Technological Choices and Material Meanings in Early and Middle Bronze Age Hungary: Understanding the active role of material culture through ceramic analysis 9781407300214, 9781407330709

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BAR S1604 2007 KREITER TECHNOLOGICAL CHOICES AND MATERIAL MEANINGS

Technological Choices and Material Meanings in Early and Middle Bronze Age Hungary Understanding the active role of material culture through ceramic analysis

Attila Kreiter

BAR International Series 1604 9 781407 300214

B A R

2007

Technological Choices and Material Meanings in Early and Middle Bronze Age Hungary Understanding the active role of material culture through ceramic analysis

Attila Kreiter

BAR International Series 1604 2007

Published in 2016 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 1604 Technological Choices and Material Meanings in Early and Middle Bronze Age Hungary © A Kreiter and the Publisher 2007 The author's moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407300214 paperback ISBN 9781407330709 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407300214 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Archaeopress in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2007. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2016.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................................... viii LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................................. xi i ACKNOW LEDGEM ENTS ................................................................................................................................... xi ii CHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................................................................1 1.1Int roduction:technologyandsocialorganisat ion................................................................................................1 1.2Thet radi t ionalHungari anapproach....................................................................................................................1 1.3Theapproachoft hisstudy.................................................................................................................................1 1.4Thecasest udies.................................................................................................................................................2 1.5Studymateri al....................................................................................................................................................2 1.6M et hodsofanalysis...........................................................................................................................................2 CHAPTER 2:BACKGROUND TO THE EARLY AND M IDDLE BRONZE AGE IN HUNGARY......................4 2.1Int roduction.......................................................................................................................................................4 2.2Backgroundtot heMakó..................................................................................................................................11 2.2.1Storagevesselshapes................................................................................................................................12 2.2.2ÜllĘ 5(PestCounty).................................................................................................................................12 2.3Backgroundtot heSomogyvár-Vi nkovci..........................................................................................................12 2.3.1Storagevesselshapes................................................................................................................................13 2.3.2Ordacsehi -Kis-t öltés(SomogyCounty).....................................................................................................14 2.3.3Zamárdi-Kútvölgyi-dĦOĘ (SomogyCounty)...............................................................................................14 2.4Backgroundtot heKisapostag..........................................................................................................................14 2.4.1Storagevesselshapes................................................................................................................................15 2.4.2Hart a-W eierhivl(Bács-KiskunCounty).....................................................................................................15 2.4.3Ordacsehi -Bugaszeg(SomogyCounty).....................................................................................................16 2.5Backgroundtot heNagyrév..............................................................................................................................16 2.5.1Storagevesselshapes................................................................................................................................17 2.5.1.1Ökörhalom phase..............................................................................................................................17 2.5.1.2Szigetszent miklósphase....................................................................................................................17 2.5.1.3Kulcsphase.......................................................................................................................................17 2.5.2Dunaföldvár-Kálvária(TolnaCounty).......................................................................................................18 2.6Backgroundtot heVatya..................................................................................................................................18 2.6.1Storagevesselshapes................................................................................................................................20 2.6.1.1VatyaI..............................................................................................................................................20 2.6.1.2VatyaII.............................................................................................................................................21 2.6.1.3VatyaIII...........................................................................................................................................21 2.6.1.4Vatya-Koszider.................................................................................................................................22 2.6.1.5Squashedvessels...............................................................................................................................22 2.6.2Százhalombatt a-Földvár(PestCounty)......................................................................................................22 2.7Backgroundt ot heTransdanubianEncrustedW are...........................................................................................23 2.7.1Storagevesselshapes................................................................................................................................24 2.7.2Kaposvár61/ 1(SomogyCounty)..............................................................................................................25 2.8Backgroundtot heOttományandGyul avarsánd...............................................................................................25 2.8.1Storagevesselshapes................................................................................................................................26 2.8.2Túrkeve-Terehalom (Jász-Nagykun-Szol nokCounty)...............................................................................27 2.9Backgroundtot heFüzesabony.........................................................................................................................27 2.9.1Storagevesselshapes................................................................................................................................28 2.9.2Füzesabony-Öregdomb(HevesCounty)....................................................................................................28

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2.10 Background to the Tumulus society................................................................................................................29 2.10.1 Storage vessel shapes..............................................................................................................................30 2.10.2 Esztergályhorváti-Alsóbárándpuszta (Zala County) .................................................................................31 2.11 Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................................31 CHAPTER 3: THE CONCEPT OF TECHNOLOGICAL STYLE ........................................................................32 3.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................32 3.2 Approaches to technology ................................................................................................................................32 3.3 Accessing social boundaries through technology ..............................................................................................34 3.4 Different approaches to technological style.......................................................................................................34 3.5 Uses of technological style in archaeology and anthropology ............................................................................36 3.6 Relationship between technology and tradition .................................................................................................37 3.6.1 Defining tradition .....................................................................................................................................38 3.6.2 Relationship between technological style and tradition ..............................................................................39 3.7 Operational sequences of ceramic technology that constitute technological style ...............................................40 CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY ...........................................................................................................................42 4.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................42 4.2 Selection of the ceramic material......................................................................................................................42 4.3 Ceramic analysis methodology .........................................................................................................................43 4.4 Petrographic analysis .......................................................................................................................................43 4.4.1 Sample preparation...................................................................................................................................45 4.4.2 The identification of temper......................................................................................................................45 4.5 Cathodoluminescence (CL),X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) analyses .....46 CHAPTER 5: REPRESENTATION OF DATA .....................................................................................................47 5.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................47 5.2 Building techniques .........................................................................................................................................47 5.3 Fabric descriptions...........................................................................................................................................48 5.4 Százhalombatta-Földvár...................................................................................................................................51 5.4.1 Macroscopic description - general discussion ............................................................................................51 5.4.1.1 Wall thickness...................................................................................................................................52 5.4.1.2 Surface treatments.............................................................................................................................52 5.4.1.3 Vessel colour ....................................................................................................................................53 5.4.1.4 General firing conditions...................................................................................................................53 5.4.2 Fabric descriptions....................................................................................................................................53 5.4.2.1 Fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR1 .................................................................................................................54 5.4.2.1.1 Macroscopic description ............................................................................................................54 5.4.2.1.2 Petrographic description.............................................................................................................55 5.4.2.2 Fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR2 .................................................................................................................55 5.4.2.2.1 Macroscopic description ............................................................................................................55 5.4.2.2.2 Petrographic description.............................................................................................................56 5.4.2.3 Fabric SZHB-VF-FS .........................................................................................................................57 5.4.2.3.1 Macroscopic description ............................................................................................................57 5.4.2.3.2 Petrographic description.............................................................................................................58 5.4.2.4 Fabric SZHB-FMS/GR1....................................................................................................................58 5.4.2.4.1 Macroscopic description ............................................................................................................58 5.4.2.4.2 Petrographic description.............................................................................................................59 5.4.2.5 Fabric SZHB-FMS/GR2....................................................................................................................59 5.4.2.5.1 Macroscopic description ............................................................................................................59 5.4.2.5.2 Petrographic description.............................................................................................................60 5.4.2.6 Fabric SZHB-VF-FS/CVCQ/GR1 .....................................................................................................60

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5.4.2.6.1 Macroscopic description ............................................................................................................60 5.4.2.6.2 Petrographic description.............................................................................................................61 5.4.2.7 Fabric SZHB-VF-FS/LI/GR1 ............................................................................................................61 5.4.2.7.1 Macroscopic description ............................................................................................................61 5.4.2.7.2 Petrographic description.............................................................................................................62 5.4.2.8 Fabric SZHB-VF-FS/LI.....................................................................................................................62 5.4.2.8.1 Macroscopic description ............................................................................................................62 5.4.2.8.2 Petrographic description.............................................................................................................62 5.4.2.9 Fabric SZHB-VF-FS/CVCQ..............................................................................................................62 5.4.2.9.1 Macroscopic description ............................................................................................................62 5.4.2.9.2 Petrographic description.............................................................................................................63 5.4.2.10 Fabric SZHB-FMS ..........................................................................................................................63 5.4.2.10.1 Macroscopic description ..........................................................................................................63 5.4.2.10.2 Petrographic description...........................................................................................................64 5.4.2.11 Fabric SZHB-VF-FS/LI/GR2 ..........................................................................................................64 5.4.2.11.1 Macroscopic description ..........................................................................................................64 5.4.2.11.2 Petrographic description...........................................................................................................64 5.4.2.12 Fabric SZHB-VF-FS/CVCQ/GR2....................................................................................................64 5.4.2.12.1 Macroscopic description ..........................................................................................................64 5.4.2.12.2 Petrographic description...........................................................................................................65 5.4.2.13 Fabric SZHB-VF-FS/C- CVCQ/GR1...............................................................................................65 5.4.2.13.1 Macroscopic description ..........................................................................................................65 5.4.2.13.2 Petrographic description...........................................................................................................65 5.4.2.14 Fabric SZHB-VF-FS/C- CVCQ/GR2...............................................................................................65 5.4.2.14.1 Macroscopic description ..........................................................................................................65 5.4.2.14.2 Microscopic description ...........................................................................................................65 5.4.2.15 Fabric SZHB-VF-FS/C-CVCQ........................................................................................................65 5.4.2.15.1 Macroscopic description ..........................................................................................................65 5.4.2.15.2 Petrographic description...........................................................................................................66 5.4.2.16 Fabric SZHB-VF-FS/FOMI/GR2.....................................................................................................66 5.4.2.16.1 Macroscopic description ..........................................................................................................66 5.4.2.16.2 Petrographic description...........................................................................................................66 5.4.2.17 Geology ..........................................................................................................................................66 5.5 Presentation of the comparative ceramic material..............................................................................................67 5.6 ÜllĘ 5 ..............................................................................................................................................................67 5.6.1 Fabric ÜLL-VF-FS/GR1...........................................................................................................................67 5.6.1.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................67 5.6.2 Fabric ÜLL-FMS/GR1 .............................................................................................................................67 5.6.2.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................67 5.6.3 Fabric ÜLL-FMS/GR2 .............................................................................................................................68 5.6.3.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................68 5.6.4 Fabric ÜLL-FMS/CVCQ/GR1..................................................................................................................68 5.6.4.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................68 5.6.5 Fabric ÜLL-VF-FS/LI/GR1 ......................................................................................................................69 5.6.5.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................69 5.6.6 Fabric ÜLL-FMS/LI/GR1.........................................................................................................................70 5.6.6.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................70 5.6.7 Fabric ÜLL-FMS/IG1...............................................................................................................................70 5.6.7.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................70

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5.6.8 Fabric ÜLL-FMS/IG2...............................................................................................................................71 5.6.8.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................71 5.6.9 Geology ...................................................................................................................................................71 5.7 Ordacsehi-Kis-töltés.........................................................................................................................................71 5.7.1 Fabric OK-FMS/GR1 ...............................................................................................................................71 5.7.1.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................71 5.7.2 Fabric OK-FMS/GR2 ...............................................................................................................................72 5.7.2.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................72 5.7.3 Fabric OK-FMS........................................................................................................................................72 5.7.3.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................72 5.7.4 Fabric OK-FMS/CVCQ/LI .......................................................................................................................73 5.7.4.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................73 5.7.5 Fabric OK-FMS/LI...................................................................................................................................73 5.7.5.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................73 5.7.6 Fabric OK-FMS/CVCQ/IG.......................................................................................................................75 5.7.6.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................75 5.7.7 Geology ...................................................................................................................................................75 5.8 Zamárdi-Kútvölgyi-dĦOĘ ..................................................................................................................................76 5.8.1 Fabric ZAM-FMS/GR1 ............................................................................................................................76 5.8.1.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................76 5.8.2 Fabric ZAM-FMS.....................................................................................................................................77 5.8.2.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................77 5.8.3 Fabric ZAM-FMS/CVCQ/LI ....................................................................................................................77 5.8.3.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................77 5.8.4 Fabric ZAM-VF-FS/LI .............................................................................................................................78 5.8.4.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................78 5.8.5 Fabric ZAM-FMS/MI/IG..........................................................................................................................78 5.8.5.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................78 5.8.6 Geology ...................................................................................................................................................79 5.9 Dunaföldvár-Kálvária ......................................................................................................................................79 5.9.1 Fabric DF-VF-FS/GR1 .............................................................................................................................79 5.9.1.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................79 5.9.2 Fabric DF-VF-FS .....................................................................................................................................80 5.9.2.1 Macroscopic and microscopic description..........................................................................................80 5.9.3 Fabric DF-VF-FS/GR2 .............................................................................................................................80 5.9.3.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................80 5.9.4 Fabric DF-FMS ........................................................................................................................................81 5.9.4.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................81 5.9.5 Fabric DF-VF-FS/LI/GR2.........................................................................................................................81 5.9.5.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .........................................................................................81 5.9.6 Geology ...................................................................................................................................................82 5.10 Ordacsehi-Bugaszeg.......................................................................................................................................82 5.10.1 Fabric OB-VF-FS/GR1 ...........................................................................................................................82 5.10.1.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................82 5.10.2 Fabric OB-VF-FS/GR2 ...........................................................................................................................83 5.10.2.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................83 5.10.3 Fabric OB-FMS/MI/GR2 ........................................................................................................................84 5.10.3.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................84 5.10.4 Geology..................................................................................................................................................84

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5.11 Harta-Weierhiwl ............................................................................................................................................85 5.11.1 Fabric HA-VF-FS/GR1...........................................................................................................................85 5.11.1.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................85 5.11.2 Fabric HA-VF-FS/GR2a .........................................................................................................................85 5.11.2.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................85 5.11.3 Fabric HA-VF-FS/GR2b.........................................................................................................................85 5.11.3.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................85 5.11.4 Geology..................................................................................................................................................86 5.12 Kaposvár 61/1................................................................................................................................................87 5.12.1 Kaposvár Fabric KAP-VF-FS/GR1 .........................................................................................................87 5.12.1.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................87 5.12.2 Fabric KAP-VF-FS/GR2a.......................................................................................................................87 5.12.2.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................87 5.12.3 Fabric KAP-VF-FS/GR2b.......................................................................................................................87 5.12.3.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................87 5.12.4 Fabric KAP-VF-FSa ...............................................................................................................................89 5.12.4.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................89 5.12.5 Fabric KAP-VF-FSb...............................................................................................................................89 5.12.5.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................89 5.12.6 Fabric KAP-VF-FS/C-CVCQ .................................................................................................................89 5.12.6.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................89 5.12.7 Geology..................................................................................................................................................91 5.13 Túrkeve-Terehalom........................................................................................................................................91 5.13.1 Fabric TÚ-VF-FS/GR1 ...........................................................................................................................91 5.13.1.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................91 5.13.2 Fabric TÚ-VF-FS/GR 2 ..........................................................................................................................91 5.13.2.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................91 5.13.3 Fabric TÚ-VF-FS ...................................................................................................................................92 5.13.3.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................92 5.13.4 Geology..................................................................................................................................................93 5.14 Füzesabony-Öregdomb ..................................................................................................................................93 5.14.1 Fabric FÜ-VF-FS/GR1 ...........................................................................................................................93 5.14.1.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................93 5.14.2 Fabric FÜ-VF-FS/GR 2 ..........................................................................................................................94 5.14.2.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................94 5.14.3 Fabric FÜ-FMS/GR1 ..............................................................................................................................94 5.14.3.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................94 5.14.4 Fabric FÜ-VF-FS....................................................................................................................................94 5.14.4.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................94 5.14.5 Fabric FÜ-FMS ......................................................................................................................................94 5.14.5.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................94 5.14.6 Fabric FÜ-VF-FS/PR..............................................................................................................................96 5.14.6.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................96 5.14.7 Fabric FÜ-FMS/LI/GR1 .........................................................................................................................98 5.14.7.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................98 5.14.8 Geology..................................................................................................................................................98 5.15 Esztergályhorváti-Alsóbárándpuszta...............................................................................................................99 5.15.1 Fabric ESZT-VF-FS/CVCQ....................................................................................................................99 5.15.1.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .......................................................................................99

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5.15.2 Fabric ESZT-FMS/CVCQ.....................................................................................................................100 5.15.2.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .....................................................................................100 5.15.3 Fabric ESZT-VF-FS/CVCQ/GR2..........................................................................................................100 5.15.3.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .....................................................................................100 5.15.4 Fabric ESZT-FMS/CVCQ/GR1 ............................................................................................................101 5.15.4.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .....................................................................................101 5.15.5 Fabric ESZT-FMS ................................................................................................................................101 5.15.5.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .....................................................................................101 5.15.6 Fabric ESZT-FMS/GR2........................................................................................................................102 5.15.6.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .....................................................................................102 5.15.7 Fabric ESZT-FMS/GR1........................................................................................................................103 5.15.7.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .....................................................................................103 5.15.8 Fabric ESZT-VF-FS/CVCQ/LI .............................................................................................................103 5.15.8.1 Macroscopic and petrographic description .....................................................................................103 5.15.9 Geology................................................................................................................................................104 5.16 Conclusion...................................................................................................................................................104 CHAPTER 6: INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS..............................................................................................105 6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................105 6.2 Examination of storage vessel manufacture ....................................................................................................105 6.2.1 Clay types, inclusion type, amount and size.............................................................................................105 6.2.1.1 Choices of clay................................................................................................................................106 6.2.1.2 Types of non-plastic inclusions........................................................................................................108 6.2.1.2.1 Quartz inclusions .....................................................................................................................108 6.2.1.2.2 Calcareous inclusions...............................................................................................................108 6.2.1.2.3 Grog........................................................................................................................................110 6.2.1.3 Size of non-plastic inclusions ..........................................................................................................113 6.2.1.4 Amount of non-plastic inclusions ....................................................................................................117 6.2.2 Vessel building technique and vessel wall thickness ................................................................................119 6.2.3 Surface treatments ..................................................................................................................................120 6.2.4 General firing conditions ........................................................................................................................120 6.3 Ceramic technology and technological tradition..............................................................................................122 6.3.1 Variability in raw material selection........................................................................................................123 6.3.1.1 Variability in geology......................................................................................................................123 6.3.1.2 Variability in settlement size ...........................................................................................................123 6.3.1.3 Variability in the utilisation of similar non-plastic inclusions ...........................................................123 6.4 Understanding technological choices ..............................................................................................................124 6.4.1 Individual choices –the first level of tradition .........................................................................................125 6.4.1.1 Choice of clay.................................................................................................................................125 6.4.1.2 Choices of temper ...........................................................................................................................125 6.4.1.3 The meaning of these choices ..........................................................................................................126 6.4.1.4 Potters’relationship with their landscape .........................................................................................126 6.4.1.5 Technological relationships between the Nagyrév, Vatya and Kisapostag.........................................128 6.4.2 Collective choices –the second level of tradition –technological style ....................................................129 6.4.2.1 The use of grog: first step towards similarity....................................................................................129 6.4.2.2 Building technique: second step towards similarity ..........................................................................132 6.4.2.3 Wall thickness ranges: third step towards similarity .........................................................................133 6.4.3 Modelling technological tradition............................................................................................................133 6.4.4 Vessel types, shapes, decorations and typological categories ...................................................................134 6.4.5 Relationship between technology and vessel types ..................................................................................137

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6.4.6 Tumulus ceramic tradition ......................................................................................................................138 6.5 The meaning of similar technological choices.................................................................................................140 6.5.1 Conception of storage.............................................................................................................................140 6.5.2 Technology that binds people together ....................................................................................................140 6.5.3 Access to cultural knowledge through technology ...................................................................................141 6.5.4 The role of cultural memory in the transmission of cultural values and reproduction of tradition ..............142 6.5.5 Variability reconsidered: continuity and similarity...................................................................................143 6.5.6 Invasion, migration, diffusion and technological stability ........................................................................144 APPENDIX A: CHARACTERISTIC STORAGE VESSEL SHAPES OF THE EXAMINED SOCIETIES.......146 APPENDIX B: REPRESENTATION OF DATA FROM SZÁZHALOMBATTA-FÖLDVÁR...........................160 B.1 Macroscopic description – general discussion ................................................................................................160 B.2 Fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR1 .............................................................................................................................173 B.3 Fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR2 .............................................................................................................................179 B.4 Fabric SZHB-VF-FS .....................................................................................................................................185 APPENDIX C: GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF THE EXAMINED SETTLEMENTS ..............................................195 C.1 Százhalombatta-Földvár ................................................................................................................................195 C.2 ÜllĘ ..............................................................................................................................................................197 C.3 Ordacsehi-Kis-töltés and Ordacsehi-Bugaszeg, ..............................................................................................199 C.4 Zamárdi-Kis-töltés ........................................................................................................................................201 C.5 Dunaföldvár-Kálvária....................................................................................................................................202 C.6 Harta-Weierhiwl............................................................................................................................................204 C.7 Kaposvár 61/1...............................................................................................................................................206 C.8 Túrkeve-Terehalom .......................................................................................................................................208 C.9 Füzesabony-Öregdomb..................................................................................................................................210 C.10 Esztergályhorváti-Alsóbárándpuszta ............................................................................................................213 APPENDIX D: CATHODOLUMINESCENCE,X-RAY DIFFRACTION AND X-RAY FLUORESCENCE SPECTROSCOPY.......................................................................................................................................215 D.1 Cathodoluminescence analysis ......................................................................................................................215 D.2 X-ray diffraction analysis ..............................................................................................................................216 D.3 X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy ...................................................................................................................220 REFERENCES CITED..........................................................................................................................................223

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Map of Hungary with the geographical location of the examined sites. ...........................................................3 Figure 2. Relative chronological position of the examined societies...............................................................................6 Figure 3. Spatial distribution of Early Bronze Age I societies. .......................................................................................7 Figure 4. Spatial distribution of Early Bronze Age II societies.......................................................................................7 Figure 5. Spatial distribution of Early Bronze Age III societies. ....................................................................................8 Figure 6. Spatial distribution of Early Bronze Age III – Middle Bronze Age I societies .................................................8 Figure 7. Spatial distribution of Middle Bronze Age I societies. ....................................................................................9 Figure 8. Spatial distribution of Middle Bronze Age II societies. ...................................................................................9 Figure 9. Spatial distribution of Middle Bronze Age III societies.................................................................................10 Figure 10. Spatial distribution of End of Middle Bronze Age III societies....................................................................10 Figure 11. Pottery recording sheet used for this research. ............................................................................................44 Figure 12. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with grog temper. Százhalombatta................................................................55 Figure 13. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with grog temper. Százhalombatta. ...............................................................56 Figure 14. Very fine to fine sandy fabric. Százhalombatta...........................................................................................57 Figure 15. Fine to medium sandy fabric with grog temper. Százhalombatta .................................................................58 Figure 16. Fine to medium sandy fabric with grog temper. Százhalombatta .................................................................59 Figure 17. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with coarse metamorphic quartz. ..................................................................60 Figure 18. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with limestone inclusions.. ...........................................................................61 Figure 19. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with limestone inclusions. ............................................................................63 Figure 20 Fine to medium sandy fabric. Százhalombatta. ............................................................................................64 Figure 21. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with foraminifera and fossil shell inclusions. Százhalombatta........................66 Figure 22. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with grog temper. ÜllĘ .................................................................................68 Figure 23. Fine to medium sandy fabric with coarse quartz. ÜllĘ.................................................................................69 Figure 24. Fine sandy fabric with limestone inclusions. ÜllĘ. ......................................................................................70 Figure 25. Fine to medium sandy fabric with grog temper. Ordacsehi-K......................................................................72 Figure 26. Fine to medium sandy fabric. Ordacsehi-K.................................................................................................73 Figure 27. Fine to medium sandy fabric with well-rounded limestone inclusions Ordacsehi-K.....................................74 Figure 28. Fine to medium sandy fabric with well-rounded limestone inclusions. Ordacsehi-K....................................74 Figure 29. Fine to medium sandy fabric with polycrystalline quartz and limestone inclusions. Ordacsehi-K.................75 Figure 30. Fine to medium sandy fabric. Zamárdi. ......................................................................................................76 Figure 31. Fine to medium sandy fabric with rounded limestone and medium and coarse quartz inclusions. Zamárdi. ..77 Figure 32. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with very fine to fine limestone inclusions. Zamárdi. ....................................78 Figure 33. Fine to medium sandy fabric with biotite mica. Zamárdi.............................................................................79 Figure 34. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with grog temper. Dunaföldvár.....................................................................80 Figure 35. Fine to medium sandy fabric. Dunaföldvár .................................................................................................81 Figure 36. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with grog temper and well-rounded limestone inclusions. Dunaföldvár .........82 Figure 37. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with grog temper. Ordacsehi-B.....................................................................83 Figure 38. Fine to medium sandy fabric with biotite mica. Ordacsehi-B ......................................................................84 Figure 39. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with grog temper. Harta................................................................................86 Figure 40. Very fine sandy fabric with grog. Harta......................................................................................................86 Figure 41. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with grog temper. Kaposvár .........................................................................88 Figure 42. Slip on vessel exterior. Kaposvár ...............................................................................................................88 Figure 43. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with grog and very fine calcite. Kaposvár .....................................................89 Figure 44. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with very fine to fine calcite. Kaposvár.........................................................90

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Figure 45. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with crushed coarse quartz. Kaposvár ...........................................................90 Figure 46. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with grog temper. Túrkeve ...........................................................................92 Figure 47. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with grog temper. Füzesabony......................................................................93 Figure 48. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with rare medium quartz grains ....................................................................95 Figure 49. Fine to medium sandy fabric. Füzesabony ..................................................................................................95 Figure 50. Pyroclastic inclusions. Füzesabony ............................................................................................................96 Figure 51. Quartz grains, plagioclase feldspar and green amphibole. Füzesabony ........................................................97 Figure 52. Biotite mica and fibrous chalcedony embedded in pyroclastic. Füzesabony.................................................97 Figure 53. Pumice. Füzesabony ..................................................................................................................................98 Figure 54. Fine to medium sandy fabric with rounded limestone inclusions. Füzesabony. ............................................99 Figure 55. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with very coarse polycrystalline quartz. Esztergályhorváti ..........................100 Figure 56. Fine to medium sandy fabric with coarse and very coarse polycrystalline quartz. Esztergályhorváti...........101 Figure 57, Fine to medium sandy fabric. Esztergályhorváti .......................................................................................102 Figure 58. Fine to medium sandy fabric with grog temper. Esztergályhorváti ............................................................103 Figure 59. Very fine to fine sandy fabric with coarse limestone inclusions. Esztergályhorváti ....................................104 Figure 60. Relationship between the utilisation of different raw materials and storage vessel types in the Százhalombatta assemblage ...........................................................................................................................107 Figure 61. Lime spalling on the exterior of a rim of a storage vessel from Százhalombatta.........................................110 Figure 62. Relationship between fabrics with grog and other non-plastic inclusions, vessel types and clay types in the Százhalombatta assemblage......................................................................................................................112 Figure 63. Gap development and crack propagation between a sandstone grain and clay matrix. Százhalombatta .......113 Figure 64. Crack propagation between quartz grains. Százhalombatta .......................................................................113 Figure 65. Relationship between grog size and wall thickness ranges in the Százhalombatta assemblage....................114 Figure 66. Relationship between coarse and very coarse quartz size and wall thickness ranges in the Százhalombatta assemblage....................................................................................................................................................115 Figure 67. Relationship between calcareous inclusion size and wall thickness ranges in the Százhalombatta assemblage....................................................................................................................................................116 Figure 68. Relationship between the amount of grog and storage vessel types in the Százhalombatta assemblage.......118 Figure 69. Relative distribution of sherds with different amounts of grog in the Százhalombatta assemblage..............119 Figure 70. Relationship between exterior and interior surface treatments and vessel types in the Százhalombatta assemblage....................................................................................................................................................121 Figure 71. Grog with similar non-plastic inclusions to the clay matrix. Százhalombatta .............................................130 Figure 72. Grog with similar non-plastic inclusions to the clay matrix. ÜllĘ ..............................................................130 Figure 73. Grog with similar non-plastic inclusions to the clay matrix. Ordacsehi-K..................................................131 Figure 74. Grog with similar non-plastic inclusions to the clay matrix. Dunaföldvár ..................................................131 Figure 75. Grog with similar non-plastic inclusions to the clay matrix. Ordacsehi-B..................................................131 Figure 76. Grog with similar non-plastic inclusions to the clay matrix. Harta.............................................................131 Figure 77. Grog with similar non-plastic inclusions to the clay matrix. Kaposvár.......................................................131 Figure 78. Grog with similar non-plastic inclusions to the clay matrix. Túrkeve ........................................................131 Figure 79. Grog with similar non-plastic inclusions to the clay matrix. Füzesabony...................................................132 Figure 80. Grog in grog. Százhalombatta ..................................................................................................................132 Figure 81. A model of constructing social relations through ceramic technological choices........................................134 Figure 82. Grog with similar non-plastic inclusions to the clay matrix. Esztergályhorváti...........................................139 Figure 83 Characteristic storage vessel shapes of Makó society.................................................................................147 Figure 84. Characteristic storage vessel shapes of Somogyvár society .......................................................................148 Figure 85. Characteristic storage vessel shapes of Kisapostag society........................................................................149 Figure 86. Characteristic storage vessel shapes of Nagyrév society............................................................................150

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Figure 87. Characteristic storage vessel shapes of Vatya I phase................................................................................151 Figure 88. Characteristic storage vessel shapes of Vatya II phase ..............................................................................152 Figure 89. Characteristic storage vessel shapes of Vatya III phase .............................................................................153 Figure 90. Characteristic storage vessel shapes of Vatya-Koszider phase...................................................................154 Figure 91. Characteristic storage vessel shapes of Transdanubian Encrusted Ware society.........................................155 Figure 92. Characteristic storage vessel shapes of Ottomány society..........................................................................156 Figure 93. Characteristic storage vessel shapes of Gyulavarsánd society....................................................................157 Figure 94. Characteristic Storage Vessel Shapes of Füzesabony society.....................................................................158 Figure 95. Characteristic Storage Vessel Shapes of Tumulus society .........................................................................159 Figure 96. Relative distribution of storage vessel types in the Százhalombatta assemblage.........................................160 Figure 97. Relative distribution of storage vessel types in the construction levels of Százhalombatta. ........................160 Figure 98. Relative distribution of storage vessel types to wall thickness ranges in the Százhalombatta assemblage. ..161 Figure 99. Relative distribution of wall thickness ranges in the Százhalombatta assemblage. .....................................161 Figure 100. Relative distribution of wall thickness ranges in the construction levels of Százhalombatta. ....................162 Figure 101. Relative distribution of interior surface treatments in the Százhalombatta assemblage. ............................162 Figure 102. Relative distribution of exterior surface treatments in the Százhalombatta assemblage. ...........................163 Figure 103. Relative distribution of interior surface treatments in the construction levels of Százhalombatta. .............163 Figure 104. Relative distribution of exterior surface treatments in the construction levels of Százhalombatta ............164 Figure 105 Relative distribution of exterior and interior surface treatment combinations in the Százhalombatta assemblage. ...................................................................................................................................................165 Figure 106a. Relative distribution of exterior and interior surface treatment combinations in Level 2 in the Százhalombatta assemblage. ..........................................................................................................................166 Figure 106b. Relative distribution of exterior and interior surface treatment combinations in Level 3 in the Százhalombatta assemblage. ..........................................................................................................................166 Figure 106c. Relative distribution of exterior and interior surface treatment combinations in Level 4 in the Százhalombatta assemblage...........................................................................................................................167 Figure 106d. Relative distribution of exterior and interior surface treatment combinations in Level 5 in the Százhalombatta assemblage...........................................................................................................................167 Figure 106e. Relative distribution of exterior and interior surface treatment combinations in Level 6 in the Százhalombatta assemblage. ..........................................................................................................................168 Figure 107. Relative distribution of exterior colours in the Százhalombatta assemblage. ............................................168 Figure 108. Relative distribution of exterior colours in the construction levels of Százhalombatta..............................169 Figure 109. Relative distribution of interior firing conditions to storage vessel types in the Százhalombatta assemblage. ...................................................................................................................................................170 Figure 110. Relative distribution of exterior firing conditions to storage vessel types in the Százhalombatta assemblage. ...................................................................................................................................................170 Figure 111. Relative distribution of interior firing conditions in the Százhalombatta assemblage................................171 Figure 112. Relative distribution of exterior firing conditions in the Százhalombatta assemblage. ..............................171 Figure 113. Relative distribution of exterior firing conditions in the construction levels of Százhalombatta................172 Figure 114. Relative distribution of storage vessel types in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR1 ...............................................173 Figure 115. Relative distribution of wall thickness ranges in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR1 .............................................173 Figure 116. Relative distribution of interior surface treatments in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR1......................................174 Figure 117. Relative distribution of exterior surface treatments in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR1. ....................................174 Figure 118. Relative distribution of interior surface colours in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR1. .........................................175 Figure 119. Relative distribution of exterior surface colours in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR1..........................................175 Figure 120. Relative distribution of interior firing conditions in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR1. .......................................176 Figure 121. Relative distribution of exterior firing conditions in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR1........................................176 Figure 122. Relative distribution of grog density in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR1 in the Százhalombatta assemblage......177

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Figure 123. Relative distribution of grog size in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR1................................................................177 Figure 124. Relative distribution of grog size to wall thickness ranges in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR1...........................178 Figure 125. Relative distribution of storage vessel types in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR2 ...............................................179 Figure 126. Relative distribution of wall thickness ranges in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR2 .............................................179 Figure 127. Relative distribution of interior surface treatments in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR2......................................180 Figure 128. Relative distribution of exterior surface treatments in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR2. ....................................180 Figure 129. Relative distribution of interior colours in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR2 ......................................................181 Figure 130. Relative distribution of exterior colours in fabric SZHB VF-FS/GR2 ......................................................181 Figure 131. Relative distribution of interior firing conditions in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR2 ........................................182 Figure 132. Relative distribution of exterior firing conditions in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR2........................................182 Figure 133. Relative distribution of grog density in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR2...........................................................183 Figure 134. Relative distribution of grog size in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR2................................................................183 Figure 135. Relative distribution of grog size to wall thickness ranges in fabric SZHB-VF-FS/GR2...........................184 Figure 136. Relative distribution of storage vessel types in fabric SZHB-VF-FS........................................................185 Figure 137. Relative distribution of wall thickness ranges in fabric SZHB-VF-FS .....................................................185 Figure 138. Relative distribution of interior surface treatments in fabric SZHB-VF-FS ..............................................186 Figure 139. Relative distribution of exterior surface treatments in fabric SZHB-VF-FS .............................................186 Figure 140. Relative distribution of interior colours in fabric SZHB-VF-FS ..............................................................187 Figure 141. Relative distribution of exterior colours in fabric SZHB-VF-FS..............................................................187 Figure 142. Relative distribution of interior firing conditions in fabric SZHB-VF-FS.................................................188 Figure 143. Relative distribution of exterior firing conditions in fabric SZHB-VF-FS................................................188 Figure 144. Geological map of Százhalombatta-Földvár............................................................................................196 Figure 145. Geological map of ÜllĘ. .........................................................................................................................198 Figure 146. Geological map of Ordacsehi-Kis-töltés and Ordacsehi-Bugaszeg...........................................................200 Figure 147. Geological map of Zamárdi-Kis-töltés....................................................................................................201 Figure 148. Geological map of Dunaföldvár-Kálvária. ..............................................................................................203 Figure 149. Geological map of Harta-Weierhiwl. ......................................................................................................205 Figure 150. Geological map of Kaposvár 61/1. .........................................................................................................207 Figure 151. Geological map of Túrkeve-Terehalom. .................................................................................................209 Figure 152. Geological map of Füzesabony-Öregdomb. ............................................................................................212 Figure 153. Geological map of Esztergályhorváti-Alsóbárándpuszta. ........................................................................214 Figure 154. CL microphotograph of a ceramic cross-section .....................................................................................215 Figure 155. CL microphotograph of a ceramic cross-section .....................................................................................216 Figure 156. CL microphotograph of a ceramic cross-section .....................................................................................216 Figure 157. XRD diffractograms of the examined sherds from Százhalombatta. ........................................................218 Figure 158. XRD diffractograms of the examined clay samples from Százhalombatta. ..............................................219 Figure 159. Main element composition of sherds from Százhalombatta. ....................................................................220 Figure 160. Trace element composition of sherds from Százhalombatta.....................................................................221 Figure 161. Main element composition of clay samples from Százhalombatta. ..........................................................222 Figure 162. Trace element composition of clay samples from Százhalombatta...........................................................222

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LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Bronze Age societies from which ceramic assemblages were examined and the number of sherds selected for microscopic analysis......................................................................................................................................... 5 Table 2. Established fabric groups for the examined settlements..................................................................................49 Table 3. Number of thin sections analysed from each settlement .................................................................................50 Table 4. Site names from which sherds ara analysed and their abbreviation ................................................................50 Table 5. Codes for vessel thickness.............................................................................................................................50 Table 6. Codes for general firing conditions................................................................................................................50 Table 7. Codes for exterior and interior surface treatments. .........................................................................................51 Table 8. Codes for exterior and interior colours...........................................................................................................51 Table 9. Codes for size classification of non-plastic inclusions. ...................................................................................51 Table 10. Codes for density of non-plastic inclusions..................................................................................................51 Table 11. Codes for roundness classes. .......................................................................................................................51 Table 12. Codes for inclusion sorting..........................................................................................................................51 Table 13. Number of examined sherds from the construction levels of Százhalombatta................................................52 Table 14. Number of sherds in each fabric group and their relative amounts in the Százhalombatta assemblage ...........54 Table 15. Different utilisation of clay types in the examined sites..............................................................................106 Table 16. Utilisation of coarse and very coarse quartz in the examined sites ..............................................................109 Table 17. Utilisation of grog alone or in combination with other non-plastic inclusions in the examined sites.............111 Table 18. Different utilisation of coarse and very coarse quartz in Százhalombatta and Kaposvár. .............................124 Table 19. Distribution of fabric groups in the construction levels at Százhalombatta..................................................127 Table 20. Technological choices in the second level of tradition – technological style................................................129 Table 21. Fabric groups that partly fulfil the requirements of technological style. ......................................................135 Table 22. Key to summary of technological traditions 1 ............................................................................................189 Table 22. Continued: Summary of technological traditions 2.....................................................................................190 Table 22a. Summary of technological traditions 3: Nagyrév and Vatya ceramic traditions .........................................191 Table 22b. Summary of technological traditions 4: Makó and Somogyvár ceramic traditions.....................................192 Table 22c. Summary of technological traditions 5: Kisapostag, Earliest Nagyrév and Transdanubian Encrusted Ware ceramic traditions ..........................................................................................................................................193 Table 22d. Summary of technological traditions 6: Ottomány, Gyulavarsánd, Füzesabony and Tumulus ceramic traditions .......................................................................................................................................................194

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This volume is based on the Ph.D thesis: ‘Technological choices and material meanings: analyses of Early and Middle Bronze Age ceramics from Hungary’ submitted to the Department of Archaeology, University of Southampton in 2005. I would like to thank Kristian Kristiansen and the Emergence of European Communities proj ect (HPRN-CT-200200230) as well as the Overseas Research Students Awards Scheme that provided me with a grant to undertake this research. This study would never have been possible without the helpful advice given by my supervisor. For this reason I express my sincere appreciation to Jo Sofaer for sharing her experience and skill during the course of my research. Her detailed and insightful critique has been invaluable. Additional supervision was kindly provided by David Williams who helped enormously with the petrological identification. I am also grateful to David Peacock and the late Andrew Sherrat who provided useful comments on the final draft of this study. I want to express my gratitude to the late Ildikó Poroszlai and Magdolna Vicze who always supported me and whose advice shaped the outcome of this research. I also give thanks to a number of museums and individuals who provided me with unpublished materials and much helpful advice. In the first and second years of my research I was fortunate to collect data for the analysis from impressive collections. I special thank must go to Marietta Csányi, László Horváth, Viktória Kiss, Gabriella Kulcsár, Rozália Kustár, Róbert Patay, Géza Szabó and Ildikó Szathmári for allowing unfettered access to the pottery and for permitting me to take samples for thin section analysis. All these researchers gave useful information on aspects of Bronze Age pottery. I am also very grateful to Ágnes Patczkó for X-ray diffraction analysis, to Mária Tóth (Totyi), Péter Sípos and Tibor Németh for X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy analysis. I owe a profound debt to Totyi who helped me enormously to interpret the results of the X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy analyses and provided me with much useful advice and understanding on the scientific analysis of pottery. I am also grateful to Bernadett Baj nóczi for cathodoluminescence analysis. Much advice and encouragement was given by Sandy Budden who also helped with research problems and read various parts of the study. She also advised me on how to approach large ceramic assemblages. Patrick Blackman read and made useful comments on the study and I am grateful to him for his suggestions. I must also thank Niall Armstrong for reading parts of the study. György Szakmány and Katalin Gherdán respectively assisted with mineral identification. Thanks also must go to Miklós Kázmér who was kind enough to help me with the identification of different calcareous inclusions found in thin sections. József Bicskei expertly helped me to edit maps and figures and offered priceless advice on how to use Adobe Photoshop. I am also grateful to Izabella Törökné Mihályfi for formatting the manuscript. My greatest thanks must go to my wife Eszter for her unfailing support and encouragement. She patiently and selflessly provided support during very difficult and trying times. To Eszter, therefore, I dedicate these pages.

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

dynamics. If the examined cultural groups were inherently different, as defined in Hungary, their distinction should be recognisable through their ceramic technology.

1. 1 Introduction: technologyandsocialorganisation This study examines the relationship between technology and social organisation in a range ofEarly and M iddle Bronze Age cultural groups in Hungary. Interactions between these groups are explored through possible technological change and continuity. Specifically, this involves examination ofthe ceramic traditions ofthese groups.Studies oftechnology are often strongly limited because of their promulgation of functionalist and environmentalist arguments as determinants ofstasis and change.These allow little scope for the potter to be acting from a socially as well as a functionally informed decision about the choice oftechnology adopted (Arnold 1985;Sinopoli 1991;Barnett & Hoopes 1995).Against this view, this study proposes that in the process of material culture production, technological choices not only deliver an end product but are also an essential part of complex,dynamic social strategies.Such strategies may exist both between people,and between people and the environment from which they will draw their resources (Dobres & Hoffman 1994,1999;Dobres 1995, 1999a,1999b,2000).

1. 3Theapproach ofthisstudy In this study possible patterns in technological choices for a selected number ofkey cultural groups are assessed. The technological choices that show the greatest consistency,and are reproduced through time within each examined cultural group,are termed technological style. Technological style is viewed as the outcome of technological tradition and will result in a specific and characteristic way of making pottery through communication ofvalues and beliefs from one generation to another in order to fit into understood cultural norms (Lemonnier 1986,1989,1992,Dobres 2000).The notion oftechnological style suggests that potting technology may well convey equally significant information about the society as the object itself.The framework ofchaî ne opératoire provides the analytical tool to assess choices through sequences ofpottery technology.

Technological choices may involve specific parts ofthe landscape and social relations within that landscape. Specific technological choices may be consistently reproduced through time within a given social group and may delineate social distinctions between groups and material culture patterning,reflecting social boundaries (Chilton 1998;Dietler & Herbich 1998;Hegmon 1998, 2000; Hitchcock & Bartram 1998; MacEachern 1998; Stark 1998b;Bowser 2000;Gosselain 2000;Stark et al. 2000).It is argued that in material culture production the functional,social and cultural are inseparable and they are mutually interdependent in forming a culturally accepted product.As such,technological choices have the ability to actively inform social relations and technological decisions can only be understood within their social and cultural context (Lechtman 1977; Lemonnier 1992,1993a;Pfaffenberger 1992).

Iftechnological difference can be identified,and is seen as distinctive to a specific cultural group ofpeople,then it follows that by comparing several technological traditions it may be possible to distinguish between the different social dynamics ofcontemporary Bronze Age societies. If similar technological patterns are recognisable between the examined cultural groups,then it indicates the existence of a more complex social relationship than is allowed by the typological approach. Similarities between technologies,both in time and space may allow us to assess the nature of social relations between communities. If similarities are found to encompass social strategies, that are consistently reproduced through time and space,this will provide a better understanding of the complex relations between and within communities.This may call into question the way in which traditional studies have constructed the supposedly distinct nature of typologically defined cultural groups and may provide a less f ragmented picture ofthe Early and Middle Bronze Age ofHungary.

1. 2ThetraditionalHungarianapproach Traditional Hungarian archaeology explains changes in material culture in terms of the appearance of new cultural groups through invasion,migration,diffusion and infiltration, an approach underpinned by the use of typologies.This study challenges this approach to Early and Middle Bronze ceramics and aims to consider how material culture and social relations were formed through technological practices.Possible similarities or changes in technological practices are explored through social

M oreover,iftechnological similarities can be identified and were reproduced consistently through time and space, it can be suggested that similar technological choices reproduced similar social relations.In the light ofthis,it can be considered that the reproduction ofsimilar social relations indicates relative social stability. If relative social stability can be identified through ceramic

1

6'%*01.1)+%#.%*1+%'5#0&/#6'4+#./'#0+0)5 highly decorated ones (Hodder 1979, 1982a; Sterner 1992). It has been suggested that fine ware ceramics and other non-utilitarian objects may not adequately represent social boundaries and the borders of the distribution of these objects are often permeable because they circulate widely and reach a wider and highly complex social audience (Larick 1985, 1991; Sterner 1989; Gosselain 1999a, 2000).

technology through time and space this may undermine models of migration and diffusion. 1.4 The case studies This research focuses on a range of Early and Middle Bronze Age settlements in Hungary. In order to gain a wider picture about technological change and continuity, and how technology shaped social relations during the Bronze Age, a number of important Early and Middle Bronze Age sites are examined. In chronological order these are:ÜllĘ (Makó), Ordacsehi-Kis-töltés, ZamárdiKútvölgyi-dĦOĘ (Somogyvár), Dunaföldvár-Kálvária (Nagyrév), Ordacsehi-Bugaszeg, Harta-W eierhivl (Kisapostag), Kaposvár 61/1 (Transdanubian Encrusted W are), Túrkeve-Terehalom (Ottomány-Gyulavarsánd), Füzesabony-Öregdomb (Füzesabony) and Esztergályhorváti-Alsóbárándpuszta (Tumulus) (Figure 1). The chronological position of these sites makes it possible to investigate change and continuity in ceramic technology and examine whether possible similarities or differences are representative for a particular settlement, a particular group of people or a particular period.

Given this perspective two types of storage vessels were chosen for this study:urns and squashed-shaped (nyomott gömb or hordó alakú) vessels (Appendix A)1. These are present throughout the Early and Middle Bronze Age although both exhibit wide variety in terms of their size and shape. Possible technological similarities and differences between the different traditions can therefore be compared. This study adds important knowledge to Early and Middle Bronze Age pottery studies in Hungary since storage vessels are one of the least explored vessel types. The potential of storage vessels for understanding social relations is neglected in Hungary since studies usually concentrate on fine ware ceramics that are considered to be more culture specific and accurate to construct chronologies than so-called ‘household’ pottery.

In particular, because of the well defined construction layers, the case study of the Nagyrév and Vatya tell settlement of Százhalombatta-Földvár offers a unique opportunity to examine technological change or continuity through time. Additionally, it becomes possible to assess how the environment was used, which is important to understand how people constructed their relationship with the local landscape from which they acquire raw materials.

1.6M ethods of analysis To achieve the goals of this study macroscopic and petrological analyses are applied to the ceramic assemblages. These methods allow us to explore aspects of clay and temper selection and their preparation together with vessel building technique, wall thickness, interior and exterior surface treatments and general firing conditions.

The history of the Nagyrév and Vatya periods is essential since the settling of the Nagyrév people meant the beginning of a sedentary life, which resulted in the establishment of the tell settlement at Százhalombatta. The fact that the people in the Nagyrév and Vatya periods at Százhalombatta lived at the same settlement for a long period (1800-1500 BC) (Poroszlai 2000a:14) makes it possible to investigate technological change and continuity in material culture, which sheds light on social changes. Moreover, the investigation of the Nagyrév and Vatya technological traditions gives a valuable insight about a transitional period between two cultural groups.

The application of macroscopic and petrological analysis is also novel in ceramic studies in Hungary, because such detailed and systematic analyses on Bronze Age pottery have never been done prior to this study. The application of ceramic petrology is aimed at establishing the use of local or non-local raw materials and their distinct use within various cultural settings. It is also used to observe technological choices that may not readily be recognisable through macroscopic examination. Thus this research is not a methodological study of provenancing ceramics but tries to answer specific archaeological questions through scientific methods.

1.5Study material

Macroscopic and petrological analyses are applied to gain as wide as possible picture about prehistoric ceramic technological choices. Using these methods the relationship between technological choices, raw material selection and environmental use are investigated. It is

It has been argued that the reproduction of material culture involves social strategies, although it is difficult to decide which part of material culture holds the most important social information and it is also culturally variable (Gosselain 1999a). It has, however, been recognised that socially meaningful patterns in utilitarian goods are more likely to be observed than in highly decorated items such as fine wares (Hodder 1982a; Gosselain 1999a). Thus, utilitarian and less visible objects are more sensitive to cultural boundaries than

1

Squashed-shaped vessel is the direct translation of the Hungarian term nyomott gömböstestĦ edény. In English ‘squat vessel’would be more appropriate, but the direct translation of the Hungarian term is chosen here.

2

%*#26'4+0641&7%6+10 relationship between technological choices and raw material selection. Cross-cultural similarities or differences in technological choices are then used to assess change and continuity in Early and Middle Bronze Age technological traditions.

Figure 1. Map of Hungary with the geographical location of the examined sites. 1: ÜllĘ;2: Ordacsehi-Kis-töltés and OrdacsehiBugaszeg;3: Zamárdi-Kútvölgyi-dĦOĘ;4: Harta-W eierhivl;5: Dunaföldvár-Kálvária;6: Százhalombatta-Földvár;7: Kaposvár 61/1;8: Túrkeve-Terehalom;9: Füzesabony-Öregdomb;10: Esztergályhorváti-Alsóbárándpuszta. Map source: http://lazarus.elte.hu/hun/summerk.jpg. (© LászlóZentai)

considered that systematic analyses of ceramic technologies through scientific methods enable us to reconstruct social relations that are materialised through a series of interlocking technological choices. It is further considered that in order to asses the social nature of technology we have to understand the complex

3

6'%*01.1)+%#.%*1+%'5#0&/#6'4+#./'#0+0)5

CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND TO THE EARLY AND MIDDLE BRONZE AGE IN HUNGARY 2. 1Introduction This chapter provides an outline of the Hungarian Early and Middle Bronze Age societies whose ceramic assemblages are examined in this study.The Hungarian archaeological tradition sits within the culture-history tradition and chronological questions are investigated mainly through vessel and metal typology. As such, researchers consider prehistoric changes in terms of movements of people who mingled culturally and biologically with the existing population (Bóna 1975a). Thus significant cultural change presupposes accompanying population change. Since the culturehistory framework is the most common approach in Hungary,the background to the Early and Middle Bronze Age cultural groups is presented accordingly. The relative chronological position of the analysed societies within the Hungarian Bronze Age and the internal chronology of the periods are also examined.An outline of the social organisation of Bronze Age societies is provided,as it is understood through recent analyses of cemeteries and settlements.The interrelationship between the examined Bronze Age societies is presented according to the prevailing culture-historical approach. The background to each society is followed by general descriptions of storage vessel shapes and a brief discussion of the settlement from which the examined ceramic material came.The most characteristic storage vessel shapes of each Bronze Age society are presented in Appendix A. Since this study focuses on ceramic technological traditions and the way that technology creates social relations, focusing on a typological approach alone may not necessarily be helpful in understanding the social nature of technology.For this reason only a general outline is given of the storage vessel shapes and it is not the intention here to present a debate on typological categorisation of storage vessels. It must be noted that a traditional Hungarian archaeological approach uses the term ‘culture’ to describe prehistoric communities.This study considers that the term ‘culture’ may not adequately describe prehistoric societies. The term culture is loaded with preconceptions about bounded social units and emphasises the spatial integrity of groups.This definition of ‘archaeological cultures’is based on the existence of distinctive traits between them.Such as artefacts and their stylistic features, in particular vessel shape and decoration, that are considered to indicate the spatial distribution of a given cultural group.A focus on ceramic technological traditions and the way that they are maintained, and on the relationship between technological tradition and social organisation,means,

however,that material culture,and the ‘cultural groups’ that it represents,cannot be viewed as a monolithic unit but as part of a complex,dynamic process that plays an important role in social reproduction.For this reason,the term society is used instead of ‘culture’in order to more adequately express the social dynamics between Early and Middle Bronze Age social groups. The analysed ceramic material represents ten of the most important Early and Middle Bronze Age societies in the Carpathian Basin. All the available ceramic materials were examined for each site by a hand specimen analysis (10x power)and Table 1 shows the number of sherds which were selected as a sample for more detailed microscopic examination.The locations of the examined settlements are presented in Figure 1 (Chapter 1).The relative chronology of the examined Bronze Age societies is presented in Figure 2 and the traditional spatial distribution of these societies is presented in Figures 310.Figures and tables have been listed in a continual numerical sequence.W here they do not appear within the text they are prefixed with the Appendix letter within which they are located. The ceramic assemblage of the Kisapostag society was analysed from two settlements because OrdacsehiBugaszeg represents the late Kisapostag period and Harta-W eierhivl represents the classic and late Kisapostag period. Also, the traditional typological approach considers that the effects of Kisapostag society can be observed in the material culture of Transdanubian Encrusted W are,Nagyrév and Vatya societies,and the Kisapostag plays an important role in the formation of the Vatya (Bóna 1992:20).In order to be able to assess the Kisapostag-Nagyrév-Vatya relations, two Nagyrév settlements were also chosen for examination.Also,an additional Somogyvár assemblage was selected from Zamárdi-Kútvölgyi-dĦOĘ to supplement the results from Ordacsehi-Kis-töltés.The Somogyvár ceramic tradition is also crucial in understanding the Early Bronze Age because the emergence of the Nagyrév may have been influenced by the Somogyvár (Szabó1992). The analysed societies show differences in terms of their material culture as established by ceramic typology and also by settlement types.Thus the M akó,Somogyvár, Kisapostag,Transdanubian Encrusted W are and Tumulus society lived in horizontal settlements and the Nagyrév, Vatya, Füzesabony, Ottomány and Gyulavarsánd societies mainly lived on tells.The chosen settlements are representative of societies from the beginning of the Early Bronze Age to the end of M iddle Bronze Age (Bóna 1992:40-41)allowing an assessment of ceramic technological similarity or difference over time.

4

%*#26'4$#%-)4170&616*''#4.;#0&/+&&.'$4103 mm) quartz and non-plastic inclusions of volcanic origin

= (FMS/IG1-2) FMS fabric with non-plastic inclusions of volcanic origin

= (FMS/CVCQ/GR1) FMS fabric with coarse (1-3 mm) and very coarse (>3 mm) quartz 1-7 % grog

= (FMS/CVCQ) FMS fabric with coarse (1-3 mm) and very coarse (>3 mm) quartz

= (FMS/CVCQ/LI) FMS fabric with coarse (1-3 mm) and very coarse (>3 mm) quartz and calcareous inclusions

= (FMS/LI/GR1) FMS fabric with calcareous inclusions and 1-7 % grog

6'%*01.1)+%#.%*1+%'5#0&/#6'4+#./'#0+0)5

SETTLEMENT

SOCIETY

6-9/9-11 m m 6-9/9-11 m m

6-9/9-11 m m 6-9/9-11 m m

6-9/9-11 m m 6-9/9-11 m m

Slab Slab Slab Slab Slab Slab Slab Slab Slab Slab Slab Slab Slab Slab Slab Slab Slab Slab Slab Slab Slab Slab Slab

~VF-FS/GR 2 ~VF-FS ~FMS/GR2 ~VF-FS/CVCQ/ GR1 ~VF-FS/LI/GR1 ~VF-FS/LI ~VF-FS/CVCQ/ GR2 ~VF-FS/FOMI/GR2 ~VF-FS/GR 1 ~VF-FS/GR 2 ~VF-FS ~FMS/GR1 ~FMS/GR2 ~VF-FS/CVCQ/ GR1 ~VF-FS/LI/GR1 ~VF-FS/LI ~VF-FS/CVCQ ~FMS ~VF-FS/LI/GR2 ~VF-FS/CVCQ/ GR2

~VF-FS/ C-CVCQ/GR1

~VF-FS/ C-CVCQ/GR2 ~VF-FS/ C-CVCQ

WT

191

Nagyrév

Százhalom batta-Földvár (SZHB) 9-11 m m

6-9 m m

9-11/13-15 m m

9-11/13-15 m m

B/S

B

B

B/S

B

B

S/B

B/S

B/S

B/S

S/B

B/S

B/S

B/S

B/S

S

B/S

B/S

B/S

B/S

S/B

B/S

B/S

B/S

IST

EST

B/S

S

B/S

B/S/R

B/S

B/S

S/R/B

B/S

B/S

S/B/R

S/B/R

B/S

B/R/S

S/B/R

B/S/R

R

B/S/R

B/S

B/S

S/B/R

S/B/R

B/R/S

S/B/R

B/S/R

ISC

B/G

BL

BL

B/G

G/B

BL/G

B/G/BL

B/BL

B/BL/G

BL/B/G

B/G

B/G

B/G/BL

B/G

B/G/BL

G

B/G

B//BL

B/BL

BL/B/G

B/G

B/G/BL

B/G

B/G/BL

ESC

B

BL

B/BL

B

G/B

BL/G

B/G

B/BL

B/BL

B/G/BL

B/G

B/G/BL

G/B/BL

B/G

B/G/BL

G

B

B//BL

B/BL

B/G/BL

B/G

G/B/BL

B/G

B/G/BL

IFC

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

Table 22a. Summary of technological traditions 3: Nagyrév and Vatya ceramic traditions from Százhalombatta. The fabrics are listed in descending order with the commonest first.

Vatya 6-9/9-11 m m

6-9/9-11 m m

6-9/9-11 m m

6-9/9-11 m m

6-9/9-11 m m

9-11 m m

6-9 m m

6-9/9-11 m m

6-9/9-11 m m

6-9/9-11 m m

6-9/9-11 m m

6-9/9-11 m m

6-9/9-11 m m

6-9/9-11 m m

BT Slab

FABRIC ~VF-FS/GR 1

Summary of Technological Traditions 3 EFC

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

#22'0&+:$

Som ogyvár

Som ogyvár

ÜllĘ 5 (ÜLL)

Ordacsehi-K (OK)

Zam árdi-Kútvölgyi -dĦOĘ (ZAM)

192

Slab Slab Slab Slab Slab Notvisible Notvisible

~FMS/GR1 ~FMS/GR2 ~FMS ~FMS/CVCQ/LI ~FMS/LI ~FMS/CVCQ/IG ~FMS/GR1

Notvisible

Notvisible

~FMS/IG1-FMS/IG2

~FMS/MI/IG

Slab

~FMS/LI/GR1

Notvisible

Slab

~VF-FS/LI/GR1

~VF-FS/LI

Slab

~FMS/CVCQ/GR1

Notvisible

Slab

~FMS/GR2

~FMS/CVCQ/LI

Slab

~FMS/GR1

Notvisible

Slab

~VF-FS/GR1

~FMS

BT

FABRIC

6-9 m m

6-9 m m

6-9 m m

6-9 m m

6-9 m m

6-9 m m

6-9/9-11 m m

6-9 m m

6-9/9-11 m m

9-11 m m

6-9/9-11 m m

6-9 m m

6-9 m m

6-9/9-11 m m

9-11 m m

6-9 m m

6-9 m m

6-9 m m

WT

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S/B

S

S

S/B

S/B

IST

S

B

S

S

B/R

R

S/R

S

S/R

B/S/R

S/R/B

S

S

S/R

R

S/B

S

S

EST

B

G

G

G

B

G

B

G/B

G

G

B/G

B

B

G/BL

B

G

G/B/BL

G

ISC

B

BL

G

B

B

G

B/G

B/G

B/G

G/B

B/G

B/BL

B

B/G

B

G/B

B/G

G

ESC

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

IFC

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

REDU

EFC

Table 22b. Summary of technological traditions 4: Makó and Somogyvár ceramic technological traditions. The fabrics are listed in descending order with the commonest first.

SOCIETY

Makó

SETTLEMENT

Summary of Technological Traditions 4

6'%*01.1)+%#.%*1+%'5#0&/#6'4+#./'#0+0)5

CLK

Earliest-Nagyrév

Transdanubian Encrusted Ware

(OB)

(HA)

DunaföldvárKálvária (DF)

Kaposvár - 61/1 (KAP)

193 Slab

~VF-FS/LI/GR2

Not visible

Slab

~FMS

~VF-FS/C-CVCQ

Slab

~VF-FS/GR2

Slab

Slab

~VF-VF-FS

~VF-FS

Slab

~VF-FS/GR1

Slab

Slab

~VF-FS/GR2

~VF-FS/GR2

Slab

~VF-FS/GR1

Slab

Not visible

~FMS/MI/GR2

~VF-FS/GR1

Slab

Slab

~VF-FS/GR1 ~VF-FS/GR2

BT

FABRIC

6-9 mm

6-9/9-11 mm

6-9/9-11 mm

6-9/9-11 mm

6-9/11-13 mm