Teaching Young Children: SAGE Publications [1 ed.] 9781446265758, 9781853963964

Citation preview

Teaching Young Children

Teaching Young Children Edited by Tricia David

POP

Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd

Selection, editorial material and Chapter 1 © Copyright 1999 Tricia David Chapter 2 © Copyright 1999 Teresa Grainger and Kathy Goouch Chapter 3 © Copyright 1999 Bryan Hawkins Chapter 4 © Copyright 1999 Gill Bottle and Claire Alfrey Chapter 5 © Copyright 1999 Mike Waring Chapter 6 © Copyright 1999 Peter Dorman Chapter 7 © Copyright 1999 Eric Parkinson and Caroline Thomas Chapter 8 © Copyright 1999 Gill Nicholls Chapter 9 © Copyright 1999 Stephen Scoffham Chapter 10 © Copyright 1999 Beryl Webber Chapter 11 © Copyright 1999 Vanessa Young Chapter 12 © Copyright 1999 Tricia David and Angela Nurse Chapter 13 © Copyright 1999 Carl Parsons and Carol Precious First published 1999 Reprinted 2003 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without permission in writing from the Publishers Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd £££ A SAGE Publications Company " 6 Bonhill Street London EC2A 4PU -

SAGE Publications Inc. 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd 32, M-Block Market Greater Kailash-I New Delhi 110 048 British Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 1 85396 439 5 ISBN 1 853% 396 8 (pbk) Library of Congress catalog card number available

Typeset by Anneset, Weston-super-Mare, Somerset Printed and bound in Great Britain by Biddies Ltd, Guildford and King's Lynn ABCDEF 32109

Contents Acknowledgements

vii

The authors

ix

1

Changing minds: teaching young children Tricia David

2

Young children and playful language Teresa Grainger and Kathy Goouch

19

3

The imagination, play and the arts Bryan Hawkins

30

4

Making sense of early mathematics Gill Bottle and Claire Alfrey

52

5

Developing a framework for primary P E Mike Waring

66

6

Information technology: issues of control Peter Dorman

83

7

Design and Technology: the subject integrator Eric Parkinson and Caroline Thomas

93

8

Young children investigating: adopting a constructivist framework Gill Nicholls

1

111

9

Young children's perceptions of the world Stephen Scoffham

125

10

Assessment and learning Beryl Webber

139

ν

Vl

Teaching Young Children

11

Continuing professional d e v e l o p m e n t Vanessa Young

12

I n s p e c t i o n s of u n d e r fives' e d u c a t i o n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n s of e a r l y c h i l d h o o d Tricia David and Angela Nurse

13

151

165

E v a l u a t i n g Policy a n d Practice Carl Parsons and Carol Precious

185

Index

203

Acknowledgements A s Editor, m y first a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t m u s t b e t o t h e a u t h o r s w h o h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h i s b o o k a n d t o t h e i r families for s u s t a i n i n g t h e m , w h e n t h e y n e e d e d s p a c e in o r d e r t o w r i t e i n a n a l r e a d y o v e r w o r k e d life! W e all a c k n o w l e d g e t h e role p l a y e d b y o u r s t u d e n t s a n d other colleagues at C a n t e r b u r y Christ C h u r c h University College a n d i n t h e w i d e r w o r l d of e d u c a t i o n , f r o m p r e s c h o o l t o u n i v e r s i t y level, for w i t h o u t t h e i r d e b a t e a n d c h a l l e n g e o u r o w n t h i n k i n g w o u l d b e limited. O u r publishers, especially M a r i a n n e Lagrange, h a v e b e e n e v e r p a t i e n t a n d h e l p f u l a n d L o u i s e Duff i n v a l u a b l e for h e r s e c r e t a r ial skills. C a n t e r b u r y C h r i s t C h u r c h U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e is a d e v e l o p i n g , v i b r a n t c o m m u n i t y of l e a r n e r s , set g e o g r a p h i c a l l y i n a p o s i t i o n t o i n f l u e n c e a n d b e i n f l u e n c e d b y o t h e r l e a r n e r s in t h i s l a r g e c o u n t y of K e n t a n d b e y o n d - for w e a r e a ' q u i c k h o p ' f r o m m a i n l a n d E u r o p e . T h e C o l l e g e h a s b e e n r e c o g n i s e d a s a l e a d i n g t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g instit u t i o n a n d s o , a s t e a c h e r e d u c a t o r s , w e s e e k in t h i s a n d t h e c o m p a n i o n p u b l i c a t i o n , Young Children Learning, t o s h a r e s o m e of o u r i d e a s a n d t o e n c o u r a g e t h e d e b a t e a n d d i s a g r e e m e n t w h i c h a r e t h e s i g n s of a strong a n d h e a l t h y d e m o c r a c y In particular, w i t h i n that debate, w e w a n t parents, educators, teachers, politicians a n d policy m a k e r s to d i s c u s s w h a t c h i l d h o o d is for a n d w h a t e d u c a t i o n is for, e s p e c i a l l y in the earliest a n d the p r i m a r y school years. W h e n w e h a v e decided on s o m e a n s w e r s t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s a n d h a v e e x p l o r e d t h e m e a n i n g of t h o s e a n s w e r s , i n t e r m s of t h e v a l u e s u n d e r p i n n i n g o u r society, w e w i l l b e c l e a r a b o u t t h e c o n t e n t a n d p r o c e s s e s of t h e c u r r i c u l u m for c h i l d r e n i n t h e earliest s t a g e s of t h e i r lifelong e d u c a t i o n . Tricia David Canterbury June 1998

The authors

C l a i r e A l f r e y is a S e n i o r L e c t u r e r in E d u c a t i o n at C a n t e r b u r y C h r i s t C h u r c h College. Although having taught throughout the primary age r a n g e , s h e s p e c i a l i s e s i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s . C l a i r e ' s i n t e r e s t in y o u n g child r e n ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d k n o w l e d g e of m a t h e m a t i c s c o m e s f r o m teaching children in reception and observing her o w n son beginning t o t a c k l e a n d m a k e s e n s e of p r e s c h o o l m a t h e m a t i c s . G i l l B o t t l e is a S e n i o r L e c t u r e r in E d u c a t i o n at C a n t e r b u r y C h r i s t C h u r c h C o l l e g e , w h e r e h e r m a i n t e a c h i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s lie in m a t h ematics a n d science c u r r i c u l u m studies. She h a s extensive experience a s a c l a s s r o o m teacher, s p e c i a l i s i n g i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s of s c h o o l i n g . Gill h a s a n M A in m a t h e m a t i c s c u r r i c u l u m s t u d i e s a n d s h e is c u r rently researching babies' mathematical experiences. H e r earlier i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h a v e i n c l u d e d a s t u d y of y o u n g c h i l d r e n l e a r n i n g n u m ber, a s w e l l a s r e s e a r c h i n t o c h i l d r e n ' s a n d a d u l t s ' a p t i t u d e for a l g e bra. Tricia D a v i d is a P r o f e s s o r of E d u c a t i o n at C a n t e r b u r y C h r i s t C h u r c h C o l l e g e a n d D i r e c t o r of t h e C e n t r e for I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i e s i n E a r l y C h i l d h o o d . S h e is c u r r e n t l y l e a d i n g a c o m p a r a t i v e r e s e a r c h project o n c h i l d r e n ' s e a r l y literacy, w h i c h is f u n d e d b y t h e E s m e e F a i r b a i r n F o u n d a t i o n . Tricia's m a n y p u b l i c a t i o n s h a v e f o c u s e d l a r g e l y o n t h e w a y s in w h i c h societies t r e a t a n d e d u c a t e t h e i r y o u n g e s t citizens. A s a s e r v i n g t e a c h e r in a n a r e a of E d u c a t i o n a l P r i o r i t y o n T y n e s i d e , P e t e r D o r m a n c a m e t o t h e u s e of c o m p u t i n g a s a p o s s i b l e s t r a t e g y for d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g t h e c u r r i c u l u m for p u p i l s w i t h Special E d u c a t i o n a l N e e d s . Working with colleagues in n e i g h b o u r i n g schools a n d HEIs, P e t e r d e v e l o p e d s u p p o r t a n d t r a i n i n g m a t e r i a l s for u s e w i t h i n s c h o o l s e t t i n g s . A p e r i o d w i t h t h e A d v i s o r y Service in K e n t e n a b l e d h i m t o d e v e l o p t h e s e activities f u r t h e r a n d t o w o r k w i t h c o l l e a g u e s i n a r a n g e of c o n t e x t s . P e t e r ' s p r e s e n t w o r k at C a n t e r b u r y C h r i s t C h u r c h College, as P r i m a r y ICT Coordinator, brings h i m into contact w i t h the n e x t g e n e r a t i o n of t e a c h e r s at a t i m e w h e n t h e role of I n f o r m a t i o n a n d

χ

Teaching Young Children

C o m m u n i c a t i o n T e c h n o l o g i e s is a b o u t t o e x p a n d at a n e v e r i n c r e a s i n g r a t e . P e t e r ' s c u r r e n t i n t e r e s t s a r e i n t h e a r e a s of m u l t i m e d i a a n d web authoring. In h e r r o l e a s a t u t o r a t C h r i s t C h u r c h C o l l e g e , K a t h y G o o u c h f o c u s e s m a i n l y o n E n g l i s h t e a c h i n g a n d y o u n g c h i l d r e n ' s l e a r n i n g . K a t h y is a m e m b e r of t h e r e s e a r c h t e a m c u r r e n t l y e x p l o r i n g t h e m e a n i n g of literacy in preschool settings in England a n d France. Together w i t h a f o r m e r c o l l e a g u e at t h e C o l l e g e , s h e u s e d v i d e o t o s t u d y a p p r o p r i a t e w a y s of t e a c h i n g r e a d i n g a n d t h i s w o r k h a s b e e n u s e d t o h e l p s t u d e n t s o n initial t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g c o u r s e s at C a n t e r b u r y C h r i s t C h u r c h College. T e r e s a G r a i n g e r w o r k s a s a P r i n c i p a l L e c t u r e r in E d u c a t i o n , m o s t l y i n E n g l i s h i n s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g , a l t h o u g h s h e still t e a c h e s r e g u l a r l y i n s c h o o l s . Teresa is p a r t i c u l a r l y f a s c i n a t e d b y y o u n g c h i l d r e n ' s artistic, linguistic a n d imaginative competence, a n d h o w educators can enhance this potential. B r y a n H a w k i n s g r e w u p in South London, w h e r e h e w a s massively i n f l u e n c e d b y a s u p e r b a r t t e a c h e r a n d d e v e l o p e d a l o v e of art, i d e a s a n d d r a w i n g s . H e a t t e n d e d t h e C h e l s e a S c h o o l of A r t i n t h e m i d 1970s. F o l l o w i n g t h i s , B r y a n s p e n t t i m e t r a v e l l i n g i n C h i n a , N e w Z e a l a n d a n d A u s t r a l i a a n d o n h i s r e t u r n h e t r a i n e d a s a n E a r l y Years teacher. H e t h e n s p e n t s e v e n h a p p y y e a r s a s a p r i m a r y s c h o o l t e a c h e r , w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t in c h i l d r e n w i t h s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n a l n e e d s a n d i n t h e p o t e n t i a l of a r t a n d t h e a r t s g e n e r a l l y B r y a n is c u r r e n t l y e m p l o y e d a s a S e n i o r L e c t u r e r i n A r t at C a n t e r b u r y C h r i s t C h u r c h C o l l e g e . H e is active a s a n artist a n d h i s r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s i n c l u d e m a k i n g art (drawings, paintings, prints) a n d writing. G i l l N i c h o l l s w o r k e d at C a n t e r b u r y b e f o r e b e c o m i n g a S e n i o r L e c t u r e r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Surrey. Gill's r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s lie i n t r a n s i t i o n s f r o m p r i m a r y t o s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l , Science E d u c a t i o n a n d children's cognitive development. A n g e l a N u r s e h a s a first d e g r e e i n h i s t o r y b u t t r a i n e d a s a t e a c h e r . M u c h of h e r t e a c h i n g h a s b e e n w i t h v e r y y o u n g c h i l d r e n w i t h s p e c i a l n e e d s , m a i n l y i n i n n e r L o n d o n a n d K e n t . Before c o m i n g t o C a n t e r b u r y C h r i s t C h u r c h C o l l e g e a s a S e n i o r Lecturer, s h e w o r k e d in a n advisory capacity w i t h teachers a n d colleagues in the other statutory services a n d w i t h i n the private a n d voluntary sectors.

The authors

xi

A n g e l a h a s w o r k e d e x t e n s i v e l y w i t h p a r e n t s , often i n t h e i r o w n h o m e s . She n o w directs the Early C h i l d h o o d Studies degree p r o g r a m m e a t C a n t e r b u r y a n d is a R e g i s t e r e d N u r s e r y I n s p e c t o r a n d V i c e - C h a i r of t h e g o v e r n i n g b o d y of h e r local s c h o o l . H e r n e w r o l e a s a g r a n d m o t h e r , h o w e v e r , b r i n g s i n t o s h a r p e r focus all t h e w o r k s h e h a s d o n e w i t h very y o u n g children! E r i c P a r k i n s o n is a S e n i o r L e c t u r e r i n P r i m a r y E d u c a t i o n at C a n t e r b u r y C h r i s t C h u r c h C o l l e g e . H i s r e s e a r c h field c o n c e r n s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d a p p l i c a t i o n s of c o n s t r u c t i o n kit a c t i v i t y i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s . H i s e x p e r i e n c e i n t h i s a r e a h a s b e e n s u p p o r t e d b y class t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e a n d l e a d i n g of c o n t i n u i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t a c t i v i t y i n t h e U K , W e s t I n d i e s a n d s o u t h e r n Africa, a s w e l l a s o v e r s e a s c o n s u l t a n c y a c t i v i t y for a n u m b e r of g l o b a l a g e n c i e s a n d Commonwealth governments. C a r l P a r s o n s is a P r o f e s s o r of E d u c a t i o n at C h r i s t C h u r c h C o l l e g e . H e h a s l o n g e x p e r i e n c e of e v a l u a t i o n a n d q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e i n e d u c a t i o n . H e h a s w r i t t e n w o r k s h o p m a t e r i a l s o n e v a l u a t i o n for t e a c h e r s a n d p r o p o s e s a m o d e l of s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n w h i c h is for d e v e l o p m e n t r a t h e r t h a n a c c o u n t a b i l i t y . R e c e n t articles h e h a s w r i t t e n a r e critical of O f s t e d b e c a u s e of t h e i r p u n i t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n . C a r l is w e l l k n o w n n a t i o n a l l y for h i s w o r k o n e x c l u s i o n s a t b o t h p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y levels. C a r o l P r e c i o u s w a s h e a d t e a c h e r of a n i n f a n t s c h o o l b e f o r e t a k i n g u p h e r p o s t a s a S e n i o r L e c t u r e r at C a n t e r b u r y C h r i s t C h u r c h C o l l e g e . C a r o l is e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n literacy i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s a n d h a s u n d e r t a k e n a s t u d y of p a r e n t s a n d c h i l d r e n w r i t i n g t o g e t h e r . S t e p h e n S c o f f h a m is s e n i o r l e c t u r e r i n p r i m a r y g e o g r a p h y at C a n t e r b u r y C h r i s t C h u r c h C o l l e g e . H e h a s w r i t t e n a w i d e r a n g e of t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l s i n c l u d i n g World Watch Geography a n d t h e Key Start a t l a s p r o g r a m m e . H e c o n t r i b u t e s r e g u l a r l y t o Primary Geographer a n d c u r r e n t l y s e r v e s o n t h e g o v e r n i n g b o d i e s of t h e G e o g r a p h i c a l Association, Canterbury Environment Centre a n d World Education D e v e l o p m e n t C e n t r e (East K e n t ) . C a r o l i n e T h o m a s is D e p u t y H e a d t e a c h e r of K e m s i n g C o u n t y P r i m a r y School in Kent. Formerly she w a s a Senior Lecturer at C a n t e r b u r y C h r i s t C h u r c h C o l l e g e , s p e c i a l i s i n g in Science a n d i n D e s i g n a n d Technology Education. She h a s u n d e r t a k e n international research in Health Education and Health Promotion.

xii

Teaching Young Children

M i k e W a r i n g is a L e c t u r e r i n t h e S c h o o l of E d u c a t i o n a t D u r h a m U n i v e r s i t y . H e h a s w o r k e d a s a teacher, r e s e a r c h e r a n d l e c t u r e r i n P h y s i c a l E d u c a t i o n for t h e p a s t d e c a d e . H i s m a i n a r e a s of i n t e r e s t are: c h i l d r e n a n d y o u n g p e o p l e ' s i n v o l v e m e n t i n p h y s i c a l activity; ITT; a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h m e t h o d o l o g y . B e r y l W e b b e r w a s a S e n i o r L e c t u r e r at C a n t e r b u r y C h r i s t C h u r c h College before taking u p a n a p p o i n t m e n t w i t h the n e w M e d w a y A u t h o r i t y . S h e w a s r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n of a s s e s s m e n t a c r o s s t h e p r i m a r y p h a s e t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n c o u r s e s . Beryl h a s w o r k e d closely w i t h S C A A / Q C A i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of N a t i o n a l B a s e l i n e A s s e s s m e n t a n d h a s a p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t in c h i l d r e n l e a r n i n g m a t h e matics. V a n e s s a Y o u n g is a s e n i o r l e c t u r e r i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t of E d u c a t i o n . A p a r t f r o m h e r m a i n c u r r i c u l u m a r e a of m u s i c , s h e c o o r d i n a t e s p r i m a r y s c h o o l - b a s e d C P D a n d staff d e v e l o p m e n t for t h e d e p a r t m e n t . H e r p r e v i o u s r o l e w a s a s a Staff D e v e l o p m e n t C o o r d i n a t o r for K e n t LEA.

1 Changing minds: teaching young children Tricia David A s k a n y o n e (in t h e U K ) t o recall w h a t w a s s p e c i a l a b o u t a ' g o o d teacher' w h o taught t h e m in p r i m a r y school a n d m o s t will come u p w i t h s i m i l a r d e s c r i p t i o n s of a p e r s o n w h o w a s firm b u t fair, w a r m b u t n o t o v e r - f a m i l i a r , r e s p e c t f u l , h a d a s e n s e of h u m o u r , k n e w t h e i r stuff a n d m a d e e a c h p u p i l feel t h e y ( a n d t h e i r w o r k ) m a t t e r e d . E m b e d d e d in t h e s e d e s c r i p t i o n s is a m e s s a g e a b o u t r e l a t i o n s h i p s . R e s e a r c h ( H u t t u n e n 1992) w i t h o l d e r p u p i l s w h i c h a t t e m p t e d to t e a s e o u t w h a t child r e n in Finland v a l u e d about the preschools they attended until age s e v e n d e m o n s t r a t e d clearly that relationships are the m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d e n d u r i n g factors. I n h i s f i n e - g r a i n e d r e s e a r c h A n d r e w P o l l a r d (1996) d e m o n s t r a t e d h o w t h e q u a l i t y of r e l a t i o n s h i p s is a c r u c i a l e l e m e n t i n c h i l d r e n ' s l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s . T h e i m p a c t of e m o t i o n a l a s p e c t s of a s c h o o l o r n u r s e r y s i t u a t i o n h a s l o n g b e e n n e g l e c t e d i n t h e U K , a s is a m p l y d e m o n s t r a t e d b y t h e list of criteria for j u d g i n g t h e q u a l i t y of t e a c h i n g d r a w n f r o m O f s t e d criteria ( M o y l e s a n d S u s c h i t z k y 1997). P e r h a p s s u c h a s p e c t s a r e m e a n t t o b e e m b e d d e d i n p h r a s e s like ' m a n a g e c h i l d r e n w e l l ' b u t t h e y d o n o t r e a l l y c o n j u r e u p t h e k i n d of e m o t i o n a l w e l l - b e i n g i n v o l v e d i n t h e holistic v i e w of e a r l y l e a r n i n g r e s e a r c h e d b y C l a i r e M o u l d (1998). R e l a t i o n s h i p s t a k e t i m e t o d e v e l o p a n d c l a s s r o o m s a r e , like t h e h o m e , places w h e r e relationships are negotiated a n d refined (Delamo n t 1990; E d w a r d s a n d M e r c e r 1987). Essentially, t e a c h i n g is a b o u t relationships - b e t w e e n the teacher and: the children, their parents or c a r e r s , o t h e r t e a c h e r s a n d staff, o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s , t h e w i d e r c o m m u n i t y . T e a c h i n g is a l s o a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n c h i l d r e n , a b o u t s e t t i n g u p a l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t , a c l i m a t e for l e a r n i n g , a n d t h i s r e q u i r e s k n o w l e d g e of c h i l d r e n g e n e r a l l y a n d t h e i m m e d i a t e g r o u p of c h i l d r e n i n p a r t i c u l a r . W o r k i n g t o g e t h e r w i t h p a r e n t s ( t h e p e o p l e w h o k n o w t h e i r c h i l d r e n b e s t ) is a w a y of e n s u r i n g c o n t i n u i t y 1

1

2

Teaching Young Children

a n d c o h e r e n c e for c h i l d r e n b u t all h a v e t h e i r o w n h i s t o r i e s a n d assumptions about w h a t and h o w y o u n g children should be taught (Barrett 1986). So t e a c h e r s ' a s s u m p t i o n s a n d k n o w l e d g e b a s e s s h o u l d b e c o n s t a n t l y c h a l l e n g e d b y b o t h initial a n d i n s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g . To set d o w n a p r e s c r i b e d , fixed k n o w l e d g e b a s e for t e a c h e r s w h i c h m i g h t l e a d t h e m t o c o n c l u d e t h e r e w a s little m o r e t o d i s c o v e r a n d t h a t s o m e o n e s o m e w h e r e h a s all t h e a n s w e r s , t h e c e r t a i n t i e s , is a d i s s e r v i c e t o teachers a n d children. H o w e v e r , i n o r d e r n o t t o b e c o m e p a r a l y s e d b y u n c e r t a i n t y , a s Lili a n K a t z h a s s u g g e s t e d , t e a c h e r s of y o u n g c h i l d r e n s h o u l d b e a b l e t o t e a c h w i t h O p t i m a l c e r t a i n t y ' i n t h e l i g h t n e s s of t h e i r a c t i o n s a n d t h a t t h e s e s h o u l d b e b a s e d o n ' r o b u s t e v i d e n c e ' (Katz 1996, p . 145) b u t teachers s h o u l d also b e i m b u e d with a healthy scepticism in order to question their o w n practice. I n h e r d i s c u s s i o n of t h e p h i l o s o p h y u n d e r p i n n i n g t h e t e a c h i n g i n t h e c e l e b r a t e d n u r s e r i e s of R e g g i o Emilia in N o r t h e r n Italy, G u n i l l a D a h l b e r g (1995) d r a w s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e w a y s in w h i c h p e d a g o g i c a l p r a c t i c e is r e c o g n i s e d a s d e p e n d e n t u p o n social c o n s t r u c t i o n s w h i c h are simply the beginning, being based on assumptions and experiences which are not 'neutral a n d innocent' but rather have the 'potential of b e i n g d a n g e r o u s ' (p. 10). In o r d e r t o b e a b l e t o c r i t i q u e a n d reflect o n t h e i r p r a c t i c e , R e g g i o t e a c h e r s m a i n t a i n rigorous d o c u m e n t a t i o n a n d u s e t h i s i n t h e i r w e e k l y s e s s i o n s of c o n t i n u o u s p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e d o c u m e n t a t i o n is m o r e t h a n a r e c o r d of w o r k w i t h c h i l d r e n , it is a s t o r y of a c o m m u n i t y , a w a y of e x p l o r i n g o n e ' s c o n s t r u c t i o n of oneself as a t e a c h e r a n d , a s s u c h , c a n l e a d t o a r e a l i s a t i o n t h a t r e t h i n k i n g of o n e ' s a p p r o a c h e s , styles, c h i l d r e n ' s l e a r n i n g a n d a c h i e v e m e n t , is necessary. I n o t h e r w o r d s , t e a c h i n g d e c i s i o n s a r e m a d e o n t h e b a s i s of e v i d e n c e a n d e x p e r i e n c e t h a t h a v e b e e n a n a l y s e d - b u t o n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t o n e m u s t live w i t h u n c e r t a i n t y , o n e c a n n o t b e sure that one's actions in teaching will always h a v e the desired effect. In o t h e r w o r d s , in a n e v e r c h a n g i n g w o r l d i n w h i c h w e a r e a t t e m p t i n g t o g i v e c h i l d r e n feelings of s e c u r i t y a n d safety w i t h i n a context w h e r e w e w a n t t h e m to dare to m a k e mistakes a n d to learn, w e h a v e to b e prepared to change our o w n minds, a n d to try to change t h e m i n d s of o t h e r s i n influential p o s i t i o n s . Further, p a r e n t s ' or teachers' actions are i m b u e d w i t h m e a n i n g a n d t h e s e m e a n i n g s m a y differ f r o m c u l t u r e to c u l t u r e a n d o v e r t i m e . I n t e r m s of t h e r e s p o n s e s different a c t i o n s e v o k e f r o m c h i l d r e n , w h a t seems to be i m p o r t a n t are the m e a n i n g s the children attach to particu l a r b e h a v i o u r s o n t h e p a r t of p a r e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s (Katz 1996), s o w e n e e d t o b e a w a r e of h o w w e c h a n g e t h e i r m i n d s t h r o u g h o u r t e a c h -

Changing minds: teaching young children

3

i n g a n d t h r o u g h t h e h i d d e n c u r r i c u l u m . P a r t of t h a t h i d d e n c u r r i c u l u m will b e the w a y w e v i e w ourselves as learners: In the ' i m p r o v i n g ' schools teachers w e r e e n c o u r a g e d to b e learners t h e m s e l v e s . Staff w e r e e n c o u r a g e d to collaborate b y l e a r n i n g w i t h a n d from e a c h other. (Harris a n d Russ 1993, par. 5.3) H o w e v e r , it is f r o m t h e c h i l d r e n , b o t h i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d collectively, that w e can learn m o s t a n d according to Claxton ' g o o d teachers' in the traditional sense m a y maximise training procedures which enable p u p i l s t o s u c c e e d at tests, e x a m i n a t i o n s a n d i n a p p l y i n g ' f a m i l i a r o p e r a t i o n s t o f a m i l i a r c o n t e n t ' ( C l a x t o n 1990, p . 154) b u t it is t h e t y p e of t e a c h e r s w h o m C l a x t o n calls ' m e n t o r s ' w h o e q u i p t h e i r p u p i l s t o b e ' g o o d learners', because these 'good learners' are resourceful, creative a n d p e r s i s t e n t , i n t e l l i g e n t i n t h e face of c h a n g e . T h e r e c e n t c h a n g e s of m i n d c o n c e r n i n g t h e t r a i n i n g of t e a c h e r s h e r e i n t h e U K h a s b e e n criticised: ' t h e r o l e of t h e t e a c h e r is b e i n g a r t i c u lated in a w a y w h i c h displaces extended professionalism a n d replaces t h i s w i t h a v e r s i o n of " p e r f o r m a t i v i t y " (Ball 1998, p . 5). It is a s s u m e d t h a t t h e r e is a ' c o m m o n f r a m e w o r k for p e o p l e w i t h fixed g o a l s ' (Furl o n g 1992, p . 168) a n d t h a t all t e a c h e r s n e e d t o k n o w a b o u t is skills, task analysis a n d testing. A n y alternative v i e w of teaching is neatly m a r g i n a l i s e d . . . Of course w e believe that academically able a n d effective classroom m a n a g e r s are n e e d e d in schools b u t the act of teaching is m u c h m o r e t h a n this. A professional teacher is o n e w h o h a s a c o m m i t m e n t to a professional c o d e of ethics a n d d i s p l a y s professional integrity. We are c o n c e r n e d t h a t a w i d e r vision of t h e school teacher is b e i n g lost in the process of laying d o w n , in m i n u t e detail, w h a t it is t h a t teachers n e e d to k n o w a n d b e able to d o . . .' (Maguire et al 1998, p p . 6-7). D u r i n g t h e last f e w y e a r s , t e a c h e r s i n t h e U K d o s e e m t o h a v e b o r n e t h e b r u n t of c r i t i c i s m s for w h a t e v e r is w r o n g w i t h o u r e c o n o m y a n d s o c i e t y - for r e c e s s i o n s , u n e m p l o y m e n t , u n e m p l o y a b i l i t y , disaffected y o u t h , illiteracy, i n d i s c i p l i n e , i m m o r a l i t y , e x p o r t failures - t h e list appears endless a n d the brickbats continue. Not only teachers h a v e failed, s o t h e a r g u m e n t g o e s , s o t o o h a v e t h o s e w h o h a v e e d u c a t e d a n d t r a i n e d t h e t e a c h e r s . S o m u c h s o , t h a t a ' n a t i o n a l c u r r i c u l u m ' for t r a i n i n g t e a c h e r s h a s b e e n i n s t i t u t e d (DfEE 1997 a n d 1998) a n d t h e i n s p e c t i o n s b y O f s t e d (Office for S t a n d a r d s i n E d u c a t i o n ) of t r a i n i n g establishments h a v e been repeated (presumably because the inspect o r s t h e m s e l v e s w e r e t h o u g h t t o h a v e failed to a p p l y t h e f r a m e w o r k

4

Teaching Young Children

a p p r o p r i a t e l y t h e first t i m e a r o u n d ) , i n a b i d t o e n s u r e n e w t e a c h e r s in p r i m a r y schools achieve the standards delineated in the Governm e n t Circular. I n a d d i t i o n , s t r a t e g i e s for literacy, p i l o t e d i n 1997-98 a n d , a l t h o u g h n o t c o m p u l s o r y , e x p e c t e d t o b e i n s t i t u t e d b y a l m o s t all p r i m a r y s c h o o l s , i n c l u d e p a t t e r n s of t e a c h i n g w h i c h n o t o n l y p r e s c r i b e t h e c o n t e n t of l e s s o n s b u t m o d e s of ' d e l i v e r y ' . W h a t c o n s t i t u t e s ' g o o d m a t h e m a t i c s t e a c h i n g ' t o o is b e i n g p r e s c r i b e d . Yet w h e n t h e N a t i o n a l C u r r i c u l u m w a s b e i n g i m p l e m e n t e d a n d w h e n t h e Desirable Outcomes for Children's Learning on Entering Compulsory Education ( g u i d e l i n e s r e l a t i n g t o u n d e r fives' e d u c a t i o n ) w e r e d i s s e m i n a t e d ( S C A A 1996), it w a s c l a i m e d t h a t t e a c h e r s w e r e t o b e t h e a r b i t e r s of t h e b e s t t e a c h i n g a p p r o a c h e s for t h e c h i l d r e n w i t h w h o m t h e y w o r k e d . I n o t h e r w o r d s what c h i l d r e n a r e t o l e a r n w a s d i c t a t e d c e n t r a l l y b u t how t h e y w e r e to b e t a u g h t w a s t o b e d e c i d e d 'locally'. H o w e v e r , a s J i m C a m p b e l l p o i n t s o u t , since 1992 t h e r e h a s b e e n a n 'obsession w i t h p e d a g o g y in a sophisticated b u t rather u n s u b t l e a t t e m p t to deflect criticism from the structural p r o b l e m s in the curr i c u l u m , a n d p r o b l e m s of resources a n d expertise, o n t o teachers.' (Campbell 1998, p . 98) T h e r e h a s b e e n p r e s s u r e t o t e a c h w h o l e - c l a s s f a s h i o n for significant p r o p o r t i o n s of t h e s c h o o l d a y , i n a style m i m i c k i n g t h e Pacific R i m c o u n t r i e s w h o s e e c o n o m i e s w e r e , u n t i l recently, h e l d u p a s a b e a c o n t o t h e British w o r k f o r c e . M e a n w h i l e , a n o t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e s e t t i n g u p of N u r s e r y P a r t n e r s h i p s , h a s b e e n d e m a n d e d of all local a u t h o r i t i e s . N u r s e r y P a r t n e r s h i p s a r e g r o u p i n g s of u n d e r fives' p r o v i d e r s f r o m t h e m a i n t a i n e d , private a n d v o l u n t a r y sectors, initiated so that educators from the w h o l e r a n g e of s e t t i n g s (for e x a m p l e , m a i n t a i n e d a n d p r i v a t e n u r s e r y s c h o o l s a n d classes, c h i l d m i n d i n g , p l a y g r o u p s / p r e s c h o o l s , r e c e p t i o n classes) c a n c o m e t o g e t h e r t o p r o v i d e a c o o r d i n a t e d s y s t e m of n u r s e r y e d u c a t i o n for four y e a r o l d s (in t h e first i n s t a n c e ) . F u r t h e r , d u r i n g 1998-99 n u r s e r y p a r t n e r s h i p s m u s t e n s u r e t h a t a qualified t e a c h e r is i n v o l v e d i n s o m e w a y w i t h e v e r y s e t t i n g offering a p l a c e t o a f o u r y e a r o l d f u n d e d o u t of t h e p u b l i c p u r s e . T h i s m e a n s t h a t n e w c h a l l e n g e s face t h e t e a c h e r s a p p o i n t e d t o c a r r y o u t s u c h w o r k . It is p o s s i b l e t h a t e v e n w i t h i n o n e local a u t h o r i t y a r e a s e v e r a l different m o d e l s of t e a c h e r i n v o l v e m e n t m a y b e p i l o t e d , for s o m e m o d e l s w i l l g r o w o u t of t h e h i s t o r y of t h e l i n k s b e t w e e n t h e s t a t u t o r y a n d t h e o t h e r s e c t o r s . E v e n t u a l l y p r o v i s i o n for c h i l d r e n u n d e r f o u r a n d c a r e facilities for c h i l d r e n u p t o a g e 14, o u t s i d e s c h o o l h o u r s , m u s t b e d e v e l o p e d ( D o H

Changing minds: teaching young children

5

a n d DfEE 1998). T h e w a y s i n w h i c h t e a c h e r s a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l s f r o m o t h e r a g e n c i e s , s u c h a s Social Services a n d t h e Police, w o r k t o g e t h e r is e x p e c t e d t o c h a n g e w h e n t h e G o v e r n m e n t ' s p r o p o s a l s c o n c e r n i n g i n t e r - a g e n c y c o o p e r a t i o n t o s a f e g u a r d c h i l d r e n a r e finalised ( D o H 1998a). T h e D e p a r t m e n t of H e a l t h (1998a) c o n s u l t a t i o n d o c u m e n t s t r e s s e s t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of e x i s t i n g l e g i s l a t i v e c h a n g e s s u c h a s t h e p u b l i s h i n g of C h i l d r e n ' s Services P l a n s , d e v e l o p e d after c o n s u l t a t i o n a m o n g all s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r s , a n d t h e n e w p r o p o s a l s , w h i l e i n t e n d e d t o i m p r o v e t h e s i t u a t i o n for c h i l d r e n i n d i s t r e s s i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s , w i l l place additional responsibilities on schools a n d teachers. A f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t r e s u l t i n g from G o v e r n m e n t a l r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e b u r d e n s o m e n a t u r e of s o m e of t h e n e w d e m a n d s is t h e p r o p o s a l t o r a t i o n a l i s e i n s p e c t i o n s of e a r l y c h i l d h o o d s e r v i c e s i n t h e p r i v a t e a n d v o l u n t a r y s e c t o r s . S u c h s e t t i n g s a r e a t p r e s e n t i n s p e c t e d b y b o t h Social S e r v i c e s a n d O f s t e d r e g i s t e r e d n u r s e r y i n s p e c t o r s b u t t h e y u s e differe n t f r a m e w o r k s (see C h a p t e r 13 for f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n of u n d e r fives' inspections). So b o t h p r a c t i s i n g t e a c h e r s a n d t h o s e i n initial t r a i n i n g for e a r l y y e a r s a n d p r i m a r y w o r k m u s t b e p r e p a r e d for t h e m u l t i - p r o f e s s i o n a l field i n w h i c h t h e i r r o l e a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y m e s h e s w i t h t h a t of m a n y other a d u l t s , especially children's p a r e n t s a n d carers. Finally, i n t h e belief t h a t literacy a n d n u m e r a c y a c h i e v e m e n t s w i l l b e a m e l i o r a t e d , t h e S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e for E d u c a t i o n h a s freed u p l e g a l r e q u i r e m e n t s of s c h o o l s i n t h e F o u n d a t i o n subjects (Art, M u s i c , P E , H i s t o r y , G e o g r a p h y ) f r o m S e p t e m b e r 1998 u n t i l 2000, d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d of t h e N e w L a b o u r G o v e r n m e n t ' s r e v i e w of t h e N a t i o n a l C u r r i c u l u m . T h i s w i l l m e a n t h a t c e r t a i n subject c o o r d i n a t o r s m a y find t h e t i m e for t h e i r s p e c i a l i s m b e i n g a l m o s t s q u e e z e d o u t . S c h o o l t e a m s w i l l n e e d to ask themselves searching questions about children's access to different a r e a s of e x p e r i e n c e a n d t h e effect o m i s s i o n s m a y h a v e . T h i s is n o t s i m p l y a q u e s t i o n of s o m e c h i l d r e n b e i n g d e n i e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o d e v e l o p t a l e n t s t h e y m a y b e b r i n g i n g t o s c h o o l s , w h i c h is i n itself i m p o r t a n t . It is a v i t a l q u e s t i o n for o u r society. W e n e e d t o g o r i g h t b a c k t o t h e q u e s t i o n of w h a t e d u c a t i o n is for, w h a t different a r e a s of t h e c u r r i c u l u m , o r subjects a r e 'for', a n d t h u s w h a t e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g is n e e d e d b y o u r t e a c h e r s .

Teaching young children: questions of pedagogy I n 1992 t h e r e p o r t Curriculum Organisation and Classroom Practice ( A l e x a n d e r et al 1992) w a s p u b l i s h e d a t t h e r e q u e s t of t h e t h e n Secr e t a r y of S t a t e for E d u c a t i o n , K e n n e t h C l a r k e . T h i s r e p o r t u s e d

6

Teaching Young Children

research evidence to m a k e recommendations about 'teaching m e t h o d s a n d c l a s s r o o m p r a c t i c e . . . p a r t i c u l a r l y i n K e y S t a g e 2 ' (par. 1). I n fact, it w a s o s t e n s i b l y t h e u p p e r y e a r s of p r i m a r y s c h o o l i n g a b o u t w h i c h t h e r e w a s m o s t c o n c e r n a n d for w h i c h it w a s c l a i m e d subject specialisation b y teachers w a s particularly important. The problem w a s that t h e a u t h o r s of t h a t r e p o r t s e e m e d t o t a k e n o a c c o u n t of t h e fact t h a t a n y t i n k e r i n g w i t h w h a t h a p p e n s i n t h e classes of o l d e r c h i l d r e n h a s a l w a y s i n v o l v e d d o w n w a r d p r e s s u r e o n t e a c h e r s of y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n . T h i s is n o t t o s a y t h a t c h a n g e s s h o u l d n e v e r occur, it is t o a r g u e t h a t a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e o r g a n i c n a t u r e of o u r e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m w a s r e q u i r e d . It w a s a l r e a d y k n o w n ( D a v i d 1993; Sylva et al 1992) t h a t t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h e N a t i o n a l C u r r i c u l u m i n K e y S t a g e 1 (KS1) h a d h a d r e p e r c u s s i o n s for t h e e a r l y y e a r s ( s u d d e n l y t h i s t e r m w a s b e i n g a p p l i e d o n l y t o c h i l d r e n b e t w e e n t h r e e a n d five y e a r s old, w h e r e a s t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n of e a r l y y e a r s h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n t h e p h a s e f r o m b i r t h t o e i g h t y e a r s ) . E d u c a t o r s in u n d e r fives' s e t t i n g s n o t trained as early years teachers were anxiously attempting, inappropriately, t o ' t e a c h ' t h e N a t i o n a l C u r r i c u l u m c o n t e n t s t o c h i l d r e n i n n u r s e r i e s a n d p l a y g r o u p s , a n d p a r e n t s w e r e p r e s s u r i s i n g staff i n all u n d e r - f i v e s ' s e t t i n g s t o t e a c h formally, especially i n t h o s e a r e a s t o b e t e s t e d at t h e e n d of K S 1 , b e c a u s e t h e y c o n c l u d e d f o r m a l t e a c h i n g t o b e t h e b e s t ' i n s u r a n c e p o l i c y ' a g a i n s t t h e i r c h i l d ' s failure a n d s u b s e q u e n t labelling at age seven. More recent research (Sharp a n d Davis 1997) c o n f i r m s t h e t r e n d - t h a t p a r e n t s a r e c o n c e r n e d t o h a v e t h e i r children learn r e a d i n g a n d mathematics at a n early age. But parents q u e s t i o n e d for t h e 1997 s t u d y d i d w a n t a r a n g e of p l a y activities for t h e i r y o u n g c h i l d r e n t o o , a t least t h e p a r e n t s of t h r e e y e a r o l d s e m p h a s i s e d t h i s a n d t h e p a r e n t s of four y e a r o l d s w a n t e d t o b e s u r e of a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n r e a d i n g a n d m a t h e m a t i c s a n d play. A l t h o u g h s o m e researchers argue that play has not actually been p r o v e n a s t h e p r e - e m i n e n t v e h i c l e for y o u n g c h i l d r e n ' s l e a r n i n g (e.g. S m i t h 1986) a n d t h e r e is m u c h d e b a t e a b o u t w h a t exactly play m e a n s t o m a n y p r a c t i t i o n e r s (free choice or e x p e r i e n t i a l activities s t r u c t u r e d b y a n a d u l t ) , t h e r e is s t r o n g e v i d e n c e t h a t c h i l d r e n ' s l o n g t e r m a c h i e v e m e n t s i n s c h o o l a r e p r o m o t e d b y e a r l y l e a r n i n g w h i c h is c h i l d d i r e c t e d (Sylva 1998). I n fact O f s t e d (1993) p l a c e d a h e a v y e m p h a s i s o n t h e b a l a n c e b e t w e e n l e a r n i n g t h r o u g h self-directed p l a y a n d l e a r n i n g t h r o u g h t e a c h e r - d i r e c t e d activities i n c l a s s r o o m s for y o u n g child r e n . T h e r e is a s i m i l a r e m p h a s i s in t h e O f s t e d N u r s e r y I n s p e c t i o n F r a m e w o r k (Ofsted 1997 a n d 1998), w i t h r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a t c h i l d r e n a r e e n a b l e d t o t a k e t h e initiative in s o m e of their activities. I n fact t h e W e l s h v e r s i o n of t h e D e s i r a b l e O u t c o m e s r e l a t i n g to t h e f r a m e w o r k

Changing minds: teaching young children

7

for l e a r n i n g i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s ( C u r r i c u l u m a n d A s s e s s m e n t A u t h o r ity for W a l e s 1996) stresses play a s t h e m a i n m o d e of ' d e l i v e r y ' of s u c h outcomes. H o w e v e r , it c a n b e difficult t o t e a c h t h r o u g h a p l a y - b a s e d c u r r i c u l u m i n t h e face of p r e s s u r e for f o r m a l r e a d i n g , w r i t i n g a n d a r i t h m e t i c , b a s e l i n e a s s e s s m e n t w h i c h m a y reflect b a d l y o n p r e s c h o o l p r o v i s i o n , a n d fears t h a t t h e earlier o n e s t a r t s , t h e b e t t e r t h e c h i l d w i l l b e i n lite r a c y a n d n u m e r a c y , i n s p i t e of c l a i m s t o t h e c o n t r a r y (see C h a p t e r 12 for a fuller d i s c u s s i o n ) . It is n o t c o n t e n t t h a t is n e c e s s a r i l y t h e p r o b l e m - a s B r u n e r p o i n t e d o u t (1966) a n a c c o m p l i s h e d t e a c h e r c a n t e a c h m o r e o r less a n y t h i n g t o a l e a r n e r n o m a t t e r w h a t t h e i r a g e - it is how t h e y t e a c h it t h a t is t h e q u e s t i o n a n d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o r o t h e r w i s e of t h e i r c h o s e n a p p r o a c h e s . So i n fact, p e d a g o g y is a b o u t b o t h w h a t is t o b e t a u g h t , t h e p u p i l s ' d e v e l o p m e n t a n d l e a r n i n g , a s w e l l a s a b o u t teaching strategies. T h e h a s t e t o f o r m a l i s e is s o m e t i m e s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e lack of c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t c o u r s e s i n r e c e n t t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n , p a r t l y b e c a u s e it w a s p u s h e d o u t b y o t h e r c o n t e n t in t h e t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g c u r r i c u l u m , p a r t l y p e r h a p s b e c a u s e of t h e c l a i m t h a t ' t e a c h i n g is n o t a p p l i e d c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t ' i n t h e 1992 r e p o r t ( A l e x a n d e r et al 1992). W h i l e t h i s is b e i n g r e m e d i e d b y C i r c u l a r 4 / 9 8 (early y e a r s t e a c h e r s w i l l h a v e t o c o v e r t h i s i n t h e i r t r a i n i n g a n d t e a c h e r s w i s h i n g t o t a k e u p p o s t s linking preschool p r o v i d e r s involved in the N u r s e r y Partnerships m u s t h a v e t a k e n s u c h c o u r s e s ) , it s h o u l d n o t b e a s i m p l e m a t t e r of t e a c h i n g C h i l d D e v e l o p m e n t a s it w a s t a u g h t in t h e p a s t . D e v e l o p m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s t h e m s e l v e s a r e q u e s t i o n i n g t h e i r o w n s p e c i a l i s m a n d its rele v a n c e , b e c a u s e it w a s f o u n d e d o n t h e m e t h o d s of n a t u r a l s c i e n c e w h i c h t o o k n o a c c o u n t of t h e c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t in w h i c h t h e c h i l d r e n s t u d i e d (or u s e d a s ' n o r m s ' ) w e r e d e v e l o p i n g , n o r t h e s h a r e d m e a n i n g s a n d c o - c o n s t r u c t i o n s of reality. S u c h m e t h o d s a l s o m e a n t t h a t t h e d e f i n i t i o n of 'objectivity' a d o p t e d d e m a n d e d d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e r e s e a r c h e r a n d t h e c h i l d o b s e r v e d - y e t t h o s e of u s w h o a r e p a r e n t s a n d grandparents a n d w h o have extensive experience w o r k i n g with y o u n g children k n o w that most children in this age g r o u p behave very differently i n t h e p r e s e n c e of a s t r a n g e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y o n e w h o m a y t h e m s e l v e s s e e m t o exhibit s t r a n g e b e h a v i o u r a s far a s t h e c h i l d r e n a r e c o n c e r n e d . So s o m e of t h e l a b o r a t o r y - b a s e d c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t ' n o r m s ' , m o s t d e r i v e d f r o m e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h w h i t e m i d d l e class child r e n i n t h e U S A , tell u s s i m p l y a b o u t t h a t s i t u a t i o n . I n t h e i r r e s e a r c h p u b l i c a t i o n Common Knowledge, E d w a r d s a n d M e r cer (1987) d e m o n s t r a t e h o w c h i l d r e n a n d t e a c h e r s t o g e t h e r d e v e l o p t h e c u l t u r e of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t t h e y s h a r e . T h i s c u l t u r e is, of c o u r s e ,

8

Teaching Young Children

s e t w i t h i n t h e c u l t u r e of t h e s c h o o l , w h o s e e t h o s a n d u n d e r p i n n i n g v a l u e s w i l l p e r m e a t e life i n t h a t s h a r e d e n v i r o n m e n t . W h e n all t h e t e a c h e r s i n a s c h o o l t e a m h a v e a n a g r e e d set of p r i n c i p l e s a n d h a v e c o m e t o a c o m m o n set of v a l u e s t a t e m e n t s , c h i l d r e n c a n m o v e f r o m o n e class t o a n o t h e r w i t h e a s e . Similarly, s u c h t e a c h e r s a r e clear a b o u t t h e i r g o a l s a n d p u r p o s e s , a b o u t h o w t h e i r class fits i n t o t h e w h o l e t h a t is t h e s c h o o l , set w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y , w i t h i n t h e local a r e a , w i t h i n the national scene. T h u s it is a l s o i m p o r t a n t for t e a c h e r s t o b e clear a b o u t t h e p l a c e of c h i l d r e n i n society. So often i n t h e p a s t , d i s c u s s i o n of t e a c h i n g y o u n g c h i l d r e n h a s failed t o t a k e a c c o u n t of t h e c o n t e x t a t a n u m b e r of different l e v e l s . Firstly, h o w a r e c h i l d r e n , e s p e c i a l l y p r e s c h o o l c h i l d r e n , s e e n g l o b a l l y ? I n s p i t e of m a n y y e a r s of w o r k b y o r g a n i s a t i o n s like U N I C E F , S a v e t h e C h i l d r e n , a n d o t h e r s , y o u n g c h i l d r e n a r e still v u l n e r a b l e t o t h e r a v a g e s of d i s e a s e , h u n g e r a n d w a r . T h e s e v e r e l y m a l n o u r i s h e d c o u l d , w e a r e t o l d , b e fed b y a fraction of w h a t is s p e n t o n a r m a m e n t s o r b y half t h e m o n e y E u r o p e a n s s p e n d o n s m o k i n g . A t a n a t i o n a l level, t h e i n f a n t m o r t a l i t y r a t e i n c e r t a i n g r o u p s i n o u r socie t y is l i n k e d t o t h e p r o p o r t i o n s l i v i n g i n r e l a t i v e p o v e r t y ; f a t h e r s i n Britain w o r k the longest h o u r s in the E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t y b u t w e a l s o h a v e t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t p r o p o r t i o n of u n e m p l o y e d f a t h e r s (of children u n d e r n i n e years old); the decline in reading s t a n d a r d s relates t o t h e r a p i d i n c r e a s e i n r e l a t i v e d e p r i v a t i o n o v e r t h e last t w e n t y y e a r s ; a c h i l d a g e d u n d e r o n e y e a r is f o u r t i m e s m o r e l i k e l y t o b e t h e v i c t i m of h o m i c i d e t h a n a p e r s o n i n a n y o t h e r a g e g r o u p . I n o t h e r w o r d s , w e a p p e a r t o h a v e p a i d insufficient a t t e n t i o n t o t h e n e e d s of v e r y y o u n g c h i l d r e n ( D a v i d 1996). T h a n k f u l l y , a s w e a p p r o a c h t h e m i l l e n n i u m i n t h e U K , t h e p l a c e of y o u n g c h i l d r e n s e e m s t o b e o n e of g r e a t e r visibility t h a n e v e r b e f o r e a n d t h e y a r e b e g i n n i n g t o b e s e e n a s l e a r n e r s f r o m t h e m o m e n t of b i r t h , t h e f o u n d a t i o n p h a s e of lifelong l e a r n i n g . So e a r l y y e a r s a n d p r i m a r y t e a c h e r s n e e d t o k n o w a b o u t b a b i e s a n d t o d d l e r s , for it is i n t h e s e y e a r s t h a t a t t i t u d e s t o a n d s t y l e s of l e a r n i n g a r e laid. W e n e e d t o d e v e l o p o u r o w n ' b a n k ' of o b s e r v a t i o n s of w h a t c h i l d r e n c a n d o , a t w h a t a g e s , i n w h a t k i n d of s e t t i n g , u n d e r w h a t c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d t o create o u r o w n theories about child d e v e l o p m e n t , c o m p a r i n g t h e m w i t h t h e ' g r a n d t h e o r i e s ' of t h e p u b l i s h e d e x p e r t s . F o r c h i l d r e n s e e m t o ' l i v e u p o r d o w n ' t o t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s of t h o s e a r o u n d t h e m - t h o s e they wish to please. Similarly, w e n e e d t h e G o v e r n m e n t t o r e c o g n i s e t h e s o u n d a d v i c e p r o v i d e d b y P r o f e s s o r s J i m C a m p b e l l (1998) a n d R o b i n A l e x a n d e r (1998) t h a t s c h o o l s b e freed f r o m t o o m u c h a u r i c u l a r p r e s c r i p t i o n , t h a t

Changing minds: teaching young children

9

d e b a t e c o m m e n c e a s to w h i c h a s p e c t s of p o t e n t i a l l e a r n i n g a r e a s , o r subjects, a r e v i t a l t o m e m b e r s of o u r f u t u r e society a n d s h o u l d t h e r e fore f o r m t h e c o r e c u r r i c u l u m ( r a t h e r t h a n w h o l e subjects b e i n g ' i n ' o r 'out'). According to international comparisons, high standards in the '3Rs' a r e a c h i e v e d i n c o u n t r i e s w h e r e t h e c u r r i c u l u m is b r o a d a n d b a l a n c e d , w h e r e c h i l d r e n h a v e access t o a w i d e r a n g e of subjects, s o n a r r o w i n g t h e c u r r i c u l u m d o w n t o little m o r e t h a n literacy a n d n u m e r a c y d o e s n o t g u a r a n t e e h i g h s t a n d a r d s (Le M e t a i s a n d T a b b e r e r 1997). A s A l e x a n d e r s a y s , ' t h e d e b a t e n o w is a b o u t v a l u e s first, s t r u c t u r e s a n d c o n t e n t s e c o n d ' (1998, p . 67). H e p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e S C A A ' s , d i s c u s s i o n of Values in Education and the Community failed t o e x a m i n e t h e v a l u e s a l r e a d y reflected in t h e e x i s t i n g c u r r i c u l u m - a n d t h i s w o u l d a l s o a p p l y t o t h e Desirable Outcomes ( S C A A 1996). C e r t a i n l y a n a n a l y s i s of t h e Desirable Outcomes for W a l e s (Welsh Office 1996) d e m o n s t r a t e s different v a l u e s f r o m t h e E n g l i s h d o c u m e n t ( S C A A 1996). A n d a s R o b i n A l e x a n d e r s t r e s s e s , it w o u l d b e p o i n t l e s s for 'a g r a n d s t a t e m e n t of e d u c a t i o n a l p u r p o s e s for t h e n e x t c e n t u r y ' (1998, p . 67) t o b e m a d e , if t h e c u r r i c u l u m d i d n o t reflect t h e m . T h e p r e s e n t e m p h a s i s s e e m s t o b e i n s t r u m e n t a l - a b o u t t e a c h i n g c h i l d r e n w h a t is n e e d e d for t h e m t o b e f u t u r e w o r k e r s , i n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e e d u c a t i o n s e r v i c e is in t h e serv i c e of t h e e c o n o m y . H o w e v e r , t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h c h i l d r e n ' s l e a r n i n g is v i e w e d o n l y i n t e r m s of t h e f u t u r e of t h e e c o n o m y a n d n o t i n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s m e a n s t h a t s o m e a s p e c t s of t h e role of t e a c h e r s m a y still b e u n d e r d e v e l o p e d . F o r e x a m p l e , P r o f e s s o r M i c h a e l B a s s e y (1995), i n Creating Education through Research, a r g u e s t h a t 2

C o u n t r y b y c o u n t r y the formal e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m s of the w o r l d d e s e r v e the focused intelligence of researchers striving to i m p r o v e theory, p o l icy a n d practice. Globally t h e w o r l d h a s a n e e d for empirical, reflective a n d creative research into learning h o w to p r e v e n t famine, war, e n v i r o n m e n t a l pollution, resource depletion, extinction of wild-life species, a n d d i s r u p t i o n of ecological systems. C r e a t i n g e d u c a t i o n t h r o u g h research is . . . a n i m p e r a t i v e for d e m o c ratic societies in free w o r l d . (Bassey 1995, p . 142) A g a i n , w e a r e b r o u g h t b a c k t o a d i s c u s s i o n of v a l u e s .

10

Teaching Young Children

Teachers as weavers T h e e a r l y y e a r s c u r r i c u l u m i n N e w Z e a l a n d is b a s e d o n t h e c o n c e p t of a w o v e n m a t - a m e t a p h o r w h i c h is v e r y a p p r o p r i a t e i n a s o c i e t y w h e r e t h e i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n a r e r e n o w n e d for t h e b e a u t y a n d c o m p l e x i t y of t h e i r w e a v i n g . T h e s t r a n d s t h e t e a c h e r m u s t t a k e c o m p r i s e all t h e t a l e n t s a n d d i s p o s i t i o n s of y o u n g c h i l d r e n t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a r e a s of l e a r n i n g c o n s i d e r e d i m p o r t a n t b y t h e i r society. F o r s o m e c h i l d r e n c e r t a i n s t r a n d s w i l l b e s t r o n g e r , b e c a u s e of p a r t i c u l a r gifts o r b e c a u s e of f a m i l y e n c o u r a g e m e n t , a n d i n s o m e c o m m u n i t i e s c e r t a i n s t r a n d s w i l l b e m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n i n o t h e r s , b u t it is u p t o e a c h c o m m u n i t y t o d e c i d e o n t h e ' w i d t h ' of t h a t s t r a n d . I n o r d e r t o q u a l i f y t o t e a c h i n p r i m a r y s c h o o l s a n d n u r s e r i e s i n all t h e o t h e r O E C D ( O r g a n i s a t i o n for E c o n o m i c a n d Social C o o p e r a t i o n ) a n d E C ( E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t y ) c o u n t r i e s , it is p l a n n e d t h a t d e g r e e l e v e l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s w i l l b e r e q u i r e d i n f u t u r e (in s o m e t h i s is a l r e a d y t h e case). A s a r e s u l t of o u r history, w e h a v e o n e of t h e m o s t d i v e r s e preschool s y s t e m s in the w o r l d , w i t h maintained, private a n d v o l u n t a r y s e c t o r s p r o v i d i n g for c h i l d r e n u n d e r five a n d p r e v i o u s l y w i t h v e r y little c o o r d i n a t i o n a n d c o o p e r a t i o n , e x c e p t w h e r e t h e r e h a s b e e n local p o l i c y a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t t o d o so. W h a t t h i s h a s m e a n t is t h a t w e a l s o h a v e a d i v e r s e r a n g e of t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s , s o m e of w h i c h m e s h t o g e t h e r t o f o r m a ' c l i m b i n g f r a m e ' of q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , b u t s o m e d o n o t m e s h a n d a r e d e a d - e n d r o u t e s . N o w t h e G o v e r n m e n t is d e m a n d i n g a coordinated service, d e v e l o p e d b y the N u r s e r y Partners h i p s i n e a c h local a u t h o r i t y . O n e of t h e p r o b l e m s t o b e a d d r e s s e d is i n d e e d t h a t of p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m a n d qualifications. T h e r e a r e m a n y v e r y experienced preschool p r o v i d e r s w h o h a v e learnt o n the job, w h o h a v e g r e a t e x p e r t i s e w i t h y o u n g c h i l d r e n a n d t h e i r families, y e t w h o d o n o t w i s h t o g o t h r o u g h t h e r i g m a r o l e of g a i n i n g a q u a l i f i c a t i o n a n d , i n a n y c a s e , c a n n o t afford t o d o s o u n f u n d e d . T h e r e a r e o t h e r s w h o c l a i m t o w i s h to stay as they are p e r h a p s because they believe that while unqualified they are not so accountable. However, presumably anyo n e w h o t a k e s u p t h e r o l e of e d u c a t o r of a n o t h e r p e r s o n ' s c h i l d r e n m u s t b e a c c o u n t a b l e : it is t h e role, n o t t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n w h i c h d e m a n d s t h e accountability. In their research about nursery teachers a n d nursery nurses, Moyles a n d S u s c h i t z k y (1997) p r o v i d e d a list of t h e criteria for q u a l i t y i n t e a c h i n g , d e r i v e d f r o m O f s t e d ' s S c h e d u l e 5 . 1 . ( O f s t e d 1995). T h e y s u g g e s t ( p . 8) t h a t t e a c h e r s s h o u l d : • h a v e s e c u r e k n o w l e d g e / u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s u b j e c t s / a r e a s • s e t h i g h e x p e c t a t i o n s / c l e a r objectives

Changing minds: teaching young children

11

• challenge pupils • deepen children's knowledge and understanding • p l a n effectively • m a t c h m e t h o d s t o c u r r i c u l u m objectives • m a t c h m e t h o d s t o n e e d s of c h i l d r e n • m a n a g e children well • u s e r e s o u r c e s effectively • assess children's w o r k thoroughly a n d constructively • u s e assessment to inform teaching • ask relevant questions • gather resources children will n e e d •

differentiate

• u s e e x p o s i t i o n / e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t is lively a n d w e l l - s t r u c t u r e d • probe children's knowledge and understanding • offer p u r p o s e f u l p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t y (i.e. p l a y ) • allow children to think about w h a t they have learned • m e e t S E N C o d e of P r a c t i c e r e q u i r e m e n t s • p l a n effectively • provide continuity and progression • c r e a t e effective s y s t e m s for for a s s e s s i n g c h i l d r e n w h i c h a r e u s e d t o inform curriculum planning • ensure sound record-keeping systems. In the conclusions to their research, they a d d that w h e r e teachers are being replaced b y practitioners (even N u r s e r y N u r s e s , w h o h a v e considerable expertise a n d k n o w l e d g e ), w h o d o not h a v e equivalent levels of t r a i n i n g t o t h e s p e c i a l i s e d t e a c h e r s , a n d w h e r e t h e y a r e r e q u i r e d t o a d o p t a g r e a t e r t e a c h i n g r o l e , a d d i t i o n a l t r a i n i n g is v i t a l for t h e r o l e . T h a t r o l e r e q u i r e s t h e ability t o b e a w e a v e r of t h e c o m p l e x t a p e s t r y w h i c h is e a c h c h i l d ' s c u r r i c u l u m . I n h e r r e v i e w of a n u m b e r of r e s e a r c h projects w h i c h e x p l o r e d child r e n ' s a c h i e v e m e n t s f o l l o w i n g e n g a g e m e n t w i t h different t y p e s of e a r l y y e a r s c u r r i c u l a , K a t h y S y l v a (1998) d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t e a c h i n g w h i c h a l l o w s c h i l d r e n t h e m s e l v e s t o d i r e c t a n d m a k e d e c i s i o n s a b o u t t h e i r l e a r n i n g foci, t e a c h i n g w h i c h is effected t h r o u g h w h a t t o t h e c h i l d r e n is play. H o w e v e r , b o t h P e n n y M u n n ' s r e s e a r c h (1994) a n d t h a t b y B e n n e t t et al (1996) i n d i c a t e t h a t e a r l y y e a r s t e a c h ers and other early childhood educators need continuing professional

12

Teaching Young Children

d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h e n c o u r a g e s d i s c u s s i o n s b a s e d o n o b s e r v a t i o n s of c h i l d r e n ' s play, a n d t h e i r o w n p r o v i s i o n a n d a s s e s s m e n t of t h i s , i n o r d e r t o e n s u r e a c h i e v e m e n t a n d p r o g r e s s i o n in t h e c h i l d r e n ' s l e a r n i n g . T h e m o d e l s of i n s e r v i c e s u p p o r t w h i c h t h e s e r e s e a r c h projects a d v o c a t e , t h e r e f o r e , a r e in line w i t h t h e G o l d s m i t h s ' Principles into practice project (Blenkin et al. 1995) a n d w i t h t h e m o d e l d e v e l o p e d i n t h e c e l e b r a t e d n u r s e r i e s of R e g g i o Emilia in N o r t h e r n Italy (see E d w a r d s et al. 1998). It is n o t t h a t t h e s e m o d e l s a r e b a s e d o n t h e n o t i o n of t e a c h i n g as a p p l i e d c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t b u t t h a t t h e y d e m a n d a clear v i e w of w h a t c h i l d r e n are d o i n g , w h a t is b e i n g offered a s t h e i r l e a r n ing environment, equipment, teaching plans and interactions, peer interactions, the context a n d c o m m u n i t y However, w h a t such a p p r o a c h e s a l s o d o , as I e x p l a i n e d earlier, is to e s t a b l i s h t h e h a b i t of critical t h i n k i n g a b o u t o n e ' s o w n a s s u m p t i o n s a n d p r a c t i c e , w i t h i n a collegial n e t w o r k of o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s e n g a g i n g in t h e s a m e q u e s t for a p p r o p r i a t e p e d a g o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s a n d k n o w l e d g e - n o t a u n i versal pedagogical 'formula'.

The search for pedagogical principles and knowledge: changing minds through research and reflection T h e c h a p t e r s of t h i s b o o k a r e w r i t t e n b y e x p e r i e n c e d t e a c h e r e d u c a t o r s a n d r e s e a r c h e r s , all of w h o m h a v e w o r k e d in p r i m a r y a n d / o r n u r s e r y s c h o o l s . W h a t t h e y s e e k t o d o for r e a d e r s is t o e n g a g e w i t h a t o p i c i n s u c h a w a y a s t o p r o m o t e a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e w e a v i n g t o g e t h e r of w h a t w e k n o w a b o u t c h i l d r e n ' s d e v e l o p m e n t a n d learning w i t h w h a t w e k n o w about the curriculum, or particular s u b j e c t s / a r e a s of l e a r n i n g . S u c h w e a v i n g is n o t w i t h o u t its c h a l l e n g e s a n d d i l e m m a s . E a c h c h a p t e r confronts t h e i s s u e s i n v o l v e d , d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t t e a c h i n g y o u n g c h i l d r e n is a c o m p l e x , excitin g task. I n t h e n u r s e r i e s of R e g g i o Emilia ( w h e r e t h e c h i l d r e n a r e e d u c a t e d f r o m b i r t h t o a g e six), t h e y s p e a k of t h e ' h u n d r e d l a n g u a g e s of child r e n ' a n d b y t h i s t h e y m e a n all t h e different w a y s i n w h i c h c h i l d r e n can express themselves and communicate with each other and with t h e a d u l t s w h o s h a r e t h e i r lives. T h e y a r e n o t e x p e c t e d t o s p e n d t i m e i n f o r m a l literacy a n d n u m e r a c y i n s t r u c t i o n , t h e i r e x u b e r a n c e a n d c u r i o s i t y a r e u s e d a s t h e k e y s t o l e a r n i n g a n d a l t h o u g h it is t h e p r o c e s s e s of e x p l o r a t i o n , e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , discovery, r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , transformation, interpretation, creation a n d evaluation w h i c h are central, t h e i r p r o d u c t s a c h i e v e critical a c c l a i m w o r l d w i d e . (As t h o s e w h o

Changing minds: teaching young children

13

a t t e n d e d t h e British A s s o c i a t i o n for E a r l y C h i l d h o o d E d u c a t i o n e x h i b i t i o n a b o u t t h e R e g g i o E m i l i a n u r s e r i e s , at t h e B e t h n a l G r e e n M u s e u m of C h i l d h o o d , L o n d o n 1997, w i l l attest.) I n a s e n s e , t h i s b o o k is a n e x p r e s s i o n of fellow-feeling for t h e R e g g i o e d u c a t o r s , albeit c o n fined a s w e a r e b y o u r n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e a n d t h e legal c o n s t r a i n t s of r e c e n t y e a r s . H o w e v e r , p o l i c i e s , l a w s a n d p r a c t i c e s g r o w o u t of a s s u m p t i o n s a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g s . P e r h a p s w e c a n a t least offer a c h a l l e n g e t o s o m e of t h e m o r e l i m i t i n g of t h o s e a s s u m p t i o n s - w e s e e k t o b e p a r t of t h e e x c i t i n g p r o c e s s of c h a n g i n g m i n d s . T h e c h a p t e r s b y Teresa G r a i n g e r a n d B r y a n H a w k i n s d e l i c i o u s l y cele b r a t e t h e s u b v e r s i v e n a t u r e of y o u n g c h i l d r e n ' s b e i n g , t h e w a y s i n w h i c h l a n g u a g e a n d art can b e u s e d b y t h e m to express original a n d p r o v o c a t i v e i d e a s . Gill Bottle a n d C l a i r e Alfrey s t r e s s t h e c r e a t i v e p o t e n t i a l (so often i g n o r e d ) of m a t h e m a t i c s , its b e a u t y a n d p o w e r a r e all a r o u n d i n t h e t h i n g s w h i c h i n t e r e s t y o u n g c h i l d r e n , f r o m s n a i l s ' s h e l l s t o t h e s t a r s . A s t h e r e c e n t t e l e v i s i o n d o c u m e n t a r y Too much too soon ( C h a n n e l 4 , 1 9 9 8 ) a r g u e d , w e m a y b e w a s t i n g c h i l d r e n ' s p r e c i o u s l e a r n i n g t i m e a n d d e s t r o y i n g t h e i r self-confidence b y a s k i n g t h e m t o ' j u m p t h r o u g h formal h o o p s ' a n d to use abstract symbolisation too early. R e c e n t r e s e a r c h from t h e U S A (Sylva 1998) s h o w s t h a t c h i l d r e n there w h o d o not attend nurseries b u t w h o share m a n y everyday mathematical experiences w i t h their carers, such as sorting out socks or a r r a n g i n g the groceries, later o u t p e r f o r m their peers w h o d i d a t t e n d n u r s e r y w h e r e t h e y w e r e e x p e c t e d t o e n g a g e in s c h o o l - t y p e , p l a n n e d m a t h s activities. I n p r o p o s i n g a f r a m e w o r k for p r i m a r y p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n , M i k e W a r i n g ' s c h a p t e r s h o u l d c a u s e u s t o reflect o n t h e g r o s s a n d fine m o t o r play in w h i c h children gain experience in a nursery or p l a y g r o u p , or a t t u m b l e t o t s . E a c h s o c i e t y d e c i d e s w h a t p h y s i c a l skills it w i s h e s t o emphasise a n d develop - research indicating the decline in the length of b r e a k s ( p l a y t i m e a s it u s e d t o b e called) s h o u l d w o r r y all w h o believe children n e e d to m o v e , to s p e n d s o m e time o n self-chosen p u r s u i t s a n d to m i x w i t h other age g r o u p s . C o m p a r e d w i t h earlier p e r i o d s i n o u r history, t h e r e is v e r y little t i m e for c h i l d r e n t o e n g a g e i n ' c h i l d r e n ' s c u l t u r e ' ( D a v i d a n d N u t b r o w n 1992; H i l l m a n et al 1990). H o w e v e r , o n e a r e a c h i l d r e n m a y m a k e t h e i r o w n is i n f o r m a t i o n technology - because t h e y are so m u c h m o r e a d e p t t h a n adults in this a r e a of l e a r n i n g . P e t e r D o r m a n a s k s : w h o c o n t r o l s c h i l d r e n ' s e x p e r i e n c e a n d l e a r n i n g i n IT - s h o u l d it b e t h e c h i l d ? I n t h e l i g h t of t h e n e w ICT (Information a n d C o m m u n i c a t i o n s Technology) d o c u m e n t a t i o n for t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g , w h i c h m u s t b e w e l c o m e d a s of g o o d i n t e n t , it h a s

14

Teaching Young Children

e v e n b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s ' r a d i c a l a n d i m a g i n a t i v e ' ( M a g u i r e et al 1998, p . 35). H o w e v e r , p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d p e d a g o g i c a l c o n c e r n s s h o u l d e x e r cise u s , s i n c e t h e d o c u m e n t (DfEE 1998) itself fails t o a d d r e s s m a n y of t h e i s s u e s , s u c h a s e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s (especially g e n d e r ) , access a n d resourcing. C r e a t i v i t y i n b o t h Science a n d i n D e s i g n a n d T e c h n o l o g y is a n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t for t e a c h e r s t o c o n s i d e r , a s c h a p t e r s 7 a n d 8 s u g g e s t . In b o t h these areas children are able to engage in w a y s w h i c h can b e p l a n n e d a c c o r d i n g t o J a n e t M o y l e s ' p l a y s p i r a l ( M o y l e s 1989) a n d u s e C o r i n n e H u t t ' s ( H u t t et al 1989) i d e a s a b o u t e p i s t e m i c a n d l u d i c p l a y - i n t h e first, a l l o w i n g c h i l d r e n t o e x p l o r e , t o m e t a p h o r i c a l l y a s k ' W h a t d o e s t h i s d o ? ' a n d t h e n , creatively, i n t h e l u d i c p h a s e , u s i n g t h e k n o w l edge they h a v e gained through structured play/experiential learning ' W h a t can I d o with this?' I n h i s c h a p t e r a b o u t y o u n g c h i l d r e n ' s p e r c e p t i o n s of t h e w o r l d , S t e p h e n Scoffham d r a w s o n h i s o w n a n d o t h e r s ' r e s e a r c h , i n c l u d i n g t h a t of C a n t e r b u r y s t u d e n t s . S t e p h e n c o n c l u d e s t h a t c h i l d r e n t o d a y s e e m to h o l d m u c h m o r e sophisticated ideas about places, a n d at a n e a r l i e r a g e t h a n t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s of a g e n e r a t i o n o r t w o a g o , p e r h a p s d u e t o t h e i m p a c t of g r e a t e r e x p o s u r e t o t h e s e i d e a s , p o s s i b l y t h r o u g h t e l e v i s i o n a n d t r a v e l . H o w e v e r , in r e l a t i o n t o r a c i s m , c o m p a r i s o n s f r o m t h e r e s e a r c h of t w e n t y y e a r s a g o w i t h t h a t c a r r i e d o u t t o d a y s h o u l d l e a d u s t o a s k if w e a r e n o w d o i n g e n o u g h i n o u r s c h o o l s t o p r e v e n t r a c i s t a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s m e m b e r s of m i n o r i t y c o m m u n i t i e s i n the U K a n d to the Majority World in the global context. With Baseline A s s e s s m e n t b e c o m i n g universally applied in Sept e m b e r 1998, Beryl W e b b e r ' s c h a p t e r e n c o u r a g e s r e a d e r s t o r e c o g n i s e t h a t c o n s c i o u s a n d s y s t e m a t i c a s s e s s m e n t p r o c e s s e s c a n h e l p child r e n ' s d e v e l o p m e n t a n d l e a r n i n g - a n d n e e d n o t b e c o m e a straitjacket. H e r e t h e r e a r e e c h o e s of M i k e R a d f o r d ' s chapter, Co-constructing the world, i n t h e c o m p a n i o n b o o k Young Children Learning, for B e r y l a r g u e s t h a t t h e c h i l d i n t e r n a l i s e s t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s , clarifications, a n d l a n g u a g e p r o v i d e d b y a n a d u l t i n o n e c o n t e x t a n d a p p l i e s t h e m t o a n o t h e r a t a f u t u r e t i m e . All t h e m o r e r e a s o n for t e a c h e r s a n d p a r e n t s t o w o r k closely t o g e t h e r , t o t r u l y u n d e r s t a n d t h e c h i l d ' s p e r c e p t i o n s of a l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n , b e c a u s e t h e c h i l d m a y h a v e applied something understood at h o m e a n d w i t h which connections s e e m to help that child m a k e sense. Vanessa Young discusses the problems associated w i t h a prescribed c u r r i c u l u m - t h e a p p a r e n t l o s s of t e a c h e r s ' a u t o n o m y . A s m o r e a n d m o r e is d i c t a t e d b y o u t s i d e b o d i e s , t h e t e a c h e r ' s w o r k b e c o m e s m e r e l y functional. Vanessa suggests that in order to retain a professional ori-

Changing minds: teaching young children

15

entation, teachers m u s t u s e inservice not to b e told h o w to i m p l e m e n t the latest d i c t u m b u t to d e v e l o p Organisational habits a n d structures t h a t m a k e c o n t i n u o u s l e a r n i n g a v a l u e d a n d e n d e m i c p a r t of t h e c u l t u r e of s c h o o l s a n d t e a c h i n g ' ( F u l l a n 1991). T h e T e a c h e r T r a i n i n g A g e n c y h a s p r o c l a i m e d its i n t e n t i o n t h a t t e a c h i n g s h o u l d b e a r e s e a r c h - b a s e d p r o f e s s i o n , b o t h u s i n g t h e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s of o t h e r s a p p r o p r i a t e l y a n d c a r r y i n g o u t r e s e a r c h . C o m i n g t o g e t h e r i n local, national a n d international networks to share research can be e m p o w e r i n g a n d s u b v e r s i v e , for w h a t o n e l e a r n s f r o m a n d a b o u t o t h e r e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m s c a n often c h a l l e n g e t h e t h i n k i n g of p o l i c y - m a k e r s a s m u c h a s t h a t of p r a c t i t i o n e r s . Finally, t h e l a s t t w o c h a p t e r s e x a m i n e a s p e c t s of e v a l u a t i o n of p r a c tice. T h e first, b y A n g e l a N u r s e a n d myself, c o n s i d e r s h o w t h e i n s p e c t i o n s y s t e m s o p e r a t i n g i n u n d e r fives' s e t t i n g s a r e i m p a c t i n g o n t h e t e r m i n o l o g y u s e d t o d e s c r i b e c h i l d r e n ' s l e a r n i n g activities a n d p r o v i s i o n for y o u n g c h i l d r e n w i t h s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n a l n e e d s . T h e s e c o n d , b y C a r l P a r s o n s a n d C a r o l P r e c i o u s , s u g g e s t s a w a y f o r w a r d - selfe v a l u a t i o n - t o p r e - e m p t t h e p a i n of O u t s i d e r s ' t e l l i n g u s w h a t is 'wrong', to k n o w our strengths a n d weaknesses a n d plan h o w w e will m o v e forward. C i r c u l a r 4 / 9 8 (DfEE 1998) is a p o s i t i v e s t e p i n t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of early years teaching as a complex a n d d e m a n d i n g professional task. T h e c u r r i c u l u m for t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n c o n t a i n e d i n C i r c u l a r 4 / 9 8 h a s b e e n c r i t i c i s e d b y s o m e a s o v e r l y p r e s c r i p t i v e . It s e e m s like t h e c u l m i n a t i o n of a l m o s t t w e n t y y e a r s of a p r o c e s s of c e n t r a l i s a t i o n a n d , d u r i n g t h a t t i m e , t h e r e - a r t i c u l a t i o n of ' t h e t e a c h e r ' . H o w e v e r , if c e n t r a l i s a t i o n is t h e c o n t i n u e d g o a l , i n s o m e s e n s e s t h e r e m a y b e a c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n t h e T e a c h e r T r a i n i n g A g e n c y ' s (TTA) c u r r e n t i n t e n t i o n t o d e v e l o p teaching as a research-based profession, since this signals a m o v e a w a y f r o m t h e m o d e l of t e a c h i n g a s a n a p p l i e d s c i e n c e t o a n e w 'clinically b a s e d ' m o d e l , w h i c h i m p l i e s local s o l u t i o n s for local p r o b l e m s . Such a m o d e l could also indicate a c h a n g e in the v a l u e s u n d e ^ i n n i n g teacher training (back to 'teacher education'?), In o r d e r t o e n g a g e i n a r e s e a r c h - b a s e d , t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l m o d e l of t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n , Sally L u b e c k (1996, p . 163) s u g g e s t s t h e r e is a r e q u i r e m e n t for: a s i t u a t e d k n o w l e d g e b a s e , observational fluency, reflection, a n d interactive r o u t i n e s . . . collaborative inquiry, social constructionism, e t h n o g r a p h y , a n d a d i s p o s i t i o n t o w a r d e d u c a t i o n a l possibility . . . the u s e of literature . . . a n d h u m a n i s t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g s t h a t c o m e from o t h e r w a y s of k n o w i n g .

16

Teaching Young Children

Issues 1. I n w h a t w a y s is t e a c h i n g y o u n g c h i l d r e n ( a g e d b e t w e e n b i r t h a n d e i g h t y e a r s ) different f r o m t e a c h i n g o l d e r p u p i l s ? 2. I n w h a t w a y s is t e a c h i n g y o u n g c h i l d r e n s i m i l ar t o t e a c h i n g o l d e r pupils? 3. W r i t e d o w n t h e a s s u m p t i o n s a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s y o u h o l d a b o u t child r e n a g e d five. W h a t d o y o u e x p e c t t h e m t o k n o w a n d t o b e a b l e t o d o ? W h e r e h a v e t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s c o m e from? D o y o u t h i n k y o u n e e d t o c h a n g e y o u r m i n d a b o u t s o m e of t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s a n d expectations - w h y / w h y not?

Notes 1. Office for S t a n d a r d s in E d u c a t i o n . 2. S C A A : n o w t h e Q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a n d C u r r i c u l u m A u t h o r i t y ( Q C A ) formerly T h e School C u r r i c u l u m a n d Assessment Authority.

References Alexander, R., Rose, J. and Woodhead, C. (1992) Curriculum organisation and classroom practice London: DES. Alexander, R. (1998) Basics, cores and choices: towards a n e w primary curriculum Education 3-13 Vol 26 (2) p p . 60-69. Ball, S. (1998) Performativity and fragmentation in 'Postmodern Schooling', in J. Carter (ed.) Postmodernity and Fragmentation of Welfare. London: Routledge. Barrett, G. (1986) Starting school: an evaluation of the experience London: AMMA Bassey, M. (1995) Creating education through research Newark: Kirklington Moor Press. Bennett, N., Wood, L. and Rogers, S. (1996) Teaching through play: teachers' theories and classroom practice Buckingham: Open University Press. Blenkin, G., Hurst, V , Whitehead, M. and Yue, N.Y.L.(1995) Principles into practice: improving the quality of children's learning London: Goldsmiths College. Bruner, J. (1966) The process of education Cambridge Mass.: Harvard. Campbell, R.J. (1998) Broader thinking about the primary school curriculum, in N. Tester (ed) Take Care, Mr Blunkett London: ATL p p . 96-101. Channel 4 (1998) Dispatches: Too much too soon London: Channel 4 Television, January 1998. Claxton, G. (1990) Teaching to learn London: Cassell. Curriculum and Assessment Authority for Wales (1996) Desirable outcomes for children's learning before compulsory school age (Consultation document) Cardiff: ASESU Cymru. Dahlberg, G. (1995) Everything is a beginning and everything is dangerous:

Changing minds: teaching young children

17

some reflections o n the Reggio Emilia experience Paper presented at the International Seminar in h o n o u r of Loris Malaguzzi, 16-17 October 1995, University of Milan. David, T. (ed) (1993) Educating our youngest children: European Perspectives London: Paul C h a p m a n Publishing. David, T. (1996) Changing minds: young children and society Canterbury: Inaugural lecture, Canterbury Christ Church College, 30 October 1996. David, T. and N u t b r o w n , C. (eds) (1992) The Universal and the National in Preschool Education Paris: UNESCO. Delamont, S. (1990) Interaction in the classroom London: Routledge. DfEE (1997) Teaching: high status, high standards Circular 10/97 London: DfEE. DfEE (1998) Teaching: high status, high standards (Revised requirements) Circular 4 / 9 8 London: DfEE. D o H and DfEE (1998) Consultation Paper on the Regulation of Early Education and Day Care London: DoH/DfEE. D o H (1998a) Working together to safeguard children. (Consultation Paper) London: Department of Health. Edwards, C , Gandini, L. and Foreman, G. (1998) The hundred languages of children (2nd ed.) N o r w o o d , N e w Jersey: Ablex. Edwards, D. and Mercer, N . (1987) Common knowledge London: Methuen. Furlong, J. (1992) Reconstructing professionalism: ideological struggle in initial teacher education in M. Arnot and L. Barton (eds) Voicing concerns: sociological perspectives on contemporary education reforms Oxford: Triangle Books p . 163-185. Great Britain (1998) Meeting the childcare challenge (Green Paper) London: DoH/DfEE. Harris, A. a n d Russ, J. (1993) Pathways to school improvement London: DfE. Hillman, M., A d a m s , J. and Whitelegg, J. (1990) One False Move London: Policy Studies Institute. Hutt, S.J., Tyler, S., Hutt, C. and Christopherson, H. (1989) Play, exploration and learning London: Routledge. Huttunen, E. (1992) Children's experiences in early childhood programmes International Journal of Early Childhood Vol 24 (2) p p . 3-11. Katz, L. (1996) Child development knowledge and teacher preparation: confronting assumptions Early Childhood Research Quarterly 11 p p . 135-146. LeMetais, J. and Tabberer, R. (1997) International review of curriculum and assessment frameworks Slough: NFER. Lubeck, S. (1996) Deconstructing "child development knowledge" and "teacher preparation" Early Childhood Research Quarterly 11 p p . 147-167. Maguire, M., Dillon, J. and Quintrell, M. (1998) Finding virtue, not finding fault: stealing the wind of destructive reforms London: ATL. Moyles, J. (1989) Just playing? Milton Keynes: Ope n University Press. Mould, C. (1998) The influence of researcher-teacher collaboration on the effectiveness of the early learning of four year olds in schools in England European Early Childhood Research Journal Vol. 6 (1) p . 19-36. Moyles, J. and Suschitzky, W. (1997) The buck stops here. Nursery teachers and

18

Teaching Young Children

nursery nurses working together Leicester: Leicester University School of Education. M u n n , P. (1994) Perceptions of teaching and learning in preschool centres, in M. H u g h e s (ed) Perceptions of teaching and learning Clevedon: Multilingual Matters p . 6-17. Ofsted (1993) First Class London: HMSO. Ofsted (1995) Guidance on the inspection of nursery and primary schools London: HMSO. Ofsted (1997; 1998) Guidance on the inspection of nursery education provision in the private, voluntary and independent sectors London: The Stationery Office. Pollard, A. with Filer, A. (1996) The social world of children's learning London: Cassell. SCAA (1996) Desirable outcomes for children's learning on entering compulsory education London: SCAA. Sharp, C. and Davis, C. (1997) Parents' views of preschool Slough: NFER. Smith, P.K. (ed) (1986) Children's play: research, development and practical applications N e w York: Gordon and Breach. Sylva, K. (1998) Too formal too soon? Keynote address presented at the Islington Early Years Conference, Building on Best Practice in the Early Years, 9 July 1998. Sylva, K., Siraj-Blatchford, I. and Johnson, S. (1992) The impact of the National Curriculum on preschool practice International Journal of Early Childhood Vol. 24 (2) p . 41-51.

2 Young children and playful language Teresa Grainger and Kathy

Goouch

I n t h e i r e a r l y y e a r s of life y o u n g c h i l d r e n first e n c o u n t e r l a n g u a g e in p r e d o m i n a n t l y playful a n d highly emotive contexts. T h r o u g h their r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h c a r e g i v e r s , s i b l i n g s a n d p e e r s in p r e s c h o o l s e t t i n g s , c h i l d r e n l e a r n t o u s e l a n g u a g e for t h e m s e l v e s a n d i n d e e d v e r y e a r l y o n t h e y l e a r n t o u s e it s u b v e r s i v e l y . S u c h s u b v e r s i o n t a k e s m a n y f o r m s a n d i n c l u d e s p l a y i n g w i t h social c o n v e n t i o n s i n l u d i c b e h a v i o u r ( H u t t et al 1989) a s w e l l a s p l a y i n g w i t h l a n g u a g e c o n v e n t i o n s ( C h u k o v s k y 1963). T h e i r p l e a s u r e i n n o n s e n s e a n d w o r d p l a y is c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o t h e n o n - c o n f o r m i s t p r a c t i c e s of e a r l y c h i l d h o o d , t h r o u g h w h i c h child r e n e x p e r i e n c e t h e e m o t i o n a l c h a r g e a n d p o w e r of t h e i r o w n w o r d s to o v e r t u rn the status q u o a n d to explore boundaries. T h r o u g h delibe r a t e l y m a n i p u l a t i n g a n d u p e n d i n g m e a n i n g s , f o r m s a n d w o r d s , child r e n can achieve their desires, s h a p e their a g e n d a s a n d establish their i d e n t i t y . ' T h e n a t u r e of t h e p o s s i b l e is w h a t c h i l d r e n l e a r n w h e n t h e y d i s c o v e r h o w t o u s e l a n g u a g e for s u b v e r s i o n , for r e - o r d e r i n g t h i n g s i n t h e i r h e a d s if n o t i n fact' ( M e e k 1985, p . 49). T h e p l a y f u l i r r e v e r e n c e a n d i n v e n t i v e n e s s of t h e e a r l y y e a r s a r e e n e r getic forces i n t h e i r l a n g u a g e a n d a s s u c h d e s e r v e f u r t h e r r e c o g n i t i o n , exploration a n d development. This chapter seeks to explore the n a t u r e of s u c h e a r l y l i n g u i s t i c d i s c o v e r i e s a n d t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n t h e y c a n m a k e t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of literacy. It a l s o e x a m i n e s t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of these insights in relation to classroom practice.

Transforming language T h e p r e - s l e e p m o n o l o g u e s r e c o r d e d b y R u t h W e i r (1962) d e m o n s t r a t e the very y o u n g child's capacity to experiment w i t h linguistic rules, p e r h a p s a s M e e k (1985) h a s n o t e d A n t h o n y W e i r w a s b r e a k i n g t h e s e r u l e s t o e x p l o r e ' t h e b o u n d a r i e s of h i s feelings'. C h u k o v s k y (1963) i n 19

20

Teaching Young Children

h i s s e m i n a l w o r k From Two to Five, s u g g e s t s t h a t c h i l d r e n h a v e s t r o n g d e s i r e s t o d i s c o v e r t h e l a w s a n d r u l e s of b e i n g , i n o r d e r t o v i o l a t e t h e e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r a n d t h u s verify t h e i r k n o w l e d g e a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g . H e a r g u e s t h e k e y t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e role of t o p s y t u r v i e s , for example, becomes playing w i t h ideas consciously a n d demonstrating t h e i r k n o w l e d g e of s e n s e t h r o u g h d e l i g h t i n g i n n o n s e n s e . E v i d e n c e of w o r d p l a y is n o t h a r d t o find in c h i l d h o o d : P a t r i c k , a g e d f o u r y e a r s o l d , w a s v i g o r o u s l y r o c k i n g a b l o n d e d o l l from s i d e t o s i d e w h e n h e a n n o u n c e d ' T h i s is b a b y J e s u s ' a n d p r o c e e d t o s i n g : ' A w a y in a m a n g e r N o crib for a b e d Be little Bored Besus Baid b o w n his Beet Belix' 'Beet Belix! N o n o t h i s Beet Belix' h i s sister Lucy, a g e d t h r e e , d e c l a r e d delightedly. Both children were reduced to semi-hysterical laughter as t h e p h r a s e 'Beet Belix' w a s r e p e a t e d at will a l m o s t e n d l e s s l y o v e r t h e m o r n i n g . It b e c a m e a n i n - h o u s e j o k e b e t w e e n t h e m , v e r b a l p r o o f t h a t t h e y u n d e r s t o o d ' h i s s w e e t h e a d ' h a d b e e n r e p l a c e d b y ' h i s Beet Belix', a n d that s o m e h o w this transformation w a s delicious. Their shared pleasure in this early p a r o d y w a s twofold, partly in the awareness that t h e w o r d s w e r e n o n s e n s e i n t h e m s e l v e s , 'Be little B o r e d B e s u s ' , b u t a l s o p e r h a p s i n t h e d e l i b e r a t e s u b s t i t u t i o n of t h e n o n - r h y m i n g w o r d 'Belix'. A s i m i l a r r e w o r k i n g of a n o t h e r k n o w n v e r s e w a s d e v e l o p e d a f e w d a y s l a t e r w h e n t h e y w e r e r e a d i n g Over in the Meadow b y L o u i s e Voce (1994) w i t h t h e i r m o t h e r . T h i s t r a d i t i o n a l c o u n t i n g r h y m e , c a p t u r e d a s a p i c t u r e b o o k , h a s a r e p e a t i n g p a t t e r n f r a m e w h i c h is b o t h accessible a n d overtly r h y t h m i c in nature. ' O v e r in the m e a d o w in t h e s a n d in t h e s u n , Sat a n old m o t h e r turtle, a n d h e r little turtle O N E , " D i g " said their mother, "I d i g " said t h e o n e So h e d u g all d a y in the s a n d in the s u n . ' T h e a n i m a l s ' n o i s e s w e r e a p p r o p r i a t e l y g i v e n for t w o d u c k s , t h r e e owls a n d four mice, until the verse: ' O v e r in t h e m e a d o w In a s n u g b e e h i v e Lived a n o l d m o t h e r b e e A n d h e r little bees FIVE'

Young children and playful language

21

T h e n Lucy, l o o k i n g d i r e c t l y a t t h e p i c t u r e of b e e s , c h i m e d w i t h i m p ish delight: "Woof", said their m o t h e r "We woof" said t h e five So they w o o f e d all d a y R o u n d their s n u g b e e h i v e ' . Their m o t h e r joined in the e n s u i n g laughter a n d tickled the delighted t o d d l e r w h o s e b r o t h e r , k e e n t o a c h i e v e t h e s a m e effect, t u r n e d t h e p a g e q u i c k l y a n d u r g e d h i s m o t h e r t o r e a d o n . T h e r e m a i n d e r of t h e text w a s t h e n given similar treatment, w i t h bizarre noises attached to e a c h a n i m a l ' M o o s a i d t h e s q u i r r e l s , M e o w s a i d t h e frogs, N e i g h s a i d t h e p i g s ' a n d s o o n . T h e c h i l d r e n t o o k e v i d e n t p l e a s u r e i n t h i s reject i o n of t h e n o r m , k e e n l y a w a r e t h a t t h e y h a d d e l i b e r a t e l y r e w o r k e d t h e text t o h u m o r o u s effect. O n e a c h o c c a s i o n t h e i r e y e s l o o k e d t o t h e i r m o t h e r for e v i d e n c e of h e r e n j o y m e n t a n d i n a n t i c i p a t i o n of h e r tickl i n g r e s p o n s e . T h i s p h y s i c a l i t y w a s a l s o a s e d u c t i v e s o u r c e of s u b v e r s i o n , a n u p e n d i n g of t h e i r c o n v e n t i o n a l l i s t e n i n g p o s i t i o n a n d a p l e a s u r a b l e i n v a s i o n of t h e i r o w n s p a c e . T h e i r n e w t o p s y t u r v y r h y m e s o v e r t u r n e d t h e e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r of t h i n g s a n d s h o w e d h o w t h e y w e r e u s i n g t h e chisel of c o n c e p t u a l i n c o n g r u i t y t o s c u l p t a n d affirm t h e i r k n o w l e d g e of c o n c e p t u a l c o n g r u i t y . I n d e e d it is p o s s i b l e t o s e e o l d e r c h i l d r e n b e h a v e i n a s i m i l a r w a y w h e n s u b v e r t i n g t h e text of a d v e r t i s i n g j i n g l e s , t r a d i t i o n a l or p o p s o n g s a n d s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e i r o w n risque versions, w i t h friends or siblings, whilst looking to each o t h e r for r e s p o n s e a n d s u p p o r t .

Exerting power The boisterous g o o d h u m o u r a n d physical e n g a g e m e n t s h o w n in these e x a m p l e s w a s also prevalent in other linguistic encounters in w h i c h the toddlers transformed the k n o w n and reshaped their lang u a g e . W h e n s h e f o u n d t h e t o d d l e r s e a r l y o n e m o r n i n g d e v o u r i n g rice c r i s p i e s a n d c o c o p o p s o u t of t h e p a c k e t a n d s u r r o u n d e d b y l o o s e cereal s p r e a d liberally over t h e furniture, their m o t h e r u n s u r p r i s i n g l y expressed her anger. Patrick's i m m e d i a t e oppositional response w a s t o c h a n t ' M u m m y is a p o o , M u m m y is a p o o , M u m m y a p o o ' . D e l i g h t e d in their o w n d a r i n g , they d a n c e d a r o u n d her, repeating the s a m e p h r a s e w i t h c r e s c e n d o . A s C l a x t o n (1984) a c k n o w l e d g e s , t o b e c r e a t i v e is t o d a r e t o b e different, t o t a k e r i s k s w i t h w o r d s a n d a c t i o n s . E v e n t u a l l y t h e i r m o t h e r ' s u n e q u i v o c a l d i s p l e a s u r e w a s e x p r e s s e d , at w h i c h point the chant switched, although the ritual d a n c i n g r e m a i n e d

22

Teaching Young Children

t h e s a m e , t o ' M u m m y is a M u m m y , M u m m y is a M u m m y , M u m m y is a M u m m y ' a m i d s t m u c h h i l a r i t y a n d i n t e n s e p l e a s u r e . T h i s c a r n i v a l e s q u e p l a y ( B a k h t i n 1968) s e r v e d t o c h a l l e n g e t h e i r m o t h e r ' s a u t h o r i t y since, a l t h o u g h their w o r d s h a d c h a n g e d , t h e r h y t h m a n d m e a n i n g h a d not. The children took o b v i o u s delight in this, k n o w i n g that their n e w w o r d s were s o m e h o w untouchable. Their p h r a s e also s e r v e d t o e x p r e s s t h e i r solidarity, a s t h e y s p o k e w i t h o n e v o i c e u n i t e d i n t h e i r w o r d s a n d m o v e m e n t s . T h e a u d a c i t y of t h e w o r d s s e e m e d t o r e p r e s e n t a n affective, a l m o s t p h y s i c a l a t t r a c t i o n ; t h e y n e e d e d t o b e s a i d , d e m a n d e d t o b e c h a n t e d a n d p r o m i s e d gratification t h r o u g h

• L/ ////

everyone teep cwf-

Fig. 2.1 Charlie's note

Young children and playful language

23

their repetition, implicit m e a n i n g a n d power. A n o t h e r child, Charlie, n e a r l y five, h a d ' d i s a g r e e d ' w i t h h i s m o t h e r . H e r a n t o h i s b e d r o o m a n d s o m e t i m e l a t e r s e l l o t a p e d a n o t e t o t h e d o o r . It s a i d ' e v e r y o n e r e a d t h i s letter k e e p o u t b e c a u s e n o o n e likes m e a n y m o r e ' . T h e r e a r e m a n y s i g n i f i c a n t i s s u e s i n v o l v e d i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r e x a m p l e , for i n s t a n c e h i s u s e of t h e w r i t t e n w o r d t o e x p r e s s h i s feelings of t h e m o m e n t ; h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t ' e v e r y o n e ' w a s a b l e t o r e a d h i s m e s s a g e ; h i s abili t y t o m a k e c l e a r h i s m e a n i n g ; a n d of c o u r s e h i s k n o w l e d g e of t h e s y s t e m of s o u n d s a n d m a r k s t h a t s u p p o r t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e . Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t t h o u g h is t h e fact t h a t C h a r l i e u n d e r s t o o d e n o u g h a b o u t t h e s y s t e m t o k n o w t h e effect of w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e ; h e h a d u s e d it t o v e n t h i s a n g e r a n d a s s e r t h i s p o w e r . A c o l l e a g u e r e p o r t s t h a t h e r d a u g h t e r , s l i g h t l y o l d e r a n d a m e m b e r of t h e B r o w n i e p a c k , w a s s o a n g r y at b e i n g t h w a r t e d t h a t s h e c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h h e r sister a list of r u l e s for t h e 'Blackies'! T h e r u l e s w e r e m o s t s u b v e r s i v e a n d i n v o l v e d r e s t r i c t i n g r a t h e r t h a n a i d i n g t h e p r o g r e s s of e l d e r l y p e o p l e a n d d r e a d f u l fates for b o y s c o u t s ! S u c h e x a m p l e s a r e n o t c h i l d i s h acts of r e b e l l i o n b u t s h o w c h i l d r e n u s i n g l a n g u a g e a s a t o o l for r e s i s t a n c e a n d o p p o s i t i o n , a s W a l k e r d i n e (1981) h a s n o t e d of t a b o o rhymes and rhythms on the playground. N o n s e n s e is a l s o e m p l o y e d b y t h e y o u n g t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e i r p o w e r a n d is u s e d a s a d e f i a n t r e s p o n s e b y P a t r i c k a n d L u c y w h e n t o l d off for v a r i o u s m i s d e m e a n o u r s . T h e y e i t h e r b l u r t g i b b e r i s h b a c k t o t h e i r p a r e n t s or m u t t e r g o b b l e d y g o o k u n d e r t h e i r b r e a t h , a l m o s t as if t h e y w e r e t e l l i n g t h e m s e l v e s t h e i r v e r s i o n of e v e n t s a n d c o m m e n t i n g o n t h e p e r c e i v e d injustice of t h e s i t u a t i o n . E n q u i r i e s a s t o w h a t they are saying are m e t w i t h further nonsense, utilised in this context t o s u b v e r t t h e a d u l t a g e n d a . A v e r s i o n p e r h a p s of H a l l i d a y ' s (1978) 'anti-language' w h i c h h e describes as 'the language a subculture uses t o set itself a p a r t f r o m t h e e s t a b l i s h e d society b y c r e a t i n g a n a l t e r n a t i v e r e a l i t y ' ( p . 179). T h e i r l a n g u a g e , albeit n o n s e n s e , is e x p e r t l y u s e d in these situations b o t h to protect themselves a n d to bait the authority figure. Is t h i s p e r h a p s a p o s t Weir m o n o l o g u e i n w h i c h t h e y o u n g l e a r n e r s a r e i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e b o u n d a r y a p p l i c a t i o n s of n o n s e n s e a n d s e e k i n g t o s e i z e s o m e p o w e r in t h e d i s c o u r s e b y s u b v e r t i n g t h e n o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n a l c o n v e n t i o n of t a l k i n g s e n s e ? I n s o m e of t h e i r i m a g i n a t i v e p l a y t o o t h i s p a i r of s i b l i n g s c r e a t e m a k e b e l i e v e w o r l d s w h i c h e n a b l e t h e m t o effectively b l o c k o u t t h e n e e d to r e s p o n d t o t h e m u n d a n e d e m a n d s of a u t h o r i t y . T h e y d o n o t a n s w e r t o t h e i r n a m e s e v e n t u a l l y d e c l a r i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o b e l>eelies' o r ' b o o g y w o s g a r s ' . T h e s e i m a g i n a r y w o r l d s , a n d w o r d s , p r o v i d e a m m u n i t i o n for r e s i s t a n c e t o conformity since they are imaginatively o w n e d b y the y o u n g players

24

Teaching Young Children

a n d i n a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e a d u l t s c o n c e r n e d . It is t h i s inaccessibility w h i c h increases the children's p o w e r in these contexts.

Humour and carnival A n o t h e r of t h e f e a t u r e s of l i n g u i s t i c s u b v e r s i o n , b e s i d e s t h e p l a y f u l i r r e v e r e n c e , risk t a k i n g a n d p o w e r a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , is t h e i n t e n s e h u m o u r w h i c h often a c c o m p a n i e s its u s e . C h i l d r e n l o v e t o l a u g h , t h e i r e a r l y free w h e e l i n g l a n g u a g e is p a c k e d w i t h l a u g h t e r a n d i n f e c t i o u s g i g g l e s a n d a m u s e d titters p e r v a d e t h e i r i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . D e v e l o p i n g a s e n s e of h u m o u r is i m p o r t a n t t o h e l p i n c r e a s e c h i l d r e n ' s s e n s e of p e r s p e c t i v e a n d t o l e r a n c e of o t h e r s ' v i e w s ( R o t h b a r t 1977). W h e n s i b l i n g s o r f r i e n d s p l a y t o g e t h e r i n p r e s c h o o l c o n t e x t s a s e n s e of t h e festive often b e c o m e s p a r t of t h e i r s u b c u l t u r e a n d t h e i r b e h a v i o u r t a k e s o n c a r n i v a l e s q u e o v e r t o n e s of c h a n g e a n d r e n e w a l . Y o u n g c h i l d r e n u s e s u c h l a u g h t e r effectively t o o v e r c o m e fears or d i s q u i e t , for l a u g h t e r k n o w s n o i n h i b i t i o n s . S o i n t h e e a r l i e r e x a m p l e s , n o t o n l y is t h e i r m o t h e r ' s p o w e r m a d e less a w e s o m e t h r o u g h t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g l a u g h t e r b u t a l s o t h e e m o t i o n a l satisfact i o n of b e i n g s u b v e r s i v e is h e i g h t e n e d . P l a y f u l n e s s is v e r y m u c h in e v i d e n c e in c h i l d r e n ' s ability t o s u b v e r t , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n r e l a t i o n t o l a n g u a g e a n d literacy, a n d t h e c r e a t i o n of a n ' a d u l t free' s u b c u l t u r e frees c h i l d r e n f r o m t h e c o n v e n t i o n s t o w h i c h w e h a v e i n t r o d u c e d t h e m . B a k h t i n ' s n o t i o n of c a r n i v a l c e l e b r a t i n g ' t e m p o r a r y liberation from the prevailing truth a n d from the establ i s h e d o r d e r ' ( B a k h t i n 1968, p . 135) r e l a t e s clearly t o c h i l d r e n ' s ability to w i t h d r a w from formal texts a n d m a k e l a n g u a g e their o w n . I n d e e d t h e O p i e s , f r o m t h e i r o b s e r v a t i o n s of c h i l d r e n o u t of s c h o o l , tell of a ' t r i b a l c u l t u r e rich i n t h e l a n g u a g e a r t s of s o n g , d a n c e , p a r o d y , t a u n t , v u l g a r i t y a n d s u b v e r s i o n ' ( W h i t e h e a d 1995, p . 46). T h e e m o t i o n a l c h a r g e of s u c h c o n t e x t s r e p r e s e n t s a n o t h e r h i g f d y significant e l e m e n t in subversive encounters. Children's emotive attitude to w o r d s a n d s o u n d s m a y well b e reinforced t h r o u g h s u c h early experiences; h o w ever, t h e s e n e e d t o b e b u i l t o n s i n c e a s C h u k o v s k y (1963, p . 17) w a r n s us: If w e repress t h e child's free expression of his feelings a n d i d e a s a n d d o n o t leave r o o m for his e m o t i o n a l a n d m e n t a l g r o u p i n g s w e risk fading the colour of the child's speech, m a k i n g it a n a e m i c a n d d e v i talized, killing its w o n d e r f u l childishness a n d inflicting a p e r m a n e n t harm.

Young children and playful language

25

C a r e g i v e r s , e d u c a t o r s a n d w r i t e r s n e e d t o offer c h i l d r e n o p p o r t u n i t i e s full of s o m a t i c affective p o s s i b i l i t y a n d c e l e b r a t e t h e i r l a n g u a g e free f r o m i n h i b i t i o n a n d r i c h i n c e l e b r a t i o n , h u m o u r a n d feeling.

Impropriety As well as playing w i t h l a n g u a g e conventions a n d creating their o w n w o r d s to t r a n s f o r m t h e a g e n d a , c h i l d r e n also u s e l a n g u a g e d e l i b e r a t e l y to p l a y w i t h social c o n v e n t i o n s a n d v o i c e p u b l i c l y u n a c c e p t a b l e w o r d s . F o r P a t r i c k a n d Lucy, a s for m a n y c h i l d r e n , t h e t e r m ' b o t t o m ' , w h e t h e r w h i s p e r e d or d e c l a i m e d l o u d l y , p r o m p t s p e a l s of l a u g h t e r a n d a c t s a s a n e a r l y s w e a r w o r d in t h e i r v o c a b u l a r y . It is liberally a p p l i e d t o t h e r e a r e n d of a n y a n i m a l , doll, t o y or h u m a n a n d is a l s o u s e d w i t h o u t p h y s i c a l reference t o p r o m p t p l e a s u r e , e n g a g e m e n t a n d r e s p o n s e . T h e D i s n e y film Fantasia h a s affirmed t h e i r d e l i g h t i n t h i s w o r d a n d its c o n n o t a t i o n s of d e l i c i o u s i m p r o p r i e t y . O n e a n i m a t e d extract, set t o B e e t h o v e n ' s P a s t o r a l S y m p h o n y , d e p i c t s b a r e b o t t o m e d c h e r u b s a s i n t r e p i d c u p i d s c r e a t i n g l o v e m a t c h e s in t h e w o r l d of t h e c e n t a u r s . Initially e n c h a n t e d , t h e c h i l d r e n n a m e d t h e s e c h e r u b s ' p l u m o r p e a c h b o t t o m e d b a b i e s ' a n d h a v e e v e r since i m i t a t e d t h e i r ' c h e e k y ' b e h a v i o u r i n e s c a l a t i n g s i t u a t i o n s . T h e d e s i r e to b e ' p e a c h b o t t o m e d b a b i e s ' often o v e r c o m e s t h e m ; c l o t h i n g is r e m o v e d , b o t t o m s a r e b a r e d a n d w i g g l e d for all t o see, a m i d m u c h l a u g h t e r a n d joyful revelry. T h i s b e h a v i o u r , w h i c h is o n t h e e d g e of w h a t will b e t o l e r a t e d i n t h e i r h o m e , is e m p l o y e d b y t h e m w i t h e x t r e m e d e l i g h t a n d d a r i n g . T h e sexu a l licence, r u d e n e s s a n d s e n s e of ' t i m e o f f f r o m g o o d b e h a v i o u r w h i c h ' d o i n g p l u m b o t t o m s ' implies, relates again to the carnival e s q u e ( B a k h t i n 1968) a n d in v i g n e t t e f o r m d e m o n s t r a t e s y o u n g child r e n ' s t e n d e n c y to u p e n d c o n v e n t i o n s , resist c o n f o r m i t y a n d c o n t r o l and p u s h boundaries. Does the nation's concern over the introduction t o t e l e v i s i o n of t h e T e l e t u b b i e s reflect o u r n e e d to restrict c h i l d r e n t o f o r m a l i t y a n d a d u l t c o n v e n t i o n s ? Yet g a t h e r i n g e v i d e n c e of h o w y o u n g c h i l d r e n o p p o s e c o n f o r m i t y is relatively e a s y in o u t of s c h o o l s i t u a t i o n s , for e x a m p l e - Peter, n e a r l y four, r e f u s e d t o m a k e a c h o i c e f r o m a m e n u a n d a n n o u n c e d t o t h e w o r l d at l a r g e t h a t ' w e c a n e a t b o t t o m s a n d willies'. Such key w o r d s and alternative declarations i n s t i g a t e l a u g h t e r , a p p e a l t o c h i l d r e n ' s s e n s e of t h e p l a y f u l a n d d e m o n s t r a t e h o w socially a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v i o u r is also u p e n d e d w i t h pleasure and purpose.

26

Teaching Young Children

In school A s t e a c h e r s w o r k i n g w i t h y o u n g literacy p r a c t i t i o n e r s w e m u s t s u r e l y b e c o m e m o r e a c u t e l y a w a r e of t h e e x i s t i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g of y o u n g c h i l d r e n i n t e r m s of t h e i r l a n g u a g e a n d literacy u s e a n d s e e k t o e x p l o i t t h i s k n o w l e d g e t o c o n s t r u c t a w o r t h w h i l e c u r r i c u l u m for t h e m . If, a s H i l t o n (1996) s u g g e s t s , c o g n i t i o n is ' e n c u l t u r e d ' t h e n o u r r e s p o n s i b i l ity m u s t b e t o a c k n o w l e d g e a n d u s e b o t h c u l t u r a l d i s p l a y s of l a n g u a g e a n d literacy a n d t h e i r t r a n s f o r m a t i v e a n d s u b v e r s i v e c o m p e t e n c e . M a n y p o p u l a r texts i n e a r l y y e a r s c l a s s r o o m s a p p e a l t o c h i l d r e n ' s i n c i p i e n t h u m o u r a n d e n a b l e t h e m t o s a v o u r t h e f l a v o u r of s u b v e r s i o n i n w o r d s a n d p i c t u r e s . Do You Dare b y P a u l a n d E m m a R o g e r s (1992), Little Rabbit Too Foo b y M i c h a e l R o s e n (1990), a n d The Rascally Cake b y J e a n n e Willis a n d K o r k y P a u l (1994), a r e j u s t t h r e e e x a m p l e s of s o m e w h a t a n t i - e s t a b l i s h m e n t texts, ( a l t h o u g h t h e m o r a l o r d e r is e v e n t u a l l y u p h e l d i n e v e r y case). T h r o u g h real a n d v i c a r i o u s e x p e r i ence children learn to dare in w o r d s a n d d e e d s a n d also begin to realise t h a t i l l u s t r a t o r s a n d w r i t e r s s h a r e t h e i r l o v e of t h e r i s q u £ , a s M e e k (1991, p . 122) h a s o b s e r v e d , ' T h e y o u n g h a v e p o w e r f u l allies i n a h o s t of gifted artists a n d w r i t e r s t o h e l p t h e m s u b v e r t t h e w o r l d of t h e i r e l d e r s ' . It is, h o w e v e r , h a r d t o c o n c e i v e of Biff a n d C h i p b u r p i n g , t a l k i n g n o n s e n s e o r u s i n g t h e w o r d ' b o t t o m ' ! If A s h t o n - W a r n e r ' s (1980) p e r s u a s i v e a r g u m e n t a b o u t k e y v o c a b u l a r y is correct t h e n p l e a s a n t o r r e s p e c t a b l e w o r d s w i l l n o t d o , for t h e ' c a p t i o n s of d y n a m i c life' n e e d t o b e a v a i l a b l e t o c h i l d r e n t o e n a b l e t h e m t o b r i d g e t h e i r k n o w i n g a n d affirm t h e i r p l e a s u r e i n t h e i r r e v e r e n t . W i t h o u t s u c h c a p t i o n s , D a n n e q u i n (1977) c o n t e n d s , t h e linguistic e n v i r o n m e n t of t h e e a r l y y e a r s c l a s s r o o m s will b e i m p o v e r i s h e d . I n t h e c a r n i v a l c u l t u r e of t h e M i d d l e A g e s c o m i c v e r b a l c o m p o s i t i o n s w e r e p r e v a l e n t i n b o t h L a t i n a n d t h e v e r n a c u l a r ( M o r r i s 1994). W e r e s u c h p a r o d i e s a n d t r a v esties t h e a n t e c e d e n t s of t h e w o r k of t h e A h l b e r g s , R o s e n , R o s s , a n d o t h e r s w h o c o n t i n u e t o create p o p u l a r a n d a l t e r n a t i v e carols, h y m n s , j o k e s a n d s t o r i e s? It w o u l d s e e m t h a t t h e f e a t u r e s of s u b v e r s i o n s u c h as h u m o u r , risk taking, nonsense, oppositional perspectives a n d a n emotional e n g a g e m e n t are revisited a n d celebrated in the w o r d s a n d p i c t u r e s of c o u n t l e s s c h i l d r e n ' s b o o k s . C h i l d r e n n e e d access t o s u c h significant t e x t s i n p a r t i c u l a r t o satisfy t h e i r d e s i r e t o e n c o u n t e r , m a s t e r a n d e m p l o y l a n g u a g e creatively i n n o n - c o n f o r m i s t a n d t r a n s f o r m ing contexts. A n o t h e r c l a s s r o o m c o n t e x t w h i c h p r o v i d e s s p a c e for e m o t i o n a l i n v o l v e m e n t a n d p o s s i b l e s u b v e r s i o n is t h e i m a g i n a r y w o r l d of t h e role p l a y a r e a . T h i s a d u l t free z o n e c a n b e a l i a v e n ' w h i c h a l l o w s chil-

Young children and playful language

27

d r e n t o r e - e n a c t p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e , trial p e r f o r m a n c e s in l a n g u a g e a n d literacy a n d play their o w n w a y forward. Messages, signs, love a n d h a t e l e t t e r s a n d v e r b a l e x p r e s s i o n s of feeling s u r f a c e o n a d a i l y b a s i s w h e n t i m e f r o m N a t i o n a l C u r r i c u l u m a g e n d a s is a l l o w e d . T h i s o p p o r t u n i t y resembles in part the outside play that m a n y adults r e m e m b e r experiencing as children, w h e n they indulged in gangs a n d clubs, in s h e d s , garages or u n d e r the g a r d e n h e d g e , m a k i n g their o w n r u l e s , r e s t r i c t i n g m e m b e r s h i p a n d e x p l o r i n g a u t o n o m y , p e r h a p s influe n c e d i n p a r t b y t h e c o n t e n t i o u s w o r k s of E n i d B l y t o n ? I n p l a y t h e n , f r o m self s e t a g e n d a s , c h i l d r e n find significance i n l i t e r a c y a n d c a n liberally a p p l y their semantic k n o w l e d g e a n d d e v e l o p their u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h o w m e a n i n g m a k i n g o p e r a t e s t h r o u g h d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e i r c a p a c i t y for p l a y f u l l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g t o b e c o m e c o m p e t e n t a n d c o n f i d e n t l i t e r a c y p r a c t i t i o n e r s . T h a t is, if w e , a s c o n t r o l l i n g a d u l t s , c a n d i s e n t a n g l e o u r s e l v e s f r o m t h e s p u r i o u s r e q u i r e m e n t s for c o n t i n u o u s c o n f o r m i t y a n d p e r f o r m a n c e in t h e c l a s s r o o m . H i l t o n (1996) e c h o e s t h i s w h e n s h e m a k e s c o m p a r i s o n s f r o m t h e e a r l y p a r t of t h i s c e n t u r y a n d d e s c r i b e s s c h o o l s t h e n , a s n o w in s o m e c a s e s , a s s u p p l y i n g a ' g e n e r a t i o n of c l e r k s ' , c h i l d r e n w h o , i n V y g o t s k y ' s t e r m s m e r e l y l e a r n ' h a n d a n d finger h a b i t s ' (1978) a n d a r e n o t e m p o w e r e d b y t h e i r ability to n a r r a t e experience a n d express emotion. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c l a s s r o o m c o n s e q u e n c e s i n t e r m s of l i t e r a t u r e a n d r o l e p l a y , if t e a c h e r s w a n t t o b u i l d u p o n c h i l d r e n ' s e a r l y s u b v e r s i v e e n c o u n t e r s a n d r e t a i n t h e vitality, e m o t i o n a l e n g a g e m e n t a n d a c t i v e i n v o l v e m e n t in learning w h i c h they provoke, then attention will n e e d to b e g i v e n t o t h e s u b c u l t u r e of t h e p l a y g r o u n d . I n s c h o o l s w h i c h d e v e l o p t h e l o r e a n d l a n g u a g e of t h e p l a y g r o u n d , t h e s o c i a l i s i n g s o n g s a n d r h y m e s of t h e y o u n g a r e still p l a y e d , r e p l a y e d a n d r e w o r k e d . These practices extend the linguistic transformations e n c o u n t e r e d in preschool contexts a n d are consequently u n d e r t a k e n w i t h particular energy a n d delight. There are zones o n the p l a y g r o u n d w h i c h t e n d t o a t t r a c t g a m e s a n d s o n g s w h i c h a r e o u t s i d e a d u l t defin i t i o n s of a c c e p t a b i l i t y ( D a v i e s 1982). I n d e e d s u c h z o n e s offer a literary space, w i t h o u t adults, in which the children can explore those t h i n g s w h i c h a d u l t s n e v e r a d d r e s s directly. T h e secret d o m a i n of r u d e s i n g i n g r h y m e s , a s G r u g e o n (1988) n o t e s , a r e m e d i a t e d b y c h i l d r e n a n d for c h i l d r e n , a s a l a n g u a g e of r e s i s t a n c e , a v e r b a l a r t f o r m w h i c h t o s o m e e x t e n t n e e d s t o m a i n t a i n its o w n t e r r i t o r y i n o r d e r to fulfil its o w n p u r p o s e s . Providing children w i t h the o p p o r t u n i t y to extend t h e i r e a r l y d e l i g h t in u t t e r a n c e c a n a l s o b e offered t h r o u g h c e l e b r a t i n g t h e w o r l d of h u m o u r , j o k e s , p u n s , r i d d l e s a n d f u n n y s t o r i e s i n t h e classroom as well as b y taking an experimental approach to r h y t h m ,

28

Teaching Young Children

r h y m e a n d l a n g u a g e . S o oral l i t e r a t u r e c a n a n d s h o u l d b e e x p l o i t e d i n the classroom to ensure that children's h u m o u r , vitality a n d early e n e r g y e x p r e s s e d i n w o r d s a n d a c t i o n s is r e t a i n e d . E v e n later w h e n w o r d p l a y r e d u c e s , a ' g l o r i o u s i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ' w i t h w o r d s still l i n g e r s , w h i c h M e e k (1991) a r g u e s is s a n c t i o n e d for a d u l t s t h r o u g h a r t , TV a n d comedy. In s u m , teachers need, w i t h o u t intruding into this ' t r i b a l c u l t u r e ' o r hijacking c h i l d r e n ' s play, t o c a p i t a l i s e o n c h i l d r e n ' s h i g h l y m o t i v a t e d a n d p l a y f u l u s e of l a n g u a g e i n t h e i r e a r l y y e a r s t e a c h i n g a n d t o l e a r n t o b o t h c e l e b r a t e it a n d u s e it a s a tool for l e a r n i n g . T h e w a y f o r w a r d s e e m s t o b e t h r o u g h s e n s i t i v e u s e of o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d r e c o r d s collected o v e r t i m e f r o m i n f o r m a l , n o n - c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d p e r h a p s s u b v e r s i v e c o n t e x t s t o i n f o r m o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of i n d i v i d u a l c h i l d r e n ' s p o t e n t i a l a s literacy p r a c t i t i o n e r s . S p a c e n e e d s t o b e f o u n d for t h e electric, o p p o s i t i o n a l a n d s u b v e r s i v e e l e m e n t s in y o u n g c h i l d r e n ' s l a n g u a g e t o b e d e v e l o p e d . I r r e v e r e n c e is a q u a l i t y of e a r l y c h i l d h o o d a n d o n e parents a n d educators n e e d to consider, acknowledge, cherish a n d celebrate in t h e y o u n g .

Issues 1. H o w c a n t h e m a n y l a n g u a g e s of c h i l d h o o d b e e n c o u r a g e d a n d O w n e d ' b y children in t h e early years? W h a t teaching strategies could b e used to help children u s e spoken language to express the m e a n i n g s of t h e s e o t h e r l a n g u a g e s ? 2. W h a t c a n p r e s c h o o l e d u c a t o r s a n d r e c e p t i o n class t e a c h e r s d o t o g e t h e r t o o b s e r v e a n d e n c o u r a g e c r e a t i v e a n d s u b v e r s i v e u s e s of l a n g u a g e a n d literacy? 3. H o w c a n t h e Literacy H o u r b e u s e d t o s t i m u l a t e c h i l d r e n ' s l a n g u a g e r e l a t e d t o text i n w a y s w h i c h a r e p l a y f u l a n d a l l o w t h e m t o direct their o w n learning?

References: Ashton-Warner, S. (1980), Teacher London: Virago. Bakhtin, M. (1968) Rabelais and His World Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Chukovsky, K. (1963) From Two to Five Berkeley: University of California Press. Claxton, G. (1984) Live and Learn London: Harper and Row. Davies, B. (1982) Life in the Classroom and Playground London: Routledge. Dannequin, C. (1977) Les Enfants Baillonne's Paris: CEDIC/Diffusion Nathan. Grugeon, E. (1988) The Singing Game: An Untapped Competence, in M.

29

Young children and playful language Meek and C. Mills (eds) Language and Literacy

in the Primary

School Hove:

Falmer Press. Halliday, M.A.K. (1978) Language as a Social Semiotic London: Arnold. Hilton, U. (1996) Potent Fictions London: Routledge. Hutt, S. J., Tyler, S., Hutt, C. and Christopherson, H. (1989) Play, Exploration and Learning London: Routledge. Meek, M. (1991) On Being Literate London: Bodley Head. Morris, P. (ed) (1994) The Bakhtin Reader: Selected Writings of Bakhtin, Medvedev

and Vologhino London: Arnold.

Rothbart, M.K. (1977) A Psychological approach to the study of humour, in A. Chapman and H. Foot (eds) It's a Funny

Thing

Humour

Oxford:

Pergamon. Voce, L. (1994) Over in the Meadow:

A Counting

Rhyme London: Walker.

Walkerdine, V. (1983) A psychosemiotic approach to abstract thought, in Beveridge, M. (ed) Children

Thinking

Through Language London: Arnold.

Weir, R. (1962) Language in the Crib The Hague: Mouton. Whitehead, M. (1995) Nonsense, Rhyme and Word Play in Young Children, in R. Beard (ed) Rhyme:

Reading

Handwriting

London: Hodder

and

Stoughton. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978) Mind in Society, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

3 The imagination, play and the arts Bryan

Hawkins

I m a g i n a t i o n s h o u l d h a v e a history, i n d e e d its v e r y construction is as m u c h a cultural invention as it is the n a t u r a l basis for a description of a psychic p h e n o m e n o n . . M a c l a g a n (1989, p . 35) It is only in p l a y i n g that the i n d i v i d u a l can be creative a n d o n l y in b e i n g creative t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l can discover the self. Winnicott (1972, p . 63) M o r e t h a n the will, m o r e t h a n the vital i m p u l s e , imagination is the v e r y force of-psychic p r o d u c t i o n . Bachelard (1962, p . 19) I m a g i n a t i o n is o u r m e a n s of interpreting the w o r l d , a n d it is also o u r m e a n s of forming i m a g e s in the m i n d . Warnock (1976, p . 194)

A practical context A n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e n a t u r e of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n is a s e s s e n t i a l t o a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e a r t s a s it is t o a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e y o u n g c h i l d a n d e d u c a t i o n . A c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n c a n u n i t e in a v e r y significant m a n n e r e l e m e n t s of t h e o r y a n d m o d e l s of h u m a n t h o u g h t t h a t a r e of g r e a t significance w i t h i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l c o n t e x t . T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , real p r o b l e m s in a t t e m p t i n g t o e n g a g e w i t h t h e c o m p l e x i t y , r i c h n e s s a n d p o w e r of t h e l i v e d e x p e r i e n c e t h a t c o n s t i t u t e t h e e s s e n c e of t h e i m a g i n a t i v e a n d c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s e s of t h e a r t s a n d play. I n o r d e r t o g r o u n d t h i s c h a p t e r i n t h e activities it s e e k s t o reflect 30

The imagination, play and the arts

31

u p o n I w a n t t o s t a r t b y o u t l i n i n g s o m e t h i n g like a c o n t e x t of a c t i v i t y t h a t t h e c h a p t e r c a n d e v e l o p . I h a v e c h o s e n j u s t a f e w of t h e m a n y , remarkable a n d m u n d a n e , touching a n d joyous contexts in w h i c h the i m a g i n a t i o n , a c t i n g t h r o u g h t h e a r t s a n d play, h a s t o u c h e d m y e x p e r i e n c e . Of c o u r s e s u c h a s e l e c t i o n c a n n e v e r b e n e u t r a l , t h e choices i m p l y b o t h t h e v a l u e s a n d connections w h i c h u n d e r l i e m y analysis. T h e examples are from both pre-school a n d p r i m a r y school s i t u a t i o n s . T h e y a r e f r o m i n s c h o o l a n d o u t of s c h o o l c o n t e x t s . I n o t h e r w o r d s t h e y m a r k t h e t r a n s i t i o n t h a t is t h e p e r i o d of e a r l y y e a r s provision. T w o c h i l d r e n p l a y i n a g a r d e n , sticks, s u n - h a t s , t e a - t o w e l s h a v e been transformed into costumes. A large cardboard box becomes a castle; a c o n s t r u c t i o n k i t m a k e s a c a n n o n . T h e c h i l d r e n n e g o t i a t e a n d discuss h o w they will 'play' the ' g a m e ' they are building a n d w o r k i n g u p o n . T h e y a r e w a t c h e d , o c c a s i o n a l l y h e l p e d a n d l o o k e d after, b y a p a r e n t w h o is b o t h w o r k i n g i n t h e k i t c h e n a n d k e e p i n g a n e y e o n the children. A class i n a p r i m a r y s c h o o l is d e v e l o p i n g a d a n c e b a s e d u p o n t h e t o p i c of g r o w t h . T h e y h a v e g r o w n p l a n t s a n d o b s e r v e d s t a g e s of d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e m u s i c h a s b e e n c h o s e n w i t h c a r e a n d ' g r o w s ' a s t h e child r e n explore t h r o u g h m o v e m e n t g r o w t h from curled p r o n e positions o n t h e floor of t h e h a l l . T h e m u s i c a n d t h e class ' g r o w ' w i t h c o n t r o l ,

Fig. 3.1

Children in 'costumes'

32

Teaching Young Children

s e n s i t i v i t y a n d g r a c e . O n e c h i l d r e m a i n s a b s o l u t e l y still. T h e m u s i c c o n t i n u e s , t h e class is n o w s t a n d i n g w a v i n g g e n t l y t o t h e m u s i c S u d d e n l y t h e b o y t h r o w s o u t o n e a r m in a v i o l e n t g e s t u r e , t h e n a n o t h e r , after a p a u s e h e j u m p s t o h i s feet - t h r u s t i n g h i s l i m b s i n different d i r e c tions. H e o p e n s his eyes, previously closed in concentration. H e a p p e a r s r a t h e r s u r p r i s e d b y t h e w a v i n g m o v e m e n t s of h i s p e e r s . A g o l d f i s h (called M i n t o e ) k e p t i n a c l a s s r o o m d i e s . T h e class d e c i d e w i t h t h e i r t e a c h e r t o m a k e a c o m m e m o r a t i v e b o o k for t h e m s e l v e s . T h e b o o k is filled w i t h p o e m s a n d p i c t u r e s . A m o n g s t t h e p o e m s are t h e s e four. I r e m e m b e r h i m s w i m m i n g in the w a t e r a n d lying in the water. H e looked peaceful A l m o s t smiling h e liked to s w i m H e n e v e r floated till h e w a s d e a d W e s h o u l d g e t a n o t h e r fish a n d forget a b o u t M i n t o e Mintoe w a s a special Goldfish H e w o u l d s w i m in the w a t e r H e w a s beautiful, h e liked The class b u t h e liked Robert the best M i n t o e w a s a quiet Goldfish a n d peaceful it n e v e r got o n m y n e r v e s It w a s g o o d to m e a n d the class (Robert) Mintoe was a very special goldfish it w a s quiet a n d peaceful b u t it w a s only a goldfish b u t it w a s s a d to see h i m d e a d . A c h i l d w h o h a s l o o k e d at a b s t r a c t p a i n t i n g s a n d e n g a g e d w i t h a p r o ject o n A n g e r i n v o l v i n g p o e t r y d a n c e a n d d r a m a m a k e s a n i m a g e d u r i n g l u n c h t i m e called T h e Bully.

The theoretical context M a n y w r i t e r s h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e w a y s i n w h i c h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the h u m a n imagination a n d the arts can inform a n d influence educat i o n a l p r o v i s i o n . M a r y W a r n o c k (1976) i n h e r t r e m e n d o u s l y significant b o o k Imagination h a s m a d e a s t r o n g case for t h e r e l e v a n c e of p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d a e s t h e t i c t h e o r y from K a n t a n d C o l e r i d g e t h r o u g h t o S a r t r e a n d C.S. L e w i s in r e l a t i o n to t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . W a r n o c k h a s

The imagination, play and the arts

Fig. 3.2

33

The Bully

h i g h l i g h t e d t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of i m a g i n a t i o n c a n m a k e t o o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e r o l e of t h e a r t s a n d e d u c a t i o n . M o r e r e c e n t e x a m p l e s of t h i s project a r e t h e w o r k of P e t e r A b b s (1987), P e t e r F u l l e r (1980) a n d R i c h a r d K e a r n e y (1994) w h o h a v e s o u g h t t o b r i n g t o g e t h e r a r a n g e of p s y c h o l o g i c a l , a e s t h e t i c a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n s i n o r d e r t o i l l u m i n a t e o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p o t e n t i a l of t h e arts a n d their relationship w i t h the imagination. T h i s p r o j e c t c a n n e v e r b e c o m p l e t e . It is n o t , I b e l i e v e , a q u e s t i o n of finding a definitive answer. Times a n d the educational climate a n d e n v i r o n m e n t c h a n g e . I n d e e d a s M a c l a g a n (1989) h a s c o g e n t l y a n d s i g n i f i c a n t l y a r g u e d t h e i m a g i n a t i o n is n o t o n l y a h u m a n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a n d i n t h i s s e n s e fixed b u t a w a y of t h i n k i n g a b o u t o u r s e l v e s t h a t e v o l v e s a n d c h a n g e s a n d is i n t h i s s e n s e a p r o d u c t of t h e c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y t h a t t h e t e r m i n p a r t e x p l a i n s . T h e ' c u l t u r a l ' i m a g i n a t i o n is c h a n g i n g a n d m u t a b l e . I m a g i n a t i o n is t h e subject of d e b a t e a s w e l l a s t h e object of o u r s t u d i e s . I n o t h e r w o r d s h o w w e t h i n k of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n c h a n g e s a n d h o w w e e m p l o y these u n d e r s t a n d i n g s in education changes. These concerns also connect u s w i t h educational debate a n d b r o a d e r cultural a n d political issues. T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , a b r o a d c o n s e n s u s - a n d it is i m p o r t a n t t o r e m e m b e r t h i s i n t h e m i d s t of m o r e s p e c i a l i s e d d e b a t e - i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e v a l u e of i m a g i n a t i o n a s a t t r i b u t e , v i t a l c o m m o d i t y a n d n e c e s s a r y f o c u s of e d u c a t i o n a l c o n c e r n . T h i s c h a p t e r w i l l s e e k t o b u i l d o n

34

Teaching Young Children

t h i s c o n s e n s u s t h r o u g h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e p o s i t i o n o u t l i n e d b y W a r n o c k . T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t w i l l o c c u r t h r o u g h t h e selective a n d p a r t i s a n d e p l o y m e n t of e l e m e n t s of p s y c h o l o g y , a e s t h e t i c s a n d hermeneutics. This chapter will enthusiastically advocate the i m p o r t a n c e of t h e a r t s , t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a n d t h e v a l u e of p l a y w h i c h is u n d e r s t o o d a s a c o m m o n factor in t h e p r o c e s s e s of t h e a r t s a n d t h e imagination and the common and uniting element within the theory w h i c h I will a t t e m p t to synthesise. T h i s f o c u s u p o n p l a y t o w a r d s w h i c h m y a r g u m e n t t r a v e l s is e s s e n tially c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a n d p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s a n d s i g nificance p l a c e d u p o n p l a y w i t h i n e a r l y y e a r s p r o v i s i o n . T h i s f o c u s is a l s o , I h o p e , a f u r t h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e a r g u m e n t for p l a y t o b e s e e n a s c e n t r a l t o e d u c a t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n ; a c o n t r i b u t i o n to h o w p l a y is u n d e r s t o o d w i t h i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s of e d u c a t i o n a n d a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e d e b a t e w h i c h will s h a p e t h e n a t u r e of f u t u r e p r o v i s i o n . Warnock's position involves a re-engagement with the Romantic a e s t h e t i c a n d h i s t o r i c a l a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n s i n o r d e r t o re-figu r e a n d r e - a p p r a i s e t h e n a t u r e of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n i n t h e l i g h t of m o r e c o n t e m p o r a r y theory. H e r s t r a t e g y is n o t s o m u c h n o s t a l g i c a s h i s t o r ical, r e c o g n i s i n g t h e c u l t u r a l d e t e r m i n a n t s of h o w w e t h i n k of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . W i t h o u t t h e a r t s a n d a r t i s t s t h e m s e l v e s a h i s t o r y of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n is i m p o s s i b l e a n d w i t h o u t t h e w r i t i n g s of p o e t s a n d a r t i s t s o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a r e i m p o v e r i s h e d . H o w e v e r , o n e of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s in art e d u c a t i o n h a s b e e n t h e focus u p o n m o d e l s of t h e a d u l t artist as b e i n g e n o r m o u s l y significant t o e d u c a t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n (I refer t o t h e N a t i o n a l C u r r i c u l u m s t r u c t u r e i n t h e arts). W h i l s t t h i s h a s u n d o u b t e d l y b e e n of v a l u e it r e p r e s e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in t e r m s of e a r l y y e a r s p r o v i s i o n , a ' t o p d o w n ' m o d e l w h i c h r i s k s o b s c u r i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e of o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of t h e n a t u r e of t h e y o u n g c h i l d a n d of p r o c e s s e s s u c h a s play a n d learning which h a v e traditionally u n d e r p i n n e d provision a n d t h e o r y . T h e r e a r e t h o s e s u c h a s M i l n e r a n d W i n n i c o t t historically, a n d Fuller a n d Kuspit m o r e recently w h o h a v e , I believe, i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o m a k e i n t h i s a r e a in r e - a s s e r t i n g t h e significance of o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of t h e e a r l y y e a r s a n d t h e p r o c e s s e s of p l a y a n d t h e a r t s . P l a y h e r e is u n d e r s t o o d a s a n activity w h i c h d e v e l o p s f r o m its b a s i s i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s of d e v e l o p m e n t t o w a r d s t h e c o n n e c t i o n between the individual and culture and beyond to an engagement w i t h t h e a r t s . T h i s e m p h a s i s is a n o t h e r justification for t h e s t r a t e g y t h a t I w i l l a d o p t of firstly r e v i e w i n g W a r n o c k ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n a n d t h e n of a u g m e n t i n g this o n t h e g r o u n d s of r e v i e w i n g c o n t e m p o r a r y l i t e r a t u r e a n d r e s p o n d i n g t o c u r r e n t theory.

The imagination, play and the arts

35

F o r W a r n o c k t h e i m a g i n a t i o n h a s a c e n t r a l i t y a n d significance w h i c h e c h o e s t h e c e n t r a l i t y of K a n t w i t h i n h e r w r i t i n g . T h e i m a g i n a t i o n is w i t h i n W a r n o c k ' s w o r k v a l u e d a s e s s e n t i a l w i t h i n p e r c e p t i o n a s it is i m p l i c a t e d in a n y s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h w e m a k e s e n s e of t h e w o r l d a r o u n d u s . I m a g i n a t i o n is t h u s u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h v a r i o u s s e n s e i m p r e s s i o n s a r e m a d e c o h e r e n t as t h e y a r e i n t e r n a l i s e d , s c h e m a t i s e d o r s y m b o l i s e d . T h e e n o r m o u s significance of H u m e a n d K a n t w i t h i n o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of t h e h u m a n i m a g i n a t i o n ( K e a r n e y 1994) rest in v e r y l a r g e p a r t u p o n t h i s i m p l i c a t i o n of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n in o u r p e r c e p t i o n of t h e w o r l d a r o u n d u s . T h i s e n g a g e m e n t w i t h i m a g i n a t i o n at t h e m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l l e v e l s of h u m a n p e r c e p t i o n a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s is a vital e l e m e n t of W a r n o c k ' s a r g u m e n t for t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a n d is p r o f o u n d l y at o d d s w i t h t h o s e v i e w s w h i c h s e e t h e i m a g i n a t i o n as s o m e k i n d of a l t e r n a t i v e or a d d i t i o n to o u r n o r m a l , e v e r y d a y or r a t i o n a l p e r c e p t i o n of t h e w o r l d . In t h e e x a m p l e s g i v e n w e s e e c h i l d r e n d e a l i n g w i t h p e r c e p t i o n a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e w o r l d t h r o u g h t h e m a k i n g of i m a g e s , t h e u s e of w o r d s a n d through movement. The experiences with which they e n g a g e a r e i n e v i t a b l y p a r t p e r c e p t u a l - h o w a castle l o o k s , h o w a p l a n t g r o w s , h o w a d e a d g o l d f i s h c o m p a r e s w i t h a live o n e , b u t e x t e n d s a l s o i n t o o t h e r a r e a s : i n t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of m u s i c , m o r t a l i t y , feelings a n d m o r a l b e h a v i o u r . I n p a r t i c u l a r t h e b o y d a n c i n g is, I b e l i e v e , a n e x a m p l e of t h e g i v i n g of f o r m t o a n i m p o r t a n t reality i n r e l a t i o n t o p e r c e p t i o n s of g r o w t h , a reality w h i c h is t h o u g h t i n t h e act of t h e d a n c e itself w h a t w e m a y call t h e t h o u g h t within t h e i m a g i n a t i v e act (the d a n c e ) n o t t h e t h o u g h t about i m a g i n a t i v e act ( P o d r o 1987). T h i n g s g r o w slowly, b u t t h i n g s closely o b s e r v e d m a y a p p e a r t o g r o w i n s p u r t s . C l a s s r o o m p l a n t s i n o t h e r w o r d s p l a y d e a d d u r i n g class t i m e , b u t d u r i n g t h e l o n g n i g h t s m a k e l e a p s so t h a t w h e n w e l o o k a g a i n t h e y h a v e ' s u d d e n l y ' g r o w n . A t least t h i s is t h e w a y I h a v e c h o s e n to i n t e r p r e t t h e t h o u g h t c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e b o y ' s o r i g i n a l , different, b u t v a l i d d a n c e . It is a n i m a g i n a t i v e t h o u g h t c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e l a n g u a g e a n d f o r m of d a n c e . T h e a r t s a n d p l a y c o n s t i t u t e s u c h t h o u g h t s m a d e in t h e f o r m s of p a i n t , s o u n d , m o v e m e n t , s p e e c h etc. T h e y a r e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of t h o u g h t as a r e all t h e e x a m p l e s I h a v e c h o s e n . K e a r n e y (1994) in s p e a k i n g of K a n t ' s c o n c e p t of t h e ' t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i m a g i n a t i o n ' s t a t e s p o w e r f u l l y ' T h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i m a g i n a t i o n is t h a t w h i c h g r o u n d s t h e objectivity of t h e object w i t h i n t h e subjectivity of t h e subject' (p. 167). T h e r e is a t e n d e n c y t o t h i n k of t h e m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l p e r c e p t i o n of t h e w o r l d a s b e i n g a n e n c o u n t e r w i t h ' u n p r o b lematic' physical p h e n o m e n a - 'the w o r l d out there' - a n d that this e n c o u n t e r is a m a t t e r of ' p u r e ' p e r c e p t i o n , scientific m e t h o d a n d r a t i o -

36

Teaching Young Children

n a l i t y p r e c l u d i n g t h e r o l e of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . K a n t ' s a r g u m e n t for t h e i m p l i c a t i o n of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s i m a g i n a t i o n i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the w o r l d b e y o n d the individual w a s philosophical, cultural a n d aest h e t i c d y n a m i t e . It p r o v i d e d t h e b a s i s for t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a s i s t o t h e R o m a n t i c a e s t h e t i c a n d b e y o n d t h a t t h e c e l e b r a t i o n a n d v a l u a t i o n of t h e h u m a n i m a g i n a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y i n g e n e r a l a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y of M o d e r n i s m i n t h e a r t s . A s K e a r n e y (1994) a g a i n a r g u e s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e significance of K a n t a n d t h e R o m a n t i c s , u p o n w h o m W a r n o c k s o fully d r a w s . T h e free ' p l a y ' of i m a g i n a t i o n ceases to b e d e n o u n c e d . I n d e e d from K a n t o n w a r d s this notion of free p l a y w a s to b e c o m e o n e of the pivotal concepts of m o d e r n theories of art. (p. 174) S u c h a v i e w of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a s g r o w i n g from i n p a r t a p l a y f u l a p p r o a c h t o p h e n o m e n a is s u p p o r t e d b y w r i t e r s s u c h a s S t o r r (1972; 1989) w h o h a v e e x p l o r e d t h e creativity of b o t h a r t i s t s a n d scientists. W h a t t h i s i m p l i e s is of e n o r m o u s significance a n d is r e c o g n i s e d b y W a r n o c k i n h e r s t a t e m e n t s o n t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n w i t h i n e d u c a t i o n . T h e i m a g i n a t i o n is e s s e n t i a l t o t h e m a k i n g of c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n o u r s e l v e s a s i n d i v i d u a l s a n d t h e w o r l d of objects a n d e x p e r i e n c e s . F o r t h e y o u n g c h i l d t h i s t a s k of u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e w o r l d i n its m o s t d i r e c t l y s e n s u o u s a n d c o n c r e t e f o r m s is t h u s t h e t a s k of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n b u t of c o u r s e , t o a n y i n d i v i d u a l i n v o l v e d a s c h i l d c a r e r u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of e a r l y y e a r s t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e i n r e c e n t y e a r s , t h i s t a s k of l e a r n i n g i m p l i c a t e s play. T h i s is a t h e m e t o w h i c h I w i l l r e t u r n b u t its a p p e a r a n c e of p l a y s o e a r l y in o u r c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s is e v i d e n c e of t h e u n i q u e s e n s i t i v i t y t o w a r d s t h e possibilities of p l a y a n d t h e i m a g i n a t i o n t h a t p o t e n t i a l l y lie i n t h e t r a d i t i o n s a n d v e r y n a t u r e of e a r l y y e a r s provision. Warnock argues: I m a g i n a t i o n is o u r m e a n s of interpreting the w o r l d a n d it is also o u r m e a n s of forming i m a g e s in the m i n d . The i m a g e s are n o t s e p a r a t e from interpretations of the w o r l d . We see the forms in o u r m i n d ' s eye a n d w e see these v e r y forms in the w o r l d . . . . The t w o abilities are joined in o u r ability to u n d e r s t a n d that the forms h a v e a certain m e a n i n g that t h e y are a l w a y s significant of other things b e y o n d themselves. (Warnock 1976, p . 194) I n o t h e r w o r d s t h e d e a t h of a g o l d f i s h m u s t a l w a y s b e m o r e t h a n a n i s o l a t e d e v e n t . I n t e l l i g e n c e is t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n of c o n n e c t i o n s i n t h e s e r v i c e of u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e i s s u e of m o r t a l i t y is

The imagination, play and the arts

37

r a i s e d . Scientific o b s e r v a t i o n of a d e a d fish c a n l e a d t o scientific a n a l y sis of t h e p r o b l e m . H o w e v e r , t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e fact of f l o a t i n g - ' h e n e v e r f l o a t e d till h e d i e d ' - s e e m s p o e t i c in t h a t its t r a g i c - c o m i c potency opens u p n e w a n d even revelatory meanings. The observat i o n is a p o i g n a n t i s o l a t i o n of a p h e n o m e n o n b a t h e d i n e m o t i o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e a n d w h i c h I r e m e m b e r r e a d i n g a s a r e v e l a t i o n . It w a s s o m e t h i n g I s o r t of k n e w b u t its e x p r e s s i o n i n t h i s f o r m s e e m e d packed w i t h 'poetic' reverberations a n d potential.

The educational context I n W a r n o c k ' s a n a l y s i s p e r c e p t i o n f o r m s t h e b a s i s for f u r t h e r c o m p l e x i n t e r a c t i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s . W a r n o c k is e v o k i n g a f u r t h e r a n d s e c o n d a r y f u n c t i o n of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n , n o t s e c o n d a r y in t h e s e n s e of s t a t u s a s it is i n t r i c a t e l y a n d d e e p l y l i n k e d w i t h its c o u n t e r p a r t b u t s e c o n d a r y i n t h a t it is of a different a n d c o m p l e m e n t a r y n a t u r e . It is t h e i m a g i n a t i o n of t h e i m a g e a n d s y m b o l . It is t h e i m a g i n a t i o n t h a t w e m a y r e c o g n i s e a s b e i n g t h e i m a g i n a t i o n l i n k e d t o t h e a r t s a n d crea t i v e p l a y of t h e y o u n g c h i l d a s w i t n e s s e d i n t h e p l a y c o r n e r , p l a y g r o u n d a n d t h e i m p o r t a n t s p a c e s of c h i l d h o o d in w h i c h p l a y o c c u r s . P l a y h e r e r e p r e s e n t s t h e i m a g i n a t i o n i n a c t i o n . T h i s p l a y is a s y m b o l i c a c t i v i t y in w h i c h t h i n g s s t a n d for o t h e r t h i n g s , i n w h i c h t h e r u l e s of ' a s i f a n d i m a g i n a t i o n f u n c t i o n . It is a n a c t i v i t y t h a t l i n k s d i r e c t l y w i t h l e a r n i n g a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y w i t h t h e w o r l d of feelings a n d e m o t i o n s a n d t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of e m o t i o n a l g r o w t h a n d h e a l t h . A g o l d fish is e x p e r i e n c e d , i n p a r t ' a s i f it w e r e a h u m a n a n d t h r o u g h it h u m a n loss a n d l o v e a r e e x p l o r e d . W h a t I w a n t to particularly d r a w from Warnock's analysis a n d t h e n d e v e l o p is h e r e m p h a s i s u p o n t h e c e n t r a l i t y of i m a g i n a t i o n t o e d u c a tion. For W a r n o c k the i m a g e a n d s y m b o l forming imagination are vital i n b o t h e d u c a t i o n a n d t h e a r t s . W r i t i n g a s s h e d i d i n 1976 it s e e m s , i n retrospect, s o m e w h a t surprising that her interest did n o t lead h e r into c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e b o d y of w o r k t h a t h a s g r o w n f r o m t h e d i s c o v e r ies of F r e u d a n d w h i c h d e a l s w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n of c h a r a c t e r a n d p e r s o n a l i t y t h r o u g h t h e v e h i c l e of t h e s y m b o l a s w e l l a s p r o v i d i n g t h e b a s i s for t h e e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a n d artistic p r o d u c t i o n . P e r h a p s W a r n o c k ' s r e s i s t a n c e t o t h i s a v e n u e of e x p l o r a t i o n w a s i n p a r t t h e r e s u l t of t h e a m b i v a l e n c e a n d o c c a s i o n a l a p p a r e n t h o s t i l i t y t o w a r d s t h e artistic i m a g i n a t i o n a n d c r e a t i v e p r o d u c t i o n t h a t c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d in r e l a t i o n t o F r e u d ' s w r i t i n g s . W a r n o c k ' s w o r k is of c o u r s e a n e x t e n s i o n of a n e t h i c a l a n d m o r a l s t a n c e in r e l a t i o n t o t h e i m a g i nation which equates the imagination with value.

38

Teaching Young Children

F o r F r e u d t h e artistic i m a g i n a t i o n (parallel a n d s i m i l a r t o t h e i m a g i n a t i o n p o s s e s s e d b y all h u m a n b e i n g s ) w a s a p r o c e s s m a i n l y of c o m p e n s a t i o n a n d w i s h - f u l f i l m e n t . T h a t is t o s a y t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a c t e d m a i n l y t o a c h i e v e for t h e i n d i v i d u a l artist t h a t w h i c h h e o r s h e w a s u n a b l e t o a c h i e v e i n reality. T h i s t e n d e d t o p l a c e t h e a r t i s t a n d t h e a r t i s tic i m a g i n a t i o n i n t h e r e a l m s of n e u r o s i s . M o r e s i m p l y p u t F r e u d t e n d e d t o l i n k artistic activity w i t h illness. T h i s is clearly n o t t h e b e s t b a s i s u p o n w h i c h t o b u i l d a c o m p r e h e n s i v e t h e o r y of t h e r o l e of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a n d t h e a r t s in e d u c a t i o n . T h e F r e u d i a n i m a g i n a t i o n , n e u r o t i c i n n a t u r e , s i t u a t e d at t h e m o s t b a s i c levels of t h e h u m a n p s y c h e a n d b y n a t u r e s o m e w h a t u n c i v i l i s e d , s t a n d s i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e v i e w of Warnock a n d the sources she articulates w h i c h place the imagination i n r e l a t i o n t o e m o t i o n a l h e a l t h , a c h i e v e m e n t a n d civilisation. I n o t h e r w o r d s t h e c h i l d ' s i m a g e of b u l l y i n g w o u l d t e n d t o b e s e e n r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y a n d d i a g n o s t i c a l l y a n d n o t a s a n act of i n s i g h t o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g / A s K u s p i t (1993) h a s d e s c r i b e d , F r e u d u s e s t h e scientific m e t h o d h e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p s y c h o a n a l y s i s t o ' d i s m i s s ' w i t h ' d e s t r u c t i v e c o n t e m p t a r t a n d r e l i g i o n ' (p. 318) T h i s c o n t e m p t w a s i n K u s p i t ' s v i e w s o m e t h i n g of a p r e - e m p t i v e s t r i k e a t t a c k o n t h e a r e a s of c u l t u r a l e x p e r i e n c e vital to t h e ' s t r u g g l e for p o w e r ' of p s y c h o a n a l y sis. H o w e v e r , i n p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s c o n t r i b u t i o n s a n d i n t h e m o r e r e c e n t h i s t o r y of t h e t r a d i t i o n g r o w i n g f r o m F r e u d ' s w o r k w e c a n d e t e c t a n d i d e n t i f y less a g g r e s s i v e p o s i t i o n s a n d i n d e e d p o s i t i o n s w h i c h a r e of v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e v a l u e to a fuller u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e imagination in the arts a n d education. Firstly w e m a y identify a less critical s t a n c e i n r e l a t i o n t o F r e u d ' s a p p r o a c h to the creative imagination t h a n that a d o p t e d by Kuspit. A r n h e i m (1962), for e x a m p l e , a r g u e s t h a t F r e u d ' s w o r k t e n d s t o w a r d s p r o d u c i n g a f o r m of reconciliation of t h e r a t i o n a l a n d i r r a t i o n a l a s p e c t s of h u m a n b e h a v i o u r a s e v i d e n t i n t h e sciences a n d t h e a r t s a n d a d v o c a t e s t h e c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t it is s e e n a s rationally understandable. It w a s F r e u d ' s t r u s t i n t h e ' u l t i m a t e r a t i o n a l i t y of t h e a p p a r e n t l y i r r a t i o n a l ' t h a t l e d h i m t o d e s c r i b e c o n c r e t e l y s o m e of t h e m e c h a n i s m s of c r e a t i v i t y for t h e first t i m e . F r e u d i n h i s a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n h u m a n b e h a v i o u r i n t e r m s of u n i versal qualities instituted w h a t Arnheim described as a 'democratizat i o n of t h e a r t s ' . A s t h e c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n is u n d e r s t o o d t o b e s i m i l a r i n t h e c o n t e x t s of b o t h t h e c r e a t i v e g e n i u s a n d t h e o r d i n a r y p e r s o n s o t h e v a l u e i m p l i c i t i n creativity b e c o m e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h all h u m a n i t y as w e l l a s t h e few. A s A r n h e i m p u t s it: Creativity c a m e to be t h o u g h t of as the possession a n d privilege of

The imagination, play and the arts

39

e v e r y h u m a n b e i n g a n d m o d e r n e d u c a t i o n b e c a m e a t e c h n i q u e for d e v e l o p i n g this m o s t p r e c i o u s c o m m o n property. ( A r n h e i m 1962, p . 11) T h e c h i l d a s a n artist, p o e t a n d d a n c e r is i n v o l v e d t h r o u g h c o m m o n p r o c e s s e s w i t h t h e i r a d u l t c o u n t e r p a r t s , f u r t h e r m o r e t h e i s s u e s of a r t - t h e n a t u r e of b e i n g i n t h e w o r l d , i s s u e s of d e s i r e a n d m o r t a l i t y a r e t h e i s s u e s t h a t all a r t a d d r e s s e s a n d t h a t t h e c h i l d e n g a g e s w i t h t h r o u g h p l a y a n d w i t h i n t h e a r t s . T h i s p o s i t i o n is i n line w i t h W a r n o c k ' s v a l u a t i o n of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n e v e n t h o u g h it d r a w s u p o n different s o u r c e s . In addition, m a n y w h o h a v e developed Freud's u n d e r s t a n d i n g s h a v e s h i f t e d t h e trajectory of t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n f r o m the m a l a d a p t i v e , t h e retrospective a n d the historical to t h e healthy, t h e f u t u r e a n d t h e f u t u r e - o r i e n t e d a n d t o t h e p o t e n t i a l of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n to initiate b e c o m i n g a n d g r o w t h . In this t h e p s y c h o d y n a m i c tradition reinstates a n d develops the description a n d exploration b y those such a s K a n t , H u m e , Schiller a n d C o l e r i d g e ( s o u r c e s u p o n w h o m W a r n o c k d r a w s ) of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a s c e n t r a l t o h u m a n affairs a n d i m p o r t a n t l y t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of ' s e l f . T h u s e v e n i n t h e a p p a r e n t l y b l e a k e x p r e s s i o n of difficult e x p e r i e n c e ( t h e c h i l d w h o m a d e t h e Bully w a s h i m self a v i c t i m ) t h e r e is a significance a n d d i g n i t y w h i c h is vital t o h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e . A s Tillich (1996, p . 182) a r g u e s ' T h e c r e a t i v e p o w e r w h i c h is a b l e t o g r a s p t h e n e g a t i v i t y of t h e c o n t e n t b y t h e p o s i t i v i t y of f o r m is a t r i u m p h of h u m a n i t y ' . T h e s u b j e c t s of p l a y a n d t h e a r t s a r e n o t a l w a y s n i c e b u t t h e traject o r y is t o w a r d s g o o d . I n t h e s e m o v e s a w a y from t h e p r o b l e m s i n h e r e n t i n F r e u d ' s a p p r o a c h t h e w o r k of t h e E n g l i s h Object R e l a t i o n s S c h o o l h a s b e e n of c o n s i d e r a b l e v a l u e a n d i m p o r t a n c e . C o n t e m p o r a n e o u s f i g u r e s s u c h a s M a r i o n Milner, D.W. W i n n i c o t t a n d A n t o n E h r e n z w e i g h a v e all m a d e i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s . C o n t r i b u t i o n s w h i c h i n m a n y w a y s h a v e o n l y i n t h e last f e w y e a r s b e g u n t o b e fully recognised a n d d r a w n into the debate s u r r o u n d i n g t h e arts. For Mari o n M i l n e r i n h e r r e m a r k a b l e b o o k On Not Being Able to Paint (1957) t h e ' i l l u s i o n s ' of a r t a r e u n d e r s t o o d a s a n e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e ' s e l f . A r t r e p r e s e n t s a n i l l u s i o n i n t h e s e r v i c e of a d a p tation a n d health. In i m p o r t a n t w a y s t h e arts take over from t h e sense of w h o l e n e s s p r e s e n t i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m o t h e r a n d c h i l d i n t h e e a r l i e s t m o n t h s a n d y e a r s of life. T h e p a r e n t i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s crea t e s t h e v i t a l ' i l l u s i o n ' t h a t t h e n e e d s of t h e infant a n d t h e p h e n o m e nal w o r l d are in h a r m o n y . This illusion d e p e n d s u p o n t h e p a r e n t ' s ability t o m e e t , a t t e n d t o a n d e v e n p r e d i c t t h e n e e d s of t h e infant. A s m a t u r i t y d e v e l o p s t h e c h i l d is a b l e t o a d a p t t o t h e r e a l i s a t i o n

40

Teaching Young Children

t h a t n e e d s a n d w o r l d ( i n n e r a n d e x t e r n a l d i m e n s i o n s of reality) are n o t in perfect h a r m o n y a n d also to survive the disillusion this entails. T h e c r e a t i o n of t h e i l l u s i o n t h a t t h e m o t h e r is p a r t of t h e c h i l d a n d t h e c h i l d p a r t of t h e m o t h e r p r e c e d e s a s e n s e of self. T h i s illus i o n far f r o m b e i n g d e s t r u c t i v e is e s s e n t i a l t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e h u m a n b e i n g . T h u s for M i l n e r i l l u s i o n p r e c e d e s c o n s c i o u s n e s s of self a n d t h e n u r t u r i n g of a n o t h e r r e m a i n s a v i t a l e l e m e n t i n h e a l t h y d e v e l o p m e n t . M i l n e r ' s w o r k is p a r a l l e l e d i n t h e c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s w o r k of D.W. W i n n i c o t t . T h e n u r t u r i n g of t h e i n f a n t is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of w h a t W i n n i c o t t t e r m s ' G o o d - E n o u g h ' a s p e c t s of p a r e n t i n g a n d t h e s e l a r g e l y i n t u i t i v e a c t s f o r m t h e b a s i s for t h e e m e r g e n c e of a s e n s e of self i n t h e infant. Winnicott defines a 'transitional space' existing b e t w e e n the inner a n d o u t e r w o r l d s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l . T h e p a r e n t i n t h e c o u r s e of ' G o o d E n o u g h ' p a r e n t i n g assists t h e child i n m o v i n g f r o m t h e i l l u s i o n s of infancy to accept the w o r l d b e y o n d the child, the complex contrad i c t e d w o r l d of e x t e r n a l e x p e r i e n c e . T h e i n t e r p l a y of t h e i n n e r w o r l d of t h e c h i l d d e v e l o p i n g t h r o u g h t h e n u r t u r i n g of t h e p a r e n t a n d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e w o r l d b e y o n d t h e child is a f u n d a m e n t a l r e q u i r e m e n t . T h e t e a c h e r e x t e n d s t h i s role a n d t h e l e a r n i n g it p r o d u c e s a s t h e a r t s e x t e n d t h e r o l e of p l a y i n t o a d u l t life. T h e c h i l d p l a y i n g castles m a y w e l l b e e x p l o r i n g c o m p l e x i s s u e s a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h i s e x p l o r a t i o n is o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n a s p a c e t h a t w e c a n u n d e r s t a n d a s n e i t h e r i n t e r n a l (the w o r l d of d r e a m a n d o u r m o s t p r i v a t e t h o u g h t s ) n o r a s e x t e r n a l ( t h e w o r l d of reality a n d e x p e r i e n c e ) , b u t i m p o r t a n t l y i n a t h i r d a r e a of e x p e r i e n c e (the w o r l d of p l a y a n d culture) w h i c h b r i n g s these w o r l d s together. F o r F r e u d t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s is t h e s y m b o l a n d t h e s y m b o l is t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s fixed, d e f i n e d a n d r e t r o s p e c t i v e . T h e s y m b o l is t h e u n c o n s c i o u s s p e a k i n g , in t h e c a s e of t h e a r t i s t a s of t h e p a t i e n t , of p a s t e v e n t s a n d fixed f o r m s . J u n g ' s f a m o u s b r e a k w i t h F r e u d i n v o l v e d a r a d i c a l r e d e f i n i t i o n of t h e s y m b o l . J u n g ' s a p p r o a c h is e s s e n t i a l l y e x p a n s i v e a s a r e M i l n e r ' s a n d W i n n i c o t t ' s . T h e i m a g i nation a n d the unconscious are seen as cognitive, future oriented a n d t r a n s f o r m i n g . T h e i m a g i n a t i o n is c a p a b l e of b r i n g i n g a b o u t n e w m e a n i n g s , n e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g s a n d as a result n e w k n o w l e d g e a n d g r o w t h . Within recent writings o n the arts a n d education Peter A b b s h a s c o n s i s t e n t l y s o u g h t t o v a l u e t h e p o w e r of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a n d t o p l a c e it a t t h e c e n t r e of a r t s e d u c a t i o n . I n t h e w o r k of A b b s (1987) a n d o t h e r s t h e r e is a v a l u e p l a c e d u p o n t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e a c t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n a n d t h e r o l e of p l a y ; t h e r e is

The imagination, play and the arts

41

n e v e r t h e l e s s n o justification of a laissez-faire a t t i t u d e t o t h e a r t s a n d e d u c a t i o n i n t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s . R a t h e r a m o d e l e m e r g e s of t h e s e n s i t i v e i n t e r p l a y of i m a g i n a t i o n a n d reflection. T h i s m o d e l e m b r a c e s t h e a u t o n o m y of t h e creator, t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e c r e a t i v e act a n d t h e n u r t u r i n g of c r e a t i v i t y b u t a l s o t h e i n t e r a c t i n g i m p o r t a n c e of reflect i o n , s e l f - a w a r e n e s s a n d a n a l y s i s . T h e r o l e of l e a r n i n g is a c c e p t e d b y M i l n e r (1957) w h o h i g h l i g h t e d t h e skills, c o n c e p t s a n d k n o w l e d g e of t h e a r t s b u t v e r y i m p o r t a n t l y p u t t h e m i n t h e s e r v i c e of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . I n s p e a k i n g of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n s h e s t a t e s : T h e p o e t a n d artist in u s , b y their u n r e a s o n , b y their seeing as a u n i t y t h i n g s in w h i c h objective reality are n o t the s a m e , b y their basic capacity for seeing the w o r l d in t e r m s of m e t a p h o r d o in fact create the w o r l d for t h e scientist in u s to b e curious a b o u t a n d u n d e r s t a n d . . . t h e y (the arts) p r o v i d e a h a l f - w a y h o u s e t o e x t e r n a l reality, t h a t f u n c t i o n of t h e c r e a t i v e a r t s b y w h i c h t h e y c a r r y o n t h r o u g h o u t o u r lives, t h e r o l e t h a t i n o u r i n f a n c y h a s t o b e filled b y a p e r s o n , t h e i r f u n c t i o n i n p r o v i d i n g a p e r p e t u a l w e l l for t h e r e n e w a l a n d e x p a n s i o n of o u r p s y c h i c p o w e r s . (Milner 1957, p . 79) T h e a r t s g r o w f r o m t h e earliest r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d f r o m play. T h e a r t s u n d e r s t o o d i n p a r t a s p l a y for a d u l t s a r e u n d e r s t o o d as v i t a l e x p e r i e n c e . F a i l u r e t o p l a y for t h e c h i l d is t h e e q u i v a l e n t of failure to e n g a g e i n t h e a r t s for t h e a d u l t . T h e a r t s t a k e t h e b i o l o g i c a l r o o t s of i d e n t i t y a n d a w a r e n e s s a n d project t h i s v i t a l e n e r g y i n t o t h e r e a l m s of c u l t u r e and language. T h e a r t s a s i l l u s i o n i n t h i s c o n t e x t d o n o t act t o c l o a k a n x i e t y a n d h o l d back rational analysis. The arts are illusion to the extent that a c o h e s i v e s e n s e of self is t h e p r o d u c t of illusion, t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t a s e c u r e n u r t u r i n g c h i l d h o o d is t h e p r o d u c t of i l l u s i o n a n d t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e belief t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l is c a p a b l e of f i n d i n g m e a n i n g a n d w o r t h i n e x p e r i e n c e is illusion. It is i l l u s i o n in t h e s e r v i c e of a n d at t h e b a s i s of c u l t u r e . T h e i n v e n t i o n of t h e self a n d t h e h u m a n i s t p r o jects of t h e a r t s a r e a m o n g s t its g r e a t e s t a c h i e v e m e n t s . M i l n e r ' s a n a l y sis is a n e x a m p l e of c o n t r i b u t i o n s from w i t h i n t h e p s y c h o d y n a m i c t r a d i t i o n w h i c h far f r o m d i s e m p o w e r i n g t h e t e a c h e r act to c r e a t e a p l a c e a n d r o l e for t h e t e a c h e r w i t h i n a m o d e l of t h e artistic i m a g i n a t i o n a n d c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s e s . T h e link w i t h t h e e m e r g e n c e of t h e h u m a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s f r o m i n f a n c y m a d e b y M i l n e r a n d codified b y W i n n i cott l i n k s t h e artistic i m a g i n a t i o n to t h e n e c e s s i t y of a n u r t u r i n g e n v i r o n m e n t f r o m t h e earliest y e a r s of life. T h e i m a g i n a t i o n , w h i l s t n o t b e i n g t a u g h t in t h e s e n s e s o a p p a r e n t

42

Teaching Young Children

i n r e c e n t d e f i n i t i o n s of c u r r i c u l u m c o n t e n t , is n e v e r t h e l e s s d e p e n d e n t u p o n a n u r t u r i n g a n d sensitively a w a r e other - a role that extend s t h e ' G o o d - E n o u g h ' p a r e n t i n g of W i n n i c o t t t o w a r d s t h e role of t h e teacher. I n t h i s t h e t e a c h e r ' s r o l e is n o t o n e of d i d a c t o r i n s t r u c t o r b u t of g u a r d i a n a n d facilitator e x t e n d i n g t h e c o m m i t m e n t , i n d u l g e n c e s a n d l o v e t h a t f o r m t h e b a s i s of p s y c h i c g r o w t h . T h e t e a c h e r t a k e s o n t h e r o l e of s y m p a t h e t i c a n d s e n s i t i v e c o - o r d i n a t o r a n d c o - e x p l o r e r of c h i l d r e n ' s a r t a n d t h e w o r l d of artistic p r o d u c t i o n a n d e n d e a v o u r t h e w o r l d of c u l t u r e . T h e r e is c l e a r l y a c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e t e r m s h e r e b e i n g u s e d t o describe the teachers' engagements with y o u n g children a n d m u c h recent educational rhetoric. T h e t e r m s c o m m i t m e n t , indulgence a n d n u r t u r e u n d e r l i n e t h e e m e r g e n c e of t h e a r t s f r o m t h e v i t a l , s e n s i t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n s of t h e child a n d p a r e n t f r o m w h i c h t h e y s t e m . T h e i n s i g h t s t h e y p r o v i d e set t h e t o n e for a n e m e r g e n t s e n s e n o t o n l y of t h e r o l e of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n w i t h i n e d u c a t i o n b u t for t h e k i n d s of p r o v i s i o n a n d s t r a t e g y w h i c h w i l l e n c o u r a g e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e artistic i m a g i n a t i o n . T h e y p l a c e t h e e m e r g e n c e of a v i t a l h u m a n a t t r i b u t e f i r m l y w i t h i n a n e t h i c a l a n d m o r a l a s w e l l a s p e d a g o g i c a l context. W i t h i n w r i t i n g s o n t h e i m a g i n a t i o n it is p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y a n altern a t i v e t o t h e s e p a r a t i o n of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n from o t h e r a r e a s of e x p e r i e n c e . A b b s ' s w o r k h a s i n v o l v e d a rejection of F r e u d ' s r e d u c t i o n i s m a n d a n o p e n i n g u p to t h e v a l u e of t h e s y m b o l as e x p a n s i v e a n d f u t u r e oriented. T he unconscious a n d the creative imagination are seen as c o g n i t i v e a n d p o t e n t i a l l y t r a n s f o r m i n g i n t h e i r p o t e n t i a l for g r o w t h . T h e i m a g i n a t i o n is c a p a b l e of b r i n g i n g a b o u t n e w m e a n i n g s a n d n e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g s . I n t h i s s e n s e t h e i m a g i n a t i o n shifts f r o m b e i n g s e e n a s a fixed s y s t e m of m e a n i n g , a k i n d of p i c t u r e w r i t i n g i n t h e c a s e of t h e v i s u a l artistic i m a g i n a t i o n , a n d b e c o m e s c a p a b l e of e x p r e s s i n g s o m e t h i n g p r e v i o u s l y u n k n o w n a n d p o t e n t i a l l y revelatory. T h u s t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a n d creative process t e n d to create m e t a p h o r s w i t h n e w m e a n i n g s t r u c t u r e d f r o m t h e fixed c u l t u r a l s y m b o l s of t h e a r t s a n d l a n g u a g e w h i c h t h e y i n h e r i t . T h i s c o g n i t i v e f u n c t i o n of t h e u n c o n scious acting through the imagination m a r k s a radical break with Freud's understandings. Jung developed these ideas and advocated t h e m w i t h i n his w o r k o n the active imagination, a strategy w h i c h e n c o u r a g e d t h e e x t e n s i o n of t h e f r e e d o m , e x p l o r a t i o n a n d s p o n t a n e ity of p l a y i n t o a d u l t life a n d i n t h e s e r v i c e of e m o t i o n a l a n d m e n t a l growth. T h e r e a r e m a n y p a r a l l e l s b e t w e e n J u n g ' s m o d e l of t h e ' a c t i v e i m a g ination' a n d Milner's writings and her particular attempts to use i m a g e - m a k i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e h u m a n p s y c h e . I n

The imagination, play and the arts

43

M i l n e r ' s explorations w e see a process in w h i c h neither play nor reflection is a l l o w e d t o d o m i n a t e a n d w h e r e i m a g i n a t i o n is u n d e r s t o o d a s b e i n g r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e c r e a t i o n of f o r m w h i c h i n o r d e r t o b e fully c o m p l e t e d n e e d s a c t i v e c o n s c i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n . T h e A m e r i c a n artist P h i l i p G u s t o n is a n i n t e r e s t i n g c a s e i n p o i n t . D e e p l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e A m e r i c a n a v a n t - g a r d e of t h e 1950s a n d 1960s his w o r k m o v e d from abstraction back to t h e figurative. The r o u g h n e s s a n d s p o n t a n e i t y of h i s i m a g e r y is itself reflective of t h e c o m p l e x l i n k s b e t w e e n a d u l t a n d c h i l d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y art. T h e subject of G u s t o n ' s l a t e r w o r k c a n b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e n a t u r e of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a n d h i s w r i t i n g s r e c o r d t h e act of p a i n t i n g i n t e r m s w h i c h recall t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a n d y e t d e s c r i b e h o w t h i s m a t e r i a l is a c t i v e l y a n d t h o u g h t f u l l y t h e object of reflection. I n r e l a t i o n t o t h e p o t e n t i a l for m e a n i n g c r e a t e d b y h i s p a i n t i n g s G u s t o n h a s r e m a r k e d : Yes I too p u z z l e o v e r m e a n i n g s - I m e a n the linkage of i m a g e s w h e n t h e y are t o g e t h e r in a certain w a y a n d t h e n h o w all c h a n g e s w h e n t h e y are in different c o m b i n a t i o n. But that is the p o t e n c y of i m a g e s it is as if w e are d e n s e - s w a m p e d - i m a g e - r i d d e n - w e t e e m w i t h m e a n i n g s constantly. So t h e w h a t is n e v e r settled. (Storr 1989, p . 109). In these quotations w e experience painting as a d y n a m i c part uncons c i o u s a n d p a r t c o n s c i o u s act. I n t h e r e v i s i o n of F r e u d ' s w o r k a n d t h e i m p l i c i t a t t a c k o n a u t h o r i t a r i a n , rigid a n d d i d a c t i c t e a c h i n g t h e r e is n o justification of a laissez-faire a t t i t u d e to c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t y o r t h e t e a c h i n g of t h e a r t s . R a t h e r a m o d e l of s e n s i t i v e i n t e r p l a y a n d reflection is b e i n g f o r m e d . A m o d e l t h a t e m b r a c e s t h e a u t o n o m y of t h e creator, t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e c r e a t i v e act a n d of t h e n u r t u r i n g of t h e role of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a n d t h e u n i q u e n e s s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l . W i t h i n t h i s d e v e l o p i n g m o d e l t h e role of c o n c e p t u a l a n d skill l e a r n i n g is far f r o m b e i n g excluded. Both t h e child artist a n d a d u l t artist are involved in learni n g i n t h e a r t s . M i l n e r h i g h l i g h t s t h e skills a n d c o n c e p t s i n h e r e n t i n t h e a r t s b u t p u t s t h e m in t h e s e r v i c e of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . I n s p e a k i n g of t h e a r t i s t s h e a r g u e s : H e h a s t o a c c e p t s o m e p u b l i c artistic c o n v e n t i o n , s u c h a s t h e o u t l i n e of a m u s i c a l scale o r t h e g r a m m a r a n d v o c a b u l a r y of a p a r t i c ular l a n g u a g e , s o m e t h i n g that a particular time a n d place in history m a k e a v a i l a b l e for h i m t o u s e i n c o n v e y i n g h i s p r i v a t e i d e a . Of c o u r s e h e m a y c o n t r i b u t e t o t h i s c o n v e n t i o n himself, e n r i c h a n d e n l a r g e it, b u t h e c a n n o t s t a r t off w i t h o u t it, h e c a n n o t j u m p off from n o t h i n g . (Milner 1957, p . 134)

44

Teaching Young Children

O u r e x a m p l e s a r e e n g a g e m e n t s w i t h t h e skills a n d l a n g u a g e of art, d a n c e a n d poetry. They d o not a n d should not, however, h a v e these skills a s t h e i r g o a l . T h e s e skills s u p p o r t t h e e n e r g e t i c e n g a g e m e n t s of i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h t h e w o r l d . B a c h e l a r d (1981), a w r i t e r for w h o m t h e e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e n a t u r e of t h e c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s b e c a m e h i s c e n t r a l project, h a s e m p h a s i s e d t h e r o l e of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n i n c h a n g i n g a n d m a n i p u l a t i n g realised forms a n d m e a n i n g s a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g s . H e argues: I m a g i n a t i o n is a l w a y s considered to b e the faculty of forming images, it is h o w e v e r the faculty of deforming the i m a g e s offered b y p e r c e p tion, of freeing ourselves from the i m m e d i a t e images; it is especially the faculty of c h a n g i n g i m a g e s . . . The f u n d a m e n t a l w o r d c o r r e s p o n d ing to i m a g i n a t i o n is n o t i m a g e b u t imaginary. The v a l u e of a n i m a g e is m e a s u r e d b y the extent of its i m a g i n a r y radiance. T h a n k s to the i m a g i n a r y the imagination is essentially o p e n , evasive. In the h u m a n p s y c h e it is the very experience of o p e n i n g a n d o p e n n e s s . More t h a n a n y o t h e r p o w e r it d e t e r m i n e s the h u m a n psyche. (Bachelard 1971, p . 19) T h e g i v e n l a n g u a g e n e e d s t o b e a r t i c u l a t e d . To b e p r o p e r l y u s e d it s h o u l d b e s u b j e c t e d t o c h a n g e . E n g a g e m e n t w i t h l a n g u a g e is n o t a m a t t e r of p a s s i v e a c q u i s i t i o n b u t of a c t i v e u s e . T h e m o t o r is t h e d e s i r e t o m a k e f o r m t o g i v e m e a n i n g t h a t o r i g i n a t e s in p l a y W h a t is e m e r g i n g h e r e is a c o m p l e x a n d v i t a l m o d e l of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n d r a w i n g i n reflection a n d skills b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s p l a c i n g t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a s h u m a n v a l u e a n d c o g n i t i v e m o t o r at t h e c e n t r e of t h e c r e a t i v e act. It is n o t i m a g i n a t i o n w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e s t o l e a r n i n g in t h e a r t s b u t l e a r n i n g i n t h e a r t s w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e efficacy of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . T h e trajectory of s o m u c h r e c e n t w o r k i n t h e a r t s is h e r e , I b e l i e v e , b e i n g f u n d a m e n t a l l y r e v e r s e d . T h e r e is a n e e d for a r e v e r sal of t h e d o m i n a n c e of t h e t a u g h t e l e m e n t s of t h e a r t s o v e r t h e a c t i o n of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . Skills, c o n c e p t s a n d i n f o r m a t i o n a r e n o t a g o a l in t h e m s e l v e s , b u t a m e a n s t o a n e n d . T h e g o a l is t h e fostering of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n i n its i n d i v i d u a l a n d c u l t u r a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s . A s a n i n d i v i d u a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n it h a s t o d o w i t h t h e a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of t h e i n d i v i d u a l in life a n d g r o w t h a n d w i t h p s y c h i c h e a l t h a n d a s a c u l t u r a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n it h a s t o d o w i t h t h e h e a l t h of t h e a r t s a n d of t h e h e a l t h of t h e c u l t u r e s in w h i c h t h e y flourish. F o r W i n n i c o t t t h e e s s e n t i a l l o c a t i o n of t h e activities of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n t h r o u g h p l a y a n d c u l t u r e is n e i t h e r a b o v e n o r b e l o w a s i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e p o s i t i o n s of W a r n o c k a n d F r e u d . For W i n n i c o t t t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a n d c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s e s are l o c a t e d ' i n b e t w e e n ' in a n a r e a of

The imagination, play and the arts

45

e x p e r i e n c e t h a t is n e i t h e r fully i n t e r n a l (in t e r m s of p s y c h o l o g y a n d m e n t a l p r o c e s s ) o r e x t e r n a l (in t e r m s of e x p e r i e n c e o r reality) b u t exists i n a t h i r d a r e a of e x p e r i e n c e , a s p a c e t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s for t h e c h i l d t h e s p a c e in w h i c h p l a y o c c u r s a n d w h i c h for a d u l t s is t h e s p a c e in w h i c h t h e w o r l d of c u l t u r e a n d reality a n d t h e e m e r g e n t self i n t e r a c t . T h i s l o c a t i o n of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n is of g r e a t significance. A s K u s p i t (1993, p . 89) h a s i d e n t i f i e d i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e u s e of W i n n i c o t t i a n a p p r o a c h e s to the arts: 'Art originates in transitional experience, b u t e v e n m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l l y it o r i g i n a t e s i n p r i m a l e x p r e s s i o n . . . a r t as t r a n s i t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e c a r r i e s t h i s e x p r e s s i o n i n t o social s p a c e . ' T h i s m o d e l of t h e c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n a s a m e d i a t i o n b e t w e e n i n n e r a n d o u t e r a n d t h r o u g h its identification of t h e project of p r i m a l m a t e rial i n t o socially m e d i a t e d s p a c e p r o v i d e s , I b e l i e v e , a v i g o r o u s a n d r i c h a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e m u t u a l a n t a g o n i s m of d e p t h p s y c h o l o g y a n d critical t h e o r y a n d l i n g u i s t i c s . I n o t h e r w o r d s p s y c h o l o g y l e a d s u s to t h a t p l a c e w h e r e a s t u d y of h u m a n i t y e n t e r s c u l t u r e a n d w h e r e n o t i o n s of l a n g u a g e a n d t h e n a t u r e of society i n t h e i r t u r n i n f l u e n c e w h o w e a r e . W i n n i c o t t ' s m o d e l a g a i n p r o v e s v a l u a b l e i n t h a t it p r o v i d e s a c o n text w h i c h a l l o w s for t h e m e d i a t i o n of social a n d l i n g u i s t i c s t r u c t u r e s a n d p r o c e s s e s w i t h i n t h e activity of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n u n d e r s t o o d a s universal h u m a n attribute. W i t h i n t h e a r t s t h e feelings a n d e x p r e s s i o n s of self a r e p r o j e c t e d i n t o a social s p a c e i n w h i c h t h e y c a n b e s h a r e d , v a l u e d , d i s c u s s e d , a p p r e ciated. Simply p u t p o e m s are to be read, performed a n d broadcast. D a n c e is a social a n d c u l t u r a l act. P a i n t i n g s h a v e a life b e y o n d t h e m o m e n t of t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n .

A contemporary context T h e p r o j e c t i o n of m e a n i n g - m a k i n g i n t o social s p a c e r e c o g n i s e d a s a r e s u l t of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o p e n s u p c o n n e c t i o n s w h i c h c a n b e i d e n t i fied w i t h i n a l i n g u i s t i c c o n t e x t . T h i s e m p h a s i s o n l a n g u a g e a s a f o c u s for e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e a r t s a n d c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of w h a t h a s b e e n t e r m e d p o s t - m o d e r n i s m . Additionally this 'linguistic t u r n ' ( K e a r n e y 1993) h a s r e s u l t e d i n a d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d a n i m o s i t y t o w a r d s t h e o r i e s of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a n d c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s w h i c h a r e g r o u n d e d s o l e l y i n e x p l a n a t i o n s of i s o l a t e d i n d i v i d u a l s ' a c h i e v e m e n t . L a n g u a g e s e e n a s t h e object of s t u d y u s u r p s t h e i n d i v i d u a l subject u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e i n d i v i d u a l a c t i n g a s creator. T h e ' m y t h ' of t h e artist h a s b e e n e x p o s e d a s a lie w h i c h b o t h o b s c u r e s t h e r o l e of c u l t u r e a n d l a n g u a g e a n d aggrandises the creative genius t h r o u g h magical stories of i n s p i r a t i o n a n d i n s i g h t .

46

Teaching Young Children

In educational contexts this e m p h a s i s h a s t e n d e d to lead to a ref o c u s u p o n t h e a r t s a s l a n g u a g e s a n d a s c u l t u r a l activities b a s e d u p o n skills a n d c o n v e n t i o n s a n d i n v o l v i n g t h e ' r e a d i n g of a r t objects a s m u c h a s t h e ' w r i t i n g ' of art. T h e r e h a v e u n d o u b t e d l y b e e n a d v a n t a g e s a n d g a i n s w i t h t h i s r e - e m p h a s i s . But a l o n g s i d e t h i s h a s b e e n a c o n t i n g e n t l a c k of e m p h a s i s , e v e n hostility, t o t h e a r t s a s activities d r i v e n b y the imagination a n d b a s e d in individual experience. T h i s crisis of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n in its m o s t e x t r e m e f o r m s a s i d e n t i fied b y K e a r n e y (1993) l e a d s t o a k i n d of d e a t h of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a t t h e level of t h e a r t s a n d c u l t u r e . H o w e v e r , t h e e m e r g e n c e of n e w p e r c e p t i o n s of t h e w o r k i n g s of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n f r o m w i t h i n t h e o r y d e r i v e d f r o m l i n g u i s t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s c a n offer a g r e a t d e a l t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n i n t h e c o n t e x t of e a r l y y e a r s e d u c a t i o n . K e a r n e y i d e n t i f i e s a H e r m e n e u t i c I m a g i n a t i o n (a p e r c e p t i o n of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n w h i c h e m p h a s i s e s t h e r o l e of i m a g i n a t i o n i n m e a n i n g m a k i n g ) a s a d e v e l o p i n g d i m e n s i o n of o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . E l e m e n t s of t h e w r i t i n g s of P a u l R i c o e u r a r e , I b e l i e v e , of c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r t a n c e i n t h i s r e s p e c t . F o r R i c o e u r t h e c e n t r a l ling u i s t i c p r o c e s s r e l e v a n t t o a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n is t h e m e t a p h o r . T h i s focus p r o v i d e s p a r t i c u l a r p o s s i b i l i t i e s for n e w i n s i g h t s . R i c o e u r (1991) w r i t e s : 7

W h a t n e w access is offered to the p h e n o m e n o n of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n b y the t h e o r y of m e t a p h o r ? W h a t it offers is, first of all, a n e w w a y of p u t t i n g t h e p r o b l e m . I n s t e a d of a p p r o a c h i n g the p r o b l e m t h r o u g h perc e p t i o n a n d a s k i n g h o w o n e p a s s e s from p e r c e p t i o n to i m a g e s , the theo r y of m e t a p h o r invites u s to relate i m a g i n a t i o n to a certain u s e of l a n g u a g e , m o r e precisely to see in it a n aspect of s e m a n t i c i n n o v a t i o n characteristic of the m e t a p h o r i c a l u s e of l a n g u a g e . (p. 171) T h e y o u n g c h i l d r e n at p l a y utilise a s e n s e of ' l i k e n e s s ' i n t h e i r u s e of c o s t u m e s a n d b a s e t h e i r p l a y u p o n a n 'as-if-ness' t h a t is e s s e n t i a l t o p l a y a n d t o m e t a p h o r . O u r t w o f o r m s of d a n c e a r e t w o different m e t a p h o r i c a l s t r u c t u r e s for t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of g r o w t h . T h e p o e m s m e t a p h o r i s e , a m o n g s t o t h e r t h i n g s , m o r t a l i t y . T h e i m a g e of T h e Bully c r e a t e s a m e t a p h o r for a c o m p l e x a c t i n w o o d a n d n a i l s . H e r e w e h a v e a d e v e l o p m e n t of W a r n o c k ' s p o s i t i o n a n d o n e w h i c h t h r o u g h t h e c e n t r a l i t y of m e a n i n g - m a k i n g c a n act a s a b r i d g e b e t w e e n t h e insights b a s e d u p o n p s y c h o l o g y a n d those g r o w i n g from m o r e ling u i s t i c a l l y b a s e d a p p r o a c h e s . T h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e m e t a p h o r i n r e l a tion to children's artwork a n d emotional development h a s recently b e e n e x p l o r e d b y H a w k i n s (1991) a n d G r e e n h a l g h (1994). T h e s e n s e i n w h i c h p l a y a n d t h e a r t s p r o v i d e o p p o r t u n i t i e s for t h e e x p l o r a t i o n

The imagination, play and the arts

47

of m e a n i n g s t h r o u g h s y m b o l s , w h e t h e r i n t h e m o v e m e n t a n d a c t i o n of p l a y o r i n t h e a r t s t h r o u g h m a r k - m a k i n g , m a n i p u l a t i o n of m a t e r i als, v o i c e , m o v e m e n t , s o u n d o r o t h e r f o r m , p r o v i d e s o p p o r t u n i t i e s for m e t a p h o r to function. E c o (1979) h a s w r i t t e n of t h e ' d e t o n a t i n g ' e n e r g y of t h e m e t a p h o r a n d h a s linked the creative imagination, as indeed does Warnock, w i t h J a m e s J o y c e ' s t h e o r y of t h e e p i p h a n y - t h e e v e r y d a y y e t t r a n s f o r m i n g d i s c o v e r i e s of significance i n e x p e r i e n c e . T h e m e t a p h o r , w i t h i n t h i s v i e w , h a s e n o r m o u s p o t e n t i a l as it r e v e a l s n e w m e a n i n g s t h r o u g h a r t i c u l a t i o n s of t h e s y m b o l i c c o m p o n e n t s of l a n g u a g e , a n d t h e a r t s s e e n linguistically, w h i l s t r e n e w i n g t h e l a n g u a g e o n w h i c h it d r a w s t h r o u g h t h e o p e n i n g u p of n e w c o n n e c t i o n s a n d t h r o u g h t h e c h a n g i n g s y s t e m of r e l a t i o n s h i p s u p o n w h i c h t h e l a n g u a g e d e p e n d s . T h e r e a r e for m e s m a l l e p i p h a n i e s w i t h i n t h e g o l d f i s h p o e m s . M y o w n e x p e r i e n c e of t h e a r t s is p u n c t u a t e d b y m o m e n t s of a c u t e a n d p o w e r f u l feelings a n d i n s i g h t s . T h e t r a d i t i o n of i n s i g h t a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is c e n t r a l t o w r i t i n g s o n t h e a r t s f r o m earlier c e n t u r i e s t o t h e p r e s e n t d a y a n d t o c o n c e p t i o n s of t h e r a p y a n d t h e r a p e u t i c i n s i g h t a n d v a l u e . A c h i l d p l a y i n g in a n e w w a y or e x p l o r i n g i d e a s t h r o u g h t h e a r t s creates forms w h i c h allow the w o r l d to b e seen in n e w w a y s . As W a r n o c k i d e n t i f i e d i n r e l a t i o n t o S a r t r e ' s v i e w of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n t h e r e can b e n o decision-making, n o morality a n d n o deliberate action witho u t the i n d i v i d u a l ' s ability to imagine that the w o r l d m i g h t b e otherwise. The arts a n d play provide this experience t h r o u g h the a c t i v i t y of p l a y a n d p l a y ' s e x t e n s i o n i n t o t h e a r t s . T h r o u g h t h e a r t s a n d play, t h e n , w e a r e a b l e t o i m a g i n e t h e w o r l d a s o t h e r t h a n w e k n o w it a n d t h r o u g h t h i s artifice t o b e g i n t o e x p l o r e t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of e x p e r i e n c e , t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of c h a n g e a n d o u r i n d i v i d u a l a n d collective potential. A s R i c o e u r a r g u e s 'all s y m b o l s of a r t a n d l a n g u a g e h a v e t h e s a m e r e f e r e n t i a l c l a i m t o r e - m a k e r e a l i t y ' (1991, p . 176). T h i s r e - m a k i n g is a v i t a l f u n c t i o n of p l a y a n d t h e a r t s . It is c o g n i t i o n i n a c t i o n a n d i m p o r t a n t l y p r o v i d e s o p p o r t u n i t i e s for r e c o g n i t i o n , d i s c u s s i o n a n d f u r t h e r activity. I n o t h e r w o r d s c h i l d r e n i n v o l v e d i n p u p p e t p l a y s a n d p a i n t i n g s a n d d r a w i n g s a r e h a v i n g i m p o r t a n t , real a n d s o m e t i m e s v e r y s i g nificant t h o u g h t s a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e w o r l d a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y for t e a c h e r s t h e s e t h o u g h t s c a n b e r e - v i s i t e d , e x t e n d e d a n d reflected u p o n t h r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n , c o m m e n t , r e i n f o r c e m e n t , s h a r i n g a n d e x t e n s i o n . I n t o t a l u t i l i s i n g t h e r a n g e of s t r a t e g i e s t h a t c o n stitute c o m m u n i c a t i v e activity in early years e d u c a t i o n to s u p p o r t learning that occurs through the imagination. R i c o e u r a l s o s t a t e s , 'It is t h r o u g h t h e a n t i c i p a t o r y i m a g i n a t i o n of

48

Teaching Young Children

a c t i n g t h a t I t r y o u t different p o s s i b l e c o u r s e s of a c t i o n a n d t h a t I p l a y i n t h e p r e c i s e s e n s e of t h e w o r d , w i t h p o s s i b l e p r a c t i c e s ' (1991, p . 178). That such events occur in early years education should n o t b e d o u b t e d . T h a t t h e i r full e d u c a t i o n a l p o t e n t i a l is d e v e l o p e d is a n o t h e r matter. B a k h t i n (1986) h a s i d e n t i f i e d this r e n e w i n g a n d r e g e n e r a t i v e p r o c e s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n w i t h t h e n o v e l itself. I n d e e d B a k h t i n a r g u e s t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s u b v e r s i o n a n d r e n e w a l a r e exactly t h o s e t h a t c h a r a c t e r i s e t h e n o v e l i n its u n f o l d i n g h i s t o r i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s . W e r e c o g n i s e t h e n o v e l a s t h e n o v e l t h r o u g h its role as ' s u p e r g e n r e ' , i n o t h e r w o r d s t h r o u g h its ability to s u p e r s e d e p r e v i o u s f o r m s a n d t o r e n e w l a n g u a g e itself. T h e n o v e l t h u s r e n e w s t h e l i t e r a t e c u l t u r e a n d l a n g u a g e a c t i n g t h r o u g h t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . Just a s a m e t a p h o r , initially s t r a n g e , settles a n d b e c o m e s c o m m o n p l a c e it loses its r a d i c a l a n d i m m e d i a t e p o w e r a s it e m b e d s itself i n o u r e x p e r i e n c e a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of t h e w o r l d . A t t h e s a m e t i m e a r a d i c a l w o r k b e c o m e s p a r t of a c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n a n d h e r i t a g e , p a r t of o u r s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e s a n d understandings. T h e s t a n d a r d , v a l u a b l e y e t n o r m a t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of g r o w t h shared w i t h i n t h e d a n c e stand in contrast to the m o r e radical m e t a p h o r of t h e l o n e d a n c e r . T h e r e is a p l a c e for b o t h i n l e a r n i n g i n relation to the arts. A s w i t h t h e visual arts, music a n d d r a m a so w i t h literature. The arts c a n b e s e e n a s t h e ' s u p e r g e n r e s ' of t h e ' l a n g u a g e s ' of t h e arts; b o t h subverting a n d renewing the culture a n d the languages u p o n which they draw. This process reverses the d y n a m i c b y w h i c h the learning of l a n g u a g e a n d skills facilitates t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a s it s u g g e s t s t h e i m a g i n a t i o n c r e a t e s a n d r e n e w s l a n g u a g e . T h i s I w o u l d a r g u e is a s t r u e for t h e i n d i v i d u a l child a s it is for t h e c u l t u r e . T h e c h i l d ' s i m a g i n a t i o n is t h e d y n a m i c b y w h i c h l a n g u a g e is a c q u i r e d a n d l e a r n t . T h i s is s o b e c a u s e t h e i m a g i n a t i o n is a n a p p e t i t i v e i n t e r e s t i n t h e m a k i n g of f o r m ( a n d t h u s m e a n i n g ) . T h e i m a g i n a t i o n is a d e s i r e w h i c h u n d e r p i n s a n d p r o v i d e s t h e o r i g i n s of l e a r n i n g . T h e i m a g i n a t i o n is t h e p r o c e s s at t h e c o r e of t h e a p p e t i t i v e i n t e r e s t i n l a n g u a g e a n d f o r m t h a t s o c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e m o t i v a t e d a n d successful learner. T h i s a p p e t i t i v e i n t e r e s t g r o w s f r o m t h e n u r t u r i n g of t h e c h i l d b y t h e p a r ent, t h e teacher, the e n v i r o n m e n t a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y from the o p p o r t u n i t y to play w i t h form. T h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e s e p r o c e s s e s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s s y s t e m s of u n d e r s t a n d i n g g o e s s o m e w a y t o e x p l a i n i n g t h e e n o r m o u s significance a n d p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s e s o often felt i n t h e p r e s e n c e of w o r k s of art. T h e r e - c a s t i n g a n d r e - f o r m i n g of

The imagination, play and the arts

49

o u r p a t t e r n s of u n d e r s t a n d i n g set i n p l a c e b y t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a c t i n g t h r o u g h t h e m e t a p h o r a n d t h e a r t s a n d a c t i n g as a d y n a m i c of c h a n g e l i n k s w i t h t h e p o w e r of a r t a n d w i t h t h e i n t u i t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of s o m a n y p r a c t i s i n g t e a c h e r s , i n d i v i d u a l s w h o h a v e s e e n a n d felt t h e effects of t h e a r t s u p o n i n d i v i d u a l s . I n t h i s p r o c e s s it is t h e i m a g i n a t i o n w h i c h is t h e d y n a m i c for t h e a r t s a n d p l a y w h i c h a r e b o t h activities t h a t g i v e f o r m t o i d e a s t h a t w e r e c o g n i s e after t h e e v e n t of p r o d u c t i o n a n d e n c o u n t e r . T h e j o y i n s u b version, delight in p u r e form, a n d play with pattern, repetition a n d d i s r u p t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of p h e n o m e n a a s d i v e r s e a s N o n s e n s e P o e t r y , t h e N u r s e r y R h y m e , a n d c h i l d r e n ' s s o n g s a r e a l s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of p l a y i n t h e a r t s . P l a y i n t h i s s e n s e is a v i t a l e l e m e n t of t h e c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s of t h e a r t s ( a n d s c i e n c e s (Storr 1972)). Too m u c h a t t e n t i o n c a n b e placed u p o n significance a n d m e a n i n g . O r rather b y o v e r - e m p h a s i s i n g q u i c k , i m m e d i a t e or s u p e r f i c i a l or s i m p l i s t i c m e a n i n g w e c a n b e a c t i n g a g a i n s t t h e m e a n i n g - m a k i n g p r o c e s s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l . By s e a r c h i n g o u t significance, b y a t t e m p t i n g t o o v e r - v a l u e c a u s a l l i n k s , w e m a y l i m i t t h e v a l u e of t h e ' p l a y ' of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . T h e b a l a n c e b e t w e e n n o n s e n s e a n d s e n s e is a d e l i c a t e o n e . Too m u c h c h a s i n g of m e a n i n g can b e counterproductive. Final m e a n i n g s in the arts d o n o t exist, r a t h e r it is t h e p r o c e s s of m e a n i n g w h i c h is at s t a k e a n d is t h e l o c a t i o n of v a l u e i n t h e a r t s . W e c a n n o t v a l u e t h e i m a g i n a t i o n w i t h o u t valuing N o n s e n s e a n d play too. This h a s b e e n intuitively u n d e r s t o o d b y m a n y involved in early years education. In a n e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m d o m i n a t e d b y sense, causal relationships, rationality a n d results this m a y s e e m p r o b l e m a t i c - e v e n s c a n d a l o u s . It is a tall o r d e r b u t it is vital to the child a n d to art education. K u s p i t , d r a w i n g u p o n t h e w o r k of W i n n i c o t t a n d , I b e l i e v e , i n s u p p o r t of t h e v a l u e s a d v o c a t e d b y W a r n o c k , h a s a r g u e d for t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e ' G o o d - e n o u g h A r t i s t ' , t h a t is a r t i s t s w h o find t h e i r b a s i s for a r t - m a k i n g i n t h e n e e d for m e a n i n g - m a k i n g a n d t h e j o y of f o r m r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e c y n i c a l s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s of t h e p o s t - m o d e r n a r t w o r l d . T h e c h i l d is o f t e n j u s t s u c h a n artist. S o i n m y e x p e r i e n c e is t h e t e a c h e r . Yet s o m u c h of a r t p e d a g o g y is d r i v e n b y t h e m o d e l of t h e successful a r t i s t / e n t r e p r e n e u r r a t h e r t h a n b y a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e c h i l d a n d t h e n a t u r e of t h e c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s a n d i m a g i n a t i o n . In c o n t e m p o r a r y e d u c a t i o n as in c o n t e m p o r a r y art the imagination h a s t e n d e d t o l o s e its integrity, b e c o m i n g l i n k e d w i t h i d e a s t h a t f r o m w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r v i e w of c u r r e n t c u l t u r e a r e criticised a s n a i v e . T h e i m a g i n a t i o n a l o n g w i t h e x p r e s s i o n a p p e a r a s a r e a s of e x p e r i e n c e m a d e d o c i l e a n d t u r n e d i n t o p a s t i c h e s of t h e m s e l v e s b y t h e ' k n o w i n g ' a n d s e l f - c o n s c i o u s u s e of t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s b y a d u l t a r t i s t s .

50

Teaching Young Children

H o w e v e r , t h e c o n c e p t i o n of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a s a p r i m a r y s h a p i n g force c o n s t a n t l y a t play, r e b u k i n g a n d s c a n d a l i s i n g m e a n i n g a n d l a n g u a g e a n d y e t a c t i n g i n t h e s e r v i c e of l a n g u a g e a n d t h e i n t e r e s t s of m e a n i n g gives n e w vitality to the imagination a n d to arts teaching. P a r t of t h e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n i n e d u c a t i o n s h o u l d b e a n active c o m m i t m e n t to the imagination as b o t h a vital h u m a n attribute a n d a vital cultural invention. T h e b a s i s of t h i s n u r t u r i n g of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s of e d u c a t i o n c o u l d b e t h e ' g o o d - e n o u g h ' teacher. T h i s t e a c h e r w o u l d h a v e a w o r k i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e n u r t u r i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a n d of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of play, t h e a r t s a n d t h e i m a g i n a tion as life-enhancing a n d as a n essential h u m a n value, attribute a n d goal.

Issues It h a s b e e n a r g u e d t h a t p l a y (for c h i l d r e n ) s h a r e s characteristics w i t h t h e a r t s (for a d u l t s ) . 1. C o n s i d e r t h e c h i l d at p l a y a n d a n a d u l t i n v o l v e d i n t h e a r t s ( w a t c h i n g a p l a y o r e v e n TV if y o u like). W h a t s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d differences c a n y o u identify? 2. C o n s i d e r a c h i l d ' s o r c h i l d r e n ' s w o r k of a r t d r a w n f r o m y o u r t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e (a d r a w i n g , p a i n t i n g , story, p o e m , v i d e o of a d a n c e o r p l a y ) . W h a t i d e a s a r e b e i n g d e a l t w i t h in t h e w o r k ? W h a t p a r t i c u l a r d i s c o v e r i e s a n d t h o u g h t s might b e o c c u r r i n g ? H o w c o u l d these ideas b e further extended into another art form? 3. C o n s i d e r a n a d u l t w o r k of a r t ( p a i n t i n g , s c u l p t u r e story, p o e m , d a n c e or play) - w h a t ideas are being dealt w i t h in the w o r k ? 4. W h a t t h e m e s , i s s u e s a n d i d e a s c o u l d v a l u a b l y b e e x p l o r e d t h r o u g h the arts w i t h i n y o u r w o r k context? H o w could these b e organised t o fit i n w i t h y o u r c u r r e n t p r o v i s i o n ? 5. H o w c a n t h e l o o p of c o g n i t i o n a n d r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t o c c u r s w i t h i n t h e a r t s b e f u r t h e r d e v e l o p e d in y o u r w o r k c o n t e x t - i.e. h o w c a n t h e v a l u e of t h e a r t s w o r k y o u u n d e r t a k e w i t h c h i l d r e n b e f u r t h e r e x p a n d e d b y u s i n g it a s t h e b a s i s for d i s c u s s i o n a n d f u r t h e r activity?

References Abbs, P. (1987) Living Powers Hove, Falmer Press. Arnheim, R. (1962) The Genesis of a Painting; Picasso's Guernica San Francisco,

The imagination, play and the arts

51

University of California Press. Bachelard, G. in Gaudin, C. (1981) On Poetic Imagination and Reverie Spring Publications. Bakhtin (1986) Rabelais and his World London, Routledge. Eco, U. (1979) The Role of the Reader Oxford, Basil Blackwell. Fuller, P. (1980) Art and Psychoanalysis London, Hogarth Press. Fuller, P. (1985) Images of God London: Chatto & Windus. Greenhalgh, P. (1994) Emotional Growth and Learning. London, Routledge. Hawkins, B. (1991) in Maladjustment and Therapeutic Education Volume 9 No. 2. Kearney, R. (1994) The Wake of Imagination London, Routledge. Kearney, R (1991) Poetics of Imagining London, HarperCollins. Kuspit, D. (1993) Signs of Psyche in Modern and Post-Modern Art Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Maclagan, D. (1989) Fantasy and the Figurative, in A. Gilroy (ed) Pictures at an Exhibition London, Tavistock-Routledge. Milner, M. (1957) On Not Being Able to Paint London, Heinemann Educational. Podro, M. (1987) Depiction and the Golden Calf, in N. Bryson (ed) Visual Theory Oxford, Polity Press. Ricoeur, P. (1991) From Text to Action London, Athlone Press. Storr, A. (1972) Dynamics of Creation London, Fontana/Collins. Storr, A. (1989) Churchill's Black Dog and Other Phenomena of the Mind London, William Collins. Tillich, P. (1996) in K. Stiles (ed) Contemporary Art San Francisco, University of California Press. Warnock, M. (1976) Imagination Oxford, Blackwell. Winnicott, D. (1971) Playing and Reality Harmondsworth, Penguin.

4 Making sense of early mathematics Gill Bottle and Claire

Alfrey

Introduction M a t h e m a t i c s for t h e o r d i n a r y p e r s o n in t h e m o d e r n w o r l d is b e c o m i n g e v e r m o r e c o m p l e x a n d t h e r e is a n e e d t o u s e it i n m a n y c o n t e x t s . T h e m e d i a u s e charts a n d g r a p h s increasingly as a n illustration tool. A k n o w l e d g e of statistics is n e c e s s a r y , for e x a m p l e , t o w o r k o u t w h i c h s c h o o l p e r f o r m s b e s t i n l e a g u e t a b l e s , e s p e c i a l l y if w e a r e t o t a k e i n t o account the ' v a l u e a d d e d ' (the increase in children's scores over a p e r i o d of t i m e in s c h o o l , effected t h r o u g h t h a t s c h o o l ' s t e a c h i n g ) . It is b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t to d e v e l o p t h e p o w e r t o t h i n k m a t h ematically in order to b e able to u n d e r s t a n d n e w situations. In t o d a y ' s t r a n s i e n t j o b m a r k e t life-long l e a r n i n g is crucial. T h e i n c r e a s i n g u s e of c o m p u t e r s m e a n s t h a t t o d a y ' s a d u l t s m a y e n c o u n t e r m a t h e m a t i c s n e v e r e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h e i r s c h o o l life s u c h a s t h e u s e of s p r e a d s h e e t s and data-handling packages. T h e ability t o m a n i p u l a t e n u m b e r s a n d s y m b o l s i n t h e a b s t r a c t is a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t of b e i n g c o m p e t e n t in m a t h e m a t i c s , b u t in t h e d a y t o d a y w o r l d t h e r e is a l s o a n e e d to b e a b l e t o a p p l y m a t h e m a t i c a l k n o w l e d g e to actual situations. Every d a y w e meet problems which n e e d translation into appropriate mathematical operations (Hughes 1986). A n y o n e w h o h a s e x p e r i e n c e of p r e s c h o o l c h i l d r e n , e i t h e r a s a p a r ent, carer or teacher, will appreciate that children from birth o n w a r d s a r e t r y i n g t o m a k e s e n s e of t h e i r w o r l d , t o u n d e r s t a n d w h y a n d h o w things h a p p e n . A n y o n e involved w i t h y o u n g children will b e continu a l l y a m a z e d a t t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s of t h e w o r l d - p a r t of t h i s w o r l d m u s t b e mathematics. Every d a y children are b o m b a r d e d with n e w surprising a n d exciting experiences whilst a t t e m p t i n g to m a k e sense of p r e v i o u s o n e s . T h r o u g h t h i s ' s e n s e - m a k i n g ' p r o c e s s c h i l d r e n c a n 52

Making Sense of Early Mathematics

53

b e c o m e quite c o m p e t e n t m a t h e m a t i c i a n s long before they e v e n enter school. T h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e i l l u s t r a t e s t h e s o r t of k n o w l e d g e t h a t a y o u n g c h i l d m a y d e v e l o p q u i t e n a t u r a l l y w h i l e at p l a y . A c h i l d a g e d 11 m o n t h s w a s p l a y i n g w i t h l a r g e w o o d e n b u i l d i n g c u b e s . T h e r e w e r e six b r i c k s i n e a c h of f o u r c o l o u r s . First s h e a r r a n g e d t h e y e l l o w a n d g r e e n c u b e s a l t e r n a t e l y i n a circular p a t t e r n a r o u n d her. T h e n s h e s p e n t s o m e m i n u t e s l o o k i n g at t h e p a t t e r n t h a t s h e h a d m a d e . N e x t s h e c o l l e c t e d all of t h e g r e e n c u b e s a n d p u t t h e m t o g e t h e r o n a c h a i r a n d finally s h e c o l l e c t e d all of t h e y e l l o w o n e s t o g e t h e r a n d p u t t h e m t o o n e s i d e o n t h e floor. T h e child h a d d e m o n s t r a t e d that she w a s able to m a k e a n d r e c o g n i s e a p a t t e r n a n d s o r t b l o c k s i n t o s e t s u s i n g c o l o u r a s a criter i o n . S h e w a s a l r e a d y p a t t e r n s p o t t i n g a n d l o o k i n g for r u l e s , s o m e t h i n g w h i c h is f u n d a m e n t a l t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of m a t h e m a t i c a l understanding. Children are s u r r o u n d e d by mathematics. Number, measure, shape a n d s p a c e c o n c e p t s a r e n o t t h e sole d o m a i n of s c h o o l a n d t h e N a t i o n a l C u r r i c u l u m . O u r n u m b e r s y s t e m is o n e c h i l d r e n w i l l s o o n g r o w familiar w i t h , w h e t h e r it b e t h r o u g h i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h n u m b e r i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , c o u n t i n g u p a n d d o w n stairs, s i n g i n g n u m b e r r h y m e s o r being told h o w m a n y sweets they can have. The environment in which c h i l d r e n d e v e l o p is n u m b e r rich. T h e f o l l o w i n g c o n v e r s a t i o n t o o k p l a c e i n a c h a n g i n g a r e a in a l a r g e s h o p b e t w e e n a m o t h e r a n d h e r child, a g e d almost three; each cubicle w a s n u m b e r e d 1 t o 15. T h e m o t h e r h a d a ticket s a y i n g w h a t n u m ber cubicle s h e s h o u l d g o to: C:

W h e r e are w e going?

M : To n u m b e r 11, it tells m e w h e r e o n m y ticket. C:

A o n e a n d a o n e ( l o o k i n g at ticket) l o o k it's g o t t h a t t h e r e , ( p o i n t i n g a t t h e n u m b e r 11 c u b i c l e ) , t h e y ' v e all g o t n u m b e r s , look. ( T h e c h i l d t h e n s t a r t s t o c o u n t all in order.) D o e s t h e l a d y h a v e t i c k e t s for all t h e n u m b e r s ?

M : Yes, t o tell p e o p l e w h i c h c u b i c l e t o g o t o . T h e o b l i g i n g s h o p a s s i s t a n t a t t h i s p o i n t s h o w e d t h e c h i l d s o m e of t h e other tickets a n d t he child w e n t to m a t c h t h e m a b o v e t h e cubicles a l l o w i n g t h e m o t h e r t o t r y o n c l o t h e s in p e a c e ! T h e c h i l d w a s d e m o n s t r a t i n g a g o o d a w a r e n e s s of n u m b e r k n o w l e d g e i n t h a t h e w a s a b l e t o m a t c h t h e n u m b e r s o n t h e tickets t o t h e n u m b e r s o n t h e c u b i c l e s . H e realised that t h e y w e r e in ascending numerical order, a n exciting

54

Teaching Young Children

d i s c o v e r y w h i c h reinforced t h e c h i l d ' s r e c o g n i t i o n of o r d i n a l n u m b e r . Y o u n g c h i l d r e n s e e m t o h a v e a n i n n a t e interest in n u m b e r a n d w i l l s p o n t a n e o u s l y c o u n t i n t h e i r effort to t r y to o r d e r t h e i r t h o u g h t s a n d m a k e s e n s e of a g r o u p of objects. T h e y d e m o n s t r a t e a d e s i r e t o u n d e r s t a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l c o n c e p t s a n d t o e x p l o r e t h e m i n t h e i r q u e s t for c o m p r e h e n s i o n . It is t h e logic a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t h i s p r o c e s s w h i c h is i m p r e s s i v e a n d c a n often b e u n d e r - e s t i m a t e d . M e a n w h i l e , s c h o o l m a t h e m a t i c s is often ' c o n t e x t free' ( H u g h e s 1986, p . 45) a n d a l t h o u g h t h e m a t h e m a t i c s i n v o l v e d c a n b e a p p l i e d t o a v a r i e t y of s i t u a t i o n s t h a t m a k e ' h u m a n s e n s e ' ( D o n a l d s o n 1978) t o t h e c h i l d , all t o o f r e q u e n t l y t h i s is n o t t h e case. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e s u m , 2 1 = 1, c o u l d b e p u t in c o n t e x t b y a s k i n g 'If I h a v e 2 s w e e t s a n d I e a t 1, h o w m a n y h a v e I g o t left?' T h e c h a r a c t e r of s c h o o l m a t h e m a t i c s , h o w e v e r , is t h a t it is a c o d e w i t h n o c o n t e x t , w r i t t e n i n s y m b o l s , w h i c h b e c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g l y difficult. W h a t s t a r t s i n a s i m p l e c o n c r e t e f o r m preschool, becomes something m u c h m o r e complex, available only to t h o s e w h o h a v e l e a r n t t o c r a c k t h e c o d e . H u g h e s (1986) a n d A t k i n s o n (1992) e m p h a s i s e differences b e t w e e n i n f o r m a l p r e s c h o o l m a t h e m a t ics a n d a b s t r a c t , d e c o n t e x t u a l i s e d , f o r m a l s c h o o l m a t h e m a t i c s . It is i m p o r t a n t t h a t c h i l d r e n c o m e t o g r i p s w i t h t h e f o r m a l m a t h e m a t i c s . H o w e v e r , it w o u l d b e w r o n g t o t h i n k t h a t i n f o r m a l m a t h e m a t i c s n e c e s s a r i l y h a s less v a l u e t h a n s c h o o l m a t h e m a t i c s . M a n y c u l t u r e s h a v e s y s t e m s of w h a t is r e c o g n i s a b l y m a t h e m a t i c s b u t is t o t a l l y u n l i k e s c h o o l m a t h e m a t i c s a s w e k n o w it, y e t t h e s e s y s t e m s s e r v e t h e n e e d s of t h e c u l t u r e s i n w h i c h t h e y exist ( A s c h e r 1991; Z a s l a v s k y 1973). M a n y c u r r e n t e d u c a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e a r e a of m a t h e m a t i c s are a reaction to the idea that English p r i m a r y schools are not stretchi n g a n d c h a l l e n g i n g p u p i l s . C u r r e n t t e a c h i n g m e t h o d s h a v e b e e n criticised b e c a u s e t h e y lack p a c e a n d r i g o u r . It is i m p o r t a n t t h a t w e r e a l i s e t h a t w h i l e t h e n o t i o n of a less d e m a n d i n g s c h o o l p r o g r a m m e m i g h t h a v e a p p e a r e d to gain s o m e respectability from t h e ' b o t t o m - u p ' r a t h e r t h a n t h e ' t o p - d o w n ' a p p r o a c h a d v o c a t e d b y Cockcroft (1982) i n recent years, this approach in the early years does not excuse low e x p e c t a t i o n s of a n y child. P i a g e t i a n n o t i o n s t h a t c h i l d r e n c a n n o t b e e d u c a t e d b e y o n d t h e i r o w n level of d e v e l o p m e n t d o e s n o t w a r r a n t failing t o p r o v i d e t h e m w i t h t h e c h a l l e n g e t h a t m o v e s t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t o n a n d cross-cultural a n d other research p r o v i d e s chall e n g e s t o P i a g e t i a n i d e a s of i m m u t a b l e s t a g e s i n c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p ment. A t t e m p t s t o i m p r o v e t h e efficiency of p r i m a r y e d u c a t i o n i n c l u d e t h e N a t i o n a l L i t e r a c y a n d t h e N a t i o n a l N u m e r a c y Projects. T h e N u m e r a c y

Making Sense of Early Mathematics

55

Project g i v e s a f r a m e w o r k for p l a n n i n g t h e m a t h e m a t i c s c u r r i c u l u m o n a t e r m l y a n d w e e k l y b a s i s a n d a l s o g i v e s g u i d a n c e for r u n n i n g effective l e s s o n s . T h e s e c l e a r l y a r e v e r y p o s i t i v e a i m s a n d t h e y m i g h t b e a n i n s t r u m e n t for l e a d i n g t h e t e a c h e r t o m a k e b e t t e r u s e of t e c h n i cal k n o w l e d g e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d o n e of t h e r e a s o n s w h y s o m e t e a c h e r s d o n o t t e a c h effectively is t h e i r t e n d e n c y n o t t o t h i n k i n b r o a d a n d critical t e r m s a b o u t t h e i r t e a c h i n g b u t s i m p l y t o g e t o n w i t h w h a t t h e y s e e a s t h e 'job i n h a n d ' . T h e r e is a d a n g e r t h a t s u c h t e a c h e r s m i g h t c o m e to see the task n o longer as progressing unimaginatively t h r o u g h a p u b l i s h e d m a t h e m a t i c s scheme but as progressing unimaginatively t h r o u g h t h e t e r m l y objectives of t h e N a t i o n a l N u m e r a c y Project. Since t h e s e objectives a r e , q u i t e rightly, e x p r e s s e d i n f o r m a l t e r m s t h e r e s u l t c o u l d b e y e t f u r t h e r n e g l e c t of c h i l d r e n ' s p r e - e x i s t i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g ( N a t i o n a l L i t e r a c y a n d N u m e r a c y Project 1997). I n t h e l i g h t of r e c e n t r e s e a r c h t h a t e x p l o r e s t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e classr o o m m a y b e u n s u c c e s s f u l in p a c i n g c h i l d r e n ' s l e a r n i n g it is w o r t h a s k i n g w h e t h e r p a r e n t s a t h o m e m i g h t b e m o r e successful. A n i m p o r t a n t i s s u e t o e x p l o r e is t h a t of w h e t h e r m a n y p a r e n t s m i g h t b e a b l e t o give their children a better mathematical education d u r i n g the early years t h a n c a n b e p r o v i d e d b y early childhood educators in the r a n g e of p r e s c h o o l p r o v i s i o n . T h e r e is s o m e a n e c d o t a l e v i d e n c e t h a t n u r s e r i e s a r e i n c e r t a i n c a s e s p r o d u c i n g n o n - c o n t e x t u a l w o r k s h e e t s of a n a b s t r a c t n a t u r e , m o d e l l e d o n t h e least i m a g i n a t i v e p r a c t i c e i n p r i m a r y s c h o o l s a n d d e f i n i t e l y n o t of a s t a n d a r d t h a t TTA (Teacher T r a i n i n g A g e n c y ) a n d O f s t e d (Office for S t a n d a r d s i n E d u c a t i o n ) w o u l d find a c c e p t a b l e . T h i s c a n o n l y a d d t o t h e p r o b l e m s of t h e ' g a p ' b e t w e e n h o m e a n d school mathematics. T h i s c h a p t e r l o o k s a t t w o a s p e c t s of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h o m e a n d s c h o o l i n e a r l y m a t h e m a t i c s e d u c a t i o n . O n e is t h e a c k n o w l e d g e d w e a k n e s s i n t h e failure of s o m e s c h o o l s t o m a k e g o o d u s e of t h e c o n tribution that the h o m e h a s m a d e to preschool learning. A further issue concerns t h e w a y s in w h i c h schools m i g h t breach the g a p b e t w e e n t h e i n f o r m a l m a t h e m a t i c s e x p e r i e n c e of h o m e a n d p r e s c h o o l a n d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e f o r m a l m a t h e m a t i c s c u r r i c u l u m i n w a y s w h i c h will m a k e sense to s u c h y o u n g learners. Finally w e question w h e t h e r r e c e n t i n i t i a t i v e s , s u c h as t h e Desirable Outcomes ( S C A A 1996), b a s e l i n e a s s e s s m e n t a n d t h e N u m e r a c y Project, w i l l b e beneficial i n addressing those t w o key issues.

Preschool mathematics Evidence a b o u n d s that very y o u n g children m a y h a v e

extensive

56

Teaching Young Children

m a t h e m a t i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g , u s u a l l y of a n i n f o r m a l k i n d . H u g h e s (1986 e s p . p p . 24-36) g i v e s m a n y e x a m p l e s of p r e s c h o o l m a t h e m a t i cal abilities. In o n e e x p e r i m e n t 83 p e r c e n t of h i s s a m p l e w e r e a b l e t o solve small-number addition and subtraction problems connected w i t h c u b e s b e i n g p l a c e d i n o r r e m o v e d f r o m a b o x i n front of t h e m . A t k i n s o n (1992) r e p o r t s o n t h e successful c l a s s r o o m a p p l i c a t i o n of insights given b y H u g h e s . W h e n H u g h e s asked children exactly the same small-number addition a n d subtraction problems but without a n y p r a c t i c a l c o n t e x t , t h e s u c c e s s r a t e fell from 8 3 p e r c e n t t o 15 p e r cent. C h i l d r e n w i l l often s h o w a w i l l i n g n e s s t o g o b e y o n d i n f o r m a l p r a c tical skills a n d m a y a t t e m p t t o f a t h o m o u t t h e intricacies of o u r n u m b e r s y s t e m . F o r e x a m p l e a c h i l d a g e d 3.1 y e a r s w h o w o u l d u s u a l l y c o u n t correctly f r o m 1 t o 10 c o u n t e d o n ' e l e v e n , t w e l v e , t h i r t e e n , f o u r t e e n , F I V E T E E N , sixteen, s e v e n t e e n , e i g h t e e n , n i n e t e e n , Z E R O T E E N ' . T h e c h i l d h a s clearly s p o t t e d s o m e p a t t e r n i n t h e n u m b e r s a n d is t r y i n g t o e x t e n d it. U n s u r p r i s i n g l y h e h a s failed t o g u e s s h o w w e c o p e w i t h t h e n u m b e r w r i t t e n a s 20 b u t it s h o w s t h a t h e d o e s h a v e a g o o d g r a s p of m a n y m a t h e m a t i c a l i d e a s . By t h e t i m e c h i l d r e n r e a c h s c h o o l f o r m a l abilities m a y b e w e l l d e v e l o p e d . A u b r e y (1993 a n d 1994) r e p o r t s o n s t u d i e s of c h i l d r e n i n t h e r e c e p t i o n class ( u s u a l l y a g e d four a n d five y e a r s ) a n d c o n c l u d e s a m o n g other things that 'The high attaining children were well t o w a r d s m a s t e r y of level 1 of t h e N a t i o n a l C u r r i c u l u m M a t h e m a t i c s A t t a i n m e n t Target 2 for N u m b e r o n s c h o o l entry. T h e l o w a t t a i n i n g c h i l d r e n b r o u g h t i n t o s c h o o l a r a n g e of i n f o r m a l c o m p e t e n c i e s a n d a less s t a b l e c o n v e n t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e ' (1993, p . 39). I n o t h e r w o r d s , s o m e c h i l d r e n e n t e r s c h o o l a l r e a d y a h e a d of e x p e c t a t i o n s , w h i l e o t h e r s a r e a l o n g w a y b e h i n d , p r e s u m a b l y l a r g e l y a s a r e s u l t of t h e i r different preschool experiences. E a r l y y e a r s s c h o o l m a t h e m a t i c s differs n o t o n l y f r o m t h e m a t h e m a t i c s of h o m e b u t a l s o f r o m m a t h e m a t i c s t h a t t h e c h i l d w i l l e n c o u n t e r l a t e r i n e d u c a t i o n a n d i n a d u l t life. I n o u r society f o r m a l s c h o o l m a t h e m a t i c s is definitely i m p o r t a n t ; b u t t h i s d o e s n o t necessarily m e a n that infant school m a t h e m a t i c s h a s a n intrinsic v a l u e of its o w n . Tall (1991, e s p . p . 20) s t r e s s e s t h a t t h e m a t h e m a t i c s of h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n is q u i t e a different t h i n g f r o m t h e m a t h e m a t i c s of t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l . T h e m a t h e m a t i c s of t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l clearly h a s f e w s i m i l a r i t i e s w i t h t h e m a t h e m a t i c s of t h e e a r l y y e a r s class. A n i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n is h o w w e l l t h e e a r l y y e a r s c l a s s r o o m enables children to take w h a t they will n e e d from s e c o n d a ry a n d h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n i n o r d e r t o m e e t t h e d e m a n d s of society. G i r l i n g

Making sense of early mathematics

57

(1977) a n d P l u n k e t t (1979) d r e w a t t e n t i o n to t h e i n f o r m a l i t y of m a t h ematics actually u s e d in society a n d questioned w h e t h e r the formalities of s c h o o l w e r e u s e f u l p r e p a r a t i o n for e v e r y d a y life. D u r i n g t h e i n t e r v e n i n g 20 y e a r s t h i s d e b a t e h a s m a d e little h e a d w a y i n political a n d p u b l i c circles. A n y loss of c o m p l a c e n c y a b o u t t h e w a y s i n w h i c h e a r l y m a t h e m a t i c s is t a u g h t i n s c h o o l s h o u l d n o t l e a d u s i n t o d e e p e r c o m p l a c e n c y a b o u t w h a t is t a u g h t a n d w h e t h e r t h i s is t h e b e s t o r t h e only route. It is g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d t h a t s c h o o l m a t h e m a t i c s fails t o b u i l d u p o n t h e c h i l d r e n ' s p r i o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g . It is t h e r e f o r e w o r t h t a k i n g a serio u s l o o k a t w h e t h e r t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of t h e h o m e m a y b e m o r e u s e ful t h a n t h a t of t h e c l a s s r o o m . T h e e a r l y b e g i n n i n g s of n u m b e r r e c o g n i t i o n a n d s e q u e n c e d e v e l o p i n t h e first f e w y e a r s of life t o a p o s i t i o n w h e r e c h i l d r e n , n o w familiar w i t h t h e n u m b e r s e q u e n c e a n d t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s , m a y p l a y w i t h n u m b e r s to try to solve problems. In t h e following e x a m p l e a child a g e d f o u r y e a r s w a s e n g a g e d in a c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h h i s g r a n d m o t h e r at a f a m i l y g a t h e r i n g . T h e y w e r e d i s c u s s i n g b i r t h d a y s : G: H o w o l d a r e y o u ? C: I a m f o u r a n d I w i l l b e five n e x t , a n d after t h a t I will b e six a n d then seven. G: W h a t w i l l y o u b e after t h a t ? C: I d o n ' t k n o w . I k n o w I'll c o u n t o n e , t w o , t h r e e , four, five, six, s e v e n , e i g h t . Yes e i g h t . G: A n d t h e n ? C: N i n e , t h e n t e n . I w i l l b e b i g t h e n . G: W h a t w i l l y o u b e after t e n ? C: I'll c o u n t ( c o u n t s to e l e v e n ) E l e v e n I w i l l b e e l e v e n . A n d eleven w h a t will I be then?

after

G: D o n ' t y o u k n o w ? C: N o , y o u tell m e . G: P e r h a p s y o u w i l l b e 42? C: N o t h a t ' s t o o b i g . I'll c o u n t ( c o u n t s to t w e l v e ) . To j o i n i n t h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n t h e c h i l d n e e d e d to h a v e g a i n e d a g o o d g r a s p of m a n y m a t h e m a t i c a l c o n c e p t s . H e n e e d e d a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of logic, r u l e s , o r d i n a l n a t u r e of n u m b e r (he k n e w t h a t 42 w a s t o o b i g ) , p a t t e r n of n u m b e r , a s c e n d i n g o r d e r of n u m b e r a n d m a g n i t u d e . H e h a d d e v e l o p e d t h e ability t o t h i n k a b o u t n u m b e r in t h e a b s t r a c t , to e n g a g e

Teaching Young Children

58

in mental manipulation, a n d to recognise something about larger n u m b e r s b e i n g i n a fixed o r d e r . Given such evidence that y o u n g children can come to grips w i t h the f o u n d a t i o n s of n u m b e r , it is i m p o r t a n t t o h a r n e s s t h i s e a r l y m a t h e m a t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d u s e it t o d e v e l o p t h e h i g h e r c o g n i t i v e skills n e c e s s a r y for t h e m a t h e m a t i c s of t h e c l a s s r o o m . A n u m b e r of r e s e a r c h studies suggest that children d o not transfer the k n o w l e d g e that they h a v e learned informally to their school mathematics learning (Atkins o n 1992; H u g h e s 1986; N u n e s a n d B r y a n t 1996). T h e link b e t w e e n h o m e a n d school mathematics m a y not be m a d e b y m a n y children u n l e s s specific h e l p is g i v e n t o p e r c e i v e s u c h c o n n e c t i o n s . A c h i l d (3 y e a r s 10 m o n t h s ) a n d h e r m o t h e r a r e p l a y i n g w i t h a t o y g a r a g e , t h e r e a r e four s p a c e s for cars: M: You've got t w o cars in y o u r garage, h o w m a n y m o r e can y o u p u t in? C:

Two.

D e s p i t e b e i n g a b l e to u n d e r s t a n d a n d a n s w e r t h i s a d d i t i o n p r o b l e m in a concrete context the child m a y h a v e problems converting this u n d e r s t a n d i n g t o t h e f o r m a l s y m b o l i s m of a d d i t i o n . A u b r e y (1997, p . 20) a m o n g s t o t h e r s d o c u m e n t this ' g a p ' . But w h y d o e s t h e ' g a p ' occur?

Mathematical knowledge - the 'gap' between home and school T h e first i s s u e is t h a t of i d e n t i f y i n g t h e l i n k b e t w e e n w h a t c h i l d r e n k n o w a n d w h a t w e a r e t r y i n g t o t e a c h . T h i s c a n b e a p r o b l e m b o t h for t h e c h i l d r e n a n d t h e i r t e a c h e r s . I n fact in a r e c e n t s t u d y it w a s n o t e d t h a t ' t e a c h e r s s e e m e d q u i t e u n a w a r e of t h e rich, i n f o r m a l k n o w l e d g e b r o u g h t i n t o s c h o o l ' ( A u b r e y et al 1997, p . 85). H u g h e s (1986) e m p h a sises t h a t it is i m p o r t a n t for t e a c h e r s t o h e l p c h i l d r e n t o w a r d s t h i s l i n k b y u s i n g e x a m p l e s of ' m a t h e m a t i c a l m e t a p h o r s ' ( p . 173) f r o m t h e child's experience to u n d e r p i n mathematical ideas. Basing m a t h e m a t ics o n c h i l d r e n ' s p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s e e m s t o m a k e s e n s e , b u t it is n e c e s s a r y t o k e e p in m i n d t h e l o n g t e r m m a t h e m a t i c a l l e a r n i n g o u t comes. However, such informal mathematics m a y not be compatible w i t h t h e e x t e n d e d d e v e l o p m e n t of m a t h e m a t i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d it is i m p o r t a n t t o a p p r e c i a t e t h a t n o t all m a t h e m a t i c a l l y r e l a t e d p r e s c h o o l e x p e r i e n c e s a r e n e c e s s a r i l y beneficial for c h i l d r e n i n t h e i r later 'school m a t h e m a t i c i a n ' days. M a n y i n c o m p a t i b i l i t i e s a r e c e n t r e d a r o u n d t h e i s s u e of l a n g u a g e .

Making sense of early mathematics

59

W a l k e r d i n e (1988, p p . 19-27) s u g g e s t s t h a t n o t all of t h e m a t h e m a t i c s a c h i l d h e a r s a n d u s e s a t p r e s c h o o l is u s e f u l o r correct. S h e d i s c u s s e s h o w w o r d s s u c h as ' m o r e ' h a v e m e a n i n g s in the h o m e , especially in r e l a t i o n t o t h e c o n s u m p t i o n of food, w h i c h a r e i m p o r t a n t i n t h e m s e l v e s b u t w h i c h a r e q u i t e u n r e l a t e d t o t h e u s e of ' m o r e ' r e q u i r e d i n s c h o o l m a t h e m a t i c s . F o r e x a m p l e if a c h i l d a s k s for m o r e c h i p s , t h e y w i l l p r o b a b l y b e g i v e n l e s s t h a n t h e y w e r e g i v e n t h e first t i m e . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e of t h i s w o u l d b e t h e n o t i o n of a ' h a l f , w h i c h is o f t e n u s e d i n e v e r y d a y s i t u a t i o n s t o tell a c h i l d t o c u t a n object i n t o t w o r a t h e r t h a n i n t o t w o e q u a l p a r t s . A s H u g h e s (1986) a n d A t k i n s o n (1992) s u g g e s t , m u c h of t h e l a n g u a g e c h i l d r e n h e a r u s e d b y a d u l t s is a n i n f o r m a l u s a g e of m a t h e m a t i c a l t e r m s , for e x a m p l e ' w a i t a m i n u t e ' d o e s n o t r e a l l y m e a n a m i n u t e , m o r e a s h o r t s p a c e of t i m e . A n o t h e r p r o b l e m specific t o p r e s c h o o l a n d s c h o o l m a t h e m a t i c s is t h a t of t h e t e c h n i c a l l a n g u a g e . M a n y w o r d s s u c h a s r e l a t i o n , o d d a n d t a b l e all h a v e m a t h e m a t i c a l m e a n i n g s totally unrelated to t h e children's e x p e r i e n c e of t h e m p r i o r t o s c h o o l m a t h s . T h i s ' m a t h e m a t i c a l u s a g e w h i c h is v e r y specific . . . n e e d s t o b e m a d e clear t o p u p i l s ' ( O r t o n 1992, p . 130). A f u r t h e r i s s u e w h i c h m a y c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e ' g a p ' is t h a t of p r o b l e m s o l v i n g . It s e e m s i n e x p l i c a b l e t h a t w h i l e c h i l d r e n ' s e a r l y m a t h e m a t i c s is a b o u t p r o b l e m s o l v i n g , later o n p r o b l e m s o l v i n g b e c o m e s a difficulty i n itself. It m a y b e t h a t c h i l d r e n l o s e t h e ability t o d o t h i s , t h a t for s o m e r e a s o n t h e y d o n o t p r o g r e s s i n t h i s field, t h a t t h e p r o b l e m s that w e set t h e m d o n o t m a k e sense to them, that the l a n g u a g e of m a t h e m a t i c s i n s c h o o l is u n f a m i l i a r , or a c o m b i n a t i o n of t h e s e . T h e p r o b l e m m a y b e that the children are unable to m a t c h u p formal notat i o n w i t h i n f o r m a l w o r k i n g o u t . C h i l d r e n often h a v e difficulty w o r k i n g o u t w h a t t h e f o r m a l n o t a t i o n of a p r o b l e m m i g h t b e . F o r e x a m p l e a c h i l d e n g a g e d i n a p r o b l e m m a y a s k t h i n g s s u c h a s 'Is it a d d ? ' o r ' W h i c h o n e of t h e s e n u m b e r s d o I t a k e a w a y ? ' It w o u l d a p p e a r t h e n i m p o r t a n t for t e a c h e r s t o t h i n k a b o u t h o w s u c h q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d b e a n s w e r e d a n d w h a t action they need to take. Published m a t h e m a t i c s schemes are u s e d in m a n y schools t o d a y a n d t h e y c a n b e u s e f u l i n s u p p l y i n g a s t r u c t u r e for l e a r n i n g m a t h e m a t i c s . T e a c h e r s , h o w e v e r , s h o u l d n o t a l l o w t h e a m o u n t of m a t e r i a l p u b l i s h e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a m o u n t of t i m e a c h i l d s p e n d s o n e a c h t o p i c a s t h i s m a y stifle a c h i l d ' s d e v e l o p m e n t a n d s l o w d o w n p r o g r e s s . A n o v e r - r e l i a n c e o n p u b l i s h e d m a t h s s c h e m e s m e a n s t h a t skills a r e often p r a c t i s e d i n i s o l a t i o n . H u g h e s d i s c o v e r e d t h a t : ' W r i t t e n c a l c u l a t i o n s often f o r m e d t h e m a i n e l e m e n t i n m a t h e m a t i c s w o r k a n d in s o m e s c h o o l s t h e s o l e a i m s e e m e d t o b e for t h e c h i l d r e n t o r e a c h a

60

Teaching Young Children

s t a n d a r d of efficiency i n a b s t r a c t c a l c u l a t i o n s ' ( H u g h e s 1986, p . 90). A s l o n g a g o a s t h e e a r l y 1980s, H . M . I n s p e c t o r s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t m o s t first s c h o o l s c o n c e n t r a t e d o n b a s i c skills b u t n o t i m e w a s s p e n t in o n e to one situations w h e r e teachers a n d children could e n g a g e in h i g h q u a l i t y d i s c u s s i o n a n d t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e c h i l d r e n ' s t h o u g h t p r o c e s s e s (Cockcroft 1982). T e a c h i n g w a s often l i m i t e d t o w h a t t h e c h i l d n e e d s t o k n o w t o c o m p l e t e t h e g i v e n p a g e of t h e s c h e m e r a t h e r t h a n w h e t h e r t h e y u n d e r s t a n d t h e c o n c e p t s i n v o l v e d . T h e r e is a d a n g e r t h a t m a t h e m a t i c s i n s c h o o l c a n e m p h a s i s e o n l y t h e facts t o b e l e a r n e d a n d t h e skills t o b e p r a c t i s e d . H u g h e s b e l i e v e s t h a t ' p r o f i c i e n c y in b a s i c n u m b e r is n o t e n o u g h ' ( H u g h e s 1986, p . 10 ). O v e r p r a c t i s i n g of skills c a n l e a d t o m a t h e m a t i c a l m y s t e r y a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h o s e skills t a u g h t a n d t h e ability to u s e t h e m t o s o l v e p r o b l e m s m a y b e lost. T h e r e is t h e r e f o r e a d e f i n i t e n e e d t o t e a c h children in a w a y that b o t h questions their ideas a n d encourages t h e m t o a p p l y t h e i r m a t h e m a t i c s i n a w a y t h a t is m e a n i n g f u l to t h e m s u c h a s i n a d a t a collection t a s k o r w o r k i n g o u t i n g r e d i e n t s for c o o k i n g .

Possible solutions for filling the 'gap' T h e possible p r o b l e m s that children m a y encounter in their early schooling are m a n y a n d complex a n d w e h a v e only just scratched the s u r f a c e of s o m e of t h e m . I n t h i s s e c t i o n w e w i l l d r a w o n t h a t w h i c h h a s b e e n d i s c u s s e d a b o v e a n d t o t r y t o a n a l y s e h o w s o m e of t h e p r o b l e m s in o u r teaching m a y b e a d d r e s s e d practically in the classroom. It is w i d e l y k n o w n t h a t Britain is n o t k e e p i n g u p w i t h o t h e r c o u n tries i n i m p r o v i n g t h e s t a n d a r d of m a t h e m a t i c s e d u c a t i o n for o u r y o u n g p e o p l e . N o t s u r p r i s i n g l y therefore, t h e r e h a s b e e n a b a c k l a s h t o t h e ' n e w m e t h o d s ' of t h e 1960s a n d 1970s, w i t h t h e G o v e r n m e n t a n d m a n y p a r e n t s n o w feeling t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l is b e s t . H o w e v e r , t h e q u e s t i o n is w i l l t h e d r i v e for l>ack t o b a s i c s ' a p p r o a c h , t h a t is t e a c h i n g r i g i d m e t h o d s of c a l c u l a t i o n , m e e t c h i l d r e n ' s n e e d s i n t o d a y ' s w o r l d ? After all, as d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , o n e of t h i n g s t h a t h a s b e e n b l a m e d for c h i l d r e n ' s lack of p r o g r e s s is t h e o v e r - p r a c t i s i n g of b a s i c skills. If w e l o o k b a c k w e d i s c o v e r t h a t n e i t h e r ' b a c k t o b a s i c s ' n o r ' p r o g r e s s i v i s m ' h a v e b e e n e n t i r e l y successful in t h e p a s t . It is t h e r e f o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a t w e a n a l y s e b o t h m e t h o d s in o r d e r to utilise t h e s u c cessful a t t r i b u t e s of each. N e i t h e r the 'back to basics' fundamentalists n o r the ' p l a y w a y ' progressives w e r e able t h r o u g h their m e t h o d alone to generate t h e sorts of m a t h e m a t i c a l thinking in children that w o u l d offer confidence a n d

Making sense of early mathematics

61

u n d e r s t a n d i n g . Research n o w suggests that to b e effective the teacher s h o u l d utilise the w a y s children t h e m s e l v e s i m p o s e p a t t e r n a n d struct u r e o n w h a t they learn. (Fisher 1990, p . 212) T h e a r g u m e n t b e t w e e n ' B a c k t o b a s i c s ' a n d t h e i m p o r t a n c e of c o n c r e t e e x p e r i e n c e n e e d s t o b e s e r i o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d . Is it s e n s i b l e to l o o k at these t w o a r g u m e n t s in opposition? O n their o w n neither gives the full p i c t u r e . B o t h s e e m t o b e i m p o r t a n t a n d it c o u l d b e a r g u e d t h a t o n e s u p p o r t s t h e other. It is o b v i o u s l y d e s i r a b l e for c h i l d r e n t o b e freed from the n e e d to u s e concrete a p p a r a t u s in order to d e v e l o p the higher c o g n i t i v e skills n e c e s s a r y for f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t . H o w e v e r , it s e e m s that concrete experiences a n d mathematics p u t into meaningful contexts u n d e r p i n m u c h mathematical u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d lay the foundations on w h i c h to build. Meaningful experiences should not only be c o n f i n e d t o t h e e a r l y m a t h e m a t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s of c h i l d r e n , a s t h e y a l s o a p p e a r t o f o r m t h e ' s c a f f o l d i n g ' t h a t h o l d s later c o n c e p t s t o g e t h e r . P r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e , s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e n o t b e i g n o r e d as t h e c h i l d r e n p r o g r e s s f r o m t h e m i n t o t h e u s e of m o r e a b s t r a c t s y m b o l i s m a n d form a l n o t a t i o n . A l t h o u g h t h i s a s p e c t of l e a r n i n g is crucial s o t o o is a s o u n d b a s i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t a u g h t n u m b e r facts. I n t h e i r d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t p r i m a r y s c h o o l p r a c t i c e , A l e x a n d e r et al s u g g e s t e d , ' t h e r e is a p e r s i s t e n t a n d d a m a g i n g belief t h a t p u p i l s should never b e told things, only asked questions' (Alexander, Rose a n d W o o d h e a d 1992, p . 31). M a t h e m a t i c s is a b o u t c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d t h e s y m b o l i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of i d e a s . T h i s b e i n g t h e c a s e , c h i l d r e n n e e d to u n d e r s t a n d the symbols w h i c h can b e directly t a u g h t in the s a m e w a y a s s p e l l i n g a n d letter f o r m a t i o n . Successful m a t h e m a t i c s t e a c h i n g n e e d s t o b e i n t e r a c t i v e a n d t o involve the children in thinking a n d d o i n g so that they are not merely passive onlookers b u t are enthusiastic participants. The w o r k presented to the children m u s t allow t h e m to question ideas. 'Research e v i d e n c e d e m o n s t r a t e s v e r y clearly t h a t t h e level of c o g n i t i v e c h a l l e n g e p r o v i d e d b y t h e t e a c h e r is a significant factor i n p e r f o r m a n c e ' ( A l e x a n d e r , R o s e a n d W o o d h e a d 1992, p . 21). Getting the children to analyse their o w n thinking a n d intuitive m e t h o d s of c a l c u l a t i o n is o n e w a y t o c h a l l e n g e t h e i r t h i n k i n g . So a l t h o u g h t h e y m a y w r i t e 32 - 2 7 = 5, e x a m p l e s of t h e m e t h o d of calc u l a t i n g t h e a n s w e r in t h e i r h e a d m a y vary. T h e y m i g h t t h i n k t h a t 32 is t w e l v e m o r e t h a n 20 t h e r e f o r e 12 - 7 = 5 o r t h e y m i g h t c o u n t o n t o 32 o n f i n g e r s = 5. A l t e r n a t i v e l y t h e y m a y t h i n k t h a t 32 is 30 + 2, 27 is 25 + 2 t h e difference b e t w e e n 25 a n d 30 is 5 t h e r e f o r e t h e a n s w e r is 5. Discussion w i t h the teacher can h e l p the children to d e v e l o p the

62

Teaching Young Children

i n v e s t i g a t i o n a l a n d p r o b l e m s o l v i n g skills t h a t t h e y c o m e t o s c h o o l w i t h . A s a r e s u l t of h e r r e s e a r c h e v i d e n c e , N u n e s b e l i e v e s t h a t ' C h i l d r e n ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of m a t h e m a t i c a l c o n c e p t s is g e n e r a t i v e . . . child r e n d o n o t n e e d t o l e a r n e v e r y s i n g l e b i t of m a t h e m a t i c s t h a t t h e y w i l l n e e d t o k n o w ' ( N u n e s a n d B r y a n t 1996, p . 234). It is t h e r e f o r e i m p o r t a n t t o h e l p c h i l d r e n t o d e v e l o p m a t h e m a t i c a l creativit y s o t h a t t h e y a r e n o t r e l i a n t o n t a u g h t a l g o r i t h m s for s o l v i n g m a t h e m a t i c a l questions. E v e n a t t h e earliest s t a g e p u p i l s c a n b e g i n t o d e v e l o p t h e i r c o g n i t i v e skills t h r o u g h i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d p r o b l e m s o l v i n g activities a n d t h e y c a n b e g i n t o g e n e r a l i s e t h e i r f i n d i n g s i n t o s o m e k i n d of s i m p l i s tic s t a t e m e n t . F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n l o o k i n g at t h e n u m b e r p a t t e r n 2, 4, 6, t h e c h i l d w i l l b e a b l e t o p r e d i c t t h a t t h e n e x t n u m b e r i n t h e s e q u e n c e w i l l b e 8 t h e n 10 ' b e c a u s e e a c h n u m b e r is 2 m o r e t h a n t h e last'. ' T h r o u g h investigations w i t h concrete materials, students d e v e l o p conceptual understanding while discerning patterns a n d making gene r a l i s a t i o n s . S u c h e x p e r i e n c e s c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of h i g h e r c o g n i t i v e skills a n d a s e n s e of a c c o m p l i s h m e n t in m a t h e m a t i c s ' ( B e r m a n a n d F r i e d e r w i t z e r 1989, p . 21). O n e l o n g t e r m a i m m a y b e t h a t t h e c h i l d r e n w o r k t o w a r d s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e ' s t r u c t u r e of k n o w l e d g e ' . To d o t h i s , t h e y n e e d t o b e e n c o u r a g e d t o identify p a t t e r n a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l r u l e s . T h e y n e e d t o b e i n v i t e d t o l o o k for t h e p a t t e r n s t h a t a r e all a r o u n d t h e m i n t h e i r e v e r y d a y w o r l d b e c a u s e p a t t e r n s p o t t i n g a n d l o o k i n g for r u l e s is f u n d a m e n t a l a n d at t h e h e a r t of mathematics. M a t h e m a t i c s c a n b e p e r c e i v e d as o n e of t h e l a n g u a g e s t h a t c h i l d r e n c a n b e h e l p e d t o a c q u i r e . To a c h i e v e t h i s t h e y n e e d , a s w i t h a n y o t h e r l a n g u a g e , o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o e x p l o r e it creatively, for e x a m p l e , m a n i p u l a t i n g a g i v e n n u m b e r of objects t o find o u t t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l p o s s i bilities w i t h i n t h e task. T h e w a y t h a t a t e a c h e r a p p r o a c h e s m a t h e m a t i c s w i t h h e r p u p i l s in t h e e a r l y s t a g e s c a n h a v e a f u n d a m e n t a l effect o n t h e c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e c h i l d r e n . It is t h e r e fore i m p o r t a n t t o d e v e l o p t h e c h i l d r e n ' s ability t o b e a s c r e a t i v e in t h e i r m a t h e m a t i c s as i n o t h e r subjects.

Will baseline assessment and desirable outcomes help overcome this gap? A s h a s already b e e n identified, even t h o u g h children m a y be gi n their p r i m a r y s c h o o l c a r e e r s w i t h q u i t e a s o u n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of v a r i o u s m a t h e m a t i c a l c o n c e p t s , t h e i r f o r m a t i v e y e a r s of s c h o o l i n g d o n o t a l w a y s a p p e a r t o b u i l d o n t h e s e . So c a n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of Desirable

Making sense of early mathematics

63

Outcomes ( S C A A 1997a) a n d b a s e l i n e a s s e s s m e n t p r o v i d e a s o l u t i o n t o eradicate this 'gap'? T h e Desirable Outcomes for Children's Learning on Entering Compulsory Education ( S C A A 1996) f o c u s e s o n six a r e a s of l e a r n i n g , o n e of w h i c h is m a t h e m a t i c s . T h e d e s i r a b l e o u t c o m e s set for t h i s a r e a of l e a r n i n g o n e n t e r i n g s c h o o l r e c e p t i o n class a r e t o p i c s s u c h a s b e i n g familiar w i t h ' n u m b e r r h y m e s , s o n g s , s t o r i e s c o u n t i n g g a m e s a n d activities. [Child r e n ] c o m p a r e , s o r t , m a t c h , order, s e q u e n c e a n d c o u n t u s i n g e v e r y d a y objects.' ( S C A A 1996, p . 11) T h e s e a p p e a r p e r f e c t l y r e a s o n a b l e a n d w i t h i n t h e g r a s p of t h e p r e s c h o o l c h i l d r e n d i s c u s s e d earlier. F u r t h e r S C A A s u g g e s t s t h a t ' t h r o u g h p r a c t i c a l activities c h i l d r e n . . . b e g i n t o s h o w a n a w a r e n e s s of n u m b e r o p e r a t i o n s s u c h a s a d d i t i o n a n d s u b t r a c t i o n , a n d b e g i n t o u s e t h e l a n g u a g e i n v o l v e d ' ( S C A A 1996, p . 11). A g a i n m a n y preschool children will be able, in practical situations, to demonstrate such an understanding. I n S C A A ' s (1997a,) p r o p o s a l s for b a s e l i n e a s s e s s m e n t i n m a t h e m a t ics m u c h of t h e s u g g e s t e d a s s e s s m e n t m a t e r i a l d o e s d r a w u p o n a n d u s e p r a c t i c a l c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n s . T h e r e is little u s e of ' f o r m a l m a t h e m a t i c s ' e x c e p t for o n e activity t o a s s e s s m a t h e m a t i c a l l a n g u a g e , m o r e specifically t o a s s e s s w h e t h e r o r n o t a c h i l d ' c a n e x p l a i n a n a d d i t i o n s u m ' ( S C A A 1997a, p . 38) s u c h as 3 + 2 = 5. It is s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e t e a c h e r ' u s e w h a t e v e r w o r d s t h e c h i l d is likely to u n d e r s t a n d a n d e n c o u r a g e t h e c h i l d t o t a l k a b o u t t h e s h e e t . ' ( S C A A 1997, p . 39). T h e p r o c e s s is i n d e e d o n e t h a t is familiar t o c h i l d r e n , b u t h o w m a n y w o u l d b e a b l e t o e x p l a i n it, e v e n w i t h t h e h e l p of t h e p i c t u r e s of b u t t o n s , w h e n faced w i t h a f o r m a l ' s u m ' ? A l t h o u g h s o m e c h i l d r e n w h o h a v e a s e c u r e b a s e d e v e l o p e d w i t h t h e u s e of c o n c r e t e a n d p r a c t i c a l activities m a y w e l l u n d e r s t a n d t h i s a l g o r i t h m a n d b e a b l e t o i n t e r p r e t it, m a n y will n o t at this stage. W h i l s t r e c o g n i s i n g t h a t t h e n o t i o n of ' v a l u e - a d d e d ' ( t h e i n c r e a s e i n c h i l d r e n ' s s c o r e s o v e r a p e r i o d of t i m e i n s c h o o l , effected t h r o u g h t h a t s c h o o l ' s t e a c h i n g ) is i m p o r t a n t t h e h o p e is t h a t , firstly, p r e s c h o o l p r o v i d e r s or parents will n o t b e pressurised into starting formal m a t h e m a t i c s a l g o r i t h m s t o o e a r l y a t t h e e x p e n s e of t h e crucial s t a g e of p r a c tical w o r k a l o n g s i d e l a n g u a g e d e v e l o p m e n t i n o r d e r for t h e i r c h i l d r e n to b e able to cope w i t h the baseline assessment a n d to get a h i g h total o n t h e B a s e l i n e A s s e s s m e n t Scale. A d d i t i o n a l l y , c a r e w i l l n e e d t o b e t a k e n s o t h a t v e r y y o u n g c h i l d r e n a r e n o t p u t off m a t h e m a t i c s . O n e four year old child w h o attends a private n u r s e r y h a d obviously b e e n c a r r y i n g o u t w o r k o n f o r m a l a l g o r i t h m s a n d h a d a l s o b e e n to a s s e m b l y i n t h e m a i n s c h o o l . In h i s a t t e m p t t o m a k e s e n s e of h i s e x p e r i e n c e s ,

64

Teaching Young Children

h e a s k e d h i s m o t h e r later t h a t d a y ' W h y d o e s G o d m a k e u s d o s u m s ? I d o n ' t like t h e m . '

Conclusion Preschool children b e c o m e quite c o m p e t e n t mathematicians before s c h o o l b e c a u s e t h e y u s e a n d l e a r n m a t h e m a t i c s in a c o n t e x t . W e a s e d u c a t o r s n e e d to b e a w a r e of t h e ' g a p ' b e t w e e n h o m e a n d s c h o o l m a t h e m a t i c s a n d find a w a y to e l i m i n a t e t h e fear of m a t h e m a t i c s a n d m a k e it accessible t o all. Explicit t e a c h i n g is n e c e s s a r y t o a d v a n c e child r e n ' s m a t h e m a t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t . I n d e e d , h o w else w i l l t h e c h i l d r e n c o m e t o u n d e r s t a n d a n d utilise t h e c o m p l e x n u m b e r s y s t e m a n d n o t a t i o n t h a t is c o n v e n t i o n a l i n o u r c u l t u r e ? N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e c o u l d b e a d a n g e r i n t h i s f o r m a l i s a t i o n in t h a t c h i l d r e n m a y b e i n t r o d u c e d t o abstract symbolism too early a n d this could e n d a n g e r the spontan e o u s , c u r i o s i t y - d r i v e n l e a r n i n g of p r e s c h o o l w h i c h is s o v i t a l if child r e n are to b e c o m e c o m p e t e n t mathematicians. Educators n e e d to t h i n k l o n g a n d h a r d a b o u t t h e c h a n g i n g n a t u r e of t h e m a t h e m a t i c s c u r r i c u l u m a n d t h e m e t h o d s e m p l o y e d t o t e a c h it effectively. T h e r e a r e t w o p o s s i b l e r e s p o n s e s t o t h e c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n . First, w e c a n r e c o g n i s e t h a t t h e n e w i n i t i a t i v e s d o a t least c h a l l e n g e a n y c o m p l a c e n c y t h a t e d u c a t i o n a l p r o f e s s i o n a l s m i g h t feel c o n c e r n i n g t h e m e t h o d o l o g y of t h e e a r l y y e a r s c l a s s r o o m . Secondly, w e c a n e n c o u r a g e a s t r e n g t h e n i n g of effective m a t h e m a t i c s e d u c a t i o n b y e n s u r i n g e a r l y y e a r s t e a c h i n g t a k e s full a c c o u n t of w h a t t h e h o m e e x p e r i e n c e h a s t o offer.

Issues 1. W h a t c a n b e d o n e a b o u t t h e p e r c e i v e d h o m e s c h o o l ' g a p ' a n d h o w c o u l d t h e e d u c a t i o n of c h i l d r e n i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s b e o r g a n i s e d t o address such a problem? 2. W h a t is t h e p u r p o s e of s c h o o l m a t h e m a t i c s ? Is it p u r e l y for e q u i p p i n g c h i l d r e n for e v e r y d a y life o r is it i m p o r t a n t t h a t all c h i l d r e n are given the opportunity to develop higher mathematical concepts? 3. It is w i d e l y r e c o g n i s e d t h a t t h e r e is a n e e d t o r a i s e s t a n d a r d s . Is t h e r e a d a n g e r , h o w e v e r , of d i s m i s s i n g all of o u r c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e , e v e n t h a t w h i c h is g o o d , i n f a v o u r of a n e w a n d as y e t l a r g e l y u n r e searched alternative?

Making sense of early mathematics

65

References Ascher, M. (1991) Ethnomathematics: a multicultural view of mathematical ideas Belmonte: Brookes/Cole. Atkinson, S. (Editor) (1992) Mathematics with Reason London: H o d d e r and Stoughton. Aubrey, C. (1993) A n Investigation of the Mathematical Knowledge and Competencies which Young Children Bring into School British Educational Research Journal Vol. 19 No. 1 p p . 27-42. Aubrey, C. (1994) An Investigation of Children's Knowledge of Mathematics at School Entry and the Knowledge their Teachers Hold about Teaching and Learning Mathematics, about Young Learners and Mathematical Subject Knowledge British Educational Research Journal Vol. 20 No. 1 p p . 105-121. Aubrey, C. (1997) Children's Learning of N u m b e r in School and Out, in I. Thompson, Teaching and Learning Early Number. Buckingham: O p e n University Press. Cockcroft, W. (Chairman) (1982) Mathematics Counts: Report of the Committee of Inquiry into the Teaching of Mathematics in Schools London: HMSO. Berman B. and Friederwitzer F. (1989) Algebra can be Elementary - When Its Concrete Arithmetic Teacher Vol. 36 N o . 8 p . 21-24. Donaldson, M. (1978) Children's Minds Glasgow: Fontana Press. Fisher, R. (1990) Teaching Children to Think Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Girling, M. (1977) Towards a definition of basic numeracy Mathematics Teaching N o . 81 December p p . 4-5. H u g h e s , M. (1986) Children and Number Oxford: Blackwell. National Literacy and Numeracy Project (1977) Framework for Numeracy: Termly Planning for Years 1 to 6 (Draft March 1997) London: DfEE. N u n e s T. and Bryant P. (1996) Children Doing Mathematics Oxford: Blackwell. Orton A. (1992) Learning Mathematics (2nd edition) London: Cassell. Plunkett, O. (1979) Decompostion and all that rot Mathematics in School Vol. 8 N o . 3 p p . 2-5. School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (1996) Desirable Outcomes for Children's Learning on Entering Compulsory Education London: SCAA. School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (1997a) Baseline Assessment Scales London: SCAA. Suggate J., Aubrey C. and Pettitt D. (1997) The number knowledge of four to five year olds at school entry and at the end of their first year The European Early Childhood Education Research Journal Vol. 5 N o . 2 p p . 85-101. Tall, D. (ed.) (1991) Advanced Mathematical Thinking, Dordrecht: Kluwer. Walkerdine, V. (1988) The Mastery of Reason London: Routledge. Zaslavsky, C (1973) Africa Counts London: Prindle, Weber and Schmidt.

5 Developing a framework for primary PE Mike

Waring

T h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for d e v e l o p i n g h e a l t h y a n d i n f o r m e d c h i l d r e n is all t o o often i n a p p r o p r i a t e l y l a i d s o l e l y a t t h e d o o r of t h e s c h o o l , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n c u r r i c u l u m . Therefore, t h e c h a l l e n g i n g a m b i t i o n of t h i s c h a p t e r is t o o u t l i n e a f r a m e w o r k for t h e p r o v i s i o n of p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n (PE) in t h e p r i m a r y s c h o o l t h a t identifies n o t o n l y t h e e s s e n c e a n d s t r u c t u r e of t h e c o n t e n t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e a c h activity area, b u t the essential shared u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d collaboration b e t w e e n t h e k e y a g e n t s (family, c h i l d r e n a n d schools) i n t h e p r o v i s i o n of a p r o g r e s s i v e a n d c o h e s i v e e d u c a t i o n for c h i l d r e n . A a i r r i c u l u m w h i c h is c r e a t e d i n p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h t h e s e k e y a g e n t s w i l l h e l p t o l e a d c h i l d r e n i n t h e i r s e a r c h t o b e i n f o r m e d i n d e p e n d e n t p e o p l e i n t o lifel o n g p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n p h y s i c a l activity. T h e family, a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e p a r e n t s , h a v e a m a j o r i n f l u e n c e o n a c h i l d ' s q u a l i t y of e x p e r i e n c e i n p h y s i c a l activity ( B r u s t a d , W i g g i n s a n d W y a t t 1995; B r a n n e n et al. 1994; H e n d r y et al 1993). It is e v i d e n t f r o m a g r e a t d e a l of r e s e a r c h t h a t i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e p a r e n t s , t h e s c h o o l a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r its P E c u r r i c u l u m p l a y a p r o m i n e n t r o l e i n c o n s t r u c t i n g a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s h a b i t u a l f o r m s of p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y ( K r e m e r et al. 1997). T h i s is t r u e w h e t h e r a t r e c r e a t i o n a l , c o m p e t i t i v e o r elite level ( O g l e a n d Kelly 1994; T e l e m a , K a n n a s a n d Tynjala 1995). T h e c o m p u l s o r y s t a t u s of P E i n t h e N a t i o n a l C u r r i c u l u m ( N C ) h a s t o d a t e g u a r a n t e e d s o m e f o r m of P E for e v e r y child d u r i n g e a c h p h a s e of t h e i r s c h o o l career. D e s p i t e t h i s , a m a j o r c a u s e for c o n c e r n is t h e c o n s t a n t e r o s i o n of t i m e for P E w i t h i n s c h o o l , e s p e c i a l l y p r i m a r y s c h o o l s . T h i s is i n p a r t d u e t o t h e e v e r i n c r e a s i n g d e m a n d s o n t i m e f r o m o t h e r a u r i c u l a r a r e a s . H o w e v e r , t h e r e is a l s o t h e i s s u e of t h e n e c e s s a r y e x p e r t P E k n o w l e d g e of s o m e p r i m a r y t e a c h e r s t o c o n s i d e r ( W e t t o n 1997; E v a n s , P e n n y a n d D a v i e s 1993; W r i g h t 1991). T h e m o v e m e n t t o w a r d s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t of a critical a n d 66

67

Developing a framework for primary PE

a u t o n o m o u s c h i l d (in a n d t h r o u g h t h e r e a l m of PE) d e m a n d s a b r o a d , b a l a n c e d a n d r e l e v a n t c u r r i c u l u m . T h i s r e q u i r e s differentiation of c o n tent a n d a p p r o a c h to suit individual cognitive a n d physical n e e d s ( G r e e n 1995; S h u l t z et al. 1985). U n f o r t u n a t e l y , all t o o often t r a n s l a t i o n of t h i s i n t o t h e p r i m a r y s c h o o l PE a n d e x t e n d e d c u r r i c u l u m is m i s g u i d e d . T h i s is d u e t o t h e v a r i e t y of c o n t r a s t i n g p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d a g e n d a b r o u g h t b y a n a r r a y of t h o s e a g e n t s i n f l u e n c i n g p r o v i s i o n in schools. These agents r a n g e from the g o v e r n m e n t , to charities, pare n t s , t e a c h e r s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a n d t h e c h i l d r e n t h e m s e l v e s . To c o m p o u n d t h i s p o t e n t i a l conflict, t h e r e is t h e n e c e s s i t y t o initially e s t a b l i s h a n d t h e n c o - o r d i n a t e c o h e r e n c e of p h i l o s o p h y a n d c o n t e n t a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e P E c u r r i c u l u m , w h i c h s h o u l d also e n c a p s u l a t e p r o g r e s s i o n w i t h i n , a s w e l l a s a c r o s s , its c o n s t i t u e n t a n d a d j o i n i n g K e y S t a g e s (KS). It c a n b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e p r o m o t i o n of life-long p h y s i c a l activity t h r o u g h t h e f o r m u l a t i o n of a p y r a m i d of ' i n d i v i d u a l a n d e s p e c i a l l y ' t e a m ' activities is t h e d o m i n a n t h e g e m o n y . T h i s h a s b e e n r e i n f o r c e d b y t h e i d e o l o g y of t h e p r e v i o u s a n d p r e s e n t g o v e r n m e n t w i t h r e g a r d s to s p o r t . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , s u c h a p o s i t i o n offers o n l y a v e r y l i m i t e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e e s s e n c e , f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e s a n d p r o c e s s e s t h a t s h o u l d b e p r o m o t e d t h r o u g h PE i n t h e p r i m a r y s c h o o l . T h i s h a s c r e a t e d a n d p e r p e t u a t e d a c u l t u r e of a c c e p t a n c e t h a t for c h i l d r e n is far f r o m ' h e a l t h y ' , f r o m n o t o n l y a p h y s i o l o g i c a l ( A r m s t r o n g a n d Welsm a n 1997) b u t a p e d a g o g i c a l p o i n t of v i e w ( A l m o n d 1997). P a r e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s h a v e to b e a b l e t o a p p r e c i a t e a n d c o - o r d i n a t e t h e i r coll a b o r a t i v e r o l e s i n t h e p r o v i s i o n of a c h i l d ' s physical education. T h i s will c e r t a i n l y i n v o l v e e a c h c h i l d p a r t i c i p a t i n g p h y s i c a l l y i n a r a n g e of activities. H o w e v e r , it w i l l a l s o i n v o l v e t h e f o r m u l a t i o n of s t r a t e g i e s a n d p r i n c i p l e s t h a t t h e c h i l d c a n i m p l e m e n t in a v a r i e t y of c o n t e x t s . I n s o d o i n g t h e y c a n successfully i n t e r p r e t a n d m a n i p u l a t e different situations a n d m o v e m e n t s to enhance their learning a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g n o w a n d i n t h e f u t u r e . In a d d i t i o n , t h i s reinforces t h e n o t i o n t h a t s u c h l e a r n i n g a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g e x t e n d b e y o n d PE i n t o all a s p e c t s of t h e s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m a n d b e y o n d . A f r a m e w o r k a r o u n d w h i c h p a r e n t s , t e a c h e r s , local p r o v i d e r s a n d p o l i c y m a k e r s c a n c o n struct a n d develop a coherent, co-ordinated a n d complementary learni n g e x p e r i e n c e , facilitating t h i s ' r i g h t of p a s s a g e ' for c h i l d r e n , therefore b e c o m e s essential. 7

The framework I n e s s e n c e P E i n s c h o o l s h o u l d s t r i v e to e x p a n d a n d d e v e l o p e a c h c h i l d ' s c o g n i t i v e a n d p h y s i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e m s e l v e s - in s o d o i n g facil-

68

Teaching Young Children

i t a t i n g critical t h i n k e r s , e n h a n c i n g i m a g i n a t i o n a n d c r e a t i v i t y a n d r e s u l t i n g i n h e a l t h i e r , m o r e a u t o n o m o u s a n d i n f o r m e d citizens i n w h a t is t o d a y ' s c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e society: w h i c h is p o s s i b l y t h e f u n d a m e n tal objective of e v e r y p a r e n t t h r o u g h t h e e x p e r i e n c e s t h e y p r o m o t e . B a r r o w (1990) s u g g e s t s t h a t m o s t of o u r p r o b l e m s a r i s e n o t f r o m i g n o r a n c e of h o w t o a c h i e v e w h a t w e w a n t , b u t from a failure t o p r o p e r l y c o n c e p t u a l i s e w h a t w e w a n t . O n e m i g h t d i s a g r e e , i n P E it h a s b e e n a c o m b i n a t i o n of b o t h of t h e s e factors. F i g u r e 5.1 is a n o u t l i n e of a f r a m e w o r k d e s i g n e d t o facilitate t h a t w h i c h w e s h o u l d b e s t r i v i n g t o a c h i e v e i n p r i m a r y PE. After a g e n e r a l o v e r v i e w of t h e f r a m e w o r k a n d fundamental principles associated w i t h the structure, m o r e specific c o n t e n t r e l a t e d t o KS1 w i l l b e a d d r e s s e d . C l a y ' s (1996) v i s i o n of t h e f u t u r e of P E , s u p p o r t e d b y A l m o n d (1997) a n d H a r r i s a n d E l b o u r n (1997), e m p h a s i s e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of p a r t n e r s h i p b e t w e e n p a r e n t s , s c h o o l s a n d local p r o v i d e r s . It is o n l y t h r o u g h s u c h p a r t n e r s h i p t h a t i n f o r m e d life-long p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d i n v o l v e m e n t in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y for all c h i l d r e n will b e a c h i e v e d a n d s u s t a i n e d . S u c h c o l l a b o r a t i o n is a c e n t r a l p r i n c i p l e of t h e f r a m e w o r k p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 5.1 a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of s u c h i n t e r a c t i o n i m p a c t a t e v e r y s t a g e . It is i m p o r t a n t t h a t all a g e n t s a r e a l l o w e d t o u n d e r s t a n d , facilitate a n d e x p e r i e n c e t h e n o t i o n of a n ' a c t i v e c o m m u n i t y ' r e l a t i v e t o t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t ( H a r r i s a n d E l b o u r n , 1997). T h e f o u n d a t i p n for t h i s is a w e l l b a l a n c e d a n d e q u a l l y w e l l t a u g h t P E c u r r i c u l a r t h a t e s t a b l i s h e s e q u a l i t y of o p p o r t u n i t y for all. Most people w o u l d agree that, in a n ideal situation, PE contributes t o t h e p h y s i c a l , e m o t i o n a l , social, m o r a l a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l a s p e c t s of d e v e l o p m e n t of all p u p i l s . H o w e v e r , t h e y m i g h t s i m i l a r l y a d m i t t h a t t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y l i m i t e d a m o u n t of t i m e p r o v i d e d t o facilitate s u c h d e v e l o p m e n t s m i g h t o n l y a l l o w o n e o r t w o a s p e c t s t o b e satisfactorily a d d r e s s e d i n t h e m a j o r i t y of s i t u a t i o n s . T h i s d i s c u s s i o n c o u l d t h e n c o n c e i v a b l y b e c o m e m o r e o p e n r e g a r d i n g t h e selection of t h e s e c o m p o n e n t s a n d t h e b e s t t i m e t o e m p h a s i s e e a c h o n e . D u r i n g KS1 t h e m a i n e m p h a s i s is q u i t e rightly o n t h e m a s t e r y of f u n d a m e n t a l m o t o r skills ( S m i t h et al 1991). H o w e v e r , o n e c a n n o t n e g l e c t o r i g n o r e t h e p s y c h o - s o c i a l d o m a i n a n d its d e v e l o p m e n t . A c h i l d n o t o n l y n e e d s t o b e a b l e t o p e r f o r m f u n d a m e n t a l m o t o r skills, b u t n e e d s t o u n d e r s t a n d the context in w h i c h to apply them. As children become 'able t o ' they s h o u l d b e m a d e a w a r e of t h e significance of a n a c t i v i t y (i.e. w i t h r e g a r d t o its a p p l i c a t i o n t o a g i v e n c o n t e x t ) , it is logical t o p r e s u m e t h a t t h e y w i l l b e m o r e likely t o v o l u n t a r i l y p a r t i c i p a t e i n it. It s i m i l a r l y f o l l o w s t h a t it a l s o n e e d s t o b e a f u n a n d e n g r o s s i n g a c t i v i t y ( G o u d a s a n d B i d d l e , 1993; W e i s s 1993).

Developing a framework for primary PE

69

Fig. 5.1 A framework for the provision of physical education B u i l d i n g o n a f o u n d a t i o n i n KS1 t h a t e m p h a s i s e s p l a y w i t h i n a d e v e l o p m e n t a l f r a m e w o r k of f u n d a m e n t a l m o t o r skills a n d p s y c h o social aspects s h o u l d b e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to reinforce experiences w i t h i n t h e e x t e n d e d school content t h r o u g h extra-curricular activities. A n u m b e r of f a c t o r s r e i n f o r c e t h i s , n o t l e a s t t h e a m o u n t of t i m e t h a t is a v a i l a b l e t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n a n a c t i v i t y d u r i n g m a i n c u r r i c u l u m P E time. Establishing extra-curricular clubs a n d activities allows children to practise w h a t they h a v e learnt a n d in so d o i n g e n h a n c e their appli-

70

Teaching Young Children

c a t i o n of skills ( m o t o r a n d p s y c h o - s o c i a l ) . T h i s is f u r t h e r d e v e l o p e d a n d e x t e n d e d t h r o u g h ' p l a n n e d t w i l i g h t ' i n v o l v e m e n t at s p o r t s c e n t r e s a n d j u n i o r s p o r t s c l u b s for s i m i l a r r e a s o n s . H o w e v e r , t w o t h i n g s b e c o m e i m p o r t a n t h e r e . T h e first is t h a t t h e c o n t e n t a n d e x p e r i e n c e s of t h e c h i l d a r e c o - o r d i n a t e d , p r o g r e s s i v e a n d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e P E N C . S e c o n d l y , it is a c o l l a b o r a t i v e i n i t i a t i v e b e t w e e n p a r e n t s , s c h o o l s a n d local p r o v i d e r s . It is e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e n a t u r e of t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s a l l o w s t h e c h i l d (as w e l l a s p a r e n t s / l o c a l p r o v i d e r s / N G B s ) t o a p p r e c i a t e t h o s e f u n d a m e n t a l c o m p o n e n t s a c h i l d n e e d s to m a s t e r , a s w e l l a s a p p l y i n a v a r i e t y of c o n t e x t s . T h e s e k e y a g e n c i e s h a v e t o w o r k c o l l a b o r a t i v e l y t o h e l p a c h i e v e t h e c h i l d ' s p r o l o n g e d i n f o r m e d i n v o l v e m e n t . In s o d o i n g e v e r y o n e is i n a p o s i t i o n t o b e c o m e i n c r e a s i n g l y familiar w i t h t h e c o n text a n d t h e p r o c e d u r e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n i t i a t i n g a n d m a i n t a i n i n g involvement. T h i s a p p r o a c h is m a i n t a i n e d a n d b u i l t u p o n d u r i n g e a c h k e y s t a g e . I n t h e E a r l y Years ( u n d e r 5 y e a r s ) a n d i n KS1 t h e e m p h a s i s is v e r y m u c h o n t h e n o t i o n of p h y s i c a l activities b e i n g d e v e l o p m e n t a l l y appropriate play forms. These evolve a n d develop into a m o r e sophist i c a t e d r e p e r t o i r e of p h y s i c a l a n d c o g n i t i v e skills a p p l i e d t o i n c r e a s i n g l y v a r i e d c o n t e x t s . It is i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e r e is a n i n c r e a s i n g l y b r o a d r a n g e of s i t u a t i o n s t h a t h i g h l i g h t g a m e s / p h y s i c a l activities a s m o r e d i s c i p l i n e d activity, a s p u p i l s will t h e n b e i n t h e b e s t p o s i t i o n t o a p p r e ciate t h e significance of t h e activity r e l a t i v e t o t h e i r c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t . T h e y can therefore, m a k e m o r e informed decisions regarding their i n v o l v e m e n t a n d c o m m i t m e n t to different k i n d s of p h y s i c a l activity. T h r o u g h o u t t h e k e y s t a g e s identified i n t h e F r a m e w o r k ( F i g u r e 5.1) t h e r e is a d e v e l o p m e n t a l a n d p r o g r e s s i v e s t r u c t u r e a n d a p p r o a c h . I n order to achieve this the framework h a s to b e sensitive to a child's natu r a l d e v e l o p m e n t ; it h a s t o h a v e a g e n e r a l b r o a d b a s e , b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y s p e c i a l i s e d ; it g e n e r a t e s i n c r e a s i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for selfd i r e c t e d l e a r n i n g ; it e n h a n c e s s c h o o l to c o m m u n i t y l i n k s ; a n d m a i n t a i n s t h e safety of e a c h c h i l d t h r o u g h o u t .

Pathways of involvement T h e F r a m e w o r k m a y at first a p p e a r relatively inflexible w i t h r e g a r d t o its s t r u c t u r e . H o w e v e r , t h i s s h o u l d c e r t a i n l y n o t b e t h e case. It h a s b e e n o r g a n i s e d s u c h t h a t it c a n a d d r e s s a r a n g e of i n v o l v e m e n t i n p h y s i c a l activity w i t h i n a n d b e t w e e n e a c h KS. F o r e x a m p l e , i d e a l l y e a c h child w o u l d b e in a p o s i t i o n t o e x p e r i e n c e all c o m p o n e n t s of t h i s f r a m e w o r k . H o w e v e r , d u e to a n a r r a y of e n v i r o n m e n t a l , p s y c h o l o g i cal, d e v e l o p m e n t a l , social a n d c u l t u r a l factors i n t e r r e l a t i n g to act u p o n

71

Developing a framework for primary PE

t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n (Sallis 1994), a v a r i e t y of ' p a t h w a y s to i n v o l v e m e n t w i l l a r i s e . F u n d a m e n t a l l y e v e r y c h i l d w i l l e x p e r i e n c e P E a t s c h o o l a s t h e i r ' m i n i m u m ' e n t i t l e m e n t . T h i s is i d e n t i f i e d o n F i g u r e 5.1 b y p a t h w a y Ά ' . A t t h e o t h e r e n d of w h a t c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a n ' e x p e r i e n c e c o n t i n u u m ' is t h a t t h e c h i l d is i n v o l v e d i n a n u m b e r of activities, i n a n u m b e r of c o n t e x t s . T h i s w o u l d b e i n a d d i tion to their i n v o l v e m e n t in the school's m a i n PE curriculum. This c h i l d ' s e x p e r i e n c e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 5.1 b y p a t h w a y ' B . T h e child a n d p a r e n t s in this instance are o p e n to experience all o p p o r t u n i t i e s a t all K e y S t a g e s . Of c o u r s e , t h i s is a s o m e w h a t s i m p l i s t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n . I n r e a l i t y t h e ' p a t h w a y of i n v o l v e m e n t ' for e a c h c h i l d a n d t h e i r c o l l a b o r a t i n g a g e n t s w i l l i n e v i t a b l y b e far f r o m linear, d u e t o t h e g r e a t n u m b e r of v a r i a b l e s a c t i n g u p o n t h e c h i l d ' s i n v o l v e m e n t . W h a t r e m a i n s significant, h o w e v e r , is t h a t t h e r e is a c o n s i s t e n c y in t h e f r a m e w o r k for activities t o b e c o v e r e d i n P E . W i t h t h i s i n p l a c e it enables the child to m a x i m i s e their involvement relative to their part i c u l a r c o n t e x t , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e v a r i a b l e s a c t i n g u p o n t h e m at a n y given time. L o o k i n g a t o n e e n d of t h e c o n t i n u u m (i.e. c h i l d o n l y i n v o l v e d i n p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y d u r i n g P E at s c h o o l ) , s u c h i n v o l v e m e n t i n P E s h o u l d still e n a b l e a c h i l d t o p o s i t i v e l y e x p e r i e n c e , a s w e l l a s a p p r e c i a t e , t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t e x t for c o n t i n u e d i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e p h y s i c a l activity n o w a n d in the future. Parents too n e e d to u n d e r s t a n d t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t e x t a n d m e c h a n i s m s for access t o activities if t h e y a r e t o c o l l a b o r a t e w i t h o t h e r a g e n t s (schools, local p r o v i d e r s ) t o w o r k t o w a r d s t h e i r c h i l d ' s life-long p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y a n d i n d i r e c t l y t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of a t r u l y a c t i v e c o m m u n i t y . W i t h t h i s p h i l o s o p h y a n d s t r u c t u r e in m i n d , w e n e e d t o e x p l o r e m o r e specifically t h e c o n t e n t of K S 1 . M a n n e r s a n d C a r r o l l (1995, p . 3) s u g g e s t six p r i n c i p l e s o n w h i c h t h e t e a c h i n g of P E b e t w e e n 3 - 7 y e a r s d e p e n d s : 7

7

• p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n b u i l d s o n w h a t t h e child c a n a l r e a d y d o ; • children s h o u l d b e as active as possible d u r i n g physical education; • l e s s o n s s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n s w i t h clear, s t r u c t u r e d o u t c o m e s identified; • t h e r e s h o u l d b e a r a n g e of activities a n d sufficient t i m e g i v e n t o t h e subject; • i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e a b a l a n c e d p r o g r a m m e t h e r e s h o u l d b e suffic i e n t e q u i p m e n t a n d a d e q u a t e facilities; • all c h i l d r e n a r e e n t i t l e d to t h e b e s t p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m m e possible.

Teaching Young Children

72

CATEGORIES OF MOVEMENT & FUNDAMENTAL MOTOR SKILLS: (I) LOCOMOTORS

(2) STABILITY

Walk, run, leap, hop, jump (horizontal, vertical, from height), skip, slide, gallop.

Axial Movements (bend (flexion), stretch (extension), twist, turn, reach, lift, fall.); Springing Movements (vertical jump, headspring, handspring); Upright Supports - static and dynamic balance (individual stunts, partner stunts); Inverted Supports (tripod, headstand, forward/backward roll, cartwheel, roundoff.)

(3) MANIPULATIVE Throw, catch, kick, trap, dribble, roll ball, strike horizontal, volley.

MOVEMENT CONCEPTS: (I) BODY Parts (head, neck, trunk, hands, legs, feet) Actions (support, lead, transfer weight) Shapes (wide, narrow, round, twisted, symmetrical, asymmetrical) (2) SPACE General Personal (direction, level, pathways, range) Limited (3) EFFORT Time (last, slow, medium; accelerate, decelerate) Force (strong, light, medium) Flow (free, bound)

(4) RELATIONSHIPS Body (unison, succession, opposition) Objects (over/under, front/behind, in/out, near/far) Individuals (mirror, shadow)

Fig. 5.2 A developmental P E curriculum for five and six year olds Source: Smith, Carlise and Cole 1991

Developing a framework for primary PE

73

T h e N C for P E , d e s i g n e d a r o u n d a p r o c e s s m o d e l , is v e r y m u c h c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e e d u c a t i o n of t h e y o u n g child. It h a s a clear d e f i n i t i o n of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of p h y s i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t (active h e a l t h ) a n d p s y c h o - m o t o r l e a r n i n g ( w i t h t h e s t r e s s o n p e r f o r m a n c e ) (Jones 1996). H o w e v e r , o n e n e e d s t o m a k e m o r e specific reference t o t h e N C r e g a r d i n g t h e a c t i v i t y a r e a s a t KS1 ( g a m e s , g y m n a s t i c activities a n d d a n c e ) i n o r d e r t o f u r t h e r a p p r e c i a t e a n d fully facilitate t h e F r a m e w o r k p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 5.1. S m i t h et al (1991) p r e s e n t a n o u t l i n e of a d e v e l o p m e n t a l P E c u r r i c u l u m for five a n d six y e a r o l d p r i m a r y s c h o o l c h i l d r e n ( F i g u r e 5.2). T h i s is a u s e f u l g u i d e to h e l p e l a b o r a t e o n t h e n a t u r e of t h e c o n t e n t at K S 1 . W e t t o n (1997) offers a n i n f o r m e d a n d v e r y u s e f u l t e x t w h i c h c a n b e a d a p t e d t o i d e n t i f y s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n t h e t h r e e a c t i v i t y a r e a s (see F i g u r e 5.3). It is t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d c o h e r e n c e b e t w e e n a n d w i t h i n e a c h a c t i v i t y a r e a t h a t is t h e significant factor, a s it w i l l i m p a c t u p o n t h e c o n t e n t a n d n a t u r e of p r o v i s i o n . R e i d (1995) a l s o r e c o g n i s e s t h a t ' m o v e m e n t c o m p e t e n c y h a s t h e s h a r p e s t focus in g y m a n d d a n c e , b u t i n t e g r a t i o n a n d t r a n s f e r of w o r k b e t w e e n t h e m a n d g a m e s a t KS1 is p r o d u c t i v e . M o v e m e n t c o m p e t e n c y refers t o t h e p e r s o n b e c o m i n g m o r e a g i l e a n d a t h l e t i c , e x p l o r i n g t h e i r d e v e l o p i n g skills i n different a c t i v i t i e s ' (Reid, 1995, p . 6). O n e m u s t c a t e r for a n d h i g h l i g h t b o t h w i t h i n a n d o u t s i d e of t h e P E c u r r i c u l u m , g i v e n t h e c o l l a b o r a t i v e n a t u r e of t h e p r o v i s i o n a n d t i m e c o n s t r a i n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p a r t i c i p a t i o n . By l o o k i n g at e a c h of t h e t h r e e a c t i v i t y a r e a s i n m o r e d e t a i l w e can highlight the coherence, progression and interrelationship b e t w e e n t h e m to enhance provision in the curricula, extra-curricula a n d local c o m m u n i t y .

Games T h e r e is a c o n s e n s u s of o p i n i o n a m o n g s t p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n a l i s t s t h a t g a m e s a r e a n i m p o r t a n t a r e a of a c t i v i t y w i t h i n t h e P E N C , a n d i n p a r ticular KS1. There are t w o g o o d reasons for i n c l u d i n g g a m e s in a PE p r o g r a m m e for early y e a r s children. O n e is b a s e d o n child d e v e l o p m e n t a n d the c o n c e p t of play, a n d the other g o i n g b a c k to prehistory. ( M a n n e r s a n d Carroll 1995, p . 34) H o w e v e r , s o m e a m b i g u i t y r e m a i n s o v e r t h e n a t u r e of t h e s e g a m e s . T h i s is r e i n f o r c e d b y t h e c o n t r a s t i n g n a t u r e of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of g a m e s w i t h i n t h e N C for P E . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e i m p o r t a n c e p l a c e d o n s p o r t in s c h o o l s b y g o v e r n m e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s a n d policy, is t o o e a s i l y m i s i n -

74

Teaching Young Children GAMES

Travelling skills: - running & stopping on a signal - running and jumping - hewing and skipping - running, stopping and turning - dodging Sending skills: - rolling a ball to hit a target - throwing a ball underarm & across the space Travelling skills with equipment - dribbling a ball to hit a target - bouncing a ball whilst travelling forwards - running around obstacles whilst canying different shaped baUs

GYMNASTIC ACnvmES - holding the body still in different parts - hopping and skipping - rocking and rolling - travelling on hands and feet - travelling on different parts of the body - stretching and curling the body - travelling using hands and feet -rollingand sliding - swinging, dimbing, spinning and turning - balancing - jumping and landing.

Receiving skills: - receive a rolling ball or quoit -receivea large ball which has bounced afewtimes - receive a large ball which has bounced once - bounce and catch a large ball - throw a ball in the air underarm, let it bounce, and catch - stop large ball withfeetor hands - catch a large ball coming from the air, thrown by self.

DANCE Awareness of the body: - whote body movements (opening, closing, twisting, raising and falling)focuson use of head and spine - walk into space, runfightiyin the space, stop and turn around - walk in timetothe music - awareness of parts of the body - symmetrical movements - leading movements with specific parts of the body. The body in stillness and motion: - basic locomotor movements; walking, slopping, running, hopping - basic kxomotor movements finishing in complete stillness - twisting, curling, stretching, holdingfinishedposition still - dance created with moments of action and moments of stillness Travelling and jumping: - basic locomotor movemenis on various pathways (straight, curved and circular) - jumping ontotwo feet - marchingtomusic - leaping from one foot to another - bouncing on spot until music stops, then hold the position - leap in any direction and hold the shape in stillness. Shape of the body. - angular and stretched shapes (symmetric and asymmetic), curled shapes - moving from one shape to another Movement quality

Fig 5.3 Outline o f content for K S 1 Source: A d a p t e d from W e t t o n 1 9 9 7 terpreted as 'sport = g a m e s = PE'. This m u s t not b e allowed to h a p pen. A broad a n d balanced curriculum should be supported by sport, b u t c e r t a i n l y n o t r e p l a c e d b y it ( C l a y 1996). T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e is a n e e d t o e x p l o r e t h e n o t i o n of s p o r t s a n d its r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h i n P E a n d t h e F r a m e w o r k p r e s e n t e d in Figure 5 . 1 , as this p h i l o s o p h y will impact o n the practicalities. T h e n o t i o n of ' S p o r t E d u c a t i o n ' p r e s e n t e d b y S i e d e n t o p (1994) a n d d e v e l o p e d b y A l m o n d (1997) is u s e f u l i n t h a t it h i g h l i g h t s t h e e s s e n c e

Developing a framework for primary PE

75

of s p o r t a n d its r o l e w i t h i n P E - t h a t is, t o h e l p t o c r e a t e c o m p e t e n t , l i t e r a t e a n d e n t h u s i a s t i c p a r t i c i p a n t s in s p o r t . A l m o n d (1997, p . 35) f u r t h e r s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e t a s k of t e a c h e r s , w h e n p r e s e n t i n g s p o r t t o y o u n g p e o p l e , is t h r e e f o l d : 1. t o i n i t i a t e y o u n g p e o p l e i n t o a r a n g e of s p o r t i n g a c t i v i t i e s t h a t i l l u s t r a t e t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e a s i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s of c u l t u r a l life; 2. t o d e m o n s t r a t e h o w e n g a g e m e n t i n s p o r t i n g activities c a n e n r i c h p e o p l e ' s l i v e s a n d i m p r o v e its q u a l i t y ; a n d 3. t o p r o v i d e o p p o r t u n i t i e s for s t u d e n t s t o e n g a g e in m a k i n g d e c i sions about involvement a n d c o m m i t m e n t to sport. A c k n o w l e d g i n g t h i s , o n e c a n n o w c o n s i d e r R e i d ' s (1995) w o r k o u t l i n i n g t h e n a t u r e of c o n t e n t a n d its p r o g r e s s i o n t h r o u g h e a c h K S i n r e l a t i o n t o g a m e s . Of c o u r s e t h e t y p e s of g a m e s s e l e c t e d a s l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s i n l e s s o n s s h o u l d p a r a l l e l t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of s k i l f u l n e s s . It is t h e g a m e t h a t g i v e s t h e skill its c o n t e x t a n d t h e r e f o r e its signific a n c e . F i g u r e 5.4 e n c a p s u l a t e s h o w t h i s m i g h t b e p l o t t e d t a k i n g a c c o u n t of t h e p u p i l s ' m o t i v a t i o n a n d r e a d i n e s s t o l e a r n , a n d t h e P E N C E n d of K e y S t a g e D e s c r i p t i o n s (EKSD) a n d p r o g r a m m e s of s t u d y (PoS) for g a m e s .

Gymnastic activities G y m n a s t i c s c a n offer e x c i t i n g a n d d e m a n d i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s for e v e r y child. Enabling t h e m to challenge themselves while d e v e l o p i n g their m o v e m e n t r e p e r t o i r e . T h e a d o p t i o n of a s i m p l e m a p p i n g p r o c e d u r e for t h i s a c t i v i t y a r e a a n d its p r o g r a m m e s of s t u d y i d e n t i f i e s t h e n e c e s s a r y p r o g r e s s i o n of c o n t e n t a c r o s s all K S (see F i g u r e 5.5). T h i s is e s s e n t i a l i n t h a t it w i l l b e f r o m t h i s f o u n d a t i o n t h a t t e a c h e r s ( a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y p a r e n t s a n d local p r o v i d e r s ) w i l l b e g i n to o r c h e s t r a t e e a c h child's gymnastic education. F i g u r e 5.5 i d e n t i f i e s t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e r a n g e of i n v o l v e m e n t i n a c h i l d ' s m o v e m e n t v o c a b u l a r y f r o m KS1 t o KS2. T h i s is s u p p o r t e d b y s i m i l a r e x p e r i e n c e s i n o t h e r activity a r e a s . D u r i n g KS1 c h i l d r e n w i l l d e v e l o p t h e i r b a s i c r e p e r t o i r e of a c t i o n s (as o u t l i n e d i n F i g u r e 5.2) i n a n e n v i r o n m e n t w h i c h a l l o w s t h e m t o w o r k i n d e p e n d e n t l y , as w e l l a s co-operatively, w i t h i n a shared space a n d using shared e q u i p m e n t ( W i l l i a m s 1995). T h e N C is a b o u t c o n t e n t , n o t d e l i v e r y . T h e r e f o r e , e v e n t h o u g h progression can b e identified in the N C structure there remains that e s s e n t i a l b u t s o m e w h a t ' d o u b l e e d g e d s w o r d ' of p r o f e s s i o n a l j u d g e m e n t regarding h o w best to transmit the content within any given con-

% "Ο Ο) φ

c cc CO Ε

Q S to

_

2-8 CL