues happiness more than anything and an active aspiration of the sense of well-being is natural to people. Likewise, children have an innate ability to rejoice. The feeling of joy creates a pedagogically challenging situation because it occurs alongside other activities and is not the goal of learning and teaching as such. Joy of learning is based on persevering working, and it is experienced during or after accomplishing a task. In order to experience and perceive joy, one needs skills that develop by practicing. Joy cannot be given to someone else, but everyone can produce joy. Nor is it possible to plan or schedule joy, but it occurs here and now (Varila & Lehtosaari, 2001). In addition, joy cannot be produced according to a predetermined plan. It is as impossible as it is to encourage other people to be genuinely joyful. Teachers can predict whether something can bring joy in the classroom, but this also can be prevented by an unforeseen, sudden event (Basom & Frase, 2004). Joy can stay in the classroom for a moment: freedom, surprise, and unpredictability belong to the feeling of joy (Freinet, 1987; Varila & Viholainen, 2000). 26

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CONCLUSION: FEELING JOY REQUIRES COURAGE

Experiencing joy and creating benign circumstances for joy require courage from teachers. In this sense, courage means self-esteem, and the ability and willingness to face challenges, feedback, and even criticism (see e.g., Seligman et al., 2005). Selfesteem in work has been named a core feature in satisfaction and performance in any job. When it comes to teachers, Liisa Keltikangas-Järvinen (2004b) has analyzed factors related to good self-esteem and Eira Korpinen (2007a) connected a teacher’s self-esteem with creativity. Martti Haavio (1956) did not refer to self-esteem but humbleness that helps teachers to learn from others and develop in their work. The influence of a teacher’s self-esteem can be summed into three conclusions: 1. Teachers with poor self-esteem use traditional, teacher-led methods. Teachers with good self-esteem let pupils shine and step aside preferring work methods that support pupils’ activity and self-direction. Pupil-centered methods are surprising and despite careful planning, the teacher cannot always be certain what will happen. Teachers with good self-esteem consider unforeseen situations challenges, not threats. 2. Teachers with good self-esteem try to interact with pupils, parents, and colleagues, and favor methods that necessitate abundant interaction. The more challenging task, the more interaction and discussion between the teacher and pupils are needed (Ames, 1992). Teachers often consider interaction with parents the most challenging part of their work. They need good self-esteem to receive feedback, and sometimes critical comments too. 3. If teachers are optimistic about their work, they will appreciate their pupils, too. Teachers believe their pupils can reach their learning goals (e.g., Määttä & Uusiautti, 2012). Teachers who believe in themselves are convinced that they can help their pupils. Difficulties are conquerable, merely just speed bumps, but never obstacles. If teachers can accept themselves as they are, they become able to accept pupils as they are, with all their strengths and weaknesses (Korpinen, 2007a). Martti Haavio (1954) encouraged teachers to recognize their own flaws with humble minds and be sympathetic to pupils’ flaws. Teachers who are equipped with good self-esteem give pupils the opportunity to be active in their own learning processes. Likewise, the pioneering researchers of employee self-esteem, Locke, McClear, and Knight (1996) have noted that “A person with a high self-esteem will view a challenging job as a deserved opportunity which he can master and benefit from, whereas a person with low self-esteem is more likely to view it as an undeserved opportunity or a chance to fail” (p. 21). Self-direction is one of the criterion of good learning and foundation of the joy of learning. Self-directed pupils can regulate and understand their action. They finish their tasks. Not all pupils are equally self-directed, but they can learn and develop that feature with the teacher’s guidance. Teachers can create such

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atmosphere in their classrooms that allow development of self-direction: laughter and joy liberate teachers to guide pupils in their learning processes. To conclude, the joy of learning appears differently in every teacher’s classroom: there are as many ways to establish such a favorable learning atmosphere as there are teachers. Namely, teacherhood involves more than teaching a school subject and every teacher is a personality. However, teachers have the opportunity to pay attention to students’ abilities, cooperative learning settings and doing together without hurry, learning through playing, and providing each student with experiences of success. NOTES Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) did an experiment that was related to cognitive dissonance. The test persons were paid for participating in a boring experiment. The other group was paid well whereas the other had only a minimal reward. Those who had lesser money experienced the test less boring because the little reward caused the cognitive dissonance, a state of imbalance. These participants tried to reach balance by trying to convince themselves that the test was more interesting than it actually was (Varila & Viholainen, 2000). 2 In learning processes, classic conditioning is important when it comes to the experience of joy. If in the learning environment, for example during a math lesson, a pupil becomes disappointed too many times, the pupil will draw a negative picture of mathematics (Varila & Viholainen, 2000). 1

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Teaching children with joy Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, K. (2013). How to train good teachers in Finnish universities? Student teachers’ study process and teacher educators’ role in it. European Journal of Educational Research, 1(4), 339–352. Varila, J. (2004). Tunteet aikuiskasvatustieteen kohteeksi [Emotions as the target of adult education]. Aikuiskasvatus, 2, 92–101. Varila, J., & Lehtosaari, K. (2001). Työnilo – Ahkeruudella ansaittu, sattuman synnyttämää vai oppivan organisaation vaatimaa? [Joy of work – earned with industry, caused by an accident, or required by a learning organization?]. Joensuu: University of Joensuu. Varila, J., & Viholainen, T. (2000). Työnilo tutkimuksen kohteeksi. Mitä uusia tuulia ja virikkeitä työnilon kokemukset tarjoavat henkilöstön tai organisaation kehittämiseen? [Joy of work as the research target. What new trends and stimuli can experiences of joy of work offer to the personnel or organizational development?]. Joensuu: University of Eastern Finland.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Taina Rantala, PhD, works as a head of an Elementary School in Rovaniemi, Finland. Her research interests are focused on means of enhancing joy of learning through various teaching arrangments and caring teacherhood in basic education. Satu Uusiautti, PhD, works as an associate professor of education at the University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland, and is an adjunct professor of educational psychology at the University of Helsinki, Finland. Her research interests include success at work and in various areas of life, positive development and positive educational psychology as well as human flourishing and strengths. Her latest publications include, for example, The Psychology of Becoming a Successful Worker. Research on the Changing Nature of Achievement at Work (S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä, Routledge, New York, 2015) and Critical Eye on Education (S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä, Eds., United Press Global, Tallinn, 2015). Kaarina Määttä, PhD, works as a professor of educational psychology and a vicerector at the University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland. Her research interests include caring teacherhood and teacher training, the pedagogy of supervision of doctoral theses, love and human relationships as well as positive psychology and human resources. Her latest publications include Obsessed with Doctoral Theses (K. Määttä, Ed., Sense Publishers, Rotterdam, 2012) and Early Child Education and Care in Finland (K. Määttä & S. Uusiautti, Eds., Routledge, New York, 2013).

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3. SUCCESS AT WORK IS ABOUT ENGAGEMENT AND HOPE

ABSTRACT

In this chapter, the phenomenon of success at work is tightly connected with self-fulfillment and well-being and discussed from an educational psychological perspective. Based on the authors’ studies among awarded, successful workers, the analysis of success at works is continued by discussing its relationship with the concepts of engagement and hope. The purpose is to discuss how top workers manifest engagement and hope in their careers and what the core elements of success at work from this perspective are. Success at work is a multidimensional combination of engagement and hope at the level of action requiring courage to seize challenges and dare to indulge in one’s work, working hard and persistently, having an optimistic view of oneself as a worker, and adopting an attitude that makes daily work seem meaningful. Hope and engagement appear suitable concepts to explain employees’ abilities to survive and succeed in the riptide of modern work life. Keywords: success at work, hope, engagement, optimism, positive psychology, top worker What is success? Who can define it, eventually? Nicki Baum’s comparison between success and North Pole does seem familiar to many of us who think about the nature of success: success at work can be thought as an outcome of self-centered behavior, a state in life filled with envy, cold-heartedness, and opportunism. Our viewpoint is based on positive psychology and interest in human strengths and flourishing. We define success at work tightly connected with self-fulfillment and well-being. In this chapter, we continue our analysis on success by discussing it the light of the concepts of engagement and hope. Uusiautti (2013) defined success at work as the combination of three elements based on her research among awarded Finnish top workers, who were considered the examples of people having success at work (see Uusiautti, 2008; see also Uusiautti & Määttä, 2015b). According to the definition, success at work depends on certain individual features. These include, among others, competence (e.g., Paulsson et al., 2005; Schunk & Pajares, 2005), motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2008; Mitchell, 1997), and ability to select positive strategies (Baltes & Freund, 2006; Maddux, 2002). However, the individual worker always is surrounded by the work context. These context-bound features, such as opportunities and restrictions, expectations, S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä (Eds.), The Basics of Caring Research, 33–44. © 2016 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

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and obligations, determine how the person’s personal features match with the current conditions (see also Karasek & Theorell, 1990). Individual features and contextbound factors form the fundamental conditions for success. Secondly, success requires positively-focused proactivity at work: success does not happen without action (see also Achor, 2010). This kind of action consists of seizing opportunities, employing one’s strengths, and pursuing personal development (Linley, Willars, & Biswas-Diener, 2010). What is important in doing is the positive feeling about work and positive emotions that work produces (Uusiautti, 2008). Finally, success is manifested as a sense of meaningful doing, productivity, and perceived well-being at work (see also Uusiautti & Määttä, 2015a). Studies among Finnish top workers (see e.g., Uusiautti, 2008; Uusiautti & Määttä, 2015b) confirmed that the positive experience of work is one of the most essential dimensions of success (see also Liden, Wayne, & Sparrowe, 2000). Every human being’s life abounds with promises and opportunities, and strengths and positive resources are not attributable only to certain people. The discovery of human strengths, a balanced life, satisfaction and support can lead a person to a path that is not only filled with feelings of happiness and a meaningful life but also shows the way to success. Success at work in this perspective is manifested as positive emotions and attitudes, which means a good feeling about oneself, one’s capability, and one’s place in the world. Therefore, success is not defined as the achievement of a certain goal or position (e.g., becoming a CEO) but considered a combination of feelings of expertise, accomplishments, and top performances, and the use of positive strategies within a particular context leading to a sense of purpose and meaning. In this chapter, we analyze positive action at work attempting to describe positive, optimistic strategies as a dimension of success at work. This theoretical analysis is based on our wide studies in the field. The especial focus is to analyze the concepts of engagement (Hakanen et al., 2008; Schaufeli et al., 2002) and hope (Snyder, 2002; Niles, Amundson, & Neault, 2011) as positive strategies and, thus, as elements of success at work. We will answer the following questions: 1. How important hope and engagement are for success at work according to top workers’ perceptions? 2. How do top workers manifest engagement and hope in their careers? HOW TO RESEARCH SUCCESS AT WORK?

Although this chapter presents a meta-analysis of the previous studies we have conducted about success at work, we will shortly introduce the original research participants. The main research included participants who represented top workers from different occupations (see Uusiautti, 2008). The criteria for the award of “Employee of the Year” were gathered for the twenty occupations from which the participants were chosen (examples of these professions includes fields such as psychology, policing, teaching, etc.). 34

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We will now briefly introduce how the participants were described with reference to the criteria for “Employees of the Year”. In different occupations, the award emphasized different qualities that could be categorized into three groups. Firstly, having a high professional standard was named as one of the most important qualities among the participants. Regarding this quality, expertise was recognized as referring not only to excellent work quality but also to the ability to actively develop one’s work and skills. The following occupations best represented this theme: priest, police officer, nurse, and psychologist. The second group consisted of employees’ actions that led to making their work and occupation recognized. Examples of these actions included paying attention to the contents of the occupation (e.g., work tasks), publicly discussing current topics regarding their occupational field, and facilitating the recognition of Finnish proficiency abroad. For example, the criteria for the “Artisan of the Year”, “Journalist of the Year”, and “Athlete of the Year” awards typified this theme. The difference between these two themes was that the first emphasized winners who had developed their field through their own professional development while the second emphasized winners who used their proficiency to gain publicity. Some of the rewarded employees were selected not by their colleagues but through competitions. These competitions differ remarkably, depending on the occupation (e.g., “Chef of the Year” and “Cleaner of the Year”). However, one feature was common among them, namely, professional skills in several sectors evaluated (e.g., customer service skills and working methods) as depicting core occupational expertise. In other words, only a true professional can win this kind of competition. The research used a mixed-methods approach (see, e.g., Creswell, 2009; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2003) and consisted of two phases. In the first phase, success at work was analyzed by focusing on motivation as well as on work engagement. The participants were asked to describe, for example, their experiences about their work, the significance of their work, their job satisfaction, work-related challenges, the most important characteristics of their work, and themselves as workers. 16 participated (5 men, 11 women) by answering the questionnaires, and seven of them were interviewed. Participants were between 29 and 71 years old (mean = 49). The second phase of the research concentrated on the process of becoming a top worker. The participants were asked to discuss the following themes: factors that enhance success, difficulties and obstacles they had confronted, and choices and decisions they had made during the course of their lives. In this phase, the employees of the year (n = 8; 6 men, 2 women) were nurse of the year, farmer of the year, police officer of the year (n = 2), psychologist of the year, priest of the year (n = 2), and artisan of the year. Participants were between 36 and 64 years old (mean = 49). HOPE BOOSTS SUCCESS AT WORK

Success at work has something to do with the essential elements of well-being as, for example, defined by Martin Seligman (2011). Seligman defines well-being 35

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as a construct of certain elements that each contribute to the overall well-being. In his five-dimensional model of well-being, Seligman names positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and achievement as the core elements. Here, engagement means doing something with total concentration, at the limits of one’s skills. From this perspective, engagement is connected with the concept of flow (see Csikszentmihalyi, 2008). On the other hand, engagement theories that define the reasons for doing something persistently are closely connected with theories about intrinsic motivation (see e.g., Latham & Pinder, 2005). According to Schneider (2001), engagement can be seen, in addition to persistence, as flexibility and creative thinking at work, as well as higher subjective well-being. Regardless of achieving the sense of optimal doing when working alone or as a member of a team, the opportunity use one’s strengths and skills played the leading role in engagement among top workers: Sometimes I can come to work during weekend if I am really enthusiastic about a developmental project, whether it was an initial idea or not. Time goes by and it can be that I come here in my office on Saturdays and Sundays to do it. I do not just sit and watch the clock hoping that the workday was over. (An Awarded Finnish Psychologist of the Year) Similarly, the concept of achievement as an element of well-being is also interesting from the perspective of success at work: “people pursue success, accomplishment, winning, achievement, and mastery for their own sakes” (Seligman, 2011, p. 18). The suggestion is that people tend to pursue success naturally, which is especially manifested when acting free of coercion. The connection with well-being is with what people do, or merely, choose to do. There is always something to improve. I challenge myself daily. It keeps this aging designer away from Bingo halls. (An Awarded Finnish Industrial Designer of the Year) However, we argue that engaged action and achievements necessitate a certain kind of attitude as well, that resembles positivity, trust in one’s abilities, and hopeful views about the world and one’s place in it (see also Uusiautti, 2015a). Indeed, for example optimism is one of the core concepts of positive psychology (Peterson, 2000) and affect how people pursue goals. If they believe their goals are achievable, they are optimistic (Carver & Scheier, 2002). This is why the concept of optimism is often confused with hope. Gillham and Reivich (2004) explain that the difference between these two concepts is that hope is often defined as a wish for something with some expectation that it will happen, while optimism is typically defined as a tendency or disposition to expect the best. Thus, hope typically refers to expectations in a specific situation, while optimism refers to general expectations. Peterson and Luthans (2003) consider optimism a vital part of hope, but emphasize that they still are distinctively separate concepts. 36

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Optimism, therefore, determines how we experience events. Shawn Achor (2010) noted that “By scanning our mental map for positive opportunities, and by rejecting the belief that every down in life leads us only further downward, we give ourselves the greatest power possible” (p. 109). This means that people have a habitual way of explaining events (Peterson, 2000; Peterson, Seligman, & Vaillant, 1988). Furthermore, optimism is shown to be connected to higher life satisfaction, health, perseverance, and resilience, whereas pessimism has connection to depression (Reivich & Gillham, 2003; Reivich et al., 2013). Hope is often defined as a wish for something with some expectation that it will happen; it is an important human strength (Seligman et al., 2005). It is worth noticing that realistic, positive expectations closely relate to an expectation that one’s behavior will be effective. When considering the phenomenon of success at work, hope is particularly important especially in the light of achieving future goals and plans and how certain events at work—especially the negative ones— are experienced. Positive expectations can partly result from a hopeful attitude as described by one top worker: Perhaps hopefulness [describes me the best]. It is a little like optimism and that you can trust that you will deal with it. … That you believe that you will survive, even if you do have difficulties and have to try again or another route. And always say that well, here we go again. (An Awarded Finnish Police Officer of the Year) It has also been argued that the best results in life can be achieved with realistic optimism (see Schneider, 2001). Realistic optimism involves enhancing and focusing on the favorable aspects of our experiences. Consequently, Schneider (2001) includes the awareness of reality in optimism by stating that “realistic optimism involves hoping, aspiring, and searching for positive experiences while acknowledging what we do not know and accepting what we cannot know” (p. 253). It is worth noticing that realistic, positive expectations closely relate to selfawareness and self-knowledge. When considering the phenomenon of success at work, realistic optimism may be particularly important as it can considerably predict the likelihood of achieving future goals and plans. One of the recent career theories is Spencer G. Niles et al.’s (see Niles, 2011; Niles, Amundson, & Neault, 2011) career flow theory which can help analyzing the question from an employee’s perspective. Their Hope-Centered Model of Career Development (HCMCD) is based on six core concepts that are hope, self-reflection, self-clarity, visioning, goal-setting and planning, and implementing and adapting. Niles (2011) explains the concepts as follows: hope is needed to believe that one can manage any career flow experience effectively; self-reflection is necessary to understand and label a particular career flow experience accurately; self-clarity is required to understand the personal and environmental resources necessary for coping effectively with the 37

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challenges encountered; visioning, goal setting, and planning are required tasks for imagining a successful outcome and identifying strategies for achieving it; and implementing and adapting are necessary for effectively navigating each particular career flow experience. (p. 175) Also Snyder (2002) defines the skills of self-motivation and reaching goals with the concept of hope. Snyder defines hope as a positive motivational state that is based on the interaction between goals, planned actions, and agency (see also Snyder, Irving, & Anderson, 1991). Eventually, the most extraordinary characteristic among top workers is their positive attitude, the hope they expressed in their work. Successful workers do not give up in the face of conflicts. Instead, they see such situations as opportunities to reassess their occupational skills and, if necessary, to study and develop. Interestingly, this tendency manifests also engagement: they are persistent and they have willpower. Furthermore, top workers see conflict situations as challenges that they expect they can solve—instead of hopeless dead ends. So, first you try again, if it’s worth it. But sometimes you have to look in the mirror, admit that this won’t lead anywhere, and find another route. I have done it many times during my career. (An Awarded Finnish Police Officer of the Year) This kind of proactive attitude, willingness to strive for success, is at the very core of top workers’ characteristics and means that they have waypower, the other important element of hope in addition to willpower (Snyder, 2002). If one expects the best, one has the will. But, if one is ready to work for it, one has the way, too. In this sense, success at work can be achieved by anyone and in any profession—whether it was understood as climbing up the career ladders from a rank-and-file police officer into a chief of police or the widening expertise in a nurse’s profession: And then, I have been developing quality work and pursued an auditing qualification, and then I was able to evaluate other units with my co-worker. (An Awarded Finnish Nurse of the Year) SUCCESS AS POSITIVE, ENGAGED STRATEGIES

The analysis shows that although top performances or steady, quality performance can lead to success, it can also be seen as a more comprehensive process (Uusiautti & Määttä, 2015). Namely, people who want to develop and seize opportunities in life can be seen as following a positive strategy. Carver and Scheier (2005) have pointed out that it is also important that people realize when goals can be met and when it is time to give up. Ultimately, it is about the ability to estimate the situation and act accordingly. Likewise, future expectations greatly affect how people react to changes and challenges. An optimistic attitude plays a salient role (Carver & Scheier, 2002), however, the strategy of success can also be described in other ways. 38

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For example, Locke (2002) claims that success requires persistent trials. One has to think about what is a desirable goal and why, what kinds of intermediate goals should be set, how to reach the goal, how to prioritize demands that are contradictory in relation to the goal, and how to overcome future obstacles and setbacks. Baltes and Freund (2006; see also Freund & Baltes, 1998) add that people’s lives are filled with opportunities and limitations that can be mastered adaptively through selection, optimization, and compensation (Freund & Baltes, 1998). At the core of selecting suitable goals, optimizing one’s action, and compensating if necessary lies one’s self-knowledge; the recognition of one’s strengths and abilities. Indeed, for example, Covey (2006) considers success as a strategy in which knowledge, skills, and will are combined. Knowledge means that one knows what to do and why, but it is skills can make it happen. Will here means motivation or the need to achieve something. As these three dimensions meet, a strategy leading to success can emerge. Naturally, the constant pursuit of success can lead to an endless treadmill— compared for instance with the pursuit of happiness (see Brickman, Coates, & Janoff-Bulman, 1978; Diener, Lucas, & Napa Scollon, 2006). As also Seligman’s (2011) idea of achievement as a part of well-being pointed out, people constantly strive for something. Success at work is also a process that has this escaping nature, but it is much more than that too. Happiness can be seen as a state that fade, but when success at work is understood as a way to fulfil one’s skills, develop, and learn, it contributes to a human being’s well-being. It can become a positive spiral draws from but also nourishes hope and engagement. DISCUSSION: HOW TO COMBINE ENGAGEMENT AND HOPE TO REACH SUCCESS AT WORK?

According to Snyder’s (2002) hope theory, hope does not exist without a clear and compelling mental picture of a desirable goal and planning of various ways to reach the goal. From the perspective of success at work, hope seems a way to face positive and negative situations and events at work. Hope also includes a certain type of positive self-image as oneself as a worker which helps perceiving adversities and difficulties as challenges and opportunities to develop. Hopeful attitude is not, however, enough alone. Engagement to work is also an important element of success. It is manifested in many levels of action. First of all, success requires persistence and readiness to work hard (Maslach & Leiter, 1999). But in order to find toil pleasing, another type of engagement is also needed; the one resulting from being able to become one with the target (as described by Seligman, 2011). This means that it is equally important to find one’s work suitable to oneself, an arena of using one’s strengths and abilities widely (see also Uusiautti, 2015b). To sum up, success at work is quite a multidimensional combination of engagement and hope at the level of action. First, it requires that one seizes challenges and dares to indulge in one’s work. Everyone’s work includes challenges of some sort, but the

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crucial factor is that they should be considered as opportunities to develop oneself and one’s work. Eventually, it is possible to see the potential in oneself. Second, success at work needs, well, work. There are no shortcuts to success, nor can top workers avoid mistakes, difficulties, or boring tasks at work. With an optimistic attitude, it is possible to find pleasure from accomplishing the most tedious parts of work. Third, one has to have an optimistic attitude about oneself as well. Whatever happens at work, successful workers trust in their expertise and abilities to cope with the situation. James E. Maddux (2002) has wisely said that “This truth is that believing you can accomplish what you want to accomplish is one of the most important ingredients—perhaps the most important gradient—in the recipe for success” (p. 277). Maddux refers to self-efficacy, a sense of knowing one’s skills and capability (see also Shepperd, Ouellette, & Fernandez, 1996). Last but not least, the attitude that is taken in work makes daily work meaningful (see also Mäkikangas, 2007). Having realized the importance of one’s work and one’s ability to do it well, the meaning has been discovered (Uusiautti, 2015a). CONCLUSION

Work motivation has been a popular research target but still it should be studied in the light of the challenges each era has (Ambrose & Kulik, 1999; Cheung et al., 2013). Engagement and hope apparently are important factors behind success at work. More often than not they are learned through work experience, self-evaluation, and feedback from others. To adopt successful work attitudes in the work community, the role of supervisors and colleagues is great. But also one’s background factors, such as support provided by the childhood home (see e.g., Hyvärinen & Uusiautti, 2015; Oberle et al., 2014; Uusiautti & Määttä, 2013), are worth studying. Indeed, education aims at enhancing students’ well-being and success in life, in other words, helping children to find their place in society. When considering success at work, it is crucial to discuss how education could support optimistic attitudes toward one’s performing. Good practices and models should be introduced not only at school but also in workplaces, so that everyone could find their own strength areas and employ them fully. We have outlined here the role of hope as a part of success at work. Optimistic attitudes are at the core of hope, but yet, optimism can be viewed critically. It seems that realistic optimism is necessary for success. Actually, also Sweeney, Carroll, and Shepperd (2006) have noted that both optimism and shift from optimism are important to optimal development, because they include a readiness to deal with setbacks and a readiness to take advantage of opportunities. Through self-knowledge and awareness one’s strength it is possible to employ optimistic attitudes the best, which also influence one’s engagement. Fundamentally, the relationship between success, engagement, and hope is quite reciprocal in nature (see also Xanthopoulou et al., 2009). 40

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The idea of hope at work complements earlier theories, such as Bandura’s (1997) theory of self-efficacy or Mitchell’s (1997) theory of work motivation, that have, for their part, helped explain the phenomenon of success at work. The hope perspective provides a new understanding about success. Furthermore, the concept of hope is interesting here because it can explain employees’ abilities to survive in the riptide of modern work life. Indeed, more attention should be directed at the role of hope and engagement in how workers face changes at work or in management of change in work (see also Uusiautti, 2015c). REFERENCES Achor, S. (2010). The happiness advantage. The seven principles of positive psychology that fuel success and performance at work. New York, NY: Crown Business. Ambrose, M. L., & Kulik, C. T. (1999). Old friends, new faces: Motivation research in the 1990s. Journal of Management, 25(3), 231–292. doi:10.1177/014920639902500302 Baltes, P. B., & Freund, A. M. (2006). Ihmisen vahvuudet ja viisaus [The human strengths and wisdom]. In L. G. Aspinwall & U. M. Staudinger (Eds.), Ihmisen vahvuuksien psykologia [A psychology of human strengths] (pp. 34–46). Helsinki: Edita. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: Freeman. Brickman, P., Coates, D., & Janoff-Bulman, R. (1978). Lottery winners and accident victims: Is happiness relative? Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 36(8), 917–927. doi:10.1037/00223514.36.8.917 Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2002). Optimism. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 231–243). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2005). Engagement, disengagement, coping, and catastrophe. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 527–547). New York, NY & London: The Guilford Press. Cheung, W.-Y., Wildschut, T., Sedikides, C., Hepper, E. G., Arndt, J., & Vingerhoet, J. J. M. (2013). Back to the future. Nostalgia increases optimism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(11), 1484–1496. doi:10.1177/0146167213499187 Covey, S. R. (2006). Tie menestykseen. 7 toimintatapaa henkilökohtaiseen kasvuun ja muutokseen [Road to success. 7 methods of personal growth and change] (5th ed.). Jyväskylä: Gummerus. Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design. Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2008). Flow. The psychology of optimal experience (10th ed.). New York, NY: HarperPerennial. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological well-being across life’s domains. Canadian Psychology, 49(1), 14–23. doi:10.1037/0708-5591.49.1.14 Diener, E., Lucas, R. E., & Napa Scollon, C. (2006). Beyond the hedonic treadmill. Revising the adaptation theory of well-being. American Psychologist, 61(4), 305–314. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.61.4.305 Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (1998). Selection, optimization, and compensation as strategies of life management: Correlations with subjective indicators of successful aging. Psychology and Aging, 13(4), 531–543. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.13.4.531 Gillham, J., & Reivich, K. (2004). Cultivating optimism in childhood and adolescence. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591, 146–163. doi:10.1177/0002716203260095 Hakanen, J., Perhoniemi, R., & Toppinen-Tanner, S. (2008). Positive gain spirals at work: From job resources to work engagement, personal initiative and work-unit innovativeness. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 73, 78–91. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2008.01.003 Hyvärinen, S., & Uusiautti, S. (2014, January 13). Safe and encouraging home providing the countdown to leadership? Finnish female leaders’ childhood memories. Early Child Development and Care, 184(11), 1723–1740. doi:10.1080/03004430.2013.876626

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S. uusiautti & k. määttä Karasek, R., & Theorell, T. (1990). Healthy work. Stress, productivity, and reconstruction of working life. New York, NY: Basic Books. Latham, G. P., & Pinder, C. C. (2005). Work motivation theory and research at the dawn of the twenty-first century. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 485–516. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.142105 Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., & Sparrow, R. T. (2000). An examination of the mediating role of psychological empowerment on the relations between the job, interpersonal relationships, and work outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(3), 407–416. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.85.3.407 Linley, A., Willars, J., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2010). The strengths book. Be confident, be successful, and enjoy better relationships by realizing the best of you. Coventry: CAPP Press. Locke, E. A. (2002). Setting goals for life and happiness. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 299–312). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Maddux, J. E. (2002). Self-efficacy. The power of believing you can. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 277–287). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Maslach, C., & Leiter, M. P. (1999). Burnout and engagement in the workplace. A contextual analysis. In T. C. Urdan (Ed.), The role of context. Advances in Motivation and Achievement, 11, 275–302. Mitchell, T. R. (1997). Matching motivational strategies with organizational contexts. Research in Organizational Behavior, 19, 57–149. Niles, S. G. (2011). Career flow: A hope-centered model of career development. Journal of Employment Counseling, 48, 173–175. doi:10.1002/j.2161-1920.2011.tb01107.x Niles, S. G., Amundson, N. E., & Neault, R. A. (2011). Career flow. A hope-centered approach to career development. Boston, MA: Pearson Education. Oberle, E., Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Guhn, M., Zumbo, B. D., & Hertzman, C. (2014). The role of supportive adults in promoting positive development in middle childhood. A population-based data. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 29(4), 296–316. doi:10.1177/0829573514540116 Paulsson, K., Ivergård, T., & Hunt, B. (2005). Learning at work: Competence development or competencestress. Applied Ergonomics, 36, 135–144. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2004.09.008 Peterson, C. (2000). The future of optimism. American Psychologist, 55(1), 44–55. doi:10.1037/0003066X.55.1.44 Peterson, C., Seligman, M. E. P., & Vaillant, G. E. (1988). Pessimistic explanatory style is a risk factor for physical illness: A thirty-five year longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 23–27. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.55.1.23 Peterson, S. J., & Luthans, F. (2003). The positive impact and development of hopeful leaders. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 24(1), 26–31. doi:10.1108/01437730310457302 Puskar, K. R., Marie Bernardo, L., Ren, D., Haley, T. M., Hetager Tark, K., Switala, J., & Siemon, L. (2010). Self-esteem and optimism in rural youth: Gender differences. Contemporary Nurse, 34(2), 190–198. doi:10.5172/conu.2010.34.2.190 Reivich, K., & Gillham, J. (2003). Learned optimism: The measurement of explanatory style. In S. J. Lopez & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), Positive psychological assessment: A handbook of models and measures (pp. 57–74). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Reivich, K., Gillham, J. E., Chaplin, T. M., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2013). From helplessness to optimism: The role of resilience in treating and preventing depression in youth. In S. Goldstein & R. B. Brooks (Eds.), Handbook of resilience in children (pp. 201–214). New York, NY: Springer. Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., Gonzalez-Roma, V., & Bakker, A. B. (2002). The measurement of engagement and burnout: A two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3, 71–92. doi:10.1023/A:1015630930326 Schneider, S. L. (2001). In search of realistic optimism. Meaning, knowledge, and warm fuzziness. American Psychologist, 56(3), 250–263. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.250 Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2005). Competence perceptions and academic functioning. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 85–104). New York, NY & London: The Guilford Press. Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish. A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. New York, NY: FreePress.

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success at work is about engagement and hope Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress. Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60(5), 410–421. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410 Shepperd, J. A., Ouellette, J. A., & Fernandez, J. K. (1996). Abandoning unrealistic optimism: Performance estimates and the temporal proximity of self-relevant feedback. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(4), 844–855. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.4.844 Snyder, C. R. (2002). Hope theory: Rainbows in the mind. Psychological Inquiry: An International Journal for the Advancement of Psychological Theory, 13(4), 249–275. doi:10.1207/S15327965PLI1304_01 Snyder, R., Irving, L., & Anderson, J. R. (1991). Hope and health: Measuring the will and the ways. In C. R. Snyder & D. R. Forsyth (Eds.), Handbook of social and clinical psychology: The health perspective (pp. 285–305). Elmsford, NY: Pergamon. Sweeny, K., Carroll, P. J., & Shepperd, J. A. (2006). Is optimism always best? Future outlooks and preparedness. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(6), 302–306. doi:10.1111/j.14678721.2006.00457.x Teddlie, C., & Tashakkori, A. (2003). Major issues and controversies in the use of mixed methods in the social and behavioral sciences. In A. Tashakkori & C. Teddlie (Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods in social & behavioral research (pp. 3–50). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Uusiautti, S. (2008). “Tänään teen elämäni parhaan työn” Työmenestys Vuoden Työntekijöiden kertomana [“Today, I’ll work better than ever” Success at work described by the employees of the year] (PhD Dissertation). University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland. Uusiautti, S. (2013). On the positive connection between success and happiness. International Journal of Research Studies in Psychology, 3(1), 1–11. doi:10.5861/ijrsp.2013.509 Uusiautti, S. (2015a). Hope at work. In L. Bormans (Ed.), The world book of hope. Tielt: Lannoo, in press. Uusiautti, S. (2015b, June 29). Success at work requires the ability to life-long learning. The 4th International Conference on Education, St. Petersburg, Russia. Uusiautti, S. (2015c). Success at work requires successful leaders? The elements of successful leadership according to leaders and employees in a Finnish mid-size enterprise. International Journal of Research Studies in Psychology, 4(4), 49–65. Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, K. (2013). Brisk attitude and optimism – Top workers’ childhood experiences forming the basis of success at work. European Journal of Educational Research, 2(2), 69–82. Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, K. (2015a). Positive psychological viewpoints to successful leadership. In A. M. Columbus (Ed.), Advances in psychology research (Vol. 101, pp. 93–104). New York, NY: Nova Science Publishers. Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, K. (2015b). The psychology of becoming a successful worker: Research on the changing nature of achievement at work. New York, NY: Routledge. Xanthopoulou, D., Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2009). Reciprocal relationships between job resources, personal resources, and work engagement. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 74(3), 235–244. doi:10.1016/j.jub.2008.11.003

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Satu Uusiautti, PhD, works as an associate professor of education at the University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland, and is an adjunct professor of educational psychology at the University of Helsinki, Finland. Her research interests include success at work and in various areas of life, positive development and positive educational psychology as well as human flourishing and strengths. Her latest publications include, for example, The Psychology of Becoming a Successful Worker. Research on the Changing Nature of Achievement at Work (S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä, Routledge, New York, 2015) and Critical Eye on Education (S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä, Eds., United Press Global, Tallinn, 2015).

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Kaarina Määttä, PhD, works as a professor of educational psychology and a vicerector at the University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland. Her research interests include caring teacherhood and teacher training, the pedagogy of supervision of doctoral theses, love and human relationships as well as positive psychology and human resources. Her latest publications include Obsessed with Doctoral Theses (K. Määttä, Ed., Sense Publishers, Rotterdam, 2012) and Early Child Education and Care in Finland (K. Määttä & S. Uusiautti, Eds., Routledge, New York, 2013).

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KAARINA MÄÄTTÄ

4. LOVE NEVER FADES

ABSTRACT

Love is an important resource in human beings’ lives. Still, love in old age causes prejudices and paradoxical feelings even though emotions and the ability to love do not disappear along aging. The research on love has concentrated on adolescence; and thus, senior citizens’ love has remained in the shadow. The aim of this chapter is to describe how the older people describe their experiences of falling in love. What kind of feelings and thoughts does falling in love arouse among them and how does it reflect in their behavior? The seniors’ stories show how significant love and intimacy are for their self-esteem. The fact that one is accepted and loved without conditions as oneself is of unquestionable value especially along aging. Two equals to more, even in old age. Intimate relationships, family, and love predict successful aging. Keywords: falling in love, love, the elderly, senior, old people, aging The elderly study, nurture, travel, spend, play golf, go out, fall in love, and love. Magazine headings about virtual grandfathers and remarried grandmothers and the beatific facial pictures of the elderly fallen in love make even many young readers stop and wonder about grandmothers’ or grandfathers’ pace of life. If the image of a gray-haired senior sitting on a rocking chair and knitting a sock has, indeed, extended, seniors’ strength for life is still doubted and wondered in public (Brubaker & Powers, 1976). Aging is fundamentally social: the society defines who and at what age people are considered as senior citizens, aged, or old (Bevan, 2001). On the other hand, people create their self-image according to the one that others’ have about them. The elderly notice that they are old based on other people’s words, suggestions, and behavior without having experienced any major personal changes. In the heart, a senior can refuse to accept the tag given him/her of his/her aging (Thompson, 1992). Children and youngsters believe that the elderly are another human species because they have seen the old people they know only as old (Brubacher & Powers, 1976; Lane, 1964). In addition, there are plenty of old people who consider other seniors as another species (Rothermund & Branstädter, 2003; Ron, 2007; Sherrard, 2008). Conceptions of the elderly are contradictory. The beliefs about the characteristics of the elderly are mixed with the assumptions on what kind of people they are S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä (Eds.), The Basics of Caring Research, 45–60. © 2016 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

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wished to be or what kind of people they are feared to become. On the other hand, we emphasize that the old people’s life experiences are valuable and useful to be shared with others as lessons (Ikels et al., 1992). As the life expectancy and health standards improve many seniors have opportunities to create new relationships. They make friends, fall in love, get married, and divorce like younger people do (Katz, 2000; Magai et al., 2009; Silverstein & Giarrusso, 2010). Love does not look at the age nor count wrinkles. Emotions and the ability to love do not disappear along aging (Bergmann, 1988). Although the outer presence alters along with aging emotional life remains powerful and perception keeps sensitive (Schultz, 1982). The feeling of being loved and an opportunity to show love are as valuable to the elderly as they are for the young (Berscheid & Reis, 1998). Because the research on seniors’ love has been minimal, I report in this chapter my research where 117 Finnish seniors aged between 50 and 92 told their love stories. Even the oldest of them illustrated the power of the emotional charge: “how strongly Amor’s arrow can touch one”. The aim of this chapter is to describe what love really means and what it evokes in the thoughts, souls, and hearts of the Finnish elderly. I dedicate this chapter to the reality they have experienced – and which has been distorted by many myths and clichés. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

The Definitions of the Nature of Falling in Love The phenomenon of falling in love has got numerous different definitions. Alberoni (1979) describes falling in love as assimilation; Tennov (1979) refers to limerence; Girard (1972) talks about losing oneself; Askew (1965) refers to neurosis; Kilpatrick (1974) to anti-social behavior; and Stendahl (in 1830/1957) to crystallizing. On the contrary, love can be understood as a divine phenomenon, a manifestation of immortality among mortal people, and a way and accession to holiness (Irigaray, 1982). Erich Fromm (1956) considers love as an active power that connects people with each other. It makes isolation and loneliness to disappear providing the feeling of unity and security. The “we” experience that two people in love share can be quite world-shaking by its depth: Francesco Alberoni (1979) felicitously regards falling in love as the derivation of two-people mass movement. Falling in love consists of several phases (Coleman, 1977; Hatfield, 1988; Hegi & Begner, 2010; Kernberg, 1977; Määttä, 2010; Sternberg, 1998), and the power of falling in love as an emotional experience has been studied comprehensively (Alberoni, 1979; Fenchel, 2005; Pines, 1999; Riela et al., 2010). Falling in love can be magic of joy and happiness, excitement and pleasure, corroded by insecurity and the fear of losing love (Määttä, 2005, 2006; Pines, 1999). There are more and more studies about the

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crises and pitfalls that come along with the process of falling in love (Bergman, 1995; Gordon, 2008). Falling in love is really “a many-splendored thing” as was the name of Han Suyi´s novel from 1952. Regardless of various theories, the event of falling in love however is one-of-a-kind for everyone. Regardless of age, everyone loves by their own way and the experience of falling in love is individual, unique, and subjective (Dion & Dion, 1973; Hegi & Bergner, 2010; Määttä, 2005, 2006; Sternberg, 1998). The Ability to Love is not Age-Bound Although the physical presence of the elderly has altered along aging, their emotional life is still strong and their perception is sensitive (Schulz, 1982). Emotions or social and mental abilities are not age-bound nor does the ability to love disappear along aging (Bergman, 1988). Love and falling in love in adolescence have been studied relatively much (see e.g. Collins, 2003; Connolly et al., 2004; Määttä, 2010) although the sufficiency of even this research has been questioned (Brown, Feiring, & Furman, 1999). Senior citizens’ love has remained in the shadow and their love is considered with prejudices and paradoxical feelings (Gekoski & Know, 1990; Rothermund & Brandstädter, 2003). The life of the elderly, at its best, is seen as peaceful and filled with love. Certainly, they are considered as entitled to love and even hoped to have love; however, some conditions are placed on how they can live it out appropriately (Watson, Bell, & Stelle, 2010). The limitations and conditions for younger people’s love are loosened whereas the attitudes and prejudices towards seniors’ emotional life can be even surprisingly rigid (Pecchioni & Croghan, 2002). Neither do basic needs disappear along aging although the ways of satisfying them might be different than when one was younger. The need of becoming accepted, to love and be loved are unquestionable for people regardless of age, health, or gender. The feeling of being loved and the opportunity to show love are equally important to the elderly and younger people (Berscheid & Reis, 1998). Human relationships and interaction with others are important in every phase and situation of life (Reis & Rusbult, 2004). The value of intimate people as the providers of social support is irreplaceable. Many find it of primary value to get support when the situation requires it. When the biological and physical functions become weaker, people have the increasing need to be appreciated as well as to experience affection and love. Among the elderly, the human relationship network that covers children, grandchildren, siblings, and other family members is considered as natural and valuable. They provide the elderly with content and support. Nevertheless, people do not lose their gender along aging and the interest towards the opposite sex is natural (Lang & Fingerman, 2004).

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Even today, dating among the elderly involves various myths. The elderly might be associated with an impression implying that their emotional life would have died and romance or sexual needs would not belong to them. Furthermore, these needs have been regarded as inappropriate or deviant. Interest toward the opposite sex might make one feel embarrassed or guilty. The outsiders’ disapproval or one’s own confusion may also cause emotional denial. Nowadays, it is common that the retired also start new intimate relationships. People are not meant to survive and cope alone—not even when old. The elderly are not genderless but men and women who still have an interest towards the opposite sex. This chapter leans on the humanistic idea of man emphasizing that old age is natural and good; a phase of life that offers opportunities for self-fulfillment. Based on this idea, the elderly are autonomous, unique individuals. The older people are, the more they differ from each other as individuals. People’s various experiences along their long life span affect their personality and they develop their specific characteristics and ways of expressing themselves (Rentsch, 1977). However, aging does not change personality to the same degree as it changes biological and physical traits. Despite their age, most people consider themselves similar to when they were younger (Thompson, 1992). EXPLORING SENIORS’ LOVE EXPERIENCES

I started a research project in Finland which aimed at analyzing the content and meaning of love scheme in people’s life span and identity formation. This research was divided into several separate parts. The purpose of this chapter is to dissect the experience of falling in love and to illustrate the phases and progress of the process of falling in love through the seniors’ descriptions (Määttä, 2005). Based on the results, my purpose is to support the positive dimension of old age: it can be the time of opportunities that involve enjoying life. Old age is an emotionally important phase in people’s life span. This chapter aims at describing, classifying, and analyzing how the elderly experience falling in love after meeting their partners or significant others. What happens when the elderly fall in love? What kind of feelings and thoughts falling in love arouses among them and how does it reflect in their behavior? What kind of changes does falling in love cause in them? What phases can be found in falling in love among the elderly? What kind of differences can be found between different people during the process of falling in love? These questions can be crystallized into the form of the following research question: How do the elderly describe their experiences of falling in love? How does falling in love in old age differ from the experience of falling in love in the youth according to the elderly?

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I asked the Finnish elderly to write me their own love story. I transmitted this wish via periodicals when I was interviewed about my opinions on love because of my status as “the Love Professor” in Finland. I composed an instructional leaflet to help the writing about love experiences with the heading “I would give my all to you; I would carry you on my arms”. I posed some specifying questions that would guide their answers but I emphasized that the most important thing is to describe their own love story through those experiences that they find important to themselves. I decided to collect the data in the form of informal letters because I believe that with those letters people can reveal what they really think and feel. Through the letters, the many forms and shades of seniors’ love would be revealed in the best way. I wanted to give participants the chance to deliberate and outline their answers freely in peace. Therefore, these letters were written in people’s everyday life without the researcher’s intervention. The writers have defined what to include in their stories and what is left untold. Some of the participants told about their new love in old age whereas for others falling in love was a new experience taking place not until in old age. What the stories had in common was their vivid and rich narration about the experiences of falling in love. In addition, the participants could self determine the answers to the questions about who are senior citizens or when senior age begins. The writers were aged between 50 and 91 and their average age was 70 years. Age could not be defined distinctively from all stories. I received altogether 117 letters or love stories. 72 of the writers were women and 38 of them were men. There were seven stories that were signed together. The lengths of the letters varied between a few sheets and over one hundred pages of detailed biographies. I was powerfully riveted by the flow of someone’s narratives whereas, at times, I was touched by some others’ simplified expression. Most of the writers describe the joy and happiness of their falling in love but among the responses there were some rough stories of disappointments as well. Although the writers could have sent the letters anonymously, many of them gave their contact information and expressed their willingness of giving supplementary information if necessary. In this chapter, all are treated anonymously. Instead, the writers are referred here with actual ages but fictitious names that reveal, however, their gender. As Miles and Huberman (1994) point out, qualitative data comes in the form of words rather than in numbers. The issue, then, is how I moved from these words to data analysis. Moving from coding to interpretation is a crucial phase (Coffey & Atkinson, 1996; Silverman, 2005). Interpretation involves transcending factual data and analyzing cautiously what is at the core of it. I have read the letters several times. Based on them, I have pursued creating an overall description of the emotional experience of falling in love. I have proceeded in three steps with content analysis: data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawings (see Miles & Huberman, 1994). 49

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Data reduction refers to the process of selecting, focusing, simplifying, and transforming the “raw” data (Silverman, 2005). Data reduction involves making decisions about what data chunks or themes will provide the initial focus. Data display is “an organized assembly of information that permits conclusion drawings” (Silverman, 2005, p. 178) through which I was able to specify the answers to my research questions. The aim was to create the categories that describe the seniors’ experiences of love. In order to be able to show the contents in practice, I have added plenty of quotations from the respondents’ letters in this chapter. In addition, the quotations function as the proofs for reliability. At the end, I perform the conclusion drawings, which means “beginning to decide what things mean, noting regularities, patterns, explanations, causal flows, and proportions” (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 22). Certainly the generalizability, validity, and reliability of the results can be criticized. How filtered the stories in these letters were? They are summaries of the course of events constructed by the writers afterward. In that form, the letters describe every writer’s way of assessing their own life, the chains of events and emotions that mold it. At the end, it is not salient whether the writers describe the happenings comprehensively or truthfully but their interpretation of what actually happened. The motives for writing the letters were diverse. Many wanted to share their experience of a successful relationship although they did not hide the problems either. Despite of problems, the attitude towards life was bright among many of the participants: “I thank my spouse for every day” (Robin, aged 82). Some wanted to clarify their life situation by writing and thus, writing functioned as a way to understand one’s self. “Through writing, I see myself with the new eyes and sometimes wonder the opening views. Maybe, this all will guide others as well” (Carol, aged 74). Many had experienced the therapeutic nature of writing. Some found writing delightful; however sometimes, it opened someone’s old wounds. Some were surprised of the strength of their own feelings and wanted to transmit their experiences to others: “I decided to write because I have had emotional experiences that I thought would belong only to the time of adolescence” (John, aged over 50, recently fallen in love). The letters I received represented filtered narrations to some extent. One can paper over the events, highlight one’s own experiences, or protect the close ones. Memories or stories are always summaries of the courses of events reconstructed afterwards by the tellers. Nor is one able to write everything one has experienced. Memory is also selective: sometimes memories grow sweeter with time; some other time reality appears rougher than it actually was. It is hard to estimate to what extent the picture in these stories is exaggerated or prettified. However, the letters give the idea that the writers wanted to give about of their life. Writing about life well or in a right way is as difficult as living such a life. What people define as their experience is especially important. It has its own significance as such; and indeed, the impression that a writer has got about the events 50

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directs in many ways his/her overall behavior in everyday life. Not only those days that are gone constitute life but also those that we remember. RESULTS

Where Does Love Begin? It is impossible to answer the question who will fall in love and who will be shot by Amor’s arrow during their old age. The roads to love are filled with the lucks of the draw and one cannot know even in old age where one finds love (Alterovitz & Mendelsohn, 2009). The experiences of falling in love vary as remarkably among the elderly as among younger people: “The age and place do not matter; love ignites when it ignites” (Robert, aged 68) or “Love comes when it comes and I was endowed with it” (Susan, aged 70). Some have passed a difficult marriage that ended in divorce, some were widows: The decease of the life companion hurts so deeply that only one can understand it; the one who have travelled the same road, loved me when I have least deserved it, but when I needed it the most. (Mary, aged 80) In addition, there are those seniors who have proceeded slowly in building their human relationships and have fallen in love in their old age for the first time: “A person who now almost shares the same skin with me stepped in front of me” (Rebecca, aged 69). Many wanted to prove with their stories how the emotions touch strongly even in old age. In this age and after everything I have gone through, I now feel like the whole new space would have opened for me. (Roy, aged 68) Even the elderly talk about love at first sight. The experience of falling in love can also be emotionally powerful in old age (see Oishi, Diener, & Lucas, 2007) and the elderly describe “how they become fascinated and charmed even when old” (Rosemary, aged 85) or “how it makes your head in a whirl and mixes up your intestines” (David, aged 71). Still, the experience of falling in love involves plenty of suspiciousness: age also arouses fear, insecurity, and helplessness when building a relationship (see Murray et al., 2001). Could I, still in this age? On the other hand, “we have, in our life, made so many big decisions that involved risk. If one wants to achieve something great, one has to take a chance” (Peter, aged 67, a widow, fallen in love recently). What Happens When One Falls in Love? One’s health improves. Many seniors described that the life of one in love appears in the new light, downright smiles (see Benyamini et al., 2000; Carr, 2007). People enjoy the small things, are happier and more energetic. As if one walked on the 51

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air and one’s mind was reborn. Some tell about the improved health condition and the decrease in their consumption of medicines. “I felt somehow lighter” (Florence, aged 64), “I did not even notice all my aches” (Janet, aged 74), and “She is the light of my life” (Keith, aged 67). Love makes one feel younger.  Falling in love makes the elderly act like children, in a childish and foolish way. Lovebirds can laugh and notice new reasons for laugh in their everyday life. “I do nothing but laugh with him” (Valerian, aged 60). I, a grouch, straight-faced man, find myself laughing aloud. The dark matters are often put aside nowadays. (Graham, aged 76) The elderly in love starts paying more attention to their appearance as well: “You have to make up and preen yourself just like you did when you were a filly.” (Florence, aged 64) On the other hand, bearing one’s own years becomes easier with the other who understands aging as well: I find it easy to be old with her. Hang the wrinkles and cataract; we can still use both brain halves for the joy of both of us. (Keith, aged 67, fallen in love after divorcing) The way one sees the loved one may be the same one did when young. One sees the loved one as beautiful or handsome: Every now and then, I see in her eyes the look of her 18-year-old attractive soul. Sometimes lived years disappear: we are young again. (Jeffrey) On the other hand, many seniors become younger instantly in their memories when they summon up their experiences (see Zender & Olshanky, 2009). Adolescence lived long ago is a part of a human being and the prevailing moment; and many seniors can, from time to time, be younger than the young ever could: When I look back my life, I would be ready to start everything all over again with the same promises and, most of all, with the same girl. (Robin, aged 82, been married for 59 years) Caring makes one stronger.  The elderly seem to have the sixth sense which they use for sensing what their partner needs (see White & Dolan, 2009). And that exactly they are ready to offer whether it is comfort or support, a companion for jogs or cottage trips (see Krause, 2011). All the mentioned strengthens intimacy and affinity. Bugger the age. When being together is nice, ailments are forgotten. You have something else in your mind than illnesses when you have a good partner. (Pat, aged 86) Caring can be quite practical as well: “If one loses his memory, the other might remember better” (Letty, aged 81). 52

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It is hard to believe that love is true.  Lovers do not seem to believe that what has happened to them is true. They have to be assured by touching that the other is really near and that everything is true. The language of touch seems to be equally important for seniors as it is for children at the beginning of life. How can this surprising glory of finding each other be possible? I had to twiddle with my skin and do many other tests in order to make sure that I am alive. (Louise, aged 58) Sexuality does not disappear.  For some, the positive experiences in the field of sexuality open a totally new channel to their self (see DeLamater & Moorman, 2007). Someone does not learn to enjoy sex until old age or “is able to brighten up the faded colors of sexuality” (Rebecca, aged 69). They are able to appreciate the ability to fall in love and to love in this sense as well. On the other hand, many of the elderly emphasized the multiformity of the manifestation of sexuality. They did not want to restrict sexuality within sexual activity but within the feelings of loving and becoming loved, admired, and appreciated. Sexuality means joy, pleasure, voluptuousness, intimacy, and attraction. Eroticism may manifest itself in a warm smile and glow in the eyes, a tender hug, caressing other’s chin and stroking his/her head, a warm hand shake and approval. Although sex has become less important along aging, each other’s proximity is wonderful now. (William, aged 74) The Prejudices of the Environment Not all look kindly upon entering into a new relationship when old. Other people do not necessarily consider falling in love as appropriate for the elderly. The attitudes and slant can be surprisingly prejudiced. Some stated that they are a reproach to their relatives and laughing stocks for strangers. I was stamped as a woman of ill repute when I started spending more and more time at this man’s place. (Susie, aged 73, a widow, recently fallen in love) Many tend to hide their relationship in order to avoid gossiping. Many elderly were pondering how to phrase the matter: How to tell—when you are an over 70-year-old grandmother—to your grandchild that you have to get ready for a date with your new boyfriend? (Lillian, aged 74) Some seniors found it enjoyable to express their happiness: We have to have our wedding in a church. We are going to have it, even if everyone would not approve it. We did not have it in our adolescence and finally now, when we are old, we have the opportunity to enjoy it. The marriage 53

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formula does not ask your age, nor have they set any hurried rhythm for the march towards the altar. (Marjorie, aged 65) Many seniors’ children support their new relationships. The immediate environment could also conform to the emotional flame of the elderly and be happy about it. The children are content that we have each other as company. Indeed, you are not supposed to live your life so that you are just left alone to complain about your fate. (Letty, aged 81) Formalizing the Relationship by Getting Married Opinions on formalizing their intimate relationships varied among the elderly who described their love stories. Others found it important to get married: Two old people leading each other—I think it surely is worth formal crowning. (David, aged 71) Whereas some restrain themselves from marrying or living together with someone: “Nothing doing that I would shack up with him” (Celia, aged 72). Uncertainty about the change in economic situation, giving up one’s freedom, and children’s resistance made them hesitate. Yet, there were those, too, who wanted to get married fast. “What goes on and on, becomes complicated”, explained one senior. Now, after we decided to get married officially, the outsiders were cleared up as well. This is the true foundation of our life and certainly those words “I will” and “for better or for worse” are valuable in this age too. (Roy, aged 68, remarried after divorced from over 30-year-long marriage) How Does the Experience of Falling in Love in Old Age Differ from the One Taking Place in Youth? The elderly are facing a new phase in life. Most seniors are free from the burdens of gainful employment and moderate pension secures economic stability as well (see DeVoe & Pfeffer, 2009; Diener & Seligman, 2004). As the responsibility of raising children is bygone, many of the old point out that now they have time for their own life that they still have ahead. Now they have time for themselves and are free to do what they want: During our whole adult life we have borne the responsibility of other people both at home and at work, worried and taken care of things for them; now we are allowed to live our own life. (Robert, aged 68) Love can be happier; one is able to indulge in it as one does not have the tension caused by work, buying a home, or children’s problems: “Loving is better when old than when young” (Peter, aged 67). 54

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In adolescence, the future is forthcoming. One has plans for the future and set the “after that” intermediate goals. Seniors have experienced long past and they can drew much from it (Murrell, Salsman, & Meeks, 2003). They do not necessarily have pressures about the future and the exact prevailing moment is important. The ability to enjoy the present embodies many seniors’ life style: The good moments are the small ones, here and now – I can enjoy these moments in a humble way. (Barbara, aged 82) Also the experiences of life give strength to make autonomous solutions (see Diehl, Coyle, & Labouvie-Vief, 1996). In older age, one can more boldly liberate from others’ oppression, role expectations, and pressures of other people’s expectations and do what one self likes. Maturity may provide confidence (see Lawton et al., 1999). The net of negations and responsibilities does not necessarily hold them. Independence from others gives courage. Old age may involve even revolutionary opportunities (see Rentsch, 1997). What Does Love Give in the Mature Age? At its most genuine, mature love is manifested by active acts; in other words, giving, caring, the sense of responsibility, listening, and gratitude. Two equals to more, even in old age. The seniors’ stories show how significant love and intimacy are for their self-esteem. The fact that one is accepted and loved without conditions as oneself is of unquestionable value especially along age (see Prieto-Flores et al., 2011). This senior love is more like the warm sense of togetherness: empathy and even the responsibility for the other. The fact that there is the one who understands is valuable. (Roy, aged 68) Spouses are each other’s sympathizers, listeners, and helpers. They can enjoy and be happy about each other’s presence: Knowing that sand flows in the hourglass gives the depth for the emotions as well as gratitude that one has been able to experience love as life-maintaining force. (Linda, aged 82) As life has been stormy and smarting from afflictions, the other’s company provides the safe nest. The elderly find shared evenings at home and berry-picking trips as well as going to cabin and doing gardening together refreshing. Little defects are forgotten and they do not have to face old age alone (see Newman et al., 2010). However, among the elderly, there are those who take back the lost years and find new experiences. “‘Fewer goings would be enough, would they not’, wonder my children” tells Carol, aged 74. In addition, the other showing his/her caring as well as approval of aging and appreciation showed by the other are considered important. 55

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Love is a long-distance run, no spurt but a long finishing line. Together, even the burdens feel lighter to bear. Together we are strong. (Kendall, married for 53 years) DISCUSSION

Love does not Always Guarantee Happiness I have described the experience of falling in love in old age through the stories the elderly wrote. According to these memorable and magnificent stories, old age seems bright. It may appear even too rosy. If only the positive sides of aging are described, the image of the reality in old age can become distorted. If the viewpoint is focused on the world experienced by the fit, active, and comfortably well-off, the overall picture of old age becomes narrower. Standardizing aging as the oasis of active, energetic, and positive emotions represents an encouraging and promising future for many. Who would not yearn for this? Yet, there are dangers and shadows when drawing this kind of a picture about old age. As desirable as an active life situation is, and even if a senior was healthy and even wealthy, old age is not phenomenal fun making that one can choose by one’s own desires and choices. Good aging cannot be bought like a commodity. Diverseness of life and genotype provide some people with better possibilities in old age than for others. For some, aging will not mean immobilization and decrease in mental performance. Others have worse luck. Disabling degenerative diseases and dementia are inevitable part of aging for some people. The voice of this chapter is focused and restricted in Finland that has a high standard of living and where the elderly are guaranteed health care and social security. The average life expectancy of the Finns has increased remarkably during the last decades as it has in other Nordic countries and Western Europe as well. Senior Love as Resource and Health The Where can we find the keys for seniors’ happy and good life? The experience of life, freedom, and wisdom are valuable but they will not help much if people do not have goals and plans. Health is crucial for the quality of life but even more significant source of zest for life for many is the knowledge that they are needed and they have a mission. Love can become an important power of life for the elderly (Freund & Riediger, 2003). Along with giving and receiving love, people feel themselves important and useful. Whether love is directed in a life companion, children, grandchildren, fellow humans, or various forms of working and doing, arts, ideas, or solving the problems of existence, it is crucial that people preserve sufficiently powerful passions and

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dreams, maybe even illusions that inspire and make them feel alive. Regardless of age, love can act as an impetus for goals that give meaning to life (Schnitker, 2007). Intimate relationships, family and love predict successful aging (Stock, Okun, & Benin, 1986). Close and happy human relationships make a good protection for stress and an excellent health insurance. The friends are the torches by the path of life; they cannot make your way shorter but they will make it brighter. (Mary, aged 80, found a new friend after widowed from a 52-year-long marriage) In happy love stories, a senior treats his/her partner with care, tenderness, encouragement, and support. This is how love reflects even in the wellbeing and quality of life of the elderly. Becoming accepted and loved as is, without any conditions, is invaluable especially in old age (Gordon & Chen, 2010). Thus, the model of good life is not standardized into one mold and the wellbeing of the most fragile individuals is guaranteed as well. Myths and clichés skew this reality (Gekoski & Know, 1990). Despite their high age, the elderly do not have to sit by or aside and watch their life – they can fully participate (Angner et al., 2009). The experiences of life only strengthen the grasp on life in a way that a Chinese proverb emphasizes beautifully by stating that “the flower of experiences carry the fruit of wisdom”. REFERENCES Alberoni, F. (1979). Falling in love and loving. Milano: Garzanti. Alterovitz, S., & Mendelsohn, G. A. (2009). Partner preferences across the life span: Online dating by older adults. Psychology and Aging, 24(2), 513–517. doi:10.1037/a0015897 Angner, E., Ray, M. N., Saag, K. G., & Allison, J. J. (2009). Health and happiness among older adults. Journal of Health Psychology, 14(4), 503–512. doi:10.1177/1359105309103570 Askew, M. (1965). Courtly love: Neurosis as institution. Psychoanalytic Review, 52, 19–29. Benyamini, Y., Idler, E. L., Leventhal, H., & Leventhal, A. A. (2000). Positive affect and function as influences on self-assessment of health. Expanding our view beyond illness and disability. The Journal of Gerontology: Series B, 55(2), 107–116. Bergman, M. (1995). On love and its enemies. Psychoanalytic Review, 821, 1–19. Bergman, M. S. (1988). Freud’s three theories of love in the light of later developments. Journal of American Psychoanalytic Association, 36(3), 653–672. doi:10.1177/000306518803600304 Berscheid, E., & Reis, H. T. (1998). Attraction and close relationships. In S. Fiske (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 193–281). New York, NY: Addison-Wesley. Bevan, C. (2001). An aging society issues and challenges. Australian Journal on Ageing, 20(2), 15–22. doi:10.1111/j.1741-6612.2001.tb00394.x Brown, B. B., Feiring, C., & Furman, W. (1999). Missing the love boat: Why researchers have shied away from adolescent romance. In W. Furman, B. B. Brown, & C. Feiring (Eds.), The development of romantic relationships in adolescence (pp. 1–16). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Carr, E. G. (2007). The expanding vision of positive behavior support. Research perspectives on happiness, helpfulness, hopefulness. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 9(1), 3–14. doi:10.1177/10983007070090010201 Coffey, A., & Atkinson, P. (1996). Making sense of qualitative data analysis: Complementary strategies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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k. määttä Coleman, S. (1977). A developmental stage hypothesis for nonmarital dyadic relationships. Journal of Marriage and Family Counselling, 3, 71–76. Collins, W. A. (2003). More than myth: The developmental significance of romantic relationships during adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 13(1), 1–24. doi:10.1111/1532-7795.1301001 Connolly, J., Craig, W., Goldberg, A., & Pepler, D. (2004). Mixed-gender group, dating and romantic relationships in early adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 14(2), 185–207. doi:10.1111/ j.1532-7795.2004.01402003.x DeLamater, J., & Moorman, S. M. (2007). Sexual behaviour in later life. Journal of Aging and Health, 19(6), 921–945. doi:10.1177/0898264307308342 DeVoe, S. E., & Pfeffer, J. (2009). When is happiness about how much you earn? The effect of hourly payment on the money—happiness connection. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35(12), 1602–1618. doi:10.1177/0146167209346304 Diener, E., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Beyond money. Toward an economy of well-being. Psychological Science, 5(1), 1–31. Dion, K., & Dion, K. (1973). Correlates of romantic love. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 41, 51–56. Fenchel, G. H. (2005). What is love? Issues in Psychoanalytic Psychology, 27(1), 49–67. Freund, A. M., & Riediger, M. (2003). Successful aging. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Gekoski, W. L., & Know, V. J. (1990). Ageism or healthism? Perceptions based on age and health status. Journal of Aging and Health, 2(1), 15–27. Girard, R. (1972). La violence et le sacre. Paris: Grasset. Gordon, A. M. (2008). I love you madly: On passion, personality, and personal growth. New York, NY: IAPT Press. Gordon, A. M., & Chen, S. (2010). When you accept me for me: The relational benefits of intrinsic affirmations from one’s relationship partner. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(11), 1439–1453. doi:10.1177/0146167210384881 Hatfield, E. (1988). Passionate and companionate love. In R. Sternberg & M. Barnes (Eds.), The psychology of love (pp. 191–217). New Haven, MA: Yale University Press. Hegi, K. E., & Bergner, R. M. (2010). What is love? An empirically-based essentialist account. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 27, 620–636. doi:10.1177/0265407510369605 Ikels, C., Keith, J., Dickerson-Putman, J., Draper, P., Fry, C., Glascock, A., & Harpending, H. (2008). Perceptions of the adult life course: A cross-cultural analysis. Ageing and Society, 12, 49–84. doi:10.1017/S0144686X00004669 Irigaray, L. (1982). Passions élémentaires. Paris: Les Èdotopms de Minuit. Katz, S. (2000). Busy bodies: Activity, aging, and the management of everyday life. Journal of Aging Studies, 14(2), 135–152. doi:10.1016/S0890-4065(00)80008-0 Kernberg, O. (1977). Boundaries and structure in love relations. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 25, 81–114. Kilpatrick, W. (1974). The demythologizing of love. Adolescence, 33, 25–30. Krause, N. (2011). Close companions at church, health, and health care use in late life. Journal of Aging and Health, 22(4), 434–453. doi:10.1177/0898264309359537 Lane, B. (1964). Attitudes of youth toward aged. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 26, 229–231. Lang, F. R., & Fingerman, K. L. (Eds.). (2004). Growing together. Personal relationships across the lifespan. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Lawton, M. P., Winter, L., Kleban, M. H., & Ruckdeschel, K. (1999). Affect and quality of life. Objective and subjective. Journal of Aging and Health, 11(2), 169–198. Maas, H. S., & Kuypers, J. A. (Eds.). (1974). From thirty to seventy. A forty-year longitudinal study of adult life styles and personality. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Määttä, K. (2005). Seniorirakkaus [The love in later life]. Juva: WSOY. Määttä, K. (2006). Rakastumisen lumous [The Fascination of falling in love]. Juva: WSOY. Määttä, K. (2010). How to learn to guide the young to love. Educational Sciences and Psychology, 2(17), 47–53.

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Love Never Fades Magai, C., Consedine, N. S., Fiori, K. L., & King, A. R. (2009). Sharing the good, sharing the bad: The benefits of emotional self-disclosure among middle-aged an older adults. Journal of Aging and Health, 21(2), 286–313. doi:10.1177/0898264308328980 Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Murray, S. L., Holmes, J. G., Griffin, D. W., Bellavia, G., & Rose, P. (2001). The mismeasure of love: How self-doubt contaminates relationships beliefs. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(4), 423–436. doi:10.1177/0146167201274004 Murrel, S., Salsman, N. L., & Meeks, S. (2003). Educational attainment, positive psychological mediators, and resources for health and vitality in older adults. Journal of Aging and Health, 15(4), 591–615. Oishi, S., Diener, E., & Lucas, R. E. (2007). The optimum level of well-being: Can people be too happy? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2(4), 346–360. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00048.x Pines, A. M. (1999). Falling in love: Why we choose the lovers we choose. New York, NY: Routledge. Prieto-Flores, M. E., Forjaz, M. J., Fernandez-Mayoralas, G., Rojo-Perez, F., & Martinez-Martin, P. (2011). Factors associated with loneliness of noninstitutionalized and institutionalized older adults. Journal of Aging and Health, 23(1), 177–194. doi:10.1177/0898264310382658 Reis, H. T., & Rusbult, C. E. (Eds.). (2004). Close relationships. Key readings. New York, NY: Psychology Press. Rentsch, T. (1997). Aging as becoming oneself: A philosophical ethics of late life. Journal of Aging Studies, 11(4), 263–271. Riela, S., Rodriguez, G., Aron, A., Xu, X., & Acavedo, B. P. (2010). Experiences of falling in love: Investigating culture, ethnicity, gender, and speed. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 27(4), 473–493. doi:10.1177/0265407510363508 Ron, P. (2001). Elderly people’s attitudes and perceptions of aging and old age: The role of cognitive dissonance? International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 22, 656–662. doi:10.1002/gps.1726 Rothermund, K., & Brandstädter, J. (2003). Age stereotypes and self-views in later life: Evaluating rival assumptions. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27(6), 549–554. Rousseau, J. J. (2010/1782). Yksinäisen kulkijan mietteitä [Les rêveries du promeneur solitaire, 1782]. (E. Salo, Trans.). Tampere: Vastapaino. Schnitker, J. (2007). Look (closely) at all the lonely people: Age and the social psychology of social support. Journal of Aging and Health, 19(4), 659–682. doi:10.1177/0898264307301178 Schulz, R. (1982). Emotionality and aging: A theoretical and empirical analysis. The Journal of Gerontology, 37(1), 42–51. Sherrard, C. A. (2008). Elderly wellbeing and the psychology of social comparison. Ageing and Society, 14, 341–356. doi:10.1017/S0144686X00001628 Silverman, D. (2005). Doing qualitative research: A practical handbook. London: Sage. Silverstein, M., & Giarrusso, R. (2010). Aging and family life: A decade review. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(5), 1039–1058. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00749.x Stendhal, H. (1980/1957). De l´amour. Paris: Le Dican. Stock, A. A., Okun, M. A., & Benin, M. (1986). Structure of subjective wellbeing among the elderly. Psychology and Aging, 1(2), 91–102. Tennov, D. (1979). Love and limerence: The experience of being in love. New York, NY: Stein & Day. Thompson, P. (1992). I don’t feel old: Subjective ageing and the search for meaning in later life. Ageing and Society, 12, 23–47. doi:10.1017/S0144686X00004657 Tibbitts, C., & Donahue, W. (Eds.). (1962). Social and psychological aspects of aging. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Watson, W. K., Bell, N. J., & Stelle, C. (2010). Women narrate later life remarriage: Negotiating the culture to create the personal. Journal of Aging Studies, 24(4), 302–312. doi:10.1016/j.jaging.2010.07.002 White, M. P., & Dolan, P. (2009). Accounting for the richness of daily activities. Psychological Science, 20(8), 1000–1008. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02392.x Zender, R., & Olshansky, E. (2009). Promoting wellness in women across the life span. Nursing Clinics of North America, 44(3), 281–291. doi:10.1016/j.cnur.2009.06.009

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Kaarina Määttä, PhD, works as a professor of educational psychology and a vicerector at the University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland. Her research interests include caring teacherhood and teacher training, the pedagogy of supervision of doctoral theses, love and human relationships as well as positive psychology and human resources. Her latest publications include Obsessed with Doctoral Theses (K. Määttä, Ed., Sense Publishers, Rotterdam, 2012) and Early Child Education and Care in Finland (K. Määttä & S. Uusiautti, Eds., Routledge, New York, 2013).

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5. FLOURISHING IN INDIGENOUS CULTURAL CONTEXTS

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this chapter is to discuss positive psychology and its usability in education, especially in indigenous contexts. The core interest is in how positive psychology manifests itself from the point of view of indigenous classrooms and teaching, and what it has to offer to support well-being and flourishing in indigenous students. More research is needed to develop positive psychological interventions especially tailored to indigenous education. Educators should be worried about the whole indigenous communities and their cultural states. At its best, positive psychology can provide tools to address many social-psychological problems related to the cultural and linguistic loss among indigenous peoples. A positive cultural identity is a feature that should form the basis of the entire well-being focused (indigenous) education. Keywords: indigenous education, well-being, positive psychology, indigenous students. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss positive psychology and its usability in education, especially in indigenous contexts. I will analyze how positive psychology manifests itself from the point of view of indigenous classrooms and teaching, and what it has to offer to support well-being and flourishing in indigenous students. The viewpoint is based in Finland, a small country located in the North-Europe, where the realization of indigenous education is a very topical concern (Keskitalo, Määttä, & Uusiautti, 2013). Namely, we have a small indigenous population, the Sámi people. Research on Sámi education is increasing also in my institution, the University of Lapland, in collaboration with experts of Sámi education (see e.g., Keskitalo, Määttä, & Uusiautti, 2013; Sarivaara & Uusiautti, 2013). My own interest lies in educational psychological and positive psychological fields, and thus, the expertise is in positive psychology, human strengths, and especially positive development. In this chapter, my purpose is to discuss the offering of positive psychology from the point of view of indigenous education. The chapter is also based on the lectures that formed a part of in-service training in Sámi pedagogy provided for Sámi teachers and educators in 2013–2014 at the University of Lapland. My lectures covered positive psychological perspectives, and I also collected a small questionnaire data among the participants just to find out S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä (Eds.), The Basics of Caring Research, 61–75. © 2016 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

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how they perceived the theme in the field and in interaction with Sámi students. This chapter will be spiced by quotations from the answers written in the questionnaire. The participants of the aforementioned in-service training represented teachers, educators, and other education experts working in the Sámi administrative area in Finland or otherwise in contact with Sámi people and students. I call them here simply teachers or education experts (of Sámi education). The excerpts can be considered as examples of the voices from the field: they are Sámi education experts’ perceptions of the possibility and challenges of recognizing and using human strengths in Sámi education, that are here used to illustrate themes I wanted to highlight. THE BASIC TENETS OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Such concepts as subjective well-being, happiness, quality of life, and positive emotions have become more and more visible and aroused interest in today’s research approaches and literature in general. The interest in these concepts has risen from positive psychological research that focuses on positive features, emotions, and institutions (Gable & Haidt, 2005; Seligman et al., 2005; Seligman, Parks, & Steen, 2004). This means that positive psychology studies ways of experiencing pleasure and joy, showing altruism, succeeding, creating functional communities and institutions—in other words, positive human action (Uusiautti & Määttä, 2015). This makes it possible to reach the whole spectrum of human experiences. The purpose is not to close eyes from suffering, selfishness, broken families, and inefficient institutions but to add information about flourishing and well-being in people. The idea is that understanding human strengths and the essence of wellbeing and happiness helps to prevent maladjustment and malaise. The black-andwhite thinking has long inhibited researchers from paying attention to the positive: for example, research on exclusion could benefit from paying attention to research on acceptance and tolerance (Gable & Haidt, 2005). What can be learned from positively acting people and communities? If we want to know why some people or communities are happier (regardless of adversities) than others, we need to understand what are those cognitive and motivational processes that maintain or even increase positivity and happiness (Lyubomirsky, 2001). Likewise, school psychology can use ideas from positive psychology: if the mastery of a skill or knowledge that one should learn leads to success, and if positive emotions are the corner stone of learning, it would be reasonable to pay attention this equation in education and schooling (Chafouleas & Bray, 2004). Therefore, instead of fixing conditions we want to avoid, we could focus on creating optimal learning conditions (see e.g., Ryan, 2009; Seligman et al., 2009). The goal of positive psychology is to study, define, and specify strengths and capacities that individuals, families, and societies would benefit from. Therefore, stress, anxiety, and suffering-oriented research is complemented by happinesspromotion-oriented research (Buss, 2000; Duckworth, Steen, & Seligman, 2005; Seligman et al., 2005). Human strengths form an important area of research in this 62

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approach. Strengths can be defined as positive features that are recognizable and learnable as well as available to everyone (Popov, 1997). Strengths differ from talents, because talent (e.g., musical talent) is something innate that cannot be learned and is not available to everyone (see e.g., Linley, Willars, & Biswas-Diener, 2010; Rath, 2007). By recognizing and using one’s personal signature strengths, one can reach well-being when defined as the sense of meaningfulness in life (e.g., Seligman, 2002, 2011; see also Uusiautti, 2013). At the subjective level, positive psychology analyzes positive subjective experiences, well-being, and satisfaction, emerging as flow, joy, feelings of pleasure and happiness, optimism and hopefulness (Csikszentmihalyi, 2008). At the group level, the interest is focused on citizenship skills and institutions that prepare good citizens and members of groups—responsible, adjusting, and tolerant individuals (Seligman, 2002). In all, positive psychology offers interesting viewpoints to various areas of life broadly as well as to special questions. Positive psychological research has also been conducted among indigenous cultures. POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIGENOUS RESEARCH

Positive psychology is increasingly interested in and how the well-being of individuals and communities in various cultures can be supported. Actually, a great tendency is to measure and define well-being across the globe (e.g., Diener, 2000). Wide happiness studies across the world have shown that well-being and happiness are understood quite differently in various cultures. For example, when asking about life satisfaction, the richest Americans turned to be equally satisfied than the Amish of Pennsylvania or Inuit living in Greenland. Another study compared subjective well-being with gross national product. The result showed that people of Colombia, Mexico, and Guatemala were happier than, for example, people of Denmark, Switzerland, or Iceland. Likewise, the poor living in Calcutta were happier than the poor living in California, USA (Seligman, 2011). All these findings show that happiness is probably not culture-bound, but that the results greatly—or solely— depend on how happiness is defined and measured. Still, research on ways to define and promote happiness and well-being are justified and highly called for in the rapidly changing world. Here, I have used the concepts of happiness and well-being interchangeably, but it is worth noticing that, for example, Seligman (2011) perceives them fundamentally different: whereas happiness can be defined as a concept that can be operationalized as life satisfaction and carefully measured, well-being is a construct, not a thing itself, constituting of five independent elements that are positive emotion, engagement, meaning, positive relationships, and accomplishment. This is a very individualbased assessment of well-being, and not the only one. For example, the father of the concept of subjective well-being (SMB) Ed Diener (1984) could name already three decades ago several various ways of defining the elements of well-being all the way from single-item definitions to multi-item scales. From the perspective 63

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of well-being of countries or peoples, well-being is seen to be connected with, for example, democratic attitudes, trust, and cooperation (e.g., Tov & Diener, 2008; see also Diener & Tov, 2012). From the indigenous research point of view, it is worth remembering that happiness and well-being can be tightly bound to special cultural and historical factors, too (e.g., Yang & Lu, 2007). Especially when considering indigenous cultures, such as the Sámi in Finland, happiness measurement might not be that simple. The Sámi have faced the powerful history of assimilation in four countries they live in (Finland, Sweden, Norway, and Russia), and the Sámi culture and languages are endangered at the moment (Olthuis, Kivelä, & Skutnabb-Kangas, 2013; see also Unesco Interactive Atlas of the World Languages in Danger). Therefore, their history includes memories of denial of and shame about one’s culture and language, subordination by the colonialists, and subsequent feelings of otherness (e.g., Tsalach, 2013; Wane, 2009). The situation is similar in many indigenous cultures across the world (see e.g., Wilson & Kamana, 2009), although increasing attention has been targeted at the preservation and revitalization of indigenous cultures (Olthuis, Kivelä, & Skutnabb-Kangas, 2013). My purpose here is not to introduce or analyze the history of assimilation any further, but the main interest in this chapter is to discuss positive psychological viewpoints to support and foster indigenous cultures through education and schooling. This perspective needs more attention as, for example, studies about forgiveness and positive development (e.g., Sandage, Seminary, Hill, & Vang, 2003) or freedom and cultural happiness (e.g., Inglehart et al., 2008) perhaps illustrate the best the earlier viewpoints of positive psychology in indigenous contexts. How to study well-being and success in the contexts of schooling and education? What factors enhance success in multicultural classrooms that include also pupils with indigenous backgrounds? Research on indigenous education within the field of positive psychology is increasing because new ways of considering cultural differences in the opportunities to enhance well-being are needed (Wexler, 2009). Sandage, Seminary, Hill, and Vann (2003) have focused their studies in the special branch of positive psychology, human strengths and their cultural special features. In all, positive psychological research on indigenous peoples have focused more on the definition and construction of positive identity (see e.g., Purdie et al., 2000). For example, positive identity development including appreciation and acceptance of one’s cultural background has been shown to be one of the most important factors explaining school success among indigenous children (Martin, 2006; Wexler, 2009). The Sámi education experts attending my lectures had also recognized the lack of appreciation of one’s culture and identity in Sámi children and students: The ability to cohere with the surrounding nature and universe, and to appreciate it as a part of oneself—and not to consider it a frightening enemy—that is the most important strength in my opinion. … But, our school does not respect this kind of strength. Those ones that are respected are always connected with 64

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grades and school success somehow. … I try to encourage my students to bring out their strengths in the school world. I let reindeer herders’ children permission to be absent from lessons because of reindeer herding duties, and I also give homework to them. … I try to make them understand the value of their own strengths. (Teacher no. 3) A study by Adams et al. (2006) showed that the level of identification with an indigenous people and the context can function as the psychological resource of well-being (see also Pedersen et al., 2004). This was also strongly evident in Erika Sarivaara’s research on Sámi people whose official statuses varied based on the interpretation of their family history during the time of assimilation (Sarivaara, 2014; see also Sarivaara & Uusiautti, 2013; Sarivaara, Uusiautti, & Määttä, 2013). Therefore, interventions that enhance the construction of positive self-image and identity seem to also promote psychological well-being and learning results (Craven & Marsh, 2008). This is an important fact when aiming at supporting indigenous cultures and education. Craven and Bodkin-Andrews (2006) clarify that focusing on well-being helps educators and teachers to focus on indigenous children’s strengths instead of paying attention just to flaws and difficulties in education. They call the approach the New Positive Psychology of Success. Their findings are based on studies among Australian indigenous peoples. Strong cultural self-esteem, acceptance of one’s own history and cultural identity are themes that all education and upbringing should aim at, but among indigenous peoples the task is not any obviousness (Sarivaara, Uusiautti, & Määttä, 2013). Many indigenous cultures have faced western colonization that has changed indigenous peoples’ attitudes toward their own cultural backgrounds (e.g., Keskitalo, Määttä, & Uusiautti, 2013; Sarivaara & Uusiautti, 2013). Ball (2004) reminds that indigenous cultures can be strengthened via children: children have to learn how the world is understood in their culture. Education that is not cultural sensitive does not help indigenous children’s cultural identity construction (Keskitalo, 2010). It is crucial that teachers can reflect on ways to support children’s identity development in a positive manner: The school does not provide enough opportunities to develop strengths; I can only think of competitions (drawing, poems) and projects, which, I say, are not the best possible approach to develop strengths. I try to delegate tasks to my students so that everyone could shine at what they are good at. This is something that I have to develop myself as well: how to give more chances to use one’s strengths to my students? (Teacher no. 2) Despite all the good intentions, it is necessary to discuss the applicability of positive psychology in indigenous contexts. For example, Chambers Christopher and Hickinbottom (2008) criticize the research paradigm for its inability to recognize tacit knowledge, cultural and moral assumptions. According to them, positive psychology misrepresents ways of thinking in cultures that do not follow 65

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individualism. Likewise, it is necessary to critically analyze how to credibly and comprehensively illustrate human flourishing in a post-positivist era and in a pluralistic society (Chambers Christopher, Richardson, & Slife, 2008). This criticism has been answered by calling for better I-We balance to the field of positive psychological research (Sarivaara, 2014; Seligman, 2011) emphasizing that research on virtues that enhance individual and communal well-being enhances flourishing of various cultures and societies. Likewise, Sandage, Hill and Vang (2003) have noted that multicultural positive psychology requires research on cultural and contextual factors and diversified manifestation of human virtues and strengths. Their studies have focused on the strength of forgiveness, which seems to appear quite differently in western thinking compared to the Hmong indigenous people. THE CHALLENGE AND OPPORTUNITY TO TEACH WELL-BEING IN INDIGENOUS CLASSROOMS

Is it possible to teach well-being in today’s multicultural classrooms? One of the positive psychological researchers Frank Pajares (2001), has pointed out that “the aim of education must transcend the development of academic competence” (p. 34). In order to prepare caring and fully functioning individuals, schools and teachers “must be armed with optimism, self-regard, and regard for others” (Pajares, 2001, p. 34). Seligman (2011) agrees and adds that “schools should teach not only success, literacy, perseverance, and discipline that lead to academic achievements, but also ‘the skills of well-being’ and ‘the skills of achievement’” (p. 78). According to Seligman, teaching well-being at school is not only possible but also necessary if we want to secure today’s children’s positive development. Martin (2006) concludes that indigenous students’ achievement and engagement can be facilitated by number of factors, including confidence, task orientation, and self-reliance, encouragement, positive peer influence, and effective schools meaning not only well-trained staff but also good teacher-student relationships and flexible learning plans. Next, I will discuss these factors based on our studies and perceptions. At the classroom level, it is the teachers who can seize the possibility of teaching well-being (Uusiautti, Määttä, & Määttä, 2013). However, in many indigenous contexts, the situation is not that simple: Pigga Keskitalo’s (2010; see also Keskitalo, Määttä, & Uusiautti, 2013) ethnographical studies in Sámi classrooms in Finland and Norway showed that even Sámi teachers or teachers of Sámi children are not always aware of how they could support positive learning and development in students. Partly the problems originated in their insufficient understanding about the history of assimilation and how it influenced today’s behavior and attitudes in families and at school—also among teachers. The same was noted by the participants of Sámi in-service training: I long for open dialogue [among teachers], positivity, and consideration. (Teacher no. 4) 66

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What is negative are the ‘cliques’ that I try to stay away from and this is something with which I really have to work carefully. I do my best to get along with everyone and not to descend into these cliques. (Teacher no. 2) My work unit is, unfortunately, polarized. … The division is not very visible, but a new teacher can sense it sometimes. We all are a part of the same teacher group and able to collaborate for our students’ best, but… (Teacher no. 3) Deeply-rooted prejudices and negative attitudes are difficult to change while tolerance and positive interaction are needed not only between indigenous and mainstreaming populations but within the indigenous culture (e.g., Thornton, 1997). Respectively, the context of indigenous education is extremely multidimensional and sensitive by nature. Indeed, it is dangerous to try to create a specific (positive) indigenous people’s psychology that would cover all indigenous peoples (see Adams et al., 2006). As much as individualist cultures can be described with emphases on individualism, subjectivity, emotional intelligence, and experiences of self-esteem, collectivist cultures and communities emphasize intersubjective, interdependent identities and self-images as well as with observation of others’ needs (Sandage, Seminary, Hill, & Vang, 2003). On the other hand, it might not be even necessary to have such black-and-white definitions and segregations between the individual and community. For example, Miller (2002) points out that communalism cannot automatically mean that individuals are forgotten. And then again, children must be able to learn their cultural worldviews in order to construct positive cultural identity, but in multicultural classrooms, teachers need, probable more than ever before, skills to encounter students as individuals and give room to cultural viewpoints and their adoption. If teachers or other personnel do not have any kind of knowledge about the basics of multi-linguistic or multi-cultural education, the school cannot function as a multi-linguistic or multi-cultural or broad-minded education institution. The whole personnel must be committed to the idea. (Teacher no. 3) How to adopt positive psychological viewpoints as a part of indigenous education, then? The idea is that students’ success and well-being can be aimed with the means of positive psychology (see e.g., Linley et al., 2009; Seligman et al., 2009). Several studies do support the assumption that happiness and well-being are connected to overall success: happy students perform better at school, use their inner resources better, and are more open, trustful, and helpful than unhappy or discontented students (Chafouleas & Bray, 2004; Gilpin, 2008). Therefore, it is important to understand that happiness and well-being are important because of their multiple and accumulative benefits that cover everyone—all the way from students with special needs (Karjalainen et al., 2013; Mäensivu et al., 2012; Piippo-Näätänen et al., 2012) and with special talents and gifts (see e.g., Salmela & Uusiautti, 2013; Uusiautti & Määttä, 2015) to students with various cultural backgrounds (see e.g., Junttila et al., 2013; Sarivaara & Uusiautti, 2013). 67

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How does this connection appear in practice and what are teachers’ possibilities to promote positive development, well-being, and success in students? Latest discussions have paid attention to various risks and stress factors as well as variation in children’s individual, social, and health development both in Finland (Harinen & Halme, 2012) and abroad (e.g., Casas, 2011). Likewise, Sámi teachers had noted that it is possible to teach well-being by making use of students’ own potential (see also Määttä & Uusiautti, 2014): Students are very open to pleasant and positive experiences; you can talk about things in so many different ways. It is nice to notice that genuine interest arouses in students… (Teacher no. 3) Consequently, a teacher can fulfill teacherhood in various ways (Rutledge, 2009; Ryan, 2009; see also Määttä & Uusiautti, 2012; Uusiautti & Määttä, 2013): because of the teacher’s position and education the teacher has the opportunity to plan and produce successful learning experiences in the classroom. The purpose is not to make learning easy or pleasant as such but challenging and encouraging in a way that supports students’ use of their signature strengths in learning and in various learning environments (Määttä & Uusiautti, 2012). Strengths-based teaching protects from stress and aims and improving perseverance and tolerance of change in students (Fredrickson, 2001). Furthermore, combining culture-special features and viewpoints with the construction of self-esteem and cultural identity can help educators and teachers to understand how traditional cultural values are connected with students’ well-being and flourishing (see e.g., Yeh, 2002). [Students need] appreciation to their own and others’ cultures as well as positive curiosity. (Teacher no. 1) It is crucial to understand that positive psychology does not define positive development just by referring to a separate individual but it pays attention to the individual’s personal features, resources, and limitation in the individual’s cultural, physical, and historical context (Magnusson & Mahoney, 2006). Likewise, relevant questions are, for example, how and with which conditions the positive developmental processes can be promoted and maintained during the individual’s life span. COMPREHENSIVE SUPPORT IN COOPERATION WITH PARENTS

In this chapter, I discuss how to focus on well-being and positive development, successful development of cultural identity, and skills of maintaining and promoting indigenous cultures among indigenous children through education. Teacher education can act as one of the important means of enhancing such skills. In Finland, teachers have been trained to reflect, develop, and renew education and teaching practice (Kansanen, 2006)—in other words, they should be ready to analyze their teacherhood (Maaranen, 2010). Positive psychology lays the foundation for creating and implementing caring teacherhood that is primarily interested in 68

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students’ learning and success (van Manen, 1991; see also Martin, 2006); joy of learning can be found from the smallest accomplishments (Rantala & Määttä, 2011). Encouraging feedback can become the turning point of a student’s educational career and significant component of developing self-esteem (Määttä & Uusiautti, 2012). Culturally-sensitive teachers are aware of the contribution of students’ emotional well-being to their school achievements in indigenous contexts (Huebner, Gilman, Reschly, & Hall, 2009). The features of compassion, love, and patience as well as tolerance and optimism are important ingredients of teacherhood in the future (Määttä & Uusiautti, 2012). Furthermore, cultural sensitivity as a part of teaching is not limited within the classroom walls. Teachers work in constant interaction with students and the wider social and communal context. Teachers make just one contributor to the entity of student well-being. The most important component is naturally students themselves, supported by their closest adults, parents. The relationship between home and school represents the connection point. It is crucial to aim at enhancing open, trustful teacher-parent relationship that allows parents’ participation and ability to support their children’s learning and success at school. The positive connection between parental involvement and students’ study success has been shown through several studies (e.g., Epstein & Dauber, 1991; Gillanders, McKinney, & Ritchie, 2012; Izzo et al., 1999). Teachers who make parental involvement as a regular and normal part of their teaching can enhance parents’ sense of being able to help their children to succeed (Määttä, Uusiautti, & Määttä, 2013). In addition, parents’ attitudes toward teachers can turn more positive and are very important: Parents’ support, cooperation skills and willingness are important. (Teacher no. 4) All this necessitates from teachers special flexibility as well as ability to interact with parents and notice changing family situations. Not all children have interested and enthusiastic parents at home who are willing to actively participate in education— teachers need this kind of sensitivity too (Gillander, McKinney, & Ritchie, 2012). Due to many historical reasons, indigenous students’ families do not necessarily are actively involving with school and can be even fearful of or disinclined toward school (Britton, 2000). When this is compared with the requirement of cultural sensitivity, we can refer to Souto-Manning (2010) who emphasize that the school success of children coming from minority cultures can be promoted considerably by the school that appreciates and includes the strengths, beliefs, goals, and habits of children’s homes as a part of the school community. For example, the traditional Sámi upbringing consists of learning through work and play, and indirect rearing teaches children to take responsibility for their actions and living together with their families and surrounding people (Keskitalo, Määttä, & Uusiautti, 2012). Other cultural features that can be included in education are handicrafts, excursions to nature and familiarization with the elderly of the community (Keskitalo et al., 2012)—in addition to active use and support of 69

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indigenous languages (Linkola, 2014). Today’s teacher education and teachers’ inservice education must consciously include aspects of cultural sensitivity as a part of training (Keskitalo, Uusiautti, Sarivaara, & Määttä, 2014). Instead of assimilating learners to the societal practices, teachers should guide them to break the boundaries related to, for example, social class, gender, or ethnicity (hooks, 2010). Likewise, families should understand and support educational expectations and goals. According to Keskitalo et al. (2013), some parents supported pupils’ schoolwork while some of the families needed support from school. In addition to cultural factors, the reason is partly assimilation of the Sámi because some of the parents have lost their language and even their cultural identity … some parents are, however, more conscious and expect much of the school. (pp. 66–67) Therefore, it should also be considered what kind of cultural well-being Sámi education constructs (see also Yosso’s (2006) model of communal and cultural wellbeing). The curriculum that leans on Sámi conception of time, place, and knowledge should provide such a learning environment, teaching activity, and didactics that it is not bound to a specific subject (Keskitalo, 2010). The students’ awareness of their own strengths is certainly greatly dependent on homes. … According to my experience, parents often function as gatekeepers. And negative attitudes are being strengthened. … First and foremost, students’ parents need correct information about bi- and multi-lingualism and how to educate into it. (Teacher no. 3) Indigenous students’ teaching that leans on positive psychology can become a bridge-builder between home and school. At its best, it can turn classrooms cultural sensitive, and maintain and promote the flourish of indigenous cultures. CONCLUSION

Most of children’s and youth’s daily experiences take place at school, an institution the society has developed to prepare children to adulthood (Larson, 2000). The assumption and wish is that positive development would occur. In this sense, teachers have a big role in children’s lives. Indigenous education also necessitates special attention because [i]ndigenous students are particularly sensitive to criticism, being singledout, and being shamed through failure as these reduce their willingness to participate, lead to them rejecting their teacher’s instruction, and increase the likelihood of truancy. (Martin, 2006, p. 34) Martin (2006) reports that indigenous students can be more afraid of failing in the classroom than non-indigenous students, and therefore, a caring atmosphere can be of crucial significance. 70

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Naturally, the relationship between a teacher and a student determines the nature of learning atmosphere (e.g., Lindblom-Ylänne & Lonka, 1999). A teacher’s pedagogical love and authority influence the atmosphere and form the core dimensions of teacherhood (Harjunen, 2009; Määttä & Uusiautti, 2012). According to Martin (2006), abundant research on teacher-student interaction in indigenous education shows that the teacher’s ability to create a pleasant learning atmosphere where the teacher uses methods that are clear, inspiring, and paying attention to students as individuals, enables the best learning results. Some Sámi education experts had noted the same: It is inspiring and motivating to see that my students succeed. My students’ joy and well-being brings me the greatest pleasure. (Teacher no. 4) By experimenting various ways of learning everyone can find their own path. (Teacher no. 4) If the teacher has strong pedagogical love and expertise-based authority, the learning atmosphere can become warm and supportive (Määttä & Uusiautti, 2012): Mutual respect prevails because students respect the teacher because of his or her expertise and the teacher is a sort of safe mainstay. The teacher trusts and believes in students’ skills, respects their individualism, and wants to enhance their balanced development and recognition of strengths. It requires flexibility and ability to change. Differences in school subjects and students’ personal features also influence the learning atmosphere. Still, more research is needed to develop positive psychological interventions especially tailored to indigenous education. Educators should be worried about the whole indigenous communities and their cultural states. At its best, positive psychology can provide tools to address many social-psychological problems related to the cultural and linguistic loss among indigenous peoples. Such problems include, for example, problems with self-esteem and behavior, racism and bullying, suicides and substance abuse. This is important because according to the World Health Organization’s (WHO, 2007) study, indigenous peoples across the world still suffer more from mental, physical, and social malaise than non-indigenous peoples. For example, the suicide level of the young Inuit living in Canada are the highest in the world (WHO, 2007). Positive psychology addresses malaise and problems by drawing from the positive: high cultural self-esteem, good knowledge about one’s cultural history and background, and positive cultural-identity are features that should form the basis of all well-being focused (indigenous) education. REFERENCES Adams, G., Fryberg, S. A., Garcia, D. M., & Delgado-Torres, E. U. (2006). The psychology of engagement with indigenous identities: A cultural perspective. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12, 493–508. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.12.3.493 Ball, J. (2004). As if indigenous knowledge and communities mattered. American Indian Quarterly, 28(3 & 4), 454–479. doi:10.1353/aiq.2004.0090

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S. Uusiautti Britton, P. (2000). Improving the self-concept of Aboriginal students: A holistic approach. In R. Craven (Ed.), Aboriginal studies: Self-concept for a nation. Sydney: SELF Research Centre. Buss, D. M. (2000). The evolution of happiness. American Psychologist, 55(1), 15–23. doi:10.1037/0003066X.55.1.15 Casas, F. (2011). Subjective social indicators and child and adolescent well-being. Child Indicators Research, 4(4), 555–575. doi:10.1007/s12187-010-9093-z Chafouleas, S. M., & Bray, M. A. (2004). Introducing positive psychology: Finding a place within school psychology. Psychology in the Schools, 41(1), 1–6. doi:10.1002/pits.10133 Chambers Christopher, J., & Hickinbottom, S. (2008). Positive psychology, ethnocentrism, and the disguised ideology of individualism. Theory & Psychology, 18(5), 563–589. doi:10.1177/0959354308093396 Chambers Christopher, J., Richardson, F. C., & Slife, B. D. (2008). Thinking through positive psychology. Theory & Psychology, 18(5), 555–561. doi:10.1177/0959354308093395 Craven, R. G., & Bodkin-Andrews, G. (2006). New solutions for addressing indigenous mental health: A call to counsellors to introduce the new positive psychology of success. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 16(1), 41–54. doi:10.1375/ajgc.16.1.41 Craven, R. G., & Marsh, H. W. (2008). The centrality of the self-concept construct for psychological wellbeing and unlocking human potential: Implications for child and educational psychologists. Educational & Child Psychology, 25(2), 104–118. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2008). Flow. The psychology of optimal experience (10th ed.) New York, NY: HarperPerennial. Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95(3), 542–575. Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being. The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55(1), 34–43. doi:10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.34 Diener, E., & Tov, W. (2012). National accounts of well-being. In K. C. Land, A. C. Michalos, & M. J. Sirgy (Eds.), Handbook of social indicators and quality of life research (pp. 137–156). New York, NY: Springer. Duckworth, A. L., Steen, T. A., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2005). Positive psychology in clinical practice. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 629–651. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144154 Epstein, J. L., & Dauber, S. L. (1991). School programs and teacher practices of parent involvement in inner-city elementary and middle schools. The Elementary School Journal, 91(3), 289–305. Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-andbuild theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226. doi:10.1037/0003066X.56.3.218 Gable, S., &. Haidt, J. (2005). What (and why) is positive psychology? Review of General Psychology, 9, 103–110. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.103 Gillanders, C., McKinney, M., & Ritchie, S. (2012). What kind of school would you like for your children? Exploring minority mothers’ beliefs to promote home-school partnership. Early Childhood Educational Journal, 40(5), 285–294. doi:10.1007/s10643-012-0514-0 Gilpin, J. M. (2008). Teaching happiness. Role of positive psychology in the classroom. Pell Scholars and Senior Theses, 12, 1–23. Harinen, P., & Halme, J. (2012). Hyvä, paha koulu. Kouluhyvinvointia hakemassa [Good, bad school. Looking for well-being at school]. Helsinki: UNICEF Finland. Harjunen, E. (2009). How do teachers view their own pedagogical authority? Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 15(1), 109–129. doi:10.1080/13540600802661345 hooks, b. (2010). Teaching critical thinking. Practical wisdom. New York, NY: Routledge. Huebner, E. S., Gilman, R., Reschly, A. L., & Hall, R. (2009). Positive schools. In S. J. Lopez & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of positive psychology (pp. 561–568, 2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Inglehart, R., Foa, R., Peterson, C., & Welze, C. (2008). Development, freedom, and rising happiness: A global perspective (1981–2007). Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(4), 264–285. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00078.x

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Satu Uusiautti, PhD, works as an associate professor of education at the University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland, and is an adjunct professor of educational psychology at the University of Helsinki, Finland. Her research interests include success at work and in various areas of life, positive development and positive educational psychology as well as human flourishing and strengths. Her latest publications include, for example, The Psychology of Becoming a Successful Worker. Research on the Changing Nature of Achievement at Work (S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä, Routledge, New York, 2015) and Critical Eye on Education (S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä, Eds., United Press Global, Tallinn, 2015).

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PART 3 CARING RESEARCH COMMUNITY AND RESOURCES

KAARINA MÄÄTTÄ

6. A CARING SUPERVISOR

ABSTRACT

This chapter describes the elements of caring supervision of doctoral theses. The purpose is to describe the best practices and challenges of supervision especially from the supervisor’s perspective. The analysis is based on the author’s extensive experience as a supervisor and related data obtained for research and developmental purposes. Caring supervision is summarized into ten facts that illustrate the multidimensional nature of a supervision relationship. The findings can help supervisors develop in their important work of supervising doctoral theses. Keywords: supervision, doctoral thesis, phD student, dissertation, caring The supervisor’s role in supervising research and theses is a demanding and important one. When it comes to the supervision of doctoral theses, the positions and roles of supervisor and PhD students are even more unique. Still, many same roles that the supervisor adopts during supervision processes of any thesis are included in the supervision of PhD theses as well. The supervisor’s roles vary from a guide to friend and critic, and everything in between. Caring supervision of PhD theses has its own special features and presents a more student-centered approach than for example the concept of efficient supervision (Boud & Lee, 2009; Cryer, 2003; Delamont et al., 2008; Dunleavy, 2003; Evans & Kamler, 2005; Golde, 2007; Philips & Pugh, 2003; Taylor & Beasley, 2005). I will discuss them in detail in this chpater. First, I will introduce my background and experience with PhD theses. I have supervised 60 PhD theses at the Department of Education of the University of Lapland since 2002. I have described the dissertation processes and documented various phases of supervision and doctoral research work in the form of a researcher’s diary (see also Määttä, 2012). Furthermore, some of my students (N = 25) gave me their own written stories about their dissertation process. In addition, I corresponded with them by e-mail in hundreds of pages over the years during their dissertation processes. This chapter summarizes my findings based on the aforementioned data and practical experience as a supervisor. My specific focus has been on the nodes of the doctoral dissertation process and on my action as a supervisor. I have been interested in the research process from a supervisor’s point of view. What kinds of obstacles and drags the process includes that a supervisor especially could help smooth down? How can I as a supervisor S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä (Eds.), The Basics of Caring Research, 79–90. © 2016 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

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support PhD students in their research processes? In summary, my purpose in this chapter is to answer the following question: What is caring supervision of doctoral theses? For this purpose, I will use the data I have obtained during my years of a supervisor as described earlier. The communications used in the data are supervision conversations that took place in real supervision situations. As considered as a dialogue between a supervisor and a student, the original purpose of the supervision conversations was to enhance the work with thesis. I have asked every doctoral student for permission to use the data anonymously for this research purpose. All participants gave me permission to make their correspondence public. The data were analyzed with the content analysis method (Denzin, 1989). The main themes have been derived from the PhD students’ stories and my own observations and experiences as well as reflections of my own supervision. The purpose is to provide as much space as possible for my own perceptions alongside the PhD students’ voices. At the same time, I will reflect on the results compared with previous research about the supervision of the doctoral theses and its problems. THE ELEMENTS OF CARING SUPERVISION

According to my interpretation, caring supervision of doctoral theses consists of ten facts. They lay the foundation of a good supervision relationship and research process. It is important to pay attention to these facts, although not even the best supervision can guarantee that a doctoral thesis will be finished. Ultimately, the PhD student is responsible for his or her solutions and choices (Shavelson, 2007). And still, a caring supervisor can be irreplaceable. The following ten themes can also help supervisors develop in their important work of supervising doctoral theses. Caring Supervision is Sensitive Interaction Fundamentally, supervision is based on interaction and collaboration (see Wisker et al., 2003). This reciprocal relationship can be very sensitive and fragile, but it also has quite energizing and empowering features. Interestingly, all these features are experienced in mutual interaction between the supervisor and PhD student and, therefore, the depth and closeness of the relationship do not become very easily visible to other people (see Parry, 2007; Whitelock, Faulkner, & Miell, 2008). The supervision relationship and the supervisor’s and student’s way of working together can also be model that is transmitted to the next researcher generation (Lindén, Ohlin, & Brodin, 2013). However, it is possible to finish a dissertation process without abundant supervision, and on the other hand, some students need constant guidance and still do not ever reach the ultimate goal of graduation as a doctor. A doctoral dissertation as the highest academic thesis is always a proof of the PhD student’s profound studies and skills (Dill et al., 2006; Green & Powell, 80

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2005). A supervisor can encourage the student and help him or her make it to the top achievement. A good supervisor is also capable of supporting and strengthening the emerging talent in PhD students. Along with experience, the supervisor can recognize the PhD students’ need as well as obstacles of these future top researchers’ research work. The most far-reaching and rewarding aspect in supervision is to encourage talented researchers to use their abilities and expertise for the development of science. This can provide supervisors with opportunities to be creative and to perceive the influence of their work. A good supervision relationship and sensitive collaboration between the novice and senior researcher stimulates, gives new perspectives, and lead to new innovations in the supervisor’s research work as well (Halse, 2011; Kearns, Gardiner, & Marshall, 2008). Every PhD student becomes to know that the dissertation process will require plenty of initiative, familiarization, and toil. Although the work can be merely overestimated than underestimated, the supervisor should evaluate the student’s preparedness and commitment to PhD studies. It is unnecessary for the supervisor to engage in supervision without the student’s own engagement and enthusiasm. Both of them must be certain about the significance of the research. A dissertation process does not happen just in the collaboration between the supervisor and the PhD student. Although the completed thesis is the PhD student’s great achievement, numerous other people have also contributed to it. Support is given and especially needed from the student’s family and friends, but also from colleagues and employer. The university and academic world offer several beneficial services as well, such as library services as well as conferences and seminars (see Eraut, 2004; Boud & Lee, 2005). The seminars are beneficial because there students can safely talk about and share their thoughts with their peers who can comment on them and related solutions, and even give new ideas (Llado et al., 2014). The supervisor has a crucial role in creating a supportive atmosphere in the seminar and familiarizes PhD students with the research culture in their own field. Then, the students are socialized in the prevailing norms and standards in the field (Ferguson, 2009). The Emphases of Caring Supervision Change during the Process A doctoral research has its ups and downs, and critical nodes. This necessitates that foci and elements of supervision change during the process as well. First the research theme as well as concepts become specified (Golde, 2000; Rae, 2002). After deciding these fundamental directions, the PhD student can start familiarizing with the theory, methodology, and practice related in the research theme (McWilliam et al., 2005). The first encounters, conversations, and moments with a supervisor are determining factors at the beginning. Often, the student is shy and doubtful of his or her research abilities. If the student finds the supervisor caring, he or she is likely to 81

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start having belief in his or her chances. A caring supervisor supports the students, shows interest in and appreciates the student’s plans, and spares also time and give suggestions to enhance the quality of the research plan (Kumar & Stracke, 2007). During the research process, the supervision relationship changes. The initial sense of appreciation can become deeper, turn into friendship, or change toward an opposite direction, into collaboration between colleagues. Disagreements cannot be always avoided either (Wright & Cochrane, 2000). The professionalism of a caring supervisor becomes evident by not abandoning or leaving PhD students in trouble; not even when experiencing that the value of the supervision has not been appreciated at all. A caring supervisor understands and is able to predict the powerful impact the research work and the dissertation process can have on the student. Particularly, when working hard, at the limits of disappointment and fatigue, the supervisor’s sincere and unwavering support is invaluable to students. The special value of caring supervision in manifested in the PhD student’s trust in the supervisor staying on his or her side even when the progress is tangling or slow (Ellis & Shockley-Zalabak, 2001; Willemyns, Gallois, & Callan, 2003). As the doctoral research and the contents of the thesis develop, the ability to supervise and become supervised set a constant challenge. The work changes continuously due to new choices, reflections, and pendulum of options. The initial foci may not necessarily be functional at the end, even if their seemed so clear at the beginning—both in the supervisor’s and PhD student’s eyes. The final thesis is invariably just a shade of the initial research idea. A Caring Supervisor does not Hold Back Compliments and Appreciation The research process takes PhD students to the edges of their limits. Successes make them happy, while revision needs can frustrate. However, students are quite happy to admit and work with many deficits if the criticism is expressed alongside positive feedback and appreciative comments on the elements of the research. Therefore, a caring supervisor should not underestimate the value of compliments (see Berg & Dejong, 2005). Actually, the well-written parts of a thesis may easily be disregarded as selfevident. A supervisor can assume that the PhD student already knows his or her good sides as an author, researcher, and expert in the field. Even if meaning good and trying to motivate the student, the supervisor can tend to focus on the limitations and weaknesses without noticing the strengths of the work sufficiently. A caring supervisor uses words of compliments being aware of their inspiring meaning and even consciously looks for successes on which base the positive feedback. It is hardly impossible to give too much positive feedback, which can become determining comments during the difficult phases of the research work and writing the thesis. In addition to the positive interaction and atmosphere in supervision, the structural clarity is important (Atkins & Brown, 1988). 82

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It is also important that the PhD student thanks the supervisor for insightful comments, time spent with his or her research, and conversations or useful viewpoints. This can be energizing to the supervisor and make him or her want to make the student’s process smooth and avoid unnecessary sidetracks. Still, a straight path may not be easily found and accomplishing the goal necessitates humility and careful introspection from the supervisor and the student. The greatest reward is thanking, which can be said and experienced reciprocally (Lindén, Ohlin, & Brodin, 2013). A Caring Supervisor Motivates to Write Writing cannot be emphasized too much in the supervision of PhD theses. There is no short cut to how to learn to be an excellent writer. Often, reasonable advice for a PhD student is to assure that hardly anyone writes finished text at once, but writing takes numerous rounds of revisions and re-organizations (Aitchison & Lee, 2006). A supervisor can take the reader’s role and estimates whether the text is understandable to readers who are not familiar with the study beforehand. It is quite usual that PhD students find it problematic to write clearly about their own research solutions and related choices made during the process. When writing for the academic audience, the most important guideline is to avoid vagueness. In the scientific discussion, there is no room for different interpretation but every choice made has to be explicitly explained in the thesis (Kamler, 2008). Indeed, PhD students frequently are worried about their writing work and may find it impossible to type words. The best solution to this problem is to encourage them to write those sections that they consider the easiest to address at that moment. There are always parts that should be written anyway, and therefore, the words may start to roll in when the first threshold is conquered (Booth, Clombs, & Williams, 2003). The interconnectedness of writing and thinking is manifested in the way the text reveals the researcher’s reasoning, and therefore, keeping up the rhythm of writing is crucial during the research work (Paltridge & Starfield, 2008). Likewise, the supervisor has to be prepared to read differently various students’ texts; while some need to be merely assured of their direction, others will benefit from a more detailed reading and feedback already at the beginning of their writing work. Learning writing skills never ends; there is always something to improve and practice, and, here, caring feedback can be of great help (see Murray & Moore, 2006). Caring Supervision Clarifies the Requirement of PhD Research PhD students easily tend to think that the demands and expectations set for a doctoral thesis are overwhelming (see Mullins & Kiley, 2002). To prevent these thoughts taking too big a role during the research process, constant communication between a 83

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supervisor and a PhD student is needed. Sometimes, students are afraid of bothering their supervisors too often or with matters they consider minor. On the other hand, students do not always have words to explain issues holding back their progress but which caring supervisors can be able to identify when talking or communicating otherwise with the students. PhD students who work hard with their theses will find the supervisor’s caring inquiries about their progress encouraging and helpful. Caring supervision means that the supervisor gives time to PhD students. If communication has long delays, many matters or problems will change or lose their topicality. Creating an open interaction and reciprocal, prompt manner of communicating can prevent the research process from sidetracking (Wright & Cochrane, 2000). A Caring Supervisor Teaches Time Management A supervisor has to accept the fact and be aware of that students use their time very differently. A schedule for working with a doctoral thesis will help planning and organizing the phases and contents of research work and writing. The doctoral research process is peculiar because it does not usually involve any particular deadline. This is also one reason why the processes progress differently; students do differ quite much on their ability to push themselves to work. However, when the finish line looms, most students want to advance their work at full speed; their work manifests inspiration and sense of expertise (Doncaster & Lester, 2002; Malfroy & Yates, 2003; Murray & Lawrence, 2008; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Some students become overwhelmed by their aspiration to get the work done. Too tight a schedule can turn into burden or stress. At their worst, they can staunch the writing work totally, and the fluent working at the beginning can turn into awkward or clumsy presentation. This can be the result of trying too much, too perfect, and too quickly. The solution, however, may seem simple. The caring supervisor can help the PhD student see that it is time to slow down and call a time out. Still even, the supervisor may lose the sense of speed (Delamont, Atkinson, & Parry, 2000; Philips & Pugh, 2000). A caring supervisor is able to notice students’ various life situations and changes in their motivation. They cannot have similar goals when it comes to scheduling of the work. The doctoral research is not necessarily the only content of life, and progress in doctoral studies can require time for family, hobbies, and other work tasks as well. Some students focus on research intensively, prioritizing it in their lives. Some others proceed more peacefully alongside day jobs and other areas of life. A Caring Supervisor Helps Tolerate Uncertainty and Criticism Students also differ in their ability to accept criticism and advice. Some will be more easily disappointed or offended than others. The risk of a PhD student quitting the work is always possible. The supervisor has to evaluate how to help sensitively 84

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and constructively the student, and also show appreciation. Many supervisors think how to be critical but encouraging to students when they dissect their research (Caffarella & Barnett, 2000). Usually, PhD students are prepared to criticism and know how evaluations make an important part of scientific work. Still, criticism can be surprisingly hurting, and probably everyone has to experience disappointments and frustrations at some point. It is normal—and understandable—that students tend to defend themselves and underestimate revisions. The core of caring supervision is to mold criticism and problems in the thesis into concrete revisions suggestions. Then, criticism seems like feedback that can improve the research (Cullen et al., 1994). All this requires humbleness not only from the student but also from the supervisor as well. Caring supervision means constant learning and renewal (Costley & Stephenson, 2009). Indeed, the supervisor can experience uncertainty during the supervision process too. Admitting this can help the PhD student understand the nature of research work: there are not ready solutions while optional routes are abundant. Caring supervision maintains sensitivity and openness to various solutions. The right direction is found in the ability to justify the choices made (Stracke & Kumar, 2010). A Caring Supervisor Monitors the Fulfillment of the Quality Criteria of a Doctoral Thesis A supervisor has a special responsibility in the dissertation process. He or she has to evaluate the progress of a thesis in the light of the criteria set by the academic community (see Golde, 2000). A PhD thesis is a research-based, scientific presentation in one of the academic fields. It is to show the student’s ability to apply scientific research methods independently and critically, and to create new scientific information. The doctoral thesis should fulfil the following criteria of scientific contribution and the student’s scholarship and ability. It has to (a) include new scientific information and well-developed results and be scientifically convincing; (b) show the candidate’s ability to critical thinking, deep familiarization with one’s academic field, and knowledge of scientific research methods and their application; and be scientifically honest and follow the research ethical guidelines (Golding, Sharmini, & Lazarovitch, 2014). Sometimes, it is necessary to clearly emphasize that the thesis is not made for the supervisor and who therefore cannot close eyes from the problems in the thesis. The deficits have to be addressed sooner or later: after unfavoring pre-examination statements, the revision work can be laborious to the student and the supervisor as well. Certainly, the supervisor can become blind to the text too; when focusing on some parts of the thesis, the supervisor can disregard other significant issues that are commented by pre-examiners, for a good reason. A PhD student has to be able to trust a supervisor’s opinions when assessing the quality of a thesis (Kearns, Gardiner, & Marshall, 2008). For a student, it is difficult to know when the thesis is ready for pre-examination, and thus, the supervisor should 85

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point out the strengths and weaknesses of the work. Still, the student has the ultimate responsibility for putting the thesis to the official review. Realizing the possible deficits in the thesis, the student likely finds it easier to wait for the pre-examiners’ statements and to revise the thesis according to them (see Winter, Griffiths, & Green, 2000). A Caring Supervisor Provides Many Kinds of Feedback The feedback and suggestions the supervisor provides to the PhD students require many kinds of expertise, too. Thus, the writing talent is necessary for a supervisor if aiming at giving clear written directions. The purpose of feedback is to provide concrete advice and to enhance the smooth progress of the student’s PhD research. Still, students accept feedback differently, which can, however, depend on a supervisor’s skills of giving it, too (Cho, Schunn, & Charney, 2006). Caring supervision includes repetitions, feedback giving both verbally and literally, as well as making sure that the feedback was received and understood (Tracy, 1997). According to my experience, written feedback has its special benefits. Emails and papers can be saved and returned whenever needed. This makes it possible to consider and make choices based on the feedback in peace, and also check the way the notes are understood. The risk of misunderstandings should never be underestimated. Therefore, supervision meetings and comparing notes together are invaluable. Caring supervision leans on constructive feedback. Everyone’s work has strengths that can be highlighted first during each supervision meeting. The feedback will always focus on the text and study, not on the student as a person. An accepting and encouraging atmosphere is the key because it also allows the feedback be honest and respectful. Feedback meetings should be arranged regularly. At its best, a supervising meeting ends with a mutual understanding of how the student proceeds next. It is important to sum up to correct any misreading (Ellis & Shockley-Zalabak, 2001). Caring Supervision Provides Suggestions and Options, in Addition to Questions It is important that a supervisor has the ability to ask, but, more often than not, that is not enough (Lea & Street, 2000). Although good questions make a student focus on and ponder various parts of the work, these questions will be better concretized if a supervisor is able to suggest alternatives. Fundamentally, the student is the one making decisions concerning the research, but examples and suggestions can help with the task. The language used in supervision and the questions concerning a thesis change during a dissertation process. A caring supervisor tries to find ways to guide the process that do not overwhelm the student (Watkins & Scaturo, 2014). Even the correction suggestions can be divided and suggested one section at a time (cf., Tepper, 2000). This kind of piecing of the work can make the progress smoother and prevent unnecessary work. 86

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CONCLUSION

The ten elements described in this chapter illustrate the various sides of caring supervision. It becomes evident that supervision means also the supervisor’s selfreflection, testing of one’s limits, and being able to change even supervising methods that he or she has previously found good. A caring supervisor has to constantly evaluate what he or she is capable of as a supervisor, how to inspire the student to toil and persevere, and to marvel their own abilities. A committed supervisor can find the work the most satisfying and self-fulfilling when realizing the core of supervision relationship. Supervision of doctoral theses fulfills the core features of meaningful and appropriately challenging work allowing plenty of opportunities to develop personally and professionally (e.g., Uusiautti & Määttä, 2011). Caring supervision can even lead to the so-called “perfect storm” that can turn into a much deeper and more personal engagement with the supervisor’s work (see e.g., Flint, Kurumada, Fisher, & Zisook, 2011). Successes and personal development in supervision boost positive experiences that are important to the supervisor’s coping as well. Rimé (2009) has stated that positive emotions enhance individual well-being by the increase of the level of positive affect that they entail and by the positive feedback that a successful experience brings about one’s action. This way caring supervision cares for the supervisor, too (Halse, 2011). The nature and importance of the supervision relationship has been studied relatively much. The relationship has been analyzed from many perspectives, for example, as a role relationship (Ellis & Dell, 1986) or power relationship (Manathunga, 2007). In addition, students’ (Heath, 2002) and supervisors’ (Delamont, Atkinson, & Parry, 2000) perceptions of good or failed supervision relationships have been studied. Several phases of the process or flaws in supervision can threaten or hinder the completion of the doctoral thesis (see Burton & Hoobler, 2006; Grant 2005; Lian, Ferris, & Brown, 2012). The approach introduced in this chapter can help overcoming many of this nodes and obstacles. To conclude, caring supervision can help address the challenges and opportunities the work entails today and in the future. How do students perceive supervision during their dissertation processes (Health, 2002) or how do supervisors describe their supervision work (Johnson, 1997) are interesting questions that need to be addressed and further studied as the number of doctoral theses increases and how their supervision has to adjust to the current requirements (see e.g., Park, 2005). Certainly, supervision practices will get new forms, but the core is still the interaction between the supervisor and student. That also makes supervision extremely fascinating. The relationship between a supervisor and a doctoral student is always one of a kind, as is each and every dissertation process. Still, the goal is the same; it is the way toward it that could be found in the tenets of caring supervision. Completing a doctoral thesis is a fantastic and immemorial experience for a PhD student and a supervisor. It is the pinnacle of caring supervision. 87

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Kaarina Määttä, PhD, works as a professor of educational psychology and a vicerector at the University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland. Her research interests include caring teacherhood and teacher training, the pedagogy of supervision of doctoral theses, love and human relationships as well as positive psychology and human resources. Her latest publications include Obsessed with Doctoral Theses (K. Määttä, Ed., Sense Publishers, Rotterdam, 2012) and Early Child Education and Care in Finland (K. Määttä & S. Uusiautti, Eds., Routledge, New York, 2013).

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7. A STORY OF AN IDEAL STUDY PROCESS

ABSTRACT

Universities’ competition for talented applicants is tightening and many universities have to think about methods to increase their attractiveness in the eyes of students. Smooth study processes are important not only for the continuity of the university but also for the student’s well-being and employment after studies. Certain universitylevel measures can enhance this process, although they alone do not guarantee swift graduation. In this chapter, student tutors’ experiences of factors enhancing study processes are introduced. The data were combined into one narrative that crystallizes the happy and smooth study process called “the ideal study process”. Keywords: university student, smooth study process, study paths, narrative research In Finland, one of the topical themes of university-level education is intensification of university studies. The general goal is to expedite students’ graduation and moving in the worklife. The Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture (2010) regulates university funding through various criteria for intensified studies. In order to secure their funding, universities have to think about measures that strengthen the smoothness of students’ study processes. Thus, it is important to pay attention to a good startup and progress of studies, and ability to make good choices along studies and guidance regarding study choices and in question of motivational and other problems. This concern is also important in economic sense (e.g., Gilpin, 2008). The problems in the smoothness of university studies, and prolonged studies and quitting are widely studied internationally as well (Bennett, 2003; Cook & Lecket, 1999; Kuh et al., 2008; Määttä & Uusiautti, 2011; Uusiautti & Määttä, 2013a, 2013b). Likewise, there is plenty of research on the factors that are crucial for the favorable progress of studies. Student engagement has often been introduced as the key factor: For example, Cruce, Wolniak, Seifert, and Pascarella (2006) suggest that good practices in education have a unique, positive impact on student development as they boost student engagement. According to Kezar and Kinzie (2006) such features of a quality undergraduate education are the following: quality begins with an organizational culture that values high expectations, respect for diverse learning styles, and emphasis on the early years of study; quality undergraduate curriculum requires coherence in learning, synthesizing experiences, on-going practice of learned skills, and integrating education with experience; and quality undergraduate

S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä (Eds.), The Basics of Caring Research, 91–101. © 2014 Global Journals Inc. All rights reserved.

K. Määttä ET AL.

instruction builds in active learning, assessment and prompt feedback, collaboration, adequate time on task, and out of class contact with faculty (see also Kuh, 2003). Theilheimer (1991) emphasizes the influence of a positive learning environment as it can foster study processes through (1) comfort (creating a feeling of safety, accommodating errors, giving students the freedom of expressing themselves without constraints, creating the feeling of belonging to peer group); (2) clarity (providing clear instructions, breaking down material to smaller chunks to maintain the feeling of accomplishment, however small); (3) respect (mutual respect between students and the teacher); (4) relationships (particularly caring relationships between the teacher and individual students, teacher attending each student individually); (5) responsibility (giving students a degree of control over decisions concerning their learning). University-level studies are demanding and students need special support and guidance (Egan et al., 2009)—they need to be cared for. In her studies on the supervision of doctoral theses, Määttä (2012) represented that the supervisor’s resources can be divided into four dimensions of Will, Knowledge, Actions, and Proficiency, each contributing to the supervision relationship. Will means the supervisor’s commitment to supervision, whereas knowledge refers to the substance knowledge and/or the mastery and ability to comprehend the overall structure. Actions are to ensure that the contents meet the scientific quality requirements. Proficiency comprises positive and supportive supervision methods and personality. A supervisor can emphasize different features depending on his or her own style and on the student’s work habits and needs (see Richardson, 2005). Supervision is not likely to succeed if one of the aforementioned resources is completely missing. In addition to student-specific features and guidance and supervision provided by the faculty, many characteristics of university community can also either enhance or hinder students’ study processes. Study atmosphere can vary from open and vivid interaction between students and teachers and other personnel all to way to distant, minimal, and formal relationships between these groups. Indeed, the meaning of informal student-faculty contacts and learning outcomes has been noted already three decades ago (see Pascarella, 1980). Good and supportive learning atmosphere makes learning and studying seem meaningful according to several studies (see e.g., Egan et al., 2009; Kezar & Kinzie, 2006; Mayya & Roff, 2004). Previous studies on factors that support and disturb students’ study processes do exist abundantly but a new and important viewpoint to the phenomenon is the one of student tutors (Leidenfrost et al., 2011). By the concept of student tutor, we mean students who have enrolled to act as voluntary tutors for new students. The selected tutors represent students who have succeeded well in studies. They also receive remuneration from the university. Because of their tutoring task, the students have to think about possible drags on studies and how to prevent prolongation of studies, and also about those factors that boost studies (Heirdsfield et al., 2008). They are suitable for the task because study processes are part of their real lives. 92

A story of an ideal study process

We wanted to analyze what the most important factors enhancing smooth study processes are according to student tutors’ perceptions. How to have as successful and fruitful study processes as possible? The fundamental assumption was that everyone applying for university studies wants to have a balance study process aiming at rapid graduation, but another purpose was to be able to illustrate how a holistic viewpoint to students’ lives and paths can exemplify caring research communities, as well. OBTAINING STUDENT TUTORS’ OPINIONS

Our research was performed among students tutors of the University of Lapland (N = 82) participating in the fall 2013 tutor training. The university administration organized the training during which the forthcoming tutors had to, among other tasks, name the worst pitfalls of study processes. They had to ruminate how to enhance the smoothness of study processes and swift graduation. These questions were to lay the foundation to their work as student tutors. Students who had studied for 1 to 3 years were selected as student tutors. Their task was to support and guide new students how to get started with studies and help them enter the university world. Naturally, the tutors own experiences of university studies were fresh which helped them to view which are the most important issues to discuss with the newcomers. Simultaneously, they described the features of an ideal study process. The data were collected in the form of written answers of how to have as smooth study process as possible. The answers were also discussed during the training together with the whole student tutor group. The student tutors represented four faculties of the University of Lapland (Faculty of Education, Faculty of Law, Faculty of Social Sciences, and Faculty of Art and Design). The data were analyzed with the method of narrative analysis. Narrative research can be defined as a research that utilizes or analyses narrative data collected by narratives (e.g. biographies) or other ways (e.g. anthropologists’ observational narratives). Thus, narratives can be either a research object or means to study a phenomenon (Lieblich, Tuval-Mashiach, & Zilber, 1998). Narrative research does not focus on objective and—generalized facts but local, personal, and subjective information this is actually considered as strength in narrative research because informants’ voice can be heard in a more authentic way (Guba & Lincoln, 1995). Narratives can also be used when analyzing the reasons for acts. In this research, analysis was made by narrative structuring that pursues to contribute a cohesive description of student tutors’ perceptions of a fluent study process. Likewise, the analysis can be seen as category-content focused approach where parts of narrative are categorized into different categories (Lieblich, TuvalMashiach, & Zilber, 1998). Furthermore, narrative categories can be used for constructing consistent narratives (Polkinghorne, 2005). Human experiences and the meanings they give to things have a central role that is their interpretations of life 93

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and reality. The approach assumes that there is not any objective reality, but there can be many realities (see O’Shea, 2014). After the narrative analysis, we gathered the factors that seemed to form the basis of favorable study processes. Finally, we constructed a narrative of an ideal study process that describes a happy and smooth university study path. A HAPPY UNIVERSITY STUDENT’S NARRATIVE

After graduating from the upper secondary education, the student hoped he could study at a university. He studied for the entrance tests although the entrance test books were rather difficult. The entrance test seemed demanding, he was nervous about the result. Then, one summer day, he got an acceptance and welcoming letter from the university: he was accepted as a student. He started studies and wanted to perform at least 55 study points per year (1 ECTS study point equals to about 24 hours of studies). After a while, he noticed that many factors made his studies easier, and so he studied, attended lectures and exams, read for exams, and wrote essays. As he gathered study points, his understanding and academic expertise also got strengthened. He also got to know his fellow students and the faculty and other personnel. He enjoyed his studies at the university. He found the following areas of education especially pleasing. Teaching Arrangements He was secured with a smooth and balanced study process yearly. Obligatory studies were not overlapping but were designed to be sequential or parallel. Some lectures could be followed from his own laptop at the time he found the most suitable and when he could not attend the lectures at the university. Courses were offered evenly at various semesters, months, and weekdays, and he had plenty of doing and studying all days long. Likewise, he had good options for having exams, and especially using the exam room. This so-called exam aquarium is a space in which a student can have an exam at his preferred time. The teacher has saved the exam questions beforehand in the exam system. The exam aquarium is equipped with a computer and a surveillance camera. The student found the exam aquarium very useful in times of difficulties getting the text books from the library. He also was happy of having many optional ways of performing the courses. Sometimes writing an essay was a good way of showing his learning, while at other times a traditional exam could suit better. Curriculum The curriculum presented the phases of sequential studies in an understandable manner. The model study path also helped him to see which could be a recommended 94

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order of performing studies. Furthermore, discussions he had with the teacher tutor were of great help. Every now and then, he could stop and check how his studies had advanced. If some course seemed to demanding or unclear or he encountered other hindrances, obstacles, or problems, the teacher tutor could help. Other teaching, research, and administrative personnel were also willing to help with any problem he had. Some of the courses appeared very laborious, but on the other hand, he got plenty of study points from these courses. In all, the study points corresponded to the workload involved in courses. Text books that were supposed to study for exams were often available online due to which he did not have to queue for the printed books from library. However, the library personnel had always served him in an extremely student-oriented manner and had helped him for searching relevant literature for his theses. Guidance and Contact Teaching He was very pleased with the plentiful and detailed feedback he received from teachers regarding his progress. The easiest way of having feedback was the exams had in the exam aquarium: the professor or university lecturer gave the score accompanied with written description of what he had succeeded in, what he should pay more attention to, and how he could improve his scores in the future. Likewise, the teacher’s response to course feedback from students written in the electric study service gave him an impression that the student feedback mattered. His study motivation was significantly maintained by the fact that the exams and essays were scored quickly so that he could move on with his studies promptly. Indeed, his university had distinguished from other universities with its reputation of giving scores without further ado. He could arrange face-to-face discussions and interaction situations regularly with teachers. If he was not always able to arrange time for face-to-face meetings with teacher, the teacher would still answer to the student’s contacts immediately by email. He got the sense of being appreciated, supported and cared for, and that the teachers were interested in his study progress. One-on-one discussions with teachers and researchers were inspiring. When he was doing his bachelor’s or master’s thesis, he got from the meetings with his supervisors and the research seminars perspective, guidance, confidence on right direction, and encouragement. From time to time, he did feel surprised how well his supervisor had read his unfinished drafts filled with various defects. The supervisor’s advice helped him to proceed with his research work. The student was very thankful knowing that his supervisor had plenty of other teaching, research, and administrative work. He thought that he would always remember the appreciation and support he was provided with. He decided to do his best to spread the positive message about his university to his employer and as an alumni to prospective students. 95

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Study Community The student remembers his first days at the university. His mind is happy but expectant and excited: What will university studies mean and demand? Insecurity and suspense were to fade quickly after well-designed orientation lectures had at the university. Both personnel from study administration and his own faculty, the professor of his field and teaching stuff, welcomed him. Student and teacher tutors answered numerous questions, and the student could notice how many things he had in common with other new students. Spending time together and getting to know his new fellow students helped him to settle in the new place to which he had moved from home, quite faraway. The first lectures riveted him and he felt that he had made the right decision when choosing this particular discipline at this particular university. He found even reading the text books easier after attending the basic courses held by appreciated professors who explained the fundamental questions of their special fields. Moreover, mutual conversations and co-operation with fellow students in studies and in leisure were remarkable. Due to communality and shared hobbies, he started to like his study place. The student graduated within roughly four years, because he would also study during summers. The university offered good chances of performing studies and especially he would use the library and the exam aquarium often during summers. Still now, after graduated as a master, he feels a deep longing when thinking of his study years—doctoral studies looming in his mind. CONCLUSIONS

This chapter summoned up factors that the student tutors found the most crucial for prompt and smooth study process and graduation. Their thoughts were combined into a narrative that describes the ideal study process, being a sum of several factors. From a student’s point of view, the main factors were the teaching arrangements, the curriculum, guidance and contact teaching, and study community (see also Blackmore, 2009). Naturally, everyone also perceives the smoothness of studies subjectively and evaluates personal achievements in different ways (Maddux, 2002). Expectations for the future affect greatly how people react on changes and challenges (Carver & Scheier, 2002). Everyone chooses their own strategy that makes their study paths meaningful (Carver & Scheier, 2005; Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991). At the personal level, students’ study processes vary greatly depending on their backgrounds, starting points, study skills, and experiences they get during their education. Students have certain learning abilities and habits. If successful, they can strengthen their knowledge and self-efficacy. However, students’ selfimages can be strengthened or dashed at the university (Cassidy & Eachus, 2000; Gettinger & Seibert, 2002), and therefore, it is important to consider the factors that 96

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the university can pay attention to when trying to find the ways of supporting swift graduation. On the other hand, student tutors emphasize students’ motivation which reflects in their way of seizing studies and persistence (Allen, 1999). Outer rewards matter too. Receiving positive and encouraging feedback on one’s own progress is important as it improves one’s receptiveness to new learning experiences and tolerance of failures. On the other hand, it is quite obvious that the perceived feeling of insufficiency, poor performance level, and teachers’ inadequate guidance and disinterest decrease motivation (Brew & Peseta, 2004; Pajares, 2001). At the university level, the professors and lecturers’ pedagogical and scientific professionalism, curricula, and the atmosphere and conditions of the university (see Määttä & Uusiautti, 2011; Uusiautti & Määttä, 2013a, 2013b) can be named the core factors. Basically, the curriculum of the master’s degree provides both teachers and students with a clear goal. It answers the questions of what kinds of expertise students will have and what their studies include. Learning goals in the curriculum tell what students are expected to know after taking a certain study unit. Goals also direct working and provide standard against which learning, teaching, and studying can be evaluated (see Blackmore, 2009). DISCUSSION

The ideal study process probably does not exist, but it can be pursued only in a caring research community. However and no doubt, studying and learning always necessitate effort, and personal goals cannot be reached without pain. Neither do hard trying and diligent labor guarantee success. However, good, informed, and student-centered teaching provided by the university is salient (Neumann, 2001; Ramsden, 2003). But ultimately, the completion of an academic degree is the student’s responsibility: even the most skillful teacher cannot learn on the student’s behalf. The teacher can enhance learning through exquisite teaching skills but also through appreciating interaction with students. Today, it is not enough just to bear the responsibility both for the discipline the teacher represents, but good university teachers are concerned of their students’ success and well-being, too (Egan et al., 2009; Mackinnon, 2004; Norton et al., 2005) The university conditions cover the outward conditions including study facilities and their locations; the number of teachers in relation to the number of students; social, economic, and health services; library services (the availability of books, opening hours); ICT facilities and their sufficiency; the length of study days; and the accumulation of courses versus even division by weekdays and time. It is a known fact (e.g., Greenwald, Hedges, & Laine, 1996) that a broad range of resources are positively related to students’ success. Universities have to compete for studies and have results to show when it comes to teaching, research, and societal influence. University teachers’ personal merits are mostly based on research accomplishments but teaching and guidance of students is 97

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important for the continuation of the university operation. Teaching and guidance can be the most rewarding areas of work (Määttä, 2012). Quality guidance and teaching make a central, valuable part of the whole sphere of academic work (Biggs & Tang, 2003; Uusiautti & Määttä, 2013a, 2013b). Universities are liable for students: the promises given in the universities application guides must be fulfilled. Each and every student should feel welcome and become convinced that they made a good choice (Cook & Lecket, 1999). On the other hand, the most far-reaching and rewarding part of teaching and mentoring is to make students interested and seize the questions of their discipline, and finally become enthusiastic about working for the development of science (Schunk & Pajares, 2005). Student tutors’ work aiming at overcoming obstacles of smooth study processes is valuable. Their voices and experiences can highlight issues that the teaching and administration personnel of the university has not paid attention to (Storrs, Putsche, & Taylor, 2008). As manifested in the student tutors’ perceptions, caring for students may be the lifeline of the quality and profitability of higher education. University teachers’ work is filled with ever-increasing demands, and therefore, the need for education of the university pedagogy increases. Indeed, university teachers should seize the material aimed for supporting academic teacherhood. University pedagogy can develop if university teachers evaluate their own development as supervisors (Emilsson, 2007), reflect on and diversify teaching practices (McCallin & Nayar, 2012), and plan teaching together with students making them inspired and succeed (Manathunga, 2005). The smoothness of study process does not only concern university level studies, nor is just a matter of education policy. It reflects on many other areas too. Finally, it is obvious that students want to study, be happy for performing studies and find the joy from progress, gather intellectual capital, develop toward expertise, receive an academic degree, and enter worklife. Study results are related to student wellbeing as well (Gillman, Huebner, & Furlong, 2009; Gillman, Huebner, & Laughlin, 2001; Natvig et al., 2003). Sometimes, factors hindering smooth studies do not depend so much on students’ prerequisites or the measures of university, but trouble of finding economic resources. In Finland, many students have to work in jobs not corresponding to their study fields to earn their keep. Still, the opportunities and student-centered solutions the university can come up with should not be belittled. Students and their study success make the secret of a good university. REFERENCES Allen, D. (1999). Desire to finish college: En empirical link between motivation and persistence. Research in Higher Education, 40(4), 461–485. doi:10.1023/A:1018740226006 Bennett, R. (2003). Determinants of undergraduate student drop out rates in a university business studies department. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 27(2), 123–141. doi:10.1080/030987703200065154

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A story of an ideal study process Biggs, J., & Tang, C. (2003). Teaching for quality learning at university. Berkshire: Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press. Blackmore, J. (2009). Academic pedagogies, quality logics and performative universities: Evaluating teaching and what students want. Studies in Higher Education, 34(8), 857–872. doi:10.1080/03075070902898664 Brew, A., & Peseta, T. (2004). Changing postgraduate supervision practice: A programme to encourage learning through reflection and feedback. Innovations in Education and Training International, 41(1), 5–22. doi:10.1080/1470329032000172685 Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2002). Optimism. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 231–243). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2005). Engagement, disengagement, coping, and catastrophe. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 527–547). New York, NY & London: The Guilford Press. Cassidy, S., & Eachus, P. (2000). Learning style, academic belief systems, self-report student proficiency and academic achievement in higher education. Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Experimental Educational Psychology, 20(3), 307–322. doi:10.1080/713663740 Cook, A., & Lecket, J. (1999). Do expectations meet reality? A survey of changes in first-year student opinion. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 23(2), 157–171. doi:10.1080/0309877990230201 Cruce, T., Wolniak, G. C., Seifert, T. A., & Pascarella, E. T. (2006). Impacts of good practices on cognitive development, learning orientations, and graduate degree plans during the first year of college. Journal of College Student Development, 47(4), 365–383. doi:10.1353/csd.2006.0042 Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The selfdetermination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3&4), 325–346. Egan, R., Stockley, D., Brouwer, B., Tripp, D., & Stechyson, N. (2009). Relationships between area of academic concentration, supervisory style, student needs and best practices. Studies in Higher Education, 34(3), 337–345. doi:10.1080/03075070802597143 Emilsson, U. M. (2007). Supervision of supervisors: On developing supervision in postgraduate education. Higher Education Research and Development, 26(2), 163–179. doi:10.1080/07294360701310797 Gettinger, M., & Seibert, J. K. (2002). Contributions of study skills to academic competence. School Psychology Review, 31(3), 350–365. Gillman, R., Huebner E. S., & Furlong, M. J. (Eds.). (2009). Handbook of positive psychology in schools. New York, NY: Routledge. Gillman, R., Huebner, E. S., & Laughlin, J. E. (2000). A first study of the multidimensional students’ life satisfaction scale with adolescents. Social Indicators Research, 52(2), 135–160. doi:10.1023/A:1007059227507 Gilpin, J. M. (2008). Teaching happiness. The role of positive psychology in the classroom. Pell Scholars and Senior Theses, 12, 1–23. Greenwald, R., Hedges, L. V., & Laine, R. D. (1996). The effect of school resources on student achievement. Review of Educational Research, 66(3), 361–396. doi:10.3102/00346543066003361 Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1995). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 105–117). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Heirdsfield, A. M., Walker, S., Walsh, K., & Wilss, L. (2008). Peer mentoring for first-year teacher education students: The mentors’ experience. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 16(2), 109–124. doi:10.1080/13260901916135 Kezar, A. J., & Kinzie, J. L. (2006). Examining the ways institutions create student engagement: The role of mission. Journal of College Student Development, 47(2), 149–172. doi:10.1353/csd.2006.0018 Kuh, G. (2003). What we’re learning about student engagement from NSSE: Benchmarks for effective educational practices. Change, 35(2), 24–32. doi:10.1080/00091380309604090 Kuh, G. D., Cruce, T. M., Shoup, R., Kinzie, J., & Gonyes, R. M. (2008). Unmasking the effects of student engagement on first-year college grades and persistence. The Journal of Higher Education, 79(5), 540–563. doi:10.1353/jhe.0.0019

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Kaarina Määttä, PhD, works as a professor of educational psychology and a vicerector at the University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland. Her research interests include caring teacherhood and teacher training, the pedagogy of supervision of doctoral theses, love and human relationships as well as positive psychology and human resources. Her latest publications include Obsessed with Doctoral Theses (K. Määttä, Ed., Sense Publishers, Rotterdam, 2012) and Early Child Education and Care in Finland (K. Määttä & S. Uusiautti, Eds., Routledge, New York, 2013). Satu Uusiautti, PhD, works as an associate professor of education at the University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland, and is an adjunct professor of educational psychology at the University of Helsinki, Finland. Her research interests include success at work and in various areas of life, positive development and positive educational psychology as well as human flourishing and strengths. Her latest publications include, for example, The Psychology of Becoming a Successful Worker. Research on the Changing Nature of Achievement at Work (S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä, Routledge, New York, 2015) and Critical Eye on Education (S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä, Eds., United Press Global, Tallinn, 2015). Marju Määttä, MA, is a doctoral candidate and works as a project coordinator in the Rovaniemi Municipal Federation of Education, Rovaniemi, Finland. Her research interests include students’ study paths and learning processes and development of life management skills.

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8. SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING AS THE ARENA OF POWER AND CARING

ABSTRACT

Scientific publishing has become one of the most important means of not only advancing researchers’ careers but also securing funding for universities. Therefore, the atmosphere in academic communities often appears very competitive, which can weaken trust and open collaboration between colleagues. What is the role of co-authorship in writing? How to perceive the peer review process as a part of publishing and scientific discourse? In this chapter, scientific publishing of research studies in peer reviewed journals is viewed as an arena of power and caring. The purpose is (1) to discuss the possibility of caring review process and (2) to discuss the possibility of caring collaboration between researchers in scientific writing. The power of collaboration and benefits of caring reviews are introduced as conclusions. Keywords: scientific publishing, caring research, co-author, peer review, caring collaboration Research and the researcher do not become acknowledged without writing and publishing about the research results and findings. Every researcher dreams of writing research articles so that they convince, further scientific discussion, are to credit, and show the researcher’s talents and quality of his or her research work. Plenty of high-quality publications is the goal of many researchers. This chapter is about the process of publishing an article. The purpose here is to use this part of academic life as an example of viewing the possibility of positive, caring practices in science. On the one hand, articles go through peer reviews which are an important arena of scientific discussion. The first attempt in this chapter is to view peer-reviewing as a caring form of researcher interaction. This viewpoint is largely based on my former work as a specialist of scientific publishing in my institution, peer-review data obtained during this period as well as on numerous memberships in editorial boards and peer reviewer nominations in various journals. On the other hand, this chapter wants to discuss the publishing process especially from a researcher’s perspective. How to cope with the increasing demands on publishing? One way is to indulge in collaboration with colleagues. A supportive, open-minded collaboration could be a way of increasing not only the number of publications but also the quality of them. The author’s numerous studies in the field of well-being and S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä (Eds.), The Basics of Caring Research, 103–117. © 2016 Consortia Academia Publishing. All rights reserved.

S. Uusiautti

success at work especially from the positive educational psychological viewpoint have worked as the foundation of this perspective (see e.g., Uusiautti, 2008, 2013; Uusiautti & Määttä, 2015). This chapter will combine these viewpoints and attempts to have a look at the dilemmas of (1) whether a caring review process is possible and, if it is, how to define it, and (2) whether caring collaboration in academic teams is possible and, if it is, how to define it. The Pressure of Publishing The implications of the manuscript review and decision-making process for both scientific knowledge and scientists’ careers are widely acknowledged (Bakanic, McPhail, & Simon, 1987). Publishing is important not only to researchers themselves but to universities: funding is greatly based on the researchers’ abilities to publish highquality scientific articles. Wen, Ching, and Tang (2013) have described knowledge production as a market-like operation characterized by internationalization and competition. It means that published journal articles are valuable in a very concrete manner. They also serve as merits when applying for research funding or starting research projects (Marsh, Jayasinghe, & Bond, 2008). The term “publish or perish” has become more than familiar to researchers across the world (e.g., Ching, 2013; Roth 2002). Likewise, reading and citing readings in grant proposals or reports are considered essential (Tenopir, Mays, & Wu, 2011). Publishing is an important part of academic life. It is also the arena where researchers become known. Naturally, publishing happens in many forms: in addition to scientific, peer-reviewed articles in national and international journals or edited books, publishing covers conference and seminar presentations and other reports and publications introducing research results. There is no research without publishing. Every new publication arouses new studies and thus promotes science by expanding and deepening knowledge. The purpose of scientific discourse is to evaluate the relationship between new and earlier research results and theories and cherish and advance the quality of research. In this chapter, I will focus on journal article publishing. Peer Review as the Important Part of Scientific Publishing One important form of scientific discussion—a very direct one—is the peer review process of manuscript aimed to be published. The most respectable journals lean on these peer review processes when making decisions on publishing manuscripts. Peer review means anonymous feedback given to the author of an article considering the quality of the manuscript and the study introduced in it. Peer-review practice is acknowledged as the fundamental quality-control method—in other words, a gate keeper—in academic journals (Bornman & Daniel, 2009; Eisenhart, 2002; Larochelle & Désautels, 2002). Actually, the history of the review process has developed from informal discussions between scholars 104

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by letters into anonymous assessing and judgment of others’ work (Larochelle & Désautels, 2002). Therefore, peer review has long been a tradition of scholarly journal publication (Bakanic, McPhail, & Simon, 1987). Peer review practices have been studied from various aspects as well; for example, the affect that the choice of referees may have on editors’ decisions (Bornman & Daniel, 2009), the randomness of prescreening before review (Neff & Olden, 2006), wrongly rejected, highly-cited, innovative articles (Campanario, 1996), authors’ editorial experiences (Bedeian, 2003), authors’ replies to referees’ comments in peer reviews (Gosden, 2001), and peer reviews in scholarly electronic journals (Harnad, 1996). Hardly anyone is able to write a perfect article at once, not even if the study reported was very spectacular. Therefore, the peer review process is important. Also, journals have their specific requirements for articles regarding their formatting, structure, and contents of each chapter. Authors have to follow these carefully. In addition, the submitting instructions can vary considerably, and journals tend to have their own online systems. Using them requires specific ICT skills. Only after having successfully submitted one’s manuscript to a journal, the paper can go to review. First, the manuscript has to pass an initial check regarding its fit with the scope and purpose of the journal. Then, the editors start to recruiting reviewers for the paper. The researcher has to accept the review process as a means to learn to be even better author. AT THE MERCY OF PEER REVIEWERS!

Publishing in academic journals is an extremely interesting procedure. Those who publish actively are familiar with the wide spectrum of reviews; you can never know what kind of comments you will have after a weeks- or even months-long review process. The researcher just has to wait patiently the feedback and comments, and the editor-in-chief’s decision. The styles of evaluation in peer-reviews have also been studied (e.g., Fortanet, 2008; Gosden, 2003). Bakanic, McPhail, and Simon (1987) describe the differences in journal’s practices as follows: All manuscripts may not be processed or assigned to reviewers in the same way. This varies within as well as across disciplines and journals. Manuscripts are handled differently when they are resubmitted after an initial rejection than when revised and resubmitted at the editor’s request or when conditionally accepted. Not every submitted manuscript is assigned for peer review. (p. 632) There are also studies of what makes a good reviewer. A decorous reviewer can protect authors from making errors and improve the quality of their manuscript, while some reviewers would apparently like to re-write the article by themselves (Bedeian, 1996). Black et al.’s (1998) study showed the interesting association between the review quality and certain reviewer characteristics—or lack thereof. Instead of those reviewers who were actively involved in research, occupied academic positions and 105

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were members of research funding bodies, reviewers with appropriate education in the field of the article under review and time spent with the review task appeared more important when assessing the quality of a review. Furthermore, writing good reviews is a skill that develops only with practice (Benos, Kirk, & Hall, 2003). There are certain ethical rules that Benos et al. (2003) call “the etiquette of review” and that the reviewers are expected to follow. In sum, the rules are the following: (1) The reviewer should provide an honest, critical assessment of the research; (2) The reviewer should maintain confidentiality about the existence and substance of the manuscript; (3) The reviewer must not participate in plagiarism; (4) The reviewer should always avoid, or disclose, any conflicts of interest; (5) The reviewer should accept manuscripts for review only in his/her areas of expertise; (6) The reviewer should agree to review only those manuscripts that can be completed on time; (7) The reviewer also has the unpleasant responsibility of reporting suspected duplicate publication, fraud, plagiarism or other ethical concerns; and (8) The reviewer should write reviews in a collegial, constructive manner (adopted from Benos et al., 2003, pp. 49–50; see also Uusiautti, 2015). Usually, a manuscript will be reviewed by two or more experts from the same scientific field. They are doctors, professors, researchers, and specialists across the world. Abundant publishing also often means abundant requests for acting as a reviewer: researchers who have plenty of publications become noticed and acknowledged as experts capable of reviewing others’ papers. Peer-reviewers are asked to contribute a written evaluation about an article. They have to give a recommendation whether to accept or reject the paper, and the editorin-chief makes the decision based on this recommendation and evaluation. I studied peer-review evaluations when working as a specialist of scientific publication, and my notes are based on over 100 published articles during that period. I also have plenty of practical knowledge about the process due to my role as a member of editorial boards and as a reviewer for about 20 journals. I conducted a qualitative study on the review process. The reviews were mainly from the fields of educational psychology and the science of education. According to my data that included 123 separate review reports, the evaluations could be roughly described after the content analysis procedures of the report data (see further information in Uusiautti, 2015) as follows: Favoring reviews: The result of the review is “accept as-is”. The peer referee applauds the manuscript and does not present any criticism or unconditional revisions to the article. However, the commentary can be very detailed but praising. Constructive reviews: The result of the review is “accept with (minor/major) revisions/resubmit”. The peer referee provides constructive comments that are very detailed. The language the referee uses is friendly and objective. The suggested revisions are presented in context. 106

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Critical reviews: The result of the review is “accept with major revisions/ resubmit”. The peer referee’s comments can be very detailed but not always constructive. The common feature of these reviews is criticism and doubt. The language the referee uses is aggressive, even discourteous. What separates the category from constructive reviews is the manner of expression. Although both might be considered honest, critical reviews can have a mocking tone; e.g. “It is a hodge-podge […]” Superficial reviews: These reviews are extremely brief, only a few lines. The peer reviewer points out only superficial issues and therefore the comments are not very constructive or detailed. Superficial reviews can be favoring or critical. Rejecting reviews: The result of the review is “rejected”. The peer reviewer highlights the most crucial concerns that justify the rejection or that the reviewer considers in need of revision before even thinking of submitting the article elsewhere. Despite the established guidelines for reviews, the contents of evaluations seem to vary considerably (e.g., Blank, 1991; Eisenhart, 2002; Grimm, 2005; Lock, 1982). The superficial reviews category showed this clearly. It was also interesting to compare the review results of well-written, appraised articles with the results of issues needing revision (Uusiautti, 2015): For example, methodological concerns were highlighted the most but when they were well-written, methodological issues were not specifically appraised in favoring reviews. Instead, well-written theoretical and literature reviews were often highlighted by referees when they recommended an article to be accepted as-is. On the other hand, theory and literature reviews were not among the most popular issues in revision suggestions. The truth is that it is very rare that a manuscript is accepted as is. There is always something to improve, and constructive comments will help revise the problematic sections of the manuscript. Everyone writing actively knows how they become blind to their own texts! One also has to be prepared to receive downright criticism, because the reviewers’ words are not always flattering, quite the opposite. There is no reason to be offended, and at least not to lose heart for them, but to read them like a professional: what should be revised and improved in the text, how to address the criticism in general. Indeed, Glenn (1976) sighed four decades ago “who knows how many persons have failed to receive tenure, promotions, and pay raises because of patently unfair rejections of their papers” (p. 181). He implies that not always have the reviewers given full consideration to their words. However, the methodological solutions, their justifications, and descriptions of data collection and analyzing procedures as well as familiarity with earlier research in the field as presented in the manuscript are under specific inspection in reviews. The manuscript should end with clearly showing the contribution of the study, this is called the so-what-factor.

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Therefore, it is always crucial to be open to criticism whenever showing lack of solid argumentation in your text. One review stated in my data as follows: Overall, my feeling is that the paper appears to take for granted a number of things which need to be more robustly defended. … The authors appear to assume that the reader will already agree with them on many questions that are at least controversial. CARING REVIEWS—JUST IMPOSSIBLE?

Based on these findings, the variation in reviews and the review processes in the journals imply that work has to be done to (a) guarantee the quality of a review, (b) make the review easier to write for the referee and easier to understand for the author, and (c) make the review process faster. For example, according to Lotriet (2012), in medical field, approximately 70% of reviewers fail to submit their reviews in time. The increase in online publishing demands, however, efficiency from reviewers as well (Tenopir, Mays, & Wu, 2011). Therefore, the review process is under constant development and evaluation. Even though the core issues on which reviewers should focus when doing reviews are quite conventional, the new forms of publication, faster publishing procedures, and increasing interest in transparent review processes demand critical analysis of best practices (see Pulverer, 2010; see also Bedeian, 2003; Gosden 2003). A glance at the review texts reveals to authors what they should consider when writing the text and how they can prepare. However, Tsang and Frey (2007) felicitously point out that “[a] simple fact about peer review is that not all referee comments help to strengthen a manuscript” (p. 129) (see also Haack, 2006). Sometimes, the blind review process is criticized for allowing the use of much harsher language than if the process was not anonymous as well as for making transparency of the process more difficult (e.g., Beyer, Chanove, & Fox, 1995; Pulverer, 2010; Regehr & Bordage, 2006). From an author’s point of view, a detailed, constructive feedback is the best, whether it was given anonymously or not. That makes revising the manuscript and responding to the referee’s comments easy. How can reviewers provide such feedback? Often reading a piece is extremely laborious and completing reviews gets prolonged and, sometimes unfortunately, the reviewer does not have time to familiarize themselves with the text adequately. This was a concern pointed out, for example Glenn (1976) already quite a while ago in the American Sociologist, and the worry is the same today. Sloppily written reviews are not much help—neither do they fulfill the ethical criterion concerning timely reviews and constructive feedback (Benos et al., 2003). Is caring peer review process possible? Kevin Kumashiro (2005, p. 258) has asked the same: “We are told that academia is not always a nice place and that to succeed in publishing we need to develop a ‘tough skin’ that buffers us against taking 108

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such criticism personally.” Kumashiro (2005) suggests three ways to rethink the collaborative potential of the peer-review process: as constructive, as multilensed, and as situated. Even with established researchers, giving suggestions for revisions can become part of a collaborative way to think about publishing—not as a process where we weed out the bad stuff, but one in which we support one another to produce the most useful research possible. And, as in the example above, the conversation can be collegial, even lighthearted, and not so depersonalized and inhumane. (Kumashiro, 2005, p. 260) Therefore, the idea of caring peer review is not a new one; Kumashiro’s thoughts about the possible collaborative nature of reviews actually shows the idea of seeing the peer-review process as an opportunity to develop research together—not by agreeing in everything but being frank with one’s prejudices and open to new ways of considering research. Committing oneself with this kind of attitude might just open the curtain for caring about not only one’s own deeply-rooted assumptions of publish-worthy research in the field but also about the open-minded development of science and, the most importantly, about the one who receives the review: Am I making suggestions and notes that truly help the author to revise and improve the paper? Am I treating the author fairly and tactfully? These two questions are, at least according to my experience in both sides of the process, the most crucial ones. Even good and constructive suggestions do not become understood as they should if the language used is rude; it just takes the attention away from the actual issues. THE POWER OF COLLABORATION

The second purpose of this chapter was to discuss the possibility of caring collaboration in writing. How to describe the power of working together when writing an article? First, we have to look at the concept of teamwork. For example, Seligman et al. (2005) defined teamwork as working well as member of a group or team, social intelligence as being aware of the motives and feelings of self and others, fairness as treating all people the same according to notions of fairness and justice, and kindness as doing favors and good deeds for others. According to our studies on success at work (see Uusiautti, 2008; Uusiautti & Määttä, 2013, 2015), the experience of success is a personal positive emotion, it may spring up after or while working together with co-workers, clients, or other people who are closely connected to the task at hand. When everyone in a team is excited and inspired in the task and developing, successful outcome may produce the most delightful experience of success (see also Losada & Heaphy, 2004). The notion of the communal nature of the experience of success also highlights the fact that supportive and positive atmosphere at the work place may be an important contributor to the experiences of success, in other words, enhances the quality of work. Boreham (2004) uses the concept of collective competence to refer to making collective sense 109

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of events in the workplace, developing and using a collective knowledge base, and developing a sense of interdependency. Indeed, a common feature of the new ways of organizing work is their emphasis on teamwork. It is important to notice that positive experiences at work can also be communal by nature. However, it requires some social character strengths (see Seligman et al., 2005). Lutgen-Sandvik, Riforgiate, and Vail Flecther (2011) found out that appreciation, challenge, success, opportunity, relationships, social support and team work, climate, supervisor/mentor, resources and triumphs are crucial for positive experiences at work (see also Deci & Moller, 2005). Many of these features actually arouse from teamwork that also publishing work can be. Uusiautti and Määttä (2013, pp. 19–20) outlined the connection of individual and communal factors with the perceived success at work with the dimensions of individual-communal and positive-negative resources at work. The study illustrated how a state were both negative individual and communal factors are present, is not likely to further the development of any positive emotions at work—neither at the individual nor at the communal level. Instead, it can be considered hindering the emergence of positive feelings and any emergence of collaboration. On the other hand, there is the possibility that the work community acts as a positive factor but the individual researcher may still have, for example, low self-esteem or suspicions against teamwork. Then there is a situation where the researcher community acts as negative factor but the individual researcher has a positive perception (Baumeister, 1993, see also Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996)—this is a typical situation at work when individual employees enjoy their work fundamentally but the atmosphere at work is not very encouraging. The so-called ideal situation is where both the individual and communal factors are positive. This kind of starting point might be the core factor for the emergence of positively-toned teamwork and collaboration that can lead to various positive experiences such as flow (see Csikszentmihalyi, 2008) and joy of work (Varila & Lehtosaari, 2001). Likewise, experiences of success both alone and together with the team become possible and more likely than in other abovementioned situations as it can, for its part, lead to maximal performances (see Avey, Luthans, Smith, & Palmer, 2010; Kanfer & Ackerman, 2005). Furthermore for example, intelligent thought and social inclusion has been proved to have a positive, direct relationship as well (Baumeister, Twenge, & Nuss, 2002). Uusiautti and Määttä (2013) suggested that this kind of combination of positive individual and communal factors will also lead to well-being at work. The support and encouragement from colleagues can be of irreplaceable value not only for a worker’s own success and well-being at work, but also for the well-being and success of the whole work unit or work community. However, an academic community does not always represent such a positive work environment as described above. Competition, self-interest, and belittling of other’s achievements lead to hostile academic work environment and suspiciousness between researchers (see e.g., Kramer, 1999). According to Kramer (1999), mutual trust has a number of important benefits for organizations and their members, and this applies to the 110

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academic communities as well. A good practical example of the open-minded collaboration is, therefore, writing and publishing together with colleagues about one’s own or the team’s joint research and related findings whereas mistrust between researcher colleagues and fear of someone stealing your ideas are quite common worries inhibiting collaboration (cf. e.g., Kramer, 1999; McAllister, 1995). TOGETHER IN THE RIPTIDE OF PUBLICATION PROCESS

I have worked as a researcher in the field of educational sciences, and more often than not, research work is lonesome toil to many, including publishing attempts. The joy of collaborating in publishing is experienced by only a few researchers (Uusiautti, 2014). In general, the academic world could benefit from a more focused collaboration and peer support (e.g., Vaarala et al., 2013). However, writing together, each having a clear role in the publication could benefit many. The first and most important advantage is that when writing together, analyses and conclusions become profound in a way that one could not necessary reach alone, not to mention noticing various deficits in the paper that one might not even be aware of if doing the work along. Simply stated, sending a poor paper to review is waste of time, especially of the reviewers (Glenn, 1976). Overall, having a trustworthy colleague read your text is beneficial in many ways. Discussions with the researcher-author team can open new possibilities to analyze the data that can lead to real innovations: new concepts, theories, and illustrations as well as new fields of research. One of my researcher friends wrote to me an email describing our fruitful collaboration: It sure is wonderful to work with this kind of team – perhaps we are making academic innovations with this terminology here. (Email from a researcher friend, 2014) Another question is the manner of how reviewers provide their feedback. This question was discussed earlier in this chapter. Of course, every reviewer is a human being and we are all different: what seems critical to one can be just another normal comment to another (Isen & Reeve, 2006; Mäkikangas, 2007). We also accept feedback differently. As the peer review process goes on, the comments and critiques can be easier to digest and reply together. The usability and meaning of comments can be viewed with co-authors. Likewise, the phase of revising the text proceeds faster when the tasks are divided between co-authors and all do they share and spur each other. When writing alone, one can end up with ruminating the feedback for a long time and addressing it may start to appear overwhelming— which it is not in reality. The researcher team encourages and supports its members and helps to see the forest for the trees. All comments may not be that negative after all when they are studied separately and divided between co-authors in half or more depending on the size of the team. The result will energize and inspire, as the following email shows: 111

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This became a magnificent article. :-) (Email from a researcher friend, 2014) The most rewarding point is to hear the positive decision about publishing the manuscript and finally seeing the published piece. Everyone can read it now, information about the study is spreading, and one’s fame as a researcher expands. The joy can be shared with co-authors: I have great news!!! Congratulations to all of us! (Email from a researcher friend, 2014) Whether you wrote alone or with colleagues, familiarity with the publishing process will benefit you. The process can take long and requires hard work and various skills not only in a scientific sense but technically as well. It is always good to ask for help from colleagues and supervisors. Efficiency of review processes and smooth publishing processes (Bedeian, 1996, 2003; Neff & Olden, 2006; Tsang & Frey, 2007) are crucial, but caring scientific publishing also includes the mutual support and encouragement between researcher colleagues. Indeed, Ferres, Connell, and Travaglione (2004) point out, how at its best, working together, helping each other, and pursuing shared goals can provide the most enjoyable work experiences. The caring research approach draws from the positive. According to several studies (see e.g., Egan et al., 2009; Mayya & Roff, 2004), good and supportive atmosphere makes research work seem meaningful and inspiring. CONCLUSION

Today’s work life requires new ways of enhancing collaboration between any employees, including ones working the academic organizations (Eisenberg, Goodall Jr., & Trethewey, 2010). A human being is a social animal, says David Brooks (2011), and almost every employee, worker or academic, has to work within some kind of human network. We must see each other as a positive source and cherish reciprocity. Similarly, positive viewpoints can introduce new ways of perceiving academic work (cf. Uusiautti, 2013). For example, Pajares (see e.g., 2001) argues that positive psychological constructs can explain academic motivation and achievement. Likewise, Seligman (2011) emphasizes the role of positive social relationships even in achievements, such as the publication of an article. Most positive events in human life take place surrounded by other people. It is a fact that the review process has a critical influence on researchers’ careers as well as the development of scientific fields (see Beyer, Chanove, & Fox, 1995). This is why the process also speaks to most of us. Kumashiro (2005, p. 263) sees an opportunity for collaborative review processes. He asks “What might it mean for a peer review to work conscientiously to help develop and create the field rather than merely reproduce the standards that others in the field have already defined for evaluating research?” The answer is to let go the old bad experiences, cynicism, and prejudices, and be honest with one’s own lenses and be aware of how one situates 112

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one’s reviews in relation to one’s perspectives (Kumashiro, 2005). Only then it would be possible to analyze how ideas presented in the article could intertwine with earlier knowledge and research, and how to suggest the author to improve the paper. The outcome can represent a type of a collaborative theorizing that can be meaningful and instructive for both the author and the reviewer—this Kumashiro’s idea is very close to the idea of caring peer reviews. Actually, Kumashiro presents that reviewers should be willing to accept new ideas. Cooper (2009) takes the idea still a bit further by summarizing the qualities of a good reviewer. According to Cooper (2009), “a good deal of overlap” between the evaluative and collaborative roles of a reviewer: 1. A good review is evaluative, but balanced. 2. A good review evaluates the connection between a paper and the literature. 3. A good review is specific and factually accurate. 4. A good review is fair and unbiased. 5. A good review is tactful. 6. A good review treats the author as an equal. (pp. 85–87) This might well form the core of caring peer review, but I would also like to add the element of timely action, sticking to the deadlines. That is caring too. To an author, to be in a situation when having waited for a review for weeks or months is frustrating, especially if the result is a superficial review. Caring review processes therefore include the ability to guarantee that the review is done in time. But at the same time, we could ask a question: are these not the features of a caring collaboration in research in general? Academic work does not have to be like Seligman described it with a blink in his eye in Flourish (2011, p. 6): Almost all academic research I had known is funded through tedious grant requests, annoying peer reviews, officious bureaucracy, unconscionable delays, wrenching revisions, and then rejection and heart-stopping budget cuts. Instead, collaboration in academic publishing, as described in this chapter earlier, includes all the elements from tactfulness to fairness, trustworthiness to constructiveness. Nahata (2008, p. 1) summarizes: Successful authors combine appropriate knowledge and experience, personal attributes, and effective collaborations to produce insightful and important contributions to the literature. Ultimately, a process of publishing a peer-reviewed paper is quite a wide process, covering many parts of the academic world. Hojat et al. (2003) note that a publication of an article ties the editorial team with reviewers, contributors, readers and owners of the journal. Good, positive and caring practices reflect many agents in the field and can spread a good manner in publication work which is not only promoting well-being and positive experiences but also is likely to lead to more productive and efficient publication processes (cf. Achor, 2010). In practice, this kind of attitude 113

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toward research work is necessary: not only does it show caring about one’s own career as a researcher and quality of one’s work but also caring about the quality of science, quality of scientific publishing, and quality of collaboration in the academic world. REFERENCES Achor, S. (2010). The happiness advantage. The seven principles of positive psychology that fuel success and performance at work. New York, NY: Crown Business. Avey, J. B., Luthans, F., Smith, R. M., & Palmer, N. F. (2010). Impact of positive psychological capital on employee well-being over time. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 15, 17–28. doi:10.1037/ a0016998 Bakanic, V., McPhail, C., & Simon, R. J. (1987). The manuscript review and decision-making process. American Sociological Review, 52, 631–642. doi:10.2307/2095599 Baumeister, R. F. (1993). Self-esteem: The puzzle of low self-regard. New York, NY: Plenum. doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-8956-9 Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M. (1996). Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem. Psychological Review, 103(1), 5–33. doi:10.1037/0033295X.103.1.5 Baumeister, R. F., Twenge, J. M., & Nuss, C. K. (2002). Effects of social exclusion on cognitive processes: Anticipated aloneness reduces intelligent thought. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(4), 817–827. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.4.817 Boreham, N. (2004). The theory of collective competence: Challenging the neo-liberal individualization of performance at work. British Journal of Educational Studies, 52(1), 5–17. doi:10.1111/j.14678527.2004.00251.x Bedeian, A. G. (1996). Improving the journal review process: The question of ghostwriting. American Psychologist, 51(11), 1189. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.51.11.1189 Bedeian, A. G. (2003). The manuscript review process: The proper roles of authors, referees, and editors. Journal of Management Inquiry, 20(10), 1–8. doi:10.1177/1056492603258974 Benos, D. J., Kirk, K. L., & Hall, J. E. (2003). How to review a paper? Advances in Physiology Education, 27(2), 47–52. doi:10.1152/advan.00057.2002 Beyer, J. M., Chanove, R. G., & Fox, W. B. (1995). The review process and the fates of manuscripts submitted to AMJ. Academy of Management Journal, 38(5), 1219–1260. doi:10.2307/256856 Black, N., van Rooyen, S., Godlee, F., Smith, R., & Evans, S. (1998). What makes a good reviewer and a good review for a general medical journal? The Journal of the American Medical Association, 280(3), 231–233. doi:10.1001/jama.280.3.231 Blank, R. M. (1991). The effects of double-blind versus single-blind reviewing: Experimental evidence from The American Economic Review. The American Economic Review, 81(5), 1041–1067. Bornman, L., & Daniel, H.-D. (2009). The luck of the referee draw: The effect of exchanging reviews. Learned Publishing, 22, 117–125. doi:10.1087/2009207 Brooks, D. (2011). The social animal. The hidden source of love, character, and achievement. New York, NY: Random House. Campanario, J. M. (1996). Have referees rejected some of the most-cited articles of all times? Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 47(4), 302–310. doi:10.1002/(SICI)10974571(199604)47:43.0.CO;2-0 Ching, G. S. (2013). Unraveling issues behind ISI misconceptions: An empirical study on the practical effects of academic publication. International Journal of Research Studies in Education, 2(3), 51–64. doi:10.5861/ijrse.2012.288 Cooper, M. L. (2009). Problems, pitfalls, and promise in the peer-review process: Commentary on Trafimow & Rice (2009). Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4(1), 84–90. doi:10.1111/j.17456924.2009.01109.x

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S. Uusiautti Lutgen-Sandvik, P., Riforgiate, S. E., & Flecther, C. V. (2011). Work as a source of positive emotional experiences and the discourses informing positive assessment. Western Journal of Communication, 75(1), 2–27. doi:10.1080/10570314.2010.536963 Marsh, H. W., Jayasinghe, U. W., & Bond, N. W. (2008). Improving the peer-review process for grant applications. Reliability, validity, bias, and generalizability. American Psychologist, 63(3), 160–168. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.63.3.160 Mayya, S. S., & Roff, S. (2004). Students’ perceptions of educational environment. Education for Health, 17(3), 280–291. doi:10.1080/13576280400002445 McAllister, D. J. (1995). Affect- and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 38(1), 24–59. doi:10.2307/256727 Mäkikangas, A. (2007). Personality, wellbeing and job resources. From negative paradigm towards positive psychology. Jyväskylä: University of Jyväskylä. Nahata, M. C. (2008). Tips for writing and publishing an article. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 42, 1–5. doi:10.1345/aph.1K616 Neff, B. D., & Olden, J. D. (2006). Is peer review a game of chance? Professional Biologist, 56(4), 333–340. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2006)56[333:iprago]2.0.co;2 Pajares, F. (2001). Toward a positive psychology of academic motivation. The Journal of Educational Research, 95(1), 27–35. doi:10.1080/00220670109598780 Pulverer, B. (2010). Transparency showcases strength of peer review. Nature, 468, 29–31. doi:10.1038/468029a Regehr, G., & Bordage, G. (2006). To blind or not to blind? What authors and reviewers prefer. Medical Education, 40(9), 832–839. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2929.2006.02539.x Roth, W.-M. (2002). Editorial power/authorial suffering. Research in Science Education, 32, 215–240. doi:10.1023/A:1016030212572 Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish. A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. New York, NY: Free Press. Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress. Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60(5), 410–421. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410 Tenopir, C., Mays, R., & Wu, L. (2011). Journal article growth and reading patterns. New Review of Information Networking, 16(1), 4–22. doi:10.1080/13614576.2011.566796 Tsang, E. W. K., & Frey, B. S. (2007). The as-is journal review process: Let authors own their ideas. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 6(1), 128–136. doi:10.5465/AMLE.2007.24401710 Uusiautti, S. (2008). “Today, I’ll work better than ever” Success at work described by the employees of the year (PhD Dissertation). University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland. Uusiautti, S. (2013). On the positive connection between success and happiness. International Journal of Research Studies in Psychology, 3(1), 1–11. Uusiautti, S. (2014). Scientific publication as the scene of power and caring. In K. Määttä & S. Uusiautti (Eds.), Strength from caring research. Educational Conference 6–7 Oct 2014 (pp. 45–54). Rovaniemi: University of Lapland. [In Finnish] Uusiautti, S. (2015). The pressure of publishing. In S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä (Eds.), Critical eye on education (pp. 79–96). Tallinn: United Press Global. Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, K. (2013). Does success at work produce well-being and happiness or vice versa? The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Organizational Studies, 7(3), 11–25. Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, K. (2015). The psychology of becoming a successful worker. Research on the changing nature of achievement at work. New York, NY: Routledge. Vaarala, M., Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, K. (2013). College students’ experiences of and coping with loneliness – possibilities of peer support. International Journal of Research Studies in Education, 2(4), 13–28. doi:10.5861/ijrse.2013.510 Varila, J., & Lehtosaari, K. (2001). Joy of work – earned by diligence, occurs by accidence or required by learning organization? [In Finnish]. Joensuu: University of Joensuu.

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Scientific publishing as the arena of power and caring Wen, T. S., Ching, G. S., & Tang, J. W. (2013). Realities in scholarly publication trends: A case study of a social science university in Taiwan. International Journal of Research Studies in Education, 2(2), 31–42. doi:10.5861/ijrse.2012.146 Winter, R., & Sarros, J. (2002). The academic work environment in Australian universities: A motivating place to work? Higher Education Research & Development, 21(3), 241–258. doi:10.1080/0729436022000020751

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Satu Uusiautti, PhD, works as an associate professor of education at the University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland, and is an adjunct professor of educational psychology at the University of Helsinki, Finland. Her research interests include success at work and in various areas of life, positive development and positive educational psychology as well as human flourishing and strengths. Her latest publications include, for example, The Psychology of Becoming a Successful Worker. Research on the Changing Nature of Achievement at Work (S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä, Routledge, New York, 2015) and Critical Eye on Education (S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä, Eds., United Press Global, Tallinn, 2015).

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PIGGA KESKITALO AND ERIKA SARIVAARA

9. THE DEFINITION AND TASK OF MEDIATING SÁMI RESEARCH

ABSTRACT

Mediating Sámi research is a means of solving a severe phenomenon in society whereby structural power challenges everyday practices among Indigenous peoples. In this context, pedagogical Sámi research deals with multi-methodological education research. Moreover, it searches for ways to base Indigenous institutional education on Indigenous knowledge, traditions, and cultural context. Pedagogical Sámi research is a means to resolve the legacy of assimilation and, in particular, language shift. Sámi education that is based on a mediating role plays an important part in efforts to revive Indigenous languages and cultures. Keywords: Sámi people, Sámi research, Sámi education, mediating structures, mediating Sámi research, caring indigenous research An Indigenous people group, the Sámi, live in the Nordic countries of Sweden, Finland, and Norway and on Russia’s Kola Peninsula. Depending on how this group is defined, there are approximately 100,000 Sámi people living in these countries. The Sámi are recognized and protected under the international conventions of Indigenous peoples. Traditionally, Sámi livelihoods are connected to nature. Originating from hunter-gathering tribes, the Sámi have traditionally been involved with fishing, hunting, and reindeer herding. According to current estimates, the Sámi language was born, at the latest, during the second millennium BC, which also gave birth to Sámi culture (Aikio, 2004, 2012). Today the Sámi have more or less embraced urbanization. In addition, the Sámi have been influenced by centuries of assimilation policies, with the result that the Sámi languages are endangered. Colonialism is a central manifestation of assimilation, which means the merger of minorities with and being drawn actively into the mainstream population (Battiste, 2000). However, today they are part of the globalizing world and its various cultural flows and blends (Seurujärvi-Kari, 2012). In this chapter, we elaborate the concept mediating Sámi education research and its significance within the educational Indigenous research context. According to the Oxford American Writer’s Thesaurus (Auburn et al., 2012), the word mediate is understood to be synonymous with arbitrate, make peace, resolve, and negotiate. The American sociologist Peter Berger (1979, p. 169) defined the concept of mediating structures as “those institutions which stand between the individual in his (sic) S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä (Eds.), The Basics of Caring Research, 119–133. © 2016 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

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private sphere and the large institutions of the public sphere.” In this print, we focus on mediating contents, accounts, and implementation in the field of Sámi education research. Further on, we will discuss the basis and assignments on the mediating research context. The chapter is based on previous theories about mediating education (e.g., Berger & Neuhaus, 1970; Denzin & Lincoln, 2008; Nurmi & Kontiainen, 1995), and it here presented as an example of caring indigenous research. Our aim is to construct an educational Indigenous metatheory to advance and expand the research field by the help of the theoretical concept and the conceptualization of the theory. Metatheory is based on a former theory, so in effect it erects a theory upon a theory. Moreover, we base our research on a Sámi education research paradigm, which has been developed since the nineties (see e.g., Aikio, 2007, 2010; Balto, 2008; Bongo Persen, 2005; Gaup Utsi, 2009; Hætta, 1993; Jannok Nutti, 2014; Keskitalo, 2009; Nystad, 2003). The first review by Paavo Päivänsalo (1953) thoroughly adduced the older literature and references about traditional Sámi childrearing. He concluded that the aim of traditional child-rearing was to create an individual, who was physically durable and possessing the abilities to excel at reindeer herding, forestry, fishing, and homemaking. Furthermore, it seeks to achieve the moral obligations toward other people and follow the religious practices of their life, and to give them the physical strength and resistance they need in their lives. Päivänsalo wrote his text just after the Second World War when modernization had started in fully among the Sámi people and their living areas. Later, Anton Hoëm (1976, 1978) developed a theory about divergent socialization for multiple educational contexts (see also Hoëm, 2007). The Sámi have benefitted from his life’s work in many ways, as he has formally and practically supported, for example, Sámi higher education and Sámi curriculum development in Norway. The chapter is structured as follows. First, we will construct our starting point and then present the history of Sámi educational research and special features of Sámi education. We also problematize the role of the researcher in Indigenous research. Furthermore, we establish educationally inspired mediating structures: what are the contents, what are its roles, and what kind of challenges may arise. Finally, we discuss the ways of strengthening the Indigenous education. WHO ARE WE?

We would like to display the Sámi way of narrative knowing by introducing ourselves as researchers. This could be called combining a cultural cognitive structure with research. As has been described according to Asta Balto (1997), storytelling is an important pedagogical tool when conveying cultural values and habits from generation to generation. We would like also to use the distinctive Sámi style in a modern academic context of writing research. Our exemplar is Shawn Wilson (2008), who in “Research Is Ceremony: Indigenous Research Methods,” makes use of a storytelling voice and reflects the Indigenous narrative approach. His writing 120

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style moves back and forth from research based primarily on Western methods to analysis based on Indigenous thinking. We also lean on extended cooperation because there are many kinds of needs in the research field. Indigenous peoples themselves need to rethink their pedagogical practices, but also society needs knowledge about Indigenous peoples’ issues and problems. Juha Suoranta and Sanna Ryynänen (2014) have written about rebellious research. It is part of a critical research orientation. Suoranta and Ryynänen define the aim of the rebellious research as that of changing society so that it is more just and equal, and in which researchers take risks other than in terms of academic competition. As Hanna Guttorm (2014) writes, different approaches and research are at the same time possible, but the researcher can also inject him- or herself into the situation in ways that cause misunderstanding (also Deleuze, 2005). Nils Oskal (2008, 32) also points out that political questions can limit the possibilities open to the researcher. Pigga’s Story I was born in 1972 and raised in the North-Sámi community of Utsjoki, in North Finland. My grandparents from my father’s side combined various elements of the natural economy: they practiced a lifestyle consisting of fishing, trapping, hunting, berry picking, and reindeer herding. My mother’s family had a homestead based on agriculture. My mother’s mother came from a reindeer-herding family. My mother’s father was Holmberg family, and my mother’s mother was from a Länsman family. My father’s father was Helander and father’s mother came from an Aikio family. All my grandparents were Sámi-speaking persons born in the early twentieth century. My father, Aslak Järvensivu (1939), called in Sámi name “Ville Ásllat,” was given a chance to retrain. First he went to high school in Rovaniemi, 500 kilometers from home. Then he went to Jyväskylä teachers’ seminar in North Häme. My mother Hilkka (1947) was given an education as a homemaker. My mother had an officially registered reindeer ear-cutting mark. Similar to registered cattle ranch brands, the Sámi have registered ear-marks for reindeer. She died in 1984. After high school I went to Rovaniemi to train as a teacher. I finished with a master’s of education degree in 1997. I started to work as lecturer in education at Sámi University College in 1999. I did a doctorate in 2010 on the topic of Sámi schooling issues. I have four children and I am married to a reindeer herder in Enontekiö municipality, Peltovuoma village. I have worked with Sámi educational issues more than a decade and am interested in finding ways education can help in diverse and multiple situations in the Indigenous peoples’ context. Erika’s Story My Sámi roots come from diverse parts of Sápmi. On my mother’s side, from the Enontekiö area, she is the Vasara family, and from the Tornio river valley area, 121

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the Koffelo family and Jaukka family. My mother’s side family are traditionally reindeer herders. Traditionally, my father’s family practiced fishing as a livelihood. From my father’s side, I belong both to the Suikki family, which comes from the Muonio area, and from the Musta family, which was originally from the Salla area. I was born in December 1976 as the youngest child of a big family. My childhood was diasporic, and our life was a journey from one different environment to another. However, I learnt from my parents to respect my roots, my ancestors, the connection to our land, and our lost language. From the very beginning of my childhood, when I started to reclaim my ancestors’ language, revitalization became a significant part of my life. However, I have suffered from exclusion, questioning of my background, bullying, and ignorance. With my research work, I want to empower and heal Sámi people fully without imposing any artificial boundaries or exclusions. Together, from an educational point of view, we have wanted to work toward the rethinking of linguistics, power, and policy. Our research work has concentrated on continuing to develop Sámi educational issues from the point of view of a critical eye on Indigenous education. This work is based on research from PhD research and post-doctoral research, which are jointly further promoted. The Sámi live in multiple and diverse contexts in today’s postmodern societies. To address this reality, James A. Banks has developed a typology showing the levels of development of cultural identity. Multicultural global identity reaches the highest level on the typology (Banks, 2006). We asked the question: How could we in education achieve these upper identity categories and how could we operate so that it would be possible? The Sámi comprise minority and Indigenous peoples. In the realm of education, there is impact on many levels. In her PhD, Pigga Keskitalo (2010) focused on studying the school practices. The aim of the study was to contemplate what the role is of the Sámi culture at school. The main point about her research was to seek the mediating structures that could repair the cultural conflict, which formed Sámi education during the colonial history and assimilation, as well as the skewed power relations. These factors have had a retarding effect on the Sámis building their own school culture. Successful Indigenous schooling must be based on the concerned peoples’ own cultural premises and values. A cultural base of learning varies in different action contexts and as a result, cultural conflicts are formed between the human micro culture and social macro culture. In Sámi education, a particular situation may come into existence between individuals or family enculturation and societal socialization. In general, the aim of education is to socialize individuals to society. In her PhD, Erika Sarivaara (2012) presents a rather exact picture of today’s Sáminess, which can be characterized as diverse and fragmented. She presents and analyzes the themes that had arisen from interviews, such as cultural continuity and the issue of identity over generations. In addition, she considered the concept of ethno-stress, which may occur when one is not able to fulfil the claims for ethnic identity, and, in the case of our topic, is afraid to express the Sámi identity in public. Ethno-stress may also occur in sociolinguistic situations such as language choice and 122

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language learning contexts. The research presents critical Sámi research, which aims to raise a discussion and promote the influence of Sámi issues into society. It has managed to visibly bring up internal tensions within Sámi society, and in addition, expose the complex consequences of the Sámi history (see also Lukin, 2014). THE BACKGROUND OF MEDIATING SÁMI RESEARCH

The Sámi research was preceded by the scientific tradition of Lappological research. Audhild Schanche (2002) pointed out that, as a field of research, it is based on colonialism, imperialism, social Darwinism, and cultural racism. The criticism toward the Lappological research paradigm stresses the researchers’ positionality as outsiders. In other words, it is tainted by a postcolonial shade. However, Veli-Pekka Lehtola has outlined that the Lappological research contact with Sámi research is not so starkly black and white. In other words, the role of Lappological researchers is not as simple as has been assumed. Lehtola emphasizes that all researchers dealing with Sámi issues are descendants of the Lappological tradition (cited in Vilkuna, 2005, p. 258). In recent times, a debate on the importance of Lappologian research has been raised and recognized. Use of the concept Sámi research began in Norway in the 1970s, when the Nordic Sámi Institute was founded. In 1974, at Tromsø Nordic ethnography seminar, the then Alf Isak Keskitalo gave a talk on the key issues about Sámi research. He spoke of Sámi research inequality and pointed to the need for a general re-thinking of Sámi research (Keskitalo, 1976; also Porsanger, 2011). Sámi University College was established in 1989 when Sámi-speaking higher education was given specific weight. In recent decades, Sámi research has shifted to an internal cultural approach. Sámi research has tried to rid itself of any vestiges of the Lappological research tradition that contained prejudices and an exotic evolutionary-romantic view of humans. Instead, the concept of Lappologian has been replaced with an interdisciplinary Sámi research reference frame, whereby the Sámi are actually active players when anyone is conducting research (Kulonen et al., 2005). Each researcher conducting Sámi research has to take into account a position on the frame of reference. Lehtola points out that the Sámi research will contribute to relevant research in the Sámi society. He also expresses the opinion that Sámi research will promote relevant research into aspects of Sámi society (Lehtola, 2005). As a field, Sámi research comprises many aspects and goals. On the one hand, Sámi research deals with the situation of the Sámi in society. At the same time, the goal of Sámi research is to produce information about Sámi questions within a wide range of needs. In Norway, the separately board have examined the role and situation of Sámi research. It reached the following conclusion about the Sámi research in Norway: Sámi research is all the research and development work that affects at least one of the following: 1. Sámi research is research that touches the Sámi situation or that is conducted concerning the Sámi people. 2. The research is carried out in the Sámi research institution 123

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(Butenschøn lávdegoddi, 2012, p. 12). Also, the Norwegian Sámi Parliament has recently promoted Sámi research for higher education (Sámediggi, 2015). Sámi research is a result of highly politicized social efforts and is the focus of a lot of interest (see also McConaghy, 2000). Lately, a need has arisen for a critical research tradition in Indigenous education research. Denzin and Lincoln (2008) accentuate hope, love, and shared community. These are the basic values of pedagogy for mediating Indigenous education research. Pedagogy is interested in all human activity and experience. A correct research orientation displays a human voice, so that it is possible due to experience knowledge to develop practices. The need for school development is an internationally recognized issue (Balto, 2008; Cuban, 1993/1984; Hirvonen, 2003; Keskitalo, 2009; Lipka et al., 1998). Based on research, many development needs exist in Sámi education, such as educational philosophy development for the Sámi, to solve the heritage of colonization, a lack of learning materials and qualified teachers, Sámi educational achievement and equality as well as problems in the realization of human rights (Aikio-Puoskari, 2001; Hirvonen, 2003; Keskitalo, 2009; Keskitalo, 2010; Linkola, 2014). Even if some of the proposals to solve the educational problems are presented, the development work remains in progress. There is a Sámi curriculum in place in Norway and the school system is called Sámi School. However, the school is organized according to the mainstream school (Keskitalo, 2010). Developmental work that takes into account the Sámi contents needs to continue. Internationally, Indigenous peoples wrestle with the same kind of issues (Babaci-Wilhite, 2015; Grande, 2004; King & Schielmann, 2004; Smith, 2003, 2005; Ventsel & Dudeck, 1995). Mediating Sámi research can study Sámi culture from many perspectives and approaches. The need for different approaches is evident. The trend of Sámi people to do their own research has increased, and the significance is emphasized. It also allows non-Sámi researchers’ to contribute to and participate in Sámi research, thereby complementing studies conducted by researchers of Sámi origin. Extended cooperation should be considered beneficial for purposes of inclusion and mediating the sharing of information. The study can also serve as a learning process among research networks. THE RESEARCHER’S ROLE AND ETHICS IN MEDIATING SÁMI RESEARCH

In light of the cruel history of exploitative research on Indigenous peoples, Indigenous research includes demands for ethical requirements. Linda Tuhiwai Smith has raised elementary questions about conducting research on Indigenous peoples: (1) What research do we want done? (2) Whom is it for? (3) What difference will it make? (4) Who will carry it out? (5) How do we want the research done? (6) How will we know if it is worthwhile? (7) Who will own the research? 124

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and (8) Who will benefit? (Smith, 1999). The ethical basis for Indigenous research lies on the points presented above. In particular, researcher’s positionality can also be seen as a crucial element in regards to ethics and furthermore for the question of reliability. Positionality refers for example to researchers’ reflections of her/his insider or outsider position with regards to the topic or subjects of research. The role of the Sámi researcher tends to be diverse and takes into account that the researcher acts and participates in the research also within such societal fields as an activist (Virtanen et al., 2013). We base our researchers’ positionality on the concept of rebellious research, which implies the view of research that takes a stand, is action-oriented and involved. Namely, it joins in the struggle for equality and justice. Further rebellious research presupposes cooperation and solidarity between people (Suoranta & Ryynänen, 2014). Rebelliousness refers also to ways of conducting research: it is participating and acting together. However, rebellious research aims to empower people who participate in the research and concretely make efforts to change any injustice. Juha Suoranta ja Sanna Ryynänen (2014) suggests for researchers to get involved with societal struggles and to take advantage of the means available to researchers. For example, revitalization researchers should get involved with revitalization activities. In addition, educators should be part of slowing down the negative phenomena that are challenging societies in a number of ways (Sarivaara & Keskitalo, 2014). Rangimarie Mahuika (2008, p. 12) has reflected on Indigenous research methodology and has brought up the following ways for transformation: Kaupapa Māori is not about rejecting Pākehā knowledge. Instead, it is about empowering Māori, hapū and iwi to carve out new possibilities, and to determine in their own ways, their past, present and future identities and lives. Finding the correct balance and configuration within which iwi, hapū, Māori and even non-Māori knowledge and influences might be harnessed most effectively remains one of the major challenges for Māori and Māori scholars. In connection with the Sámi, research is expected to be ethical due to the fact that the researcher understands the language and living conditions in the region and knows the culture and honor societies that will be examined (Barron, 2002; Bull, 2002). Karina Lukin asserts that if it is demanded that the Sámi researcher should be Sámi or one of the research group must be Sámi, it is a radical starting point. She also adds that this kind of attribute can contribute to strengthening the prejudices towards the Sámi and others, plus it does not take into account cultural research blends of the last few decades and the discussion that has just taken place at a recent time (Lukin, 2007, 1–2). We share the view of Denzin and Lincoln (2008) that Indigenous critical research contains within it a sacred place where Indigenous and non-Indigenous scholars can communicate, share ideas, test things out, search for alternative solutions and applications together so that hope, love, and shared community are at the center. 125

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THE STRUCTURE OF MEDIATING SÁMI RESEARCH IN EDUCATION

Mediating structures are the tool for multicultural education contexts. Kari E. Nurmi and Seppo Kontiainen (1995, p. 68) have created a model where it is possible to operate in a multicultural context with mediating structures. Mediating structures should remedy the cultural conflict that is inevitable within a multicultural situation. On the one hand, mediating Sámi research (Fátmmasteaddji sámedutkan) sets the starting points and objectives of the research for transmission by a caring, loving, and inclusive sense as well as, on the other hand, allowing for the creation of models in the conflict settlement. In this sense, Sámi research is seen then as constructive and capable of discharging conflicts and ensuring the proactive emancipation and activity. In an educational framework, Sámi research asks how the education and schooling can dismantle skewed, collective unequal set-ups in communities, and how, through educational research, can we mediate the strengthening of a caring and inclusive Indigenous unity. Lately, in response to a heritage of assimilation, these possibilities have arisen in Indigenous education (see Denzin et al., 2008). Mediating structures construct bridges between the past, present, and future. Being aware of cultural issues, we are able to evade cultural mystification and essentialism. In this way, it becomes possible to fix the school model culture so that there is greater inclusion of the Sámi view. For example, when planning and applying teaching regimens, a Sámi sense of time, place, and knowledge understanding could be better implemented into school timetables, classrooms, and teaching and learning methods (Keskitalo, 2010). The concept “mediating Sámi education research” points the way to research that wants to solve conflicts constructively. In addition, it is an activity that builds emancipation. The starting point of the research is a sense of pedagogical care and inclusive activities. As a result, mediating Sámi research must produce workable models for the resolution of conflicts. A Sámi educational research paradigm is based on the affected collective Sámi assimilation, which has led to a language change for one part of the Sámi people and somewhat impaired the Sámi cultural identity. It has also led to a heterogeneous situation in which some people have actually been strengthened by assimilation and have had a better starting point—by which we mean those factors that play an important role in the process of identity construction. These kinds of factors are time, place, district, social, and cultural contexts, which either strengthen or weaken human identity strength, and the possibility that assimilation can positively affect it (see also Ventsel & Dudeck, 1995). Time refers to the societal epoch and the valid ideology. For example, in the 2000s the postcolonial span was in force, when the process of identity construction was characterized by collective societal values like solidarity, approval of multiculturalism, and revitalisation. Teachers should convey these values through schooling. Of course, every society contains a number of ideologies also, which represent different groups’ values. Place and district typify where the person was born and grew up.

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TASKS AND ASSIGNMENTS OF MEDIATING SÁMI RESEARCH

Vuokko Hirvonen (2003, p. 153) has pointed out that we could start to talk about Sámi pedagogy when schools have achieved multiculturalism, in the sense that Banks (1989) has presented. We could attain multiculturalism through content integration, knowledge construction, equity pedagogy, prejudice reduction, and empowering school culture and social structure. That is, if we’re going to have people participate as citizens in a democratic society, they have to have the skills and knowledge and the attitudes needed to work with people from diverse groups (Banks, 1997). This then is the premise on which Sámi ontology and epistemology with the school pedagogy and education are based. Key issues on Indigenous and Sámi research have arisen, for example, multiple identities, ethnicity, epistemology and knowledge systems, hegemony, colonialism, and globalism. Behind these thematic fields and approaches lie the continuing effect of Indigenous peoples’ colonial history, which has produced poverty and otherness (see Kuokkanen, 2009; Seurujärvi-Kari, 2012). Other means that something is understood or represented from the starting point as being inferior to the property that is considered to be the norm (Löytty, 2005; also Rahko-Ravantti, 2014). Otherness could extinguish through the building of new practices that are based on the own values and worldviews of the Indigenous people (Kuokkanen, 2007; RahkoRavantti, 2014). We emphasize that when operating in a multicultural and diverse context, the main point should be to be willing to work within a post-assimilationist context in order to improve the cultural and lingual situation in which the Sámi find themselves right now. Thereby we are able to clear up and remedy the history of colonialism and assimilation when we assess what went wrong and how we should take remedial steps and work proactively so that the situation can be somewhat ameliorated and the affected individuals feel better. The Sámi education that draws from the mediating Sámi research will play a key role in this process. Mediating Sámi research includes many different approaches and theoretical perspectives with an interest in critical knowledge and multiple emancipation. With the research, which is unbiased and culturally potent, we strive to amend the society. The aim is to promote self-government and proceeds with the aspiration of unraveling colonial structures, adaptation, and stereotypes. Furthermore, similar critical and marginal questions have become more urgent in the field of Indigenous research (McLaren & Kincheloe, 2007). Researchers emphasize that a postcolonial approach is positioned backwards as it places the Indigenous people in the role of victims. So the need for critical Indigenous research is more urgent than ever before. Contributing to solidarity and stressing and recognizing human rights, liberty, and self-government are the basic objectives the education aims for. Within the context of Indigenous people, the below-mentioned issues ascend more and more in importance. Communication and dialogue between the all people in general is important to the survival of the Indigenous people. What is needed to make it a fact?

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Ethical and human management so people can be empowered (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). Pedagogy that emancipates and empowers is the goal, as is pedagogy that helps to attain self-government, cultural welfare, cooperation, and collective responsibility. These kinds of operational purposes are meant to re-build the nations, communities, and their people with the ecology, so that the Indigenous peoples of the area can maintain, remember, share, and take into account their natural gender roles and thereby rename, network, protect, and democratize their everyday life (Smith, 1999). Criticism of the Western world’s tendency toward appropriation has given rise to topics such as action research, critical race theory, research of whiteness, global postcolonial research, critical education, performative ethnography, Third world research, postcolonial marginal research, social constructivism, narrative poem research, ethnography and participatory inquiry, threatened people theater, research of the endangered status and the borders of feminism, and emancipatory and pragmatic research (Denzin et al., 2008). The aim of the research is not to follow the usual manifestations of power and patriarchal practices, but actively test and take into question the existing information and interpretations of history. Transformation entails stepping away from the role of the victim through proactivism and collaboration. To the multiple roles of Sámi teaching research belong the observation of cultural sensitivity, opening of the phenomenon of otherness, reflecting teaching events, taking over the school system, collecting many affecting parts of the school, and mis-en-scéne constructing (Keskitalo et al., 2012). Cultural sensitivity on the other hand displays to the researcher the role through which she/he is able to take over the research context so that she/he understands it to be a versatile construct. Secondly, cultural sensitivity reveals the need for school change and the necessity to make efforts for change through research. Thirdly, the researcher should proceed so that he/she takes into account the need to insist on cultural sensitivity when carrying into effect the research and to build trust between the research, the researcher, and the research context. Sámi research carries the ballast of an old research heritage, so at all times Indigenous peoples’ stance toward and motivation to participate in research projects is not unproblematic. Otherness is displayed through unequal practices in education. Awareness may work to terminate the otherness of Sámi education (Rahko-Ravantti, 2014). When its meaning is to reach transformation in schools, reflection is an important goal. When its aim is to describe the school, one should take account these aspects: school contains the material and economic environment, the physical space, the cultural and social environment, the lingual and semantic space, and the human space; in other words, the communication space and the learning environment (Keskitalo et al., 2012; Keskitalo et al., 2013). Phenomenon could be narrated through a montage concept that erects the environmental action mis-en-scéne. Montage refers to those authentic proceedings with interactive words and occurrences. The researcher reports these to the research text. School, in this context, represents the 128

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familiar, in the morning amendments of the home culture to the school culture scene mises-en-scéne (Wulf, 2008). DISCUSSION

Because it composes a living entity embedded in time, Sámi society is dynamic and variable. Through education it is possible to problematize the stances of today’s society and through consciousness and activities to pursue the greater expression of human rights. Empowerment, revitalization, and the aspirations possible through education and research are the important factors and goals of Indigenous peoples’ future. That’s why it is important to be reflective concerning what kind of Sámi society we are building, what kind of values are important, and what kind of things to reverse or to change. The goal of the Indigenous education is to help people grow to be members of the Indigenous peoples’ community and society. Stressing the cultural background to enhance feelings of power and a sense of superiority does not acknowledge Indigenous people but merely enacts aspects of essentialism and ethnocentrism, which unlawfully export racism within and against the Indigenous peoples. According to our theoretical exploration, we suggest that mediating Sámi educational research adapts the Sámi identity research and moreover can serve as a means to explain the multicultural situation. Mediating Sámi research is a tool to explain the multicultural educational context. Mediating research points out the value of an inclusive, caring, and participatory approach. Within this context, the mediating Sámi research includes many sides. In this chapter, we have explored the contents of the mediating educational Sámi research, on what kind of base it will be built, and the solutions it leads to. That is why we have systematically examined the role and content of the mediating research. Mediating Sámi educational research aims to seek solutions to unravel assimilation so that it becomes possible for those who are assimilated to confirm their inherent cultural identity and indigeneity. One of the core goals in Indigenous education deals with Indigenous citizenship, more precisely with raising individuals into the Indigenous community. Sámi education must act as a reverse circuit to assimilation and the enhancer of Sámi empowerment. Mediating Sámi research can offer a functional way of approaching these core questions through research and provide practical tools for developing Sámi education that supports the revitalization and flourishing of the Sámi people and culture. REFERENCES Aikio, A. (2007). Saamelainen elämänpolitiikka [The Sámi life policy]. Rovaniemi: University of Lapland. Aikio, A. (2010). Olmmošhan gal birge – áššit mat ovddidit birgema [Mankind prospers certainly – things that promote success]. Kárášjohka: ČálliidLágádus.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Pigga Keskitalo, PhD, works as an associate professor of teacher education at the Sámi University College, Kautokeino, Norway, and is an adjunct professor of education at the University of Helsinki, Finland. She also supervises Sámi PhD students’ doctoral research at the University of Lapland, Finland. Along with participating in the developmental projects of Sámi teaching, her research interests include indigenous education and research, cultural sensitive teaching arrangement and means of supporting the development of Sámi education. Her latest publications include The History of Sámi Education and Schooling in Finland (P. Keskitalo, V.-P. Lehtola, & M. Paksuniemi, Eds., 2014, Institute of Migration, Turku, in Finnish), Sámi pedagogihka iešvuođat/Saamelaispedagogiikan perusteet/The basics of Sámi pedagogy/Grunderna i samisk pedagogic/Osnovy saamskoj pedagogiki (P. Keskitalo & K. Määttä, 2011, Lapland University Press, Rovaniemi), and Sámi Education (P. Keskitalo, K. Määttä & S. Uusiautti, 2013, Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main). Erika Sarivaara, PhD, is a post-doctoral researcher in the Aanaar Saami Language Technology project, University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland. Her research interests cover indigenous research methods, indigenous education and means of supporting the positive identity development of indigenous people. Her latest publications include The Core Questions of Sámi Pedagogy (P. Keskitalo, S. Uusiautti, E. Sarivaara & K. Määttä, Eds., 2014, Lapland University Press, Rovaniemi, in Finnish) and Who is Sámi and what is Sáminess? At the Roots of Identity (E. Sarivaara, K. Määttä & S. Uusiautti, Eds., 2013, Lapland University Press, Rovaniemi, in Finnish).

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SATU UUSIAUTTI AND KAARINA MÄÄTTÄ

10. CARING RESEARCH AND ITS FUTURE CHALLENGES

ABSTRACT

This chapter concludes the book by discussing the future challenges and opportunities of caring research. Caring research can provide relevant information and tools for today’s people to cope with their lives successfully and a new viewpoint to even the most sensitive research targets, such as indigenous research, but as presented in this book, it can also be used for promoting well-being and caring practices in research communities. Keywords: caring research, well-being, future, collaboration The purpose of this book was to introduce the concept of caring research as the counter effect of the ever-increasing demands on efficiency, competition, and strain in the academic world. However, if we carefully look at the viewpoints presented in this book especially in Chapter 3, we might even state that the caring approach could enhance the likelihood to achieve these goals. Indeed, the point of caring research is not to dwell in convivial state of happiness without any obligations or strain. Instead, we want to focus on positive collaboration, reciprocal and supportive relationships, and shared joy of accomplishments. This does not eliminate high goals, aspiration to achieve, and, as mentioned, publish high-quality publications as frequently as possible. Similarly, in Chapter 2, we introduced a selection of positively-oriented research themes. The purpose of such research is to enhance the well-being of others by investigating factors behind favorable development, successes, positive emotions, and recognition of human strengths mainly based on the paradigm of positive psychology (see also Seligman, 2011). Positive psychology researchers do not deny negative phenomena or disturbances in human lives, but perceive positive examples potentially helping others to flourish as well. The old criticism toward positive psychological research suggests that we close our eyes from misery. On the other hand, as Abraham Maslow pointed out already in the 1970s: The science of psychology has been far more successful on the negative than on the positive side. It has revealed to us much about man’s shortcomings, his illness, his sins, but little about his potentialities, his virtues, his achievable aspirations, or his full psychological heights. It is as if psychology has S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä (Eds.), The Basics of Caring Research, 137–144. © 2016 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

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voluntarily restricted itself to only half its rightful jurisdiction, and that, the darker meaner half. (p. 42) Luckily this misunderstanding has been clarified and proven wrong by the numerous positively-focused studies on coping with various negative developmental paths, crises, or other adversities in life. Positive, caring approaches do not need to justify their existence any more. But what is the future of caring research? THE IMPORTANCE OF CARING RESEARCH

Since Martin Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi guest-edited the special issue on positive psychology in 2000—this was considered the official introduction of the new branch of research—studies in the field have increased exponentially or like “a forest fire” (Wong, 2011, p. 69). Apparently, the current era is auspicious to it: while we live among increasing uncertainty, restlessness, and fast-changing systems and societies, and we (desperately) need to know and learn more about optimism, happiness, coping, and resilience. Previously, the world was a much more stable place and courses of human lives were more predictable. On the other hand, people’s awareness has increased and we are more and more concerned about global issues instead of just local or regional ones. In order to “keep calm and carry on”, we need means to digest new information, adjust to changes, and focus on the essential. Caring research can provide relevant information and tools for today’s people to cope with their lives successfully. Along with new research, our knowledge about well-being and happiness in ourselves and others becomes more profound. The second perspective of caring research, namely the caring research community, might be a whole lot more challenging to study, create, and maintain. So, more research and positive examples are needed, and we hope that the select viewpoints in this book encourage researchers and faculty to consider how the elements of a caring research community appear in their own units and networks. On the other hand, while our work in universities is regulated to a great extent by various goals for the number of (peer-reviewed) publications, the number of graduating students, the number of outside research funding, and so on, we could point out studies that prove true the benefits of caring workplaces. According to Hakanen (2009), the basic elements of emotional experiences at work are the element of pleasure—displeasure and the element of high activation—low activation. When these two emerge in the best possible manner (high activation combined with pleasure), enthusiasm at work occurs and is manifested in a positive state of work drive. High intrinsic motivation is present in this state, and leads to three positive states of flow (ability to accomplish), responsibility (sense of meaning at work), and freedom (capability to work) as presented by Martela and Jarenko (2014; see also Järvilehto, 2013). Another viewpoint is introduced, for example, in a study by Lyubomirsky and Layous (2013) based on which they have presented a theory of performance and 138

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well-being called “the positive-activity model”. The theory combines key concepts of positive emotions, thoughts, and behaviors as well as need satisfaction with the idea of performance/activities and well-being. The theory is in line with studies about positive development and success at work (see e.g., Uusiautti, 2015; Uusiautti & Määttä, 2015). Still, it would be misleading to say that all workplaces (including academic research communities) can become perfect nests of happiness where employees and supervisors rejoice together, spur and support each other all the time without arguments, disagreements, or conflicts (see also Uusiautti, 2015), even though the optimal work conditions and outcomes included the flourishing employee a member of a supportive and caring work team (see Uusiautti & Määttä, 2013). Everyone has their own perceptions of the workplace reality, appropriate working methods, and suitable (level of) collaboration. However, the idea is that the best practices could be found together in a work unit where atmosphere is open and inclusive, and supportive. Lyubomirsky and Layous’s (2013) positive activities prove to support positive interaction and atmosphere at workplaces considerably—and thus advance the formation of a caring work community. Yet, it is important to remember that in a research community—or in any other workplace—it is the responsibility of each and every researcher, supervisor, student, and other personnel to make sure that he or she acts in a constructive, friendly, and positive manner. In other words, everyone has to do their share, and look in the mirror and change their attitudes if necessary (see Uusiautti, 2015)! According to Winter and Sarros (2002) supervisors’ support is of great importance when aiming at aligning employees’ productivity with organizational goals. Stairs and Galpin (2013) add that actually, the realization of this connection, immediate supervisors’ influence on employee productivity, is one of the most crucial factors to promote organizations’ productivity. They emphasize that supervisors must pay attention to how they describe the benefits of high engagement at work to their employees and do their best to increase positive engagement in employees. This does not, by any means, exclude knowledge organizations and the need for caring leadership in research universities (e.g., Syväjärvi et al., 2012; Uusiautti, 2013). An important and fascinating part of research work is publishing about research results and findings. In educational sciences, the empirical part is often conducted alone (e.g., as a teacher-researcher in the classroom) without any particular research group and its support. However, when considering researcher collaboration, for example, in scientific publishing, it is interesting to notice how shared doing and open-minded discussions can give wings to research (see also Määttä, 2012). Creative solutions, new concepts, and theories can be found in teams (Paulus & Brown, 2007), and the value of high-quality connections at workplaces is been now better acknowledged than before (Dutton, 2014). Perhaps, it is because of the state of the current world, too, that the quality and elements of positive cooperation are becoming popular research targets in various work contexts including research communities. 139

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Interestingly, a recent study by Carmeli, Dutton, and Hardin (2015) found out that a respectful attitude also increases creativity among employees or, in the university context, among researchers and other academics. Carmeli et al.’s study showed that the way people treat and interrelate with each other influence their cooperation and motivation. Respectful engagement fosters acceptance, openness, empathy, and sense of belonging (Carmeli et al., 2015), and also lays a fruitful foundation to supervision relationships between students and supervisors as well (Määttä, 2012). Indeed, Fredrickson (e.g., 1998) has already shown the importance of positive emotions as they decrease resistance, open minds to new solutions and opportunities, and provide positive resources for decision-making and problem-solving, which all are issues we face at work, in studies, or in research work on daily basis. Eventually, when it comes to the call for caring collaboration as an element of caring research, we would like to quote Csikszentmihalyi (2008, p. 240) who loftily stated that now that we have recognized every human being’s individuality we need to “reunite ourselves” and accept “a cooperation – role in the universe” to find happiness and well-being. Caring research can show how to draw upon them. OPTIMISTIC ABOUT THE FUTURE

The increase in caring research approach and focus on well-being can be seen as steps to numerous and numerous directions that are widening perspectives on how flourishing can be studied and fostered. It also tells about the public interest in such research and increasing willingness to fund positively-focused studies (see also Linley et al., 2006). In 2009, Peterson listed some interesting ideas—if not downright needs—of how to study well-being in the future. According to him, research should focus on (1) wider settings where doing well is recognized, celebrated, and encouraged (such as internet networks); (2) more interventions to respond to the criticism; (3) better understanding about the connection between biological and psychological premises of well-being; and (4) better understanding about well-being and flourishing in various cultural contexts. Since Peterson’s article, the increase in studies analyzing well-being in various contexts and, especially, in social networks has been rapid. Naturally, the fast digitalization and extensive use of virtual networks necessitates it. For example, studies have suggested that persons’ future happiness can be judged by their photos in social networks (Seder & Oishi, 2013), that the relationship between life satisfaction and happiness with social networks profiles has proven reciprocal Saslow et al. (2012), and that the use of social media is strongly associated with the three types of social capital and interacts with measures of psychological wellbeing (Ellison, Steinfield, & Lompe, 2007). Our study among university students showed that internet networks can be beneficial in the form of peer support groups and learning environments, enhance bonding and communality, and have a positive impact on students’ well-being, engagement to studies and, thus, study success 140

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(Uusiautti & Määttä, 2014). Still, further studies are needed to better understand, for example, about the influence on students’ academic learning (e.g., Tian et al., 2011). Caring research becomes manifested the best in actual intervention settings. While well-being-promoting interventions are already common and popular in classrooms (e.g., Seligman et al., 2009; see also Leskisenoja & Uusiautti, 2015), workplaces (e.g., Davis, 2013), and other contexts (e.g., Anderson & Heyne, 2012; Timoney & Holder, 2013) too, it would be interesting to study the organization, interaction, and elements of caring research communities through intervention studies. Another target of caring research is people’s flourishing in various cultures and contexts. As Peterson (2009) also points out, understanding about fundamental differences between individualistic and communal cultures not only in how they define happiness or well-being but otherwise too is necessary, and therefore, research on new methodologies and ways of studying, fostering, and maintaining cultures is called for (see also Keskitalo & Sarivaara’s and Uusiautti’s chapters in this book). Positive psychological research has been criticized for black-and-white thinking and unclear concepts, such as “positivity” or “happiness” that can mean various things in various situations and from various perspectives. Wong (2011) felicitously reminds that phenomena in human lives cannot be properly understood without considering all kinds of experiences from positive to negative. Leaning on positive psychological ideas, caring research—whether it was psychological, educational, sociological, etc.—must also remember that conceptual clarity is the key of rigorous research. Caring is about caring the terminology, too. Likewise, caring research wants to avoid “reality problems” and “wrong kind of positivity” (as warned by Held, 2004, p. 9), and produce reliable and research-based information that is also applicable in practice. Meticulous research and well-planned interventions are ways to prevent that (see e.g., Cohn & Fredrickson, 2010). Seligman himself is very positive about the future directions and is convinced that “we can all say ‘yes’ to more well-being” (Seligman, 2011, p. 241). Caring research answers to the call by including not only caring research themes in the picture but also the wider research community comprising people doing or being involved in research activities. We, as educators and professors of educational psychology and the science of education, would like to draw attention to the role of education systems. In Finland, we will have the new core curriculum for basic education that covers the whole nation’s schools. The emphases in this new curriculum are in strength-based teaching and joy of learning, which is a deliberate and fundamental change from the traditional teacher-led teaching toward new, collaborative and student-oriented learning environments (see also Määttä, 2015). The seeds of well-being can be—and should be planted at school (Pajares, 2001; Seligman et al., 2009). We, professors, researchers, teachers, supervisors, and students, can welcome caring research among us and live it out together! 141

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Satu Uusiautti, PhD, works as an associate professor of education at the University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland, and is an adjunct professor of educational psychology at the University of Helsinki, Finland. Her research interests include success at work and in various areas of life, positive development and positive educational psychology as well as human flourishing and strengths. Her latest publications include, for example, The Psychology of Becoming a Successful Worker. Research on the Changing Nature of Achievement at Work (S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä, Routledge, 143

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New York, 2015) and Critical Eye on Education (S. Uusiautti & K. Määttä, Eds., United Press Global, Tallinn, 2015). Kaarina Määttä, PhD, works as a professor of educational psychology and a vicerector at the University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland. Her research interests include caring teacherhood and teacher training, the pedagogy of supervision of doctoral theses, love and human relationships as well as positive psychology and human resources. Her latest publications include Obsessed with Doctoral Theses (K. Määttä, Ed., Sense Publishers, Rotterdam, 2012) and Early Child Education and Care in Finland (K. Määttä & S. Uusiautti, Eds., Routledge, New York, 2013).

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ORIGINAL ARTICLES

Chapter 1 originally appeared as: Määttä, K., & Uusiautti, S. (2015). Two perspectives on caring research: Research on well-being and researcher well-being. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 66, 29–41. Reprinted with permission. Chapter 7 originally appeared as: Määttä, K., Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, M. (2014). A story of an ideal study process at the University of Lapland, Finland. Global Journal of Human Social Science, 14(1), 83–89. Reprinted with permission. Chapter 8 originally appeared as: Uusiatti, S. (2016). Scientific publishing as the arena of power and caring. International Journal of Research Studies in Education, 5(1), 75–86. doi:10.5861/ijrse.2015.1119. Reprinted with permission. Chapters 2, 3, 4, 6, and 9 have been inspired by the following articles: Rantala, T., Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, K. (2014). “God loves a joyful teacher” – And so do pupils. International Journal of Academic Research in Education and Review, 2(3), 49–55. Uusiautti, S., & Määttä, K. (2015). Engagement and hope as factors behind success at work. Journal of Studies in Education, 5(2), 106–118. Määttä, K. (2011). The fascination of love never fades – How do the elderly describe their experiences of falling in love. International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities, 2(1), 14–25. Määttä, K. (2015). A good supervisor – Ten facts of caring supervision. International Education Studies, 8(9), 185–193. Sarivaara, E., & Keskitalo, P. (2016). The definition and task of mediating Sámi research. International Journal of Research Studies in Education, 5(4), 59–71.

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