The Archaeology of La Calsada: A Rockshelter in the Sierra Madre Oriental, Mexico 9780292753686

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

Texas Archaeology and Ethnohistory Series Thomas R. Hester, Editor

The Archaeology of La Calsada A Rockshelter in the Sierra Madre Oriental, Mexico BY C. ROGER NANCE Foreword by Jeremiah F. Epstein

UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS PRESS AUSTIN

Copyright © 1992 by the University of Texas Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America First edition, 1992 Requests for permission to reproduce material from this work should be sent to Permissions, University of Texas Press, Box 7819, Austin, TX 78713-7819. © The paper used in this publication meets the m i n i m u m requirements of American National S t a n d a r d for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Nance, Charles Roger, [date] The archaeology of La Calsada : a rockshelter in the Sierra Madre Oriental, Mexico / by C. Roger Nance ; foreword by Jeremiah F. Epstein. — 1st ed. p. cm. — (Texas archaeology and ethnohistory series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-292-70427-5 (cloth) 1. Calsada Rockshelter (Mexico) 2. Indians of Mexico—Mexico— Nuevo León (State)—Antiquities. 3. Nuevo León (Mexico : State)— Antiquities. I. Title. II. Series. F1219.1.N83N36 1992 972'.13—dc20 91-41040 CIP

To Vally

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Contents

Foreword Acknowledgments 1. Introduction

xv xxiii 1

2. The Río Pilón Surveys and a Description of La Calsada and Its Excavation

10

3. Radiocarbon Chronology

21

4. Artifact-Form Descriptions

26

5. Artifact-Form and Attribute Distributions

96

6. Extrasite Relationships

113

7. Queries and Problems: La Calsada and the Prehistory of Northeast Mexico

131

Figures

145

Bibliography

205

Index

225

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Figures

1.

Archaeological Sites and Localities in Northeast Mexico

147

2.

Central Nuevo León: La Calsada and Nearby Sites

148

3.

Vegetation, Immediate Vicinity of Site

149

4.

Contour Map of La Calsada

150

5.

La Calsada: Excavation Area Viewed from Opposite Cliff

151

6.

Map of Excavated Area

152

7.

Site Deposits, S2-6, W4

153

8.

Site Deposits: Top of Unit 4, Square S4-6W2-4

154

9.

Stratigraphic Drawing, S2-6, W4

155

10.

Stratigraphic Drawing, S2-6, E0

155

11.

Stratigraphic Drawing, S2-6, E2

156

12.

Stratigraphic Drawing, WO-6, S4

156

13.

Stratigraphic Drawing, W6-E2, S6

157

14.

Points, Forms 1-5, 7 - 9

158-159

15.

Points, Forms 6, 10-15

160-161

16.

Points, Forms 15-23

162-163

17.

Points, Forms 2 4 - 3 0

164-165

18.

Points, Forms 30-38

166-167

19.

Large Knives/Preforms, Forms 44-46

168-169

Figures

xii

20.

Arrow Points, Forms 49-51

170-171

21.

Arrow Points, Form 52; Crescents, Forms 59-60

172-173

22A. Small, Stemmed Scrapers, Form 62

174-175

22B. Unique Bifaces, Forms 80 and 82

174-175

23.

Other Bifaces, Forms 63-66

176-177

24.

Other Bifaces, Forms 6 7 - 7 3

178-179

25.

Unique Bifaces, Forms 74-79, 81

180-181

26.

Simple, Tabular Plane Unifaces, Forms 86-89

182-183

27.

Complex, Tabular Plane Unifaces, Forms 90-94

184-185

28.

Nontabular Plane Unifaces, Ridgebacked, Form 95

186-187

29.

Nontabular Plane Unifaces, Forms 9 6 - 9 8 ; Flake Unifaces, Form 99

188-189

Flake Unifaces, Forms 9 9 - 1 0 1 , 103; Irregular-Spall Uniface, Form 104

190-191

Irregular-Spall Unifaces, Forms 104-106; Multiface Cores, Form 111

192-193

Other Chipped-Stone Artifacts, Forms 112-113; Limestone Artifact, Form 114

194-195

30. 31. 32. 33.

Limestone Artifact, Form 114

196

34A. Macrophoto, Lerma Point, Form 12

197

34B. Macrophoto, Burinlike Edge on Break Surface, Form 30

197

35A. Macrophoto, Unique Arrow Points, Forms 53-55; Micropoint, Form 57

198-199

35B. Macrophoto, Worn Lateral Edge, Large Knife/Preform, Form 44 36A. Micropoints, Form 57

199

200-201

36B. Macrophoto, Unique Flake Uniface, Form 102

201

37A. Projection on Plane-Uniface Prepared Edge, Form 87

202

37B. Projection on Irregular-Spall-Uniface Prepared Edge, Form 106

202

38A. Crescent-Fragment Descriptive Categories

203

38B. Plane-Uniface Descriptive Terminology

203

Tables

1. Distribution of Artifacts by Form and Unit

29

2. Distribution of Large Knives/Preforms by Outline and Unit, Forms 44-46

69

3. Prepared Edges, Distribution by Unit and Location for Flake Unifaces, Forms 99-102

92

4. Artifacts by General Form Category and Unit

98

5. Average Artifact Weights by Unit and Selected Form Category, Forms 63-69, 86-107

100

6. Average Lengths for Point and Large Knives/Preforms by Unit, Forms 1 - 3 8 , 4 4 - 4 6

102

7. Convex, Unifacially Prepared Edges by Unit and General Form Category, Forms 86 -107

102

8. Chipped-Stone Artifact Materials, Distribution by Unit, Forms 1-115

103

9. Chipped-Stone Artifact Material Percentages by Form Category and Unit

104

10. Prepared Projections, Distribution by Unit and Form Category, Forms 57-107

105

11. Projections by Unit, Unit 5 and 6 Artifacts of Selected Forms

106

12. Polished Edges, Distribution by Unit and Form Category, Forms 57-110

107

xiv

Tables

13. Finely Hinge-Flaked Edges, Distribution by Unit and Form Category, Forms 57-110

107

14. Polishing by Unit, Unit 5 and 6 Artifacts of Selected Forms

108

15. Fine Hinge Flaking by Unit, Unit 5 and 6 Artifacts of Selected Forms

109

16. Polishing and Fine Hinge Flaking by Edge and Projection, Unit 5 and 6 Artifacts of Selected Forms

110

17. Percentages of El Riego Lithic Artifacts by General Artifact Category and Site Analytic Unit

120

18. Distribution of Unit 6 Artifacts by Form and Level, below Level 6

134

Foreword by Jeremiah F. Epstein

C. Roger Nance's excavations at La Calsada represent one of the high points in the efforts of the Northeast Mexico Archaeological Project (NEMAP) to outline the culture history of Northeast Mexico. In order to appreciate Dr. Nance's pivotal role, a brief review of what had been accomplished by NEMAP before he joined the project in 1965 is in order. The impetus for NEMAP, which lasted from the summer of 1960 to the summer of 1967, evolved from discussions in 1959 and 1960 among Drs. Wigberto Jiménez Moreno (then a visiting professor from Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia [INAH]), William Madsen, Thomas Ν. Campbell, E. Mott Davis, Edward B. Jelks, and myself. It was agreed that, while regional sequences had been established for Tamaulipas (MacNeish 1958) and central Coahuila (Taylor 1956), virtually nothing was known about the intervening regions. An initial survey of Nuevo León and eastern Coahuila was planned. Since I had some experience with excavations in rockshelters along the Rio Grande in 1958 and 1959 (Epstein 1963) and knew enough Spanish to ask for directions, the job of surveying fell to me. I spent the period between 15 June and 30 August 1960 in Northeast Mexico. The survey proved reasonably successful in that forty-three sites were located in Nuevo León, twenty-four in Coahuila, and two in Tamaulipas (Epstein 1961). Almost all were open campsites marked by clusters of burned rock (hearths), around which an occasional artifact, such as a projectile point, small biface, or flake, could be

xvi

Foreword

found. A few rockshelters were located, as well, but none seemed particularly promising. They were either too shallow or had been cleaned out by guano hunters. Since I had hoped to establish a local chronology for the survey area, the failure to find sites with deep deposits was a matter of great concern. The most important site discovered during the survey was the San Isidro site, near Los Ramones, Nuevo León. It too was an open site, but the artifacts scattered around the hearths were, for the most part, heavy crude pebble tools or bifaces. The few projectile points— Plainview-Golondrina variants—indicated a Paleo-Indian encampment. It was quite probable that most of the site had been exposed by sheet erosion. However, the fact that some burned rock and a crude chopper were observed eroding out of a shallow cut about eight inches below the surface suggested that a portion of the site was worth excavating. I returned to the San Isidro site on various occasions in August of 1960 with Eugenio del Hoyo of the Instituto Tecnológico de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, and Drs. E. Mott Davis and Edward Β. Jelks of the Department of Anthropology of the University of Texas at Austin, and even later with Dr. José Luís Lorenzo, Beatriz Braniff, and Marie Antoinette Cervantes of INAH. We all agreed that the site was important enough to examine more thoroughly. Two summers later, in 1962, after having spent the previous summer at Abri Pataud in France, I returned to the San Isidro site with a field crew consisting of those who registered for the archaeological field course given by the Department of Anthropology of the University of Texas. The plan was to excavate the undisturbed area near the eroding hearths and to make a detailed map of the artifacts distributed on the surface. The excavations were disappointing; we found only a few flakes and burned-rock fragments in our trenches and squares. However, the surface-mapping project directed by Robert Whallon, then a graduate student at the University of Chicago, recovered a significant number of artifacts, many clearly associated with particular hearths. Analysis of the differential spatial distribution of artifacts suggested that three different assemblages were represented at San Isidro: (1) the earliest was a heavy chopperbiface industry, which apparently lacked projectile points; (2) the second was a Paleo-Indian occupation characterized by PlainviewGolondrina and Lerma points, as well as pebble tools and crude bifaces; and (3) the last was more of a catchall for later occupations

Foreword

xvii

represented by a variety of Archaic projectile points (Epstein 1969). The problem of finding a site with a deeply buried deposit still remained. After the San Isidro excavations were finished, I spent part of the following fall near the San Isidro site excavating a mammoth in the naive hope that it had been killed by Paleo-Indians. The dismembered animal apparently died of natural causes, however. I then turned to surveying the region near Linares, Nuevo León. One rockshelter, NL-92, located on the south slope of the valley between Linares and Iturbide, seemed promising. Although no artifacts were visible on the surface, the shelter was larger than any I had seen in Nuevo León, and the deposit seemed to be deep. The opportunity to test NL-92 came in the following summer, in June of 1963, when two of my students, Burney B. McClurkan and Glen S. Greene, made a reconnaissance of various valleys that cut into the Sierra Madre between Linares and Montemorelos. In the process they discovered a number of rockshelters and sank test pits in most. Not unexpectedly, NL-92 turned out to be the most promising. McClurkan's excavations revealed a deposit about five feet thick resting on gravel. The artifacts, consisting largely of arrow points and some dart points, clearly showed vertical stratification. In the following fall, I returned with Burney McClurkan and John Alford, a graduate student who had also dug at San Isidro. We set up camp on the side of the hill, about fifty yards from the site. From our camp we could see the highway that had been cut into the slope on the north side of the valley, watch the trucks rumble up and down day and night, and, when it rained, hear the terrifying noise of the loose talus rock as it fell on the highway, often blocking traffic for hours. Travelers were warned of approaching danger by a Zona de Derrumbes (landslide area) sign nearby, and we, following suit, thought it appropriate to name NL-92 Cueva de la Zona de Derrumbes. In the four months we were there we excavated a sizeable portion of that site down to the gravel layer. The excavations produced a long, culturally stratified, and apparently continuous sequence starting around 3000 B.c. and ending at about A.D. 600 (McClurkan 1966). The following year, I returned to the site and found an occupation beneath the gravel layer. Carbon dates indicated no significant difference in time or culture between the occupations immediately below and above the gravel layer. Apparently, the gravel layer marks a short period of significant flooding in this region around 3000 B.c. (McClurkan 1966; Epstein 1972).

xviii

Foreword

It was clear that the sequence from Cueva de la Zona covered the culture sequence between what we now call the Middle Archaic and the Neo-American periods. The earlier periods were missing. There was a three-thousand-year gap to fill between the estimated dates of the San Isidro Paleo-Indian occupation, with its Plainview points, pebble choppers, and bifaces, and the earliest levels at Cueva de la Zona. I felt keenly that the search for early sites had to be intensified. At this point I received a phone call from Dick Daugherty of Washington State University telling me about an archaeology student who was interested in doing his doctoral work at the University of Texas. It seemed that this fellow, C. Roger Nance, was well versed in geology, soils, and whatever else was necessary for the proper interpretation of archaeological materials. "O.K. Send him down," I uttered, only this and nothing more. Roger arrived shortly, registered as a graduate student, and took a full load of courses. The following spring, 1965,1 sent him searching for any site or sites that could bridge the gap between the PaleoIndian horizon at San Isidro and the early material from Cueva de la Zona. We chose to survey the Río Pilón Valley, just west of Montemorelos, the scenic beauty of which McClurkan and Greene, in their four-day survey of that valley the previous year, had described in glowing terms. They had spotted many rockshelters in their brief trip, had examined some, and had heard reports of others. We felt that surely here would be the shelter or shelters that could permit us to work out the long prehistoric-culture chronology I was looking for. No one could accuse Roger of not trying. He tested just about all the rockshelters he came across. While some were on or close to the valley floor, others were hundreds of feet above it on the steep sides of the mountain. It is difficult enough to climb up these slopes unencumbered, but when a person is loaded with cameras, shovels, and picks, and the heat of the summer sun is bouncing off the rocky slopes, the job becomes extraordinarily difficult. As it turned out, the rockshelters that Roger examined all proved to have little promise. They had collapsed roofs, shallow deposits, or relatively recent cultural material, or they had been looted. He then changed his survey procedure and started searching for sites near the mountaintops at altitudes more than 2,000 meters above sea level. In the process, he found La Calsada, the site we had been looking for since 1960, the site that is described in this report.

Foreword

xix

The Río Pilón Valley and La Calsada For a tourist who wants to see impressive country, a trip to La Calsada would be well worthwhile. Join me. We'll start, as Nance did in 1965, from our rented house in Monterrey, Nuevo León. Although Monterrey and La Calsada are only about thirty-four airline miles apart, two days are required for the trip. In terms of time, the shortest leg is the fifty-mile stretch from Monterrey to Montemorelos down Highway 85. The second leg, from Montemorelos to Rayones, is on the unpaved road that parallels the Río Pilón into the Sierra Madre. The country is spectacular! McClurkan and Greene thought of it as the most beautiful region they had seen in all of northern Mexico. The canyon cut by the river is narrow and steep. While the floor of the valley is about nine hundred to one thousand meters above sea level, the mountains rise to heights varying from two thousand to twenty-five hundred meters. The Río Pilón is a clear, springfed, permanent stream. McClurkan recorded in his field notes of 4 August 1963 that they crossed the river thirtythree times before reaching Rayones. At the third crossing, waters flowed through the cab of their truck. Vehicles break down easily in this country (McClurkan and Greene had one flat, an overheated radiator, and a punctured fuel line), and slow, careful driving is the rule. While it is only about twenty-one miles (35 km) to Rayones, the delightfully jarring trip, as I remember it, took longer than four hours. Rayones is a small, attractive village with a square and a number of tall avocado trees that provide shade. Lodging and food are available, and it is both convenient and prudent to spend the night there. The third leg of the trip begins the next morning, when, after breakfast, the visitor follows the Río Pilón road to the small village of Casillas, about twenty-three kilometers to the northwest. Here it is necessary to rent a horse and guide for the final leg, a four- to seven-hour ascent into the mountains. After leaving the river, the traveler climbs through areas of prickly pear and agave, finally reaching groves of oak and madrona trees. Still higher are stands of pine. Perhaps the most interesting parts of the whole climb are two separate settlements of log cabins, each consisting of four or five structures. Each settlement, apparently, belongs to a single extended family. The cabins, with their clay-chinked walls and homemade shingles, are reminiscent of pioneer America in the eighteenth century. A visitor could easily feel transported back in time were it not for the occasional

XX

Foreword

sound of a portable transistor radio emanating from one of the cabins. Ultimately, the traveler reaches La Calsada, which rests close to the very top of one of the mountains overlooking the Río Pilón Valley. The view is breathtaking! Far below, the narrow Pilón valley can be seen snaking its way to the south and east surrounded by an endless array of steep mountains. It is akin to being on top of the world. When I accompanied Roger on my first visit, a welcoming committee of two parrots perched on the top of a tree in the center of the site. Unfortunately, they flew away before they could be identified more precisely. Some Personal Notes Archaeological reports, and this one is no exception, seldom contain enough information to allow the reader to form an opinion of the writer. Most archaeologists are so concerned with presenting the facts clearly and dispassionately that the reader can easily forget that the author is human, that he or she, too, suffers, endures, or feels passion. I cannot let this happen to Roger. The following recollections, I hope, will convey some idea of what was happening to him during those long months on top of the mountain at La Calsada. Perhaps the most memorable incident occurred after Roger had completed his survey and had started his preliminary testing of La Calsada in mid-April of 1965. He had found lodging in a spare log cabin of Sr. Valdez, which was about a one-hour walk from La Calsada. All the excavation equipment had been transported from Casillas to the site by horse and burro. In the process, the alidade broke, which forced him to take measurements with a line level. Water, of course, had to be brought in. He worked at the site until 29 April, traveling for two hours each day from the log cabin to the site and back again. The Valdez family supplied his daily sustenance. On the evening of 1 May, Roger showed up at our house in Monterrey. He was pale, thin, and obviously in poor health. "Doc," he said, "I can't take much more of this." It seems that during the fifteen days that Roger had shared the Valdez's family larder he had eaten nothing but tortillas and noodles cooked in lard, a diet that, as Roger's appearance indicated, was far from adequate. The mystery is how his hosts could survive on such fare. Incidents such as this illustrate how little we know about those who labor for us or help us when we are in the field.

Foreword

xxi

Roger stayed with us in Monterrey for about eight days. By this time he had recovered his health and was determined to excavate La Calsada extensively. He decided to switch residences and set up camp at the site. The two hours spent traveling each day to and from the site could be better spent excavating or writing field notes, and he was convinced that whatever he cooked would be better than what he had been eating. Roger went back to La Calsada on 11 May for two more weeks of work to wind up his preliminary excavations and set the stage for the more detailed work that was to follow. His field notes on that last day are remarkable for their brevity: "From 26 May to 16 June the author was not in the field. I went to Austin to get married, and returned to Casillas on 16 June with my wife Valdmyra M. Nance." Roger and his wife were well prepared for an extended season of excavations. They had a large tent made to order and had picked up all the camping gear and much of the food that they required for an extended archaeological honeymoon. In many ways, La Calsada was the ideal place for a newly wed prehistorian. It was isolated, the view was magnificent, and the location was endowed with the longest stratified cultural deposit known for Nuevo León. The details of that deposit and its implications for the prehistory of Northeast Mexico are the subject of the following pages. Acknowledgments The initial survey of 1960 was funded through the University of Texas at Austin's Department of Anthropology, the University Research Institute, and the Institute of Latin American Studies. The last five years were supported by three separate grants: two from the National Science Foundation (GS-200 and GS-636) and one from the Fulbright Hays Committee (F.H.4-99). Permission to work in Northeast Mexico was granted by the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia through Dr. Román Piña Chan. The Instituto Technológico de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey provided office, laboratory, and storage space for our equipment and our collections and graciously expedited our fieldwork by advancing funds whenever they were needed. While its faculty and staff provided help, counsel, and companionship in various ways, I am personally indebted to Professor Eugenio del Hoyo, who generously shared with me his knowledge of Nuevo León prehistory and guided me to many of the sites he had discovered before I met him in the summer of 1960.

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Acknowledgments

The archaeology of La Calsada was carried out as dissertation research at the University of Texas at Austin. Dr. Jeremiah F. Epstein was project director and chair of my dissertation committee. Fieldwork at La Calsada would have been impossible without his knowledge and support. Other members of my committee, Drs. Τ. Ν. Campbell, E. Mott Davis, and Dee Ann Story, were especially helpful, with both advice and material aid, such as lab space and funds for radiocarbon dates. In the field I was fortunate to have a fine crew of men from La Cebolla (Ejido of Casillas)—as good a field crew as I've ever had. My wife, Vally, was indispensable, running the field lab and coming to my rescue more than once with her fluent Spanish. I would like to acknowledge the assistance of the late Mr. Daniel W. Josselyn, an amateur archaeologist (in the best sense of the term) who lived in Birmingham, Alabama. He and Jerry Epstein taught me much about stone tools. Thanks are due to Mrs. Alice Burns of Birmingham, who illustrated the artifacts. Recently the editor of this series, Dr. Thomas R. Hester, persuaded me that revisions and updating might render the twenty-year-old La Calsada manuscript publishable. His cogent comments on a draft are appreciated. Other recent assistance came from Drs. Vaughn M. Bryant, Lorraine Heartfield, and Harry J. Shafer. Thanks also are due to Mrs. Tinker Dunbar, Interlibrary Loan Librarian, Sterne Library, University of Alabama at Birmingham.

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1 Introduction

For any region, an archaeological site with both temporal depth and clear stratigraphy is of paramount importance. Without this, even the basic sequence may remain in doubt, causing interpretations to be hampered by an uncertain chronology. In 1965, such a site was found in the beginning stages of systematic research in Nuevo León, Mexico. La Calsada, a rockshelter in the northern Sierra Madre Oriental, produced a well-dated sequence, commencing prior to 8000 B.C. Five distinguishable strata and a consistent verticalchronological succession of radiocarbon dates indicated minimal mixing. Moreover, evidence of culture history was recovered in the form of 1,140 stone artifacts, evenly distributed through the site's deposits. This report on excavations at La Calsada is essentially a revised and distilled version of my 1971 Ph.D. dissertation. To provide context, this first chapter describes briefly the environment of Northeast Mexico, summarizes the regional ethnohistory, and reviews archaeological research carried out to date in that region. It also outlines the following study of La Calsada and excavated artifacts. Environmental Setting The states of Tamaulipas, Nuevo León, and Coahuila comprise an area of nearly 114,000 square miles. It is a land of pronounced environmental contrasts. Four of the five "natural realms" defined by

2

The Archaeology of La Calsada

West (1964: 364-366) for Middle America occur in the region. Extratropical dry lands, characterized by xerophytic plant assemblages and arid-type land forms, are found on the Mesa del Norte of Coahuila and extend onto the Gulf Coastal Plain of northern Nuevo León and far northeastern Tamaulipas. Subhumid extratropical lowlands, an area of hills covered with thorn shrubs and small trees, cover most of Tamaulipas and most of southern Nuevo León. The southernmost part of the Tamaulipas is a tropical lowland, a coastal region with "semi-deciduous to deciduous forest with scattered patches of savanna" (West 1964: 370). Finally, the Sierra Madre Oriental, which divides the coastal plain from the Mesa del Norte and extends from the Central Highlands north into western parts of Tamaulipas and Nuevo León and easternmost Coahuila, is designated an extratropical highland. These mountains are folded limestone anticlines characterized by stands of oak and pine at higher elevations, although generally the flora is highly varied. Ethnohistory The consideration of regional ethnohistory is important to understanding archaeological data, especially for a site like La Calsada, which was occupied into late prehistoric times. A brief review of the ethnohistoric literature of Northeast Mexico provides an initial setting. These same ethnohistorical data will be utilized when cultural reconstructions are attempted in the concluding chapter. The earliest account of Indians in Nuevo León may be that of Cabeza de Vaca (Bandelier, trans. 1964). In part, Cabeza de Vaca's 1534 to 1536 journey may have taken him through northern Nuevo León, if Krieger's (1961) interpretation is correct. According to Krieger, Cabeza de Vaca traveled from the southern Texas Gulf Coast to the vicinity of Monterrey, Mexico, before turning northwest and recrossing the Rio Grande from eastern Chihuahua into West Texas. While Nunley (1971a) is critical of Krieger's reconstruction, we will follow it here as the best interpretation of what must be regarded as scant and ambiguous information (cf. Campbell 1983: 358; Campbell and Campbell 1988: 8-13; Salinas 1990: 84). Given this geographical interpretation, the people encountered by Cabeza de Vaca in Nuevo León were probably all gatherers and hunters, subsisting mainly on nopal and nopal tunas during the season of Cabeza de Vaca's visit. At one point, however, Cabeza de Vaca does

Introduction

3

mention being brought several loads of cornmeal (Bandelier, trans. 1964: 136). This is not altogether surprising, since maize horticulture is recorded for southern Tamaulipas in early historic times (Beals 1932: 157; MacNeish 1958: 17; Salinas 1990: 73). Archaeologically, maize is reported for the Sierra de Tamaulipas and the Sierra Madre Oriental in southwestern Tamaulipas (MacNeish 1958: 155, 168). A more informative account of the Indians of Nuevo León was written by Alonzo de León in 1649 (León 1961; summarized in Campbell 1983; partially translated in Davenport 1924). León describes rancherías, settlements of fifteen huts, each housing eight or more persons. Rancherías could be assigned by León to different nations, the members of which were distinguished by characteristic face paintings. León also provides economic details. He relates that the people had no horticulture, but subsisted on lechuguilla in the winter (roasting the hearts of the plants), while in the summer they ate nopal tunas and mesquite beans. These Indians also fished and hunted. León mentions deer hunting but says that the people were omnivorous: "There is no bird or animal they do not eat, even unclean poisonous reptiles, such as snakes, vipers, rats and all the rest . . ." (Davenport 1924: 294). These and other ethnohistorical sources on the region have been summarized by Beals (1932), Ruecking (1953, 1954, 1955), Campbell (1983), and Salinas (1990). Studies dealing with the early Indians of Coahuila include those by Martínez del Río (1954), Griffen (1969), and Campbell (1979). Archaeological implications of some of these data are discussed by Taylor (1972). MacNeish (1958: 15-18) has summarized Saldívar's (1945) work on the Indians of Tamaulipas; the work of Salinas (1990) focuses on the Río Grande delta. Northeast Mexico seems to have manifested great cultural diversity at contact and during the early historic period. For example, it is clear from the abundance of ethnonyms recorded for the region (e.g., Saldívar 1943; Campbell 1983; Salinas 1990), that hundreds of welldefined sociopolitical entities existed there. How much these cultures or social units varied among themselves in social structure, subsistence practices, warfare, religion, or even linguistics remains unknown. Moreover, general accounts, whether colonial or modern, by their very nature, tend to mask this diversity, leaving the subject, in the words of Martínez del Río (1954: 49), "bristling with problems" (cf. Nunley 1971a; Campbell 1983). Nevertheless, rough constancies across the region seem to have existed, especially in the range

4

The Archaeology of La Calsada

of economic resources utilized, and these data, at least, can be summarized here. The information, even at a superficial level, can be useful in reconstructing economic adaptations employed by the prehistoric occupants of La Calsada. Plant foods probably predominated in the diet. Ruecking (1953: 480) regards agave as the basic staple of the region, supplemented by nopal and mesquite. Sotol may have been especially important in Coahuila (Ruecking 1953: 487). Two important agave species were Agave lecheguilla and the maguey plant (A. americana), but other species of agave were undoubtedly consumed (cf. Castetter et al. 1938). Flowers, stalks, crowns, roots, and leaves were roasted and eaten; the sweet sap of maguey plants (agua miel) was collected and drunk (Martínez del Río 1954: 67; Griffen 1969: 110). León (Davenport 1924: 293) reports the use of wooden mortars to pulverize dried lechuguilla leaves, and other sources mention the use of mortars to grind mesquite beans (Griffen 1969: 106). Two such mortars have been recovered from caves in the Trans-Pecos region of West Texas (Collins and Hester 1968; Prewitt 1981). Mesquite is commonly found today on the coastal plain of Nuevo León east of the Sierra Madre (M. Johnson 1963). Wines were made from maguey leaves (producing mescal; Ruecking 1953: 487) and mesquite beans (Martínez del Río 1954). Peyote was apparently used throughout the region (Griffen 1969: 111; Martínez del Río 1954: 78; Ruecking 1953: 486). Hunting with bows and arrows was important, as well. Deer and rabbit hunting are mentioned most frequently, but bird hunting was common, as well as the hunting of smaller animals (mice, rats, and snakes). León wrote that men and women were great fishers, using both nets and bows and arrows (Davenport 1924: 294). Within Northeast Mexico, it is possible to discern some regional variation in economic orientation. We have mentioned the presence of agriculture in southern Tamaulipas, where cultigens in the diet were supplemented through plant collecting, hunting, and fishing. For northern Tamaulipas, MacNeish mentions the hunting of deer, rabbit, turkey, and pheasant and the collection of nopal tunas in the summertime. Groups in the Sierra Madre Oriental of Tamaulipas are said to have been like those to the north, subsisting through gathering and hunting (MacNeish 1958: 15-17). In southern Coahuila, special circumstances were created by large lakes in the Lagunera district. The hunting of aquatic fowl, in-

Introduction

5

Cluding ducks, geese, and heron, was important there; the same was true of fishing in the lakes, as well as the rivers draining into them. Agriculture may have been practiced in the same region (Beals 1932; Griffen 1969: 111), but the primary sources are contradictory. Martínez del Río concludes, "In brief, some of the Indians (although not all) possibly were beginning to plant certain seeds, but they did not cultivate the plants, and only with difficulty could the Laguneros be considered true agriculturalists" (Martínez del Río 1954: 73). Mesquite and agave were also consumed in the Lagunera district, although there is little mention of nopal (Martínez del Río 1954: 67). In northern Coahuila and northern Nuevo León, the basic economic pattern was complicated by the practice of bison hunting. In historic times, at least, some groups either hunted bison within that region or traveled north of the Río Grande to return with dried bison meat (Griffen 1969: 113; Campbell 1979: 15). Other elements of the basic gathering-and-hunting economy remained the same. Early sources mention the consumption of maguey crowns, nopal tunas, mesquite beans, unspecified roots, fish, venison, and smaller animals, such as rats (Campbell 1979). One other component of the diet in Northeast Mexico was the consumption of human flesh. Cannibalism was widespread in the region, but whether it was commonly practiced or not remains unknown (MacNeish 1958: 15; Martínez del Río 1954: 73; Griffen 1969: 119; Ruecking 1953: 488). Previous Archaeological Research To date, the prehistory of Northeast Mexico is known from the following excavations and surveys. Richard MacNeish excavated sites in Tamaulipas in the late 1940s; Walter Taylor excavated sites in Coahuila in 1937, and Luis Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda and others excavated a vertical shaft cave in 1953 and 1954, also in Coahuila. In the 1960s, additional research was carried out through the Northeast Mexico Archaeological Project, directed by Jeremiah F. Epstein. Included were excavations of two sites by Epstein, work at La Calsada by myself, and excavation of six sites in southern Coahuila by William Irwin and Lorraine Heartfield. Limited archaeological surveys for the region were conducted by Federico Mullerried in eastern Coahuila and by Jack Hughes in Tamaulipas. The construction of two dams on the lower Río Grande led to sur-

6

The Archaeology of La Calsada

veys on both sides of the border in the impoundment areas prior to flooding: in the Falcon Reservoir of Tamaulipas and far South Texas and in the Amistad Reservoir of Coahuila and West Texas (at the confluence of the Devils River and the Río Grande). Excavations were carried out in both reservoirs, but only on the U.S. side of the border. More-extensive surveys were conducted by MacNeish in Tamaulipas and through the Northeast Mexico Archaeological Project in Nuevo León and Coahuila. Involved in the latter were Epstein, Burney McClurkan, Glen Greene, Dudley Varner, Heartfield, Ronald Ralph, Irwin, and myself. Publications (or nonpublished information) resulting from this work provided the starting point for the research described here. (Sites and localities discussed in the text are depicted in Fig. 1.) MacNeish (1958) synthesized data from five stratified rockshelters and several open sites in the Sierra de Tamaulipas into a general nine-phase sequence that dates to 7500 B.C. Excavated material includes lithic, ceramic, and perishable artifacts, in addition to plant and animal remains, and these data allowed MacNeish to reconstruct economies for eight of the nine phases (MacNeish 1958: 139-152). In southern Coahuila, Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda et al. (1956) excavated Cueva de Candelaria, a nonstratified site with lithic and perishable artifacts, including hafted, triangular knives and small, sidenotched arrow points. This site probably dates between A.D. 1100 and 1300 (Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda 1964). In the Cuatro CiEnegas Basin of central Coahuila, Taylor excavated at least three stratified sites, one of which provided an early radiocarbon date of ca. 7600 B.c. (Taylor 1966: 63). However, Taylor has yet to report the sites or excavated material in detail (for summary reports, see Taylor 1956, 1966). In Nuevo León, Epstein (1969) excavated the San Isidro site, an open campsite on the desert near Monterrey. He defined two major components, one Paleo-Indian, the other Archaic. The second site excavated in Nuevo León is the rockshelter Cueva de la Zona de Derrumbes (henceforth referred to as Cueva de la Zona), located in the Sierra Madre foothills near the coastal-plain town of Linares. McClurkan assisted Epstein during 1963 and 1964 at the rockshelter and reported the results of this first field season in his Master's thesis (1966; summarized in McClurkan 1980). During that period, a thick midden was removed in part to an underlying deposit of sterile gravel. In the course of a second field season in 1965, a second mid-

Introduction

7

den was found beneath the gravel and excavated (McClurkan 1980: 60). Radiocarbon dates place the upper midden between 2900 B.C. and A.D. 1000 (McClurkan 1980: 60), while the lower midden deposit dates to around 3100 B.c. (Epstein 1966: 119). Several surface surveys conducted in Northeast Mexico have resulted in detailed reports with systematic artifact descriptions and provenience data by site. MacNeish (1958: 45-47; 153, Table 21) correlated surface collections from the Sierra de Tamaulipas to the sequence developed from excavated sites. He also described surface collections from the Río Grande delta region made by A. E. Anderson and himself (MacNeish 1958: 186-192). Apart from the delta region, MacNeish (1958: 173-186) made other surface collections in northern Tamaulipas, which, on the basis of very limited excavations, have been subsumed within a tentative sequence of phases. A more limited survey in Tamaulipas was reported by Hughes (1947), while Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda (1951; Arguedas R. de la Borbolla and Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda 1953) surveyed sites in the Falcon Reservoir on the Tamaulipas side of the border. Krieger's findings from the U.S. side of the Falcon Reservoir are summarized by Suhm, Krieger, and Jelks (1954: 134-143; see also Nunley 1971b, Cason 1952, Hartle and Stephenson 1951, and Kotter 1980). For Coahuila, Mullerried (1934) discusses surface collections from fifteen sites in the eastern portion of that state, and Taylor and Rul (1961) briefly describe material collected from Amistad Reservoir sites on the Coahuila side of the Río Grande. Extensive surveys and excavations in the U.S. portion of the Amistad are summarized in Story and Bryant (eds. 1966), Alexander (1974), Marmaduke (1978), Saunders (1986), and Shafer (1986). Additional survey work in Coahuila centered on the western Parras Basin region east of Torreón. Here, the Northeast Mexico Archaeological Project conducted surveys in the Desierto de Charcos de Risa and the Laguna Mayran, and this led to the excavation of six open sites in that region (Heartfield 1975, 1976, 1980). Four sites studied in the Desierto de Charcos de Risa were found to date from late Paleo-Indian to historic times on the basis of projectile-point typology and the presence of historic artifacts (Heartfield 1975). The two additional sites in the Laguna Mayran area were estimated to date from ca. A.D. 1 into the historic era (Heartfield 1976: 164, 167). Epstein (1969: 131-141) has published detailed information on surface material gathered from sites in Nuevo León in 1960. Varner's

8

The Archaeology of La Calsada

unpublished Master's thesis (1967; summarized in Varner 1968) deals with the analysis of small surface sites, each consisting of an exposed fire hearth and associated artifacts. The data were collected in 1965 in Nuevo León and Coahuila. Information on the site surveys of Greene and McClurkan in 1964 in Nuevo León and Coahuila and of Nance in the Río Pilón Valley, Nuevo León, in 1965 is available as unpublished field notes (McClurkan n.d., Nance n.d.). The Study of La Calsada La Calsada, when excavated, provided lithic artifacts from at least five stratified components and enough charcoal to allow at least partial radiocarbon dating of each. However, virtually no perishable artifacts, identifiable faunal remains, macroplant remains, or sufficient pollen for analysis were recovered. Vaughn Bryant, Jr. (personal communication) examined selected soil samples and found pollen-grain counts too low for analysis. These factors, of course, determined to some degree the direction of this study. The lithic sequence could be studied for indices of cultural change and continuity, and the artifactual record could be tied to an absolute chronology. These were basic objectives of the study that follows. In the process of analyzing the stone tools, we found microscopic evidence of edge wear on tool edges, which was interpreted to be the result of use. At the time of this research, 1969, few studies had been published on edge-wear analysis. Nevertheless, given the excellent chronology and stratigraphic control, all tool edges were examined microscopically in a systematic search for differing patterns of edge wear, either by artifact morphological class (Form) or by cultural period. Thus, discovering to some degree the potential of edge-wear analysis became another goal of this study. The fact that this research was begun more than twenty years ago should be kept in mind, as there are several methodological deficiencies by today's standards. First, soil samples were not collected in the field for flotation and recovery of botanical remains. Ample charcoal in the deposits suggests that this would have been productive. Second, not all chipping debitage was saved. The debitage was all washed and examined in the field laboratory. Used flakes were cataloged, while "whole" flakes were retained in the level bags (and are in storage). This incomplete collection has limited potential for detailed debitage analysis.

Introduction

9

Chapter 2 summarizes archaeological surveys that led to the discovery of La Calsada and also details the immediate site environment, the site's deposits, and methods of excavation. The sequence of twenty radiocarbon dates is presented in Chapter 3. Lithic artifacts from La Calsada were studied through two approaches. The first was in terms of a more-or-less standard classification with the 1,140 artifacts categorized into 119 Forms. Artifact descriptions by Form are included in Chapter 4. There, artifact proveniences are reported by Form and stratigraphic unit; dimensions or weight ranges are included by Form; and, for some Forms, brief statements link La Calsada categories to those described in the literature. The second approach consisted of an attribute analysis, where selected characteristics were recorded systematically, either for all artifacts or for all those of selected Forms. Summarized in Chapter 5 are studies of artifact materials, weights, dimensions, tool edge shapes, edge lengths, edge-wear patterns, and the presence of used or prepared projections (engraving spurs). Individual artifact attributes, listed by Form and artifact catalog number, and including provenience data, can be found in Nance (1971). Chapter 6 is comparative; it attempts to fit the La Calsada sequence to the archaeological literature of Mexico and southern Texas. How does this sequence clarify or expand conceptions of regional prehistory and, conversely, how can the archaeological literature contribute to our understanding of the site in question? These are the guiding questions. Chapter 7 explores two important issues in the regional prehistory. The first has to do with the Paleo-Indian occupation of Mexico and the possible origins of the initial settlers at La Calsada. Several alternative hypotheses are examined. The second issue is the nature of climatic change over the last ten thousand years. Two models are considered critically in light of La Calsada and the archaeology of Northeast Mexico. In a final recapitulation, an attempt is made to reconstruct changing economic and settlement adaptations through the site's prehistory.

2 The Río Pilón Surveys and a Description of La Calsada and Its Excavation

This chapter briefly recounts two site surveys in the Río Pilón Valley in 1963 and 1965, which led to the finding of La Calsada. A description of the Río Pilón Valley, a description of the site and its environment, and speculation on its importance to prehistoric occupants follow in order. Excavation procedures and the system of recording data are then detailed. The last sections contain a description of the physical stratigraphy and a discussion of criteria used in the field to differentiate strata. The Río Pilón Surveys, 1963 and 1965 In the summer of 1963, prior to work at Cueva de la Zona, Burney Β. McClurkan and Glen S. Greene carried out the second extensive site survey in Nuevo Líéon and Coahuila. One result achieved by this survey was recognition of the potential for archaeological research in the Río Pilón Valley. Located in the Sierra Madre west of Montemorelos, Nuevo León (Fig. 2), this valley has what must have constituted two major assets for its prehistoric inhabitants: a permanent stream and numerous large rockshelters along the canyon walls above the floodplain. McClurkan and Greene had limited time and examined only a few of the larger shelters. However, most proved to have had human occupancy, and their survey indicated the potential for later work in the area.

Río Pilón Surveys and Description of La Calsada

11

In the spring of 1965, Epstein directed me to conduct an intensive site survey in the section of the Pilón valley examined earlier. Effort was concentrated on the twenty-mile stretch between the small towns of Rayones and Casillas in the center of the Sierra Madre range. During the 1965 survey, ten rockshelters were found in the vicinity of Rayones, but none was judged suitable for excavation. Most were eroded from cliffs of soft limestone conglomerate, and, while many evidenced occupation, the presence of large roof-fall fragments (up to three meters across) on most floors precluded excavation. A few sites lacked roof fall but contained only thin cultural deposits with bedrock visible in places on the floors. Only one site in the Rayones area, Cueva de los Indios, clearly had deep deposits, but it was small and half of the deposits had been destroyed by local gold seekers. Subsequently, making use of McClurkan's field notes, the survey centered on the Ejido Emilio Carranza, located northwest of Rayones, approximately halfway between Rayones and Casillas. A number of large rockshelters was visited, but again heavy roof fall prohibited excavation. The survey then focused on the Casillas section of the Pilón valley, and, as before, we examined numerous rockshelters along the steep walls adjacent to the river and in several steep tributary canyons that open onto the north side of the valley. Cueva de la Jaula, located in a tributary canyon, has a large overhanging roof and an ashy, firebroken rock midden floor. The site was tested and abandoned; the midden, less than a foot deep, overlies a sterile, unconsolidated gravel that grades to an unweathered, conglomerate bedrock. At the conclusion of the four-week survey along the valley floor, a suitable site had not been found. In a last attempt to find a promising site in the region, Pedro Medina, a guide for the Casillas region, and I spent an additional week surveying the high country on the long ridge north of the valley. It was there that the site of La Calsada was located. The lack of deep sites on the valley floor is probably related to the generally high rate of erosion in the mountains and to the concentration and movement of alluvium and colluvium on and near the floodplain. Also, sheet erosion tends to be severe at low elevations relative to the up-country due to climatic differences. The sparse, semidesert vegetation on the valley floor impedes erosion much less than the temperate flora of the mountains. Another negative factor is

12

The Archaeology of La Calsada

that many sites along the valley floor are rockshelters in limestone conglomerate (cemented alluvial gravels). This material tends to break into very large spalls on weathering, filling shelters with immovable boulders of roof fall. Thick deposits of alluvium, cemented or otherwise, are absent at higher elevations. La Calsada and Vicinity Originating near Casillas, the Río Pilón in its upper reaches runs southeast along the floor of a synclinal trough between two major ridges of the Sierra Madre Oriental. In its middle course, the river cuts more to the east through several low ridges on the eastern edge of the range, and opens onto the Gulf Coastal Plain near Montemorelos. The site, La Calsada, is situated near the top of a high anticlinal ridge at around 2,000 meters elevation, overlooking the Río Pilón Valley and the town of Casillas. Near the small present-day settlement of La Cebolla, the site is on community land of the Ejido of Casillas in the Municipio of Rayones, Nuevo León. A partially graded dirt road connects Casillas and Rayones to Montemorelos and the modern highway. From Casillas, the site is reached by foot or horseback, a three- to seven-hour trip up steep trails into the mountains. In general, the Sierra Madre Oriental is a relatively narrow range consisting of a series of parallel, anticlinal ridges running north and south (West 1964). The region is highly varied in climate, flora, and fauna, a result of the radically differing rainfall patterns of mountainous Mexico. Vivo Escoto provides a good general description of this phenomenon, which fits the local situation near La Calsada: "The mountainous character of the land surface of Mexico and Central America also affects the distribution of rainfall, giving rise to an extremely complicated pattern of wet and dry areas. The windward sides of mountains and escarpments tend to be humid, the leeward sides, dry. Most of the high mountain ridges are wet; adjacent depressions or valleys, shut off from moisture-bearing winds, are usually dry and moderately humid" (Vivo Escoto 1964: 189). Floral changes near the site attest to the highly varied rainfall pattern. Little rain falls on the floor of the Río Pilón Valley, and the natural vegetation away from the stream channel is predominantly chaparral, low palms, nopals, and lechuguilla. This vegetation continues up the greater part of the ridge slope between the valley floor

Río Pilón Surveys and Description of La Calsada

13

and the site. Near the ridge top (and near the site), rainfall is much greater, and the flora changes to one of oak and madrona trees, grasses, and several varieties of large maguey plants (Fig. 3). The ridge crest, 50 to 100 meters above the site, is the area of maximum rainfall and has a flora of pine forests and meadowland. The environmental diversity of Nuevo León is well described by Muller (1939). Vegetation in the vicinity of La Calsada falls within his montane-mesic-forest zone, the climate of which is cool and subhumid. The mean annual temperature varies between 9.5° and 13° C, and rainfall ranges between 1,200 and 1,800 mm (Muller 1939: 717). On the ridge top above la Calsada, pine forests fit Muller's subalpinehumid-forest classification, while vegetation at the very ridge crest approaches his alpine-meadow and timberline zone. Climate for the subalpine humid forest is described as cold and humid, with the mean annual temperature ranging from 4.5° to 13° C; mean annual precipitation is estimated to fluctuate between 1,800 and 2,200 mm. Immediately below the site, vegetation can be classified within Muller's low-montane-forest zone. Characteristically, oaks are low, with trunks usually less than a foot in diameter. Agave americana plants are abundant (Muller 1939: 700). On the valley floor and lower slopes, vegetation can be described as western montane chaparral, but, within this zone, environmental change continues. "Abrupt changes in topography . . . result in a sudden change from sparse desert scrub to dense montane shrub or low forest" (Muller 1939: 702). The climate for this zone is cool and semiarid with a meanannual-temperature range of 11° to 16.5°C and a mean annual precipitation calculated to fall between 750 and 1,100 mm (Muller 1939: 717; also see M. Johnson 1963 on the vegetation of Nuevo León and other sources cited in Bryant and Riskind 1980). It is important to note the drainage characteristics of the region. The upper part of the limestone ridge where the site is located is marked by numerous solution caverns and other characteristic forms of Karst topography. Almost all drainage is subsurface, and only one small spring, several miles from the site, is reported for the entire upper ridge. On the other hand, the Río Pilón is a permanent stream fed by springs located near the valley floor. These, in turn, are supplied by subsurface water draining down from the upper ridges. Though located on the slope of a large anticline, the immediate site area is one of broken topography. The major feature is a long, narrow ledge extending approximately 300 meters east and west and

14

The Archaeology of La Calsada

varying between 20 and 100 meters wide. It resembles a giant step cut into the steep slope of the anticline, running parallel to the strike of the ridge. A vertical cliff, bordering on the upslope edge, rises above the ledge to a maximum of 50 meters. Below, on the downslope side, low vertical cliffs drop 5 to 10 meters from the ledge surface. From the base of these lower cliffs down to the valley floor, the slope of the landscape conforms to the steep lie of the limestone beds of the anticline. The surface of the ledge is extremely irregular, containing a series of small, cliff-surrounded depressions with a maximum relief of 5 meters and occasional long crevasses that parallel the length of the ledge. One end of the ledge is terminated by an arroyo; the other tapers into a single, massive cliff. La Calsada, designated NL 103, is located in one of these small, cliff-surrounded depressions that is approximately 100 meters long (Fig. 4). The depression may have been formed through the collapse of an underground solution chamber, or it may be the gap formed by the downslope movement of a large block of limestone along a bedding plane. Whatever its origin, the depression, having no external drainage way, was not formed through surface erosion. Much of the area between the limestone walls has been filled with talus from the cliffs and with colluvium from slopes above the cliffs. Apart from numerous small talus slopes on its periphery, the floor of the depression is relatively level, and the colluvial deposits there have weathered to form a deep, loam-to-clay soil profile. The upper colluvium in the lowest part of the depression has weathered to a gleyed soil. Archaeological material in the site was concentrated against a sheer, straight cliff, some 30 meters in height. This is the upslope cliff of the general ledge area, and it overhangs the depression to a maximum of 5.5 meters for a distance of approximately 20 meters (Fig. 5). Prior to excavation, the ground area under the overhang was fairly level and consisted of a broad saddle between two talus slopes, each resting against the cliff. The talus slopes merge under the overhang to form the site's deposits. It is difficult to assess the importance of the site area to aboriginal occupants. The overhang, the level ground beneath it, and the fact that the cliff protects the site from the prevailing north winds combine to make the place desirable for human residence. A lack of nearby surface water would have detracted from long residence at the site, although rainwater is plentiful, at least during the summer

Río Pilón Surveys and Description of La Calsada

15

months, and is presently collected from the cliff walls by goatherders who work in the area. Maguey plants grow in abundance near the site but are infrequent at elevations above and below the site area. People may have visited the locale for the reason they do today, to collect agua miel or to gather and consume edible parts of this plant. One other possibility is that the locale served as a lookout. Using vantage points near the site, the valley floor could have been seen for a distance of approximately five miles to the east. All of these possibilities but the last, of course, require a climate similar to the present. With climatic differences, other factors might have been predominant. A wetter-than-present climate, which probably existed ca. 7000 B.C., might have sustained a local spring, and this would have enhanced the site's suitability for occupation. Excavation Procedures A 2 x 2 meter grid system was laid out on the site, with a set of lines parallel to the relatively straight limestone cliff along the back of the shelter. Since the cliff runs within 3 degrees of magnetic eastwest, squares were designated by their distance south of the cliff and by their distance from an arbitrary north-south grid line at right angles to the cliff (Fig. 6). A block of eight squares and an additional test pit were excavated at the site. Of the eight-square block, all four squares contiguous to the cliff were designated S2-4, while the remaining four, in a parallel row 2 meters south of these, were designated S4-6. One north-south line between squares was designated east-west zero, and the eight squares were given an east or west designation according to their distance and direction from that line. Each square, then, was given a south and an east or west designation. The square designations for the eight-square block are: S2-4W4-6, S2-4W2-4, S2-4W0-2, S2-4E0-2 for the squares next to the cliff, and S4-6W4-6, S4-6W2-4, S4-6W0-2, S4-6E0-2 for the parallel squares away from the cliff. The 2 × 2 meter test pit also conforms to the grid system, being designated S6-8W0-2 and located 4 to 6 meters from the cliff (Fig. 6). Stratigraphic drawings are also identified in terms of this nomenclature, each drawing of a pit wall having three coordinates: one for the wall (e.g., W4) and two designating the wall section drawn (e.g., S2-6). Work at the site began with test square S6-8W0-2 located 4 to 6

16

The Archaeology of La Calsada

meters from the cliff and partially outside the sheltered area. (The drip line passes through the square; see Fig. 6.) This square was situated so that, while in line with the area of greatest cliff overhang (the most sheltered and therefore supposedly the area of most concentrated cultural debris), it was far enough from the back of the shelter so that the richest part of the site might not be excavated through a testing operation. The square was excavated in arbitrary 10-cm levels to a depth of 2.6 meters. All material from this (and from all squares excavated) was sifted through 1/4-inch mesh hardware cloth. The test excavation showed the presence of artifacts in the site to a depth of 2.6 meters, where sterile soil was encountered. In addition, the side walls of the square indicated that the site had more than one physical stratum. However, the artifact yield was low, and it seemed likely that the low yield was a result of the square's position on the edge of the sheltered area. It was decided, therefore, to excavate another test pit next to the cliff in order to estimate the maximum yield of the site. Excavation of the second test square (S2-4W4-6) was begun in arbitrary 10-cm levels, but, upon reaching a depth of .9 meters, excavations were temporarily halted. At this stage a fair evaluation of the site could be made; Dr. Epstein visited the site and together we reviewed the findings. We decided that the site should be excavated for the following reasons: (1) The deposits containing artifacts were at least 2.6 meters deep. (2) The deposits were physically stratified, and at least three strata could be distinguished at that time in both squares. (3) There were enough artifacts in the deposits to enable a fair initial description of the one or several lithic complexes represented; several, if the vertical segregation of complexes occurred at the site. (4) As only sterile deposits and not bedrock had been reached in the first test pit, the site had the potential of even deeper cultural deposits. The next phase of excavation was begun by digging a long, 1.5meter-wide trench around the block of 2 χ 2 meter squares to be excavated that season. This trench was excavated with no systematic effort at artifact recovery. It was believed that the low yield of test pit S6-8W0-2 allowed the destruction of these deposits. Also, we felt that the stratigraphic control gained for the entire season would justify the operation. Primarily, however, the trench deposits were sacrificed because the site, in a remote area, was expensive in both time

Río Pilón Surveys and Description of La Calsada

17

and money and had to be dug with some speed. Supplies had to be trucked up the Montemorelos-Casillas road, then loaded onto burros for an additional ten-hour trip up the mountainside. Also, the camp area afforded no spring, so that water was brought in by burro from a spring an hour and a half away. The trench was excavated around three sides of the eight-square block, the fourth side abutting the cliff, to a depth of approximately 3 meters. It also extended away from the sheltered area to form a ramp for wheelbarrows, which were moved from the floor of the trench to the screening area, away from the site proper. We located the eightsquare block within the most sheltered part of the site, reasoning that human activity would have been most recurrent there. The trench completed, efforts were directed the rest of the season to systematic, square-by-square excavation of the eight-square block (including the partially excavated second test pit). Study of the long trench walls revealed five major, continuous physical strata, and these became the basic excavation units for the season. A line level was kept for each square and was used to measure arbitrary 10-cm levels, which were excavated within each stratigraphic unit. At the same time, the upper surfaces of all units were left undisturbed during excavation of overlying material. When cleared, the upper surface of each stratigraphic unit was swept clean and tied to a permanent datum through use of a transit and level rod. Stratigraphic drawings also were made in relation to the permanent datum. During the season, 605 square meters of the site floor were excavated, approximately 60 percent of the estimated area of occupation. Photographs were taken of the cleared upper surfaces of each unit and stratigraphic drawings were made of each exposed wall. Charcoal samples were collected from each 10-cm level whenever possible during the screening process. The charcoal was placed in tightly closed, labeled plastic bags, which in turn were stored in the paper level bags. The digging was carried out almost entirely by use of pick and shovel because of the predominance of clay and rock deposits. Usually two men, one with a pick, the other with a shovel, alternated in working a square, as each was dug. The dirt was moved by wheelbarrow to the screening area, where four workers troweled the material through screens. The crew members doing the fieldwork were local inhabitants who proved to be serious and capable workers; the same individuals worked the entire season.

18

The Archaeology of La Calsada

Physical Stratigraphy Five strata were distinguished in the deposits bearing cultural material (Figs. 7-13). Each varies considerably in different parts of the shelter, both in degree of weathering and talus content. Near the wall at the back of the shelter, the deposits are only slightly weathered to a structureless or weakly structured silt or loam. Away from the wall, especially at the edge of the overhang or drip line, the deposits are well weathered to loam or clay, and each stratum has a well-defined soil structure. This is probably due, for the most part, to the fact that more rain falls on the unprotected front than at the rear of the shelter, although greater cultural deposition to the rear of the site also may have been a factor. Another transition occurs in the relative amounts of talus in the deposits. More talus accumulated in deposits away from the wall and beneath the drip line than near the wall (Fig. 10), as talus from rocky slopes above the depression accumulated directly below the upper edge of the cliff. Unit 6. This lowest stratum containing cultural material ranges from a red-brown, structureless silt (20 percent talus by area near the wall) to a red-brown, strong, coarse, angular, blocky clay (40 percent talus) 4 meters from the wall. The unit contains a few large, angular boulders with maximum dimensions over 1 meter. Above this unit, and separated from it by a disconformity, is Unit 5. Unit 5. Near the wall, Unit 5 is a structureless, brown-to-darkbrown silt loam (20 percent talus); away from the wall, it is a grayto-dark-brown clay loam with a strong, coarse, angular, blocky structure (75 percent talus). There is roughly three times as much small (8-cm to 13-cm average maximum dimensions) angular talus through this unit as in Unit 6. Unit 5 grades, although not too gradually, into Unit 4, located above it. Unit 4. Unit 4 was distinguishable from Unit 5 on the basis of a sudden decrease, from Unit 5 to 4, in the density of talus. Unit 4 is almost rock free. Next to the wall the deposits are slightly weathered to a weak, coarse, prismatic-structured, dark brown clay loam with very little talus. Away from the wall, the deposits are a strong, coarse, prismatic-structured red-brown clay with only scattered talus. The average maximum dimension of talus fragments from the unit is 5 cm. Unit 3. Unit 3 is separated from Unit 4 by an abrupt boundary

Río Pilón Surveys and Description of La Calsada

19

(Fig. 8). Near the wall it is a structureless dark-brown-to-black silt (50 to 60 percent talus, with an average maximum dimension of 9 cm). Away from the wall the deposit consists of a strong, fine, crumbstructured black loam (80 to 90 percent talus, maximum dimensions varying between 7 and 16 cm). The talus of Unit 3 varies from that of other units in that the surface of each limestone fragment has weathered to become soft and white, like chalk. Unit 1-2. The uppermost stratigraphic unit was originally considered to be two units, since the very uppermost 1 to 10 cm were dry when excavated and mixed with goat dung. However, separation of the deposits proved impossible in most squares, and, in any case, the division appeared later to have no analytical value. The two units were combined; hence the "1-2" designation. Unit 1-2 is separated from Unit 3 by a sharp disconformity. It is the only stratum that does not extend beyond the area of occupation into the depression (as observed for other units in the wheelbarrow-access trench). It is wedge shaped in section, being thickest at the cliff and tapering out 4 to 6 meters south of the wall. It is also the only unit that can be termed a midden deposit; the accumulated material seems to be more the result of deposition of human debris than the natural deposition of colluvium. The material is a structureless, ashy, gray silt; some talus appears fire broken. Units 1-2, 3, and 5 average 50 to 70 cm thick; Unit 4, about 40 cm. Unit 6 contains concentrated cultural material in its upper 60 cm only; the lower boundary of this unit was not well defined during excavation. Sterile red clay and talus, however, continue to a depth of more than 6 meters below the surface. No hearth or other features were identified during excavation. The presence of much fire-broken talus and plentiful charcoal indicated that many fires had been made within the rockshelter. It seemed to us that individual hearths had been scattered due to intensive occupation or else were indistinguishable due to the large quantities of rock in the deposits. It is possible that some hearths were located away from the overhang and outside the area excavated. It seems unlikely, however, that there were many such features. We found no hearths exposed in the walls of the access trench, and occupational intensity fell off sharply away from the back wall, as evidenced by the low artifact frequencies for square S6-8W0-2.

20

The Archaeology of La Calsada Distinguishing Strata in the Field

During the course of excavation, differing criteria were employed to delimit the strata upper surfaces as they were encountered in each square. The break between Units 1-2 and 3 was quite sharp in the S4-6 squares, where Unit 1-2, an ashy silt, clearly differed from the underlying crumb-structured loam. In the S2-4 squares, the difference was not as marked, although Unit 3 deposits were usually darker and usually contained more talus. A consistent aid for all squares was the unique talus of Unit 3, as described above. Unit 4 was distinguished from Unit 3 in several ways: (1) A disconformity, probably representing a former erosion surface, separated the two units and could usually be detected in profile. (2) Unit 3 was almost always darker. (3) Unit 4 was usually characterized by a sharp decrease in talus density. In almost all squares, it was difficult to detect the upper surface of Unit 5. The only obvious feature was an increase in talus density over Unit 4, and, when this single criterion was used, the plane of division was somewhat arbitrary. An additional guide consisted of small splinters of bone, consistently present throughout Unit 5 but virtually absent in Unit 4. After the excavation of two or three squares, the screeners looked for the appearance of bone as confirmation that Unit 5 had been reached. The break between Units 5 and 6 was very distinct for all but one square (S4-6W4-6), and the disconformable break separating the units could be found easily. Unit 6 was consistently darker (gray) than the red-brown Unit 5, and tended to have larger fragments of talus.

3 Radiocarbon Chronology

As no hearths, clearly defined pits, or concentrations of charcoal were observed during excavation, all radiocarbon samples were collected from the screen. For each 10-cm level, all charcoal fragments encountered during screening were stored in labeled plastic bags. Therefore, it should be kept in mind that, because of the collecting technique, any one date may represent not a point in time (as would be the case with the remains of one fire), but rather an average date for charcoal fragments of differing ages, perhaps from the full time span of the 10-cm level. The twenty samples selected for dating were all small, none more than 10 grams, and consisted of small (1 cm in maximum dimension) chunks of dense charcoal, probably of hardwood (S. Valastro, Jr., personal communication). The dates are reviewed here by unit. All assays were made at the University of Texas Radiocarbon Laboratory, and the dates have been published by Valastro and Davis (1970: 637-639); they are based on a carbon-14 half-life of 5,568 years. Where possible, radiocarbon dates were corrected according to Damon et al. (1974). Unit 6 Sample Tx-352 Tx-772

Provenience U6L2, S4-6W2-4, 230-240b U6L2, S2-4W0-2, 220-230

Dates B.P." B.C.a 9940 ± 150 7990 ± 150 9670 ± 70 7720 ± 70

22

The Archaeology of La Calsada

Unit 6 Sample Tx-875 c Tx-895 c

Provenience U6L5, S2-4E0-2, 250-260 U6L6, S2-4W0-2, 260-270 U6L12, S2-4W4-6, 300-310 U6L13, S2-4W4-6, 310-320

Dates B.p.a B.c." 10,640 ± 210 8690 ± 210 9550 ± 130

7600 ± 130

a

Uncorrected. Proveniences are given in terms of stratigraphic unit, "U"; 10-cm level within the unit, "L"; square designation; and depth in cm below the surface. c Two 10-cm-level samples combined for dating. b

The first three dates listed are fairly consistent with their relative stratigraphic positions. Unit 6 occupation lasted at least until 7800 B.C. and no later than 7500 B.c. (the earliest date for Unit 5), and initial occupation of the site probably began before 8700 B.C. The fourth sample, Tx-895, from deeper deposits and inconsistently providing the most recent date, requires some discussion. Two squares, S2-4W4-6 and S2-4W2-4, were excavated to substantial depths, respectively to 500 and 800 cm below the surface (310 and 590 cm below the top of Unit 6). For these squares, most Unit 6 cultural material was confined to the upper 80 cm of the unit, and the scarce cultural debris below that depth seemed concentrated against the rock wall of the shelter. During excavation, we concluded that cultural material below the 80-cm level had mixed downward, probably falling through interstices between large talus fragments and the shelter wall. Because of this and also because of lack of time, no other squares were excavated below the 70-80-cm level of the unit. (In every other square, the quantity of cultural material fell off before the 70-80-cm level was reached.) However, in the two squares that were taken to deeper levels, small amounts of cultural debris were found at surprising depths. In S2-4W4-6, evidence of occupation occurred through U6L16 (to 350 cm below the surface), and debris traces were found between 400 and 430 cm. In S2-4W2-4, good occupational evidence continued through the 310-320 cm level, and thirteen flakes, fifteen small bone splinters, and one flake uniface were scattered through deposits between 320 and 410 cm below the surface. Charcoal from 300 to 320 cm, square S2-4W4-6, yielded a date of

Radiocarbon Chronology

23

around 7600 B.C., which supports the original hypothesis of downmixing. However, the nature of the artifacts in the lowest levels does not point to such mixing. Thirteen artifacts were found below Unit 6, level 8, and among these are one Unique Biface (Form 82) and three of the seven Tabular Plane Bifaces (Form 67) recovered from the site; no Points, Point Fragments, Large Knives, or Large Knife Fragments were recovered from these lowest levels. The sample is too small for detailed hypotheses, but does raise the possibility that it is culturally and chronologically separate from upper Unit 6 material. In retrospect, these lower Unit 6 deposits should have been excavated more extensively. A second season at the site might resolve the question of cultural distinctions between materials from upper and lower portions of the unit. Unit 5 Dates Sample

Provenience

Tx-769 Tx-766 Tx-354 Tx-770 Tx-771 Tx-353

U5L2, U5L2, U5L2, U5L2, U5L7, U5L7,

a

S2-4W2-4, S2-4W0-2, S4-6W0-2, S2-4EO-2, S2-4W2-4, S4-6W0-2,

B.C a

B.P."

140-150 160-170 150-160 200-210 190-200 200-210

7040 ± 7990 ± 7920 ± 9310 ± 8610 ± 9270 ±

180 130 190 160100 150

4910 ± 6040 ± 5970 ± 7360 ± 6660 ± 7320 ±

180 130 190 160 100 150

Uncorrected.

Unit 5 occupation probably began around 7300 B.C. and no earlier than 7450 B.C. (the most recent date from Unit 6, although from the lower part of that unit). None of the dates from upper Unit 6 and lower Unit 5 overlap, even considering the full one-standarddeviation ranges, which indicates a minimum of Unit 5-Unit 6 mixing. Also, dates from both units suggest the absence of a marked occupation gap between them; the Unit 5-Unit 6 disconformity probably represents a very limited period of time. The segregation of recent and early dates to upper and lower Unit 5 respectively suggests that little vertical displacement of artifacts has taken place within the unit, and that level-to-level intraunit changes in artifact-form distribution (noted for Simple, Tabular Plane Forms 86 and 87 and Lerma points, Form 12) potentially represent prehistoric culture change. Unit 5 occupation ended sometime after 6000 B.c. and, on the basis of Tx-769, probably lasted until after 5000 B.c.

24

The Archaeology of La Calsada

Unit 4 Dates Sample

Provenience

B.P. a

Tx-711 Tx-765 Tx-768 Tx-764 Tx-767

U4Ll,S2-4W0-2,, 120-130 U4L2, S2-4W0-2,, 130-140 U4L2, S4-6E0-2, 110-120 U4L3, S2-4E0-2, 130-140 U4L4, S2-4E0-2, 140-150

5710 4460 5940 4790 6520

a b

B.C.' b

± ± ± ± ±

120 120 160 90 150

4590 3180 4820 3580 5390

± 190 ±210 ±210 ± 170 ±210

Uncorrected. Corrected.

Unit 4, a thin, relatively rock-free deposit, dates between 5400 and 3200 B.C. There is no overlap among uncorrected dates from Units 4 and 5, indicating a minimum of Unit 5-Unit 4 mixing. Unit 3 Sample

Provenience

Tx-709 Tx-708 Tx-710

U3L8, S2-4W0-2, 110-120 U3L9, S4-6E0-2, 90-100 U3L9, S2-4W0-2, 120-130

a b

B.P.a

Dates B.C. b

4400 ± 90 4310 ± 90 5400 ± 100

3110 ± 190 2990 ± 190 4270 ± 200

Uncorrected. Corrected.

The earliest radiocarbon date of Unit 3 is 4270 B.C., SO the overlap of dates between Units 3 and 4 is 1,090 years, which indicates some mixing between Unit 4 and at least lower Unit 3. No dates were obtained from upper Unit 3, which contained the bulk of cultural material from the stratum. However, as both Large Triangular and Large Ovoid Points (Forms 4 and 8) enter the sequence in levels 1 to 3, upper Unit 3 artifacts probably date no earlier than 1200 B.c. This is because at Cueva de la Zona, Tortugas (Variety 1) points (equivalent to Large Triangular) first appear at about that time (McClurkan 1966).

25

Radiocarbon Chronology Unit 1-2 Sample

Provenience

Tx-707 Tx-706

U1-2L2, S2-4E0-2,20-30 U1-2L3, S2-4W0-2, 30-40

a b

B.P.

a

580 ± 60 1050 ± 80

Dates A.D.b 1340 ± 140 950 ± 150

Uncorrected. Corrected.

The bulk of Unit 1-2 cultural material was contained in the upper three 10-cm levels of the site. Tx-706 places the beginning of the arrow-point component at ca. A.D. 900. Tx-707, along with a single brass button, suggests continued occupation until historic times, although the sample was situated close to the surface and may have contained modern charcoal.

4 Artifact-Form Descriptions

Introduction CLASSIFICATION TERMINOLOGY Two kinds of artifact classes are discussed in this study: forms and types. The term form refers to a class of artifacts grouped together on the basis of morphological criteria. Type is used, following Krieger (1944), to designate a form with well-defined spatial and temporal boundaries. ORGANIZATION OF ARTIFACT CATEGORIES Two basic criteria were used in the classification of chipped-stone artifacts: (1) whether edges were unifacially or bifacially flaked, and (2) whether the artifact is interpreted to have a prepared tool edge, a randomly flaked edge, or a nonflaked but worn edge. Artifacts with bifacially flaked edges fall into four initial groupings: Large Knives/Preforms, Points, Arrow Points, and Other Bifaces. Large Knives/Preforms are stemless, being either bipointed, ovoid, or triangular in outline. They are larger than stemless points (all but one Large Knife/Preform weigh 11 grams or more; stemless points weigh no more than 10 grams). Wear-pattern differences between Large Knives/Preforms and stemless Points (described below) support this division. The term Point is equivalent to projectile-point

Artifact-Form Descriptions

27

form, and is used in order to facilitate reference to an artifact's form apart from its function. "Point" refers to artifacts commonly referred to in the literature as projectile points, but which might have functioned as projectile points (though not in this study as arrow points) and/or knives, and/or scrapers, or end tools. The term Point means only a small, pointed biface, thin and elongate. Arrow Points are the very small (less than 3.0 cm long), thin (.1 to .4 cm thick) artifacts, postdating A.D. 500, which are generally assumed to have tipped arrow shafts. Other Bifaces include Flake and Irregular-Spall Bifaces; some of these are entered within more than one category. All Irregular-Spall and Flake Bifaces are recorded once for each type of tool edge found on the artifact (unifacially or bifacially flaked or worn). For example, a single flake with one worn edge section and a separate unifacially prepared tool edge is included within two forms (Forms 99 and 109). Small, Thinned Bifaces and Large Bifaces are also Other Biface categories. Unifaces fall within three main groupings: Plane Unifaces, Flake Unifaces, and Irregular-Spall Unifaces. Plane Unifaces are the form equivalent of "scraper plane"; the former term is used, again, to avoid functional terminology. As defined by Haury (1950) and IrwinWilliams and Irwin (1966), scraper planes are scraping tools used with the plane surface flush against the material being scraped. Microscopic examination of La Calsada artifacts revealed no scratches on the plane surfaces, and, consistently, signs of wear were found to extend from the tool edge onto the flake-scarred and not the platform surface. La Calsada specimens of this form seem not to have been used as scraper planes, and the term Plane Uniface implies only that a spall is unifacially flaked from a relatively large, plane-surface platform to form a tool edge. Subsumed within the general category Other Chipped-Stone Artifacts are special cases of what otherwise would be classified as bifaces or unifaces, as well as some possible artifacts, and a few flakes of obsidian, a material otherwise not found at the site. Multifaced Cores and Narrow Multifaces (Forms 111 and 112) have bifacially flaked edges and in this sense are bifaces. They differ from all other bifaces, as they are well flaked on more than two adjacent surfaces and therefore are classified separately. Nontabular Plane UnifaceBifaces (Form 113) could have been subsumed under both uniface and biface categories at once, as they, like some flake artifacts, have

28

The Archaeology of La Calsada

both unifacially and bifacially flaked edges. However, Form 113 tools are large and well formed, giving the impression that they were flaked only once. Most flake artifacts (so modified) more likely were flaked, discarded, and flaked again. While the decision was somewhat arbitrary, artifacts of Form 113 were subsumed within the Other Chipped-Stone general category. EDGE-WEAR CLASSES In analyzing the artifacts, all edges interpreted to be prepared tool edges and those simply evidencing edge wear were examined under 10× to 40× magnification with a binocular, dissecting-type microscope. Identified edge wear was described in terms of six different wear classes, and edge-wear data, recorded for all tool edges, are summarized in Chapter 5. The six edge-wear classes, however, are defined here, because they are utilized in the Form descriptions that follow. Polishing occasionally occurs on a prepared edge and/or near the edge on an adjacent surface. Edge crushing refers to grinding and crushing in the immediate vicinity of the edge, at times producing a facet or edge surface up to 1 mm wide and at an angle to both adjacent surfaces. Fine hinge flaking consists of very fine, stepped hinge fractures, extending from an edge, a short way up one adjacent surface. These scars seem indicative of repeated, light battering of the edge from one direction. This type of edge wear grades to edge crushing as the hinge fractures become smaller and limited to the immediate vicinity of the edge. It grades into heavy battering as the hingeflake scars become deeper and the hinge-break locations become farther removed from the edge. Plane flaking refers to the small, often bulbous, flake scars found discontinuously along a unifacially prepared edge, extending 1 to 2 mm onto the platform surface. Minor wear may not be the result of edge use, and refers to either small, pressure-flake scars extending unifacially from an edge or edge nicking. All prepared edges showing only this type of wear or no wear at all were placed in this wear category. PROVENIENCES Artifact proveniences by form and stratigraphic unit are summarized in Table 1.

Artifact-Form Descriptions

29

Table 1 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Artifacts by F o r m a n d Unit Form Points 1. Triangular Points, Short, Unit 1-2 (Matamoros Type) 2. Triangular Points, Long, Unit 1-2 3. Triangular Point, Unfinished, Unit 1-2 1 4. Triangular Points, Large, Unit 3 5. Triangular Point, Short, Beveled, Unit 3 6. Triangular Point, Small, Unit 5 7. Oval, One-Pointed Point, Unfinished, Unit 1-2 1 8. Oval, One-Pointed Points, Large, Units 1-2 and 3 9. Oval, One-Pointed Points, Blunt Tipped, Units 3 and 4 10. Oval, One-Pointed Point, Short, Unit 5 11. Lanceolate, Bipointed Points, (Late-Variety Lerma), Unit 3 12. Lanceolate, Bipointed Points, (Early-Variety Lerma) Units 4 and 5

1-2

3

4

Unit 5

6

?

7

—

—

—

—

—

7

3

—

—

—

—

—

3

_

_

_

_

_

Total

l

—

4

—

—

—

—

4

—

1

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

1

—

—

1

_

_

_

_

_

l

1

2

—

—

—

—

3

—

4

1

—

—

—

5

—

—

—

1

—

—

1

—

2

—

—

—

—

2

—

—

1

9

—

5

15

30

Table 1

The Archaeology of La Calsada

Distribution of Artifacts by Form and Unit

Form 13. Lanceolate, Bipointed Point, Narrow Tipped, Unit 6 14. Lanceolate, Bipointed Points, Short, Unit 6 15. Lanceolate, Straight-Base Points, Units 5 and 6 16. Diamond-shaped Points, Stemmed, Unit 6 17. Diamond-shaped Points, Nonstemmed, Unit 6 18. Pentagonal Points, Small, Units 3 and 5 19. Side-Notched Point, Amorphous, Surface 20. Side-Notched Points, Double Pair, Unit 1-2 21. Side-Notched Point, Single Pair, Unit 1-2 22. Side-Notched Point, Single Pair, Upper Unit 3 23. Side-Notched Point, Single Pair (Ensorlike), Lower Unit 3 2 4 - 2 6 . Indented-Base Points, Units 5 and 6

1-2

3

_

Unit 5

4

_

_

6

_

(continued) ?

l

Total

_

1

—

—

—

—

3

—

3

—

—

—

1

2

—

3

—

—

—

—

4

1

5

—

—

—

—

3

2

5

—

1

—

1

—

—

2

—

—

—

—

—

1

1

5

—

—

—

—

—

5

1

—

—

—

—

—

1

—

1

—

—

—

—

1

—

1

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

4

1

—

5

Artifact-Form Descriptions Table 1

31

D i s t r i b u t i o n of Artifacts by F o r m a n d Unit

Form 27. Expanding-Stem Points, (Palmillas Type), Units 3 and 4 28. Contracting-Stem Points, Barbed, Units 3 or 4, 4, and 6 29. Contracting-Stem Point, Nonbarbed, Unit 6 30. Parallel, LateralEdge Stem Points, Units 4 , 5 , and 6 31. Large S t e m m e d Points, Units 5 and 6 32. Small, IncompleteStem Points, Units 1 - 2 , 3 , and 4 33. Unique Point, Unit 1-2 1 34. Unique Point, Unit 3 35. Unique Point, Unit 4 36. Unique Point, Unit 5 37. Unique Point, Unit 5 38. Unique Point, Unit 6 Point Fragments 39. Point Fragments, Ovoid Bases 40. Other Point Fragments

Unit 5

6

?

1-2

3

—

2

1

—

—

—

3

—

—

2

—

1

1

4

—

—

—

—

1

—

1

—

—

4

2

1

—

7

—

—

—

1

2

—

3

1

1

1

—

—

1

4

_

4

(continued)

_

_

_

1

_ _

_

Total

_

_

_

l _

l

—

—

1

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

1

—

—

1

—

—

—

1

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

1

—

1

10

3

4

12

8

2

39

7

2

3

4

2

4

22

32 Table 1 Form

The Archaeology of La Calsada D i s t r i b u t i o n of Artifacts by F o r m a n d Unit 1-2

41. Point Fragments, Tips 23 42. Point Fragments, Midsections 1 43. Point Fragments with One or Two Adjacent Break Surfaces 17 Large Knives/Preforms 44. Large Knives/Preforms, Thinned 1 45. Large Knives/ Preforms, Partially Thinned 1 46. Large Knives/ Preforms, Nonthinned — Large Knife/Preform Fragments 47. Large Knives/ Preforms, Tip or Base Fragments 1 48. Large Knife/ Preform Fragments with One or Two Adjacent Break Surfaces 1 Arrow Points 49. Arrow Points, Triangular 29 50. Arrow Points, Basally Notched 9 51. Arrow Points, Side Notched 11 52. Amorphous, Possibly Unfinished, Arrow Points 4 53. Unique Arrow Point 1 54. Unique Arrow Point 1

(continued)

3

4

Unit 5

6

?

Total

5

2

17

13

5

65

—

—

4

—

—

5

3

2

4

6

2

34

3

—

—

—

2

6

1

—

—

—

—

2

2

5

4

3

2

16

2

2

7

4

2

18

3

—

1

—

—

5

—

—

—

—

—

29

—

—

—

—

5

14

—

—

—

—

—

11

—

—

—

—

—

4

—

—

—

—

—

1

_

_

1

_

_

_ 1

Artifact-Form Descriptions

33

Table 1 Distribution of Artifacts by Form and Unit (continued) Form

1-2

3

4

55. Unique Arrow Point 1 Arrow-Point Fragments 56. Arrow-Point 31 Fragments — — Other Βifaces and Other Βiface Fragments 1 5 57. Micropoints — 58. Micropoint 2 Fragments — — 24 59. Crescents 60. Unfinished 5 Crescents 61. Crescent — — 64 Fragments 62. Small, S t e m m e d 3 1 Scrapers — — 1 — 63. Ovoid Bifaces 64. Biface Gouges — — — 65. Continuous Edge — 3 1 Bifaces 66. Discontinuous 1 2 Edge Bifaces — 67. Tabular Plane — — — Bifaces 68. Flakes with One Bifacially Flaked or Prepared Edge and/or One Bifacially Prepared 5 3 Projection — 69. Irregular Spalls with One Bifacially Flaked or Prepared Edge and/or One Bifacially Prepared 4 2 4 Projection 70. Unique Biface, 1 Unit 1-2

Unit 5

6

?

Total 1

—

—

4

35

—

—

—

6

—

—

3

2 27 5

—

—

1

65

— 2 1

— 1 1

2 — —

6 4 2

6

—

—

10

5

2

2

12

1

5

1

7

4

3

2

17

10

4

4

28 1

34

The Archaeology of La Calsada

Table 1 Distribution of Artifacts by Form and Unit Form 71. Unique Biface, Unit 1-2 72. Unique Biface, Unit 1-2 73. Unique Biface, Unit 1-2 74. Unique Biface, Unit 4 75. Unique Biface, Unit 5 76. Unique Biface, Unit 5 77. Unique Biface, Unit 5 78. Unique Biface, Upper Unit 6 79. Unique Biface, Upper Unit 6 80. Unique Biface, Upper Unit 6 81. Unique Biface, Lower Unit 6 82. Unique Biface, Lower Unit 6 83. Bifaces, Residual Category 84. Nondescript, Thinned-Biface Fragments 85. Fragments of Artifacts with at Least One Bifacially Flaked Edge Plane Unifaces 86. Simple, Tabular Plane Unifaces, One Long Edge Prepared

1-2

3

4

(continued)

Unit 5

6

?

Total

1 1 1 —

—

1

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

1

—

—

1

—

—

—

1

—

—

1

—

—

—

1

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

—

1

1

1

2

2

3

1

10

11

1

3

4

1

4

24

1

2

—

2

3

—

8

1

1

—

5

11

—

18

Artifact-Form Descriptions Table 1

35

D i s t r i b u t i o n of Artifacts by F o r m a n d Unit

Form 87. Simple, Tabular Plane Unifaces, One Short Edge Prepared 88. Simple, Tabular Plane Unifaces, Prepared around Large Part of Periphery 89. Simple, Tabular Plane Unifaces, Two Separate, Prepared Edge Sections 90. Complex, Tabular Plane Unifaces, Multidirectional Flaking of Peripheral Surfaces 91. Complex, Tabular Plane Unifaces, Upper-Plane Flaked 92. Complex, Tabular Plane Uniface, Upper-Plane Flaked, Multidirectional Flaking of Peripheral Surfaces 93. Complex, Tabular Plane Uniface, Platform-Plane Flaked, Multidirectional Flaking of Peripheral Surfaces 94. Complex, Tabular Plane Unifaces, Prepared Edges on Two Planes

(continued)

1-2

3

4

Unit 5

6

?

Total

2

—

2

8

8

3

23

—

1

2

2

8

1

14

—

4

1

—

1

1

1

—

1

—

1

3

—

5

—

—

—

—

6

—

6

1

—

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

1

—

—

1

—

—

1

3

2

—

6

36 Table 1

The Archaeology of La Calsada D i s t r i b u t i o n of Artifacts by F o r m a n d Unit

Form 95. Nontabular Plane Unifaces, Ridgebacked 96. Nontabular Plane Unifaces, Domed 97. Nontabular Plane Unifaces, Irregular 98. Nontabular Plane Uniface, Gougelike Flake Unifaces 99. Flakes with Unifacially Prepared Edge(s) and/or Unifacially Prepared Projection(s) 100. Flake Unifaces, Domed 101. Flake Uniface, Ridgebacked 102. Unique Flake Uniface, Unit 1-2 103. Unique Flake Uniface, Unit 3 Irregular-Spall Unifaces 104. Irregular Spalls with One Narrowly Convex Prepared Edge 105. Irregular Spalls with One Narrowly Concave Prepared Edge 106. Other Irregular Spalls with Unifacially Prepared Edge(s) and/or Projection(s)

(continued)

1-2

3

4

Unit 5

6

?

Total

—

—

—

2

8

—

10

—

1

—

1

3

2

7

—

3

2

1

4

—

10

—

—

—

1

—

—

1

8

3

9

31

14

10

75

—

—

1

—

1

—

2

—

—

—

—

1

—

1

1

1

_

_

_

_ 1

_

—

1

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

1

2

3

1

7

—

3

4

3

3

—

13

7

2

8

28

19

11

75

Artifact-Form Descriptions

37

Table 1 Distribution of Artifacts by Form and Unit (continued) Form

1-2

107. Irregular Spalls with a Unifacially 2 Flaked Edge Other Uniface Fragments 108. Fragments of Unifaces with One Prepared Edge 3 Artifacts with Nonprepared Worn 109. Flakes with Worn Edges and/or 6 Projections 110. Irregular Spalls with Worn Edge(s) and/or 8 Projection(s) Other Chipped-Stone Artifacts 1 111. Multiface Cores 112. Narrow Multi2 faces 113. Non tabular Plane — Uniface-Bifaces 114. Limestone 1 Artifacts — 115. Obsidian Flakes Other Stone Artifacts 116. Manos and Mano 8 Fragments — 117. Hematite Chunks 118. Quartz Crystals — 2 119. Calcite Crystals Nonstone Artifacts 120. Mussel-Shell Fragment — 121. Bone Bead 1 122. Metal Button Total

353

3

4

Unit 5

6

?

Total

—

7

6

3

4

22

3 Edges

—

12

10

2

30

10

6

6

5

4

37

6

8

14

10

2

48

2

2

3

2

—

10

—

1

5

—

—

8

—

—

1

2

—

3

2 —

1 —

4 1

— 1

2 —

10 2

3 — — 1

— — 1 1

— 1 8 —

— 1 3 —

2 — 2 —

13 2 14 4

—

—

—

1

1 —

1 1 1

98

106

266

217

106 1,146

38

The Archaeology of La Calsada Points and Point Fragments

TRIANGULAR POINTS, SHORT, UNIT 1-2 (MATAMOROS TYPE) (Form: 1; Number Collected: 7; Figure: 14) Description. Point outlines are isosceles triangular with roughly straight lateral edges. The basal edges of four are shallowly concave, resulting in slightly eared basal corners; other bases are slightly convex (two specimens) and straight (one). These artifacts reflect a lack of precise workmanship and/or use of poor-quality chert. Surfaces are uneven; cross sections vary from biconvex to roughly planoconvex, and three of the thickest specimens show hinge fractures on one or both faces. All specimens but one have short edge sections unifacially retouched to produce beveling. Dimensions (three complete specimens): lengths, 2.5 to 2.9 cm; widths, 2.1 to 2.5 cm; thicknesses, .3 to .5 cm. Discussion. In terms of workmanship, outline, and size, these points fit the Matamoros projectile-point type defined by Suhm, Krieger, and Jelks (1954: 448-449) for Texas, by MacNeish (1958: 68) for Tamaulipas, and by McClurkan (1966: 34-35) and Epstein (1969: 23-24) for Nuevo León. La Calsada artifacts probably most closely resemble those from Tamaulipas in their crude workmanship. TRIANGULAR POINTS, LONG, UNIT 1-2 (Form: 2; Number Collected: 3; Figure: 14) Description. Overall outlines are isosceles triangular. The basal edges of two are slightly concave, to form slight but definite "ears" at the basal corners. The base of the third is straight, and basal-lateral edge corners of this point are roughly square. Lateral edges are convex (two specimens) and straight (one); cross sections are all lenticular. The points are relatively thick, which seems by design. The artifacts display smooth edges and even-surfaced faces, and, while one or two hinge fractures appear on most faces, these only slightly alter the geometrically regular cross sections. Two specimens are basally thinned. All lateral edges show intensive bifacial flaking with the removal of at least two series of flakes. On each, an initial series shaped the edges and thinned the artifacts; a second continuous series of fine pressure flakes eliminated edge serration (face view) and sinuosity (edge view). With thick cross sections and blunt tips, two specimens may have been knives; the other (No. 1371) probably functioned as a

Artifact-Form Descriptions

39

projectile point. Dimensions: lengths, 3.8 to 4.1 cm; widths, 2.3 to 2.8 cm; thicknesses, .5 to .7 cm. TRIANGULAR POINT, UNFINISHED, UNIT 1-2 (Form: 3; Number Collected: 1; Figure: 14) Description. In comparison with other triangular points from Unit 1-2, this single specimen is very crudely flaked, with all edges roughly convex and a roughly plano-convex cross section. It probably could not be thinned to desired shape and may have been discarded unfinished. However, later the artifact may have functioned as a knife or even as a scraper. Originally, a narrow beveled surface bordered the entire basal edge (probably the result of unifacial pressure flaking with scars approximately 1 mm wide). The basal edge was utilized in this form, as evidenced by very fine (three to four per 1 mm of edge) scars along the lower (flaked edge) portion of the beveled surface. Dimensions: length, 3.1 cm; width, 2.0 cm; thickness, .5 cm. TRIANGULAR POINTS, LARGE, UNIT 3 (Form: 4; Number Collected: 4; Figure: 14) Description. For these specimens, outlines are isosceles triangular, with basal edges either convex (three specimens) or roughly straight (one). Lateral edges are all convex, and basal corners vary from notched and eared (one specimen) to slightly rounded (one) to square (two). Cross sections are lenticular. The three chert points were bifacially flaked from all edges with almost all long or thinning flakes detached from lateral edges. Lateral-edge flake scars are parallel, perpendicular to the edges, and tend to reach the longitudinal axis only on the tip half of each point. Fine edge retouch is limited to short, lateral edge sections. Tips are sharply pointed, and these artifacts probably functioned as projectile points or projectile points/ knives. Dimensions: lengths, 4.1 to 4.5 cm; widths, 2.1 to 2.9 cm; thicknesses, .4 to .6 cm. Discussion. These points fit the definition of Tortugas points from Cueva de la Zona (McClurkan 1966: 37-38), although basal thinning, found on most La Zona points, is almost absent. They also resemble Nogales-type points of the Sierra de Tamaulipas (MacNeish 1958: 64), both in outline and lack of basal thinning, but are shorter than these in average length.

40

The Archaeology of La Calsada

TRIANGULAR POINT, SHORT, BEVELED, UNIT 3 (Form: 5; Number Collected: 1; Figure: 14) Description. Isosceles triangular in outline, lateral edges are slightly convex; the base is convex; and basal corners are roughly square. The cross section approximates the shape of a rhomboid due to pronounced opposite-face, lateral-edge, unifacial beveling. Dimensions: length, 2.9 cm; width, 1.7 cm; thickness, .5 cm. Discussion. The point fits the definition of the Matamoros type from Cueva de la Zona (McClurkan 1966: 34-35), with the exception that lateral-edge beveling is not mentioned for the Cueva de la Zona artifacts. TRIANGULAR POINT, SMALL, UNIT 5 (Form: 6; Number Collected: 1; Figure: 15) Description. This very small, thinned biface, triangular in outline, is apparently a broken and reused small projectile point. The tip has been broken away, leaving an edge .5 cm long parallel to the base. This edge, viewed microscopically, has been well crushed or ground and consists of a series of hinge fractures with outermost edge fragments slightly polished. The lateral edges are slightly ground or crushed from the intersections of the tip and lateral edges to .5 and .6 cm toward the base. In overall morphology, lateral edges are convex and the base is straight. Thinning flakes were removed only from the lateral edges; bifacial edge retouch is very limited. Dimensions: length, 2.3 cm; width, 1.6 cm; thickness, .3 cm. TRIANGULAR POINTS, GENERAL COMMENTS Summary. The earliest and smallest triangular point, from Unit 5, is of irregular form and may have functioned as a drill or groover. A more recent specimen, from a lower level of Unit 3, was probably a projectile point and is unique at the site for its pronounced lateraledge beveling. From the upper levels of Unit 3 came the largest triangular points, excavated from consecutive levels in two diagonally adjacent squares, possibly representing a single depositional episode. Triangular points from the upper part of Unit 1-2 occupy two distinct size (length) ranges, 2.5 to 2.9 cm and 3.8 to 4.1 cm.

Artifact-Form Descriptions

41

Comparisons. Unnotched triangular points are common in late Archaic and Late Prehistoric cultures in South Texas and Northeast Mexico, dating from ca. 3000 B.C. to historic times. Their known range of high frequency extends from the Falcon Reservoir on the Río Grande (Nunley 1971b; Suhm, Krieger, and Jelks 1954: 334-343) to the Sierra Madre de Tamaulipas, and from the Gulf Coast (MacNeish 1947, 1958: 173-192) to the western Parras Basin of southern Coahuila (Heartfield 1976: 59). They may also be common farther west in Chihuahua and Durango (Spence 1971). Although triangular points from this region have been classified into a number of types, differences between type definitions are so slight that the whole subject of triangular-point typology for South Texas and Northeast Mexico has become confusing (see Epstein 1980: 82; McClurkan 1966: 87-90; and Nance 1971: 64-68). The problem stems from the initial definition of the Tortugas and Matamoros point types by Suhm, Krieger, and Jelks (1954: 498) and, later, MacNeish (1958: 64-68). The two types are similar in all respects, except that Matamoros points, ranging in length from 1.8 to 4.0 cm, are shorter than Tortugas points, with overall lengths between 3.8 and 7.5 cm (MacNeish 1958: 64-68). MacNeish (1958) compounded the problem by introducing the Nogales, a triangular type identical to the Tortugas, except that basal edge shapes are straight to convex, while for the Tortugas the shapes are concave. Tortugas- and Nogalestype points occur almost throughout the Sierra de Tamaulipas sequence in erratically changing proportions (MacNeish 1958: Table 3); it is difficult to see how they can be conceptualized as types (following Krieger 1944) and not as simply arbitrary descriptive classes. Only the Matamoros type, at least for Cueva de la Zona and La Calsada, appears to have some validity. Matamoros points occur only in the uppermost levels of these two sites. Functional Considerations. Matamoros points are associated with arrow points at these sites and, at least at La Calsada, may be unfinished arrow points. The function(s) of other triangular points is more problematical. Epstein (1980: 83) comments on the function of both triangular and ovoid (teardrop shaped) bifaces in Northeast Mexico and suggests that they might have been knives. He points to the lack of barbs, which would have left them inefficient dart points, and refers to the biface knives from Cueva de Candelaria. Here, large triangular bifaces were found hafted to short wooden handles, and the functional designation of "knife" seems inescapable (Aveleyra Ar-

42

The Archaeology of La Calsada

royo de Anda et al. 1956). Epstein was unable, however, to explain why so many knives would have accumulated on sites in Northeast Mexico and why they often outnumber artifacts that are clearly dart points. The answer may be that they were knives used on the processing of agave and other desert succulents. There is increasing evidence for the importance of these plants in the prehistoric diet of Northeast Mexico and West Texas. This importance can also be seen in the ethnohistorical literature for the same region (reviewed above). The archaeological evidence takes several forms. Shafer and Holloway (1977, 1979) identified residues of these plants on the edges of flint tools from Hinds Cave, an important site located just north of the Amistad Reservoir (Shafer and Bryant 1977; Shafer 1986). Coprolites from Hinds Cave contained both macrobotanical remains and pollen, which indicate the prehistoric human consumption of agave, opuntia (nopal), sotol, and yucca (Williams-Dean 1978; Stock 1983). From the general deposits of Hinds Cave, Dering (1979) described macroplant remains of opuntia and agave dating before 7000 B.c. Similar data were obtained from Baker Cave, located east of Hinds Cave near the lower Devils River. Macroplant remains of opuntia, dated ca. 7000 B.c., were obtained from a Golondrinacomplex hearth (Hester 1983; Chadderdon 1983: 78), and macrobotanical remains of opuntia, sotol, yucca, and lechuguilla were found in deposits above the late Paleo-Indian level (Chadderdon 1983: 80-81). Sobolik (1988) analyzed macroplant fragments and pollen from thirty-eight coprolites excavated from a latrine in the same site and dated to ca. A.D. 900. She found ample remains of opuntia, yucca, sotol, and agave. Riskind (1970) studied pollen from human coprolites that were excavated from Parida Cave; he found agave, sotol, yucca, and opuntia pollen in more than trace amounts. In the study of coprolites from another Amistad site, 41 VV 162, Bryant (1974) identified sufficient levels of pollen to indicate that agave, sotol, yucca, opuntia, and other plants were being consumed at that site during the late Archaic. Marmaduke (1978) reviewed subsistence data from the Amistad Reservoir and stressed the importance of these plants to the aboriginal diet. Marmaduke indicated that agave became especially important after 2500 B.c. in the Amistad, citing evidence from Conejo Shelter (Alexander 1974) and Parida Cave (Alexander 1970). Using data from Campbell's (1970) survey of Big Bend National Park, Marmaduke related this trend to the appearance of burned-rock midden rings in the Big Bend after 1900 B.c.

Artifact-Form Descriptions

43

Ethnographic data link these midden rings to the cooking of agave and sotol (cf. Greer 1965). In Northeast Mexico, Bryant (1975) studied pollen extracted from coprolites that were excavated from Frightful Cave in Coahuila (Taylor 1966). He found agave pollen to be plentiful for the periods 5000-2000 B.C. and 2000 B . C - A . D . 300. For Cueva de la Zona, where large quantities of triangular and ovoid points were excavated (along with stemmed and barbed points), Bryant and Riskind (1980: 12-14) described pollen from five soil samples dating after 2800 B.c. They concluded that the samples "contain primarily zoophilous (insectpollinated) pollen types, such as Opuntia (cactus), Agave (maguey), Dasylirion (sotol), Prosopis (mesquite), and an unidentified pollen type referred to as 'unknown Type A.'" From this they "assume that prehistoric man was in some manner using the flowers of these plants while at this site" (Bryant and Riskind 1980: 12, 15). Ethnographically, the process of preparing agave crowns is described for the Mescalero Apache by Castetter et al. (1938: 28). Prior to pit-roasting, "The crowns of the mescal plants were dug out with three-foot sticks cut from oak branches and flattened at the end. This end, when pounded with a rock into the stem of the plant just below the crown, permitted the crown to be removed readily. A broad stone knife was used to chop off the leaves, two being left for tying the crowns together, thus making transportation more convenient." Castetter et al. (1938: 52) describe traditional agave-cutting knives for two Southwestern cultures: "Among the Walapai mescal leaves were trimmed off the crowns by means of a special knife made by inserting longitudinally a blade of flaked obsidian or quartz into a stick, the wooden portion constituting the handle. . . . that of the Havasupai was a broad stone blade set in a slot midway in the length of a short handle thirty cm. long, sometimes of piñón wood, where it was held fast by pitch or glue or lashings." We are suggesting, then, that ovoid and triangular bifaces in Northeast Mexico functioned mostly in either the processing of desert succulents for food or in preparing and cutting the fibers of these plants in the manufacture of artifacts (cf. Shafer and Holloway 1977). One problem with this interpretation is that hafted knife blades from Cueva de Candelaria (possibly Walapai-type agave knives) are larger than the bifaces in question, the nine illustrated artifacts having triangular blades that average 8.6 cm in length (Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda et al. 1956: Lam. XII; measurements taken from his published

44

The Archaeology of La Calsada

photograph), although two are well within the range of Tortugas points described by MacNeish 1958: 64). The answer may be that before the introduction of the bow and arrow, atlatl darts also served as agave-cutting knives, and since barbs would have been dysfunctional for the one purpose, they were sometimes sacrificed for overall efficiency. Even this projectile-point/knife hypothesis is not entirely satisfactory in its present form. For example, these bifaces from Cueva de Candelaria are unusually large, even compared to biface "knives" from other arrow-point components in Northeast Mexico. But the idea may explain why some large sites, such as those in the Falcon Reservoir (Nunley 1971b), produced surface collections with several hundred ovoid and triangular bifaces. OVAL, ONE-POINTED POINT, UNFINISHED, UNIT 1-2 (Form: 7; Number Collected: 1; Figure: 14) Description. The only ovoid point from the upper part of Unit 1-2 is probably an unfinished artifact, intended as either a knife or projectile point. The point is triangular-ovoid in outline, with three convex edges. The basal edge and one lateral edge are actually narrow, striking-platform surfaces, ca. .3 cm wide and perpendicular to the artifact faces. Both show the unifacial removal of a few thinning flakes. The other lateral edge is thinned bifacially; the cross section is irregular. Dimensions: length, 3.2 cm; width, 2.3 cm; thickness, .5 cm. OVAL, ONE-POINTED POINTS, LARGE, UNITS 1-2 AND 3 (Form: 8; Number Collected: 3; Figure: 14) Description. These artifacts were found in close association, two from upper Unit 3 and the third from lower Unit 1-2. In outline, two points are narrowly ovoid, while the third is relatively broad and triangular-ovoid. The artifacts were skillfully made, exhibiting regular, lenticular cross sections. All have carefully formed, sharply pointed tips, and were probably projectile points/knives. Two specimens were thinned bifacially around their peripheries with long, parallel flake scars extending toward the longitudinal-transverse centers; fine, bifacial-bilateral edge retouch was limited to the tip extremity. The third artifact (No. 1054) was thinned unifacially, for the most part. Dimensions: lengths, 3.4 to 4.5 cm; widths, 1.9 to 3.4 cm; thicknesses, .5 to .6 cm.

Artifact-Form Descriptions

45

OVAL, ONE-POINTED POINTS, BLUNT TIPPED, UNITS 3 AND 4 (Form: 9; Number Collected: 5; Figure: 14) Description. Closely associated within the lowest 20 cm of Unit 3 and the uppermost 20 cm of Unit 4, these points have as a common attribute blunt or rounded tip ends; this indicates a non-projectilepoint function. All are ovoid in outline and lenticular in cross section. The two largest points (No. 547, No. 548), also the two most carefully made, were both bifacially thinned from their entire peripheries, leaving parallel scars that tend to converge toward the face centers. The tip end of one has been shaped bifacially to a well-rounded outline; the other also shows fine bifacial flaking, but has been squared off to a short edge, 5 mm long and parallel to the horizontal axis. Two other specimens (No. 833, No. 937) are relatively thick as well as less regular in cross section and outline. On one, the tip is thick and rounded; the artifact appears unfinished. The other specimen has a tip roughly formed through bifacial flaking; the tip extremity apparently has been used, producing a 1 x 2 mm crushed surface. In this category, a final point (No. 898), is very small. First randomly and bifacially thinned around its periphery, the artifact was then retouched through bifacial, parallel flaking across the narrow end, producing a squared-off tip, 5 mm across. Use as an end tool then transformed this edge into a flat, crushed surface, perpendicular to the artifact faces with a maximum width of 1 mm. Dimensions: lengths, 2.4 to 3.9 cm; widths, 1.7 to 2.9 cm; thicknesses .6 to .9 cm. OVAL, ONE-POINTED POINT, SHORT, UNIT 5 (Form: 10; Number Collected: 1; Figure: 15) Description. This single oval point from Unit 5 is triangular-ovoid in outline with slight spurs at the basal-lateral edge corners. The artifact has been unifacially, bilaterally beveled, producing a roughly plano-convex cross section; thinning scars (including those on the beveled surfaces), are bifacial, bilateral, and unifacial from the base. Edge retouch was unifacial from the plano surface and limited to most of one lateral edge and several other short edge sections; bilateral retouch in the immediate vicinity of the tip has left it sharply pointed. Dimensions: length, 2.6 cm; width, 1.9 cm; thickness, .6 cm.

46

The Archaeology of La Calsada

OVAL, ONE-POINTED POINTS, GENERAL COMMENTS Summary. The earliest artifact of this general form, from Unit 5, is a small triangular-ovoid point with a sharp tip; it probably functioned as a projectile point. From upper Unit 4 and lower Unit 3, ovoid points all have blunt tips (some are worn), and a nonprojectile-point function seems likely. From upper Unit 3 and lower Unit 1-2, three relatively large, sharply pointed specimens were recovered; these are interpreted to be projectile points/knives. A single point from the uppermost level of Unit 1-2 is probably unfinished. Comparisons. Oval, one-pointed points are common in the late Archaic of South Texas and Northeast Mexico with the same known range of high frequency described for triangular points. Possibly, however, their temporal range is longer—both in this area as well as in other areas of Texas and Mexico. Ovoid points predate the appearance of triangular points at Levi Rockshelter, a site in Central Texas. Here, Lerma, Plainview, and ovoid points were excavated from a component dated prior to 4800 B.C. (Alexander 1963: 524). For Northeast Mexico, Abasolo-type ovoid points are reported from the Infiernillo phase of southwest Tamaulipas, carbon-14 dated to ca. 6400 B.c. Triangular points enter this sequence in the Ocampo phase, which dates for the most part after 3700 B.c. (MacNeish 1958: 198, Table 31). In Central Mexico, the Ajuereado phase of the Tehuacan Valley sequence, with nine diagnostic points from excavated components, including six Lermas, two Abasolos, and one Plainview, dates prior to 6500 B.c. Both ovoid and triangular points are present in the succeeding El Riego phase, dating between 6500 and 4800 B.C. (MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson 1967: Table 10). The earlier appearance of ovoid points may in part account for changing proportions between the two forms during the late Archaic of Northeast Mexico: ovoid points are more common in lower levels, while the reverse is true for levels above. This trend can be seen in sequences from the Sierra de Tamaulipas (MacNeish 1958: 68), from southwest Tamaulipas, and from Cueva de la Zona (McClurkan 1966: Figure 30). LANCEOLATE, BIPOINTED POINTS, UNIT 3 (Form: 11; Number Collected: 2; Figure: 15) Description. These small points are lanceolate, leaf-shaped in outline, and differ from earlier La Calsada bipointed points in one

Artifact-Form Descriptions

47

important aspect: the last series of flakes removed bifacially and bilaterally are more for the purpose of edge shaping than thinning. Except on the tips (one-eighth to one-fourth of each artifact), the narrow scars stop short of the longitudinal axis, and resulting are points with regular outlines but irregular cross sections. Dimensions: lengths, 2.8 to 3.2 cm; widths, 1.3 cm; thicknesses, .4 cm. LANCEOLATE, BIPOINTED POINTS (LERMA TYPE), UNITS 4 AND 5 (Form: 12; Number Collected: 15; Figures: 15, 34A) Description. The bipointed points of lower Unit 4 and Unit 5 vary greatly in shape, technique, and material. They are regularly to roughly lanceolate, leaf-shaped in outline, with maximum widths occurring within the middle third of the longitudinal axes. Base outlines range from pointed (four specimens) to convex (six) to irregular (two). Two other points have straight to irregular bases, which bear evidence that each was the parent-flake striking platform. All but two tip extremities are sharp, suggesting a projectile-point function. Cross sections, equally variable, are roughly lenticular (three specimens); thickly lenticular (one); lenticular with a slight ridge over the longitudinal axis of one face (three); lenticular-triangular, that is, with a pronounced unifacial longitudinal ridge (one); plano-convex (one); and irregular (three). All points with one possible exception lack edge retouch. Thinning-flake scar patterns, where they can be discerned, range from bifacially random to bifacially parallel and transverse. Several points exhibit random flaking on one face and parallel transverse flaking on the other. Materials vary as well, more than for other point forms. Apart from several of the ubiquitous gray and black chert, most artifacts are of white chert, brown chert, limestone, and quartzite. Two points require specific comment. On one (No. 1235; Fig. 34A), slight spurs occur one-quarter up the length from the base on each lateral edge; one edge between the base and spur is slightly ground; the whole effect is one of a slight stem. The basal extremity of this point is unique at La Calsada: a sharp spur, apparently intentionally formed, extends ca. .2 cm below the rest of the narrow, straight, basal edge, parallel to and in line with the longitudinal axis. The second specimen (No. 1275) has one lateral edge bearing a continuous series of very fine (.25 to 1 mm wide) flake scars, extending unifacially the length of the edge. The artifact apparently

48

The Archaeology of La Calsada

was intended and used as a knife; neither end is carefully worked to a well-formed tip. Dimensions: lengths, 3.2 to 5.9 cm; widths, 1.2 to 3.4 cm; thicknesses, .6 to 1.0 cm. LANCEOLATE, BIPOINTED POINT, NARROW TIPPED, UNIT 6 (Form: 13; Number Collected: 1; Figure: 15) Description. This artifact is unique among all those of the general lanceolate, bipointed form because of its elongated, narrow tip end. The point is also the only one of the group with bifacial ridges extending the length of the point over the longitudinal axis. For both faces, these sinuous ridges are formed at the ends of roughly parallel thinning-flake scars; flakes were removed bifacially and bilaterally, parallel to the transverse axis. The cross section is diamond shaped. On the whole, the regular outline and cross section were achieved by the removal of a single final series of flakes. Dimensions: length, 4.1 cm; width, 1.7 cm; thickness, .7 cm. LANCEOLATE, BIPOINTED POINTS, SHORT, UNIT 6 (Form: 14; Number Collected: 3; Figure: 15) Description. These artifacts are bipointed, lanceolate in outline, and irregularly lenticular in cross section; they are set apart from the other bipointed points of Units 4, 5, and 6 (Forms 12 and 13) by their relatively small size. These points for the most part were thinned unifacially over one entire surface. Opposite faces show the removal of short, edge-shaping flakes. Two of the points appear to have had the parent-flake platform on one lateral edge near the transverse axis. Dimensions: lengths, 2.3 to 3.2 cm; widths, 1.0 to 1.6 cm; thicknesses, .2 to .6 cm. LANCEOLATE, BIPOINTED POINTS, GENERAL COMMENTS Summary. Most La Calsada points of this general form derive from Unit 5 and are of the Lerma type. The few lanceolate points from Unit 6 are too small for inclusion in this category; those from Unit 3 are considered a late variant of the Lerma type. Comparisons. The willow-leaf-shaped points, which are generally subsumed within the Lerma and Cascade types, are widespread in North America and tend to date between 7500 and 4000 B.C. (cf.

Artifact-Form Descriptions

49

Bryan 1965: 62-70; Epstein 1969: 111-114). Butler (1961) suggesteda relationship of these early bipointed points to similar artifacts in South America, and willow-leaf-shaped points were dated between 6000 and 4000 B.c. for the Andean region by Willey (1971: 51). However, on the basis of data now available, it appears that this artifact form was employed as early, and possibly even earlier, in South America as in the north (Nunez 1983: 181-184; Lynch, ed. 1980: Tables 2.1 and 9.1). While potentially important, these sweeping comparisons have limited value at present. They probably encompass many possible types that must be accurately defined before a reasonable assessment of relationships can begin. (For a comprehensive review of the problem, see Jensen 1976.) Our focus for the present is on the Lerma type and its occurrence in Texas and Mexico. In Central Texas, five Lerma points were excavated from Zone 4 of the Levi Rockshelter; this zone also produced mussel-shell samples that were radiocarbon dated between 7350 and 4800 B.C. (Alexander 1963: 524-525). For Mexico, Lerma points from the Sierra de Tamaulipas have a single radiocarbon date of 7320 B.C. (MacNeish 1958: 199), and the Santa Isabel Itzapan site, with one Lerma point, has been carbon-14 dated to ca. 7000 B.C. (Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda 1964: 402-404). Lerma points excavated from the Tehuacan Valley, Puebla, date from before 6500 B.C. to around 4800 B.C. (MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson 1967: Table 10); at La Calsada they date between 7500 and 4500 B.C. (with smaller willowleaf-shaped points dating back to ca. 8600 B.C. in Unit 6). Two bipointed points from Unit 3 (Form 11) are regarded here as a late variety of the Lerma type. These artifacts, from lower Unit 3, date somewhere between 3500 and 2500 B.c. They are short (2.8 and 3.2 cm long) and are marked by extensive, fine edge shaping rather than thinning-flake scars. Two similar points from the same Nogales component in the Sierra de Tamaulipas probably date to the same period. MacNeish commented on these short Lerma points (ca. 4.3 cm in length), stating that they may be late variants of the Lerma type, that both are thinner than the rest, and that they "show finer pressure flaking" (MacNeish 1958: 62). LANCEOLATE, STRAIGHT-BASE POINTS, UNITS 5 AND 6 (Form: 15; Number Collected: 3; Figures: 15, 16) Description. These points are roughly lanceolate in outline, with straight bases perpendicular to the longitudinal axes. For all, the

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

bases appear to be parent-flake striking platforms. Two points have fine, parallel, unifacial flaking extending over one or the upper halves of both faces; their cross sections are lenticular and lenticulartriangular. The third specimen (No. 806) is probably an unfinished projectile point, formed through the bifacial, bilateral removal of large, percussion thinning flakes. The cross section is uneven, and the lateral edges are rough and sinuous. Dimensions: lengths, 2.7 to 4.2 cm; widths, 1.9 to 2.3 cm; thicknesses, .6 to 1.0 cm. Discussion. In outline, these points resemble one point from the Santa Isabel Itzapan site (Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda 1964: 402, Fig. 101) and the six Itzapan-type points from Levi Rockshelter. Here, all but one were excavated from the late Paleo-Indian component where they were associated with Plainview, Lerma, and oval, one-pointed points (Alexander 1963: 524-525). No point from either of these sites evidently displays the fine, parallel flaking found on two of the La Calsada specimens. DIAMOND-SHAPED POINTS, STEMMED, UNIT 6 (Form: 16; Number Collected: 5; Figure: 16) Description. Roughly diamond shaped in outline, these short points have relatively long contracting stems. The basal extremity is sharply pointed for one specimen and narrowly convex for the rest. Shoulders occur at the intersections of body and stem edges, either bilaterally (three specimens) or unilaterally (two); lateral stem and body edges are generally straight. Cross sections are roughly triangular (two specimens) and regularly lenticular (three); edges tend to be nonsinuous (viewed from the edge). Most surfaces evidence partial or complete coverage with fine, parallel thinning-flake scars; alternating are surface areas that manifest broad thinning-flake scars and secondary removal of short edge-shaping flakes. The tip extremities of two are missing, but those of the others are sharp and thin, suggesting a projectile-point function. One exception (No. 426), thick and triangular in cross section, evidences use wear on a 1.0 cm body edge section (in the form of fine pressure flaking and step fractures). Dimensions: lengths, 3.4 to 4.0 cm; widths, 1.9 to 2.2 cm; thicknesses, .5 to .9 cm.

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DIAMOND-SHAPED POINTS, NONSTEMIMED, UNIT 6 (Form: 17; Number Collected: 5; Figure: 16) Description. Part of the same form continuum as Form 16 artifacts, Form 17 points, without stems, more closely approach the true diamond in outline form. Four points are four-sided in outline with four straight-to-concave lateral edge sections, while a fifth (No. 1222) is lanceolate to diamond shaped. Flake-scar patterns are highly variable. Two specimens (No. 1222, No. 1317) were thinned to leave broad, shallow, parallel scars, parallel to the transverse axis and covering both faces; both points also show fine, bifacial edge shaping. A third specimen (No. 222), less regular in cross section, has thinning scars that extend bifacially from the lengths of both lateral edges to the longitudinal axis, parallel to the transverse axis. These scars are relatively deep, with several on each face terminating in hinge fractures. For the remaining two points (No. 559, No. 561), the thinning pattern is generally one of scar convergence toward a single point near the longitudinal-transverse center, with protruding knobs occurring at the points of convergence. Two lateral edge sections of one point (No. 559) apparently were used as scrapers, and one seems to be a deliberately prepared tool edge, plano-convex in cross section (the section perpendicular to the edge). The tool edge is 16 mm long and has been faintly crushed, probably through use. All specimens probably had the primary function of projectile points. Dimensions: lengths, 3.4 to 3.8 cm; widths, 1.8 to 2.1 cm; thicknesses, .5 to .8 cm. DIAMOND-SHAPED POINTS, GENERAL COMMENTS Points of Forms 16 and 17 were confined to Unit 6, and further excavations in northern Mexico may well establish that these artifacts belong to an early point type. Present data are scarce and incompletely reported, however, and only suggest this possibility. In this context, mention is made of Fragua-type points from Coahuila (Taylor 1966: Fig. 3), several illustrated specimens from the Tehuacan Valley (MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson 1967: Fig. 42, second row, and Fig. 46, bottom row center), and diamond-shaped points of the Infiernillo complex, southwest Tamaulipas (MacNeish 1961: 99; MacNeish 1958: 167). North of Mexico, similar points of comparable age are rare (Bryan 1965: 70). Diamond-shaped points from the shores of Pleistocene Lake Mohave in Southern California

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

probably date between 8000 and 6000 B.C. (Moratto 1984: 97), but these artifacts are much larger than the La Calsada specimens (Amsden 1937: 80-88). In South America, early dates have been obtained for several isolated, contracting-stem projectile points. At the Alice Boer site near São Paulo, Brazil, such an artifact was radiocarbon dated to 14,200 ± 1150 B.P., allowing archaeologists to accept a date of 10,750 B.P. for the point and several associated chipped-stone tools (Bryan and de Conceição 1978). At Guitarrero Cave in the Andes Mountains of Peru, Lynch (ed., 1980: 29-33) excavated a diamond-shaped point much like examples from La Calsada. The artifact was found with a crude biface and two microblades in the earliest stratum of the site, and this deposit, based on five assays, produced an average radiocarbon date of 10,125 years B.P. While proportioned much differently than La Calsada specimens, at least some El Jobo points have an elongateddiamond form. These artifacts were excavated from two sites in northern Venezuela, where they were associated with mastodon and glyptodon remains. The sites have been carbon-14 dated to between 16,000 and 13,000 years B.P. (Bryan et al. 1978; Gruhn and Bryan 1984). PENTAGONAL POINTS, SMALL, UNITS 3 AND 5 (Form: 18; Number Collected: 2; Figure: 16) Description. Both artifacts are missing their tip ends but appear to have been pentagonal in outline. For both, the basal edges are concave and the lateral edges are straight and parallel on the basal halves. Near the transverse axes, straight and lateral edge sections converge to form the point tips. Both points have even, lenticular cross sections produced by parallel, bilateral, bifacial, and basal unifacial thinning. Fine, unifacial retouch was used to edge-shape short edge sections. Dimensions: lengths, 2.7 and 2.8 cm (estimated); widths, 1.7 and 1.8 cm; thicknesses, .5 cm. Discussion. These points resemble those of the Fiacco type, described for the Tehuacan Valley (MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson 1967: 58, 59), where they represent the long period of 6500 to 2300 B.c. Fiacco points also have been reported from Tamaulipas, where they appear later, dating from ca. 2000 B.C. (MacNeish 1958: 73). Fiacco points from Central Mexico and Tamaulipas are larger than the La Calsada specimens and have more deeply concave bases. However, similarities exist in fine retouching and basal thinning, and especially in the tendency toward a pentagonal outline.

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SIDE-NOTCHED POINT, AMORPHOUS, SURFACE (Form: 19; Number Collected: 1; Figure: 16) Description. Lacking the even edges of other late side-notched points at La Calsada, this small point is roughly triangular in outline with convex lateral edges and a concave base. Two shallow notches in one lateral edge, one in the other, and a blunt tip contribute to its amorphous appearance. Scars of randomly directed thinning flakes cover both surfaces; the cross section is lenticular. Dimensions: length, 2.4 cm; width, 1.9 cm; thickness, .5 cm. SIDE-NOTCHED POINTS, DOUBLE PAIR, UNIT 1-2 (Form: 20; Number Collected: 5; Figure: 16) Description. These are nonstemmed points, triangular in outline with straight lateral edges, concave basal edges, and sharp basallateral edge corners. Two U-shaped notches occur in each lateral edge on the basal half of each point, with each pair (notches from opposite edges) aligned transversely. The points are relatively thin and flatly lenticular in cross section, with thinning accomplished through random, bifacial removal of a few large flakes from the periphery. Notches were formed bifacially, and notches nearer the base consistently are larger than those toward the tip. Edges are sharp, slightly sinuous, and, with the exception of one artifact, show no evidence of wear. The exception (No. 357) is either a reworked projectile point or else never was intended to be one. The tip end is squared off one-third of the point length below a hypothetical tip and unifacially flaked to form a slightly convex edge. The entire tip edge and an adjacent 10-mm lateral edge section have been crushed and thickened (in places to .3 and .7 mm), probably through use. Dimensions: lengths, 3.0 to 3.9 cm; widths, 2.0 to 2.3 cm; thicknesses, .3 to .4 cm. SIDE-NOTCHED POINT, SINGLE PAIR, UNIT 1-2 (Form: 21; Number Collected: 1; Figure: 16) Description. This point is similar in all respects to those of Form 20 from the same unit, except that it has but a single pair of notches. Dimensions: length, 2.5 cm (estimated); width, 2.1 cm; thickness, .3 cm.

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

SIDE-NOTCHED POINT, SINGLE PAIR, UPPER UNIT 3 (Form: 22; Number Collected: 1; Figure: 16) Description. Broadly triangular in outline, this point has a single notch in each lateral edge near the lateral-basal edge corners. Lateral edges are slightly convex, and the basal edge is slightly concave. The artifact resembles side-notched points of Unit 1-2, although lateral edges are less even, the overall outline is less symmetrical, and the basal-lateral edge corners are more rounded. Dimensions: length, 3.2 cm; width, 2.5 cm; thickness, .4 cm. SIDE-NOTCHED POINTS, SINGLE PAIR, (ENSORLIKE), LOWER UNIT 3 (Form: 23; Number Collected: 1; Figure: 16) Description. While only the base was recovered, this point probably was triangular in outline with convex lateral edges. The base is irregularly convex, and sharp corners are formed at the intersections of the lower notch and basal edges. The cross section is triangular. Two broad, thinning-flake scars are located on the angular face; fine, parallel, bifacial flaking occurs along one lateral edge and the basal edges, with similar though unifacial flaking on the lateral edge opposite. The point appears unfinished and may have broken during manufacture. Dimensions: length, 3.2 cm (estimated); width, 2.5 cm; thickness, .4 cm. SIDE-NOTCHED POINTS, GENERAL COMMENTS Summary. Artifacts considered here are nonstemmed triangular points with one or two pairs of lateral-edge notches. The point from lower Unit 3 (Form 23) is fragmentary and probably unfinished. The side-notched point from upper Unit 3 resembles those from Unit 1-2, although it is less even in outline and cross section. Unit 1-2 points (Forms 20 and 21) show little variation. Most (Form 20) have two pairs of side notches; all are very regular in outline, cross section, and notching. Comparisons. The single lower-Unit 3 point fits well within the morphological variation allowed for the late-Archaic Ensor type, defined for Texas (Suhm, Krieger, and Jelks 1954: 422) and Northeast Mexico (McClurkan 1966: 30; MacNeish 1958: 67-68). However, be-

Artifact-Form Descriptions

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cause the artifact is an isolated example, because it may be unfinished, and because the specimen dates stratigraphically between 3500 and 2500 B.C., it is not regarded as an example of the Ensor type. Ensor points date later, between 200 B.c. and A.D. 1000 in the Amistad Reservoir (Story and Bryant, eds. 1966: Table 1), and after A.D. 250 at Cueva de la Zona (McClurkan 1966). Comparisons for Unit 1-2 side-notched points are difficult. Similar points were not excavated from Cueva de la Zona or from the Sierra de Tamaulipas, and they have not been reported from Nuevo León and Tamaulipas surface collections (Epstein 1969; Varner 1967; MacNeish 1958). Also, none is reported from Coahuila (Taylor 1966; Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda et al. 1956; Heartfield 1975, 1976). Perhaps the closest comparison is with Texcoco-type points of Highland Mexico (MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson 1967: 66-67); none of these reportedly has two pairs of notches. INDENTED-BASE POINTS, UNITS 5 AND 6 (Forms: 24, 25, 26; Number Collected: 5; Figure: 17) Description. These points have a basic similarity of form, are distinct from other points excavated from the site, and with one exception were limited to only one stratigraphic unit. As a group, however, they are morphologically variable and can be designated a form continuum. They vary from bistemmed (or basally indented stem) points to concave-based triangular points with rounded basal corners representing less-distinct manifestations of the stems. The two stemmed points (Form 24) at one end of the continuum have bodies that are triangular in outline with straight lateral edges; two slightly diverging convex-based stems exist per point. These points grade to two nonstemmed points, triangular in outline, with straight lateral and concave basal edges (Form 25). The corners formed by the intersections of the basal and lateral edges are well rounded and suggest for each point the two stems found on the definitely stemmed points of the continuum. The point (Form 26) at the opposite end of the continuum has only a slightly concave base and only one rounded corner, which is slightly suggestive of a stem. All but one point are alternately beveled on their lateral edges. Artifacts of Form 24 apparently were initially thinned through the removal of broad, shallow flakes, randomly directed, bifacially and bilaterally. Fine, parallel flakes were then unifacially, bilaterally removed from opposite faces to

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

produce an even, lenticular (modified by beveling) cross section. Form 25 artifacts exhibit fewer flake scars and cross sections are less evenly lenticular. Broad, parallel thinning flakes were removed either bifacially or unifacially from lateral and basal edges. This flaking in part has been obliterated by fine, unifacial, bilateral, parallel flaking, which produced the beveled surfaces. The point of Form 26 has the least-regular cross section, and lateral edges are only irregular straight. Fine, parallel flaking is confined unifacially to one lateral edge, producing a slight bevel. The point is thick; the few thinning flakes tend to be short and to terminate in hinge fractures. The tip may have been broken during manufacturing. Dimensions (Forms 24-26): lengths, 2.7 to 4.5 cm; widths, 2.5 to 2.8 cm; thicknesses, .4 to .7 cm. INDENTED-BASE POINTS, GENERAL COMMENTS Summary. The four artifacts of Forms 24 and 25 came from adjacent squares and were in close vertical proximity, three from Unit 5 and one from Unit 6. The points vary from a concave-base triangular form to bistemmed. Comparisons. Beside Lerma points, another horizon marker for late Paleo-Indian times in North America is what will be called the basally indented stem point. With a greater range of form than represented by Lerma and Cascade points, these stemmed or bistemmed points were probably in widespread use from around 7000 to 4500 B.C. over much of America north of Mexico. Unlike Lerma points, basally indented stem points also were common after 3000 B.c. in a number of widely separated areas: for example, Pedernales- and Montell-type points in Texas (Suhm, Krieger, and Jelks 1954: 452, 468), McKean-type points on the northwestern plains (Mulloy 1954: 445), and Chiricahua-type points of the southwestern United States (Sayles and Antevs 1941; Haury 1950: Table 21). The general distribution of these points has been reviewed by Lister (1953), Wormington (1957), and others for the American West and by Fitting (1964) for the American East. The chronological position of Pinto Basin points from the deserts of Southern California remains controversial, although Western archaeologists tend to favor relatively recent dates (post-3000 B.c., Hester 1973: 28, Wallace, 1978: 31; 5000-2000 B.c., Warren 1984: 410-414). For the southeastern United States, the Le Croy and St. Albans bifurcated-stem types are well dated between 7000 and 6000 B.c. (Broyles 1966; Chapman 1975).

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A more specific review can be made of similar early points reported from Texas. In the Amistad Reservoir, three basally indented stem points occurred in a Paleo-Indian context at the Devil's Mouth site (Johnson 1964: Fig. 17 j ; Sorrow 1968: 21-22, Group 2). Comparable points were collected from the Granite Beach site in Central Texas, where these, along with Lerma and Plainview points, were found eroding from a bed of a partially drained man-made lake (Crawford 1965: 76-78), and similar basally indented stem points were excavated from a lower stratum of the Landslide site, also in Central Texas (Sorrow et al. 1967: 143, Local Phase III). Early Barbed points of the Amistad Reservoir have basally indented stems, and several resemble the Form 24 artifacts from La Calsada (see Ross 1965: Fig. 12 o), although La Calsada specimens lack pronounced barbs. EXPANDING-STEM POINTS (PALMILLAS TYPE), UNITS 3 AND 4 (Form: 27; Number Collected: 3; Figure: 17) Description. Varying in size, these points are classified together on the basis of their common outlines. Body outlines are triangular with straight to slightly convex lateral edges that terminate in barbs; slight notching occurs between the barbs and stem-body junctures. Stem lateral edges expand slightly and stem basal edges are convex. On the two points from Unit 3, parallel, bilateral flake scars cover both faces. Cross sections are lenticular. The Unit 4 point is triangular in cross section, and, while more than half the point is missing (tip end), it appears that parallel flaking was absent; the point may have broken during the flaking process. Dimensions: lengths (two complete specimens), 3.8 to 7.4 cm; widths, 2.0 to 2.8 cm; thicknesses, .4 to .7 cm. Discussion. These points can be assigned to the Palmillas type, originally described for Texas by Suhm, Krieger, and Jelks (1954: 462) and for Tamaulipas by MacNeish (1958: 67). Palmillas points usually occur infrequently in the very late Archaic of the lower-Pecos region (see Ross 1965: 52; Johnson 1964: Table 2), but are slightly more common in Northeast Mexico (McClurkan 1966: 35). The type has been extended to Central Mexico (Tehaucan Valley sequence, MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson 1967: 72).

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

CONTRACTING-STEM POINTS, BARBED, UNITS 3 OR 4, 4, AND 6 (Form: 28; Number Collected: 4; Figure: 17) Description. In outline, these stemmed points have broad triangular bodies and small contracting stems; pronounced shoulders are manifested at the body base and stem junctures; stem lateral edges converge toward pointed or sharply rounded basal ends. Two points (No. 470, No. 1232) show evidence of barbs, though the barbs are now missing; one point (No. 44) has one slight barb intact. The cross section of No. 595 is triangular and for the others, lenticular. For two points (No. 44, No. 470) the bodies show the bifacial, bilateral removal of broad, thinning flakes, then parallel, bifacial, bilateral edge-shaping flakes; stems and barbs lack fine flaking. A third specimen (No. 1232) was shaped mainly through a randomly directed, single series of flakes, bifacially and bilaterally removed; the stem was further shaped through fine unifacial flaking. The fourth point (No. 595) bears bilateral flake scars parallel to the transverse axis, which on one face meet to form a ridge on the longitudinal axis; thinning-flake scars on the opposite face are shorter; and edge retouch was limited to a portion of the stem. Dimensions: lengths, 3.5 to 3.9 cm; widths, 2.2 to 3.0 cm; thicknesses, .4 to .6 cm. CONTRACTING-STEM POINT, NONBARBED, UNIT 6 (Form: 29; Number Collected: 1; Figure: 17) Description. This large, incomplete point probably had a triangular body; it does have a broad, contracting stem with straight lateral edges. The body and stem meet to form a sharp corner on one lateral edge and a well-defined shoulder on the other. Thinned minimally, the body was edge-shaped mainly through bifacial, bilateral, parallel flaking; similar flaking is evidenced for most of both stem surfaces. The stem is lenticular in cross section; the body, planoconvex. Dimensions: length, unknown; width, 3.0 cm; thickness, .6 cm. CONTRACTING-STEM POINTS, GENERAL DISCUSSION Typological Considerations. One of the least satisfying areas of point classification in Texas and Northeast Mexico is that dealing

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with contracting-stem points. Two types, Gary and Almagre, were defined by Suhm, Krieger, and Jelks (1954). Both types exhibit a great deal of internal variation and obvious morphological overlaps exist between them. Essential, defined differences between the types are that Almagre points tend to be larger and more crudely flaked (and may be preforms; cf. Turner and Hester 1985: 62). Also, an important criterion advanced to justify the two classes as separate types is that each represents a separate geographic area. As distributions were understood in 1954, primarily Gary points were found in East Texas; primarily Almagre points were known from the TransPecos, the Falcon Reservoir, and Northeast Mexico; and points of both types reportedly were rare in intervening Central Texas (Suhm, Krieger, and Jelks 1954: 396, 430). This typology is certainly useful in pointing out regional differences but has one built-in weakness: points of the general contracting-stem form that do occur in Central Texas cannot be sorted into the two types unless a researcher relies on the troublesome criteria of overall size and quality of workmanship. The problem was compounded when MacNeish (1958: 65) extended the Gary type to Northeast Mexico. For MacNeish, the Almagre type consists of roughly diamond-shaped points, averaging 6.0 cm in length, while Gary points, averaging 4.6 cm in length, have long, contracting stems and barbs at the ends of the body lateral edges. As described, there are no differences in chipping technology or quality of workmanship. The confusion created by this classification can be understood through reference to Suhm, Krieger, and Jelks' 1954 Handbook. Here, essentially diamond-shaped points are illustrated for both Gary and Almagre types. This discussion illustrates the pitfalls inherent in extending some projectile-point types from one large region to another (in this case from Texas to Northeast or even Central Mexico, for example, MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson 1967; for additional critical commentary see Neiderberger 1976: 67-68 and Hester 1986). Because of this problem, contract-stem points from La Calsada are assigned to neither the Gary nor Almagre type. Comparisons. Contracting-stem points date from ca. 2170 B.c. at Cueva de la Zona (McClurkan 1966: 148), from 2500 B.C. in the Sierra de Tamaulipas sequence (MacNeish 1958: 65) and from 2600 B.C. in the Amistad Reservoir (e.g., Johnson 1967: Fig. 3, period markers E and K).

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

PARALLEL, LATERAL-EDGE STEM POINTS, UNITS 4, 5, AND 6 (Form: 30; Number Collected: 7; Figures: 17, 18, 34B) Description. Stems in outline have parallel lateral edges, and on this basis the points are grouped into a single form. However, substantial individual variability exists in form, flaking technology, and size. The two points from Unit 5 are quite similar in form and exhibit the same flaking techniques. Although the tip half of each is missing, the bodies appear to have been relatively long; cross sections are lenticular. The body lateral edges of one are slightly concave; of the other, slightly convex. Stems in outline are long with convex bases, and one of the points is bilaterally barbed. One of these same specimens has very long, parallel thinning flakes removed from the body diagonally (at about 45 degrees to the axes), with the scars extending almost from edge to edge. The other specimen also bears long, thinning-flake scars, but these are more in line with the transverse axis, parallel and bifacial, bilateral on the point body. On both artifacts, secondary flaking is virtually absent. On one of these same points (No. 767; Fig. 34B), a narrow scar extends from the break surface, 7 mm down a lateral edge, and indicates removal of a burin spall. The working edge of the burin is 2 mm long and has been crushed, exhibiting a series of minute hinge fractures that form a slight concavity below the edge. These were probably the result of recurrent pressure applied in a direction perpendicular to the break surface. The artifact may be a deliberately formed burin, but since the burinlike scar is at an angle not perpendicular to the point faces, it seems more likely that the narrow-flake removal was fortuitous or the direct result of use pressure against the break surface. Three finished specimens are from Unit 4, all barbed. Stem and body outlines of these artifacts are variable; flaking is bilateral and bifacial, and, on two specimens, the scars are of long, parallel thinning flakes. Cross sections are lenticular. One of these points (No. 1323) has two small notches (1 to 2 mm wide at the edge), unifacially chipped into each body lateral edge near its basal extremity. Because of irregular outlines and cross sections, and because of inferred thinning difficulties, the remaining two points (from Units 4 and 6) are considered unfinished. One of these has been randomly thinned bifacially, but knobs occur on each face where thinning efforts were unsuccessful. On the other (No. 156), long, parallel thinning scars extend over both faces, but the tip end is ill-formed and square in

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appearance, although not broken. Hinge fractures are present on this end, especially near one thick-tip-edge lateral-edge corner. Dimensions: lengths, 2.6 to 4.0 cm; widths, 1.7 to 2.4 cm; thicknesses, .3 to .7 cm. LARGE STEMMED POINTS, UNITS 5 AND 6 (Form: 31; Number Collected: 3; Figure: 18) Description. These points are grouped together on the basis of overall size. Two of the artifacts may be missing their stem basal extremities; the third (No. 598) apparently was never thinned, and the flat basal surface may be the striking platform of the parent flake. Two (No. 812, No. 1144) are similarly formed with lenticular cross sections, convex body edges, and sharp corners at the stem-body junctures. One of these (No. 812) has parallel thinning scars meeting at the longitudinal axis the length of one face; similar flaking on the opposite face is limited to both extremities. The other point apparently was thinned bifacially through random removal of broad flakes, although the chert is coarse grained and individual scars are mostly indistinguishable. The third specimen (No. 598) has a slightly contracting stem and an irregularly shaped, ovoid body. The tip end is roughly formed, only unifacially flaked, and the cross section is irregular, varying from lenticular to plano-convex. The artifact may be a stemmed, bifacially prepared scraper. Dimensions: lengths, 4.5 to 5.5 cm; widths, 2.5 to 3.2 cm; thicknesses, .7 to 1.1 cm. SMALL, INCOMPLETE-STEM POINTS, UNITS 1-2, 3, AND 4 (Form: 32; Number Collected: 4; Figure: 18) Description. These small stemmed points are seemingly of the same form, although on three, the stems are missing in whole or part. Two points are notched between the barbs and stem-body junctures. All points are thin and roughly lenticular in cross section, and faces show random-to-parallel thinning-flake scars and fine, parallel edge retouch, either bifacial and bilateral (three specimens), or unifacial and bilateral (one). Dimensions: lengths (estimated), 3.0 to 4.0 cm; widths, 1.7 to 2.5 cm; thicknesses, .3 to .5 cm.

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

STEMMED POINTS, SUMMARY This is a highly variable group, with twenty-two artifacts categorized into eight Forms (27-32, 37, 38). Stemmed points occur most frequently in Units 4 and 6 and decrease in size through time. They are mostly unbarbed points with parallel-sided or contracting stems. Only the Palmillas points of Units 3 and 4 could be assigned to a previously described type. UNIQUE POINT, UNIT 1-2 (Form: 33; Figure: 18) Description. This appears to be either a small dart point or an unfinished arrow point. The outline is irregular with roughly straight, lateral body edges and a broad, square, stemlike base. The artifact is plano-convex in cross section and appears unfinished. For the most part it is unifacially flaked. Dimensions: length, 2.1 cm; width, 1.4 cm; thickness, .3 cm. UNIQUE POINT, UNIT 3 (Form: 34; Figure: 18) Description. This is a large, nonstemmed point, pentagonal in outline; the base is straight. There are four lateral edge sections: two at the tip end are convex; the others are straight. The point has been thinned bifacially from the basal edge. One lateral edge has been thinned bifacially on the basal section and unifacially on the tip section. The opposite lateral edge shows the unifacial removal of a few narrow thinning flakes near the tip. The rest of this edge is virtually unflaked. Most of one face is flat and without flake scars; this may be an unfinished projectile point. Dimensions: length, 4.7 cm; width, 3.1 cm; thickness, .7 cm. UNIQUE POINT, UNIT 4 (Form: 35; Figure: 18) Description. This nonstemmed point is unique in material (pink chalcedony) and in having its greatest width near the base, giving it an elongated-diamond outline. The tip is missing, and the artifact is bifacially flaked across the tip end, forming a straight edge perpen-

Artifact-Form Descriptions

63

dicular to the longitudinal axis. The basal extremity is also squaredoff, the squared portion probably being the striking platform of the parent flake. The tip edge obviously has undergone heavy and repeated use: up to five tiered hinge fractures occur bifacially to the edge, and one tip lateral-edge corner is well dulled through use. Dimensions: length, 3.1 cm; width, 1.9 cm; thickness, .6 cm. UNIQUE POINT, UNIT 5 (Form: 36; Figure: 18) Description. This small, thinned biface, probably an unfinished projectile point, is irregularly ovoid in outline. It was thinned by bifacial removal of relatively thick percussion flakes from the periphery. The artifact resembles the points of Form 14, in that a remnant of the parent-flake striking platform remains on a lateral edge at the transverse axis. Dimensions: length, 3.6 cm; width, 2.1 cm; thickness, .6 cm. UNIQUE POINT, UNIT 5 (Form: 37; Figure: 18) Description. This is a large and very well-made stemmed point. In outline the body is triangular with convex lateral edges, and the broad stem is semicircular. Distinct shoulders occur at the junctures of stem and body lateral edges. The artifact was thinned through randomly directed, broad, shallow flaking, and then carefully edgeshaped by bifacial removal of short, parallel flakes the entire length of both body edges. The cross section is evenly lenticular, and peripheral edges are nonsinuous and smooth. Its function is probably that of a dart or spear point. Dimensions: length, 6.4 cm; width, 2.8 cm; thickness, .7 cm. UNIQUE POINT, UNIT 6 (Form: 38; Figure: 18) Description. Like that of Form 37, this is a well-flaked, relatively long stemmed point. Body edges are convex, and concave lateral stem edges contract from distinct shoulders to an irregular base. The point exhibits a great deal of flaking: broad scars of randomly detached thinning flakes occur on both faces, and parallel, edge-

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

shaping thinning scars occur bilaterally on edge sections, both unifacially and bifacially. The artifact probably functioned as a dart or spear point. Dimensions: length, 7.0 cm; width, 2.9 cm; thickness, .7 cm. POINT FRAGMENTS, OVOID BASES (Form: 39; Number Collected: 39, 10 from Unit 1-2, 3 from Unit 3, 4 from Unit 4, 12 from Unit 5, 8 from Unit 6, and 2 others) Description. These appear to be the bases of ovoid points. Four artifacts bear evidence of edge use: two (No. 776, No. 95) have short, crushed edge sections on a bifacially flaked edge; one (No. 1070) has a very small, bifacially prepared projection (graver spur) located on a lateral edge (of the original artifact) near the break surface. The fourth specimen (No. 191) has a unifacially prepared projection on a break-surface lateral-edge corner. Maximum widths (across the break surface) range from 1.2 to 3.2 cm and average 2.2 cm. OTHER POINT FRAGMENTS (Form: 40; Number Collected: 22, 7 from Unit 1-2, 2 from Unit 3, 4 from Unit 4, 4 from Unit 5, 2 from Unit 6, and 3 others) Description. Included in this category are tip sections, midsections, stems, and other fragments that represent many of the point forms described above. Probable general point forms represented are: for Unit 1-2, stemmed (four specimens), triangular (two), lanceolate (one); for Unit 3, notched (one), stemmed (one); for Unit 4, stemmed (three), lanceolate-straight base (one); for Unit 5, stemmed (three), lanceolate-concave base (one); for Unit 6, contracting stemmed (two). Other fragments not assigned to a unit are stemmed (one), lanceolate (one), and contracting stemmed (one). Maximum fragment widths range from .8 to 3.9 cm and average 2.1 cm. POINT FRAGMENTS, TIPS (Form: 41; Number Collected: 65, 23 from Unit 1-2, 5 from Unit 3, 2 from Unit 4, 17 from Unit 5, 13 from Unit 6, and 5 others) Description. These are point tips or the bases of bipointed points. Three artifacts (No. 212, No. 577, No. 1210) exhibit edge wear on a break-surface lateral-edge corner; two specimens have prepared pro-

Artifact-Form Descriptions

65

jections at the same location, one (No. 347) unifacially prepared, the other (No. 528) bifacially prepared. Maximum widths (across the break surfaces) range from 1.0 to 3.1 cm and average 1.7 cm. POINT FRAGMENTS, MIDSECTIONS (Form: 42; Number Collected: 5, 1 from Unit 1-2, 4 from Unit 5) Description. Maximum widths range from 1.7 to 2.5 cm. POINT FRAGMENTS WITH ONE OR TWO ADJACENT BREAK SURFACES (Form: 43; Number Collected: 34, 17 from Unit 1-2, 3 from Unit 3, 2 from Unit 4, 4 from Unit 5, 6 from Unit 6, and 2 others) Description. These thinned bifaces have one or two adjacent, bifacially thinned edge sections meeting at an angle on part of the artifact perimeter. The remaining part of the perimeter consists of one or two adjacent break surfaces, roughly straight in outline and perpendicular to the two faces. Several artifact corners (data in Nance 1971) show signs of wear. Most specimens are probably projectile-point fragments. Weights range from .5 to 6 grams and average 3.1 grams. POINTS, ALL FORMS, SUMMARY Unit 6 points are mainly of three basic forms: lanceolate (both straight based and bipointed), diamond shaped, and stemmed. Stemmed points tend to be larger than the rest; the basal extremities are either non thinned or thinned but poorly formed. Of technological significance is the fine, parallel flaking that occurs on points of Forms 15,16,17, 30, and 38, and the occurrence of unifacially thinned points (Forms 14, 15, and 16). Unit 5 points are mainly lanceolate (bipointed) and stemmed. Lanceolate (Lerma-type) points are larger than those of Unit 6 and predominate numerically within Unit 5. The same fine, parallel flaking described for Unit 6 is limited to the two Form 30 points in Unit 5. Most Unit 4 points (eight of eleven) are stemmed. Unit 4 points show a decrease in size from those of Units 5 and 6 (and average smaller than those of Unit 3). The points of Units 1-2 and 3 are mostly triangular and ovoid; triangular side-notched points enter the sequence in Unit 3.

66

The Archaeology of La Calsada Large Knives/Preforms

LARGE KNIVES/PREFORMS, THINNED (Form: 44; Number Collected: 6, 1 from Unit 1-2, 3 from Unit 3, and 2 others; Figures: 19, 35B) Description. These large, thinned bifaces are triangular (No. 81, No. 1427) to ovoid-triangular (No. 551, No. 1061) to broadly ovoid (No. 1306, No. 1313) in outline. They are lenticular in cross section and, except for No. 1313, all are bifacially flaked around their peripheries. Three artifacts are slightly asymmetrical, having one relatively convex and one relatively straight edge. Two of these (No. 81, Fig. 35B; No. 551) are heavily ground and polished on the straight lateral edge and have only minor wear on the opposite; the third (No. 1061) is more heavily worn on the convex edge. The convex lateral edge for all three is more serrated (in outline) and sinuous (viewed from the edge) than the straighter edge. Of the three symmetrical artifacts, No. 1427 is ground and polished on one lateral edge, and another (No. 1306) is slightly polished on both faces and both lateral edges. The last specimen (No. 1306) was found broken in half, both fragments coming from the same level and square. It is unifacially thinned, evidences no edge wear, and probably broke during manufacture. Dimensions: lengths, 4.1 to 5.7 cm; widths, 2.8 to 3.5 cm; thicknesses, .7 to 1.0 cm. LARGE KNIVES/PREFORMS, PARTIALLY THINNED (Form: 45; Number Collected: 2, 1 from Unit 1-2, 1 from Unit 3; Figure: 23) Description. With triangular and pentagonal outlines, these artifacts have thick basal halves and well-thinned tip halves; the tip extremities are well pointed. The specimens are bifacially thinned upon 80 to 100 percent of their peripheries; cross sections are irregularly lenticular. Both artifacts are polished on both faces and along both lateral edges, especially on the tip halves. They may have functioned as hand-held knives. On both, the polishing extends across the negative bulb surfaces and is not confined to the arris ridges. Dimensions: lengths, 3.8 to 5.0 cm; widths, 3.3 to 3.7 cm; thicknesses: 1.2 to 1.3 cm. Discussion. Semenov (1964: 101-103) functionally designated similarly polished chipped-stone artifacts as meat and skinning

Artifact-Form Descriptions

67

knives. Collins studied stone tools from Arenosa Shelter in the Amistad Reservoir and suggested that the high polish found on flake unifaces from that site was due to the "harvesting of grasses, cane, sotol and lechuguilla" (Collins 1974: 572). More specifically, these two bifaces may well have been the blades of a mescal (agavecutting) knife. One or two ovoid, side-mounted blades set in a short, thick handle constitute one form of this artifact (the Havasupai-type, as quoted on p. 43 from Castetter et al. 1938). Seven mescal knives of this type from Nevada and Arizona are described and illustrated by Heizer (1970); two handle fragments with hafted blades were recovered from the Shumla Caves in West Texas (illustrated by Shafer 1986:111). Because edge grinding is particularly heavy and accompanied by polishing, the edge wear on these specimens and those of Form 44 is not attributed to deliberate edge preparation prior to renewed flaking (cf. Sheets 1973). LARGE KNIVES/PREFORMS, NONTHINNED (Form: 46; Number Collected: 16, 2 from Unit 3, 5 from Unit 4, 4 from Unit 5, 3 from Unit 6, and 2 others; Figure: 19) Description. These thick bifaces show a great deal of outline variation, though all are elongate and at least one-pointed. Cross sections vary from lenticular to irregular, and each artifact is bifacially flaked upon 50 to 100 percent of its periphery. Some of these are probably preforms (unfinished projectile points), while others, apparently limited to Units 4, 5, and 6, were used and possibly designed as end tools. Edge wear is limited to short, usually end, edge sections, with a characteristic wear type of edge crushing instead of polishing, dulling, or light grinding. Comparisons of outline and cross-section form to edge-wear distribution give some clue to artifact functions (wear and morphological details appear in Nance 1971). If most are primarily preforms, a random distribution of use edge wear would be expected, without correlation to specimen form. On the other hand, if some are finished and used tools, one would expect most edge wear to occur on the relatively well-formed artifacts. Of the eight artifacts with irregular cross sections, irregular outlines, or both of these irregular, three evidence some form of use wear. The remaining eight artifacts lack outline or cross-section irregularity, and seven of these are interpreted to show signs of use edge wear. Though the sample is small, the data

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

suggest that most artifacts are not preforms. Dimensions: lengths, 4.0 to 6.8 cm; widths, 2.1 to 3.2 cm; thicknesses: .8 to 1.6 cm. LARGE KNIVES/PREFORMS, TIP OR BASE FRAGMENTS (Form: 47; Number Collected: 18, 1 from Unit 1-2, 2 from Unit 3, 2 from Unit 4, 7 from Unit 5, 4 from Unit 6, and 2 others) Description. Each fragment is one end (ovoid or pointed) of a large knife (thinned or nonthinned). Dimensions: maximum fragment widths range from 1.8 to 3.3 cm and average 2.8 cm. LARGE KNIFE/PREFORM FRAGMENTS WITH ONE OR TWO ADJACENT BREAK SURFACES (Form: 48; Number Collected: 5, 1 from Unit 1-2, 3 From Unit 3, and 1 from Unit 5) Description. These thinned biface fragments have one or two adjacent, bifacially flaked edge sections (meeting at an angle) on part of the artifact periphery. The remainder of the perimeter consists of one or two adjacent break surfaces, roughly straight in outline and perpendicular to the faces. Weights: 6 to 15 grams. LARGE KNIVES/PREFORMS, GENERAL COMMENTS Summary. The artifacts of Form 44 are limited to Units 1-2 and 3; they generally have asymmetrical outlines and, for this site, a unique dulling type of edge wear. Also, they are all well thinned. The two specimens of Form 45 are also limited to Units 1-2 and 3; they are well thinned on their tip halves and display a unique wear pattern. Form 46 artifacts are thicker, and all but two were excavated from Units 4, 5, and 6. Wear generally occurs as edge crushing limited to short end sections. Considering all Large Knives/Preforms of known unit provenience, a change in outline form is observable in Table 2. Almost all Unit 1-2 and 3 artifacts are triangular to ovoid in outline, while most Large Knives/Preforms from earlier units are bipointed and lanceolate. Comparisons. McClurkan (1966: 47) reports asymmetrical knives from Cueva de la Zona, though these average slightly smaller than the La Calsada Form 44 artifacts and exhibit more asymmetry. Larger, slightly asymmetrical bifaces, which closely resemble Form 44 specimens, were recovered from Cueva de la Zona (McClurkan

Artifact-Form Descriptions

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Table 2 Distribution of Large Knives/Preforms by Outline and Unit, Forms 44-46 Unit

Triangular

1-2 3 4 5 6

1 1 — — —

OvoidTriangular

Ovoid

1

—

1

3 — — —

— 1 1

Bipointed, Lanceolate

Irregular

— 1 3 3 1

— — 2 — 1

1966: Fig. 14 i) and the San Isidro site (Epstein 1969: Fig. 6 i). Asymmetrical bifaces and large bifaces with worn edges are described for the Laguna Mayran of southern Coahuila (Heartfield 1976: 131-132). Arrow Points and Arrow-Point Fragments ARROW POINTS, TRIANGULAR (Form: 49; Number Collected: 29 from Unit 1-2; Figure: 20) Description. These small arrow points have triangular outlines and lenticular cross sections. Outlines vary considerably, with bases and lateral edges ranging from convex to straight to concave. Edges are not serrated; for all points with concave bases, lateral edges terminate basally as finely pointed barbs. These artifacts are finely pressure flaked over both surfaces. No arrow point was microscopically examined for edge wear. Dimensions: lengths, 1.5 to 3.2 cm, average 2.1 cm; widths, .7 to 2.5 cm, average 1.6 cm. In general, arrow points average between .1 and .4 cm in thickness. ARROW POINTS, BASALLY NOTCHED (Form: 50; Number Collected: 14, 9 from Unit 1-2 and 5 others; Figure: 20) Description. Outlines are triangular, except that the bases are strongly indented to a V form. A slight notch occurs at the apex of each V at the longitudinal axis. Lateral edges vary from convex to straight to concave; basal edge sections (on either side of the notch) vary from convex to straight. And basal and lateral edges meet to

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

form sharp barbs at the two basal extremities. Fine, pressure-flake scars, mostly parallel, cover both surfaces, and cross sections are thin and evenly lenticular. Four specimens have serrated edges. Dimensions: lengths, 1.7 to 2.7 cm, average 2.2 cm; widths, 1.4 to 2.3 cm, average 1.9 cm. ARROW POINTS, SIDE-NOTCHED (Form: 51; Number Collected: 11 from Unit 1-2; Figure: 20) Description. Also triangular, these arrow points have a single basal notch (as for Form 50) and one or more pairs of side notches. As complete arrow points, three had one pair of side notches, three had two pairs, four had three pairs, and one had four pairs. Lateral edges are straight; basal edges are concave; sharp corners usually occur at the junctures of lateral and basal edges. Cross sections are evenly lenticular and surfaces are finely pressure flaked. Dimensions: lengths, 1.3 to 2.2 cm, average 1.8 cm; widths, 1.4 to 2.0 cm, average 1.7 cm. AMORPHOUS, POSSIBLY UNFINISHED, ARROW POINTS (Form: 52; Number Collected: 4 from Unit 1-2; Figure: 21) Description. These small points either lack the regular outlines of other arrow points from the site or have one break surface, which served as a platform for unifacial thinning. Possibly the latter are reworked broken arrow points, where the break surface could not be thinned to an edge. Possibly none of the artifacts reached finished form. Dimensions: lengths, 1.8 to 2.9 cm; widths, 1.2 to 1.7 cm. UNIQUE ARROW POINTS (Forms: 53, 54, 55; Number Collected: 3 from Unit 1-2; Figure: 35A) Description. The Form 53 specimen is roughly triangular with three concave edges; the Form 54 artifact is stemmed, with convex lateral body edges and a round or bulbous stem. The arrow point of Form 55, which is triangular, has convex lateral edges, a straight basal edge, and a single basal notch at the longitudinal axis. The last artifact as well as two flakes (Form 115) are the only La Calsada specimens of obsidian. Dimensions: lengths, 1.3 to 1.9 cm; widths, .7 to 1.0 cm.

Artifact-Form Descriptions

71

ARROW-POINT FRAGMENTS (Form: 56; Number Collected: 35, 31 from Unit 1-2 and 4 others) Description. Arrow-point fragments include tips, midsections, and basal fragments, and most can be associated tenuously with Form 49 (five fragments), Form 50 (three), or Form 51 (twelve). The remaining fifteen are too incomplete for any morphological identification. ARROW POINTS, COMPARISONS Probably the same range of arrow-point forms described above occurred at Cueva de la Zona, where arrow points identical to those of Forms 49, 50, and 51 are classified as of the Starr, Fresno, and Toyah types (McClurkan 1966: 20-22). Starr and Fresno arrow points are reported for the Sierra de Tamaulipas (MacNeish 1958: 69-70) and coastal northern Tamaulipas, but MacNeish found no side-notched or basally notched forms. Heartfield encountered a wider range of arrow-point forms in the Laguna Mayran of Coahuila. She describes stemmed arrow points of the Perdiz type, as well as a variety of triangular types. Arrow-point type names had been introduced by Taylor (1966) for central Coahuila, although Taylor never published formal descriptions of this material. These names covered forms already assigned to types by MacNeish (1958) and others for Northeast Mexico and Texas, and Heartfield was left with the problem of typological ambiguity (cf. Heartfield 1976: 123). In order not to add to the confusion, type names are not assigned here to arrow points from La Calsada. Suffice it to say that La Calsada Forms 49, 50, and 51 are well represented in the large Laguna Mayran sample. It is hoped that additional archaeology in Northeast Mexico will lead to the development of a standard arrow-point typology for the region. Other Bifaces and Other Biface Fragments MICROPOINTS (Form 57; Number Collected: 6, 5 from Unit 1-2 and 1 from Unit 3; Figures: 35A, 36A) Description. Unusual for their exceedingly small size and fine workmanship, these points are bifacially flaked around their perime-

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ters. Outlines are regularly lanceolate-bipointed (four specimens) or ovoid and one-pointed (one), and cross sections vary from evenly lenticular (four) to plano-convex (one). Dimensions: lengths, 1.3 to 2.6 cm; widths, .4 to 1.0 cm; thicknesses, .2 to .3 cm. MICROPOINT FRAGMENTS (Form: 58; Number Collected: 2 from Unit 1-2) Description. The fragments consist of one tip and one base. CRESCENTS (Form: 59; Number Collected: 27, 24 from Unit 1-2 and 3 others; Figure: 21) Description. These small, thinned bifaces are crescentic in outline and plano-convex in cross section. Two edge sections, one convex, one concave, meet at each end to form finely pointed barbs. The artifacts are finely pressure-flaked bifacially, with parallel thinning scars covering both faces of the finished artifacts. Ten artifacts were microscopically examined for edge wear; only minor wear was detected. Dimensions: lengths (between barb extremities), 1.4 to 3.1 cm; widths, 1.0 to 2.6 cm; thicknesses, .2 to .6 cm. Discussion. Identical artifacts are reported from the arrow-point levels at Cueva de la Zona (McClurkan 1966: 48). See also Heartfield (1976: Figure 32 1) for a variant of the same form. Hester (1971) suggested that similar crescents, although wider and unifacially flaked, might have been hafted to the ends of sticks to resemble tools he described from Coahuila. If so, La Calsada crescents might have functioned in agave processing. (See discussion for Form 62, below.) UNFINISHED CRESCENTS (Form: 60; Number Collected: 5 from Unit 1-2; Figure: 21) Description. Probably unfinished crescents, three artifacts are square, thinned bifaces with three straight, bifacially thinned edge sections and a single break-surface edge. The remaining two specimens, square and ovoid in outline, are bifacially flaked around their peripheries.

Artifact-Form Descriptions

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CRESCENT FRAGMENTS (Form: 61; Number Collected: 65, 64 from Unit 1-2 and 1 other; Figure: 38A) Description. Included are variously shaped fragments of finished crescents (Form 60) with a few fragments of unfinished crescents (Form 61), which probably broke during manufacturing. Analysis of the morphology of these fragments (Nance 1971: 190-191) and speculation on breakage during use versus breakage during the manufacturing process failed to produce any information on crescent functions. The lack of wear on crescent edges, however, suggests they were not cutting, scraping, or engraving tools. Fragments are of the following forms: barb half (twenty-five specimens); barb half, unfinished (seven); barb portion (four); barb missing (twelve); crest portion (four); barb missing on barb half (two); midsection (four); other (seven). Figure 38A illustrates crescent-fragment descriptive categories. Mitchell et al. (1970) studied breakage patterns on collections of larger crescentic bifaces from the western United States, with similar, inconclusive results. SMALL, STEMMED SCRAPERS (Form: 62; Number Collected: 5, 2 from Unit 1-2, 1 from Unit 3, and 2 others; Figure: 22A) Description. These small flake artifacts have unifacially flaked bodies with bifacially flaked stems. Bodies generally are ovoidrectangular in outline and plano-convex in cross section. Each is flaked around almost its entire body periphery from a plane-surface platform. Most stems are contracting with narrowly rounded bases, and two artifacts show slight notching at the junctures of stem and body edges. Dimensions: lengths (on the longitudinal stem axis), 2.1 to 2.7 cm; widths, 1.9 to 2.6 cm. Discussion. Similar small uniface tools, but notched instead of stemmed, have been found hafted to the ends of long, sticklike handles (lengths 25 and 32 cm); these artifacts were obtained from Cueva de la Paila in the Bolsón de Delicias, Coahuila (Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda 1956: 172-174). Two similar scraper-tipped sticks from a dry cave (one, 39 cm long) in the Laguna Mayran region of Coahuila are described by Hester (1971). Possibly these artifacts were designed and used to remove agave crowns from the plants. (See description of the process by Castetter et al. on p. 43.)

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

OVOID BIFACES (Form: 63; Number Collected: 4, 1 from Unit 3, 2 from Unit 5, 1 from Unit 6; Figure: 23) Description. Generally resembling Large Points in size and cross section, these bifaces lack pointed ends and are ovoid in outline. Cross sections are lenticular (three specimens) and plano-convex (one); the artifacts are bifacially flaked from a continuous or nearcontinuous edge around their peripheries. Each specimen has a worn edge section, .7 to 3.6 cm long, and one artifact (No. 798) has two small, bifacially prepared and polished projections; these artifacts are believed to be finished tools. Artifact weights: 12 to 27 grams. BIFACE GOUGES (Form: 64; Number Collected: 2, 1 from Unit 5, 1 from Unit 6; Figure: 23) Description. These artifacts resemble those termed "gouges" in the Texas literature. They are irregularly triangular in outline and roughly lenticular in cross section (on the transverse axis). Along the short working edge of each, a narrow surface (tool bit) meets one of the two major artifact faces at about a 45-degree angle, this major face being relatively planar in the vicinity of the edge. The working edge of one artifact is concave and shows minor wear; the other has a blunt projection, slightly polished, near the center of the convex working edge. Dimensions: lengths, 5.1 to 5.9 cm; widths, 2.9 to 3.9 cm; thicknesses, 1.4 to 2.1 cm. Discussion. Lacking the characteristic regular outlines and the careful workmanship of the Clear Fork gouge from Texas, these artifacts more resemble bifacial Clear Fork gouges from the San Isidro site (Epstein 1969: 39-43) and also uniface gouges from the Sierra de Tamaulipas (MacNeish 1958: Fig. 27, 6-8). CONTINUOUS EDGE BIFACES (Form: 65; Number Collected: 10, 1 from Unit 1-2, 3 from Unit 4, 6 from Unit 5; Figure: 23) Description. These thick bifaces are identified by a single, sinuous edge continuous around the artifact perimeter. All flakes from each artifact apparently were removed from this edge, the flake scars

Artifact-Form Descriptions

75

tending to converge at the face centers. All specimens but three are roughly lenticular in cross section; the exceptions are roughly planoconvex. The artifacts are ovoid in outline. Edge wear is limited to a prepared projection on each of two specimens, a worn projection (two specimens), and a single prepared edge section (one). Dimensions: maximum (across the continuous edge), 3.0 to 4.2 cm; thicknesses, 1.1 to 3.3 cm. Discussion. The term "continuous edge biface" is borrowed from Epstein's San Isidro report, the La Calsada artifacts conforming to his group Β (without cortex). Limited edge wear suggests the artifacts were not primarily tools; they may be unfinished projectile points or bifacial cores. DISCONTINUOUS EDGE BIFACES (Form: 66; Number Collected: 12, 2 from Unit 3, 1 from Unit 4, 5 from Unit 5, 2 from Unit 6, and 2 others; Figure: 23) Description. Again following Epstein's (1969) terminology, each Discontinuous Edge Biface has a sinuous edge interrupted at one or two places either by broad flake scars or cortex surfaces perpendicular to the edge, so that the artifacts have three or more surfaces. On the two major faces (those meeting at the sinuous edge), flake scars converge toward the face centers. Cross sections vary from more-or-less lenticular (six specimens) to irregular (six). All have irregular outlines. Evidence of use is limited to a single edge section, 1.7 cm long. Maximum dimensions: 2.5 to 6.2 cm. Discussion. At both San Isidro and La Calsada, Continuous Edge Bifaces average less by weight than Discontinuous Edge Bifaces. Possibly the former are exhausted cores (see MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson 1967: 87) or approach an exhausted state. TABULAR PLANE BIFACES (Form: 67; Number Collected: 7, 1 from Unit 5, 5 from Unit 6, and 1 other; Figure: 24) Description. The artifacts are roughly rectangular (three specimens), roughly ovoid (three), or irregular (one) in outline, and roughly trapezoidal to parallelogram in cross section. All artifacts are flaked from a plane-platform (terminology explained for Tabular Plane Unifaces, Forms 86 to 94, on p. 82); however, in part or totally,

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

edge sections worked in this manner are, in fact, bifacially flaked with flakes removed both from the plane-platform (with the scars on a peripheral surface) and with the peripheral surface as platform (the scars extending across the platform plane). In addition, five artifacts bear flake scars on their upper planes. Maximum dimensions: 2.9 to 6.3 cm. FLAKES WITH ONE BIFACIALLY FLAKED OR PREPARED EDGE AND/OR ONE BIFACIALLY PREPARED PROJECTION (Form: 68; Number Collected: 17, 3 from Unit 1-2, 5 from Unit 4, 4 from Unit 5, 3 from Unit 6, and 2 others; Figure: 24) Description. Most of these flakes have one bifacially prepared edge and/or projection, evidenced in part by edge wear. As listed in Nance 1971, several flakes with bifacially flaked (nonprepared) edges appear to be unfinished, thinned bifaces. On these, edges show minor wear, and flake scars extend well onto the parent-flake surfaces. Weights range from 1 to 9 grams and average 5.4 grams. IRREGULAR SPALLS WITH ONE BIFACIALLY FLAKED OR PREPARED EDGE AND/OR ONE BIFACIALLY PREPARED PROJECTION (Form: 69; Number Collected: 28, 4 from Unit 1-2, 2 from Unit 3, 4 from Unit 4, 10 from Unit 5, 4 from Unit 6, and 4 others; Figure: 24) Description. These spalls have either an even, bifacially prepared edge (most showing more than minor wear) or a crude, bifacially flaked edge that was not prepared (all of the latter have minor wear; most are highly sinuous); or a bifacially prepared projection. Weights range from 2 to 21 grams and average 9.9 grams. UNIQUE BIFACE, UNIT 1-2 (Form: 70; Figure: 24) Description. This small, thick biface is roughly triangular in outline with a concave base and one straight and one concave lateral edge. A functional designation of drill is suggested by the thick cross section, although the tip is missing and this is not supported by wear patterns. The outline of the tip-end break surface is almost circular.

Artifact-Form Descriptions

77

Dimensions: length, 2.8 cm (estimated); width, 2.7 cm; thickness, .8 cm. UNIQUE BIFACE, UNIT 1-2 (Form: 71; Figure: 24) Description. This is a small, thinned biface, T-shaped in outline, resembling somewhat the Small, Stemmed Scrapers (Form 62), also of Unit 1-2, except that it is thinner, with thinning flake scars covering both surfaces. The artifact is roughly lenticular in cross section and curves along the long axis of the stem of the T. The edge opposite the stem is convex and edge-crushed and polished. Dimensions: length, 2.2 cm; width, 2.2 cm; thickness, .6 cm. UNIQUE BIFACE, UNIT 1-2 (Form: 72; Figure: 24) Description. The artifact in this category resembles the Crescents (Form 59) of Unit 1-2, except that it is square in outline with rounded corners and lacks the fine, parallel flaking. Relatively broad, thinning-flake scars cover both surfaces, randomly directed from the entire periphery. The specimen is plano-convex in cross section; edge wear is minor. Dimensions: length, 2.6 cm; width, 2.5 cm; thickness, .3 cm. UNIQUE BIFACE, UNIT 1-2 (Form: 73; Figure: 24) Description. This is a small biface, ovoid, one-pointed in outline, and roughly lenticular in cross section. A thick cross section suggests a function of drill, but the tip shows only minor wear and is irregularly shaped. Possibly the tip broke off and an attempt was made to reform it. Dimensions: length, 2.7 cm; width, 2.0 cm; thickness, .5 cm. UNIQUE BIFACE, UNIT 4 (Form: 74; Figure: 25) Description. This unique tabular artifact can be described as having a unifacially prepared, bifacially flaked edge. From a tabular

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

chunk of chert, a massive flake was removed from each of two contiguous faces, each flake scar practically covering an entire face. The scars meet at about 90 degrees to form a slightly convex edge. Part of this edge was then unifacially prepared, with fine, parallel scars extending onto one of the broad scar surfaces about one-fourth the length of the edge (prepared-portion length = 1 . 0 cm). The unifacially prepared edge section was then crushed. Dimensions: length, 3.4 cm; width, 2.7 cm; thickness, 2.0 cm. UNIQUE BIFACE, UNIT 5 (Form: 75; Figure: 25) Description. Best termed a small, amorphous drill, the specimen is bifacially flaked around two-thirds of its elongated periphery. Three edge sections converge to a narrow, possibly unprepared tip; all are slightly edge crushed, as is the tip itself, and a function of drill seems likely. Dimensions: length, 4.4 cm; width, 1.6 cm; thickness, 1.0 cm. UNIQUE BIFACE, UNIT 5 (Form: 76; Figure: 25) Description. Conoid shaped, the artifact is unifacially flaked around the periphery of a roughly rectangular-to-ovoid plane surface with the flake scars converging toward a point below the surface center. The plane surface itself had two very broad and thick flakes removed from it, apparently prior to serving as a platform. The artifact probably was a core with a prepared platform. After being used for the production of flakes, the artifact apparently was prepared as an edge tool: several projections and a straight edge section were prepared on the already broadly serrated edge. Maximum dimension: 3.9 cm. UNIQUE BIFACE, UNIT 5 (Form: 77; Figure: 25) Description. Roughly rectangular in outline, this appears to be a modified flake (or part of a large blade) removed from a prismatic core. Three long, parallel flake scars in line with the longitudinal axis extend the length of one face, and thinning-flake scars extend across the opposite face, parallel to the transverse axis. One end is thick in cross section; the opposite tapers to a convex edge, one half of which

Artifact-Form Descriptions

79

is dulled and polished. The artifact is considered a finished end tool. Dimensions: length, 4.2 cm; width, 2.7 cm; thickness, .9 cm. UNIQUE BIFACE, UPPER UNIT 6 (Form: 78; Figure: 25) Description. This artifact is a large, amorphous biface, roughly triangular in outline. It manifests a unifacially flaked, pointed end that is lenticular in cross section and an irregularly shaped, wide base, with a periphery that is bifacially flaked for the most part. Edge wear is minor. (Edge-wear descriptive terms are defined at the beginning of this chapter.) Dimensions: length, 6.3 cm; width, 5.5 cm; thickness, 1.6 cm. UNIQUE BIFACE, UPPER UNIT 6 (Form: 79; Figure: 25) Description. This is an elongated, point-sized biface, very thickly lenticular in cross section. It may be a small gouge, as the basal edge is straight, and a narrow basal surface is situated at a 45-degree angle to, and is unifacially flaked from, the longer face (platform). The basal edge is edge-crushed in the vicinity of both corners; the tip end is missing. Dimensions: length (estimated), 4.2 cm; width, 2.0 cm; thickness, 1.2 cm. UNIQUE BIFACE, UPPER UNIT 6 (Form: 80; Figure: 22B) Description. This large biface is thin, broadly ovoid in outline, and roughly plano-convex in cross section. The artifact is bifacially flaked along 80 percent of its periphery. The edge is jagged and sinuous; edge wear is minor, although the entire convex face is slightly polished. Maximum dimension: 4.6 cm. UNIQUE BIFACE, LOWER UNIT 6 (Form 81; Figure: 25) Description. This elongated biface in outline is lanceolate with a straight base; the cross section is triangular to plano-convex. The broadest surface is, for the most part, a cortex plane, which served as a platform for unifacial flaking on 80 percent of its periphery. Thick and triangular in cross section at the transverse axis, the artifact

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

tapers toward the plane surface at both ends to become plano-convex near the extremities. At the pointed end, two short, straight edge sections, bifacially prepared, meet at a broad angle. Both edge sections (.5 and .7 cm long) are edge-crushed and polished. Dimensions: length, 5.5 cm; width, 2.3 cm; thickness, 1.5 cm. UNIQUE BIFACE, LOWER UNIT 6 (Form: 82; Figure: 22B) Description. Slightly resembling the other unique biface of lower Unit 6 (Form 81), this artifact is triangular in outline and flatly plano-convex in cross section. Broad, thinning-flake scars cover the convex surface, the flakes removed from 85 percent of the planeplatform periphery. Near one end, which terminates as a short, straight edge, the cross section is thick. The artifact tapers more at the opposite working end, where two short, convex edge sections, meeting at an angle, are edge-crushed and polished. Dimensions: length, 3.4 cm; width, 3.4 cm; thickness, .9 cm. BIFACES, RESIDUAL CATEGORY (Form: 83; Number Collected: 10, 1 from Unit 1-2, 1 from Unit 3, 2 from Unit 4, 2 from Unit 5, 3 from Unit 6, and 1 other) Description. Most of these bifacially flaked fragments evidence edge wear on one or more bifacially prepared projections. Weights range from 7 to 23 grams and average 13.1 grams. NONDESCRIPT, THINNED-BIFACE FRAGMENTS (Form: 84; Number Collected: 24, 11 from Unit 1-2, 1 from Unit 3, 3 from Unit 4, 4 from Unit 5, 1 from Unit 6, and 4 others) Description. Weights range from .5 to 6 grams and average 2.4 grams. FRAGMENTS OF ARTIFACTS WITH AT LEAST ONE BIFACIALLY FLAKED EDGE (Form: 85; Number Collected: 8, 1 from Unit 1-2, 2 from Unit 3, 2 from Unit 5, and 3 from Unit 6) Description. These small artifact fragments have a single bifacially flaked edge interrupted by a break surface or a surface produced by a single flake removal, at one or both ends. No fragment

Artifact-Form Descriptions

81

evidenced more than minor edge wear. Weights range from 1 to 5 grams. OTHER BIFACES, SUMMARY Other Bifaces of Unit 1-2 differ radically from those of other units. Most are small, regularly formed, thin bifaces, the majority being Crescents (Form 59), Unfinished Crescents (Form 60), and Crescent Fragments (Form 61). These plus other small biface forms (Micropoints, Form 57; Small, Stemmed Scrapers, Form 62) are limited to the Unit 1-2 component. Unit 3 has very few bifaces; apart from Points and Large Points, only eight whole bifaces were excavated from the unit. Units 4, 5, and 6 have the same general range of Other Biface forms in roughly the same proportions, although, within these units, several individual forms cluster in one or two contiguous units (Table 1). The two Biface Gouges (Form 64) are from Units 5 and 6; most Tabular Plane Bifaces (Form 67) are from Unit 6; and fifteen of the twenty-two Continuous and Discontinuous Edge Bifaces (Forms 65 and 66) were excavated from Units 4 and 5. Plane Unifaces INTRODUCTION Plane Unifaces have two uniting characteristics: (1) a unifacially prepared tool edge that (2) is positioned on the periphery of a large plane surface, which functions as the striking platform for edge preparation. Plane Unifaces were divided initially into Tabular Plane Unifaces (Forms 86-94) and Nontabular Plane Unifaces (Forms 9 5 98). Tabular Plane Unifaces have two plane, parallel surfaces, and are usually trapezoidal- to parallelogram-shaped in cross section (in any direction through the planes). One plane, and occasionally both planes (see Form 94), have prepared edges with flakes removed unifacially. Nontabular Plane Unifaces may have more than one plane surface, with one or more of these serving as platform for a prepared edge, but no two planes are parallel. To discuss Tabular Plane Unifaces further, it is necessary to define several additional terms (Fig. 38B). Usually only one of the parallel planes is a prepared edge platform. Such a surface is referred to as the platform-plane, while the parallel surface is called the upperplane. (In case both parallel planes are platforms for prepared edges,

82

The Archaeology of La Calsada

the larger is designated the platform-plane, the smaller, the upperplane.) When the platform-plane is referred to as a platform specifically, it is designated the plane-platform. Surfaces between the two planes are referred to as peripheral surfaces. Tabular Plane Unifaces are divided into Simple, Tabular Plane Unifaces (Forms 86-89) and Complex, Tabular Plane Unifaces (Forms 90-93). The former are naturally occurring prismatic chunks of chert flaked only from the plane-platform on one or two prepared edge sections. Complex, Tabular Plane Unifaces have prepared edges on the plane-platform. They are complex in that an additional prepared edge is located on an upper-plane or peripheral-surface platform, or else the complexity is due to nonedge preparation flaking with scars on one or both parallel planes and/or the peripheral surfaces. SIMPLE, TABULAR PLANE UNIFACES, ONE LONG EDGE PREPARED (Form: 86; Number Collected: 18, 1 from Unit 1-2, 1 from Unit 3, 5 from Unit 5, and 11 from Unit 6; Figure: 26) Description. These tabular chunks are of schistose chert, broken (possibly through frost action) into small, prismatic spalls, which vary from trapezoidal to rectangular in both cross section and outline. Flaked unifacially along one long edge of the plane-platform, the resultant tool edge is generally straight. Edge preparation is through broad, parallel flaking and occasionally limited, fine retouch. Ten specimens show evidence of minor prepared edge wear; the others show evidence of fine hinge flaking or edge crushing. One artifact has a unifacially prepared projection adjacent the long prepared edge. Maximum overall lengths and widths for Plane Unifaces were measured parallel to, and maximum thicknesses perpendicular to, the platform-planes. For Form 86 artifacts, ranges are 2.9 to 6.5 cm, 1.9 to 3.8 cm, and .6 to 2.3 cm, respectively. SIMPLE, TABULAR PLANE UNIFACES, ONE SHORT EDGE PREPARED (Form: 87; Number Collected: 23, 2 from Unit 1-2, 2 from Unit 4, 8 from Unit 5, 8 from Unit 6, and 3 others; Figures: 26, 37A) Description. For this form, naturally occurring prismatic spalls, similar to those of Form 86, are unifacially prepared across one end

Artifact-Form Descriptions

83

of the plane-platform; most prepared edges are straight. Eight artifacts have distinct projections extending from their prepared edges (up to 3 mm), and most of these have been pressure-flaked and polished, probably through use. As for Form 86, edge preparation consisted of broad, parallel flaking, followed, in some cases, by what may have been pressure retouch. Twelve artifacts evidence minor wear on the prepared edges; the remaining are mostly edge-crushed. Dimensions: lengths, 1.9 to 6.9 cm; widths, 1.0 to 4.9 cm; thicknesses, .7 to 2.7 cm. SIMPLE, TABULAR PLANE UNIFACES, PREPARED AROUND LARGE PART OF PERIPHERY (Form: 88; Number Collected: 14, 1 from Unit 3, 2 from Unit 4, 2 from Unit 5, 8 from Unit 6, and 1 other; Figure: 26) Description. Resembling artifacts of Forms 86 and 87 in size, shape, and flaking, five specimens have rectangular platform-plane outlines and are flaked across one end and along all or an adjacent portion of one long edge. The remaining artifacts have the same foursided cross section, but platform-plane outlines are more irregular; the planes are flaked on 25 to 80 percent of their peripheries. Two artifacts in this category have prepared projections at one end of the prepared edge. Edge crushing occurs on most prepared edges; the others have minor wear, polishing, or fine hinge flaking. Dimensions: lengths, 2.9 to 5.3 cm; widths, 1.8 to 4.2 cm; thicknesses, 1.0 to 2.8 cm. SIMPLE, TABULAR PLANE UNIFACES, TWO SEPARATE PREPARED EDGE SECTIONS (Form: 89; Number Collected: 4, 1 from Unit 1-2, 1 from Unit 4, 1 from Unit 5, and 1 from Unit 6; Figure: 26) Description. Artifacts of this category were flaked unifacially from the plane-platform on two separate edge sections. All on prismatic spalls, two of the artifacts have rectangular and two have irregular platform-plane outlines. Two specimens (No. 271, No. 350) have two straight, unifacially prepared edges on opposite sides of the platform-plane periphery; one artifact (No. 803) has a single prepared edge and a unifacially prepared projection opposite. The last artifact (No. 585) has two opposed, unifacially flaked edges, which probably were not prepared; the artifact is interpreted to be a core.

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

Edge wear on all flaked edges is minor or edge crushed. Dimensions: lengths, 3.4 to 4.8 cm; widths, 2.6 to 7.5 cm; thicknesses, 1.0 to 1.5 cm. COMPLEX, TABULAR PLANE UNIFACES, MULTIDIRECTIONAL FLAKING OF PERIPHERAL SURFACES (Form: 90; Number Collected: 5, 1 from Unit 3, 1 from Unit 5, and 3 from Unit 6; Figure: 27) Description. In platform-plane outline, three artifacts are roughly rectangular; one, square; and one, ovoid. All artifacts are tabular and have a unifacially prepared edge on the plane-platform. In addition, these artifacts show several additional flake scars on the peripheral surfaces, with the flakes removed from a platform other than the plane-platform. For four artifacts, these flakes were removed with the upper-plane serving as platform. For the last, a single flake was removed from a peripheral surface, its platform being an adjacent peripheral surface. Prepared edges vary from straight to convex, and all show more than minor wear (fine hinge flaking and/or edge crushing). Dimensions: lengths, 2.7 to 4.1 cm; widths, 2.0 to 3.1 cm; thicknesses, .9 to 1.4 cm. COMPLEX, TABULAR PLANE UNIFACES, UPPER-PLANE FLAKED (Form: 91; Number Collected: 6 from Unit 6; Figure: 27) Description. These are tabular artifacts with a unifacially prepared edge on the plane-platform and one or two broad flake scars on the upper-plane. For all but one artifact, these upper-plane flakes were removed with a nonflaked section (nonadjacent to a prepared edge) of the periphery as striking platform. On the exception, the striking-platform surface was removed by subsequent flaking from the plane-platform. Platform-plane outlines vary from roughly rectangular (one specimen) to triangular (three) to plano-convex (one) and to roughly circular (one). Prepared edges tend to be irregular in outline, and four are edge crushed. One prepared edge has a prepared projection at one end. Dimensions: lengths, 3.0 to 5.0 cm; widths, 2.6 to 3.1 cm; thicknesses, .7 to 2.1 cm.

Artifact-Form Descriptions

85

COMPLEX, TABULAR PLANE UNIFACE, UPPER-PLANE FLAKED, MULTIDIRECTIONAL FLAKING OF PERIPHERAL SURFACES (Form: 92; Number Collected: 1 from Unit 1-2; Figure: 27) Description. This roughly tabular artifact is square in platformplane outline and roughly trapezoidal in cross section; the single prepared edge on the plane-platform is convex and edge-crushed. One large flake scar crosses the upper-plane, and one broad flake has been removed from an upper-plane platform, the scar situated on a peripheral surface. Dimensions: length, 3.7 cm; width, 3.0 cm; thickness, 1.4 cm. COMPLEX, TABULAR PLANE UNIFACE, PLATFORM-PLANE FLAKED, MULTIDIRECTIONAL FLAKING OF PERIPHERAL SURFACES (Form: 93; Number Collected: 1 from Unit 5; Figure: 27) Description. This small, tabular artifact, rectangular in platformplane outline, is prepared across one end of the plane-platform. A single broad flake scar occurs, extending plane to plane, on each lateral, peripheral surface (both flakes removed from an upper-plane platform), and a single flake scar occurs on the platform-plane. The last, located parallel to and intersecting the unifacially prepared edge, may represent an attempt to sharpen it. The convex prepared edge is edge-crushed. Dimensions: length, 3.1 cm; width, 1.7 cm; thickness, 1.0 cm. COMPLEX, TABULAR PLANE UNIFACES, PREPARED ON TWO PLANES (Form: 94; Number Collected: 6, 1 from Unit 4, 3 from Unit 5, and 2 from Unit 6; Figure: 27) Description. Each artifact has one prepared edge on the planeplatform and a second with another plane surface providing the platform. Platform-plane outlines are roughly triangular (one artifact), roughly rectangular (three), square (one), or ovoid (one). For three artifacts, the upper-plane is platform for the second prepared edge; for two, a lateral peripheral surface provides the platform. The sixth specimen (No. 650) is unique in that a regularly convex prepared edge extends around half the joint perimeter of two adjacent plane

86

The Archaeology of La Calsada

surfaces (which served as platforms). One is the platform-plane; the other forms an obtuse angle with this plane and an acute angle with the upper-plane. Prepared edges are generally straight; wear varies from minor to fine hinge flaking. Dimensions: lengths, 2.5 to 4.2 cm; widths, 1.2 to 3.8 cm; thicknesses, .7 to 1.2 cm. NONTABULAR PLANE UNIFACES, RIDGEBACKED (Form: 95; Number Collected: 10, 2 from Unit 5 and 8 from Unit 6; Figure: 28) Description. One artifact is roughly rectangular, the rest are ovoid in platform-plane outline, and cross sections vary from triangular to plano-convex. Scars of flakes removed from the planeplatform extend onto the upper surfaces to form a ridge, roughly over the longitudinal axis of each specimen. Artifacts were flaked from the plane-platform on 50 to 100 percent of the periphery. Three artifacts have planes bearing a few random, broad flake scars, the flaking accomplished prior to edge preparation. In general, scars on the upper surfaces are broad and only roughly parallel; finer, secondary flaking tends to be limited to the artifact ends. Most prepared edge sections are convex, and most evidence more than minor wear. Dimensions: lengths, 2.2 to 6.4 cm; widths, 2.0 to 4.7 cm; thicknesses, .8 to 2.3 cm. NONTABULAR PLANE UNIFACES, DOMED (Form: 96; Number Collected: 7, 1 from Unit 3, 1 from Unit 5, 3 from Unit 6, and 2 others; Figure: 29) Description. Each artifact has only a single plane surface, which is unifacially flaked as a platform around its entire periphery. For all but one, long flake scars extend from the continuous prepared edge onto the upper surface to a point over the center of the plane. The artifacts are or appear to have been ovoid in plane outline and domed or plano-convex in cross section. Only one specimen is complete; the rest appear broken, with from one-half to three-fourths of each missing. Three artifacts possibly never were ovoid in plane outline; two of these have uneven cross sections with most flake scars extending only a short way from the plane periphery. Prepared edge sections are all convex; edge wear varies from minor to edge crush-

Artifact-Form Descriptions

87

ing and/or fine hinge flaking. Dimensions: lengths, 2.6 to 4.9 cm; widths, 2.2 to 4.1 cm; thicknesses, 1.1 to 2.3 cm. NONTABULAR PLANE UNIFACES, IRREGULAR (Form: 97; Number Collected: 10, 3 from Unit 3, 2 from Unit 4, 1 from Unit 5, and 4 from Unit 6; Figure: 29) Description. Having a single prepared edge on a plane-platform, these artifacts are rectangular to irregular in plane outline and triangular to irregular in cross section. In all cases, planes appear to be natural break surfaces, although one bears two short flake scars removed from the flaked peripheral surface. Most prepared edges are straight, although others are convex, concave, and irregular; all but one show more than minor edge wear. Dimensions: lengths, 2.7 to 6.0 cm; widths, 2.3 to 4.7 cm; thicknesses, 1.6 to 3.0 cm. NONTABULAR PLANE UNIFACE, GOUGELIKE (Form: 98; Number Collected: 1 from Unit 5; Figure: 29) Description. This small, nontabular plane uniface is unifacially flaked from a plane-platform around its periphery. The platformplane outline is triangular to semicircular; the cross section is planoconvex. The single prepared, straight edge is edge-crushed, and two flake scars, running parallel to and intersecting this edge on the platform-plane, indicate that it was resharpened. Dimensions: length, 3.4 cm; width, 3.2 cm; thickness, 1.2 cm. PLANE UNIFACES, SUMMARY Plane Unifaces were concentrated in Units 5 and 6, with the highest frequencies for almost all forms occurring in Unit 6. Units 4, 5, and 6 show similar distributions: for each, Simple, Tabular Plane Unifaces were most common and Complex, Tabular Plane Unifaces and Nontabular Plane Unifaces tended to be present in equal numbers. Plane Uniface functions are considered below (Chapter 5).

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

Other Unifaces and Uniface Fragments FLAKES WITH UNIFACIALLY PREPARED EDGE(S) AND/OR UNIFACIALLY PREPARED PROJECTION(S) (Form: 99; Number Collected: 75, 8 from Unit 1-2, 3 from Unit 3, 9 from Unit 4, 31 from Unit 5, 14 from Unit 6, and 10 others; Figures: 29, 30) Description. These artifacts are all variously shaped flakes with one or more unifacially prepared edges and/or a unifacially prepared projection(s). Most have only a single prepared edge section; many, however, have both a prepared edge and projection, or two prepared edge sections, or a single prepared projection; a few have one or two projections in combination with one or two prepared edges. Prepared edges vary in outline. Most have minor wear, others are edgecrushed, a few are polished, and one evidences fine hinge flaking. Weights range from 1 to 22 grams, except for two more than 40 grams, and average 8.2 grams. FLAKE UNIFACES, DOMED (Form: 100; Number Collected: 2, 1 from Unit 4 and 1 from Unit 6; Figure: 30) Description. Thick flakes, these two artifacts are roughly planoconvex in cross section, with the plano surfaces constituting the interior (bulb) surfaces of the parent flakes. Each was flaked from this plane-platform around most of its periphery, the flake scars converging over the plane center to produce a domed shape. The long, convex, prepared edge of each is polished. Weights are 10 and 25 grams. FLAKE UNIFACE, RIDGEBACKED (Form: 101; Number Collected: 1 from Unit 6; Figure: 30) Description. This thick flake is roughly triangular in cross section and roughly ovoid in outline. A plane-platform (the interior surface of the parent flake), was flaked around 80 percent of its periphery with the resulting scars tending to meet at a ridge on the flake's longitudinal axis. One straight prepared edge section is edge-crushed. Weight: 21 grams.

Artifact-Form Descriptions

89

UNIQUE FLAKE UNIFACE, UNIT 1-2 (Form: 102; Figure: 36B) Description. This may be an unfinished Micropoint (Form 57), but edge wear suggests it is a finished tool. In its present form, it is a small prismatic blade, triangular in cross section. The outline is lanceolate (leaf shaped), produced by unifacial flaking. Short, edgeshaping flake scars extend from the plane-platform (the blade interior surface) on 85 percent of its periphery. Both long edges of the plane-platform were steeply flaked, and both were subsequently edge-crushed. Both upper surfaces of the artifact (i.e., the nonplatform-plane surfaces) are polished. Dimensions: length, 2.9 cm; width, .9 cm; thickness, .3 cm. UNIQUE FLAKE UNIFACE, UNIT 3 (Form: 103; Figure: 30) Description. This is a large percussion flake, in turn percussion flaked around the periphery from the interior (bulb) surface platform. The artifact is roughly plano-convex in cross section. Edge wear was not discerned, possibly because of heavy patination. Weight: 54 grams. IRREGULAR SPALLS WITH ONE NARROWLY CONVEX PREPARED EDGE (Form: 104; Number Collected: 7, 1 from Unit 4, 2 from Unit 5, 3 from Unit 6, and 1 other; Figures: 30, 31) Description. The artifacts are irregularly shaped spalls worked from a roughly plane-surface platform across one end. The prepared edge is narrowly convex in outline. All prepared edges evidence minor wear. Weights: 2 to 16 grams. IRREGULAR SPALLS WITH ONE NARROWLY CONCAVE PREPARED EDGE (Form: 105; Number Collected: 13, 3 from Unit 3, 4 from Unit 4, 3 from Unit 5, and 3 from Unit 6; Figure: 31) Description. Most of these are irregularly shaped spalls of chert with a short concavity formed on an edge by removal of a single

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

flake. Two artifacts have a short concave edge prepared by removing more than one flake. Indications are that all were used. For most, the concave portion is edge-crushed or finely hinge flaked; the remaining few are finely pressure flaked. The artifacts may have functioned as spoke shaves. Weights: 6 to 25 grams; average, 13.1 grams. OTHER IRREGULAR SPALLS WITH UNIFACIALLY PREPARED EDGE(S) AND/OR PROJECTION(S) (Form: 106; Number Collected: 75, 7 from Unit 1-2, 2 from Unit 3, 8 from Unit 4, 28 from Unit 5, 19 from Unit 6, and 11 others; Figures: 31, 37B) Description. Most of these irregular spalls have one or two unifacially prepared edges, broadly convex to straight to broadly concave in outline. The rest have a unifacially prepared projection, or one or two projections in combination with one or two prepared edges. Edge wear in order of decreasing frequency is minor, edgecrushing, polishing, and fine hinge flaking. Weights: 1 to 73 grams; average, 9.4 grams. IRREGULAR SPALLS WITH A UNIFACIALLY FLAKED EDGE (Form: 107; Number Collected: 22, 2 from Unit 1-2, 7 from Unit 4, 6 from Unit 5, 3 from Unit 6, and 4 others) Description. This is a residual category of nondescript spalls. The artifacts are unifacially flaked on one edge, but the flaking is so minor or the edge so irregular that the designation "prepared edge" is not applicable. Edge wear is minor. Weights: 2 to 45 grams; average, 15.9 grams. FRAGMENTS OF UNIFACES WITH ONE PREPARED EDGE (Form: 108; Number Collected: 30, 3 from Unit 1-2, 3 from Unit 3, 12 from Unit 5, 10 from Unit 6, and 2 others) Description. These are fragments of Flake, Plane, or IrregularSpall Unifaces evidencing at least one unifacially prepared edge. On each, the prepared edge is interrupted at one or both ends by a break or flake-scar surface, indicating that each small fragment broke or was struck from a longer unifacially prepared edge. Weights: 1 to 11 grams; average, 3.5 grams.

Artifact-Form Descriptions

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OTHER UNIFACES, SUMMARY Flake and Irregular-Spall Unifaces were concentrated in Units 4, 5, and 6 and were most frequent in Unit 5. Flake Unifaces (Forms 99-102), apart from attributes discussed below in Chapter 5, were described in terms of the position of the prepared edge(s) relative to the striking platform and the flake surface (interior, bulbar vs. exterior), which served as platforms for edge preparation. The findings are summarized in Table 3. Lateral edges are those perpendicular to the striking platform; bottom edges are opposite and parallel to the striking platform; top edges are the striking platform. Table 3 indicates no predominant tool form for any unit, nor do any interunit shifts appear significant. The most frequent form for all units is the flake uniface with a lateral edge prepared from the interior surface. Other Stone Artifacts FLAKES WITH WORN EDGES AND/OR PROJECTIONS (Form: 109; Number Collected: 37, 6 from Unit 1-2, 10 from Unit 3, 6 from Unit 4, 6 from Unit 5, 5 from Unit 6, and 4 others) Description. These flakes or flake fragments have one or more nonflaked worn edges and/or one or more naturally occurring projections showing signs of wear. Most worn edges are straight, and edge wear for most is minor. Weights: 1 to 20 grams; average, 4.5 grams. IRREGULAR SPALLS WITH WORN EDGES AND/OR PROJECTIONS (Form: 110; Number Collected: 48, 8 from Unit 1-2, 6 from Unit 3, 8 from Unit 4, 14 from Unit 5, 10 from Unit 6, and 2 others) Description. These irregular spalls have one or more nonprepared worn edges and/or a worn, naturally occurring projection. Most worn edges are straight; edge wear for most is minor. Weights: 1 to 82 grams; average, 11.6 grams. MULTIFACE CORES (Form: 111; Number Collected: 10, 1 from Unit 1-2, 2 from Unit 3, 2 from Unit 4, 3 from Unit 5, and 2 from Unit 6; Figure: 31) Description. These irregularly shaped, multifaced artifacts are flaked on at least two edges, unifacially and/or bifacially. Flake scars

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Table 3 Prepared Edges, Distribution by Unit and Location for Flake Unifaces, Forms 99-102 Location and Platform for Preparation

1--2 #

Lateral edge, prepared from interior surface 5 platform Top edge, prepared from interior surface 1 platform Bottom edge, prepared from interior surface platform — Lateral edge, prepared from exterior surface 2 platform Top edge, prepared from exterior surface 2 platform Bottom edge, prepared from exterior surface platform — Other Total

10

3

Unit 4 # %

%

#

%

50

—

—

6

10

—

—

—

1

20

3

6

5 #

%

60

16

43

7

37

1

10

—

—

1

5

20

2

20

8

22

4

21

60

1

10

3

8

3

16

1

5

20

#

%

—

1

20

—

—

1 9

3 24

— 3

— 16

100

5

100

10

100

37

100

19

100

cover at least three surfaces, and flaked edges vary from relatively short to almost continuous around the artifact. These specimens are termed "cores" because of a lack of edge wear. Also, as most flake scars extend across an entire surface, it seems the artisans sought to remove the largest flakes possible. The artifacts are too thick and irregularly shaped to be considered unfinished, thinned bifaces. Weights: 8 to 65 grams; average, 31.3 grams.

Artifact-Form Descriptions

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NARROW MULTIFACES (Form: 112; Number Collected: 8, 2 from Unit 1-2, 1 from Unit 4, and 5 from Unit 5; Figure: 32) Description. While there is substantial form variation, the artifacts have in common triangular cross sections and in most cases an elongated outline. All artifacts bear flake scars on all three lateral or long surfaces. Three specimens have a fourth end surface (flaked) and are triangular in outline. One of these may be a crude or unfinished point; the others evidence only minor wear and may be small, multifaced cores. Two artifacts are lanceolate (leaf shaped) in outline, and one end of one consists of a worn projection. Two specimens have one end pointed and the other broken off. Finally, a last artifact has a somewhat irregular outline with roughly convex ends. Dimensions: lengths, 1.9 to 4.9 cm; widths, 1.2 to 2.1 cm; thicknesses, .8 to 1.2 cm. NONTABULAR PLANE UNIFACE-BIFACES (Form: 113; Number Collected: 3, 1 from Unit 5 and 2 from Unit 6; Figure: 32) Description. These are nontabular plane unifaces with a bifacially flaked edge (in addition to the unifacially flaked edge). The single plane surface is the platform-plane for the unifacially prepared edge. The single, bifacially prepared edge is located opposite this edge on what would be the upper-plane edge of a tabular plane uniface. Weights: 25 to 37 grams. LIMESTONE ARTIFACTS (Form: 114; Number Collected: 10, 1 from Unit 1-2, 2 from Unit 3, 1 from Unit 4, 4 from Unit 5, and 2 others; Figures: 32, 33) Description. The following weathered limestone fragments were catalogued as possible artifacts. The material is soft and the specimens are large and amorphous. Any similar talus slope without archaeological material might produce similarly shaped spalls, given the systematic searching employed at La Calsada. Whatever the case, these are briefly described. Two fragments may be large pointed bifaces (bifacially flaked over both surfaces). There are what appear to be two smaller, pointed bifaces and a possible ovoid biface. Most puzzling are a number of what look like very large limestone plane

94

The Archaeology of La Calsada

unifaces. They could well occur naturally, but these were consistently found at the site only in upper Unit 1-2, and the catalogued specimens may be artifacts. (Two specimens from surface collections are recorded here; the others were not available for study.) A thin slab apparently has a smoothed or ground edge, and, finally, a small fragment has a possibly ground concave edge. Weights: 4 to 324 grams. OBSIDIAN FLAKES (Form: 115; Number Collected: 2, 1 from Unit 5 and 1 from Unit 6) MANOS AND MANO FRAGMENTS (Form: 116; Number Collected: 13, 8 from Unit 1-2, 3 from Unit 3, and 2 others) Description. These are small sandstone manos and mano fragments, round to ovoid and pecked and ground on one surface only. They were not available for detailed study. Discussion. It is interesting that food-grinding stones occur no earlier at La Calsada than Unit 3 times; their ultimate antiquity in Northeast Mexico remains unknown. They do not occur in the Sierra de Tamaulipas sequence until the Nogales phase, or until 5000-3000 B.c. (MacNeish 1958: 88-91), nor were they found at the San Isidro site (Epstein 1969). Manos were common throughout Cueva de la Zona deposits dating after 2800 B.C. (McClurkan 1980: 61). HEMATITE CHUNKS (Form: 117; Number Collected: 2, 1 from Unit 5 and 1 from Unit 6) Description. Two small chunks of hematite were excavated. QUARTZ CRYSTALS (Form: 118; Number Collected: 14, 1 from Unit 4, 8 from Unit 5, 3 from Unit 6, and 2 others) Description. These are unmodified quartz crystals, less than 5 cm in maximum dimension. Ten of the crystals may have been brought to the site at roughly the same time; all were excavated from lower Unit 5 or a level of Unit 6 in part contiguous to Unit 5 deposits.

Artifact-Form Descriptions

95

CALCITE CRYSTALS (Form: 119; Number Collected: 4, 2 from Unit 1-2, 1 from Unit 3, and 1 from Unit 4) Description. These are small calcite crystals with a maximum dimension of less than 5 cm and unmodified by human activity. An outcrop of the material is located about a mile from the site. (The calcite from this deposit is high-grade and was once mined commercially.) Nonstone Artifacts MUSSEL-SHELL FRAGMENT (Form: 120; Number Collected: 1, unit unknown) Description. The single shell fragment from the site is a freshwater mussel-shell fragment, knocked out of the original shell but otherwise unmodified. BONE BEAD (Form: 121; Number Collected: 1 from Unit 6) Description. The only bone artifact recovered is a polished, tubular bone bead, cut from a bone shaft by circular incising at both ends. Dimensions: length, 1.6 cm; diameter, .6 cm. METAL BUTTON (Form: 122; Number Collected: 1 from Unit 1-2) Description. The only historic artifact from the site is a small brass or bronze button with what is probably an iron-wire eye soldered to the back. The button is circular in outline and concavoconvex in cross section; no mold seam or plug is visible. It resembles several illustrated by Olsen (1963: Fig. 1), but is identical to none of them. Dimensions: diameter, 1.4 cm.

5 Artifact-Form and Attribute Distributions

Artifact-Form Distributions In this section, major trends in artifact-form distribution at La Calsada are reviewed. First, there is a general, proportional increase in bifaces through time, with a marked shift between Units 3 and 1-2 from 56.1 to 84.6 percent (see Biface totals, Table 4). Unit 5 has the largest relative frequency of Large Bifaces (Forms 63-76); Unit 4, the largest proportion of Flake Bifaces (Form 68); and Unit 3, the greatest proportion of Points and Large Knives (Forms 1-38; 44-46). In addition to Arrow Points, Unit 1-2 contains substantial percentages of other thinned-biface forms (57-62), which are virtually limited to that deposit. To briefly summarize point distributions, Unit 6 points are mainly of three general forms: small (to 4.1 cm long) lanceolate, both straight-based and bipointed; small diamond, both slightly stemmed and nonstemmed; and larger, crudely formed and stemmed. Unit 5 points are mostly lanceolate (bipointed) or stemmed; Lerma points are larger than similarly formed specimens from Unit 6. Four of the five indented-base points from the site are from lower Unit 5; the last is from upper Unit 6. Other Unit 5 points include a variety of mostly small, stemmed points, one small ovoid, and one small triangular point. One Lerma point was excavated from Unit 4. Other Unit 4 points are generally small and stemmed, and except for Parallel, Lateral-Edge Stem Points (Form 30), have no antecedents in Unit 5. A single Palmillas point was excavated from Unit 4. Side-notched,

Artifact-Form and Attribute Distributions

97

large ovoid, and large triangular points are introduced to the sequence in Unit 3. One side-notched point resembles those of the Ensor type. First found in Unit 4, the Palmillas type is represented by two specimens from Unit 3. Unit 1-2 is characterized by SideNotched Points, Double Pair (Form 20), and small triangular points of the Matamoros type. Unifaces show a reverse trend through time, compared to bifaces, and regularly decrease in total percentage from 49.8 in Unit 6 to 7.5 in Unit 1-2 (Table 4). From Units 6 to 5, the more carefully prepared Plane Unifaces (Forms 86-98) decrease markedly, while IrregularSpall Unifaces and Flake Unifaces (Forms 99-107) increase slightly in relative frequency. From Unit 5 to 4, uniface proportions decrease or remain the same except for Irregular-Spall Unifaces, which show an increase, continuing a trend from Unit 6. For the remaining artifacts (Forms 109-122), no apparent trends exist, except that artifacts with nonprepared, worn edges (Forms 109-110) occur in relatively high percentages in only Units 3 and 4.

Attribute Descriptions Many observations were made and recorded by artifact, and this information is presented in tabular form in Nance (1971). Organized by Form and specimen catalogue number, the information comprises a data set that can be reanalyzed in future research. Catalogue numbers will allow assessment of the original observations through reexamination of the artifacts. In addition to Form and catalogue number, the type of each material is recorded for each (black chert, gray chert, or other). If an artifact is illustrated, either in a photograph or line drawing, the figure number is listed next to the specimen catalogue number. For many Forms, generally those containing complete artifacts, lengths, widths, and thicknesses (in tenths of centimeters) and weights (to the nearest gram) are recorded. For others, a single dimension is given (e.g., maximum width), or simply the weight of each artifact. If edge wear that appears to be the result of use was detected, the following data were recorded: the length of the edge, its location relative to the overall specimen morphology, the shape of the edge (straight, convex, concave, or irregular), and the type of edge wear manifested. If an artifact corner or fortuitous projection exhibits wear, those worn projections are described similarly.

Table 4 Artifacts by G e n e r a l F o r m Category a n d Unit General Form Category

Forms

Βifaces Points Point Fragments Large Knives/Preforms Large Knife/Preform Fragments Arrow Points Arrow Point Fragments Small Thinned Bifaces Large Bifaces Flake Bifaces Irregular Spall Bifaces All Other Bifaces

1-38 39-43 44-46 47-48 49-55 56 57-62 63-67 68 69 70-85

Subtotal

Unit 1-2 % # 21 58 2 2 56 31 103 1 3 4 17 298

#

Unit 3 %

#

%

#

%

Unit 6 # %

Unit 5

Unit 4

20 13 6 5

20.4 13.3 6.1 5.1

11 11 5 2

10.4 10.4 4.7 1.9

22 41 4 8

8.3 15.4 1.5 3.0

20 29 3 4

9.2 13.4 1.4 1.8

29.2 .3 .9 1.1 4.8

2 3 — 2 4

2.0 3.1 — 2.0 4.1

4 5 4 6

3.8 4.7 3.8 5.7

15 4 10 11

5.6 1.5 3.8 4.1

9 3 4 12

4.1 1.4 1.8 5.5

84.5

55

56.1

48

45.4

115

43.2

84

38.6

5.9 16.4 .6 .6 15.9 8.8

Unifaces Simple Tabular-Plane Unifaces Complex Tabular-Plane Unifaces Nontabular-Plane Unifaces Flake Unifaces Irregular Spall Unifaces Other Uniface Fragments

86-89 90-94 95-98 99-103 104-107 108

Subtotal Other Artifacts Artifacts with Worn Edges Other Chipped-Stone Artifacts Other Stone Artifacts Nonstone Artifacts Subtotal Unit Total

109-110 111-115 116-119 120-122

4 1 — 9 9 3

1.1 .3 — 2.5 2.5 .9

2 1 4 4 5 3

2.0 1.0 4.1 4.1 5.1 3.1

5 1 2 10 20

4.7 .9 1.9 9.4 18.9

16 5 5 31 39 12

6.0 1.9 1.9 11.7 14.7 4.5

28 11 15 16 28 10

12.9 5.1 6.9 7.4 12.9 4.6

26

7.3

19

19.4

38

35.8

108

40.7

108

49.8

14 4 10 1

4.0 1.1 2.8 .3

16 4 4

16.3 4.1 4.1

14 4 2

13.2 3.8 1.9

20 14 9

7.5 5.3 3.4

15 5 4 1

6.9 2.3 1.8 .5

29

8.2

24

24.5

20

18.9

43

16.2

25

11.5

353

100.0

98

100.0

106

100.1

266

100.1

217

99.9

Note: Due to rounding, percentage totals do not always equal 100.

The Archaeology of La Calsada

100

For those artifacts that appear to have prepared tool edges or projections (i.e., working tool bits) parallel observations are included. Evidence for edge wear was discovered by observing each edge under a low-power (10× to 40×), dissecting-type binocular microscope. The variable, edge wear, was recorded in terms of one or more of the attributes defined above, at the beginning of Chapter 4. Terminology in this discussion follows Cowgill (1982: 31): "I use the term variable to refer to a particular kind of observation on an object, and attribute to refer to a particular value or range of values of a variable. Thus red is an attribute of the variable color, and 6.5 to 7.0 cm is an attribute of the variable length." Attribute Distributions WEIGHTS Table 5 summarizes average weights for six general form categories (including all unifaces and Large, Flake, and Irregular-Spall Bifaces) by unit. For all categories, Unit 5 artifacts average less by weight than those of Unit 6. Average weights fluctuate for Units 3 and

Table 5 Average Artifact Weights by Unit and Selected Form Category, Forms 63-69, 86-107 Unit

3

4

1--2 General Wt. Form Category # (g)

#

Wt. (g)

1 3

16.0 2.7

3 —

25.0 —

4

11.0

2

5

30.2

9

9

Large Bifaces Flake Bifaces IrregularSpall Bifaces Plane Unifaces Flake Unifaces IrregularSpall Unifaces

6

5 Wt. (g)

#

Wt. (g)

4 5

28.5 4.8

15 4

20.5 6.5

9 3

30.6 8.3

9.5

4

12.5

10

8.2

4

10.5

7

34.7

8

36.5

26

22.7

54

31.1

2.8

4

10.5

10

7.0

31

9.1

16

9.8

5.0

5

15.2

20

6.5

39

9.2

28

11.9

#

#

Wt. (g)

Artifact-Form and Attribute Distributions

101

4, but, for Unit 1-2, there are again category decreases for all but Irregular-Spall Bifaces. The general weight decrease for Unit 6 to 5 takes on special significance, as artifact samples for the categories considered are largest for these two units. In order to make an overall assessment of differences between the two units, the following artifacts were taken as most comparable: flakes, tabular pieces of chert, and irregular spalls with bifacially flaked edges (Forms 67-69), Unique Bifaces (Forms 76-83), Tabular Plane Unifaces (Forms 86-94), Nontabular Plane Unifaces (Forms 9 5 98), Flake Unifaces (Forms 99-101), Irregular-Spall Unifaces (Forms 104-106), Used Flakes (Form 109), Used Spalls (Form 110), and Other Chipped-Stone Tools (Forms 111-113). Excluded from the above are all thinned bifaces and thinned-biface fragments, all other artifacts that are clearly tool fragments, and artifacts that show only random, irregular flaking and no edge wear. Average artifact weights were then calculated by unit, and artifacts from Unit 5 were found to be lighter than those from Unit 6. The 131 Unit 5 artifacts considered here have an average weight of 12.23 grams, while the 127 tools from Unit 6 average 21.12 grams. The difference between the averages was assessed using the two group pooled t test, and the test was found to be significant (t = 3.09, for 256 d.f., Ρ < .005). This is to say, the probability that the difference between the sample averages could be produced by drawing the samples at random from the same normal population is less than .005. A tendency for lighter artifact use during the Unit 5 occupation can be seen also through changes in artifact-form percentages (Table 4). For unifaces, Plane Unifaces decrease markedly from Unit 6 to 5, while the lighter Irregular-Spall Unifaces and Flake Unifaces show percentage increments. The weight decrease for Unit 1-2 artifacts is consistent with the initial appearance at the site of very light forms such as crescents and arrow points in the same deposit. Average weights of Points and Large Knives were not computed, because so many of these artifacts are fragmentary. However, average overall lengths are considered, including both measured and estimated values where necessary. Table 6 indicates parallel changes for Point and Large Knife average lengths through time. EDGE OUTLINES Prepared-edge outline shapes were recorded for all uniface and some biface forms. While small samples of bifaces and of all artifacts

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102

Table 6 Average Lengths for Points and Large Knives/Preforms by Unit, Forms 1-38,44-46 3

1--2 General Form Category Points Large Knives/ Preforms

Unit 4 L (cm) #

#

L (cm)

#

L (cm)

21

3.2

20

3.8

11

2

4.8

6

4.9

5

5

6

#

L (cm)

#

L (cm)

3.3

22

4.0

20

3.8

4.4

4

5.7

3

4.7

Table 7 Convex, Unifacially Prepared Edges by Unit and General Form Category, Forms 86-107

%

Unit 4 # %

#

%

#

%

2

29

2

25

11

38

23

40

— —

— —

2 3

15 30

12 15

34 41

9 6

38 32

General Form Category

1-2 #a %b

#

Plane Unifaces Irregular-Spall Unifaces Flake Unifaces

2

33

3 1

38 10

a b

3

5

6

Number of convex prepared edges. Percentage of the prepared edges that are convex, per form category and unit.

in the later units obscure the data's significance, one trend was noted: convex, unifacially prepared edges occur in higher percentages for Units 5 and 6 than later units, viewed category by category (with one aberrant value, Table 7). MATERIALS Table 8 presents a summary of the material distributions for chipped-stone artifacts. Relative stability is indicated for Units 6 to 3, with a pronounced shift from Unit 3 to 1-2. Here, black chert, the predominant material until Unit 1-2, times is replaced by gray chert in importance, and this shift in resource utilization may be significant to the prehistory of the area. The gray chert is less schistose and

Artifact-Form and Attribute Distributions

103

Table 8 Chipped-Stone Artifact Materials, Distribution by Unit, Forms 1-115 1--2

Unit 4

3

5

6

#

%

#

%

#

%

#

%

#

%

Black chert Gray chert Brown chert White chert Banded chert Other

74 204 23 10 9 22

22 60 7 3 3 7

45 26 8 — 9 6

48 28 9 — 10 6

56 32 3 1 8 4

54 31 3 1 8 4

138 65 10 11 24 9

54 25 4 4 9 4

102 73 3 4 24 6

48 34 1 2 11 3

Total

342

102

94

101

104

101

257

100

212

99

Material

Note: Due to rounding, percentage totals do not always equal 100.

undoubtedly of better chipping quality. Unit 1-2 occupants either located or had access to new quarries, initiated more-intensive quarrying operations, or else simply were more selective in their choice of materials. The black chert from La Calsada may be the "black marine chert" discussed by Shiner (1985: 316), which he found in outcrops near Linares, Nuevo León. Table 9 summarizes the percentage distributions of the various materials by form category and unit. No significant trends are evident in these data, although future research may produce parallel findings. For example, Unit 5 has a higher percentage of black chert Point Fragments than black chert Points, and conversely lower percentages of gray, brown, and white chert Point Fragments than Points of the same respective materials. The same pattern holds for Unit 4. On the other hand, Units 3 and 6 have lower percentages of black chert Point Fragments than black chert Points, and higher percentages of gray and brown Point Fragments than Points. If most point fragments are the result of breakage during manufacturing, it might be that gray, brown and white chert points were imported to the site area while black chert points were made locally during the Unit 5 and 4 occupations. The different pattern for Units 3 and 6 could be explained in part by the hypothesis that relatively more black chert points were being imported and lost in the deposits than manufactured at the site during the represented periods.

Table 9 C h i p p e d - S t o n e Artifact M a t e r i a l P e r c e n t a g e s b y F o r m Category a n d Unit 1-2 Points Point Fragments Large Knives/Preforms and Fragments Arrow Points Other Bifaces Plane Unifaces Flake Unifaces Irregular-Spall Unifaces Artifacts with Worn Edges Other Chipped Stone Points Point Fragments Large Knives/Preforms and Fragments Arrow Points Other Bifaces Plane Unifaces Flake Unifaces Irregular-Spall Unifaces Artifacts with Worn Edges Other Chipped Stone

19 24 50 15 20 60 44 22 36 29 10 3

3 2 — —

3

Unit 4

5

6

1-2

Black Chert 45 23 60 55 56 46

60 31

43 53

18

14

29

58

55 47 18 71 88 69 58 50 60 55 49 60 57 55 50 58 71 50 White Chert 14 — 9 7 — —

— —

— —

5 8 3

3

Unit 4

Unit 4

5

6

1-2

3

5

6

Gray Chert 20 27 27 38 9 15

20 41

24 14

Brown Chert 5 9 21 8 5 —

— 3

64

25

57

—

—

—

55 32 33 29 13 12 — 40 23 — 40 38 29 13 40 — 25 15 Banded Chert — — — 8 36 17

43 30 13 39 33 47

25 3 4

18

5

3

— — — 14

15 17

— 3

— 40 13 — Other 15 —

— 3 — — — 7 — — Material 9 9 — —

5 10 — — 22

— 25 —

11 — — —

4 10 —

14

29

25

19

57

39 54 56 57 53 47

72 62 20 56 55 57 43

— 7

5 2

18

14

17

14

4 — 6

25 1 2 20 —

9 — 25

7

25

5 — — 5 7

5 8 10 13 5 7

14 15 13 4 7

14

6 — — — 5 —

4 13 — 7 7

105

Artifact-Form and Attribute Distributions

PREPARED PROJECTIONS As indicated by recorded wear patterns (Nance 1971), most features interpreted to be prepared projections probably were formed deliberately and most used as gravers. For many, however, especially those located on the center portion of a prepared edge, this designation is problematical. A fortuitously formed projection on a unifacially or bifacially prepared edge would receive more than average wear if the whole edge were used without regard to the projection, and it seems impossible to separate such a case from one where a graver was deliberately formed to be used separately or in conjunction with the edge. However, the distribution of all "prepared" projections by unit suggests that the great majority were not fortuitous; at least, it would be difficult to explain the pattern revealed in Table 10 except as the result of changing prehistoric cultural intent. Most artifacts with prepared projections fall into four form categories, and for these categories, considered separately, relative frequencies of projections increase from Unit 6 to Unit 5 and decrease from Unit 5 to Unit 4. To view the matter statistically, the same 258 artifacts from Units 5 and 6 that were used to study weight differences were again employed. Table 11 compares artifacts with projections to those without by unit. A higher proportion of Unit 5 artifacts contains one or more

Table 10 Prepared Projections, Distribution by Unit and Form Category, Forms 57-107 Unit General Form Category

1-2 #a Rb

Other Bifaces Plane Unifaces Flake Unifaces Irregular-Spall Unifaces

2 1 6 3

a

3

4

5

6

#

R

#

R

#

R

#

R

.02 .20 .67

2 3 2

.18 .43 .50

7 1 2

.37 .13 .20

17 9 15

.43 .35 .49

3 7 3

.11 .13 .19

.43

—

—

2

.15

11

.33

4

.16

Number of prepared projections per form category and unit. Ratio of the n u m b e r of projections to the total n u m b e r of artifacts per form category and unit.

b

The Archaeology of La Calsada

106

Table 11 Projections by Unit, Unit 5 and 6 Artifacts of Selected Forms Frequency Expected F. Cell Chi2 Unit 5 Artifacts Unit Artifacts Total

6

Artifacts with One or More Projections

Artifacts with No Projections

44 31.48 4.98 18 30.52 5.14 62

87 99.52 1.58 109 96.48 1.62 196

Total 131 127 258

Note: Table chi-square = 13.32, for 1 d.f., Ρ < .001. projections and the difference is significant, using the chi-square test, at the Ρ < .001 level. EDGE WEAR An attempt was made to study temporal changes and continuities for wear patterns on edges and projections. The results of the study, while internally consistent and consistent with other artifact data, must be viewed with caution; this undoubtedly is because of the descriptive techniques employed. Two major problems were confronted: first, the types of wear as defined represent arbitrary divisions of a continuum. Second, wear varied greatly, not only from one artifact to another but usually along a single edge. The descriptive techniques were limited, because no clear criteria were consistently applicable to all edges. Microscopic examination does not allow rapid comparison, so that wear types had to be held in mind while each unique edge was examined and categorized. Of course, these "ideal" types fluctuated slightly from week to week, and there were always borderline cases to deal with. Such a borderline edge might be categorized as edge crushed, or finely hinge flaked, or edge crushed and finely hinge flaked on three different occasions. Edge crushing and fine hinge flaking were the most difficult wear types to differentiate. The most difficult wear type to identify was polishing, and sometimes "polished" edges were overlooked during initial examination and the wear type recorded later.

Artifact-Form and Attribute Distributions

107

Table 12 Polished E d g e s , D i s t r i b u t i o n b y Unit a n d F o r m Category, Forms 57-110

%

Unit 4 # %

#

%

#

%

2 — 1

50 — 20

1 1 1

20 13 10

3 3 4

25 10 11

3 1 1

23 2 5

—

—

—

1

8

6

17

2

8

9

5

29

—

—

1

5

—

—

General Form Category

1-2 #a %b

#

Other Bifaces Plane Unifaces Flake Unifaces Irregular-Spall Unifaces Artifacts with Worn Edges

1 — —

20 — —

— 1

3

5

6

a

Number of polished edges per form category a n d unit. Percentage of prepared edges that are polished (except for Artifacts with Worn Edges), p e r form category a n d unit.

b

Table 13 Finely Hinge-Flaked Edges, Distribution by Unit and Form Category, Forms 57-110 General Form Category Other Bifaces Plane Unifaces Flake Unifaces Irregular-Spall Unifaces Artifacts with Worn Edges a

1-2 #a %b

3 #

%

Unit 4 # %

5

6

#

%

#

%

8 17 3

3 18 1

23 31 5

3

3

12

1

7

1

17

1

14

1

13

1 5 1

—

—

1

20

—

—

1

Number of finely hinge-flaked edges per form category and unit. Percentage of prepared edges that are finely hinge flaked (except for Artifacts with Worn Edges), per form a n d unit. b

The Archaeology of La Calsada

108

It seems to me that if I reexamined all artifacts described as exhibiting more than minor edge wear, without reference to this study, identifications would be duplicated exactly for 60 to 70 percent of the artifacts. This is a harsh evaluation, but there still seems to be merit in this type of study, even given the relatively crude descriptive method. In the first place, some constancies were observed during the identification process. An edge classified as having minor wear would in all probability not be reclassified in another category, except possibly as polished. Also, if I once classified an edge and checked it knowing the assigned wear type(s), evidence for that particular designation could always be found. A second positive factor is that all artifacts were examined and categorized without prior knowledge of their proveniences, and I am aware of no biases influencing the results. Third, and most important, positive results were obtained. Given the large artifact samples of Units 5 and 6, given the fact that the same trends were observed for each artifact category with a large number of prepared edges, and also given that these changes in wear patterns are consistent with other data obtained from the artifacts, it seems quite probable that the discovered trends in some way represent prehistoric culture change. Tables 12 and 13 review the presence of polishing and fine hinge flaking on worn and prepared edges. Included are instances where each wear type occurred separately or in combination with other wear types. Large samples are limited to Units 5 and 6, and here Table 14 Polishing by Unit, Unit 5 and 6 Artifacts of Selected Forms Frequency Expected F Cell Chi2 Unit 5 Artifacts Unit Artifacts Total

6

Artifacts with Polishing

Artifacts without Polishing

36 28.43 2.01 20 27.57 2.08 56

95 102.57 .56 107 99.43 .58 202

Note: Table chi-square = 5.24, for 1 d.f., Ρ < .05.

Total 131 127 258

Artifact-Form and Attribute Distributions

109

Table 15 Fine Hinge Flaking by Unit, Unit 5 and 6 Artifacts of Selected Forms Frequency Expected F. Cell Chi2 Unit 5 Artifacts Unit 6 Artifacts Total

Artifacts with Fine Hinge Flaking

Artifacts without Fine Hinge Flaking

9 16.76 3.59 24 16.24 3.71 33

122 114.24 .53 103 110.76 .54 225

Total 131 127 258

Note: Table chi-square = 8.37, for 1 d.f., Ρ < .01.

regular patterns emerge. For all form categories, polished edges increase and finely hinge-flaked edges decrease proportionately from Unit 6 to 5. Again, attribute proportion changes can be viewed statistically through the 258-artifact sample discussed above: the shift in polishing between the two units was found to be significant at the Ρ < .05 level, while that for fine hinge flaking is significant at Ρ < .01 (Tables 14 and 15). VARIABLES COMPARED Other findings are consistent with the interunit differences described above. Polishing and projections are more common in Unit 5 and, combining artifacts from both units, polishing is relatively more frequent on worn projections than on edges. The reverse holds true for fine hinge flaking (Table 16). Unit 6 artifacts are heavier and show more fine hinge flaking; taking artifacts from both units together, artifacts manifesting fine hinge flaking are heavier than the rest, and the difference is significant (x weight for artifacts with fine hinge flaking = 29.88 grams; x weight for other artifacts = 14.66 grams; t = 3.53, for 256 d.f., Ρ < .005). Artifacts with polishing have a lower average weight than nonpolished artifacts, but the difference is not significant (polished artifact x = 15.11 grams; nonpolished x = 17.02 grams; t = .54, for 256 d.f., Ρ < .50). The difference in average weights for artifacts with fine hinge

The Archaeology of La Calsada

110

Table 16 Polishing and Fine Hinge Flaking by Edge and Projection, Unit 5 and 6 Artifacts of Selected Forms Frequency Expected F. Cell Chi2 Fine Hinge Flaking Polishing Total

Edges

Projections

Total

34 21.13 7.84 30 42.87 3.86 64

1 13.87 11.94 41 28.13 5.89 42

35 71 106

Note: Table chi-square = 29.53, for 1 d.f., Ρ < .0001. flaking versus others also holds for each unit individually, although the difference is significant only for Unit 6 specimens (x weight for Unit 6 artifacts with fine hinge flaking = 33.21 grams; x weight for other Unit 6 artifacts = 18.30 grams; t = 2.29, for 125 d.f., Ρ < .025). FUNCTIONAL CONSIDERATIONS This analysis of edge wear and other possibly related variables was carried out between 1968 and 1970, before most of the experimental and ethnoarchaeological research that established that edge use can produce the kinds of edge wear described above (e.g., Crabtree and Davis 1968; Gould et al. 1971; Tringham et al. 1974; Hayden, ed. 1979; Odell and Odell-Vereecken 1980). It also predated the development of two approaches to the microscopic study of edge wear, one using low-powered microscopy (with which the La Calsada research can be grouped) and the other using relatively highpowered microscopy (e.g., Keeley 1980; Moss 1983; Vaughn 1985). Essentially, the strength of the low-powered approach is that many more edges can be described, making it possible to study an entire lithic collection. High-powered analysis is more time consuming but probably much more accurate for adducing tool function (how accurate remains controversial; see Newcomer et al. 1986, Moss 1987, and Newcomer et al. 1988). It seems likely that different proportions of polishing and fine hinge flaking on edges and projections (Table 16) reflect different

Artifact-Form and Attribute Distributions

111

functions for the two tool-bit forms. On the other hand, the higher proportion of fine hinge flaking on Unit 6 relative to Unit 5 edges and on heavy as opposed to light tools are not so easily explained. The greater tool weights might have caused more extensive edge damage, while tool functions remained constant. Tringham et al. (1974: 191) found that steeper edge angles resulted in more step flaking. Another possible explanation, then, is that heavier artifacts, being thicker, do have steeper edge angles (this variable was not recorded for the La Calsada collection), and that this alone produced the wear-pattern differences. There is also the matter of artifact weight. Weights could have been reduced by selection of smaller spalls or increased flaking in order to accommodate changing functions. On the other hand, the interunit weight shift could be due to a changing lithic technology or even to a change in quarry location and/or raw material availability. More flaking of the tools does not seem to have been a factor. At least, through detailed typological comparisons, we could find no evidence of increased flaking reduction for the Unit 5 component (Nance 1971: 353-354). A final complicating factor has to do with resharpened edges. Gould et al. (1971), in an ethnoarchaeological study of Aborigines in the Western Desert of Australia, described the use of stone adze blades, which are unifaces much like the plane unifaces from La Calsada. Used in woodworking, these tools were constantly resharpened from the plane through unifacial chipping, and this resulted ultimately in step-flaked, undercut tool edges. He refers to worn-out blades that could no longer be sharpened as "slugs." Some of the fine hinge flaking on La Calsada tools could also be due to resharpening. However, few of the La Calsada tool edges are undercut, and, if resharpening were the cause of most fine hinge flaking, the smaller (already resharpened and possibly worn-out tools) should evidence more rather than less of this distinctive flaking. As already indicated, just the opposite is the case. Finally, what can be said about the functions of these La Calsada artifacts? Crabtree and Davis (1968) experimented with variously shaped stone tools in woodworking and found that thick-uniface tools with steep-edge angles (30 to 45 degrees) were ideal. They discussed step flaking as a result of woodworking on tool edges; they also discussed the necessity of resharpening these artifacts while at the same time attempting to maintain necessary tool weights. These fine resharpening efforts also resulted in stepped hinge flaking. The authors maintained that they could distinguish between the two forms of step flaking, although the characteristics of each were not

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made clear. This work by Crabtree and Davis supports the idea that La Calsada plane unifaces were woodworking tools. Gould et al. (1971: 155) described another kind of adzing tool, "a small flake with a fairly thick, narrow tip," used for making incised decorations in wood, and often resharpened. The result could be a prepared projection surrounded by hinge fractures, such as illustrated in Figures 37A and 37B. The limitations of the work of Gould et al. (and by extension, that of Crabtree and Davis) were pointed out by Keeley (1974). Gould et al. extended these tool functions to a Mousterian site, where similarly formed and edge-worn tools were found, but concluded that the material worked was bone instead of wood. That is, perhaps we can conclude only that some hard material was being worked with plane unifaces from La Calsada, not that they were primarily for woodworking. This conclusion is supported by the work of Odell and Odell-Vereecken (1980: 101). They used freshly made stone tools on a variety of materials and found that hinged scars resulted from work on "hard-medium" and "hard" materials, which include hard woods, bone, antler, and hard, dry wood. The subject is rendered more complex by the variety of edge-wear attributes recorded for tools of all types at La Calsada. Polishing occurs most frequently on prepared projections from La Calsada and can be produced through the cutting of meat and plant materials (Semenov 1964: 103; 113-126) and hide scraping (Hayden 1979: 216), as well as through working bone, antler, and wood (Keeley 1980). CONCLUSIONS While it is clear that economic activities at La Calsada cannot be directly reconstructed through identification and analysis of edgewear attributes, there are results worth noting. We have identified a trend or shift between two early assemblages in North America that strongly suggests a pervasive form of culture change, one which goes well beyond the simple alteration of projective-point forms. Tool sizes changed and prepared projections increased relative to tool edges. Wear patterns changed, also, with polishing becoming more common and fine hinge flaking decreasing in importance. We can hypothesize a trend toward finer, lighter tasks and possibly the working of softer materials through the two early components of the La Calsada sequence. Future research and the recovery of perishable materials on these early time levels should produce explanations of why and how these developments transpired.

6 Extrasite Relationships

Introduction In this chapter, Unit 6 will be compared to a number of sites with probable or demonstrated contemporaneity, which contain a large number of artifacts, and which, like the Unit 6 assemblage, appear to represent the remains of general camping activities rather than the specialized activities of a kill site. No close relationships emerge from these comparisons, although slightly closer similarities are seen with the Lake Mohave assemblage than with components from the Great Plains or Eastern Woodlands. Unit 5 is viewed hypothetically as part of a tradition existing in an as-yet-undefined area surrounding La Calsada and continuing from the Unit 6 period; this same or a similar tradition was introduced to the Tehuacan Valley, Puebla, after 6500 B.C. Unit 4 is compared to material in the lower-Pecos region of Texas and Central Mexico with demonstrated contemporaneity, specifically with the Coxcatlán and Abejas phases of the Tehuacan sequence and data from the Amistad Reservoir. Definite relationships with neither area could be determined. Unit 3 (with pre-arrow-point material from Unit 1-2), is considered a component of the Abasolo tradition (MacNeish, NelkenTerner, and Johnson 1967: 240). As discussed below, this general tradition represents cultures occupying the Gulf Coastal Plain of far South Texas and Northeast Mexico and the Sierra Madre Oriental of Northeast Mexico from around 3500 B.c. until ca. A.D. 1000.

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Finally, the upper Unit 1-2 component is seen as being closely related to contemporary material from Cueva de la Zona (McClurkan 1966). Further relationships could not be delineated due to the cultural diversity for that period in Northeast Mexico, coupled with a general paucity of archaeological data. Unit 6 In an attempt to set the Unit 6 component in broadest perspective, it was compared to several major Paleo-Indian sites in North and South America. Each site contained a large number of artifacts, each site appears to represent more than a single hunting episode, and each site is at least possibly contemporary with the Unit 6 occupation. First, Unit 6 has little in common with the Folsom complex (Wormington 1957: 23-42). The key Folsom site, Lindenmeier, in northeast Colorado, has produced a range of radiocarbon dates, leading Wilmsen to accept an average age of 11,000 years B.P. for the Folsom occupations at that site (Wilmsen and Roberts 1978: 41), so this material may date slightly earlier than that from Unit 6. Altogether, Folsom components tend to date between 9000-8000 years B.C. (Haynes 1964), and hence are in part contemporary with the Unit 6 occupation. A very different lithic assemblage from Unit 6, Lindenmeier artifacts constitute basically a flake industry, with only 1.5 percent of the artifacts manufactured from spalls (Roberts 1936: 34). Also, Lindenmeier apparently has a much higher percentage of unifaces. Blade tools, absent at La Calsada, were found at Lindenmeier, and the same is true of fluted points and grinding stones. One similarity is the importance of gravers (unifacially prepared projections), either isolated or in combination with prepared edges. Present at both sites are chisel-like projections (at La Calsada, limited to Unit 5) and bifacially prepared projections (Witthoft 1952: 491). Other parallels involve only a few artifacts; what Roberts calls "Large Blades" resemble the Large Points of Form 46. These artifacts from both sites bear edge retouching or signs of edge wear and are interpreted to be finished tools rather than point blanks. Several tubular bone beads were recovered from the Lindenmeier site (Roberts 1940: 92); one, Form 121, was excavated from Unit 6. Roberts (1935: 18, Plates 5-8) illustrated two straight-based, lanceolate points (non-

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115

fluted), which in outline form, at least, resemble those of Form 15. Finally, Byers has identified a narrow, ridgebacked, side-scraper form at Lindenmeier with the artifacts described as "very narrow, bipointed bars" (Byers 1954: 349). These may compare to the Narrow Multifaces of Form 112 (limited to Unit 5). Assemblages from eastern Paleo-Indian sites may resemble the Unit 6 component even less than that from Lindenmeier. In a comparative discussion of the Shoop, Williamson, and Lindenmeier sites, Witthoft (1952: 470) saw a more strongly developed blade industry at Shoop and Williamson than at Lindenmeier and a more regularized industry, with only six tool types plus utilized spalls. On the other hand, Byers (1954: 349), in reporting the Bull Brook site, provided a different interpretation. He saw a "remarkable similarity" among the Bull Brook, Shoop, Williamson, and Lindenmeier assemblages. However, whatever the relationships of eastern Paleo-Indian to Folsom complex sites, there are closer cultural relationships represented among all of these sites than between any one of them and the Unit 6 component. The contrast with Eastern Paleo-Indian sites and the early La Calsada component can be drawn sharply by considering the large assemblage from the Debert site in Nova Scotia (MacDonald 1968). There, most artifacts (along with 140 fluted points) are flake end scrapers (1,587 artifacts), flake side scrapers (668), flake gravers (1,051), piéces esquillées (1,046), and other flake tools (1,051). Only seventeen "scraping planes" are reported. The two assemblages are similar in the high frequency of graver spurs on tools, in the high percentages of uniface tools, and in the frequent occurrence of gravers at the ends of unifacially prepared edges. An assemblage more closely resembling that from Unit 6 is from a complex of sites at Lake Mohave in southeastern California. These sites extend across several beach levels of an extinct Pleistocene lake, and, while radiocarbon dates have not been obtained for the artifacts, as mentioned above, there is some agreement that the assemblage dates between 8000 and 6000 B.C. (JVIoratto 1984). There are interesting morphological parallels between Lake Mohave and Unit 6 artifacts. Large, thick flake scrapers from Lake Mohave are both keeled and domed over the interior flake surfaces (Amsden 1937: 58-63) and are similar to the Nontabular Plane Unifaces, Domed and Ridgebacked (Forms 95 and 96), which concentrate at La Calsada in Unit 6. Common to both components are tools with projections at one end of a unifacially prepared edge, a small

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

number of oval to bipointed Large Knives, and stemmed and diamond-shaped points. Diamond-shaped points from Lake Mohave are much larger than the La Calsada counterparts. Forms unique to Lake Mohave include biface drills; finely flaked, bipointed, lanceolate knives; pointed flake unifaces (which do occur in Unit 5); crescentic bifaces; and a high frequency of combination side-end flake scrapers, most of which, from examination of photographs, appear to be on large blades. Found only in the Unit 6 component are Tabular Plane Unifaces, a few large, Other Biface forms, and Flake and Irregular-Spall Bifaces. Other early components in western North America with enough artifacts for detailed comparisons show fewer similarities (e.g., Ventana Cave, Haury 1950; Danger Cave, Jennings 1957), and most lack demonstrated contemporaneity with Unit 6. Far to the south of La Calsada in southern Mexico, the rockshelter of Guila Naquitz has been studied by Flannery and others through a detailed, interdisciplinary research program (Flannery, ed. 1986). Flannery assigns the Naquitz phase to the period 8750-6670 B.c., which would make much of the occupation at the shelter contemporary with that of Unit 6. However, radiocarbon dates from the site are contradictory, and in order to arrive at the above estimate, Flannery was forced to disregard the four youngest of the ten dates obtained (Flannery 1986a). Smith (1986: 272), who studied botanical remains from the site, interpreted these same carbon-14 dates differently, and placed the Naquitz phase between 8000 and 7000 B.C., but the Naquitz phase may be more recent than that. Since the chronological sequence of carbon-14 dates is not in stratigraphic order, it might be more realistic to reject both the earliest and latest dates and to average the eight remaining. This would place the phase at ca. 6300 years B.c. There are no diagnostic projectile points among the 122 chipped-stone tools that would confirm early radiocarbon assays for the site. The high frequency of ground stone tools (twentyone; Flannery 1986b) is uncharacteristic of early assemblages in North America, although the thirteen Steep Denticulate Scrapers do resemble Complex, Tabular Plane Unifaces common in Units 5 and 6. With the exception of a single "Pointed Piece," graver spurs are not mentioned for this assemblage (Hole 1986). Another early site, Las Tapiales, is located farther to the south in Highland Guatemala (Gruhn and Bryan 1977). This site yielded the base of a fluted Clovis projectile point and a lithic assemblage consis-

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ting of approximately one hundred artifacts. There were some disparities in radiocarbon dates for Las Tapiales, as well, leaving the authors with two sets of conflicting dates: "The problem, then, is whether to accept the hearth dates of 7,820 years B.P. (GaK-4888) and 7,150 years B.P. (GaK-4887) or the dates on scattered charcoal of 10,710 years B.P. (TX-1631) and also 9,860 years B.P. (GaK-4890) for the lowest levels of the volcanic ash unit and major occupation of the site" (Gruhn and Bryan 1977: 241). Of twenty unifaces from this site, three are thick and resemble Plane Unifaces from La Calsada. Graver spurs occur on five of twenty uniface tools, and on one of the thick specimens, there is "a thick blunt spur on the left lateral edge with evidence of heavy step flaking" (Gruhn and Bryan 1977: 249). This feature is described for several thick unifaces from Units 5 and 6 (see Nance 1971). Burins are reported for both Guila Naquitz and Las Tapiales. Only one possible burin was identified in the La Calsada collection (Form 30; Unit 5); it seems that burins are generally rare in Northeast Mexico (Epstein 1980). One is reported by Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda (1951), and McClurkan (1966: 51-52) describes two on broken projectile points from Cueva de al Zona. It is interesting that much farther south, in northwestern South America, several early assemblages exist for which, at least in projectile-point morphology, similarities to Unit 6 are closer than are found for sites in North America. We have already mentioned Guitarrero Cave in the Peruvian Andes and the early diamond-shaped point from Complex I of that site. Complexes Ha and IIb, radiocarbondated between 8600 and 7500 B.c. (Lynch 1980a), were also contemporary with Unit 6. The nine projective points from this complex are small and leaf- or diamond-shaped, much like those of La Calsada Forms 13-16. Most of the remaining artifacts from these complexes are large unifaces (frequency = 60), but they generally differ from early uniface tools from La Calsada. The former are well-thinned and appear more finely flaked; they also lack projections on the ends of prepared edges (Lynch 1980b). The site of Pachamachay, also a cave in the Peruvian Andes, produced similar early stone tools: well-made flake unifaces along with small leaf-shaped and contracting-stem projectile points. Like unifaces from Guitarrero Cave, those from Pachamachay lack prepared projections. Early radiocarbon dates from this site are ca. 9900 and 7100 B.c. (Rick 1980: 65).

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The Archaeology of La Calsada Unit 5

Three established archaeological phases in Mexico appear to be in part contemporary with Unit 5: the Lerma phase of the Sierra de Tamaulipas, Tamaulipas, and the Ajuereado and El Riego phases of the Tehuacan Valley, Puebla. The Lerma phase has a single radiocarbon date of 7320 B.C. (MacNeish 1958: 194) and an estimated temporal range of 8000 to 7000 B.C. It now seems more likely, however, that the phase persisted beyond that period. There is no early upward-limiting date for the Sierra de Tamaulipas sequence, and Lerma points in the La Calsada and Tehuacan sequences are present until much later (ca. 5000 B.c.). Three radiocarbon assays for the Ajuereado phase (ranging from 6675 ± 220 B.c. to 5200 ± 200 B.c.) have been rejected as too young (Johnson and MacNeish 1972: 16-18). It has been assigned the age of prior to 6800 B.c., based on its stratigraphic position below El Riego phase material at two stratified sites in the Tehaucan Valley. The El Riego phase is dated between 6800 and 5000 B.c., based on sixteen radiocarbon assays (Johnson and MacNeish 1972: 18-20). According to the interpretation of MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson (1967: 241, Fig. 174), Ajuereado and Lerma are contemporary phases, while El Riego is contemporary with a temporal gap in the Tamaulipas sequence. This hypothesis seems untenable in light of additional information from La Calsada. More probably the Lerma phase and Unit 5 covered the same period represented by at least late Ajuereado and El Riego: 7500 to 5000 B.c. The Lerma phase of southeastern Tamaulipas is based on four excavated components with a total of ninety-four artifacts. Unique to the Lerma phase (absent from Ajuereado, El Riego, and Unit 5), are triangular, "snub-nosed" end scrapers, stemmed "scraper-like tools," and "semi-lunar chipped blades" (MacNeish's 1958 terminology). Eighteen percent of the artifacts are projectile points and, of these, all but one are Lerma points. Forty-six percent are other bifaces, and 24 percent are unifaces. Six percent are gravers or perforators and hammerstones. The artifacts tended to concentrate in thin refuse layers with faunal remains comprised exclusively of deer and beaver. MacNeish concluded that Lerma components are the remains of nomadic microbands, each consisting of one or two nuclear families, with subsistence based on hunting and a "relatively limited amount of plant collecting" (MacNeish 1958: 137).

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While MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson (1967) defined the Ajuereado phase on the basis of both excavated and surface components, we will consider artifacts from only the two excavated components to eliminate from the discussion possibly mixed artifacts of later dates. Of 144 artifacts from excavated components, 72 percent are unifaces, 8 percent projectile points and projectile-point fragments, 17 percent other bifaces, 2 percent food-grinding stones and fragments, and 1 percent other stone artifacts. Unifaces are mostly crude flake end scrapers and thin flakes with one utilized or retouched edge. Other bifaces (apart from projectile points) consist entirely of flake, core and slab choppers, and chopper fragments. The few projectile points are four Lermas, two Abasolo (ovoid, one-pointed points), and one Plainview. Apart from the Lerma projectile-point type, few similarities exist between Lerma and Ajuereado assemblages. The Lerma phase has a much higher proportion of bifaces; its bifaces display greater form variation. Choppers, square-based blades, semi-lunar chipped blades, ovoid crude bifaces, and stemmed scraperlike bifaces all occur in Lerma components. As mentioned, apart from projectile points, Ajuereado bifaces consist only of various chopper forms. Regarding unifaces, crude, ovoid, plano-convex end scrapers and both thick and thin-flake side scrapers are common to both phases; crude, keeled end scrapers and crude, long, flat-flake end scrapers are more characteristic of the Ajuereado phase. The plant and animal remains of the Ajuereado phase suggest an economy based mostly on the hunting of both large and small animals (MacNeish 1967: 305). The relatively small amount of cultural debris at only a few sites indicates a small population of nomadic bands (MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson 1967: 9) similar to that described for the Lerma phase in Tamaulipas. Taking into account all components of the Ajuereado phase, it was estimated that "probably no more than two or three family-size microbands occupied the [Tehuacan] valley at the same time" (MacNeish et al. 1972: 363). Following Ajuereado in the Tehuacan sequence, the El Riego phase is better represented with components from six excavated and seven surface sites. Altogether, MacNeish et al. (1972: 366) define forty-one El Riego components, most being floors or portions of floors in excavated sites with associated artifacts, hearths, storage pits, and other features. Four excavated sites produced the bulk of

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the El Riego lithic tools, and it is to these we turn for comparative purposes. El Riego stone tools from these sites are here summarized in terms of five analytic units: levels 14-16 of Coxcatlán Cave (Tc 50); levels 17-22 of Coxcatlán Cave; levels D'D2-H of Tc 307; levels D and E of Ts 51; and Tc 35w, level 5. Table 17 shows artifact percentages for six general lithic categories for each of these heuristic units. As the table indicates, the units present quite similar assemblages on this general level and show marked dissimilarities with the Ajuereado and Lerma phases. Scraper planes, rare in both Ajuereado and Lerma components, occur in substantial numbers in El Riego levels, and food-grinding stones, absent from Lerma, are more common than for Ajuereado. Regarding specific artifact forms ("types" of MacNeish 1958 and MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson 1967), El Riego appears much more closely related to Ajuereado than Lerma. Every specific Ajuereado artifact type persists into the El Riego phase, and there is evidence for an indigenous tradition with specific technological and morphological continuities (MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson 1967: 233). El Riego differs from both Lerma and Ajuereado in having projectile points with greater form diversity; it resembles the Lerma phase in having a high percentage of bifaces, relative to Ajuereado. Table 17 Percentages of El Riego Lithic Artifacts by General Artifact Category and Site Analytic Unit

Artifact Category

Tc 50, 14-16

Site Analytic Unit Tc 50, T s 5 1 , Tc 35w, Tc 307 17-22 D-E 5 D1D2-H

Scraper Planes Other Unifaces Projectile Points Other Bifaces Food-Grinding Stones Other Stone Artifacts

15.8 47.3 10.1 19.4 4.3 2.7

18.7 45.3 7.0 18.2 6.9 3.4

19.9 38.7 11.5 19.5 6.1 3.8

20.1 43.0 14.8 12.1 8.7 .7

14.4 31.0 8.3 18.2 25.8 1.5

Total(percentage)

99.6

99.5

99.5

99.4

99.2

Total Artifacts

1,193

642

261

Note: Due to rounding, percentage totals do not equal 100.

149

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And, common to both the El Riego and Lerma phases, ovoidand square-based bifaces are not found in Ajuereado excavated components. People of the El Riego phase are interpreted to have depended more on plant collecting than those of the previous Ajuereado phase, as grinding stones and plant food remains are more plentiful in El Riego levels (MacNeish 1967: 302). Also, since the number of occupations, the artifact totals per occupation, and the total site surface area occupied are all much greater for El Riego than Ajuereado, there is evidence for a sizeable population increase (MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson 1967: 10; MacNeish et al. 1972: 366). On the basis of interpreted population size and economy, then, El Riego differs from both the Lerma and Ajuereado phases. These three phases can now be compared to Unit 5. On the most general level of comparison, artifacts of this La Calsada component resemble the El Riego assemblage much more than those of either Ajuereado or Lerma. El Riego scraper planes, similar in form to La Calsada plane unifaces, occur in roughly the same proportions in both components. The percentages of other bifaces for Unit 5 and El Riego components also compare closely. However, beyond these similarities, the overall uniface-biface ratios differ substantially: Unit 5 has a greater proportion of points and, hence, total bifaces, and the Unit 5 assemblage lacks grinding stones. Unit 5 differences compared to Lerma components are pronounced: plane unifaces do not occur in Lerma components, and a substantially higher ratio of Lerma artifacts are bifaces. When the Ajuereado phase is compared to Unit 5, resemblances on this level of analysis are even more remote; this can be seen primarily through much different uniface-biface ratios. Turning to specific artifact forms and first to point forms, all three phases plus the Unit 5 component have Lerma points as a single common point type. El Riego components and Unit 5 both contain stemmed points, which are not found for the Ajuereado and Lerma phases. And two of the three Unit 5 stemmed points (Form 30) resemble, at least in outline form, points assigned to the La Mina, Trinidad, and Hidalgo types of the El Riego and later phases of the Tehuacan sequence. Uniface comparisons reveal close parallels between El Riego and Unit 5 in the morphology of plane unifaces from both localities. El Riego Domed Scraper Planes, Flat-Topped Scraper Planes, Multifaceted Scraper Planes with unifacially flaked edges on different

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plane platforms, and Multifaceted Scraper Planes with a unifacially and a bifacially flaked edge on different planes compare to Nontabular Plane Unifaces, Domed (Form 96), Complex, Tabular Plane Unifaces (Form 91), Complex, Tabular Plane Unifaces (Form 94), and Nontabular Plane Uniface-Bifaces (Form 113), respectively. All the above-mentioned La Calsada forms occur in Unit 5 with the exception of Form 91, which is limited to Unit 6. Unit 5 lacks (at least as a recurrent form), the thick, elongated, flake end scrapers common to both Ajuereado and El Riego, and the triangular "snub-nosed" end scrapers of the Lerma phase. El Riego and Unit 5 parallels also occur in other biface forms. El Riego Thin, Crude, Ovoid Bifaces resemble the ovoid Large Knives, Nonthinned, of Unit 5 (Form 46), and El Riego Discoidal Core Choppers appear identical to Unit 5 Continuous Edge Bifaces (Form 65). El Riego large Flake Choppers and Slab Choppers are missing at La Calsada, but this may be because the schistose nature of the La Calsada chert precluded their manufacture. Other biface comparisons between the Lerma phase and Unit 5 produced only one certain parallel: Lerma-phase Ovoid Bifaces in part appear to duplicate the Large Knives, Nonthinned (Form 46), of Unit 5. There are no other biface form similarities between Unit 5 and Ajuereado. Regarding population and economy: first, nothing can be written on settlement patterns represented at La Calsada due to the absence of other excavated sites in the region. Unit 5 yielded a large number of artifacts, and this may reflect intense occupation for both El Riego and Unit 5, relative to Lerma and Ajuereado. The lack of faunal and plant remains at La Calsada prohibits any accurate economic reconstruction, but the absence of grinding stones and the relatively high proportions of points and point fragments, in close similarity to the Lerma phase (and the San Isidro site, Nuevo León, discussed below) and in contrast to both Ajuereado and El Riego, suggest a greater dependence on hunting in Northeast Mexico than in the Central Highlands for the period represented. At this point, general comments can be made on the Tehuacan sequence and possible relationships with northern Mexico. While MacNeish (1967: 243) primarily explains the change from Ajuereado to El Riego as adaptation to a new, post-Pleistocene climate, some El Riego forms, new in the Tehuacan sequence, are not explained readily by this hypothesis. These include stemmed projectile points and a variety of plane-uniface forms. Stemmed points and all of these

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plane-uniface forms occur earlier at La Calsada in Unit 6. Moreover, all Ajuereado forms continue into the El Riego phase, and all of the truly diagnostic or morphologically patterned Ajuereado forms are absent in the La Calsada sequence, with the exception of Lerma points. In short, the El Riego phase may well represent the fusion of two lithic traditions, the Ajuereado and another, probably (on the basis of present data) from northern Mexico, which encompasses at least the first thirty-five hundred years of the La Calsada sequence. This merging of traditions, whether due to southward migration, diffusion, or some combination of these factors, may have been triggered by climatic change. At the same time, lithic form changes took place, more obviously reflecting economic change. Grinding stones in El Riego levels occurred in greater proportions than earlier in the Tehuacan sequence. Also, Plainview points, present in the Ajuereado phase, persist into El Riego times, while smaller, apparently derivative forms (Fiacco points), are introduced in this later period (MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson 1967: 58-59). These changes, as MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson (1967: 243) suggest, probably represent in an immediate way cultural adaptation to a more arid or warmer climate at the end of the Pleistocene. Discussion now turns to a site much closer to La Calsada. In part contemporary with Unit 5, the San Isidro site is located forty miles east of Monterrey, Nuevo León, and roughly eighty miles northeast of La Calsada. This desert-surface site contained artifacts representing a considerable timeperiod. In addition, the artifacts were distributed spatially in such a manner that Epstein (1969: 119-122) was able to group most into three different occupations. Two of these occupations are supported by comparative data from Texas and Mexico, and one of these, the second, is relevant to this discussion. It contained Lerma and Plainview points and bifacial Clear Fork gouges, Pandora points, and a series of heavy, bifacially percussion-flaked artifacts (Epstein 1969: 120). The presence of Lerma points and unifacial gouges links this second occupation to the Ajuereado, El Riego, and Lerma phases; a single bifacial gouge from Unit 5 and Lerma points relate La Calsada to the same occupation. Continuous Edge Bifaces are a form common to El Riego, Unit 5, and the second occupation; and crude pebble bifaces and Plainview points occur in both El Riego components and again in San Isidro's second occupation. However, while there are common forms linking this second oc-

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cupation to contemporary sites in Northeast and Central Mexico, it is set apart by high percentages of Clear Fork gouges and Plainview points; fourteen Plainview points and point fragments were collected at San Isidro; nine were obtained from all excavated and surface components of the Tehuacan Valley (MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson 1967: 57). This San Isidro occupation is also unique for its high percentage of bifaces. In Area South, containing the bulk of Lerma and Plainview points, only 2.7 percent of the collected artifacts are unifaces. As Epstein (1969: 116) points out, the second occupation at San Isidro seems to be closely related to cultures of the south-central Great Plains. Certainly cultural relationships seem to extend more in that direction than toward Central or Northeast Mexico. As a result of these comparisons, Unit 5 emerges as a unique assemblage in Northeast Mexico, its closest parallel being not contemporary occupations in Nuevo León or Tamaulipas but the El Riego phase of Puebla, Mexico. How this relates to the heterogeneous environment of Mexico and whether or not the Sierra Madre Oriental and its physiographic extension, the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca (adjacent to the Tehuacan Valley), represented a single prehistoric culture area for this period, as well as whether this hypothesis explains the sharp differences between the San Isidro second occupation and Unit 5, are questions awaiting future research. Unit 4 For Unit 4, with radiocarbon dates between 5400 and 3200 years B.c. (corrected), contemporary data in Northeast Mexico consist of incompletely reported components from the Sierra Madre Oriental in Tamaulipas (MacNeish 1958: 167-170; 1961) and central Coahuila (Taylor 1966). Components with established contemporaneity have not been identified in the Sierra de Tamaulipas sequence, nor elsewhere in Nuevo León, nor through Heartfield's (1975; 1976) work in southwest Coahuila. Our comparative discussion, then, is limited to the Amistad Reservoir area and to the Tehuacan sequence of Central Mexico. At Tehuacan, two phases partially date to the period represented by Unit 4: the Coxcatlán phase, dated between 5000 and 3400 B.c., and the Abejas phase, between 3400 and 2300 B.c. (Johnson and MacNeish 1972). The Tehuacan lithic sequence indicates cultural continuity from the El Riego period through both of these later phases

Extrasite Relationships

125

(MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson 1967: 233). Of fifteen El Riego-phase projectile-point types, thirteen persist into the Coxcatlán period, albeit with marked proportional shifts for several types from one phase to the other. The same holds for non-projectilepoint forms, as all but three El Riego other-chipped-stone types continue into the Coxcatlán period. This same general trend continues from Coxcatlán to Abejas. However, relative frequencies of general tool forms do shift between phases. As MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson (1967: 95) point out, unifaces decrease in relative frequency and bifaces increase from the El Riego to the Coxcatlán periods and again from the Coxcatlán to the Abejas periods. Also to be noted, projectile points are primarily responsible for biface increases, while scraper planes, from El Riego to Coxcatlán, decrease much more in relative frequency than unifaces as a whole. Several major similarities, that is, those involving many artifacts, exist between Unit 4 and Coxcatlán and Abejas lithic assemblages. Characteristic of all is the fact that variously shaped, small, stemmed projectile points predominate within the projectile-point category. Another parallel in the two sequences is that bifaces also increase relative to unifaces from Unit 5 to 4, as at Tehuacan, from El Riego to Coxcatlán and Abejas. However, at La Calsada, the biface increase is represented by a higher proportion of non-projectilepoint bifaces instead of projectile points. Cultural continuity in terms of lithic artifacts is represented at La Calsada between Units 4 and 5 and resembles the continuity from El Riego to Coxcatlán and Abejas. Only five of the thirty-eight artifact forms from Unit 4 are not carryovers from Unit 5. However, while a number of similarities could be identified between El Riego and Unit 5 (discussed above), somewhat paradoxically this is not true for Unit 4 and Coxcatlán and Abejas. The problem seems to lie in the nature of the Unit 4 assemblage. Most of the 107 artifacts from the unit are amorphous, with sixty-three classified as artifacts with worn edges, irregular-spall unifaces and bifaces, and flake unifaces and bifaces. One specific form parallel in interarea comparisons can be mentioned: the two Form 28 artifacts from Unit 4, Contracting-Stem Points, Barbed, resemble several illustrated specimens of the Garyito type of the Coxcatlán and later phases (MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson 1967, Fig. 51). A major difference between Unit 4 and the Coxcatlán and Abejas

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

phases is that food-grinding stones, plentiful in both Tehuacan phases, do not appear at La Calsada until Unit 3 and not in any number until the Unit 1-2 period. Other contemporary data have been reported from the Amistad Reservoir. Here, one large component from Eagle Cave (Ross 1965) clearly dates to the Unit 4 period. At this site, 475 lithic artifacts were excavated from Strata IId and III, and radiocarbon dates from both strata fall between 4400 and 2100 B.C. (ROSS 1965: 17-19); this component will be considered here as representative of the lower-Pecos region. As for Tehuacan and La Calsada material, most projectile points from these zones are small and stemmed (Ross 1965: 27-63). However, this seems to be the only parallel of potential significance. Several lithic forms from Eagle Cave do not occur at either Tehuacan or La Calsada during this period. These include unifacially flaked ovoid knifelike artifacts, burins (one burin is reported for the Abejas phase, MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson 1967: 82, Table 12), and drills (Ross 1965: 83-96). Similar to Unit 4 and in contrast to Coxcatlán and Abejas, food-grinding stones were not present in either stratum at Eagle Cave (Ross 1965: 106, Table 12). In conclusion, there are so few similarities between Unit 4 and the Abejas and Coxcatlán phases and between Unit 4 and contemporary material from Eagle Cave that there seems no way to posit a relationship between the prehistoric cultures of Unit 4 and those of the lower Pecos region or Central Mexico. Unit 3 MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson (1967: 239-240) have defined the Abasolo tradition, which existed in Northeast Mexico from around 4300 to 1000 B.c. This tradition occurred during what is currently the best-understood period of Northeast Mexican prehistory. It encompasses the Unit 3 component and will be discussed in some detail. Included within the tradition by MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson are the Ocampo, Fiacco, and Guerra phases (essentially undescribed), of southwest Tamaulipas; the Nogales, La Perra, and Almagre phases of the Sierra de Tamaulipas sequence; components from Cueva de la Zona; surface collections from northern Tamaulipas (subsumed within the Abasolo, Repelo, and Nogales complexes); and

Extrasite Relationships

127

material from the Falcon Reservoir area on the border of southernmost Texas and Mexico. To be added to the list are most surface collections from the coastal plain of Nuevo León (Epstein 1969: 131-141; Varner 1967; 1968), the latest component from the San Isidro site (Epstein 1969: 120-121), and the Unit 3 component from La Calsada. MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson (1967: 241, Fig. 174) seem to date the Abasolo tradition between 4300 and 1000 B.C. However, the beginning date for the tradition, at least over most of Northeast Mexico, is probably more recent. Early dates for Abasolo tradition material from Cueva de la Zona (McClurkan 1966: Table IV), from the Ocampo phase (MacNeish 1958: 198, Table 31), and from La Calsada would set this beginning between 3700 and 3000 B.c. (for detailed discussion, see Nance 1972). The Abasolo tradition appears to terminate earlier in southern Tamaulipas than in the northern part of that state or in Nuevo León (MacNeish 1958: 192, Table 30). Southward in the Sierra de Tamaulipas, the tradition is followed by the Laguna phase, a Preclassic culture related to those of the Huasteca region (MacNeish 1958: 160). MacNeish found it difficult to estimate the age of the Laguna phase, but tentatively placed its beginning at 700 B.C. (MacNeish 1958: 198, Table 31). To the north, radiocarbon dates from Cueva de la Zona demonstrate that the tradition persisted longer in this region, until ca. A.D. 800 and the introduction of the bow and arrow (McClurkan 1966: 161-169). Common to phases and components of the tradition are triangular and ovoid points usually referred to as of the Catán, Abasólo, Matamoros, and Tortugas types. Grinding stones and uniface tools are relatively infrequent; points generally occur in high proportions; and contracting-stem points, biface disks, and gouges are consistently found as minor (low-proportion) types over most of the area. Within the geographical range of the tradition, there are few regional cultural differences. However, two point types, Shumla and Langtry, which are common in the Amistad area after 2500 B.C., occur as minor types in the Falcon Reservoir, northern Tamaulipas, and on the northern coastal plain of Nuevo León; they are virtually absent from southern Tamaulipas sites (Suhm et al. 1954; Epstein 1969; Varner 1967; MacNeish 1958). Another possibly consistent interregional difference also has to do with projectile-point-form distributions: small triangular and ovoid points precede larger versions

128

The Archaeology of La Calsada

at Cueva de la Zona; this contrasts with the Sierra de Tamaulipas sequence, where large triangular and ovoid points extend through the sequence and are joined by smaller, like-form specimens only in later levels (Epstein 1966: 119; McClurkan 1966: 90-91). Although limited, La Calsada data follow the Cueva de la Zona pattern. Large ovoid and triangular points (Forms 3, 4, and 8) are limited to upper Unit 3 and Unit 1-2. A few smaller specimens of the same general forms initially occur in Unit 5 and extend through Unit 4 and lower Unit 3 (Forms 5, 6, 9, and 10). A last north-south interregional difference: it appears that bifacially chipped disks, consistently present through the Sierra de Tamaulipas sequence, are relatively less frequent in northern areas for the period in question. As MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson (1967: 240) have indicated, few resemblances seem to appear between components of the Abasólo tradition and material excavated by Taylor in Coahuila. In southwestern Coahuila, ovoid and triangular points suggest the presence of the tradition but in the Laguna Mayran these points are associated with arrow points (Heartfield 1976: Tables 2, 6, and 8) and may postdate the tradition as it is now defined. To the north, the Abasólo tradition is represented in unmodified form at least to a short distance north of the Río Grande by surface collections from sites 41 SRI to 41SR26 near the center of Starr County (collections at the Texas Archeological Research Laboratory, University of Texas at Austin). Nothing is yet known of contemporary cultures south of the Sierra de Tamaulipas on the Gulf Coastal Plain. Hence, the territory occupied by prehistoric cultures of this tradition is known now to extend south from the far south Gulf Coastal Plain of Texas through Nuevo León and Tamaulipas to somewhere south of the Sierra de Tamaulipas, and from the Gulf Coast westward into the Sierra Madre Oriental. Surface collections from Dimmit County, Texas, suggest the existence of a transitional zone (Nunley and Hester 1966) between the Abasólo tradition and the Central Texas Archaic. Point types in these collections include stemmed types common in Central Texas and stemless types characteristic of the Abasólo tradition. These types occur together in surface collections over the entire county. However, stemmed points predominate numerically in the northern part of the county, stemless points in the southern. In the years since the original formulation of this construct, MacNeish and Nelken-Terner (1983) and MacNeish (1986) have at-

Extrasite Relationships

129

tempted to refine the Abasolo tradition, but these efforts, in my opinion, detract from the original concept. In these two articles, the Abasolo tradition is divided into two more finite and sequential traditions: the Repelo (5000-3500 B.c.) and the Abasolo (3500-2300 B.c.). However, the chronological evidence is too sparse to support these constructs, and the results are confusing. For example, MacNeish (1986) subsumes the assemblage from Unit 4 at La Calsada, along with the very different, latest occupation of the San Isidro site, and collections from the Nogales complex in Tamaulipas within the Repelo complex, and without accompanying explication. At one point, MacNeish and Nelken-Terner (1983: Figs. 3 and 4) introduce (as far as I know) a nonexistent site to the literature, referring to a Cueva de la Sorra in Nuevo León (trans., Cave of the Vixen). As originally defined in 1967, however, the Abasolo tradition is seen here as a useful concept. First of all, spanning at least four thousand years, it is a tradition as the term is usually applied in American archaeology (cf. Willey and Phillips 1958: 37). Second, while its western and southern boundaries are poorly defined, enough research has been completed to show a definite consistency of form among the lithic assemblages, as described above. Adjacent to this region, the contemporary archaeology is well documented only for Texas, and sharp contrasts are found when comparisons are made in that direction. Epstein (1980) pointed to the possibility that most bifaces in these components functioned as knives, and we have further suggested here that these artifacts were employed in the processing of plant foods, likely desert succulents. The large area in question, from the Sierra Madre Oriental east to the Gulf Coast and from far south Texas southward to the Sierra de Tamaulipas, does manifest a broad homogeneity in climate (Vivo Escoto 1964: 211) and vegetation (Wagner 1964: Fig. 1) and has been subsumed within the same Tamaulipan biotic province (Stuart 1964: Fig. 5). It is not surprising to find broad cultural similarities within the region; perhaps the Abasolo tradition can be thought of as a loose construct, not as generalized, but approaching the concept of Culture Area in ethnology. Within this greater region, finer distinctions, possibly localized phases, should develop through future research. Finally, the Abasolo tradition is and will probably remain controversial until more work is carried out in the region, even given the generalized definition ascribed to here. For example, Kelley (1959), in

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

a discussion of Falcon Reservoir materials and MacNeish's surface components from northern Tamaulipas, saw a "remarkable similarity and simplicity in artifact complexes from site to site" (Kelley 1959: 283), while Hester (1976: 83-84) wrote that "it appears to be of little use to correlate southern Texas materials with those cultural manifestations in northeastern Mexico; modern work has shown the areas to be highly different in terms of lithic assemblages and patterns of adaptation." Detailed restudy of the Falcon Reservoir and A. E. Anderson collections from the lower Río Grande Valley, as well as surface collections from northern Tamaulipas and Nuevo León, would be an important step toward resolving this difficulty. Unit 1-2 At this general level of abstraction, then, the Abasolo tradition (as viewed here) presents a picture of cultural homogeneity over a large region, which includes much of Northeast Mexico. With the introduction of the bow and arrow, this impression changes. Arrow points vary in form and themselves create quite different assemblages from one locality to another across Northeast Mexico. Other small, chipped-stone tools, such as crescents and stemmed scrapers, appear to be equally variable. Ceramics may or may not be present. When one considers how few sites have been excavated, the great distances separating them, as well as the cultural diversity so far encountered, the futility of detailed comparative statements can be understood. One pattern does emerge: the arrow-point component of La Calsada and that of Cueva de la Zona are very similar. The arrow points described by McClurkan (1966) as of the Fresno, Starr, and Toyah types at Cueva de la Zona encompass the morphological variation found in arrow points from La Calsada. Small, crescentic bifaces and small, stemmed scrapers from the two sites are also very similar. It seems very likely that the two components will be subsumed within a single phase, as cultural syntheses on this time level become possible in Nuevo León.

7 Queries and Problems: La Calsada and the Prehistory of Northeast Mexico

La Calsada and Early Man in Mexico Given the considerable antiquity of Unit 6, we can explore the issue of when humans arrived in Mexico and contemplate how La Calsada contributes to understanding initial human migrations into Mexico and the spread and development of this region's earliest cultures. There is some evidence supporting the existence of cultures in Northeast Mexico that predate occupation at La Calsada by thousands of years. The first occupation at San Isidro consists of heavy percussion artifacts (including bifaces, pebble tools, and crudely worked flakes) thinly spread over the site. Thinned bifaces may also have been present; at least, the heavy percussion artifacts were found associated with bifacial thinning flakes. Epstein (1969: 121) suggests that this first occupation could be taken to represent Krieger's (1964) pre-projectile-point stage. Another example is the Diablo complex, excavated by MacNeish from terrace deposits at the base of fill in Diablo Cave, Sierra de Tamaulipas. The complex consists of eleven tools, which include "crude ovoid knives, a large pebble scraper, large crude flake scrapers, and choppers made from flint cores" (MacNeish 1958: 26). The Diablo complex stratigraphically predates a component of the Lerma phase, and has an estimated age of 11,000 to 12,000 years ago (MacNeish 1958: 199) or possibly 15,000 to 30,000 years ago (MacNeish 1986: 98).

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

Lorenzo (1967) assigned pre-projectile-point complexes in Mexico to the Arqueolítico horizon and listed several assemblages in addition to the Diablo complex. More recently, MacNeish (1976) and MacNeish and Nelken-Terner (1983) hypothesized three early stages in the New World that predate 11,000 to 10,000 years B.P., and have identified several sites in Mexico with each. Currently, there are three sites in Mexico for which very early absolute dates have been obtained. One is Tlapacoya (Lorenzo and Mirambell, eds. 1986) in the Valley of Mexico. During excavation of this site, several lithic artifacts were found to be associated with charcoal, and were dated by carbon-14 assay to ca. 24,000 to 22,000 years B.P. (Mirambell 1986: 207-215). At another locality, Hueyatlaco, Valsequillo (Irwin-Williams 1967), a few stone tools were found associated with horse, camel, and mastodon bones. Radiocarbon and uranium-series assays date scattered finds of tools and animal bones between 30,000 and 20,000 years B.P. (Szabo et al. 1969). The third site, Rancho La Ampola, is in northern San Luis Potosí, not far from Matehuala. Here, a single discoidal scraper and a fire hearth were excavated near an ancient spring and radiocarbon dated between 32,000 and 33,000 years ago (Lorenzo and Mirambell 1986). All of the above sites and site components may represent human groups that were the progenitors of early cultures at La Calsada. That is, the earliest populations at La Calsada may have been of cultures that already had benefited from 10,000 to 20,000 years of autochthonous development in Mexico. On the other hand, these very early sites are all difficult to evaluate. They are either undated or else involve very few artifacts. There is also the problem that, in Mexico, some 10,000 years seemingly elapsed between the possible occupation of these very early sites and both the arrival of Clovis hunters to Mexico and the contemporary or soon-to-follow substantial early occupation of La Calsada, ca. 8500 B.c. Perhaps, as Haynes (1970) suggested for all of North America, these and other early cultures that arrived prior to 30,000 years ago did not adapt successfully. Populations may have remained small, to be replaced by later immigrants, 11,000 to 12,000 years ago. At the same time, it must be stressed that very little preceramic archaeology has been carried out in Mexico, and that negative evidence, in the form of a long gap in such a potential archaeological sequence of 30,000 years, at this point means little. If the contribution of inhabitants of these sites to developments at La Calsada is problematical, relationships between Clovis and

Queries and Problems

133

Folsom cultures, on the one hand, and early components at La Calsada, on the other, are also unclear. Clovis points have been documented for much of South Texas and are reported for the Big Bend and elsewhere in West Texas (Campbell 1970: 67-68; Hester 1977: Fig. 1; Meltzer 1987). They also have been found widely dispersed over north-central and northwestern Mexico. (References are reviewed in Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda 1961; see also DiPeso 1965, Lorenzo 1964, and Robles Ortiz 1974. Bray, 1978 and 1980, and MacNeish and Nelken-Terner, 1983, cite other sources for Mexico and Central America as far south as Panama. A single Folsom point from Chihuahua is reported in Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda 1961). Clovis points are yet to be documented for Northeast Mexico. Unfortunately, most of the literature for north-central and northwestern Mexico refers only to isolated surface finds of Clovis points. The exception is the paper by Robles Ortiz (1974), which describes surface collections from Sonora. These include Clovis fluted points and associated stone tools, the latter consisting of large bifaces and end-of-blade scrapers, with graver spurs at the ends of unifacially prepared edges. The issue is whether the Clovis, or Llano, complex in northern Mexico predates initial occupation at La Calsada. If it does, we can suggest that Clovis big-game hunters diversified, moved into the Sierra Madre Oriental, switched from mammoth hunting and an economic focus on Late Pleistocene plains resources, and proceeded to exploit plants and animals in this new, montane environment. Clovis hunters probably arrived in the region between 10,000 and 9000 B.C., but the beginning date for occupation at La Calsada is unclear. The earliest radiocarbon date for Unit 6 is 8690 ±210 years B.C. The charcoal sample for this date was obtained from Levels 5 and 6, and relatively few artifacts were found below this depth. Table 18 summarizes the distribution of artifacts by Form in levels below Level 6. As can be seen, 21 tools were excavated from Levels 7 and 8 and an additional thirteen artifacts from Levels 9 to 15. No thinned bifaces or thinned-biface fragments were found below Level 8, and the existence of an early distinctive culture at the site, one that might predate Clovis, is a possibility. On the other hand, down-mixing of tools into sterile deposits may have been a factor, and this is suggested by the more recent date derived from a deeper sample (7600 ± 130 years B.C., Levels 12-13). The 8690 B.c. assay may come close to dating initial occupation at La Calsada, and the idea of Clovis antecedents is a plausible alternative. The early tradition found in Units 5 and 6 might have originated

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

Table 18 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Unit 6 Artifacts by F o r m a n d Level, Below Level 6 Form Diamond-shaped point Point fragment, ovoid base Knife/preform fragment, tip Tabular plane biface Irregular spall, biface edge Unique biface Thinned biface fragment Fragment, bifacially flaked Tabular plane uniface Tabular plane uniface Tabular plane uniface Tabular plane uniface Nontabular plane uniface Flake uniface Spall uniface Spall uniface Spall uniface Spall uniface Uniface fragment Used flake Used spall Narrow multiface Total a

Form No.

7

8

9

10

Level 11

12

13 14-15

17

1

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

39

—

1

—

—

—

—

—

—

47 67

— —

1 —

— 1

— —

— —

— —

— —

— 2

69 81

— 1

1 1a

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

— —

84

1

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

— — — — 1

1 — — — 1

— 1 — —

_ — — — —

_ — — — —

— 1 — — 1 1 — 1 1 —

— — — 1 3 — 2 _ — —

— — — — — — —

— 1 1 — — — — l — 1

9

12

8 5 86 88 91 94 97 99 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111

_

_

1 — 1 —

_ — — — —

_ — — — —

1 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 — — — — — — — — — — _ _ _ _ _ 1 — — — — — — — 4

3

0

0

0

— —

6

Artifact recovered in two fragments from consecutive levels of the same square.

Queries and Problems

135

in earlier Mexican cultures or through the adaptation of Llanocomplex cultures to mountainous environments. A third explanation would derive this tradition from South America. Projectile points from Guitarrero Cave (Lynch, ed. 1980) and Pachamachay Cave (Rick 1980) in Peru resemble those from Unit 6 more than those of any early assemblage in North America. Early levels of these two sites are dated respectively as early as 12,500 and 11,800 years B.P. Other South American sites with early dates include Tagua Tagua in central Chile with a radiocarbon date of 11,400 years B.P. (Montane 1968); Monte Verde, also in Chile, with an apparent occupation layer dated between 14,000 and 12,000 years B.P. (Dillehay et al. 1982; Dillehay 1986); and El Jobo complex sites in northern Venezuela (Bryan et al. 1978; Gruhn and Bryan 1984), where burned mastodon and glyptodon bones, in association with stone tools, were radiocarbon dated between 16,000 and 14,000 years B.P. These and other South American sites purported to date before 11,000 B.P. are not without controversy (e.g., Bryan 1975; Nunez 1983: 162; Schmitz 1987; Lynch 1990; Dillehay and Collins 1991; Gruhn and Bryan 1991; Lynch 1991), but considered together, they do suggest the existence of pre-Clovis cultures in South America. Some years ago, Wendorf (1966) compared the Clovis (Llano) complex to Upper Paleolithic assemblages in the Far East and Siberia. Finding strong dissimilarities, he suggested American development of the distinctive Clovis industry from early cultures that migrated to the New World between 25,000 and 18,000 B.c., and that these pre-Clovis cultures might have been located in Mexico or South America. If there were reversed or northward migrations with warming trends at the end of the Pleistocene, human groups already adapted to the Andes might have moved as far north as the northern terminus of the Sierra Madre Oriental. Hard data are so limited at this point, however, that many alternative hypotheses along these lines are possible. This early montane tradition may have developed in Mexico and the Andes simultaneously, or we might be dealing with only the stimulus diffusion of projectile-point forms. Accompanying uniface tools are dissimilar. Those from Guitarrero and Pachamachay Caves are finely worked, elongated flakes without gravers or spur-scraper combination edges. These combination tools are characteristic of Paleo-Indian assemblages in North America. At this point, all of these hypotheses are preliminary, to be refined and limited through additional research. What this study has accom-

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

plished is the identification of an early cultural tradition in Northeast Mexico, which was present by 8500 B.c., and which persisted for some three thousand years. Possibly, the same tradition was extant during El Riego times in the Tehuacan Valley. Its origins are as yet unclear. Two Models of Climatic Change for Northeast Mexico In their 1980 reconstruction of the climatic history of Northeast Mexico, Bryant and Riskind (1980: 24) described a relatively cool, wet climate, persisting after the end of the Pleistocene until ca. 6000 B.C. Tree lines were farther downslope in the Sierra Madre Oriental than at present. This is to say that vegetation zones were similar to those at present, but simply existed at lower elevations in the landscape. At 6000 B.C., a warming trend ensued and desert environments expanded at the expense of woodlands. The climatic record after that date in Northeast Mexico is unclear (Bryant and Riskind 1980), due to a lack of information. The only palynological research in the region is the work of Meyer (1973, 1975) in the Cuatro Cienegas Basin of Coahuila. For the Amistad Reservoir area of Southwest Texas, Bryant (1966; see also Bryant 1969 and 1977; Bryant and Shafer 1977; and Bryant and Holloway 1985) developed a detailed climatic sequence based mainly on palynological sequences from Bonfire Shelter (Bryant 1969) and the Devil's Mouth site (Bryant 1966; Bryant and Larson 1968). After 8000 B.C., according to this interpretation, the climate changed toward progressively warmer and drier conditions, a trend that continued until the modern era. These trends were interrupted once by a brief mesic period, dated to around 500 B.C. (Shafer, 1986: 45-46, now sees a second such mesic period beginning ca. 1300 A.D. and persisting into historic times.) I took a different approach to the regional climatic sequence, and explored possibilities that a climatic sequence like that proposed by Antevs occurred in Texas and Northeast Mexico (Nance 1972). Antevs (1955, 1962) proposed the existence of an Altithermal, a period with a climate warmer and drier than present, which lasted from 5500 to 2500 B.C. This was preceded by the Anathermal, a relatively cool, wet period dating from the end of the Pleistocene (ca. 8000 B.C.), and followed by the Medithermal, a period when the climate became mesic and continued so to the present time. The evidence I examined (1972) was cultural. In the Amistad Res-

Queries and Problems

137

ervoir, this evidence consisted of changing projectile-point distributions, which indicated settlement-pattern changes during and after the Altithermal. Altithermal occupation tended to be limited to sites near major rivers. Settlement patterns before and after the Altithermal were more diffuse (Nance 1972: 171-174). In Northeast Mexico, settlement-pattern data suggested very limited occupation during the Altithermal, but more substantial occupation before and after. The Abasolo tradition, as discussed above, may not date prior to 3000 B.C. If so, the only component of Altithermal age in Northeast Mexico is Unit 4 of La Calsada (Nance 1972: 174-176). Subsequent research by Heartfield (1975, 1976) has not altered the situation. Heartfield found no definite evidence of occupation during the Altithermal for the Desierto de Charcos de Risa or the Laguna Mayran. Partial depopulation of Northeast Mexico may have occurred and been due to the Altithermal and the impact of this climate on the regional environment, paralleling developments on the Great Plains of the United States (Wedel 1964). Archaeologists working in the Amistad area generally have rejected Antev's scheme, at least as applied to that locality (e.g., L. Johnson 1963; Alexander 1970,1974; Marmaduke 1978), but sufficient reason seems to exist to raise the issue once again. In the first place, the model proposed by Bryant is not well-supported in every aspect, at least not directly by all data from the reservoir or nearby sites. The mesic interlude of approximately 500 B.C. was said to coincide with the brief return of bison herds to the region, as evidenced by bison bone in Bone Bed 3 of Bonfire Shelter (Bryant 1977: 18). Yet the late peak in pine pollen (indicative of mesic conditions, Bryant 1969: 122) at that site occurs in the two .5-foot levels below the base of Bone Bed 3 (Bryant 1969: 63). A hearth located .8 feet below the base of Bone Bed 3 yielded a carbon-14 date of 7240 ± 220 years B.P., a date considered reliable by Dibble and Lorraine (1968: 40). In a second pollen sequence published for Bonfire Shelter (Hevly 1966: Fig. 25), this late peak in pine pollen occurs deeper in the deposits, 2.5 feet below Bone Bed 3. It seems possible that the increased rain of pine pollen began several thousand years before the Bone Bed 3 bison kill, dated by radiocarbon assay to ca. 500 B.C. (Dibble and Lorraine 1968: 51). Another problem is the scarcity of pollen data known to be of Altithermal age. In 1977, Bryant stated that no deposit in the Amistad Reservoir definitely had produced a pollen record for the time span assigned to the Altithermal (Bryant 1977: 17; except possibly the in-

138

The Archaeology of La Calsada

complete sequence from Centipede and Damp Caves, cf. Bryant and Holloway 1985: 56; Johnson 1963). Since then pollen for this period has been studied from Hinds Cave (Dering 1979), but Hinds Cave is located ca. 54 miles northwest of the western end of the Amistad Reservoir, and the pollen sequence there ends about 2000 B.C. That is, the site did not yield a complete sequence, and the information might prove difficult to interpolate with data from the Amistad. The question of the nature of climatic change in the region before and after 2500 B.C. remains open. There is some evidence for economic change in the cultural record of the Amistad that might be compatible with the climatic shifts of the Antevs scheme, although so far the evidence has been interpreted quite differently. One possible trend is an increase in the consumption of agave and other desert succulents after 2500 B.c. Marmaduke (1978: 226), summarizing information from Conejo Shelter (Alexander 1974), saw a dramatic increase in the use of agave at that site after 2500 B.c. Marmaduke also mentions the large quantities of agave recovered from Parida Cave, a site initially occupied after 2500 B.C. (Alexander 1970). Finally, Marmaduke (1978: 147-222) examined data from Campbell's (1970) survey of Big Bend National Park and other surface survey data from the Trans-Pecos region. He notes that burned-rock midden-ring sites date after 1900 B.C. in that area and became plentiful only after A.D. 0. Since these middens are linked through ethnographic and ethnohistorical descriptions to the roasting of agave and sotol (Greer 1965; Marmaduke 1978: 211-214), Marmaduke interprets the chronology of ring middens to indicate an increased regional emphasis of agave and sotol consumption during this period. He attributes all of these data, however, to increased aridity; desert succulents such as agave became abundant in the environment due to more arid conditions. It seems to me, however, that just the opposite argument can be made. The Amistad region today is not true desert, but manifests a semiarid environment on the periphery of the Chihuahuan Desert. If these plants are abundant in the present environment (or would be without the impact of overgrazing), they might have been less so under more arid conditions. These plants, including agave, sotol, and yucca, are not ubiquitous today in the Chihuahuan Desert, but tend to be localized in areas of relatively high elevation (Shreve 1939; Muller 1947)—presumably areas with higher levels of effective precipitation. In short, an increased presence of desert succulents in the Amistad region after 2500 B.c. could

Queries and Problems

139

have been produced either by a climate becoming progressively more xeric or, alternatively, by climatic change toward more mesic conditions, depending on the nature of the climate during the period, 5500 to 2500 B.C. There is also some evidence that deer hunting became more important at about the same time. The distribution of deer bone at Conejo Shelter suggests that deer hunting increased markedly after 2500 B.c., but fell off soon afterward, at ca. 1250 B.c. (Marmaduke 1978: 226). Douglas (Word and Douglas 1970), in an analysis of animal bone from Baker Cave, reported a slight increase in deer hunting at that site after 2500 B.c. and a further increase between 1000 B.c. and A.D. 1000. Deer-bone percentages show a similar increase at Eagle Cave in Stratum IId and above (Raun 1966: Fig. 31); this stratum has an average carbon-14 date of ca. 2800 B.c. (Ross 1965: 19). At Hinds Cave (Lord 1984: Fig. 11), deer consumption (described in terms of minimal number of animals and total meat weight), reached a maximum for analytic units 3-5 and 3, with radiocarbon dates between 3760 B.c. and 1730 B.c. (Lord 1984: 35-37). If these data represent a general trend for the Amistad area, it is possible that a more mesic (Medithermal) climate increased the environmental carrying capacity for deer, and that more deer hunting resulted. It is difficult to understand how a more xeric environment would have produced the same trend. Finally, we can briefly consider the subject of changes in human population and evidence for changing settlement patterns. As mentioned above, it is clear that in Northeast Mexico ample evidence exists for human occupation before 5000 B.c. and after 2500 B.c., while the intervening period is represented by only one clearly dated component, Unit 4 at La Calsada. The same pattern, that is, the absence of archaeological sites dated between 5500 and 2500 B.C., holds for most of the Great Plains in the United States. As Frison et al. (1976) indicate, bison-kill sites of Altithermal age have been identified on the periphery of the Plains, but these tend to be at high elevations and along streams that extend back into the adjacent mountain ranges (and are analogous to La Calsada with its mountainous setting). Given these parallel histories, one would expect to find comparable settlement patterns and economic shifts in the intervening region of Texas. Economically, some evidence exists that Indians in Texas were adapting to similar changes in the environment. Dillehay (1974) showed that evidence for prehistoric bison hunting in Texas was lim-

140

The Archaeology of La Calsada

ited to 10,000 to 5500 B.C. and 2500 B.c. to A.D. 500, as well as to historic times (cf. Turpin 1987 for the Amistad region), extending the pattern described for the Great Plains to the south. [Alexander (1974: 49), Marmaduke (1978: 86), and Shafer (1986: 45) see the later prehistoric period of bison hunting in the Amistad as limited to Bryant's mesic interval (ca. 500 B.C.), but the data are not entirely consistent with this idea. For Eagle Cave, bison bones are reported from Strata I, IIa, and III (Raun 1966: 213); Stratum Ha is carbon-14 dated between 1620 and 1300 B.C., while Stratum III yielded two dates: 4380-3940 B.C. and 2650-2170 B.C. (ROSS 1965: 15, 19).] Settlement-pattern shifts in Texas are partially consistent with data from the Great Plains and Northeast Mexico. Relatively few early (pre-5500 B.C.) sites have been documented in Texas compared to those of later dates, and no evidence exists of depopulation in the form of a decrease in number of sites occupied after that date. However, substantial increases occur in site occupations after 3000 to 2500 B.C. in the Amistad (Marmaduke 1978: Fig. 23), Central Texas (Weir 1976: 124-125; Prewitt 1985: Fig. 6), and South Texas (Black 1988: 4.45). In summary, two models for climatic change have been discussed. One, proposed by Bryant, is largely consistent with palynological data from the Amistad region. The second, proposed by Antevs, is supported by changing settlement-pattern data from the Plains, from Northeast Mexico, and to some extent from Texas, and also by some economic data generated through research in the Amistad region. At the same time, the Antevs model cannot be rejected on the basis of pollen and subsistence data now available. Climatic Change, La Calsada, and the Prehistory of Northeast Mexico It remains to summarize the archaeology of La Calsada and to attempt to interpret the site sequence in terms of the ideas offered above. This is admittedly a speculative enterprise; the reader at this point must appreciate the paucity of archaeological data for all of Northeast Mexico. How much the La Calsada sequence reflects the local environment and site setting and how representative it is of regional trends are mostly unknown. The following interpretations are tentative but based on available data. It is hoped that they constitute a reasonable hypothetical framework with which to approach future archaeology in the northern Sierra Madre Oriental.

Queries and Problems

141

Unit 6 probably represents substantial occupation by hunters and gatherers, although hunting is the only economic activity clearly indicated in the lithic assemblage. Plane Unifaces with edge wear in the form of fine hinge flaking were possibly used as wood adzes and/ or in working other hard material, such as bone. No food-grinding stones were recovered from Units 4 - 6 , but wooden implements might have been used in processing plant foods, keeping in mind the limited availability of good stone for manufacturing grinding implements. Surface rock in the vicinity is limestone, which is soft and easily weathered. The range and number of tools present suggest occupation not by ephemeral hunting parties but by small bands, with the site serving as a seasonal base camp. People were engaged in the manufacture of tools (including flint knapping), as well as the preparation of food. The climate gradually became warmer during the Unit 6 occupation; this trend continued after 7500 B.c. and the beginning of Unit 5 deposition. There may have been a brief cessation of occupation, a period suggested by the nonconformity (erosional surface) between Units 5 and 6. During the period of Unit 5, less frost action and, hence, a warming climate, is indicated by a reduced number of large, angular spalls in the fill. It could be that people had already started to use desert succulents not only as food but also as raw materials for artifacts. This may account for the changes in tool weights and edgewear patterns. Increased polishing may be the result of working these relatively soft plant materials. A contemporary (Golondrina) occupation at Baker Cave in the Amistad region produced a Clear Fork gouge with fiber residues that may be from succulent plants (Hester 1983: 109; Chadderdon 1983). Early deposits of this same site contained the remains of nopal and mesquite as well as animal bones from a variety of small mammals and reptiles. Agave pollen was recovered from coprolites which were collected from Frightful Cave in Coahuila and which were carbon-14 dated between 7500 and 5000 B.C. (Bryant 1975). Desert succulents had been integrated into the economy of Northeast Mexico—into the Chihuahuan Desert and its periphery—by 7500 to 6000 B.C. This likely was the case at La Calsada, as well, given its position on the eastern edge of this desert and given also the presence of these same plants in the vicinity of La Calsada today. Occupational intensity seems to have fallen off during the Unit 5 period, as suggested by the deposition of fewer artifacts through time. A total of 217 artifacts accumulated in the excavated portion of

142

The Archaeology of La Calsada

Unit 6 over roughly 1,000 years, or, 21.7 artifacts per 100 years. For Unit 5, 266 tools accumulated over approximately 2,500 years, resulting in a deposition rate of 10.6 artifacts per 100 years. It is impossible to say whether this decrease is due to fewer actual occupations, occupations of shorter duration, habitation by smaller bands or family units, or some or all of these factors combined. Hunting continued as part of subsistence, as evidenced by the hundreds of small, deteriorated bone fragments encountered in the Unit 5 deposit. Deer and beaver bones were recovered from Lerma levels in the Sierra de Tamaulipas (MacNeish 1958: 142). Bryant and Riskind (1980) would not speculate on the climatic sequence in Northeast Mexico after 6000 B.C., but, according to both Bryant's model for the Amistad and the scheme of Antevs, the climate became progressively warmer and drier after 5500 B.c. Unit 4 shows a sharp decline in occupational intensity that may be related to these environmental changes, with 107 tools deposited over 2,000 years, or 5.4 artifacts per 100 years. Projectile points indicate a continuation of hunting in subsistence activities, but the early lithic tradition of Units 5 and 6 now appears to be in a deteriorated state. More artifacts are expedient tools, unmodified flakes and spalls with unprepared, worn edges. The amount of talus in the unit declines and a rock-free zone can be discerned within the shelter and extending (in the wheelbarrow-access trench) outside the overhang. Unit 3 marks a sharp cultural change from Unit 4, with the appearance of the Abasolo tradition. Occupational intensity appears to decline slightly again, with 98 artifacts deposited over a 2,000-year period (3000-1000 B.C.), or a rate of tool accumulation of 4.9 per 100 years. Large ovoid and triangular points, as suggested above, may indicate an economic shift to more intense exploitation of succulents such as agave, which grows in the immediate site environment today. Hunting probably continued as well; deer and other animal bones were excavated from Nogales-phase components in the Sierra de Tamaulipas (MacNeish 1958: 142-143). There is more broken rock in Unit 3 than 4, but changing amounts of talus may not be an accurate measure of frost action. Some of these angular fragments may be fire broken, having been collected and used in baking and stone boiling. Unit 3, in fact, may be a weathered burned rock midden. After 3000 B.c., the history of occupation at La Calsada may not reflect in an immediate way the regional climatic history. There is no marked increase in occupation debris for Unit 3, which might represent a post-Altithermal popula-

Queries and Problems

143

tion increase. Alternatively, there is no significant increase in debris for lower Unit 2, which could be assigned to the period of Bryant's late-mesic interval of ca. 500 B.c. Early occupation at La Calsada might have been facilitated by a nearby spring, which dried up around 5000 B.C., recalling here that no reliable source of water exists within a half hour's walk of the site at the present time. What is interesting is the regional perspective. If ovoid and triangular points of the Abasolo tradition reflect an increased emphasis on succulent-plant foods, then an economic shift to these plants between 3000 and 2500 B.C. might have coincided with the increased reliance on agave and sotol suggested by Marmaduke, which began in the Amistad and other areas of Southwest Texas about the same time. That is, there may have been a general economic shift over a large part of Northeast Mexico and adjacent areas of Texas that was a response to widespread environmental change. Whether this was due to increasingly arid conditions, as Marmaduke and the Bryant model suggest, or whether these plants proliferated in a more mesic environment following the Altithermal is a question for future research. The second sharp break in the La Calsada cultural sequence occurred in upper Unit 1-2. Artifacts suddenly increased in number and sharply decreased in size. Small, notched bifaces signal the introduction of the bow and arrow. Small chipped-stone crescents and stemmed scrapers along with the arrow points indicate the presence of an entirely different lithic technology, one that emphasized the use of high-quality material (gray vs. black chert) and conservation of this material through the production of small tools. These same crescents and scrapers might have tipped long sticks for use in the extraction of agave crowns. Small manos (introduced in Unit 3) directly point to plant-food processing. Given the increased efficiency of the bow and arrow over the dart and atlatl, hunting probably became more important. The abundance of arrow points recovered at La Calsada, contemporary faunal remains from the Sierra de Tamaulipas (MacNeish 1958: 142-143), and the ethnohistorical literature (cf. Chapter 1) also suggest this conclusion. Also, high occupational intensity is indicated by a tool-deposition rate of at least 35.1 per 100 years. A great deal of archaeology will be necessary in the northern Sierra Madre Oriental in order to begin to understand the settlement and subsistence patterns of these latest inhabitants of La Calsada.

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Figures

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Figure 1. Archaeological sites and localities in Northeast Mexico

148

The Archaeology of La Calsada

Figure 2. Central Nuevo León: La Calsada and nearby sites

Figures

Figure 3. Vegetation, immediate vicinity of site

149

Figure 4. Contour map of La Calsada

150 The Archaeology of La Calsada

Figures

Figure 5. La Calsada: Excavation area viewed from opposite cliff

151

152

The Archaeology of La Calsada

Figure 6. Map of excavated area

Figures

Figure 7. Site deposits, S2-6, W4 (from west to east)

153

154

The Archaeology of La Calsada

Figure 8. Site deposits: Top of Unit 4, Square S4-6W2-4 (from west to east)

Figures

155

Figure 10. Stratigraphic drawing, S2-6, EO (with differences in talus content and soil structure schematically represented)

156

The Archaeology of La Calsada

Figure 11. Stratigraphic drawing, S2-6, E2. (Stippled areas denote large rocks and cliff.)

Figure 12. Stratigraphic drawing, WO-6, S4. (Stippled areas denote large rocks.)

Figure 13. Stratigraphic drawing, W6-E2, S6. (Stippled areas represent large rocks. The position of Unit 1-2 was unclear for the entire profile.)

Figures

157

158

The Archaeology of La Calsada Artifact

Form

Unit

A Β C D E F G Η I J Κ L Μ Ν O Ρ Q R S

1 1 1 3 5 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 9 8 9 8 9 7 8

1-2 1-2 1-2 ρ 3 1-2 1-2 1-2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 1-2 3

Cat. No.

128 1186

123 783 1309

891 150 1371 1055 1041

466 457 547 476 548 1042

833 374 1054

Figures

Figure 14. Points, Forms 1-5, 7 - 9 . (Artifacts have been painted to achieve contrast.)

159

160

The Archaeology of La Calsada Artifact

Form

Unit

A Β C D E F G Η I J Κ L Μ Ν O Ρ Q

6 10 11 11 14 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 14 15 15

5 5 3 3 6 ? 5 5 4-5 5 4-5 5 5 6 6 6 5

Cat. No.

432 1332

940 1328

684 92 1275 1206

604 1329

607 511 34 800 1132

665 806

Figures

Figure 15. Points, Forms 6, 10-15

161

162

The Archaeology of La Calsada Artifact

Form

Unit

Cat. No.

A Β C D E F G Η I J Κ L Μ Ν O Ρ Q R S Τ

15 16 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 17 17 18 18 19 20 20 20 20 20 22 21 23

6 6

623 155 418 63 426

υ ν

6 ? 6 6 6 ? ? 6 6 3 5 Surface

1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 3 1-2 3

1146

222 559 561 1222 1317 1318 1343 1431

210 357 635 690 1373 1043 1391 1347

Figures

Figure 16. Points, Forms 1 5 - 2 3

163

The Archaeology of La Calsada

164 Artifact

Form

Unit

Car. No.

A Β C D E F G Η I J Κ L Μ Ν O Ρ Q R

24 24 25 25 26 27 27 27 28 28 28 28 30 29 30 30 30 30

5 5 6 5 5 3 3 4 4 ? 6 4 5 6 6 4 4 5

813 815 233 480 405 848 845 1269

44 470 595 1232

795 1019

156 639 679 767

Figures

Figure 17. Points, Forms 2 4 - 3 0

165

166

The Archaeology of La Calsada Artifact

Form

Unit

Cat. No.

A Β C D E F G Η I J Κ L Μ Ν O

30 30 31 31 31 32 32 32 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

4 4 5 6 6 ? 1-2 3 4 1-2 3 4 5 5 6

1268 1323

812 598 1144

260 687 844 860 894 835 838 435 811 1020

Figures

Figure 18. Points, Forms 3 0 - 3 8

167

The Archaeology of La Calsada

168 Artifact

Form

Unit

Cat. No.

A Β C D E F G Η I J Κ L Μ Ν O Ρ

44 44 44 44 44 44 45 45 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46

? 3 1-2

81 551

Surface

3 3 2 3 5 ? 4 6 5 5 4 4

1061 1427 1306 1313

870 1056

19 25 391 683 809 909 1244 1294

Figures

Figure 19. Large Knives/Preforms, Forms 4 4 - 4 6

169

The Archaeology of La Calsada

170 Artifact

A Β C D E F G Η I J Κ L Μ Ν O Ρ Q R S Τ

υ ν w χ

Y Z

ΑΑ BB

CC DD EE FF GG HH

Form

Unit

49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51

1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 ? 1-2 ? 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 Surface

1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2

Cat. No.

206 366 523 726 876 921 988 1028 1031 1037 1163 1196

72 337 441 509 544 727 884 885 976 1034 1080 1432

208 209 572 881 989 994 1078 1188 1203 1242

Figures

Figure 20. Arrow Points, Forms 49-51

171

172

The Archaeology of La Calsada Artifact

Form

Unit

Cat. No.

A Β C D E F G Η I J Κ L Μ Ν O Ρ Q R S Τ

52 52 52 52 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 60 60 60 60 60

1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 ρ 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 ρ 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2

541 568 975

υ ν w χ

Y ζ

1201

267 302 340 518 566 733 871 875 982 996 1075 1076 1077 1102 1164 1185 1241

187 211 304 364 731

Figures

Figure 21. Arrow Points, Form 52; Crescents, Forms 5 9 - 6 0

173

174

The Archaeology of La Calsada Artifact

Form

Unit

Cat. No.

A Β C

62 62 62

Surface

1430 1051 1172

3 1-2

Artifact

Form

Unit

Cat. No.

A

80

6

696

Β

82

6

485

Figures

Figure 22A. Small, Stemmed Scrapers, Form 62

Figure 22B. Unique Bifaces, Forms 80 and 82

175

176

The Archaeology of La Calsada Artifact

Form

Unit

Cat. No.

A Β C D E F G Η

63 63 64 64 65 65 66 66

5 3 5 6 5 4 4 3

798 1305 5 740 854 1248 718 1053

Figures

Figure 23. Other Bifaces, Forms 63-66

177

178

The Archaeology of La Calsada Artifact

Form

Unit

Cat. A

A Β C D E F G Η I J Κ

67 67 67 68 68 69 69 70 71 72 73

6 6 5 1-2 6 4 4 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2

9 144 1337

410 1233

720 1270 1709

506 524 1180

Figures

Figure 24. Other Bifaces, Forms 6 7 - 7 3

179

The Archaeology of La Calsada

180 Artifact

Form

Unit

Cat. No.

A Β C D E F G

74 75 76 77 81 78 79

4 5 5 5 6 6 6

1230 430 755 846 218 421 612

Figures

Figure 25. Unique Bifaces, Forms 7 4 - 7 9 , 81

181

182

The Archaeology of La Calsada Artifact

Form

Unit

Cat. No.

A

86

1-2

163

Β C D E F G

86 87 87 88 88 89

6 ? 4 3 5 5

681 556 1291 397 440 803

Figures

Figure 26. Simple, Tabular Plane Unifaces, Forms 8 6 - 8 9

183

184

The Archaeology of La Calsada Artifact

Form

Unit

Cat. No.

A Β C D E F G Η

90 90 91 91 92 93 94 94

6 6 6 6 1-2 5 6 5

272 1349 1135 662 1159 1097 100 650

Figures

Figure 27. Complex, Tabular Plane Unifaces, Forms 9 0 - 9 4

185

186

The Archaeology of La Calsada Artifact

Form

Unit

Cat. No.

A Β C

95 95 95

6 6 6

417 1316 1084

Figures

Figure 28. Nontabular Plane Unifaces, Ridgebacked, Form 95

187

The Archaeology of La Calsada

188 Artifact

Form

Unit

Cat. No.

A Β C D E F

96 97 97 98 99 99

6 5 3 5 5 6

1024 757 1280 1251 1002 692

Figures

Figure 29. Nontabular Plane Unifaces, Forms 9 6 - 9 8 ; Flake Unifaces, Form 99

189

190

The Archaeology of La Calsada Unit

Cat. No.

99

3

252

99

1-2

185

99

4

829

99

5

1008

Artifact

Form

A Β C D E

99

5

1330

F

100

6

1219

G Η

101 103

6

217

3

458

I

104

6

11

Figures

Figure 30. Flake Unifaces, Forms 9 9 - 1 0 1 , 103; Irregular-Spall Uniface, Form 104

191

192

The Archaeology of La Calsada Artifact

Form

Unit

Cat. No.

A Β C D E F G Η I J Κ L

104 105 105 106 106 106 106 106 106 111 111 111

6

592 317

5 6 5 6 5 1-2 5 4 4 3 5

1023

55 154 713 729 1255 1354 1245 1052

903

Figures

Figure 31. Irregular-Spall Unifaces, Forms 104-106; Multiface Cores, Form 111

193

194

The Archaeology of La Calsada Artifact

Form

Unit

Cat. No.

A Β C D

112 112 113 114

1-2 5 6 5

892 1336 276 20

Figures

Figure 32. Other Chipped-Stone Artifacts, Forms 112-113; Limestone Artifact, Form 114

195

196

The Archaeology of La Calsada

Figure 33. Limestone Artifact, Form 114 (Unit 2, Cat. No. 890)

Figures

197

Figure 34A. Macrophoto, basal end of Lerma point showing basal and lateral-edge spurs, Form 12 (Unit 4-5, Cat. No. 1235)

Figure 34B. Macrophoto, burinlike edge on break surface, Form 30 (Unit 5, Cat. No. 767)

198

The Archaeology of La Calsada

Artifact Far left (stemmed) Second from left Second from right Far right

Form

Unit

54 57 55 53

1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2

Cat. No. 516 1079 991 344

Figures

199

Figure 35A. Macrophoto, unique arrow points, Forms 53-55; micropoint, Form 57

Figure 35 Β. Macrophoto, worn lateral edge, Large Knife/Preform, Form 44 (Unit ?, Cat. No. 81)

200

The Archaeology of La Calsada

Artifact Far left (smallest) Second from left Center Second from right Far right

Form

Unit

Cat. No.

57 57 57 57 57

1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2

1038 202 135 1060 1388

Figures

Figure 36A. Micropoints, Form 57

Figure 36B. Macrophoto, Unique Flake Uniface, Form 102 (Unit 1-2, Cat. No. 980)

201

202

The Archaeology of La Calsada

Figure 37A. Projection on Plane-Uniface Prepared Edge, Form 87 (Unit 1-2, Cat. No. 166)

Figure 37B. Projection on Irregular-Spall-Uniface Prepared Edge, Form 106 (Unit 5, Cat. No. 1211)

Figures

Figure 38A. Crescent-Fragment descriptive categories

Figure 38B. Plane-Uniface descriptive terminology

203

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Bibliography

Alexander, Η. L. 1963 The Levi site: A Paleo Indian campsite in central Texas. American Antiquity 28: 5 1 0 - 5 2 8 . Alexander, R. K. 1970 Archeological investigations of Parida Cave, Val Verde County, Texas. Papers, Texas Archeological Salvage Project, no. 19. Austin: University of Texas. 1974 The archaeology of Conejo Shelter: A study of cultural stability at an archaic rockshelter site in southwestern Texas. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas at Austin. Amsden, C. A. 1937 The Lake Mohave artifacts. In Archaeology of Pleistocene Lake Mohave: A Symposium. Southwestern Museum Papers, no. 11: 5 1 - 9 8 . Los Angeles. Antevs, E. 1955 Geologic-climatic dating in the West. American Antiquity 20: 317-335. 1962 Late Quaternary climates in Arizona. American Antiquity 28: 193-198. Arguedas R. de la Borbolla, S., and L. Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda 1953 A Plainview point from northern Tamaulipas. American Antiquity 18:392-393. Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda, L. 1951 Reconocimiento arqueológico en la zona de la Presa Internacional Falcón, Tamaulipas y Texas. Revista Mexicana de Estudios Antropológicos 12: 3 1 - 5 9 .

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The Archaeology of La Calsada

1956 La Cueva de la Paila cercana a Parras, Coahuila. In Cueva de la Candelaria, by L. Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda, M. MaldonadoKoerdell, and P. Martínez del Río, 167-202. Mexico City: Instituto de Antropología e Historia. 1961 El primer hallazado Folsom en territorio mexicano y su relación con el complejo de puntas acanladas en Norteamérica. In Homenaje a Pablo Martínez del Río en el XXV aniversario de la edición de los orígenes americanos, 3 1 - 4 8 . Mexico City. 1964 Sobre dos fechas del radiocarbón 14 para la Cueva de la Candelaria, Coahuila. Anales de Antropología 1: 125-130. Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda, L., M. Maldonado-Koerdell, and P. Martínez del Río 1956 Cueva de la Candelaria. Vol. 1, Anales. Memorias del Instituto de Antropología e Historia, vol. 5. Mexico City. Bandelier, F., trans. 1964 The journey of Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca. Chicago: Río Grande Press. Beals, R. L. 1932 The comparative ethnology of northern Mexico before 1750 (with a new Introduction; 1973 ed.). Ibero-Americana, no. 2. New York: Cooper Square Publishers. Black, S. L. 1988 South Texas plains. In A cultural resources overview of Region 3, Southwest Division, Corps of Engineers, edited by T. R. Hester and D. G. Steele, 4.1-4.107. Report to the Arkansas Archeological Survey and the Southwest Division, Corps of Engineers, from the University of Texas at San Antonio and Texas A&M University, College Station. Bray, W. 1978 An eighteenth century reference to a fluted point from Guatemala. American Antiquity 43: 4 5 7 - 4 6 0 . 1980 Fluted points in Mesoamerica and the Isthmus: A reply to Rovner. American Antiquity 45: 168-170. Broyles, B . J . 1966 Preliminary report: The St. Albans site (46 Ka 27), Kanawha County, West Virginia. The West Virginia Archeologist, no. 19. Moundsville: West Virginia Archeological Society. Bryan, A. L. 1965 Paleo-American prehistory. Occasional Papers of the Idaho State University Museum, no. 16. Pocatello. 1975 Letter to the editor. Paleoenvironments and cultural diversity in late Pleistocene South America: A rejoinder to Vance Haynes and a reply to Thomas Lynch. Quaternary Research 5: 151-159.

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Sheets, P. D. 1973 Edge abrasion during biface manufacture. American Antiquity 38: 215-218. Shiner, J. L. 1985 Archeology and the Sheldon site, Hidalgo County, Texas. Bulletin of the Texas Archeological Society 54: 3 0 9 - 3 1 8 . Shreve, F. 1939 Observations on the vegetation of Chihuahua. Madrono 5: 1-48. Smith, C. E., Jr. 1986 Preceramic plant remains from Guila Naquitz. In Guila Naquitz: Archaic foraging and early agriculture in Oaxaca, Mexico, edited by K. V. Flannery, 2 6 5 - 2 7 4 . New York: Academic Press. Sobolik, K. D. 1988 The prehistoric diet and subsistence of the Lower Pecos region, as reflected in coproutes from Baker Cave, Val Verde County, Texas. M.A. thesis, Texas A&M University, College Station. Sorrow, W. M. 1968 The Devil's Mouth site: The third season—1967. Papers, Texas Archeological Salvage Project, no. 14. Austin: University of Texas. Sorrow, W. M., H. J. Shafer, and R. E. Ross 1967 Excavations at the Stillhouse Hollow Reservoir. Papers, Texas Archeological Salvage Project, no. 11. Austin: University of Texas. Spence, M. W. 1971 Some lithic assemblages of western Zacatecas and Durango. Mesoamerican Studies, no. 8. Carbondale: University Museum, Southern Illinois University. Stock, J. A. 1983 The prehistoric diet of Hinds Cave (41W456), Val Verde County, Texas: The coprolite evidence. College Station: Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University. Story, D. Α., and V. M. Bryant, Jr., eds. 1966 A Preliminary study of the paleoecology of the Amistad Reservoir area. Final Report to the National Science Foundation from the University of Texas at Austin. Stuart, L.C. 1964 Fauna of Middle America. In Natural environment and early cultures, edited by R. C. West, 3 1 6 - 3 6 2 . Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol. 1. Austin: University of Texas Press. Suhm, D. Α., A. Krieger, and E. Jelks 1954 An introductory handbook of Texas Archeology. Bulletin of the Texas Archeological Society 25 (whole issue). Szabo, B. J., H. E. Malde, and C. Irwin-Williams 1969 Dilemma posed by uranium-series dates on archaeologically sig-

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Index

Abasolo: complex, 126; points, 46, 119, 127; tradition, 113,127-130,137, 142-143 Abejas phase: 113,124-126 Abri Pataud, site of: xvi adzing tool: 112 agave: consumption of, 138, 142-143; cutting knives, 4 3 - 4 4 , 67; processing, 7 2 - 7 3 , 138, 143; from specified sites, 4 2 - 4 3 , 141; use reported ethnohistorically, 4 - 5 Agave americana: 4, 13. See also maguey plants Agave lecheguilla: 4. See also lechuguilla agriculture: archaeological evidence for, 4; reported ethnohistorically, 5 agua miel: 4, 15 Ajuereado phase: 46, 118-119, 120-123 Alexander, H. L.: 46, 4 9 - 5 0 Alexander, R. K.: 7, 42, 137-138, 140 Alford, J.: xvii Alice Boer site: 52 Almagre: phase, 126; points, 59 alpine-meadow and timberline zone: 13 Altithermal: 136-137, 139, 143 Amistad Reservoir: artifacts from, 57, 59, 67, 127; climatic change,

136-138; economic change, 140, 143; surveys and excavations, 6 - 7 ; during Unit 4 period, 113, 124, 126 Amorphous, Possibly Unfinished, Arrow Points: 70 Amsden, C. Α.: 52 Anderson, A. E.: 7, 130 Andes Mountains: 49, 52, 117, 135 Antevs,E.: 136-138,140,142 anticline: 12-14 antler, as material worked, edge-wear studies of: 112 Archaic: xvii, 6, 41 Arenosa Shelter: 67 Arguedas R. de la Borbolla, S.: 7 Arizona: 67 Arqueolítico horizon: 132 Arrow Points: Basally Notched, 69; comparisons, 71; Fragments of, 71; Side-Notched, 70; terminology discussed, 27; Triangular, 69 artifact: categories, organization of, 2 6 - 2 8 ; form descriptions, 2 6 - 9 5 ; form distributions, 9 6 - 9 7 attribute: defined, 100; distributions, 100-112 Australian Aborigines: 111 Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda, L.: Clovis points, northern Mexico, 133; Cueva

226

Index

de Candelaria, 5 - 6 , 4 1 - 4 4 ; Cueva de Paila, 73; Falcon Reservoir, 7, 117; Santa Isabel Itzapan, 4 9 - 5 0 Baker Cave: 42, 141 Bandelier, F: 2 basally indented stem points: 5 6 - 5 7 battering, type of edge wear, defined: 28 Beals, R.: 3, 5 beaver bone: 118, 142 Biface Gouges: 74 Bifaces, Residual Category: 80 Big Bend National Park, archaeology of: 42, 133, 138 biotic province, Northeast Mexico as: 129 bird hunting, reported ethnohistorically: 4 bison: 137,139-140 Black, S. L.: 140 Bolsón de Delicias: 73 bone: beads, 95, 114; fragments in Unit 5, 20, 142; as material worked, edgewear studies, 112 Bonfire Shelter: 136-137 bows and arrows, reported ethnohistorically: 4 Braniff, B.: xvi Bray, W.: 133 Brazil, São Paulo: 52 Broyles,B.J.: 56 Bryan, A. L.: Alice Boer site, 52; controversial early sites in South America, 135; early projectile-point form chronologies, 4 8 - 4 9 , 51; El Jobo complex, 52, 135; Las Tapiales, 116-117 Bryant, V. M., Jr.: Amistad Reservoir, archaeology of, 7, 55; climatic change, model for, Amistad Reservoir, 136-137, 140, 142-143; climatic change, model for, Northeast Mexico, 136, 140, 142; site-specific palynology, 8 , 4 2 - 4 3 , 138, 141; vegetation of Nuevo León, 13 burins: 60, 117, 126 burned-rock midden rings: 42, 138 Byers, D. S.: 115

Cabeza de Vaca: 2 Calcite Crystals: 95 California: 51, 115 camel bone: 132 Campbell, Τ. Ν.: xv; Big Bend National Park archaeology, 42, 138; Clovis points, 133; ethnohistory, 2-3,5 cane, material worked, edge-wear studies: 67 cannibalism, recorded ethnohistorically: 5 Cascade points: 48, 56 Casillas, Nuevo León: xix, 11-12 Cason, J . R : 7 Castetter, E . R : 4 3 , 73 Catán points: 127 Centipede Cave: 138 Cervantes, Μ.Α.: xvi Chadderdon, Μ. R: 42, 141 Chapman, J.: 56 chert: 102-103; black marine chert, 103 Chihuahua: 133 Chihuahuan Desert: 138, 141 Chile: 135 Chiricahua points: 56 chisel-like projections: 114 classification terminology: 26 Clear Fork Gouges: 74, 123-124, 141 climatic change: in the Amistad region, 136-138; and La Calsada, 141; in Northeast Mexico: 136-140, 142 Clovis: culture, 132, 135; points, 116, 133 Coahuila: central, xv, 51, 124; eastern, xv; environment, 1—2; Indians of, 2 - 5 ; southwestern, 69, 124, 128 Collins, M . B . : 4 , 67, 135 colluvium at La Calsada: 14 Colorado: 114 Complex, Tabular Plane Unifaces: defined, 82; Multidirectional Flaking of Peripheral Surfaces, 84; PlatformPlane Flaked, Multidirectional Flaking of Peripheral Surfaces, 85; Prepared on Two Planes, 8 5 - 8 6 ; Upper-Plane Flaked, 84; UpperPlane Flaked, Multidirectional Flaking of Peripheral Surfaces, 85

Index Conceição, M. de: 52 Conejo Shelter: 42, 138-139 Continuous Edge Bifaces: 7 4 - 7 5 Contracting-Stem Points: Barbed, Units 3 or 4, 4, and 6, 58; general discussion of, 5 8 - 5 9 ; Nonbarbed, Unit 6, 58 coprolites: 42, 141 cornmeal, mentioned by Cabeza de Vaca: 3 Cowgill, G.L.: 100 Coxcatlán: Cave, 120; phase, 113, 124-126 C r a b t r e e , D . E . : 110-112 Crawford, D. D.: 57 crescentic bifaces: 130 Crescents: 72; Crescent Fragments, 73 Cuatro Cienegas Basin: 6, 136 Cueva de Candelaria: 6, 41, 4 3 - 4 4 Cueva de la Jaula, Río Pilón Valley: 11 Cueva de la Sorra: 129 Cueva de la Zona: Abasolo tradition represented at, 126-128; arrowpoint component, 71, 114, 130; contracting stem points, 59; cultural sequence at, xviii, 46; excavation of, xvii, 6; knives, 68; triangular points, 39-41 Cueva de la Zona de Derrumbes: xvii, 6. See also Cueva de la Zona Cueva de los Indios, Río Pilón Valley: 11 Cueva de Paila: 73 Culture Area, concept of: 129 Damon, P.E.: 21 Damp Cave: 138 Danger Cave: 116 Daugherty, R.D.: xviii Davenport, H.: 3 - 4 Davis, E.L.: 110-112 Davis, E. M.: x v - x v i , 21 Debert site: 115 deer: bone, reported archaeologically, 118, 139, 142; hunting of reported ethnohistorically, 4 del Hoyo, E.: xvi, xxi depositional units, described: 18-19 Dering, J.P.: 42, 138

227

Desierto de Charcos de Risa: 7, 137 Devil's Mouth site: 57, 136 Devils River: 6, 42 Diablo complex: 131-132 Diamond-Shaped Points: 117; general comments, 51; Nonstemmed, Unit 6, 51; Stemmed, Unit 6, 50 Dibble, D . S . : 137 Dillehay, T.D.: 135, 139 Dimmit County, Texas: 128 DiPeso, C.C.: 133 Discontinuous Edge Bifaces: 75 Douglas, C. L., 139 drills, 126 drip line, La Calsada: 16, 18 duck hunting, reported ethnohistorically: 5

Eagle Cave: 126,139-140 Early Barbed points: 57 Eastern Woodlands: 113 edge angle, in tool analysis: 111 edge crushing, edge-wear class defined: 28 edge wear: attribute distributions, 106; classes defined, 28 Ejido Emilio Carranza, Río Pilón Valley: 11 El Jobo: complex, 135; points, 52 El Riego phase: 46, 118-125, 136 Ensor points: 57, 97 environmental setting, Northeast Mexico: 1-2 Epstein, J. E : burins, 117; Cueva de la Zona, xvii, 7, 128; knives and projectile points, Northeast Mexico, 38, 4 1 - 4 2 , 4 8 - 4 9 , 127, 129; Northeast Mexico Archaeological Project, 5 - 6 , 11, 16, 41; San Isidro site, xvii, 6, 69, 7 4 - 7 5 , 123-124, 127, 131; surface collections, Nuevo León, 7, 127 ethnohistory, regional: 2—5 ethnonyms, Northeast Mexico: 3 excavations procedures, La Calsada: 15-17 Expanding-Stem Points, (Palmillas Type), Units 3 and 4: 57 extrasite relationships: Unit 1-2, 130;

228

Index

Unit 3, 126-130; Unit 4, 124-126; Unit 5, 118-124; Unit 6,114-117 extratropical dry lands: 3 Falcon Reservoir: 6 - 7 , 41, 44, 59, 127, 130 field crew, described: 17 fine hinge flaking: attribute distributions, 108; defined, 28; distribution compared to polishing, 109; functional considerations, 111 fishing, reported ethnohistorically: 3-5 Fitting, J. E.: 56 Fiacco: phase, 126; points, 52, 123 Flake Bifaces, terminology discussed: 27 Flakes with One Bifacially Flaked or Prepared Edge and/or One Bifacially Prepared Projection: 76 Flakes with Unifacially Prepared Edge(s) and/or Unifacially Prepared Projection(s): 88 Flakes with Worn Edges and/or Projections: 91 Flake Unifaces: Domed, 88; Ridgebacked, 88, terminology discussed, 27 Flannery, K.V.: 116 Folsom cultures: 114, 133 form, artifact, defined: 26 Fragments of Artifacts with at least One Bifacially Flaked Edge: 8 0 - 8 1 Fragments of Unifaces with One Prepared Edge: 90 Fragua points: 51 Fresno arrow points: 71, 130 Frightful Cave: 43, 141 Fulbright Hays Committee: xxi functional considerations (La Calsada artifacts): 110-112 Garyito points: 125 Gary points: 59 glyptodon bones: 52, 135 Golondrina occupation (Baker Cave): 42,141 Gonzales Rul, F.: 7

goose hunting, reported ethnohistorically: 5 Gould, R. Α.: 110-112 grasses, as material worked, edgewear studies of: 67 graver spurs: 114-115, 117 Great Plains: 113, 137, 139-140 Greene, G. S.: xvii—xix, 6, 8, 10 Greer, J. W.: 43, 138 Griffin, W.B.: 3 - 5 grinding stones: 116, 119-120, 123, 126-127 G r u h n , R . : 5 2 , 116-117, 135 guano hunters: xvi Guatemala: 116 Guerra phase: 126 Guila Naquitz, site of: 116 Guitarrero Cave: 52, 117, 135 Gulf Coastal Plain: 2, 113 h a r d w a r e cloth, used at La Calsada: 16 Hartle, D . D . : 7 Haury, E.W.: 27,56, 116 Havasupai: Indians, 43; type of agavecutting knife, 67 H a y d e n , B . : 110 Haynes,C.V.,Jr.: 114,132 Heartfield, L.: archaeological sequence, Coahuila, 124, 128, 137; artifacts, Coahuila, 41, 69, 71; surveys and excavations, Coahuila, 5 - 7 hearths: xvi, 8, 19, 42 Heizer, R . E : 67 Hematite Chunks: 94 heron hunting, reported ethnohistorically: 5 Hester, T. R.: Northeast Mexico, 7 2 - 7 3 , 130; Pinto Basin points, 56; projectile-point typology, problems of, 59; Texas, 4, 42, 59, 128, 133, 141 Hevly, R.H.: 137 Hidalgo points: 121 hide scraping, resultant edge wear: 112 Hinds Cave: 42, 139 Hole, F.: 116 Holloway, R.G.: 4 2 - 4 3 , 136, 138 horse bones: 132

Index Huasteca region: 127 Hughes, J. Τ.: 5 , 7 INAH: See Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia Indented Base Points: general comments about, 56; Units 5 and 6, 55-56 Indians of Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas: 2 - 5 Infiernillo phase: 46, 51 Institute of Latin American Studies, University of Texas at Austin: xxi Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia: x v - x v i , xxi Instituto Tecnológico de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey: xvi, xxi Irregular Spalls: bifaces, terminology discussed, 27; with One Bifacially Flaked or Prepared Edge and/or One Bifacially Prepared Projection, 76; with One Narrowly Concave Prepared Edge, 8 9 - 9 0 ; with One Narrowly Convex Prepared Edge, 89; unifaces, terminology discussed, 27; with a Unifacially Flaked Edge, 90; with Worn Edges and/or Projections, 91 Irwin, H.J.: 27 Irwin, W.: 5 - 6 Irwin-Williams, C : 27, 132 Iturbide, Nuevo León: xvii Itzapan points: 50 Jelks, E . B . : x v - x v i ; Falcon Reservoir, 7; Texas Projectile Points, 38, 41, 54, 5 6 - 5 7 , 59 Jennings, J. D.: 116 Jensen, P. M.: 49 Jiménez Moreno, W.: xv Johnson, F.: 118, 124 Johnson, I. W.: Abasolo tradition, 113, 126-128; Abejas phase, 126; Ajuereado phase, 118-119; biface cores, Tehuacan Valley, 75; Tehuacan Valley projectile points, 46, 49, 5 1 - 5 2 , 55, 57, 123-125 Johnson, L., Jr.: 57, 59, 137-138 Johnson, M. C : 13

229

karst topography: 13 Keeley, L.H.: 110,112 Kelley, J.C.: 129-130 Kotter, S.M.: 7 Krieger, A. D.: ethnohistory, 2; Falcon Reservoir, 7; pre-projectile-point stage, 131; Texas projectile points, 38, 41, 54, 5 6 - 5 7 , 59; typology of, 26,41 La Cebolla, Nuevo León: 12 Laguna Mayran: 7, 69, 71, 128, 137 Laguna phase: 127 Lagunera district, Coahuila: 4 - 5 Lake Mohave site: 51, 113, 115-116 La Mina points: 121 Lanceolate, Bipointed Points: general comments, 4 8 - 4 9 ; Lerma Type, Units 4 and 5, 4 7 - 4 8 ; Narrow Tipped, Unit 6, 48; Short, Unit 6, 48; Unit 3, 4 6 - 4 7 Lanceolate, Straight-Base Points, Units 5 and 6: 4 9 - 5 0 Landslide site: 57 Langtry points: 127 La Perra phase: 126 Large Bifaces, terminology discussed: 27 Large Knives/Preforms: 6 6 - 6 9 ; Fragments with One or Two Adjacent Break Surfaces, 68; general comments, 68; Nonthinned, 67; Partially Thinned, 66; terminology discussed, 26; Thinned, 66; Tip or Base Fragments, 68 Large S t e m m e d Points, Units 5 and 6: 61 Larson, D. Α.: 136 Las Tapiales: 116-117 lechuguilla: 3, 42, 67 León, A. de: 3 - 4 Lerma phase: 118-123,131,142 Lerma points: at La Calsada, 23, 4 7 - 4 8 , 65, 96, 118; late variety, 49; in North America, 48, 56; at the San Isidro site, xvi, 123-124; at Santa Isabel Itzapan, 49; in the Tehuacan Valley, 46,49, 118-119; in Texas, 46,49, 57 Levi Rockshelter: 46, 49

230

Index

Levi Rockshelter: 46, 49 limestone: artifacts at La Calsada, 9 3 - 9 4 ; conglomerate, 12 Linares, Nuevo León: xvii, 6, 103 Lindenmeier site: 114-115 Lister, R. Η.: 56 Llano complex: 133 log cabins: x i x - x x lookout, La Calsada locality as: 15 Lord, K.J.: 139 Lorenzo, J. L.: xvi, 132-133 Lorraine, D.: 137 Lynch, T. F.: 49, 52, 117, 135 McClurkan, Β. Β.: archaeological survey, Nuevo León and Coahuila, xviii, xix, 8, 10; typological problems, 41 —Cueva de la Zona, xvii, 6 - 7 , 127; arrow points, 114, 130; dart points, 3 8 - 4 0 , 46, 5 4 - 5 5 , 57, 59, 128; other chipped-stone tools, 68, 72, 117 McDonald, G.F.: 115 McKean points: 56 MacNeish, R. S.: —Early Man research, 132-133 —Tamaulipas research, xv, 5 - 6 ; archaeological sequences, 118, 124, 127, 131, 142-143; ethnohistory, 3 - 4 ; projectile points, 3 8 - 3 9 , 41, 44, 46, 49, 52, 54, 57, 59, 71; southwest Tamaulipas, 3, 46, 51; surface collections, 7, 130; uniface gouges, 74 —Tehuacan Valley research, archaeological sequence, 113, 118-119, 122, 124, 126-128; biface cores, 75; projectile points, 46, 49, 5 1 - 5 2 , 55, 57, 123-125 Madsen, W.: xν maguey plants: 4 - 5 , 15 maize: 3 m a m m o t h : xvii, 133 Mano and Mano Fragments: 94. See also grinding stones Marmaduke, W. S., Amistad Reservoir: archaeological summary, 7; bison hunting, prehistoric, 140; climate and settlement, changes in, 137, 140; Conejo Shelter, 139; desert succulents, importance of, 42, 138, 143

Martínez del Río, P.: 3 - 5 mastodon: 52, 132, 135 Matamoros points: 38, 4 0 - 4 1 , 97, 127 Matehuala, San Luis Potosí: 132 materials, artifact, attribute distributions: 102-103 meat cutting, resultant edge wear: 112 Medina, P.: 11 Medithermal: 136, 139 Meltzer, D.J.: 133 Mesa del Norte, Coahuila: 2 mescal: 4 Mescalero Apache: 43 mescal knife: See agave, cutting knives mesic interval: 136, 140, 143 mesquite beans: archaeological remains of, 43, 141; recorded ethnohistorically, 3 - 5 Metal Button: 95 Mexico, Valley of: 132 Meyer, E. R.: 136 mice, consumption of, recorded ethnohistorically: 4 microbands: 118-119 Micropoints: 71—72; Micropoint Fragments, 72 microscopy, edge-wear studies: 110 minor edge wear: 108; defined, 28 Mirambell, L.: 132 Mitchell, J. L., 73 Montane, J.: 135 montane-mesic-forest zone: 13 Montell points: 56 Montemorelos, Nuevo León: xvii, xix, 10,12 Monterrey, Nuevo León: xix, xxi, 2 , 6 , 123 Monte Verde, site of: 135 Moratto, M.J.: 52, 115 M o s s , E . H . : 110 Mousterian: 112 Muller, C.H.: 13, 138 Mullerried, F.K.G.: 5,7 Mulloy, W.: 56 Multiface Cores: 9 1 - 9 2 Mussel-Shell Fragment: 95 Nance, C. R.: archaeological survey, Nuevo León, xviii, 8; Ph.D. disserta-

Index tion, 9, 41, 65, 67, 73, 97, 105, 111, 117 Nance, V. Μ.: xxi Naquitz phase: 116 Narrow Multifaces: 93 National Science Foundation: xxi Neiderberger, C : 59 Nelken-Terner, Α.: Abasolo tradition, 113,126-128; Early Man, 132-133, Tehuacan Valley biface cores, 75; Tehuacan Valley projectile points, 46, 49, 5 1 - 5 2 , 55, 57, 123-125; Tehuacan Valley sequence, 118-120, 126 NEMAP: See Northeast Mexico Archaeological Project Neo-American period: xviii Nevada: 67 Newcomer, M.: 110 Nogales: phase, 49, 126, 129; points, 39,41 Nondescript, Thinned-Biface Fragments: 80 Nonstone Artifacts: 95 Nontabular Plane Uniface-Bifaces: 93 Nontabular Plane Unifaces: defined, 81; Domed, 8 6 - 8 7 ; Gougelike, 87; Irregular, 87; Ridgebacked, 86 nopal: archaeological remains of, 42, 141; reported ethnohistorically, 2 - 5 Northeast Mexico Archaeological Project: xv, 5 - 7 Nova Scotia: 115 Nunez, L.: 49, 135 Nunley, P.: ethnohistory, 2 - 3 ; Falcon Reservoir, 7, 41, 44; surface collections, Dimmit County, Texas: 128 Obsidian Flakes: 94 Ocampo phase: 46, 126-127 O d e l l , G . H . : 110,112 Odell-Vereecken, F.: 110, 112 Olsen, S.O.: 95 opuntia, archaeological remains of: 4 2 - 4 3 . See also nopal Other Bifaces, terminology discussed: 27 Other Bifaces and Other Biface Fragments: 7 1 - 8 1 Other Chipped-Stone Artifacts, terminology discussed: 27

231

Other Irregular Spalls with Unifacially Prepared Edge(s) and/or Projection(s): 90 Other Point Fragments: 64 Other Stone Artifacts: 9 1 - 9 5 Other Unifaces, s u m m a r y : 91 Other Unifaces and Uniface Fragments: 8 8 - 9 0 Oval, One-Pointed Points: BluntTipped, Units 3 and 5, 45; general comments, 46; Large, Units 1-2 and 3, 44; Short, Unit 5, 45; Unfinished, Unit 1-2 Ovoid Bifaces: 74 Pachamachay Cave: 117, 135 Paleo-Indian: artifacts, Desierto de Charcos de Risa, 7; artifacts, San Isidro site, xvi, xviii, 6; components in Texas, 50, 57; sites, 114-115, 135 Palmillas points: 57, 62, 97 Parallel Lateral-Edge Stem Points, Units 4, 5, and 6: 60 Parida Cave: 138 Parras Basin, Coahuila: 7, 41 Pedernales points: 56 Pentagonal Points, Small, Units 3 and 5: 52 Perdiz arrow points: 71 Peru: 52, 135. See also Andes Mountains peyote: 4 pheasant hunting, recorded ethnohistorically: 4 Phillips, P.: 129 photography at La Calsada: 17 pièces esquillées: 115 Piña Chan, R.: xxi Pinto Basin points: 56 Plainview points: at the San Isidro site, xvi, xviii, 123-124; in the Tehuacan Valley, 46, 119, 123-124; in Texas, 46, 57 plane flaking, defined: 28 plane-platform, defined: 82 Plane Unifaces: 8 1 - 8 7 ; summary, 87; terminology discussed, 27 platform-plane, defined: 81 Point Fragments: absence from lower

232

Index

Salinas, M.: 3 San Isidro site: xvi-xvii, 6; artifacts, 69, 7 4 - 7 5 ; compared to Unit 5 component, 122-124; Paleo-Indian component, xviii, 131 San Luis Potosí: 132 Santa Isabel Itzapan site: 4 9 - 5 0 Saunders, J. W.: 7 Sayles, E . B . : 56 Schmitz, P.I.: 135 scraper planes: 27, 121, 125 scraper-tipped sticks: 73 Semenov, S.A.: 66 Shafer, H. J.: 7, 4 2 - 4 3 , 67, 136, 140 Sheets, P. D.: 67 Shiner, J. L.: 103 Shoop site: 115 Shreve, F.: 138 Shumla: Caves, 67; points, 127 Siberia: 135 Side-Notched Points: Amorphous, Surface, 53; Double Pair, Unit 1-2, 53; general comments, 54; Single Pair, Quartz Crystals: 94 Unit 1-2, 53; Single Pair, upper Unit 3, 54; Single Pair (Ensorlike), lower radiocarbon dates: corrected, 21; Unit Unit 3, 54 1-2, 25; Unit 3, 24; Unit 4, 24; Unit 5, 23; Unit 6, 2 1 - 2 3 Sierra de Tamaulipas: Abasolo tradiRalph, R.: 6 tion, 126, 128-129; archaeological rancherías, Indian settlements in sequence, 46, 49, 118, 124, 127, 131, 142-143; artifacts, 39, 41, 74; maize Nuevo León: 3 found in, 3 Rancho La Ampola, site of: 132 rats, consumption of, recorded ethnoSierra Madre de Oaxaca: 124 historically: 3 - 5 Sierra Madre Oriental: xvii, 2 - 3 , 113, R a u n , G . G . : 139-140 124 Rayones, Nuevo León: xix, 11-12 Simple, Tabular Plane Unifaces: deRepelo complex: 126, 129 fined, 82; One Long Edge Prepared, 5 - 6 ,Short 128, 130 Edge Prepared, 8 2 Rick, J. W.: 117, 135RíoGrande: xv,82;2, One Río Pilón Valley: xviii-xx, 10-13 83; Prepared around Large Part of PeRiskind,D.H.: 13,43,136,142 riphery, 83; Two Separate Prepared Roberts, F . H . H . , Jr.: 114 Edge Sections, 8 3 - 8 4 ; Unit 5, 23 Robles Ortiz, M.: 133 Small, Incomplete-Stem Points, Units Ross, R. E.: 57, 126,139-140 1-2, 3, and 4:61 Ruecking, F. Κ. Η., Jr.: 3 - 5 Small, Stemmed Scrapers: 73 Rul, Gonzales F.: 7 Small, Thinned Bifaces, terminology discussed: 27 Smith, C. E., Jr.: 116 St. Albans points: 56 snake consumption, reported ethnoSaldívar, G.: 3 historically: 3 - 4 Unit 6, 23; Midsections, 65; with One or Two Adjacent Break Surfaces, 65; Ovoid Bases, 64; Tips, 64-65 Points: absence from lower Unit 6, 23; summary, all forms, 65 points, terminology: 2 6 - 2 7 Points and Point Fragments: 3 8 - 6 5 polishing: attribute distribution, 108; defined, 28; distribution compared to fine hinge flaking, 109 Preclassic culture: 127 prepared-edge outlines, attribute distributions: 101-102 prepared projections, attribute distributions: 105 pre-projectile-point complexes: 131-132 Prewitt, E.R.: 4, 140 proveniences, artifact, by form and stratigraphic unit: 2 8 - 3 7

Index Sobolik, Κ. D.: 42 Sorrow, W. Μ.: 57 sotol: archaeological remains of, 4 2 - 4 3 ; consumption and preparation of, 4, 138, 143; and edge wear, 67 Spence, M.W.:41 spoke shaves: 90 square designations, La Calsada: 15 Starr arrow points: 71, 130 Starr County, Texas: 128 Stemmed Points, s u m m a r y : 62 step flaking: 111 Stephenson, R. L.: 7 Stock, J. Α.: 42 Story, D. Α.: 5, 7. See also Suhm, D. A. strata, distinguishing in the field: 20 stratigraphic drawings, explained: 15, 17 Stuart, L.C.: 129 subalpine-humid-forest zone: 13 subhumid extra tropical lowlands: 2 Suhm, D. Α.: Falcon Reservoir, 7, 41, 127; Texas projectile points, 38, 54, 5 6 - 5 7 , 59. See also Story, D. A. synclinal trough: 12 S z a b o , B . J . : 132 Tabular Plane Bifaces: 7 5 - 7 6 Tabular Plane Unifaces: defined, 81; from lower Unit 6, 23 Tagua Tagua, site of: 135 talus slopes, at La Calsada: 14 Tamaulipan biotic province: 129 Tamaulipas: xv, 1-2; Indians of, 2 - 5 ; northern, 71, 126-127, 130; southern, 127; southwest, 46, 51, 126 Taylor, W. W.: artifacts from Coahuila, 51, 71; excavations in Coahuila, xv, 5, 43, 124, 128; Indians and archaeology of Coahuila, 3; surface collections, Amistad Reservoir, 7 Tehuacan Valley: 46, 113, 118, 124; archaeological sequence, 121-122, 124, 126,136 Texas: Archaeological Research Laboratory, 128; Central, 46, 49, 59, 128, 140; East, 59; Gulf Coast, 2; South,

233

46, 113, 127, 133, 140; Southwest, 136, 143; West, 2, 67, 133 Texcoco points: 55 Tlapacoya, site of: 132 Torreón, Coahuila: 7 Tortugas points: 39, 41, 44, 127 Toyah arrow points: 71, 130 tradition, defined: 129 trench, access, excavation at La Calsada: 16 Triangular Points: general comments, 4 0 - 4 4 ; Large, Unit 3, 39; Long, Unit 1-2, 3 8 - 3 9 ; Short, Beveled, Unit 3, 40; Short, Unit 1-2, 38; Small, Unit 5, 40; Unfinished, Unit 1-2, 39 T r i n g h a m , R . G . : 110-111 Trinidad points: 121 tropical lowland: 2 turkey hunting, recorded ethnohistorically: 4 Turner, E . S . : 59 Turpin, S.A.: 140 type, artifact, defined: 26 Unfinished Crescents: 72 Unique Arrow Points: 70 Unique Bifaces: Unit 1-2, 7 6 - 7 7 ; Unit 4, 7 7 - 7 8 ; Unit 5, 78; lower Unit 6, 7 9 - 8 0 ; upper Unit 6, 79 Unique Flake Unifaces: Unit 1-2, 89; Unit 3, 89 Unique Points: Unit 1-2, 62; Unit 3, 62; Unit 4, 6 2 - 6 3 ; Unit 5, 63; Unit 6, 63-64 University of Chicago: xvi University of Texas at Austin: xviii, 128; Department of Anthropology, xvi, xxi; Radiocarbon Laboratory, 21; University Research Institute, xxi Upper Paleolithic: 135 upper-plane, defined: 81 Valastro, S., Jr.: 21 Valsequillo (Hueyatlaco, Valsequillo): 132 variable, defined: 100 Varner, D.: 6 - 8 , 127

234

Index

Vaughn, P. C : 110 vegetation, near La Calsada: 12-13 Venezuela: 52, 135 Ventana Cave: 116 Vivo Escoto, J. Α.: 12, 129 Wagner, P. L.: 129 Walapai: 43 Wallace, W. J.: 56 Warren, C.N.: 56 Washington State University: xviii Wedel, W. R.: 137 weight, artifact: attribute distributions, 100-101; functional considerations, 111 Weir, F: 140 Wendorf, F.: 135

West, R.C.: 2, 12 Whallon, R.: xvi Willey, G. R.: 49, 129 Williams-Dean, G.: 42 Williamson site: 115 willow-leaf-shaped points, chronology of: 49 Wilmsen, E.N.: 114 wine, recorded ethnohistorically: 4 Witthoft,J.: 115 wooden mortars: 4 woodworking, resultant edge wear: 111-112 Word, J. H.: 139 Wormington, M.: 56, 114 Yucca, archaeological remains of: 42