Tar Heel Writing Guide 20-21 9781533928214

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dĂƌ,ĞĞůtƌŝƟŶŐ'ƵŝĚĞ 2020–2021 University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill ĞƉĂƌƚŵĞŶƚŽĨŶŐůŝƐŚĂŶĚŽŵƉĂƌĂƟǀĞ>ŝƚĞƌĂƚƵƌĞ

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Copyright © 2021 by the Department of English and Comparative Literature, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Copyright © 2021 by Hayden-McNeil, LLC on illustrations provided Photos provided by Hayden-McNeil, LLC are owned or used under license Cover Images: wayfarerlife/Shutterstock.com; Sara Kendall/Shutterstock.com; Bryan Pollard/Shutterstock.com; KPG Payless2/Shutterstock.com; All rights reserved. Permission in writing must be obtained from the publisher before any part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system.

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Sustainability Hayden-McNeil/Macmillan Learning Curriculum Solutions is proud to be a part of the larger sustainability initiative of Macmillan, our parent company. Macmillan has a goal to reduce its carbon emissions by 65% by 2020 from our 2010 baseline. Additionally, paper purchased must adhere to the Macmillan USA Paper Sourcing and Use Policy. Hayden-McNeil partners with printers that use paper that is consistent with the environmental goals and values of Macmillan USA. This includes using paper certified by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI), and/or the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC). We also offer paper with varying percentages of post-consumer waste as well as a 100% recycled stock. Additionally, Hayden-McNeil Custom Digital provides authors with the opportunity to convert print products to a digital format to use no paper at all. Visit http://sustainability.macmillan.com to learn more.

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d  >   K &   K E d  E d ^

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

WĂƌƚ/͘tƌŝƟŶŐŝŶƚŚĞŝƐĐŝƉůŝŶĞƐ ϭͲϭ͗tƌŝƟŶŐŝŶƚŚĞEĂƚƵƌĂů^ĐŝĞŶĐĞƐ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Outcome 1: Explaining How the Natural Sciences Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Outcome 2: Locating and Evaluating Evidence in the Natural Sciences . . . . . . 9 Outcome 3: Reading Strategically in the Natural Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Outcome 4: Writing in the Natural Sciences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

ϭͲϮ͗tƌŝƟŶŐŝŶƚŚĞ^ŽĐŝĂů^ĐŝĞŶĐĞƐ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Outcome 1: Explaining How the Social Sciences Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Outcome 2: Locating and Evaluating Evidence in the Social Sciences . . . . . . 23 Outcome 3: Reading Strategically in the Social Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Outcome 4: Writing in the Social Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

ϭͲϯ͗tƌŝƟŶŐŝŶƚŚĞ,ƵŵĂŶŝƟĞƐ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 Outcome 1: Explaining How the Humanities Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Outcome 2: Locating and Evaluating Evidence in the Humanities . . . . . . . . 35 Outcome 3: Reading Strategically in the Humanities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Outcome 4: Writing in the Humanities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

ϭͲϰ͗tƌŝƟŶŐŝŶƵƐŝŶĞƐƐ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 Outcome 1: Explaining How Business Communication Works . . . . . . . . . . 42 Outcome 2: Locating and Evaluating Evidence in Business Communication . . 46 Outcome 3: Reading Strategically in Business Communication . . . . . . . . . . 47 Outcome 4: Writing in Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

ϭͲϱ͗tƌŝƟŶŐŝŶ>Ăǁ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51 Outcome 1: Explaining How Legal Communication Works . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Outcome 2: Locating and Evaluating Evidence in Legal Communication . . . . 57 Outcome 3: Reading Legal Communication Strategically . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Outcome 4: Writing in Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

ϭͲϲ͗tƌŝƟŶŐŝŶ,ĞĂůƚŚΘDĞĚŝĐŝŶĞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Outcome 1: Explaining How Health and Medical Communication Works . . . 64 Outcome 2: Locating and Evaluating Evidence in the Medical Sciences, Social Health Sciences, and Medical/Health Humanities . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Outcome 3: Reading Health and Medical Research Strategically . . . . . . . . . 75 Outcome 4: Writing About Health and/or Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

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WĂƌƚ//͘&ƌŽŵWůĂŶŶŝŶŐƚŽWƵďůŝĐĂƟŽŶ ϮͲϭ͗hŶĚĞƌƐƚĂŶĚŝŶŐZŚĞƚŽƌŝĐĂůϭϬϱZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ,ĞůƉ ŚƩƉ͗ͬͬůŝďƌĂƌLJ͘ƵŶĐ͘ĞĚƵͬŚŽƵƐĞͬϭϬϱŚĞůƉ Make an appointment any time during the semester for a 45-minute research consultation with a librarian. This service is offered specifically for students in ENGL 105/105i!

dŚĞhE>ĞĂƌŶŝŶŐĞŶƚĞƌ ŚƩƉ͗ͬͬůĞĂƌŶŝŶŐĐĞŶƚĞƌ͘ƵŶĐ͘ĞĚƵ The Learning Center offers coaching, tutoring, test-prep, and resources for working with ADHD or a learning disability. They also offer support for organization and time-management.

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/ E d ZK  h  d / K E tŚĂƚ/ƐĂZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚhŶŝǀĞƌƐŝƚLJ͍,ŽǁŽĞƐE'>ϭϬϱͬϭϬϱŝWƌĞƉĂƌĞ ^ƚƵĚĞŶƚƐƚŽĞĐŽŵĞDĞŵďĞƌƐŽĨƚŚĞZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚhŶŝǀĞƌƐŝƚLJ͍ UNC is a research university, which means that faculty, graduate students, and undergraduates are all involved in creating new knowledge, no matter what the discipline or major. Research activities can include working in a science laboratory on campus, interviewing older adults about their experiences with falling, collecting oral histories of workers at textile mills in North Carolina, or preparing a new exhibit at the Ackland Art Museum or Wilson Library. All of these research activities involve publication or communication in a range of modes, including written, oral, and multimedia formats. In your ENGL 105/105i course and beyond, you will have the chance to share and publish your research through university, state, and national conferences; through publications in undergraduate and professional journals; or through websites, installations, and exhibits. ENGL 105/105i will prepare you for the research, writing, presentation, and publication skills you will be asked to do in your major courses, future professions, and experiences within and beyond the university. ENGL 105/105i will provide you with an an immersive experience in which you can discover your own goals and plunge into the life of the university. Most likely, this curricular approach to writing in the disciplines may be unfamiliar to you; this chapter will serve as an orientation to ENGL 105/105i.

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t , d t/ > >  zK h   y WZ / E   /E  d , /^  K hZ^  ͍ Since instructors will make choices about the content, genres, and disciplines to include, there will be variation between individual sections of ENGL 105/105i. However, all ENGL 105/105i sections will reflect the following underlying Course Principles and best Course Practices.

ŽƵƌƐĞWƌŝŶĐŝƉůĞƐ The goal of ENGL 105/105i is to prepare students to write and publish across the disciplines at a research university. In ENGL 105, students will be given broad experience with research and writing in three different disciplinary areas: Natural Sciences, Social Sciences (or Business), and Humanities. Although the goals and approach are the same, ENGL 105i focuses on a single specific area or profession throughout the semester. Those areas include the following: Natural Sciences, Health & Medicine, Social Sciences, Humanities, Digital Humanities, Business, or Law. Within each unit of the course, you will be asked to produce a genre, such as a literature review or a recommendation report, that is practiced by faculty and professionals in a specific discipline or profession. You will be asked to take on a role and to act “as if ” you are members of each of these disciplines. Your goal will be to learn about the writing style, research methods, values, and practices that shape writing in each community and to display that type of writing in your own work.

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All ENGL 105/105i classes are: •

Project-based: The three unit projects will engage you in rhetorical situations that explore real-world contexts for writing/research and that start from a problem or research question.

•

Genre-based: The projects include a range of genres, forms, and mediums. You will get experience with genres such as the conference paper, journal article, business pitch, digital exhibit, or recommendation report. These genres will offer spoken and written modes as well as different mediums—including print and digital formats.

•

Research-based: You will undertake research projects that involve a variety of research methods. These methods could be textual research, library research, or they could also include archival research methods and/or other types of empirical methods—such as interviews, observations, or experimentation.

•

Publication-oriented: Addressing the audience specific to each project’s genre (rather than the teacher/grader) is key. ENGL 105/105i students are asked to “publish” their projects for these specific audiences through a course structure using options such as portfolios, conference presentations, submissions to journals or digital publications.

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ŽƵƌƐĞWƌĂĐƟĐĞƐ As opposed to a lecture format, ENGL 105/105i classes will be taught using a workshop approach that promotes interactive, experiential learning. The class will function as a seminar with 20 or fewer students, which means that each student will have a voice in the class and will be called upon to participate fully. All ENGL 105/105i classes are: •

Activity-focused: Each class will consist of a sequence of activities that engage students in the writing process: how to read, write, analyze, interpret, understand, and create texts. You will always be working on a project; each week you should be working on components of that project in class and between classes.

•

Process-based: Multiple forms of writing or composing will be incorporated. Major projects (three units) will be supported by a sequence of daily assignments. Using a process approach, you will write multiple drafts, receive ongoing feedback from your peers and instructor, and participate in evaluating your own and others’ written projects.

•

Group-oriented: Each of you will become part of a class cluster—small working groups that will serve as writing groups and discussion groups—as smaller cohorts in the larger community. You will be using digital tools (such as Sakai and/or Google Docs) to post and respond to writing and as a communication system so you can access the syllabus and daily assignments.

•

Community-centered: ENGL 105/105i will introduce you to key campus resources and may engage you with projects that seek an audience outside the class. In addition to introducing you to the world-class library resources available at UNC, you may also engage with a range of other campus partners, such as the Media Resources Center, Special Collections at Wilson Library, Ackland Art Museum, Carolina Performing Arts, and Playmakers Repertory Company.

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t , d  K ^  ^ h   ^ ^  >K K <  >/<   /E   E '> ϭϬϱͬϭϬϱ/͍ Since ENGL 105/105i will be a seminar class and not a lecture class, to be successful, you will need to attend class and participate actively. Your instructor will design a series of activities, including writing workshops, to engage you in the writing and research process. You will most likely be using your laptops in every class for a variety of tasks, such as accessing the course learning system, conducting research through the library website, collaborating with group members on tasks, or reviewing your peers’ posted drafts. Therefore, attendance is essential; in a workshop environment, it is difficult to make up the work, practice the skills, or interact with others if you aren’t physically present in the classroom. To be successful in ENGL 105/105i, we recommend that you: •

Set your own goals for what you want to achieve in the course.

•

Take the initiative to understand the course structure and assignments.

•

Be a self-starter, jumping into activities rather than being passive.

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Respect others, no matter how similar or different they or their ideas may seem to you.

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Recognize that you are part of a group and have a responsibility to the other students to work diligently and to respond thoughtfully.

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Take control of your own learning by asking questions, visiting your instructor in office hours, and being clear about your goals and expectations.

ENGL 105/105i is designed to immerse you—through role playing—into three different rhetorical situations over the course of the class. Instead of writing papers or essays (as many of you did in high school), you will be challenged to produce several different genres, across different disciplines, that typically occur in particular situations. For example, you may be asked to role play having an internship at a think tank and be asked to write a policy report for the team. In your ENGL 105/105i class, you will analyze examples of the genre in question—a policy report, in this particular case—then do research on the topic to arrive at your recommendations. Finally, you will produce a policy report for your audience. Every assignment will take on the form and conventions of a real genre—whether that be a grant proposal, a podcast, or a journal article. You are already a skilled writer, and you have valuable prior experience with different types of texts. Because we assume this foundation already exists, ENGL 105/105i does not focus on teaching or evaluating basic writing skills per se. Instead, your instructor will be evaluating how well you adopt a given role and produce a project that matches the genre model. Because of the range of disciplines and genres in the course, most students find that they can excel as writers when they connect to a topic or discipline that interests them. The instructor for your course will provide a syllabus with specific instructions and guidelines. However, below is an overall list of behaviors and practices that will help you to thrive in ENGL 105/105i: •

Attend all classes

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Submit work on time

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Do multiple drafts of assignments

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Provide thoughtful feedback to others

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Participate fully in group activities

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Sustain effort and investment on each draft

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Make substantive revisions

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Proofread successfully so that all assignments conform to conventions of edited revised English

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Meet with your instructor to discuss drafts and/or your progress in the course

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Show respect for your peers and the instructor

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Rather than working for a grade, aim to improve as a writer and produce work that is publication-ready

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Use technology thoughtfully as directed by your instructor to engage with course materials and coursework appropriately

•

Demonstrate academic integrity and follow the UNC Honor Code •

Academic Integrity: All students at UNC are required to observe UNC’s ,ŽŶŽƌ ŽĚĞ. All the research, writing, or other work you produce in the course must be your own or be attributed to any sources (electronic or print, etc.) that you cite or integrate. If you are ever in doubt about “original work,” or about citing a source or attributing information from a source, please check with your instructor. This policy covers research and writing that count as homework assignments, drafts, anything posted on Sakai, as well as finished projects in the course.

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For more, information, see this UNC Writing Center resource on ĐĂĚĞŵŝĐ /ŶƚĞŐƌŝƚLJ.

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t Z / d / E '  / E  d ,   E d h Z  >  ^  /  E   ^ This chapter will explore how different natural science fields frame research questions, evaluate evidence, and make knowledge claims, as well as how researchers communicate within and beyond their fields. Additionally, you will learn how to read natural science sources critically for content and for genre models. You will then learn how to apply this knowledge of natural sciences conventions to your own writing.

 / E / E '  , K t  d ,   E d h Z  > ^/E^tKZ< The scientific method can be traced back to Francis Bacon in the seventeenth century. Bacon emphasized making careful, systematic observations about the world. Then, these observations could be used to create generalizations. Bacon claimed that scientists could verify their generalizations by gathering more data, and the verified ideas would become axioms. Bacon also believed that certain types of “facts,” such as direct observations or data from experiments, were most useful. In other words, for Bacon, the best kind of evidence was empirical data rather than abstract reasoning. The natural sciences continue to value empirical evidence—“facts” derived from sense experience, observation, computational modeling or experimentation—as the highest form of knowledge. Researchers design studies to determine whether the studies’ findings support a hypothesis (or not). If a hypothesis is supported, other scientists conduct more research to confirm, modify, or refute it. After enough evidence has been collected, a hypothesis may eventually become part of a theory—or an explanation for natural phenomena that is widely accepted among scientists. (Of course, any theory can still be challenged, refuted, or modified as more evidence emerges through additional research).

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tŚĂƚŽEĂƚƵƌĂů^ĐŝĞŶƟƐƚƐsĂůƵĞ͍ Scientific research methods all value credible data, or information, often (but not always) in the form of numbers. When scientists read research produced by others, they often focus on the results first—the data described in an article or showed in visualizations such as graphs, charts, or diagrams. They may also consider the scientific methods used and consider how appropriate and effective those methods may be. When a problem—such as accusations of

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Researchers in each discipline have specific methods that they use. While most of these disciplines may use some combination of observation, experimentation, theorizing, and computation, they have unique techniques to do so. For example, particle physicists might conduct experiments using a particle accelerator such as a Large Hadron Collider.

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scientific fraud—emerges, it typically happens because others have noticed problems with the data or methods used. That means that scientific writing usually focuses on how data was gathered, what specific results were obtained from a study, and what the data means for researchers in the field or for a current issue, such as climate change or habitat loss. Scientists also value research integrity. Because scientific claims are based on the continual amassing of evidence; false evidence is a threat to the basic character of the scientific process. The falsification of data on any level is a violation of the trust scientists place in each other to conduct their research carefully, accurately, and honestly. Also, because the body of scientific knowledge grows with each new study, scientists value up-to-date information. If a study relies on outdated information, the findings may not be credible or consequential. And since no individual scientist can collect all the evidence about a topic, the scientific community must work together to expand our knowledge about the universe. Although scientists may keep their work private during a study, they move quickly to disseminate findings once they have results. In addition to dissemination of new knowledge, scientists value citation as the practice of giving credit where credit is due. For more information about citing research, see Part 2͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϯ.

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9

Researchers in the natural sciences primarily value evidence from scholarly (also called peer-reviewed) journal articles. However, there are many types of natural science writing that can be useful for you as a student writer. In your research, you will generally encounter three primary types of sources: Scholarly Sources: Articles written by scientists, clinicians, or researchers that are published in peer-reviewed journals and intended for professional audiences. These include traditional peer-reviewed journal articles (sometimes called “experimental” articles), literature reviews (compilations of recent peer-reviewed journal articles about a certain topic), and comment pieces (brief opinion pieces that are published in response to other peer-reviewed journal articles). For more information, see Science’s description of the four different types of articles that it publishes.

•

Popular Sources: Blog posts, websites, social media posts, and other emergent digital sources written by science writers/journalists and intended for popular audiences. One example of a popular source is “ǀĞŶsŝƌƵƐĞƐĂŶ'Ğƚ/ŶĨĞĐƚĞĚtŝƚŚKƚŚĞƌsŝƌƵƐĞƐ,” which is a news story (written by science journalist Sarah Yang and published in The Atlantic) that discusses three new algae-related viruses found in Ontario, Canada. As you evaluate popular sources, you might draw on Health News Review’s ĐƌŝƚĞƌŝĂ to help you determine if they are well-written.

•

Hybrid Sources: Sources written by professional or academic organizations that are intended for popular audiences. For example, the ĞŶƚĞƌƐĨŽƌŝƐĞĂƐĞŽŶƚƌŽůĂŶĚ WƌĞǀĞŶƟŽŶ;ͿƉĂŐĞĂďŽƵƚŇƵǀĂĐĐŝŶĞƐ is created and maintained by the CDC, a government organization, to educate the American public about the risks and benefits of flu vaccines.

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•

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10

You can find some of these types of sources in the databases listed below, all of which are available through the UNC Libraries:

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sŝƐƵĂůŝnjĂƟŽŶƐ Visualizations are an important element of science writing. Scientists use visualizations, such as charts, graphs, and figures, to illustrate their data or claims. When you are reading, you should pay attention to how these visuals are incorporated into the text and how they interpret the results of the study. Evaluate the visualizations by asking yourself the following questions: 1.

What is the visual depicting? How is the visual labeled? What colors are used? How does the use of text and color influence your perception of the data?

2.

Does the author highlight or emphasize certain aspects of the data? How?

3.

How is the visual organized? What units are used to measure the data? How do these measurements influence the aggregation of the data? Has the data been cropped or filtered?

4.

Does the visual include a key? Is the visual easy to read? Does the author provide a textual interpretation of the visual?

5.

Who produced the data? Did it come from a reputable source, such as a university or governmental agency? What do you imagine was the intent behind the study?

For example, the graph in Figure 1-1.3 is three dimensional, but only two dimensions are being considered in the data: number of students enrolled and year. The third dimension is unnecessary and potentially misleading. The use of three different shades of grey is also unnecessary and again, could confuse viewers. While the data come from a reputable source,

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the United States Department of Education, they are presented in a way that detracts from the findings. The three-dimensional effect makes it harder to see that public school enrollments were higher in 2005 than 1970, which is the general trend depicted in the data.

13

Enrollment Trends in Public and Private Elementary Schools 1970–2005

# of students (in thousands)

60

48 32.3

32.5

36

27.6

33.6

33.5

29.8

Public

24 Private 12 4

0 1970

3.9

1980

4.8

4

1990

1995

4.8

2000

4.9

2005

Year U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2006). Digest of Education Statistics, 2005 (NCES 2006-030)

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 y  Z  / ^   ϭͳ ϭ , ͗ s / ^ h  > /  d / K E ^ EXERCISE As mentioned earlier, scientists make claims by using reason. For example, inductive reasoning uses specific observations to make broader generalizations. The quality of an inductive claim depends on the evidence used. However, there is always some uncertainty. Because these generalizations cannot be absolutely guaranteed, scientists tend to use cautious, or hedging, language. For example the following passage uses hedges (here, shown in bold) that modify the level of certainty in the second sentence: “What we have seen is the ability of these cells to feed the blood vessels of tumors and to heal the blood vessels surrounding wounds. The findings suggest that these adult stem cells may be an ideal source of cells for clinical therapy. For example, we can envision the use of these stem cells for therapies against cancer tumors […]” (University of Minnesota). Consider how different the second sentence would sound if the authors had written “The findings show that these adult cells are an ideal source of cells for clinical therapy.” In the process of scientific discovery, inductive reasoning is useful for generating hypotheses and formulating theories. Deductive reasoning moves in the opposite direction: from a general claim to a specific occurrence. While inductive reasoning involves uncertainty, deductive claims are certain provided that the premises are true. In chemistry, for example, it is known that noble gases are stable. Also, we know that neon is a noble gas. Therefore, scientists can logically conclude that neon is stable.

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Logic

14

As you gain more knowledge in a scientific field, you will be better able to evaluate scientific claims. However, you can start developing this critical skill by paying attention to how scientists reason and make claims.

ZĞĂĚŝŶŐǁŝƚŚ'ĞŶƌĞǁĂƌĞŶĞƐƐ In your future coursework or in other writing situations, you may want to look for models. For example, if you were preparing to write a grant proposal, you could locate several examples of the genre. First, you should read each version carefully, paying attention to how each example is formatted and organized. Also, you should make observations about the content, argument, and style of the text. After you have read a few examples, you can compare them. Grant proposals will share certain similarities by virtue of the conventions of the genre. However, some aspects of the text might be prescribed by the grant-offering institution. In your comparison, note how the proposals differ and reflect on what strategy will be most effective in your rhetorical situation. You can also develop genre awareness for other kinds of compositions, such as a lab presentation, conference poster, or educational video. For these situations, you will want to pay special attention to the use of visuals, vocal techniques, and body language in addition to the organization of content.

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K h d  K D   ϰ͗ t Z / d / E '  / E  d ,   E d h Z  >  ^  /  E   ^ As you’ve seen, writing is an important aspect of research in the natural sciences. While you are an undergraduate at UNC, you may need to write lab reports or submit a grant proposal to request funding for your summer research project. This section will focus on two key conventions in science writing—the use of sections and passive (versus active) voice—to help you become a more effective science writer.

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hƐĞŽĨ^ĞĐƟŽŶƐ As noted in the “Reading for Scientific Content” section above, scientists often use formalized schemes to organize their writing. One primary reason for the use of headings is to make information easily accessible. However, different genres tend to organize information in different ways. Review articles or popular science journalism may also use sections. However, these texts are often organized thematically. For example, an article about an environmental issue may introduce the topic, explain the problem, and then discuss a potential solution. Or a source may make a call-to-action. As you look at genre models, consider how organization connects with purpose and audience. Look at a few examples of different scientific genres and compare their organizational schemes. What does each structure emphasize to readers? What does it downplay? How does the organization contribute to the purpose of each genre? How might you characterize each organization strategy?

ĐƟǀĞǀĞƌƐƵƐWĂƐƐŝǀĞsŽŝĐĞ Students often struggle with the distinction between active and passive voice. Since there is not an ironclad rule about which to use in what circumstances, you should become aware of when and why you might choose active or passive voice. Some introductory sciences courses, for example, ask students to use passive voice in lab reports and other written work. In short, in active voice, the subject acts; in passive voice, the subject is acted upon.

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15

For example: Active: We conducted an experiment over the course of four days. Passive: The experiment was conducted over the course of four days. Active voice is associated with strong, clear sentences, while passive voice can create ambiguity. Also, active voice tends to be more concise than passive voice, and concision can be key if you are trying to stay under a word or page limit. Most scientific style guidelines now allow researchers to write using the active voice (typically “we,” since most scientific papers have more than one author). In passive voice, sometimes verbs are turned into nouns, which are called nominalizations (e.g. evaluation, decision, and argument). Nominalized forms often end in “-ion/-tion,” “-ment,” “-ity/-ty,” or “-ness.” For example: Active: The authors concluded that colored stimuli positively affected memory retention. Passive: The conclusion that colored stimuli had a positive effect on memory retention was made by the authors. Nominalizations frequently represent stabilized concepts or theories, such as diffraction, precipitation, electricity, or (as in the case above), conclusion and retention. It is hard to avoid using these types of nominalizations when writing about science, but you can try to limit other kinds of nominalizations when appropriate. Also, passive voice is sometimes accompanied by a secondary problem: dangling modifiers. A modifier describes, clarifies, or gives more detail about a concept. However, when the concept being modified is missing, it is considered a dangling modifier. Consider the following example: Original: Based on the results, plant growth was positively influenced by the fertilizer. The first clause, “based on the results,” implies that the subject is a conclusion; however, the subject of the sentence is “plant growth.” Revision #1: The results indicate that plant growth was positively influenced by the fertilizer. Revision #2: Based on the results, we conclude that plant growth was positively influenced by the fertilizer. This revision retains the introductory modifier and eliminates passive voice. Despite its limitations, passive voice is often perceived as more objective and scientific. Passive voice can be useful when you want to emphasize the research and not the researcher. Also, passive voice is sometimes used as a hedging technique to qualify or avoid overstating the application of a claim. If you decide to use passive voice, make sure that the sentence is still coherent. Learn more about the passive voice in this video from the UNC Writing Center.

 y  Z  / ^   ϭͳ ϭ : ͗   d / s   s ^ ͘  W ^ ^ / s   s K /   EXERCISE

Z ^ K h Z  ^& K Zt Z / d / E '/ Ed , E d h Z  >^  /  E  ^ McMillan, Victoria E. Writing Papers in the Biological Sciences. Macmillan, 2011. Penrose, Ann M., and Steven B. Katz. Writing in the Sciences: Exploring Conventions of Scientific Discourse. New York: Longman, 2010.

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This revision eliminates the dangling modifier and retains passive voice.

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tZ/d/E'/Ed,^K/>^/E^ Broadly speaking, the social sciences seek to answer questions about humans, their identities, and their social systems. When studying the behaviors of individuals, groups, political systems, or cultures, social scientists ask the following questions: •

What is it?

•

How does it develop and change?

•

How does it function and interact?

The need to understand systems is what guides social scientists’ development of methods and theories in the inquiry process. Their decisions about the best methods to use, in turn, affect how they write about their findings.

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When taking field notes, ethnographers are careful to write down everything that could inform how people create meaning. Therefore, they might begin by noting what at first seems like mundane facts: the physical surroundings (color schemes, sounds, layout, objects) and then move to describing the characteristics of people and their activities. For ethnographers, all of these detailed notes are their primary data. In order to analyze this data, they reflect and write critically about how these behaviors and actions create meaning for the culture. In the above example of studying UNC students’ political opinions on the criminal justice system, a qualitative social scientist might also use ethnography. This social scientist would live in the residence halls with a group of students, attend their classes, hang out with them in the evening, go to campus organization meetings, and interview them multiple times using open-ended questions. Such an approach would give the social scientist a solid understanding of what makes this specific group think and act. The social scientist then uses this deep understanding of the group to generalize about others in similar social positions. However, one limitation of this approach is that the social scientist has only collected data from a small group of students. Other social scientists thus choose to use quantitative approaches, which can help with investigating a larger group of subjects.

YƵĂŶƟƚĂƟǀĞDĞƚŚŽĚƐ Social scientists who use quantitative methods value numerical data that they collect from larger samples. They believe that in order to truly understand the relationship among people, behaviors, and social systems, researchers must investigate a large number of people and must use statistics to analyze the results. They see this approach as more objective than qualitative approaches, which again rely on a single researcher making interpretations of people’s behaviors. Quantitative researchers always convert their data into numeric form. To capture this data, they often use experiments, questionnaires, and surveys that are closed-ended, meaning that the questions have a very specific set of answers. Quantitative researchers might also work with existing datasets, such as census information.

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In the example, again, of studying UNC students’ political opinions on the criminal justice system, one method a quantitative social scientist might pursue is to send a survey to the entire UNC student body. In this survey, there might be 20 questions about the student’s opinions on the criminal justice system. Students would be given a limited number of possible answers to each question (i.e., A, B, C, or D). The social scientist would then use a computer software program to analyze the data and run specific statistical inquiries. Such an approach would give the social scientist clearer understanding of the opinions of a large group of UNC students. Of course, this approach also has the limitation of not always being able to represent the thought processes or other complexities that led students to make their choices.

21

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NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

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KƚŚĞƌƐŽĐŝŽůŽŐLJƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĞƌƐǁŝƚŚĂŶ ŝŶƚĞƌĞƐƚŝŶƚŚĞ ƚŽƉŝĐ

ŽŵŵŝƩĞĞ ŵĞŵďĞƌƐĞǀĂůƵĂƟŶŐ^hZ& ƉƌŽƉŽƐĂůƐ

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hŶĚĞƌŐƌĂĚƵĂƚĞ ƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĞƌŝŶ ƐŽĐŝŽůŽŐLJ

ǀĂůƵĂƚĞĞdžŝƐƟŶŐ ƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĂŶĚͬŽƌ ĂƌŐƵĞĨŽƌĂƐƉĞĐŝĮĐĂƉƉƌŽĂĐŚ ĨŽƌĨƵƚƵƌĞ ƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ

zŽƵǁĂŶƚƚŽƌĞǀŝĞǁĞdžŝƐƚŝŶŐƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚŽŶŵƵůƟƌĂĐŝĂůƐƚƵĚĞŶƚŝĚĞŶƟƚLJĂŶĚ ŝŶƐƟƚƵƟŽŶĂůƐƵƉƉŽƌƚĂƚ ƵŶŝǀĞƌƐŝƟĞƐĂŶĚƉƵďůŝƐŚ ŝƚŝŶhE͛ƐJOURney ƵŶĚĞƌŐƌĂĚƵĂƚĞƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ ũŽƵƌŶĂů͘

WĞƌƐƵĂĚĞ ŐƌĂŶƟŶŐĂŐĞŶĐLJ ƚŽŐŝǀĞŵŽŶĞLJ ƚŽĨƵŶĚŶĞǁ ƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ

zŽƵǁĂŶƚĂ^ƵŵŵĞƌ hŶĚĞƌŐƌĂĚƵĂƚĞZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ &ĞůůŽǁƐŚŝƉ;^hZ&ͿŐƌĂŶƚ ƚŽƐƵƉƉŽƌƚĮĞůĚƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ ŝŶƚŚĞ'ĂůĂƉĂŐŽƐ/ƐůĂŶĚƐ ƚŽƐƚƵĚLJƚŚĞƐƉƌĞĂĚŽĨ ŝŶǀĂƐŝǀĞƐƉĞĐŝĞƐĂŶĚŝƚƐ ĞīĞĐƚƐŽŶůŽĐĂůĨĂƌŵĞƌƐ͘

ƌŐƵĞĨŽƌĂ ĐŽƵƌƐĞŽĨĂĐƟŽŶ

zŽƵǁƌŝƚĞĂƉŽůŝĐLJ ƌĞƉŽƌƚƚŚĂƚƉƌŽǀŝĚĞƐ ƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚͲďĂƐĞĚĞǀŝĚĞŶĐĞ ŝŶĨĂǀŽƌŽĨ;ŽƌĂŐĂŝŶƐƚͿ ŝŵƉůĞŵĞŶƟŶŐǀŝƌƚƵĂů ƉƌĞͲĞŐŝƐůĂƚŽƌƐĂŶĚ ĚƵĐĂƟŽŶ ƉŽůŝĐLJŵĂŬĞƌƐ ƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĞƌ

23

 y  Z  / ^   ϭͳ Ϯ  ͗  d , E K ' Z  W , /   t Z / d / E '

K h d  K D   Ϯ͗ > K  d / E '   E    s > h d / E ' s/E/Ed,^K/>^/E^ In their writing, social scientists use evidence generated through quantitative and qualitative methods (as described in Outcome 1), but they also draw on existing research published in academic journals. They use this existing research to establish the framework for their study, justify the methods used, and interpret the results in light of field-specific theories and concepts. As a student, you may be given assignments that ask you to do your own original research (such as conducting a survey or interpreting an existing data set). Alternatively, you may be asked to draw primarily on existing research that you synthesize and evaluate (as in a literature review or policy report). For primary research, such as interviews, surveys, or ethnographies, you should consider the following questions: •

What is my research question? What method would best help me to answer that question?

•

Who are the people I want to study? How can I reach those people and inform them about my study?

•

What are the ethics involved in my study? How can I inform participants about potential ethical concerns?

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EXERCISE

24

•

(For surveys or interviews): What questions do I want to ask? How can I word these questions effectively so that I do not bias the participants’ responses? What types of questions will yield the results I am looking for? (For instance, open-ended questions versus close-ended questions).

 y  Z  / ^   ϭͳ Ϯ  ͗ ^ K h Z   ^  / E  d ,   ^ K  /  >  ^  /  E   ^ EXERCISE Secondary research can help you to describe the results of your research in relation to existing research in a field. You can find many secondary sources in the databases and tools listed below, many of which are available through the UNC Libraries.

KsZs/t^͕Et^͕E^hDDZ/^ Z&ZE dKK>^E DATA

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dzWK& d^ED Z^Z, ^ŽĐŝŽůŽŐŝĐĂůďƐƚƌĂĐƚƐ

h^&h>&KZ ZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĂƌƟĐůĞƐ͕ůŝƚĞƌĂƚƵƌĞƌĞǀŝĞǁƐ͕ĂŶĚƌĞƉŽƌƚƐŝŶ ƐŽĐŝŽůŽŐLJĂŶĚƌĞůĂƚĞĚĮĞůĚƐ͘

ŵĞƌŝĐĂ͕,ŝƐƚŽƌLJĂŶĚ ZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĂƌƟĐůĞƐ͕ůŝƚĞƌĂƚƵƌĞƌĞǀŝĞǁƐ͕ĂŶĚĐŽŵŵĞŶ>ŝĨĞ ƚĂƌLJĨŽĐƵƐŝŶŐŽŶŵĞƌŝĐĂŶŚŝƐƚŽƌLJ͘ ŶƚŚƌŽƉŽůŽŐLJWůƵƐ

ZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚŝŶĞƚŚŶŽůŽŐLJ͕ĂƌĐŚĂĞŽůŽŐLJ͕ĨŽůŬůŽƌĞĂŶĚ ŵĂƚĞƌŝĂůĐƵůƚƵƌĞ͘

ŽŶƚĞdžƚƐ

ƌƟĐůĞƐ͕ĞƐƐĂLJƐ͕ĂŶĚŬƌĞǀŝĞǁƐĨŽƌŐĞŶĞƌĂů ƌĞĂĚĞƌƐŝŶƚĞƌĞƐƚĞĚŝŶƐŽĐŝŽůŽŐLJ͘dŚŝƐŝƐĂŐŽŽĚƉůĂĐĞ ƚŽůŽĐĂƚĞƚŽƉŝĐƐŽƌĂĐĐĞƐƐŝďůĞŽǀĞƌǀŝĞǁƐŽĨĂƌĞĐĞŶƚ ŬŽƌĂƌƟĐůĞ͘

^ĂƉŝĞŶƐ

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/ƐƐƵĞƐĂŶĚŽŶƚƌŽǀĞƌƐŝĞƐŽŶ&ŝůĞ

&ŝŶĚŝŶŐŽǀĞƌǀŝĞǁƐŽĨƉŽůŝĐLJŝƐƐƵĞƐ͕ǁŚŝĐŚLJŽƵĐĂŶ ŵŝŶĞĨŽƌĨƵƌƚŚĞƌƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ͘dŚĞůŝƐƚƐŽĨƚŽƉŝĐƐĂƌĞĂůƐŽ ƵƐĞĨƵůĨŽƌŚĞůƉŝŶŐLJŽƵĮŶĚĂƚŽƉŝĐĨŽƌĂƉƌŽũĞĐƚƐƵĐŚ ĂƐĂƉŽůŝĐLJďƌŝĞĨ͘

YZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĞƌ

WŽůŝĐLJͲŽƌŝĞŶƚĞĚŽǀĞƌǀŝĞǁƐŽĨƐĐŝĞŶĐĞĂŶĚŚĞĂůƚŚƚŽƉŝĐƐ͘hƐĞƚŚĞǁŽƌŬƐĐŝƚĞĚĂƐĂƐƚĂƌƟŶŐƉŽŝŶƚĨŽƌLJŽƵƌ ŽǁŶƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ͘

hŶŝƚĞĚ^ƚĂƚĞƐĞŶƐƵƐ ŽŵƉƌĞŚĞŶƐŝǀĞĚĂƚĂ͕ǁŝƚŚƚŽŽůƐĂŶĚĂƉƉƐLJŽƵĐĂŶ ƵƌĞĂƵ ƵƐĞƚŽĞdžƉůŽƌĞŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶ͘ ^ƚĂƟƐƟĐĂůďƐƚƌĂĐƚ ŽĨƚŚĞhŶŝƚĞĚ^ƚĂƚĞƐ

ŐŽŽĚƐŽƵƌĐĞĨŽƌƐƚĂƟƐƟĐƐƌĞůĂƚĞĚƚŽĂǀĂƌŝĞƚLJŽĨ ƚŽƉŝĐƐ;ĨŽĐƵƐĞƐŽŶƚŚĞhŶŝƚĞĚ^ƚĂƚĞƐͿ͘

At UNC, you can get help with social sciences research methods at the Odum Institute. They can assist with topics including setting up an online survey using Qualtrics software, developing effective interview questions, or interpreting the results of your research.

 y  Z  / ^  ^  ϭͳ Ϯ  ͗ t Z / d / E '    K h d  Y h  E d / dd / s   d

 EXERCISE

NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

K h d  K D   ϯ͗ Z    / E '  ^ d Z d  ' /   > >z  / E  d ,  ^K/>^/E^

25

Because social scientists value methods and data, much social sciences writing is based on informing readers about the methods the researcher(s) used to acquire the data, the legitimacy of their evaluation of the data, and the larger significance of the data for understanding human behavior and/or society. As a reader of social sciences texts, it is important to pay careful attention to the methods and data that authors use to make their arguments. Regardless of genre, a critical reader of social sciences texts asks questions about the legitimacy of methods and data. For example, these are the types of questions that you should keep in mind when reading any social sciences texts: Genre •

What genre is this?

•

Who is the intended audience?

•

How is it organized?

Methods •

What evidence does the author use to support the argument?

•

Does the author use qualitative or quantitative methods?

•

Why did the researcher decide to use those specific methods?

•

Was the researcher relying on existing scholarly sources when choosing those methods?

•

Did the researcher pay attention to sample size and representation when choosing research subjects?

Argument •

What other rhetorical conventions is the author using to convince readers?

•

What other sources does the author cite? How do these additional sources support the author’s argument?

•

How did the researcher analyze the results?

•

How did the researcher present the results?

•

Did the researcher draw on other scholarly work to discuss the significance of the data?

•

Is that other scholarly work relevant? (i.e., related by topic or method, not outdated)

Most scholarly social sciences genres will include a general introduction, a review of literature, description of methods used to acquire data, an explanation of the results of the data, a discussion of the significance of the data, and a conclusion discussing the larger implications of the findings for the field or policy in which it originated. To get a better idea of how social sciences articles work, examine this annotated sample article.

NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

,WdZϭͳϮ tZ /d/E' /Ed,^K/>^/E^

Results

26

K h d  K D   ϰ͗ t Z / d / E '  / E  d ,   ^ K  /  >  ^  /  E   ^ Social scientists value evidence-based arguments, although they sometimes disagree about how best to acquire that evidence and about what exactly counts as data. Regardless of their approaches, though, they always carefully write about their methods and data so that readers can understand how it was acquired and analyzed. In your own social sciences projects, you will gather evidence, analyze the data, and write about the data’s significance using a qualitative and/or quantitative approach. As discussed above, quantitative social scientists value numerical data. However, writing about large amounts of data in a simple and easy to understand manner can be difficult. As a result, quantitative social scientists often rely on creating data visualizations to demonstrate the significance of their data (much like the natural scientists do, as described in Part 1,ŚĂƉƚĞƌϭ). You likely have seen such data visualizations when political commentators try to make sense of the results from a presidential election. They often show a map of the United States and color states blue or red with the number of electoral college votes each candidate is predicted to have won. Such a visualization makes it much easier to see the results from each state simultaneously. However, these maps can also confuse area for population size—it is not clear from the map, for instance, that some “red states” are less densely populated than many “blue states.” Researchers should be careful to avoid this kind of confusion by selecting visualizations and variables carefully.

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When using these data visualizations in their writing, quantitative social scientists go to great lengths to explain to their readers how to interpret the data in the visualizations. Therefore, the data visualizations and the writing work together to create the argument. In order to understand how the data visualization and writing work together, imagine the following: You are a quantitative social scientist working at a nonprofit that focuses on improving access to higher education. You have just completed a six-month study analyzing how college students pay for their education. Your nonprofit wants to use this data to advocate for more affordable options in paying for higher education, so you are in the process of writing a policy recommendation to give to federal government officials. To illustrate your key points, you create data visualizations that make recommendations about how the federal government should change their policies. &ŝŐƵƌĞϭͲϮ͘Ϯ shows a sample data visualization for this project. Percentage of full-time/full-year undergraduates who received grants, student loans, and any type of financial aid, by type of institution: 2003–04 100

Grants

Student loans

Public 2-year

Public 4-year

Any aid

80 60 40 20 0 Private not-for-profit 4-year

Private for-profit

NOTE: Full-time/full-year students were enrolled full time for 9 or more months from July 1, 2003 to June 30, 2004. Grants include any grants, scholarships, or tuition waivers from federal, state, institutional, or private sources, including employers. Student loans may be from any source, but exclude federal Parent Loans to Undergraduate Students (PLUS). Total aid includes grants, loans, work-study, and any other aid, including federal PLUS loans. Total aid does not include federal education tax benefits. Estimates include postsecondary students in Puerto Rico. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2003–04 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:04).

&ŝŐƵƌĞϭͲϮ͘Ϯ͘ ^ĂŵƉůĞĚĂƚĂǀŝƐƵĂůŝnjĂƟŽŶ;͞^ƚƵĚĞŶƚ&ŝŶĂŶĐŝŶŐ͕͟ǀŝŝͿ͘ NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

Researchers who use qualitative methods also take great care in presenting their data, which could be quotations from interviews or open-ended surveys or—for ethnographic observations—descriptive details, bits of conversation, or anecdotes. Writers carefully introduce and usually interpret these types of evidence, similarly to how they incorporate quantitative data, by helping to draw out the implications or significance of the evidence.

27

When dealing with large amounts of quantitative data, such as open-ended survey responses, researchers often use specific methods with which to analyze the responses. For instance, they may use qualitative coding, which involves reading through a set of responses, developing a code list of themes they see repeating, and then coding the individual responses based on the list. The researchers may then pull out some representative quotes for each theme to use in an article or report. (See the annotated sample article in Outcome 3 for an example of how researchers use this type of coding).

 y  Z  / ^   ϭͳ Ϯ  ͗ t Z / d / E '    K h d  Y h  > / dd / s    d

,WdZϭͳϮ tZ /d/E' /Ed,^K/>^/E^

EXERCISE

NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

,WdZϭͳϮ tZ /d/E'/ Ed ,^K/>^/E^

28

NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

Diego Cervo/Shutterstock.com

29

tZ/d/E'/Ed,,hDE/d/^ The arts and humanities are an exciting field of study: the humanities bring imagination, inclusivity, beauty, and depth to human interactions, whether those interactions be personal or global. In this chapter, you will explore how scholars in the humanities frame their research, compile evidence, and reach out to audiences as they tackle some of the “big questions” about the human experience.

 / E / E '  , K t  d ,   , h D  E / d /  ^ tKZ< The humanities focus on what we have in common, despite differences in language, culture, geography, politics, or history. They thrive by encouraging people to see patterns and connections and to express these connections in scholarship, in dialogue, and in creative work—art, music, poetry, fiction, drama.

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As a way of understanding the differences in the way the sciences and the humanities work, consider the following example regarding wolves. To understand how much territory a wolf needs to flourish in the wild, a wildlife biologist might track a wolf ’s movements with GPS software and from there develop a map charting these movements. The biologist could say definitively that a wolf hunts in territory of X square miles. A humanities scholar might focus on the intersection of wolves and humans by asking why wolves figure so prominently in European fairy tales. Does their prominence in these stories signal that humans and wolves share similar characteristics? Does the appearance of wolves in metaphors (he “wolfed” down his food, a “wolfish” grin) suggest an attempt to differentiate humans from wolves? Could this fascination/fear of wolves affect our treatment of the wolf in the wild? The scientist keeps the focus on the wolf and its ecosystem. The humanities researcher keeps the focus on the wolf-human intermix. Another distinction between the sciences and the humanities has to do with the questions each raises. Scientists focus on issues of fact and definition, working to establish data and evidence that, over time, can lead to more and more confident answers to questions such as “do wolves hunt beavers?” (as we saw in Chapter 1-1). The humanities, in contrast, tend to ask questions that are more evaluative. For example, should we view Nathaniel Hawthorne’s character Hester Prynne in The Scarlet Letter as an adulteress who deserves the condemnation of her community? Or should we view her as a rebel challenging an overly strict social world? Is the real focus of the book Hester or is it her community? Is Hester a villain or a heroine? These questions focus more on how we interpret a literary artifact than on the facts about that artifact (such as when it was published or who wrote it).

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tŚŽWƌŽĚƵĐĞƐ

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>ŝƚĞƌĂƌLJĐƌŝƟĐ

WƌĞƐĞŶƚĂ ƵŶŝƋƵĞŝŶƚĞƌƉƌĞƚĂƟŽŶďĂƐĞĚ ŽŶƚĞdžƚƵĂůĂŶĚͬ ŽƌĂƌĐŚŝǀĂů ĞǀŝĚĞŶĐĞ

KƚŚĞƌƐƉĞĐŝĂůŝƐƚƐŝŶƚŚĞĮĞůĚ

ŽŽŬƌĞǀŝĞǁĞƌ

^ƵŵŵĂƌŝnjĞĂŶĚ ĞǀĂůƵĂƚĞĂŶĞǁ Ŭ

ƩĞŶĚĞĞƐŽĨ ƚŚĞWĂĐŝĮĐ hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝƚLJ hŶĚĞƌŐƌĂĚƵĂƚĞ WŚŝůŽƐŽƉŚLJ ŽŶĨĞƌĞŶĐĞ

ƌŐƵĞĨŽƌĂƉĂƌƟĐƵůĂƌƉŽƐŝƟŽŶ hŶĚĞƌŐƌĂĚƵĂƚĞ ŽƌŝŶƚĞƌƉƌĞƉŚŝůŽƐŽƉŚLJ ƚĂƟŽŶƵƐŝŶŐ ŵĂũŽƌ ƉŚŝůŽƐŽƉŚŝĐĂů ƚĞdžƚƐ

ƩĞŶĚĞĞƐŽĨ ƚŚĞhZĐŽŶĨĞƌĞŶĐĞ

ƌƚĐƌŝƟĐ

KīĞƌĂŶŝŶƚĞƌƉƌĞƚĂƟŽŶŽĨĂ ƐŝŐŶŝĮĐĂŶƚǁŽƌŬ ŽĨĂƌƚ

sŝƐŝƚŽƌƐƚŽƚŚĞ ĞdžŚŝďŝƚ;ŽƌƉŽƚĞŶƟĂůǀŝƐŝƚŽƌƐͿ

ƵƌĂƚŽƌ

ƵƌĂƚĞĂ ƐĞůĞĐƟŽŶŽĨ ŵĂƚĞƌŝĂůƐ͕ŽīĞƌ ĂũƵƐƟĮĐĂƟŽŶ ĨŽƌƉƵƫŶŐ ƚŚĞƐĞŵĂƚĞƌŝĂůƐ ƚŽŐĞƚŚĞƌ͕ĂŶĚ ƐŚĂƌĞƌĞůĞǀĂŶƚ ďĂĐŬŐƌŽƵŶĚ ŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶ

^hZ&ŐƌĂŶƚƐĞůĞĐƟŽŶĐŽŵŵŝƚƚĞĞŵĞŵďĞƌƐ

zŽƵĂƌĞĂƉƉůLJŝŶŐĨŽƌĂ WĞƌƐƵĂĚĞ ^ƵŵŵĞƌhŶĚĞƌŐƌĂĚƵhŶĚĞƌŐƌĂĚƵĂƚĞ ŐƌĂŶƟŶŐĂŐĞŶĐLJ ĂƚĞZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ&ĞůůŽǁƐŚŝƉ ƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĞƌŝŶ ƚŽŐŝǀĞŵŽŶĞLJ ;^hZ&ͿŐƌĂŶƚƚŽǀŝƐŝƚƚŚĞ ŶŐůŝƐŚ ƚŽĨƵŶĚŶĞǁ ůŝnjĂďĞƚŚĂƌƌĞƩƌŽǁŶƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ ŝŶŐĂƌĐŚŝǀĞƐĂƚĂLJůŽƌ hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝƚLJ͘

hŶĚĞƌŐƌĂĚƵĂƚĞ ŶŐůŝƐŚŵĂũŽƌƐ ĂŶĚƌĞĂĚĞƌƐŽĨ ƚŚĞSTDR

zŽƵĂƌĞǁƌŝƟŶŐĂŶĂƌƟĐůĞ ĂďŽƵƚƚŚĞƌŽůĞŽĨƌĞƉƌŽĚƵĐƟǀĞƚĞĐŚŶŽůŽŐŝĞƐŝŶ ƐƉĞĐƵůĂƟǀĞĮĐƟŽŶĂŶĚ ǁĂŶƚƚŽƉƵďůŝƐŚŝƚŝŶƚŚĞ Sigma Tau Delta Review ;^dZͿ͘ zŽƵĂƌĞĂƌŚĞƚŽƌŝĐ͕ĐŽŵƉŽƐŝƟŽŶ͕ĂŶĚůŝƚĞƌĂĐLJƐĐŚŽůĂƌ ĂŶĚŚĂǀĞďĞĞŶĂƐŬĞĚďLJ ƚŚĞũŽƵƌŶĂůPresent Tense ƚŽƌĞǀŝĞǁƌ͘ĂŶĚĂĐĞ ƉƉƐͲZŽďĞƌƚƐŽŶ͛ƐŬ͕ ZĞƐŝƐƟŶŐƌŽǁŶ͗ZĂĐĞ͕ >ŝƚĞƌĂĐLJ͕ĂŶĚŝƟnjĞŶƐŚŝƉŝŶ the Heart of Virginia. zŽƵĂƌĞƉƌĞƐĞŶƟŶŐLJŽƵƌ ŝĚĞĂƐŽŶĐŽŶƐĐŝŽƵƐŶĞƐƐ͕ ĨƌĞĞǁŝůů͕ĂŶĚĚĞƐŝƌĞĂƚƚŚĞ WĂĐŝĮĐhŶŝǀĞƌƐŝƚLJhŶĚĞƌŐƌĂĚƵĂƚĞWŚŝůŽƐŽƉŚLJ ŽŶĨĞƌĞŶĐĞ͘ zŽƵĂƌĞƉƌĞƐĞŶƟŶŐLJŽƵƌ ǀŝƐƵĂůĂŶĂůLJƐŝƐŽĨ:ƵůŝĞ ,ĞīĞƌŶĂŶ͛Ɛ͞^ĞůĨͲWŽƌƚƌĂŝƚ ĂƐŝƌƚLJWƌŝŶĐĞƐƐ͟;ϮϬϬϰͿ ĂƚhE͛ƐĞůĞďƌĂƟŽŶŽĨ hŶĚĞƌŐƌĂĚƵĂƚĞZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ ;hZͿ͘

zŽƵĂƌĞŝŶƚĞƌŶŝŶŐĂƚtŝůƐŽŶ>ŝďƌĂƌLJĂŶĚĂƌĞƚĂƐŬĞĚ ǁŝƚŚĐƌĞĂƟŶŐĂŶŽŶůŝŶĞĞdžŚŝďŝƚƚŚĂƚĨĞĂƚƵƌĞƐĂƌĐŚŝǀĂů ŵĂƚĞƌŝĂůƐĨƌŽŵƚŚĞ^ƉĞĐŝĂů ŽůůĞĐƟŽŶƐ͘

NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

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'ZEd WZKW K^ >

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KE&ZE WK^dZ

KE&ZE WWZ

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33

34

t/  /E^dZh d/KE^

K /dhZz

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WhZWK^

New York Times ƌĞĂĚĞƌƐ

New Yorker ƌĞĂĚĞƌƐ

h/E

^ƚĂīǁƌŝƚĞƌ

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ZK> /ŶĨŽƌŵƌĞĂĚĞƌƐ ĂďŽƵƚƚŚĞůŝĨĞ͕ ĂĐĐŽŵƉůŝƐŚŵĞŶƚƐ͕ĂŶĚ ĚĞĂƚŚŽĨĂŶŽƚĂďůĞŝŶĚŝǀŝĚƵĂů /ŶĨŽƌŵƌĞĂĚĞƌƐ ĂďŽƵƚĂŶŽƚĂďůĞ ŝŶĚŝǀŝĚƵĂů͛Ɛ ďĂĐŬŐƌŽƵŶĚ͕ ĂĐĐŽŵƉůŝƐŚŵĞŶƚƐ͕ĂŶĚ ĨƵƚƵƌĞƉůĂŶƐ

Z,dKZ/> ^/dhd/KE zŽƵĂƌĞǁƌŝƟŶŐĂŶŽďŝƚƵĂƌLJƚŽƐŚĂƌĞƚŚĞŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚ ĐŽŶƚƌŝďƵƟŽŶƐŽĨĂĨŽƌŐŽƚƚĞŶŚŝƐƚŽƌŝĐĂůĮŐƵƌĞĨŽƌ ƚŚĞNew York TimesŽǀĞƌůŽŽŬĞĚŽďŝƚƵĂƌLJƐĞĐƟŽŶ͘ zŽƵĂƌĞǁƌŝƟŶŐĂƉƌŽĮůĞ ĂďŽƵƚĂŶƵƉͲĂŶĚͲĐŽŵŝŶŐ ŽƌƌĞͲĞŵĞƌŐŝŶŐǁƌŝƚĞƌ͕ ĂƌƟƐƚ͕ŽƌĮůŵŵĂŬĞƌĨŽƌ ƚŚĞNew Yorker.

zŽƵĂƌĞŝŶƚĞƌŶŝŶŐĂƚƚŚĞ DĞĚŝĂZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞĞŶƚĞƌ ĂŶĚŚĂǀĞďĞĞŶĂƐŬĞĚƚŽ hEƐƚƵĚĞŶƚƐ͕ ,ĞůƉƌĞĂĚĞƌƐƚŽ dĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůǁƌŝƚĞƌ ǁƌŝƚĞƵƐĞƌͲĨƌŝĞŶĚůLJŝŶƐƚƌƵĐĨĂĐƵůƚLJ͕ĂŶĚƐƚĂī ĚŽƐŽŵĞƚŚŝŶŐ ƟŽŶƐƚŽŚĞůƉƐƚƵĚĞŶƚƐƐĞƚ ƵƉĂǁĞď͘ƵŶĐ͘ĞĚƵtŽƌĚWƌĞƐƐǁĞďƐŝƚĞ͘

NPRƌĞĂĚĞƌƐ

tŝŬŝǀĞƌƐŝƚLJ ƌĞĂĚĞƌƐ

^ƚĂīǁƌŝƚĞƌ

tŝŬŝ ĐŽŶƚƌŝďƵƚŽƌ

^ŚĂƌĞĂƐƚŽƌLJ ĂďŽƵƚĂƉƌĞƐƐŝŶŐƚŽƉŝĐƵƐŝŶŐ ƚĞdžƚ͕ƉŚŽƚŽŐƌĂƉŚLJ͕ŝůůƵƐƚƌĂƟŽŶ͕ĚĂƚĂ ǀŝƐƵĂůŝnjĂƟŽŶƐ ĂŶĚͬŽƌǀŝĚĞŽ

zŽƵĂƌĞĂŵĞŵďĞƌŽĨƚŚĞ EĂƟŽŶĂůWƵďůŝĐZĂĚŝŽ ;EWZͿsŝƐƵĂůƐdĞĂŵĂŶĚ ĂƌĞƚĂƐŬĞĚǁŝƚŚƐŚĂƌŝŶŐ ĂůŽŶŐͲĨŽƌŵŶĞǁƐƐƚŽƌLJ ĂďŽƵƚĂŶĞŵĞƌŐĞŶƚƚŽƉŝĐ ǁŝƚŚEWZ͛ƐƌĞĂĚĞƌƐŚŝƉ͘

^ŚĂƌĞĨŽƵŶĚĂƟŽŶĂůŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶĂďŽƵƚĂ ƉĞƌƐŽŶ͕ƉůĂĐĞ͕ ŽƌƚŚŝŶŐ

zŽƵĂƌĞĂhE>ŝďƌĂƌŝĞƐŝŶƚĞƌŶĂŶĚŚĂǀĞďĞĞŶƚĂƐŬĞĚ ǁŝƚŚĐƌĞĂƟŶŐĂŶ͞ŽŶůŝŶĞ ŵĞŵŽƌLJ͟ŽĨĂŶŝŶĚŝǀŝĚƵĂůŝŶƚĞƌǀŝĞǁĞĚĨŽƌƚŚĞ &ĞĚĞƌĂůtƌŝƚĞƌ͛ƐWƌŽũĞĐƚŝŶ ƚŚĞĨŽƌŵŽĨĂtŝŬŝǀĞƌƐŝƚLJ ƉĂŐĞ͘

 y  Z  / ^   ϭͳ ϯ  ͗ '  E Z  ^  / E  d ,   , h D  E / d /  ^ EXERCISE

NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

K h d  K D   Ϯ͗ > K  d / E '   E    s > h d / E ' s/E/Ed,,hDE/d/^

35

ZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚYƵĞƐƟŽŶƐŝŶƚŚĞ,ƵŵĂŶŝƟĞƐ Creating a research question is a helpful way to focus a humanities research project. Suppose you are studying World War II in a history class. You cannot feasibly cover the entire war in a single composition, so you need to narrow your scope. Perhaps because movies have familiarized you with the soldiers’ experience of the war, you begin to wonder about the civilian experience. You could narrow the focus further by concentrating on one particular civilian population: women. Your research question might be “What challenges and disruptions did World War II bring to civilian women?” But that question is still very broad. You could narrow it further by asking how the war affected: •

Women living in a war zone (British and French women, for example).

•

Women living remote from the war zone (American women).

•

Women at first distant, but then in the midst of war (German and Japanese women).

Then you might further narrow your topic after doing some preliminary research. For instance, in the United States, women on the home front worked in factories, conducted scientific research on the Manhattan Project, developed nutritional guidelines for soldiers and civilian workers, and much more. You might settle on a much narrower question like “How did the women working in shipyards in World War II interpret shifting gender roles and norms?” For more information about research questions, see Part 2͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϯ.

^ŽƵƌĐĞƐŝŶƚŚĞ,ƵŵĂŶŝƟĞƐ

The intended audience for your composition will then help you determine which sources will be most useful to you. For example, if you are trying to help a non-expert audience understand World War II’s effect on women’s lives, you might reference details from current popular magazines about the ongoing significance of “Rosie the Riveter.” If you are writing to a more specialized audience, you will want to use sources that provide much more critical and in-depth assessments of their evidence, such as history monographs (single-authored academic books). For more information about sources, see Part 2͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϯ.

NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

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For most research projects in the humanities, sources will generally fall into four categories: primary, secondary, popular, and scholarly. In the World War II project, for instance, primary sources could be diaries, memoirs, letters, photographs, newspaper and magazine articles from the 1940s, advertisements, and creative works from the time period. These sources offer specific details that will be valuable to your project. Secondary sources might include histories of the era, documentaries about the time period, and critical works on the topic. These sources can help you assess the meaning or significance of the details in your primary sources. Additionally, you might include other popular sources, such as recent newspaper or magazine articles, as well as scholarly sources, such as peer-reviewed journal articles and books about the history of World War II.

36

The following table provides an overview of some of the sources available to you through the UNC Libraries:

D>/ŶƚĞƌŶĂƟŽŶĂů ŝďůŝŽŐƌĂƉŚLJ

h^&h>&KZ ZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĂƌƟĐůĞƐ͕ůŝƚĞƌĂƚƵƌĞƌĞǀŝĞǁƐ͕ĂŶĚĐŽŵŵĞŶƚĂƌLJĂĐƌŽƐƐŶŐůŝƐŚ͕ŽŵƉĂƌĂƟǀĞ>ŝƚĞƌĂƚƵƌĞ͕ĂŶĚ ŵŽĚĞƌŶůĂŶŐƵĂŐĞƐ͘

ŵĞƌŝĐĂ͕,ŝƐƚŽƌLJĂŶĚ ZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĂƌƟĐůĞƐ͕ůŝƚĞƌĂƚƵƌĞƌĞǀŝĞǁƐ͕ĂŶĚĐŽŵŵĞŶ>ŝĨĞ ƚĂƌLJĨŽĐƵƐŝŶŐŽŶŵĞƌŝĐĂŶŚŝƐƚŽƌLJ͘ ŶƚŚƌŽƉŽůŽŐLJWůƵƐ

ZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚŝŶĞƚŚŶŽůŽŐLJ͕ĂƌĐŚĂĞŽůŽŐLJ͕ĨŽůŬůŽƌĞ͕ĂŶĚ ŵĂƚĞƌŝĂůĐƵůƚƵƌĞ͘

ƌƚƐĂŶĚ>ĞƩĞƌƐ ĂŝůLJ

ƌƟĐůĞƐ͕ĞƐƐĂLJƐ͕ĂŶĚŬƌĞǀŝĞǁƐĨŽƌŐĞŶĞƌĂůƌĞĂĚĞƌƐŝŶƚĞƌĞƐƚĞĚŝŶƚŚĞŚƵŵĂŶŝƟĞƐ͘dŚŝƐŝƐĂŐŽŽĚƉůĂĐĞ ƚŽůŽĐĂƚĞƚŽƉŝĐƐŽƌĂĐĐĞƐƐŝďůĞŽǀĞƌǀŝĞǁƐŽĨĂƌĞĐĞŶƚ ŬŽƌĂƌƟĐůĞ͘

New York Review of ŽŽŬƐĂŶĚLos AngeůĞƐZĞǀŝĞǁŽĨŽŽŬƐ

ZĞǀŝĞǁƐŽĨƌĞĐĞŶƚŬƐ͘dŚŝƐŝƐĂŐŽŽĚƉůĂĐĞƚŽ ŝĚĞŶƟĨLJƉŽƐƐŝďůĞƚŽƉŝĐƐŽƌĂĐĐĞƐƐŝďůĞŽǀĞƌǀŝĞǁƐŽĨĂ ƌĞĐĞŶƚŬŽƌĂƌƟĐůĞ͘

hE^ƉĞĐŝĂůŽůůĞĐƟŽŶƐ

ƌĐŚŝǀĂůŵĂƚĞƌŝĂůƐ͕ŝŶĐůƵĚŝŶŐůĞƩĞƌƐ͕ĚŝĂƌŝĞƐ͕ƌĂƌĞ ŬƐ͕ĞƚĐ͘

EĞǁƐƉĂƉĞƌƐ͘ĐŽŵ

,ŝƐƚŽƌŝĐĂůŶĞǁƐƉĂƉĞƌƐ͕ĚŝŐŝƟnjĞĚĂŶĚĞĂƐŝůLJƐĞĂƌĐŚĂďůĞ͘

ŶĐĞƐƚƌLJ͘ĐŽŵ

/ŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶĂďŽƵƚŚŝƐƚŽƌŝĐĂůĮŐƵƌĞƐ͘ĂŶďĞƵƐĞĚ ƚŽƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚLJŽƵƌŽǁŶĨĂŵŝůLJŚŝƐƚŽƌLJĂƐǁĞůů͘&ƌĞĞƚŽ hEƵƐĞƌƐŽŶĐĂŵƉƵƐŝĨLJŽƵŐŽƚŚƌŽƵŐŚƚŚĞůŝďƌĂƌLJ ǁĞďƐŝƚĞ͘

KdžĨŽƌĚŶŐůŝƐŚŝĐƟŽŶĂƌLJ

ĞĮŶŝƟŽŶƐŽĨŬĞLJƚĞƌŵƐ͕ǁŝƚŚŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶĂďŽƵƚ ƚŚĞĞƚLJŵŽůŽŐLJĂŶĚƉĂƐƚƵƐĂŐĞŽĨǁŽƌĚƐ͘WƌĞĨĞƌƌĞĚ ĚŝĐƟŽŶĂƌLJĨŽƌŚƵŵĂŶŝƟĞƐǁƌŝƟŶŐ͘

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Z&ZE WZ/DZz dKK>^ KhDEd^

KsZs/ t^ ͕ Et^͕E ^hDDZ/^

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NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

K h d  K D   ϯ͗ Z    / E '  ^ d Z d  ' /   > >z  / E  d ,  ,hDE/d/^

37

ZĞĂĚŝŶŐƌŝƟĐĂůůLJ Humanities scholars value attention to detail. They look for patterns, themes, and relationships within a particular work or among several works. They look for how a work presents some type of argument and how the work supports this position with specific evidence. To do this, humanities scholars will often make extensive notations on a text; these notations include strategies such as asking questions or making observations in the margins of books and articles, “scanning” the meter and rhyme of a poem, or circling key words and images in a book.

ZĞĂĚŝŶŐǁŝƚŚ'ĞŶƌĞǁĂƌĞŶĞƐƐ Close reading is a perhaps the most important aspect of research and writing in the humanities. Close reading is a process through which a scholar considers the content, framing, history, and genre of a document (such as a novel, poem, or even a set of historical brochures about birth control) or visualization (such as a work of art, photograph, graphic, or chart). If you were to closely read the definition of “critical thinking” from National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking, you would first read the text carefully: Critical thinking is “the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness” (“Excellence in Critical Thinking”). Then, you would begin asking questions about the text including: What does “intellectually disciplined” mean? What differences are inherent in the words “conceptualize,” “analyze,” “synthesize,” and “evaluate”? What does it mean “to reason”? What would constitute “sound evidence”? Using your questions, as well as other observations (which you might develop using the DOCS Chart described on the next page), you would develop an argument about the true, underlying meaning of the critical thinking definition.

What is the relation of written text to image? Humanities scholars look for visual metaphors and consider how all of the visual elements contribute to the creator’s argument and the composition’s overall meaning.

NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

,WdZϭͳϯ tZ /d/E' /Ed,,hD E/d/^

Humanities scholars also often read images as text. When they do, they often ask: Who is the audience for the image? How do design elements such as color, contrast, repetition, alignment, perspective, proximity, and size inform a viewer’s understanding of the image?

38

A DOCS (Design, Organization, Content, and Style) Chart, as described in Jordynn Jack and Katie Rose Guest Pryal’s How Writing Works: A Guide to Composing Genes, can guide you through a close reading of texts or visuals: K^,Zd ͻtŚĂƚĚŽLJŽƵŶŽƟĐĞĂďŽƵƚŚŽǁƚŚĞĚŽĐƵŵĞŶƚŝƐůĂŝĚŽƵƚ͍WĂLJĂƩĞŶƟŽŶƚŽĨŽŶƚƐ͕ůŝŶĞƐƉĂĐŝŶŐ͕ĐŽůŽƌƐ͕ƐŝnjĞƐ͕ĐŽŶƚƌĂƐƚ͕ƌĞƉĞƟƟŽŶ͕ĂůŝŐŶŵĞŶƚ͕ ƉƌŽdžŝŵŝƚLJ͕ĂŶĚďĂůĂŶĐĞ͘ ĞƐŝŐŶ

ͻŽĞƐƚŚĞĚŽĐƵŵĞŶƚŵĂŬĞƵƐĞŽĨďƵůůĞƚƉŽŝŶƚƐ͍EƵŵďĞƌĞĚůŝƐƚƐ͍&Žƌ ǁŚĂƚƚLJƉĞƐŽĨůŝƐƚƐ͍ ͻŽĞƐƚŚĞĚŽĐƵŵĞŶƚŝŶĐůƵĚĞǀŝƐƵĂůƐ͍tŚĂƚƚLJƉĞ͍ ͻŽƚŚĞĚĞƐŝŐŶĐŚŽŝĐĞƐƉƌŽŵŽƚĞŽƌĚŝƐƚƌĂĐƚĨƌŽŵƌĞĂĚĂďŝůŝƚLJ͍ ͻ/ƐƚŚĞĚŽĐƵŵĞŶƚĚŝǀŝĚĞĚŝŶƚŽƐƵďͲƐĞĐƟŽŶƐ͍/ĨƐŽ͕ŚŽǁĂƌĞƚŚĞLJŵĂƌŬĞĚ͍ ,ŽǁĂƌĞƚŚĞLJŽƌŐĂŶŝnjĞĚ͍

KƌŐĂŶŝnjĂƟŽŶ

ͻ,ŽǁĂƌĞƉĂƌĂŐƌĂƉŚƐŽƌŐĂŶŝnjĞĚ͍ ͻ,ŽǁĚŽĞƐƚŚĞĂƵƚŚŽƌƚƌĂŶƐŝƟŽŶďĞƚǁĞĞŶƉĂƌĂŐƌĂƉŚƐ͍ĞƐĐƌŝďĞƚŚĞƵŶĚĞƌůLJŝŶŐŽƌŐĂŶŝnjĂƟŽŶĂůƐĐŚĞŵĞ;Ğ͘Ő͕͘ĐŚƌŽŶŽůŽŐŝĐĂů͕ŶĂƌƌĂƟǀĞ͕ƚŚĞŵĂƟĐ͕ ĞƚĐ͘Ϳ͘ ͻtŚĂƚƚLJƉĞŽĨŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶĚŽĞƐƚŚĞĚŽĐƵŵĞŶƚƉƌĞƐĞŶƚ͍tŚĂƚǁŽƌĚƐ͕ ƉŚƌĂƐĞƐ͕ŽƌĐŽŶĐĞƉƚƐƐƟĐŬŽƵƚ͍ ͻtŚĂƚƚLJƉĞŽĨŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶĚŽĞƐƚŚĞĚŽĐƵŵĞŶƚůĞĂǀĞŽƵƚ͍

ŽŶƚĞŶƚ

ͻtŚĂƚĂƌŐƵŵĞŶƚŝƐƚŚĞĂƵƚŚŽƌƉƌĞƐĞŶƟŶŐ͍ ͻ,ŽǁĚŽĞƐƚŚĞĂƵƚŚŽƌƐƵƉƉŽƌƚƚŚŝƐĂƌŐƵŵĞŶƚ͍ ͻtŚĂƚĚĞƚĂŝůƐĂƌĞĞƐƉĞĐŝĂůůLJĞīĞĐƟǀĞŝŶƐƵƉƉŽƌƟŶŐƚŚŝƐĂƌŐƵŵĞŶƚ͍ ͻ,ŽǁǁŽƵůĚLJŽƵĚĞƐĐƌŝďĞƚŚĞƐƚLJůĞŽĨƚŚĞǁƌŝƟŶŐ͍ ͻ/ƐƚŚĞůĂŶŐƵĂŐĞĐŽŶĐŝƐĞŽƌǁŽƌĚLJ͍ ͻ/ƐƚŚĞůĂŶŐƵĂŐĞĨŽƌŵĂůŽƌŵŽƌĞĐĂƐƵĂů͍

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ͻ,ŽǁŵƵĐŚĚŽĞƐƚŚĞĂƵƚŚŽƌĂƐƐƵŵĞƚŚĞŝƌĂƵĚŝĞŶĐĞŬŶŽǁƐĂďŽƵƚƚŚĞ ƚŽƉŝĐ͍ ͻ/ƐƚŚĞĂƵƚŚŽƌ͛ƐƵƐĞŽĨƐƉĞĐŝĂůŝnjĞĚůĂŶŐƵĂŐĞ͕ŽƌũĂƌŐŽŶ͕ĂƉƉƌŽƉƌŝĂƚĞĨŽƌ ƚŚĞĂƵĚŝĞŶĐĞ͍

 y  Z  / ^   ϭͳ ϯ  ͗  E  >z  / E '  , h D  E d /  ^  '  E Z  ^ EXERCISE To get a better idea of how humanities articles work, examine this annotated sample article.

K h d  K D   ϰ͗ t Z / d / E '  / E  d ,   , h D  E / d /  ^ Writing in the humanities crosses a wide array of genres, from academic journal articles and conference papers to popular articles, reviews, and proposals. The particular rhetorical situation determines the genre most appropriate. For example, an intern at the Ackland Art Museum might write placards, web material, or information sheets for visitors, while a film studies major might write a review of a new film for The Daily Tar Heel. A biology major might apply for a grant to travel to the University of Toronto to study Renaissance medical

NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

texts over the summer. A Memorial Hall employee might write a press release about an upcoming speaker. The key to success in all these endeavors is to tailor the composition to fit your purpose and meet your audience’s needs.

39

Writers in the humanities find value in every detail of life, wherever and whenever that life was lived. They are inquisitive about ties that bind us and about controversies that roil us. To pursue these interests, writers in the humanities strive for precision in language. While they value logic, evidence, and reason, they also value beauty of expression. Also, more tangibly, humanities writing uses: •

•

Active Voice: Humanities scholars tend to use the active voice more often than scholars writing in other disciplines, mainly because of a difference in focus. Humans are the focus of research in the humanities, and humans act. The active voice emphasizes the performer of the action, while the passive voice emphasizes the object or recipient of the action. While other disciplines may want to focus on a survey or experiment, the humanities focus on the actions of a character in a work of fiction, of a writer, or of a critic or scholar. •

Example 1: Literary critic Joanna Pawson argues that…

•

Example 2: In Pride and Prejudice Jane Austen portrays…

•

Example 3: In a key scene in Pride and Prejudice, Elizabeth overhears…

Literary Present: Notice that the three examples above all use the present tense, even though Jane Austen is dead and Pride and Prejudice was written more than 200 years ago. The humanities use present tense when discussing elements from a literary text or film or painting because the work itself is still “alive.” The characters in the book have not aged or changed since Jane Austen created them, and Pawson’s arguments are still part of the critical conversation on her topic. Therefore, when you discuss elements from a literary text or film, use the present tense. •

Example: In a turning point in Pride and Prejudice, Elizabeth rejects Mr. Darcy’s marriage proposal.

However, when you are discussing elements referring to the history of a text, an author’s life, or its historical context, use the past tense. •

Example: Austen wrote Pride and Prejudice in an era when women had few rights.

• •

Example: Pride and Prejudice demonstrates [present] how women’s choices were constrained [past] by economic and legal factors.

Limited Use of First-Person Perspective: You may have learned that using the first person (“I” or “we”) is inappropriate in scholarly writing. In the natural sciences and social sciences, scholars often use “we” to describe the research methods used. In the humanities, however, using “I” or “we” is less common unless you are flagging an argument (e.g., “I argue that…”). The advice you may have received about avoiding the first person “I” reflects the fact that literary scholars do not phrase their interpretations as subjective observations (“I believe that”) but as factual observations about a text (“This text demonstrates that…”).

NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

,WdZϭͳϯ tZ /d/E' /Ed,,hD E/d/^

Sometimes you may even mix tenses, depending on whether you are speaking about the text and its effects (present) or its historical context (past).

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40

NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock.com

41

tZ/d/E'/Eh^/E^^ Business communication informs, persuades, and evaluates. To accomplish this goal, business communication conveys meaning powerfully and concisely through targeted, audience-centered language.

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ŶƚƌĞƉƌĞŶĞƵƌ

ĞƐĐƌŝďĞĂ ŶƵŵďĞƌŽĨ ďƵƐŝŶĞƐƐŽďũĞĐƟǀĞƐĂŶĚŚŽǁ ƚŚĞLJǁŝůůďĞ ƌĞĂĐŚĞĚ

KƚŚĞƌďƵƐŝŶĞƐƐĞƐ͕ŽƌŽƚŚĞƌ ŽƌŐĂŶŝnjĂƟŽŶƐ

ŵƉůŽLJĞĞ͕ ďƵƐŝŶĞƐƐƉƌŽĨĞƐƐŝŽŶĂů

WŽƚĞŶƟĂů ŝŶǀĞƐƚŽƌƐ

/ŶǀĞƐƚŵĞŶƚ ŵĂŶĂŐĞƌ

ƵƐŝŶĞƐƐ ƉƌŽĨĞƐƐŝŽŶĂů WŽůŝĐLJŵĂŬĞƌƐ͕ ;ŽŌĞŶĂƚƉŽůŝĐLJ ůĞŐŝƐůĂƚŽƌƐ͕ďƵƐŝŝŶƐƟƚƵƚĞƐŽƌ ŶĞƐƐĞdžĞĐƵƟǀĞƐ ŶŽŶͲƉƌŽĮƚŽƌŐĂŶŝnjĂƟŽŶƐͿ

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zŽƵǁŽƌŬĨŽƌƚŚĞĐŽŶŽŵŝĐWŽůŝĐLJ/ŶƐƟƚƵƚĞĂŶĚĂƌĞ ĂƐŬĞĚƚŽĚĞǀĞůŽƉĂƉŽůŝĐLJ ƌĞƉŽƌƚŽŶƚŚĞŐĞŶĚĞƌƉĂLJ ŐĂƉĂŶĚŚŽǁƚŽĂĚĚƌĞƐƐŝƚ͘

ŽŵƉĂŶLJĞdžĞĐƵƟǀĞƐ

ŵƉůŽLJĞĞ͕ ďƵƐŝŶĞƐƐƉƌŽĨĞƐƐŝŽŶĂů

ŌĞƌĐŽŶĚƵĐƟŶŐĂĨŽĐƵƐ ŐƌŽƵƉĐŽŶĐĞƌŶĞĚǁŝƚŚ WƌĞƐĞŶƚ͕ƐLJŶƐƵďũĞĐƚƐ͛ƉƌĞĨĞƌĞŶĐĞƐĨŽƌ ƚŚĞƐŝnjĞ͕ĂŶĚ ĂŶĞǁƐŽŌĚƌŝŶŬƚŚĂƚLJŽƵƌ ĂŶĂůLJnjĞƚŚĞ ĐŽŵƉĂŶLJŚĂƐĚĞǀĞůŽƉĞĚ͕ ƌĞƐƵůƚƐŽĨĂ LJŽƵĂƌĞĐŽůůĞĐƟŶŐƚŚĞ ƐƵƌǀĞLJŽƌĨŽĐƵƐ ĮŶĚŝŶŐƐŝŶĂƌĞƉŽƌƚƚŚĂƚ ŐƌŽƵƉ LJŽƵƌĐŽŵƉĂŶLJ͛ƐĞdžĞĐƵƟǀĞƐĐĂŶĞdžĂŵŝŶĞ͘

džƉĞƌƚƐǁŝƚŚŝŶ ĂƉĂƌƟĐƵůĂƌŝŶĚƵƐƚƌLJ;Ğ͘Ő͕͘ƚŚĞ ŇŽŽĚŝŶƐƵƌĂŶĐĞ ŝŶĚƵƐƚƌLJͿ

:ŽƵƌŶĂůŝƐƚǁŝƚŚ ĞdžƉĞƌƟƐĞŝŶ ƚŚĞĮĞůĚŽƌĂ ďƵƐŝŶĞƐƐƉƌŽĨĞƐƐŝŽŶĂůǁŝƚŚ ĞdžƉĞƌƟƐĞŝŶĂ ĮĞůĚ

zŽƵĂƌĞƌĞƉŽƌƟŶŐŽŶƚŚĞ ŽŵŵƵŶŝĐĂƚĞ ŐůŽďĂůŝnjĂƟŽŶŽĨƚŚĞŇŽŽĚ ĚĞǀĞůŽƉŵĞŶƚƐ ŝŶƐƵƌĂŶĐĞŝŶĚƵƐƚƌLJĨŽƌƚŚĞ ĂŶĚŶĞǁƐǁŝƚŚƚƌĂĚĞũŽƵƌŶĂůFlood InsurŝŶĂŶŝŶĚƵƐƚƌLJ ĂŶĐĞ/ŶƚĞƌŶĂƟŽŶĂů͘

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zŽƵƌĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂůĐŽŶƐƵůƟŶŐĮƌŵŚĂƐĂƐƐŝŐŶĞĚ LJŽƵƚŽĂƐƐŝƐƚĂĐůŝĞŶƚǁŚŽ ǁĂŶƚƐƚŽĂĐŚŝĞǀĞŶĞƚnjĞƌŽ ǁĂƐƚĞƚŽůĂŶĚĮůů͘

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ďƵƐŝŶĞƐƐƚŚĂƚ ŽŶƐƵůƚĂŶƚ ŚŝƌĞĚLJŽƵƌĮƌŵ

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^ĞĐƵƌĞĂ ŶĞdžŝƐƟŶŐĮƌŵ ƵƐŝŶĞƐƐŽǁŶĞƌ ƉĂƌƚŶĞƌƐŚŝƉŽƌ ŽƌŝŶǀĞƐƚŽƌ ŝŶǀĞƐƚŵĞŶƚ

zŽƵƌĐůŽƚŚŝŶŐĐŽŵƉĂŶLJ ǁĂŶƚƐƚŽƉĂƌƚŶĞƌǁŝƚŚ dĂƌŐĞƚƚŽĐƌĞĂƚĞĂůŝŵŝƚĞĚͲĞĚŝƟŽŶůŝŶĞ͘

K h d  K D   Ϯ͗ > K  d / E '   E    s > h d / E '  s /   E    / E   h ^ / E  ^ ^   K D D h E /  d / K E &ŝŶĚŝŶŐ^ŽƵƌĐĞƐ As stated above, business draws from a number of different disciplines to find appropriate evidence. Below is a list of useful databases to which the UNC Libraries subscribe.

DZ >z  / E  h ^ / E  ^ ^   K D D h E /  d / K E ZĞĂĚŝŶŐƌŝƟĐĂůůLJ When reading business communication, a good place to start is with the audience. Who is the target audience? What is the purpose? To inform? To persuade? To evaluate? Also, consider the relationship between author and reader. What is their relative status? What authority does the author have in relation to the audience? Once the audience and purpose have been determined, assess what assertions the document is making and what evidence is being used to support that assertion. Pay careful attention to how business communicators organize their documents. Is information being presented visually? If arguing with numbers, how does the writer convey the meaning of those numbers in an impactful way? Does the writer employ emphasis strategies (i.e., bulleted or numbered lists) to highlight key points?

ZĞĂĚŝŶŐǁŝƚŚ'ĞŶƌĞǁĂƌĞŶĞƐƐ To write well in business, writers need to be aware of best practices for each particular discipline. One of the best ways to keep up with best practices is to read examples of the genres. Moreover, individual companies may have their own procedures for how to write certain documents, from letters to memos. Always try to find specific examples from the assigned genres or, if unavailable, be sure to clarify expectations with the audience for the genre whenever possible. Audience analysis is a key part of genre analysis in business communication. Who is the primary audience for the genre? Is there a secondary audience? How does the writer address both of them? Additionally, many genres in business communication involve presentations and/or oral and visual components, and specific attention should be paid to how these components are structured for each audience. For example, a pitch presentation to venture capitalists includes several key components that work together seamlessly: oral presentation, slide deck language, slide deck visuals, and question-and-answer period. For more information about presentations, see Part 2͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϱ.

NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

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Business communication often layers its information so that it is accessible in multiple formats. For example, a recommendation report will include an Executive Summary, which gives an overview of the content of the entire report. The body of the report will then expand on the information in the Executive Summary. Why? Because different audiences use the report for different purposes. A CEO may only want to see the broad strokes of the report, while the Chief Marketing Officer will want a breakdown of the report in more detail.

48

 y  Z  / ^   ϭͳ ϰ  ͗  h ^ / E  ^ ^  '  E Z  ^ EXERCISE

K h d  K D   ϰ͗ t Z / d / E '  / E   h ^ / E  ^ ^ ^ƚƌĂƚĞŐŝĞƐĨŽƌƵƐŝŶĞƐƐtƌŝƚĞƌƐ tƌŝƟŶŐ Business writing, like writing in other disciplines, relies on the specific conventions of individual genres to produce its knowledge and convey it to the relevant discourse communities. However, there are eight key concepts from WůĂŝŶ>ĂŶŐƵĂŐĞ͘ŐŽǀ that translate across business genres: 1.

Know the audience

2.

Organize ideas logically

3.

Use “you”-centered language

4.

Write in active voice

5.

Use short sentences

6.

Keep prose jargon free

7.

Make layout easy-to-read

8.

Use evidence (statistics, examples) to prove points

You can see these concepts in action when considering even a typical email, a deceptively simple genre. The efficiency of the email often makes it easy to adopt an informal tone, turning a simple genre into a rhetorical disaster. An effective email: •

Has a clear subject line (note: ideal if action item is in subject line).

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•

Example: instead of “SUBJECT: report,” write “SUBJECT: Recommendation Report due today at 5pm.”

•

Identifies the writer, if the reader does not know who they are.

•

Keeps the message brief (a good rule of thumb is one screen before your reader loses interest).

•

Is well organized, leading with the action items or main subject.

•

Uses emphasis strategies, but sparingly, as different email platforms may display formatting differently.

•

Practices netiquette by being professional and courteous.

•

Is free of grammatical and mechanical errors.

•

Ends with signature lines with the writer’s title, organizational association, and contact information.

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WƌĞƐĞŶƟŶŐ “All effective stories adhere to the same basic three-part structure that Aristotle pointed out ages ago: They have a beginning, a middle, and an end. It makes them easy to digest and retell—and it’s how audiences have been conditioned for NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

centuries to receive information. Make sure your presentation—and any story you tell within it—has all three parts, with clear transitions between them.” —Nancy Duarte, HBR Guide to Persuasive Presentations

49

Business communicators will often be asked to present their findings to their audiences in addition to/in place of producing a written document. Thus, business communicators must know how to design and deliver effective presentations. Audience analysis is a key part of this. For business communication, audience analysis means understanding the wants/needs of a multitiered audience of stakeholders, clients, colleagues, customers, investors, etc. For this analysis, consider the following categories: •

Demographics: Who is the target audience? Age? Occupation? What is the audience’s cultural, religious, racial, ethnic, gender, and/or ability background? Occupation? Finally, what is your relative status in relation to your audience (i.e., Hierarchical? Up or down the ladder? Equal?)

•

Knowledge bases: What does the audience know, especially regarding the topic? What is their level of familiarity with the discipline-specific jargon?

•

Expectations: What does the audience expect to get out of the presentation? What motivates and/or persuades them? What are their interests? What do they think or know about the presenter? What problems might they have that this presentation could solve?

Once the presenter has completed an audience analysis, it is time to design a solid presentation. Effective presentations: •

Tell a story with their slides (evidence/assertion slides).

•

Use specific terms, tones, and stories.

•

Employ relevant evidence (statistics, examples, case studies, analogies, graphics).

•

Are structured, clear, and to the point.

You might consider using Universal Design principles. Universal Design, as defined by the Center for Universal Design at NC State University, is “the design of products and environments to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design.” For presentations, using Universal Design principles makes it possible to reach your entire audience. Washington University has a ĐŚĞĐŬůŝƐƚ for making sure your presentation adheres to Universal Design.

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ZĞƐƵŵĞƐĂŶĚŽǀĞƌ>ĞƩĞƌƐ First, create a template copy of your resume. This is a document for your own personal use that records all your experiences, skills, and accomplishments, no matter how diverse they may be. This template copy of your resume should never be sent to a future employer. Then, create a job-specific, professional resume tailored to the job you are applying for. You will need to pay close attention to the details of the job description and choose relevant experiences, skills, and accomplishments to include in your resume. Your resume should also take into account the company’s general culture and values, which will tell you what kind of employees it appreciates. Your resume should: •

Be an appropriate length (the template copy can be as long as you need, but the job-specific should be no longer than a page).

•

Include your current contact information.

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EXERCISE

50

•

Highlight experiences and skills relevant to the job or internship you are applying for; be “outcome” oriented.

•

Follow a clear organization that highlights your strengths.

•

Be free of surface errors (typos get your resume “filed” in the employer’s trash).

•

Be clear and easy to read: appropriate margins and font size, no distracting fonts or graphics, and no formatting errors.

The cover letter, then, is an opportunity to make a strong first impression. It is a story of you, but it’s not just any story: it is a story of why you’re interested in the company and how the company will benefit from employing you. Audience awareness is critical here. Your cover letter must convince the recruiters that you are a fabulous candidate and that it will be worth their time to interview you. Your cover letter should: •

Be addressed to the appropriate individual (by name, if possible; if not, address by position title).

•

Indicate why you’re writing in the first place, the position you’re applying for, and how you found out about it.

•

Demonstrate your awareness of the job requirements and the company’s needs by highlighting relevant experiences and qualifications.

•

Follow the “6Cs” of business communication (clear, concise, courteous, correct, consistent, and complete).

•

Be free of surface errors. Spelling and grammar mistakes will immediately eliminate you from consideration.

•

Be kept to 1 page.

Z^KhZ^&KZtZ/d/E'/Eh^/E^^ Duarte, Nancy. HBR Guide to Persuasive Presentations. Harvard Business Review, 2012.

•

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•

“dŝƉ^ŚĞĞƚƐ,” Kenan-Flagler Business School

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tZ/d/E'/E>t Lawyers and legal scholars analyze how the law shapes and is shaped by individual experiences and social forces. Legal writing places a strong emphasis on demonstrating a conclusion’s logic, even if the evidence for that conclusion is intangible or emotional. Evidence for legal arguments, for example, includes the applicable legal precedent (previous court decisions), statutes (legislation), and regulations, as well as the topic’s public-policy and/or moral implications. And while many legal writing genres (such as the law review article) seek to persuade the reader, other genres (such as the case brief) seek merely to gather and evaluate information that could be used in service of a later argument. Legal writing also relies heavily on classical rhetoric’s forms and techniques and applies these ideas to modern legal contexts. For example, lawyers often use the Aristotelian appeals of ethos, pathos, and logos to argue their client’s case.

 / E / E '  , K t  >  '  >  K D D h E /  d / K E  t K Z < ^ ,Žǁ/ƐĂǁ͍ Legal practitioners and scholars begin their inquiry process by identifying an issue or set of issues in need of resolution by the courts, legislatures, or society more generally. For lawyers, issue identification (or “issue spotting”) often involves reviewing the facts of a client’s case, determining the area of law implicated by those facts, and developing questions about how the law applies to the facts. The lawyer’s focus, therefore, is on determining “what the law is.” Scholars, on the other hand, begin with a case, doctrine, theory, practice, or process that raises questions about current legal thought on a topic. Thus, the scholar’s focus is often on making an argument about “what the law should be” (Rowe 1212). Once legal professionals or scholars have identified an issue in need of resolution, they conduct research using the following methods:

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Doctrinal Research: Doctrinal research involves gathering and synthesizing information about a particular area of law. This research encompasses a variety of primary documents, including state and federal statutes, appellate court opinions, and administrative rules and regulations. It also includes secondary materials such as legal encyclopedias, legal treatises, and law review or journal articles. The purpose of doctrinal research is first to understand and then to inform or persuade regarding the rules, processes, or tests that govern a specific area of law. For example, imagine you are a criminal defense lawyer who has been asked to represent a convicted felon accused of armed robbery. You would begin your research process by identifying the applicable state and federal statutes—in this case, legislation on armed robbery and on firearm possession by convicted felons. You would then research case law to see how the courts have interpreted the legislation; you might also use secondary materials addressing the policy behind, and potential problems with, the legislation. This approach would provide you with a comprehensive understanding of the law that applies to your client’s case, including its limitations and exceptions. Quantitative and Qualitative Research: Research that is not entirely focused on legal doctrine often follows the two methodologies common in the social sciences: quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative research uses experiments, observation, surveys, and other statistic-driven tools to gather numerical data on a topic, while qualitative research uses investigative techniques such as interviews, observations, case studies, and document analysis to gather non-numerical data on a subject matter. The data gathered from both research methodologies used DISTRIBUTION to generate new hypotheses test existing theoriesUSE about social phenomNOT is FOR - FORorINSTRUCTORS ONLY

ena. In the legal field, the researcher’s objective is to understand how the law influences and is influenced by individuals, communities, cultures, and large-scale social systems. For more information about how social scientists use quantitative and qualitative research, see Part 1͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϮ.

53

For example, a quantitative researcher interested in studying the impact of felony convictions on an individual’s job prospects might conduct a survey of employers in different sectors of the U.S. economy. The survey questions would be designed to discover which sectors are more or less likely to hire an ex-felon and what are the key concerns driving these employers’ decision-making. On the other hand, a qualitative researcher might conduct in-depth interviews wherein ex-felons reflect on their experiences finding, applying for and securing stable, well-paying jobs. Both methods would produce data that, when collated, would allow legal scholars and criminal justice organizations to better understand the challenges faced by ex-felons and to develop policy recommendations that address those challenges.

tŚŽWƌŽĚƵĐĞƐĂǁ͍ Legal knowledge is produced by several professional groups. Legislative bodies and administrative agencies create law through statutes, rules, and regulations. These legal measures are sometimes proposed by special interest groups or government lobbyists. Judges interpret and develop the law—both statutory and common law—through judicial precedent. Lawyers practice the law, advising clients and persuading courts on the law’s application to specific facts. Scholars from a variety of fields, including law, political science, and history, investigate the law’s theoretical and practical implications and seek to find answers to complex legal problems.

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55

 y  Z  / ^   ϭͳ ϱ  ͗ '  E Z  ^  / E  >  '  >  t Z / d / E ' EXERCISE

tŚĂƚŽĞƐ>ĞŐĂůŽŵŵƵŶŝĐĂƟŽŶsĂůƵĞ͍ Logic in Reasoning The strongest legal writing guides readers on a logical path to explain a conclusion’s merits or significance. This path generally follows two common forms of reasoning: (1) inductive reasoning, where the writer uses a specific observation (or set of observations) to reach a general conclusion and (2) deductive reasoning, where the writer moves from a set of general premises to a specific conclusion. In the law, inductive reasoning involves gathering and synthesizing legal authorities such as legislation and case law to determine a particular legal rule. Deductive reasoning, on the other hand, usually takes the form of a legal syllogism and involves identifying a legal rule (major premise), outlining the facts of a case that implicates the rule (minor premise), and determining the outcome of the case by applying the rule to the facts (specific conclusion). Often, inductive reasoning will provide legal writers with the major premise that guides their deductive reasoning (for more on this, see Edwards 77–79). Here’s a hypothetical example: Imagine that you are a lawyer representing 19-year-old “University Student” charged with illegal possession of alcohol. To advise your client on the likely outcome of the case, you must first determine what constitutes possession by a minor under North Carolina law and then apply the rule for possession to the facts of the student’s case. Your research and reasoning process might look something like this: Inductive stage: (1) Identify the North Carolina statute criminalizing possession by a minor; (2) Collect appellate court cases interpreting the statute and, specifically, the term “possession”; and (3) Synthesize the cases and the statute to establish the applicable legal rule. Major Premise (rule developed during the inductive stage): A minor is in possession of an alcoholic beverage when (a) the beverage is in close proximity to the minor and (b) the minor is in control of the area in which the beverage is located. Minor Premise (facts of your client’s case): Police arrested and charged University Student with illegal possession of alcohol after finding Student intoxicated and stumbling down a busy street. Student was carrying a bag that had an alcoholic beverage in it. The bag was not Student’s; rather, it was a 21-year-old friend’s bag. The friend was not present at the scene. Likely Outcome (for your client’s case): University Student is guilty of possession of an alcoholic beverage by a minor because the beverage was located in an item over which Student had immediate control.

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Deductive stage:

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Evidence Legal arguments must be based on compelling evidence. Our legal system privileges existing law and decisions, according to the common law doctrine of stare decisis, or “let the decision stand.” It also considers the history of and policies behind these laws and decisions. So, effective writers often employ precedent, historical context, and public policy when arguing for a certain interpretation of a law or when arguing to change a law or overturn a decision.

ƌŝƟĐĂůĂŶĚƌĞĂƟǀĞdŚŝŶŬŝŶŐ Both informative and persuasive legal writing rely on critical and creative analysis of legal issues. One way to approach critical and creative thinking in law is to map out arguments that implicate the three rhetorical appeals—i.e., arguments that draw on your authority or credibility as speaker (ethos), that connect to the audience’s values or emotions (pathos), and that demonstrate logical reasoning (logos). For example, when arguing a client’s case in a trial brief, lawyers cite multiple primary authorities to establish the breadth and depth of their knowledge; they use storytelling techniques to connect with the judge’s values and emotions; and they use legal syllogisms, analogies to other cases, customs, and policy concerns to convince the court of an argument’s logic.

ƩĞŶƟŽŶƚŽĞƚĂŝů Legal professionals must follow any content, formatting, punctuation (e.g., the Oxford comma is required for clarity), and citation rules governing written work. This is especially true for lawyers who file written documents with the court. Failure to follow these rules can lead to a range of issues, including the court’s rejection of a time-sensitive legal motion or pleading.

Ethics Truth and justice are two pillars of our legal system, and lawyers and judges are bound by ethical codes to maintain these pillars. The ethics of legal writing requires that writers: •

Accurately describe case facts and applicable law.

•

Adopt a principled and nuanced approach to interpreting laws and legal policies.

•

Address unfavorable arguments.

•

Give credit to the ideas or words of others.

Following these requirements not only ensures the writer’s compliance with ethical codes, but also helps the writer establish his or her professional ethos.

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Clarity and Conciseness Ambiguity in legal writing can lead to confusion and conflict; therefore, a fundamental goal of legal writers is to master the ability to communicate ideas clearly and concisely. Writers achieve this objective by developing a rigorous editing process that includes identifying and (where possible) eliminating “to be” verbs, prepositions, nominalizations, indefinite pronouns, and passive voice. “To be” verbs: am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been Example: •

Original: California’s medical marijuana law is in conflict with federal law.

•

Revised: California’s medical marijuana law conflicts with federal law.

Common prepositions: in, of, to, at, on, from, about Example: • •

Original: It was the finding of the judge that the addendum to the agreement could not be enforced. Revised: The judge found the agreement’s addendum unenforceable.

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Nominalization: a noun derived from another part of speech, often a verb

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Example: •

Original: The police conducted an investigation of the defendant, and came to the conclusion that he robbed the bank.

•

Revised: The police investigated the defendant and concluded that he robbed the bank.

Unclear pronouns: often occurs when there are multiple nouns to which a pronoun might refer Example: •

Original: The eyewitness testified that the defendant’s dog bit the plaintiff, and he cried.

•

Revised: The eyewitness testified that the defendant’s dog bit the plaintiff, and the plaintiff cried.

Passive voice: occurs where the subject of the sentence is not the actor but the object of the action Example: •

Original: It was found that the defendant was guilty on all counts.

•

Revised: The jury found the defendant guilty on all counts.

Example: •

Original: Five new criminal justice laws were passed by the legislature.

•

Revised: The legislature passed five new criminal justice laws.

Strategies such as The Paramedic Method, described in WĂƌƚϮ͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϮ, will help writers complete these edits more effectively and efficiently.

K h d  K D   Ϯ͗ > K  d / E '   E    s > h d / E '  s /   E    / E  >  '  >   K D D h E /  d / K E Most legal research begins with a set of research questions. As described above, lawyers develop questions specific to a client’s case. For example, a lawyer representing the plaintiff in a defamation case might ask the following: What are the forms of defamation and which form did my client experience? What are the legal requirements for proving a defamation case? What are the common defenses to such a case? Why does the law protect against defamation? Legal scholars, on the other hand, develop questions specific to debatable legal topics. For example, a scholar interested in the legalization of marijuana might ask the following: What historical circumstances led to the legal prohibition of marijuana in the United States? Why have some U.S. states passed laws legalizing marijuana and what type of usage do they authorize? What is the federal government’s current position on marijuana legalization and enforcement? Because legal research is often conducted through online databases, researchers also need to identify keywords that will help them locate sources that are germane to their particular legal issue or topic. These keywords will change or become refined as the researcher moves deeper into the research process. For more guidance on choosing keywords and developing research questions, see Part 2͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϯ.

&ŝŶĚŝŶŐ^ŽƵƌĐĞƐ Once researchers have developed their research questions, they can begin gathering sources that will help them answer those questions. Legal researchers might first conduct Google searches, looking for primary sources such as statutes or court opinions that relate to

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ĞǀĞůŽƉŝŶŐZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚYƵĞƐƟŽŶƐĂŶĚ/ĚĞŶƟĨLJŝŶŐĞŐĂůZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ'ƵŝĚĞƐ.

ǀĂůƵĂƟŶŐǀŝĚĞŶĐĞ The criteria for evaluating legal evidence depends on whether the source is primary or secondary. If primary, the researcher must determine where the source falls within the legal authority hierarchy (see Figure 1-5.1). If the source is a case, the researcher must also determine where it falls within the court hierarchy (see Figure 1-5.2) and whether it is still good law. The Shepardize and KeyCite tools mentioned above help the researcher make the latter determination. Further, lawyers conducting research must consider whether the law is binding or persuasive for the courts in the jurisdiction in which they practice. A “binding” law is one that the courts in a jurisdiction must follow, while a “persuasive” law is one that courts in a jurisdiction can choose to follow (see Rowe 1196). For example, a trial court in North Carolina is required to follow a North Carolina Supreme Court decision on a specific issue, while that same trial court may be persuaded (or not) to follow a Maryland Supreme Court decision on that same issue.

Constitution Statutes Administrative Rules and Regulations Common Law/ Case Law

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Supreme Court

Court of Appeals

Trial Court

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If the source is secondary, legal researchers must consider criteria that will help them determine whether the source is popular or scholarly. Popular sources are written for the general public and include newspaper or magazine articles, blog posts, and non-expert websites, while scholarly sources are written for a specialized audience and include law review articles, legal treatises, and books written by legal scholars. For more on popular and scholarly sources, including criteria for evaluation, see Part 2͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϯ.

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 y  Z  / ^   ϭͳ ϱ  ͗ & / E  / E '  ^ K h Z   ^  / E  >  '  >  t Z / d / E ' EXERCISE

K h d  K D   ϯ͗ Z    / E '  >  '  >   K D D h E /  d / K E ^ d Z d  ' /   > >z ZĞĂĚŝŶŐƌŝƟĐĂůůLJ Reading legal writing can be a difficult process since the framework for communicating legal thought is unique to the field. Nevertheless, there are critical reading strategies that will help you “crack the code.” Most of the primary sources that we will read in ENGL 105i are appellate court opinions (or cases); therefore, we’ll focus on how to identify and evaluate their content. The SQ3R method described in WĂƌƚϮ͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϯ provides a solid foundation for reading legal texts; however, it is imperative to also supplement the method’s “S” (Survey) and “1R” (Read) with the techniques described below.

Survey There are two stages to surveying a court opinion. First, identify the opinion’s four common parts: (1) case citation (identifies the parties and provides publication information), (2) main opinion (court’s decision and rationale), (3) concurring opinion (written by a judge who agrees with the court’s decision but not its rationale), and (4) dissenting opinion (written by a judge who disagrees with the court’s decision and rationale). Note: not all opinions will have a concurrence or dissent. Second, identify and label the four common elements of a main opinion: (1) statement of facts and procedural history (the pertinent facts of the case and a description of how the case arrived at the court), (2) issue (the legal question in front of the court), (3) holding (the court’s answer to that question), and (4) reasoning (the court’s rationale for its holding).

The court’s reasoning is the most complex part of the opinion. This is where the court presents the reasons for its conclusion on the legal question posed by the case. In her book, A Short Guide to Writing About Law, Katie Rose Guest Pryal provides a useful schematic for understanding and organizing the various pieces of a court’s rationale. “Legal topoi,” Pryal writes, “are categories of common arguments employed by judges, legal scholars, and lawyers” (35). These topoi are used to determine both what the law is and what it should be: •

Precedent: considers how prior case law supports a legal conclusion

•

Legislation: argues for a certain interpretation of legislation based on the law’s “plain meaning” or on the “legislative intent” behind the law

•

History: considers the “non-legal history” of a current legal issue

•

International or comparative law: considers how nations (or states) with similar values have addressed a legal issue

•

Morality: considers a community’s “shared morals”

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Close Reading

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•

Public policy: considers the interests of the public

•

Science: considers the results of studies in the natural or social sciences (Pryal 35-41).

You can also use these topoi to understand the reasoning of a concurring or dissenting justice. Once you have categorized the court’s rationale, look for connections between the topoi. For example, how does the court use studies on brain chemistry to support its assessment of the nation’s moral outlook on punishing the mentally ill? Or, how does the court use the the history of crime and punishment to support its conclusion about the boundaries of the double jeopardy clause? Identifying these connections is essential to understanding the logic behind the court’s holding. The final step in your close reading is to evaluate the court’s reasoning. Ask yourself what parts of the rationale you find more or less persuasive and why (Pryal 32–33). As you complete this step, consult the hEtƌŝƟŶŐĞŶƚĞƌ͛ƐŚĂŶĚŽƵƚŽŶůŽŐŝĐĂůĨĂůůĂĐŝĞƐ, with the goal of identifying the cause of the reasoning’s weaknesses. The most authoritative secondary source that you will encounter in ENGL 105i is the law review article. As you survey a law review article, pay particular attention to the section headings and references list. The former will help you decipher where to focus your reading, and the latter will offer you additional research possibilities. Then, as you enter into the close reading stage, consider how the text engages with the law: Is the source identifying problems in the law and offering solutions to those problems? Is the source arguing how a particular case should be decided or a particular law should be interpreted? Is the source offering a historical account of the law’s development? Is the source bringing awareness to a legal issue that has yet to be examined by other legal scholars?

ZĞĂĚŝŶŐǁŝƚŚ'ĞŶƌĞǁĂƌĞŶĞƐƐ Writers who read with an awareness of genre and convention are better prepared to compose texts specific to the legal field. The first step toward such awareness is to identify examples of the particular genre. As you read through each example, take notes on formatting, organization, content, source use, tone, and style. Use these notes to determine the text’s target audience and purpose—i.e., expert or non-expert, informative or persuasive—and to compose a list of genre conventions. In addition, make note of any departures from your conventions list and assess the rhetorical advantages/disadvantages of those departures. These notes will help you to decipher when it is necessary and appropriate to diverge from convention in your own writing. For more on genre awareness, see Part 2͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϭ.

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EXERCISE

K h d  K D   ϰ͗ t Z / d / E '  / E  >  t tƌŝƟŶŐ Much of the legal writing that you will do in ENGL 105i will follow the general writing process outlined in WĂƌƚϮ͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϮ; however, the following are steps in the writing process that require particular emphasis when writing in or about law:

'ĞŶĞƌĂƟŶŐ/ĚĞĂƐ Legal writers do not always have the opportunity to choose their topics. For example, a lawyer’s topic will depend upon the facts of a client’s case, while a legal scholar’s topic choice might be driven by recent or proposed changes in an area of expertise. Nevertheless, both lawyers and legal scholars must work on narrowing their topics to the particular set of issues, rules, policies, or ideas implicated by the client’s conduct and/or the law’s developments.

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Planning

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Legal writing, both professional and scholarly, is always concise and audience-focused; yet, it also features complex concepts and uses specialized terms. Therefore, during the planning process, legal writers should identify the audience’s experience and knowledge level and ask: What would my audience need to know to understand my argument or main idea and my evidence? Do I need to describe a doctrine, theory, or process, or define a term? Should I include a reference for my readers to consult for further context? In addition, some legal writing genres, such as the case brief or office memorandum, follow specific content and formatting conventions. Keep these conventions in the forefront of your mind as you develop your outlines (and later, as you draft and revise).

ƌĞĂƟŶŐĂƌĂŌ The law’s complexity requires that legal writers remain attentive to its nuances—including its exceptions and limitations—as they prepare their drafts. In addition, because legal writing values the classical modes of persuasion (i.e., ethos, pathos, and logos), writers should use authoritative sources to lend their arguments credibility, employ stories and emotive language to engage the reader’s sympathies, and use legal topoi to demonstrate a logical conclusion. Finally, it is imperative that the legal writer concentrate on crafting a clear and fully developed analysis of the issue at hand. As Suzanne Rowe writes, judges and other lawyers “probably will not duplicate your research, but will rely on your thoroughness” (1198).

ZĞǀŝĞǁŝŶŐzŽƵƌtŽƌŬ Many of the documents that legal writers produce are time-sensitive; therefore, writers must have an efficient strategy for making large-scale substantive revisions to their work. In addition, because legal writing values clarity and conciseness, writers must reserve time to edit their prose as described in Outcome 1 above. Finally, proofreading errors are unacceptable to legal readers and may therefore undermine the readers’ confidence in the writer’s professionalism and/or judgment. Check and re-check your drafts for surface level mistakes.

WƌĞƐĞŶƟŶŐ

As they do in their writing, legal communicators must present their ideas in a clear and concise manner. Transitions and short, simple sentences will help achieve this objective. Moreover, these presenters should look for compelling ways to persuade the audience about the significance of their chosen topic. Anecdotes, statistics, or rhetorical questions are all effective ways to hook an audience. For additional guidance on how to prepare a successful oral presentation, see WĂƌƚ Ϯ͕ ŚĂƉƚĞƌ ϰ as well as the hE tƌŝƟŶŐ ĞŶƚĞƌ ŚĂŶĚŽƵƚ ŽŶƐƉĞĞĐŚĞƐ.

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Legal practitioners and scholars are sometimes asked to present their arguments or research orally. For lawyers, oral presentations often occur in the courtroom, at the negotiating table, or in an educational seminar; for scholars, presentations primarily occur in an educational environment, usually at an academic or professional conference. Regardless of the context, these presentations are extemporaneous, meaning the presenters work from notes or an outline rather than read a paper word-for-word. The most common technological aid is a set of PowerPoint slides.

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t Z / d / E '  / E  ,   >d ,  Θ  D   /  / E  Health encompasses life-long physical, mental, and social well-being. An individual’s social context (e.g., family dynamics and customs) and physical environment (e.g., air pollution and urban food deserts) can have a significant impact on health. Due to the complexity of human health, there are several communities of experts dedicated to studying this topic. In this chapter, you will learn about academic disciplines that address health-related topics—namely, the medical sciences, social health sciences, and medical/health humanities. Along the way, you will discover many of the opportunities for undergraduate research in health and medicine at UNC. Also, you will explore how healthcare professionals, such as physicians, nurses, health policy experts, and bioethicists (among others) strategize about communication.

 / E / E '  , K t  ,   >d ,   E  D   /   >   K D D h E /  d / K E  t K Z < ^ When you think of health and medical writing, what do you imagine? Perhaps you picture medical scientists taking detailed notes about their experiments and writing lab reports, or maybe you picture physicians scribbling prescriptions. Writing in health and medicine certainly can look like this, but it can also be so much more!

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Education

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Similarly to social health scientists, medical/health humanities scholars advance intersubjective and relational approaches to well-being. These scholars think about health as “something that is produced through the relations between bodies rather than as something that a body is or is not” (Atkinson et al. 77). Related to this, medical/health humanities scholars strive to be inclusive and intersectional in their research, and they often employ feminist, disability studies, or other critical frameworks.

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zŽƵũƵƐƚĮŶŝƐŚĞĚŵĞĞƟŶŐ ǁŝƚŚĂƉĂƟĞŶƚƚŽĚŝƐĐƵƐƐ ƚŚĞŝƌĐƵƌƌĞŶƚƐLJŵƉƚŽŵƐ DĞŵďĞƌƐŽĨƚŚĞ ĂŶĚŵĞĚŝĐĂůŚŝƐƚŽƌLJ͘zŽƵ WŚLJƐŝĐŝĂŶ ŚĞĂůƚŚĐĂƌĞƚĞĂŵ ŚĂǀĞĚĞƚĞƌŵŝŶĞĚĂĐŽƵƌƐĞ ŽĨƚƌĞĂƚŵĞŶƚ͕ǁŚŝĐŚLJŽƵ ŶĞĞĚƚŽƐŚĂƌĞǁŝƚŚƚŚĞ ƉĂƟĞŶƚ͛ƐŚĞĂůƚŚĐĂƌĞƚĞĂŵ͘ zŽƵƌƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚƚĞĂŵƌĞZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ ĐĞŶƚůLJƉƵďůŝƐŚĞĚĂŶĂƌƟĐůĞ ĂƐƐŝƐƚĂŶƚĂƚ ĂďŽƵƚŝŶǀĞƐƟŐĂƟŽŶĂůŐĞŶĞ hE^ĐŚŽŽůŽĨ WƌŽŵŽƚĞƌĞhE͛ƐůŝŶŝĐĂů ĞĚŝƟŶŐƚŚĞƌĂƉLJĨŽƌ,ƵŶƚĞƌ DĞĚŝĐŝŶĞǁĞďƐĞĂƌĐŚǁŝƚŚŝŶĂ ĂŶĚdƌĂŶƐůĂ^LJŶĚƌŽŵĞĂŶĚƉƌĞƉĂƌĞ ƐŝƚĞǀŝƐŝƚŽƌƐ ůŽĐĂůĐŽŶƚĞdžƚ ƟŽŶĂůZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ ĂďƌŝĞĨƐƵŵŵĂƌLJŽŶƚŚĞ ĞŶƚĞƌ hE^ĐŚŽŽůŽĨDĞĚŝĐŝŶĞ ŚŽŵĞƉĂŐĞ͘ zŽƵĂƌĞĂƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĂƐƐŝƐƚĂŶƚĂŶĚĂƌĞǁŽƌŬŝŶŐ /ŶĨŽƌŵŽƚŚĞƌ ǁŝƚŚLJŽƵƌƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚƚĞĂŵ ƐĐŚŽůĂƌƐĂďŽƵƚ ƚŽĚĞǀĞůŽƉĂǁĞďĐĂƐƚĨŽƌ EĂƟŽŶĂů,ĞĂůƚŚ ZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ ŶĞǁƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ͕ ƚŚĞϮϰƚŚEĂƟŽŶĂů,ĞĂůƚŚ ƋƵŝƚLJZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ ĂƐƐŝƐƚĂŶƚŝŶƚŚĞ ĂĚǀŽĐĂƚĞĨŽƌĨƵ- ƋƵŝƚLJZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚtĞďĐĂƐƚ͕ tĞďĐĂƐƚĂƩĞŶĚ- ƐŽĐŝĂůŚĞĂůƚŚ ƚƵƌĞƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ͕ &ƌŽŵ͞ǁĂƌĞŶĞƐƐƚŽĐĞĞƐ ƐĐŝĞŶĐĞƐ ĂŶĚͬŽƌŵĂŬĞĂ ƟŽŶ͗>ĞǀĞƌĂŐŝŶŐZĞƐŝůŝĞŶĐLJ ĐĂůůͲƚŽͲĂĐƟŽŶ ŝŶƚŚĞŽŶƚĞdžƚŽĨdŽdžŝĐ ^ƚƌĞƐƐĂŶĚĚǀĞƌƐĞŚŝůĚŚŽŽĚdžƉĞƌŝĞŶĐĞƐ͘͟ 'ŝůůŝŶŐƐ^ĐŚŽŽů zŽƵĂƌĞĂƉƵďůŝĐŚĞĂůƚŚ ŽĨWƵďůŝĐ,ĞĂůƚŚ ƐƚƵĚĞŶƚǁŚŽŝƐĐŽŶĚƵĐƟŶŐ ĨĂĐƵůƚLJ͕ƐƚĂī͕ 'ŝůůŝŶŐƐ^ĐŚŽŽů ƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚŽŶǀĂĐĐŝŶĞƐŬĞƉ^ŚĂƌĞƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ ĂŶĚƐƚƵĚĞŶƚƐ͕ ŽĨWƵďůŝĐ,ĞĂůƚŚ ƟĐŝƐŵĂďƌŽĂĚ͘zŽƵǁƌŝƚĞ ĞdžƉĞƌŝĞŶĐĞƐ ĂƐǁĞůůĂƐƚŚĞ ƐƚƵĚĞŶƚ ĂďůŽŐƉŽƐƚƚŽƌĞŇĞĐƚŽŶ ďƌŽĂĚĞƌhE ĂŶĚƐŚĂƌĞLJŽƵƌĞdžƉĞƌŝĞŶĐĞ ĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƚLJ ǁŝƚŚƚŚĞhEĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƚLJ͘ ŽĐƵŵĞŶƚ ƉĂƟĞŶƚŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶĂŶĚ ĐŽŵŵƵŶŝĐĂƚĞ ŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚŝŶĨŽ ƚŽŽƚŚĞƌŚĞĂůƚŚĐĂƌĞƉƌŽǀŝĚĞƌƐ

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 y  Z  / ^   ϭͳ ϲ  ͗ ,   >d ,  ^  /  E    '  E Z  ^ EXERCISE

K h d  K D   Ϯ͗ > K  d / E '   E    s > h d / E '  s /   E    / E  d ,   D   /   >  ^  /  E   ^ ͕ ^ K  /  >  ,   >d ,  ^  /  E   ^ ͕  E   D   /   > ͬ ,   >d ,  , h D  E / d /  ^ In this section, you will learn about research in the medical sciences, social health sciences, and medical/health humanities. You will discover how researchers develop research questions, the methods they use to investigate topics, and opportunities for research at UNC.

DĞĚŝĐĂů^ĐŝĞŶĐĞZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ The human body is a complex organism, and the medical sciences seek to understand and explain how the human body works. Medical science involves research and training in several sub-disciplines. For instance, anatomy is the study of the human body’s component parts such as skin cells, the brain, and the digestive system. Physiology focuses on how body parts normally function—independently and as components of a system. Pathology is the study of diseases. Medical scientists typically focus their research on one particular disease, organ or organ system, or patient population. For example, oncologists research cancer. Cardiologists study and treat hearts. Neonatologists care for prematurely born babies.

DĞĚŝĐĂů^ĐŝĞŶĐĞZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚYƵĞƐƟŽŶƐĂŶĚDĞƚŚŽĚƐ Basic science researchers ask questions about the fundamental nature of biological phenomena. As in other natural science fields, basic science researchers often conduct experiments in a laboratory. In their experiments, medical scientists formulate specific hypotheses to investigate. They develop study procedures that are precisely designed, and they try to control or reduce any confounding factors. Basic science research often uses mice or other non-human organisms as test subjects (see &ŝŐƵƌĞϭͲϲ͘ϯ).

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There are two main types of medical science research: basic science research and clinical research. Basic science research—often called fundamental or “bench” research—provides the foundation of knowledge for applied health research. Basic science researchers investigate the fundamental structures of life, and these researchers often work in disciplines such as biochemistry, microbiology, and pharmacology. Clinical research, on the other hand, involves conducting research with human subjects or using materials from humans. Clinical researchers may apply scientific discoveries from basic science to create new medical treatments, or they may develop research projects based on their observations and experiences working with patients.

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Example #1:

Example #2:

Biologists in the Shiau Lab at UNC are investigating macrophages, a type of blood cell that is responsible for clearing away dying cells, damaged tissues and pathogens.

Biochemists in The Nichols Lab at UNC are studying the mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae.

What role do macrophages play in a healthy body?

Why are some strains of bacteria resistant to penicillin?

Methods

Methods

Zebrafish studies Fluorescent imaging Gene sequencing

In vivo experiments (mice) Western Blotting RNA-seq (RNA sequencing)

&ŝŐƵƌĞϭͲϲ͘ϯ͘ ĂƐŝĐƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĞdžĂŵƉůĞƐŝŶƚŚĞŵĞĚŝĐĂůƐĐŝĞŶĐĞƐ

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Clinical research is patient-oriented research. Some clinical researchers ask questions about the mechanisms of human disease, including diagnosis (how to identify a particular disorder or condition) and prevention (how to stop disorders from developing or recurring). For example, clinical researchers might collect specimen samples from patients in order to identify common infections among a population. Additionally, clinical research is essential for validating scientific discoveries and innovations. Building on basic science research, clinical researchers test the safety and efficacy of new therapeutic interventions and new technologies (see &ŝŐƵƌĞϭͲϲ͘ϰ). Example #3:

Example #4:

Medical researchers at UNC are investigating ways to prevent allergic reactions to peanuts among adolescents.

Geneticists at the UNC Children’s Research Institute partnered with a biotechnology company to test a new treatment for a rare condition called Hunter Syndrome.

Can patients be desensitized to peanuts using peanut oral immunotherapy?

Can SB-913 genome editing therapy improve outcomes for a patient with Hunter Syndrome?

Methods

Methods

Skin prick test

Genome editing

Double-blind, placebo-controlled, food oral desensitizing treatment

Plasma, saliva, and urine tests

&ŝŐƵƌĞϭͲϲ͘ϰ͘ ůŝŶŝĐĂůƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĞdžĂŵƉůĞƐŝŶƚŚĞŵĞĚŝĐĂůƐĐŝĞŶĐĞƐ

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Clinical research involves working with human subjects or human specimens. Some clinical research takes place in a lab. For example, clinical researchers may use a lab to analyze blood and other human specimens. Another important method is clinical trials. Clinical trials are experiments conducted on human participants to answer specific questions about medicine and behavior. The trials are used to evaluate the safety and efficacy of drugs, such as vaccines and dietary supplements, as well as new interventions, such as psychotherapy and medical devices. Clinical researchers also conduct case series, which are studies on a large patient group with a specific disease. For instance, after the discovery of the AIDS virus, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) collected a case series of 1000 patients in order to study frequent complications.

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DĞĚŝĐĂů^ĐŝĞŶĐĞZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĂƚhE Undergraduates are typically introduced to the medical sciences in natural science courses, such as biology, anatomy, and chemistry. The hE^ĐŚŽŽůŽĨDĞĚŝĐŝŶĞ is the overarching program for medical science research and training at higher levels. The School of Medicine is organized into basic science departments (e.g., biomedical engineering and nutrition) and clinical departments (e.g., emergency medicine, pediatrics, and psychiatry). The School of Medicine also encompasses a variety of research centers (such as the Gene Therapy Center and the Center for Gastrointestinal Biology and Disease). Additionally, UNC is part of the The North Carolina Translational and Clinical Sciences (EdƌĂ^Ϳ Institute. For instance, UNC researchers were involved in researching the novel coronavirus that causes COVID-19 in 2020. You can read about that research and its significance here. In some healthcare fields, an undergraduate degree is sufficient for employment. UNC offers several Bachelors of Science degrees in health fields, such as EƵƌƐŝŶŐ, ĞŶƚĂů,LJŐŝĞŶĞ, and ZĂĚŝŽůŽŐŝĐ^ĐŝĞŶĐĞ. Others professions require more education and/or training beyond the undergraduate level.

^ŽĐŝĂů,ĞĂůƚŚ^ĐŝĞŶĐĞZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ

In this field, scholars from a variety of disciplines use social science tools to study health and medical topics. For example, psychologists study the human mind. Epidemiologists investigate causes and patterns of disorders in groups of people. Medical Anthropologists consider the social, cultural, and linguistic factors that influence human health and healthcare. Health economists research the production and allocation of health resources as well as the value of health-affecting behaviors (such as smoking).

^ŽĐŝĂů,ĞĂůƚŚ^ĐŝĞŶĐĞYƵĞƐƟŽŶƐĂŶĚDĞƚŚŽĚƐ Social health scientists investigate research problems that are descriptive, comparative, or relational. A descriptive research question asks about the significance of a situation or specific phenomenon. A comparative research question compares two or more phenomena. A relational research question investigates the relationship between two or more variables to see if specific qualities or characteristics that may be connected (see Figure 1-6.5).

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Humans are social creatures. Unlike medical scientists, who investigate health and illness as a biological phenomenon, social health scientists seek to understand and explain how human health is influenced by an individual’s behavior, cultural customs, public policies, and other social factors. Social health scientists may focus their research on a particular condition, patient population, or public health concern.

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Example #1:

Example #2:

The Aiello Research group, in the Department of Epidemiology at UNC, studies racial/ethnic disparities in chronic diseases.

A group of social science scholars at UNC collaborated to create the ADD Health project, which is “the largest, most comprehensive longitudinal survey of adolescents ever undertaken.”[1]

Is educational attainment a risk factor for cardiovascular disease?

What factors are important to adolescent health and health behaviors?

Methods

Methods

The researchers evaluated data collected through a longitudinal cohort study of older Mexican Americans and their offspring. They looked at data on educational attainment, health behaviors, blood pressure, fasting glucose, and waist circumference.

The study involved multiple iterations of data collection using questionnaires and interviews as well as biological assessments (e.g., physical measurements and saliva samples).

ϭ͘͞ďŽƵƚ͘͟Add Health͘ĐĐĞƐƐĞĚ&Ğď͘Ϯϴ͕ϮϬϭϵ͘ ŚƩƉƐ͗ͬͬǁǁǁ͘ĐƉĐ͘ƵŶĐ͘ĞĚƵͬƉƌŽũĞĐƚƐͬĂĚĚŚĞĂůƚŚͬĂďŽƵƚ

&ŝŐƵƌĞϭͲϲ͘ϱ͘ džĂŵƉůĞƐŽĨƐŽĐŝĂůŚĞĂůƚŚƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ

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Social health scientists often conduct mixed methods research, meaning they combine qualitative and quantitative approaches to research. Quantitative methods include largescale surveys, advanced statistics, cohort studies, and randomized controlled trials. Common qualitative methods include interviews, participant observations, focus groups, and ethnographies (see &ŝŐƵƌĞϭͲϲ͘ϲ). For more about qualitative and quantitative approaches and other research methods in the Social Sciences, please review Part 1͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϮ. Example #3:

Example #4:

Health geographers in the The Spatial Health Research Group at UNC are investigating the ecological and behavioral factors that influence vaccine efficacy.

Dr. Mara Buchbinder, a medical anthropologist at UNC, partnered with sociologists from UCLA to study the impact of newborn screenings.

How does cholera vaccine efficacy vary within different spatial and environmental contexts?

Methods Researchers compared spatial and social clustering of cholera cases using data from a spatially referenced longitudinal demographic database. They analyze kinship-based social networks as well as spatial relationships using statistical analysis.

What impact do newborn screenings have on children and families?

Methods The researchers conducted participant observations at a genetics clinic. They also interviewed families and followed cases over time to look at children’s diagnostic trajectories.

&ŝŐƵƌĞϭͲϲ͘ϲ͘ ^ŽĐŝĂůŚĞĂůƚŚƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĞdžĂŵƉůĞƐ NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

^ŽĐŝĂů,ĞĂůƚŚ^ĐŝĞŶĐĞZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĂƚhE

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In addition to the medical sciences, there are hE^ĐŚŽŽůŽĨDĞĚŝĐŝŶĞ programs invested in social health science research. These programs include the Department of Social Medicine, the Center for Health Equality Research, the Beacon Program for Domestic Violence Intervention, and the TEACCH Autism Program. Additionally, the hE'ŝůůŝŶŐƐ^ĐŚŽŽůŽĨ'ůŽďĂůWƵďůŝĐ,ĞĂůƚŚ has departments in Epidemiology, Maternal and Child Health, and Health Policy and Management. Gillings also has several programs, such as dŚĞEŽƌƚŚĂƌŽůŝŶĂ /ŶƐƟƚƵƚĞĨŽƌWƵďůŝĐ,ĞĂůƚŚ, dŚĞtĂƚĞƌ/ŶƐƟƚƵƚĞĂƚhE, and dŚĞDŝŶŽƌŝƚLJ,ĞĂůƚŚWƌŽũĞĐƚ.

DĞĚŝĐĂůͬ,ĞĂůƚŚ,ƵŵĂŶŝƟĞƐZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ Humans are also relational, communicative, and self-reflective creatures. The medical/ health humanities seek to understand how humans think about health/illness in relation to history, politics, religious traditions, and philosophy. Medical humanities scholars contribute to medical education by helping students develop their capacity for reflection, meaning the process of engaging in critical, exploratory, and iterative interactions with one’s thoughts and actions. By encouraging medical students to use narrative or other artistic tools to express their experiences and feelings, medical humanities educators help students develop their ability to listen, interpret, and communicate. They also foster students’ understanding of ethical issues. The medical/health humanities is a diverse academic arena, encompassing many types of research projects. For the purposes of this chapter, it is useful to divide medical/health humanities research into three categories: Historical, Narrative, and Ethical.

Historical Research Humanities scholars often do not work directly with healthcare systems or patients; instead, they study ideas, texts, and artifacts. Many of these scholars ask questions about the historical aspects of human health. They may investigate historical accounts of particular illnesses (e.g., the yellow fever epidemic of 1793), medical practices and technologies (e.g., the invention of forceps), or medical treatments (e.g., pharmaceuticals). Medical historians compile evidence from primary sources, such as letters, lab notebooks, and archaeological findings, to construct accounts of past events (see &ŝŐƵƌĞϭͲϲ͘ϳ).

Juan Carlos González-Espitia, a professor in the Department of Romance Studies, researches the relationship between disease (e.g., syphilis) and culture in the eighteenth century.

How did people understand venereal disease in Spain during the enlightenment?

Method Dr. González-Espitia studies the relationship between art, such as Los Caprichos by Francisco de Goya (1746-1828), literature, and public policy projects about venereal disease containment from that period.

&ŝŐƵƌĞϭͲϲ͘ϳ͘ ŶĞdžĂŵƉůĞŽĨŚŝƐƚŽƌŝĐĂůŚĞĂůƚŚƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ

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Example #1:

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EĂƌƌĂƟǀĞZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ In addition to studying historical figures and events, medical/health humanities scholars often analyze narrative representations of illness and disability. These scholars ask questions about how patients and healthcare providers use narrative techniques to capture their personal experiences or those they have witnessed. For example, literary scholars may study language about pain in popular novels, or they might analyze how time is represented in graphic memoirs about dementia (see &ŝŐƵƌĞϭͲϲ͘ϴ). Example #2: Rhetoric and Composition scholar Jane Danielewicz studied The Year of Magical Thinking, a memoir by Joan Didion.

How does Didion make sense of death and loss in her memoir?

Method Dr. Danielewicz used rhetorical analysis to investigate how Didion worked through her grief following the death of her husband by reflecting on her experience.

&ŝŐƵƌĞϭͲϲ͘ϴ͘ ŶĞdžĂŵƉůĞŽĨŶĂƌƌĂƟǀĞƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ

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Thinking about stories is essential to a medical approach called narrative medicine. According to physician and literary scholar Rita Charon, narrative medicine entails “recognizing, absorbing, interpreting, and being moved by the stories of illness”. Narrative medicine uses the method of close reading to teach physicians to focus on details and aesthetics when caring for patients. Narrative medicine scholars argue that “health care professionals can become more attentive to patients, more attuned to patients’ experiences, more reflective in their own practice, and more accurate in interpreting the stories patients tell of illness” by developing narrative competencies (Charon 107).

Ethical Research Finally, medical/health humanities scholars are deeply invested in analyzing the moral and ethical dimensions of health and healthcare. These scholars ask questions about the philosophical basis of medical practices and the normative power of disease definitions. Additionally, these scholars may use moral and/or philosophical frameworks to analyze complex situations and offer recommendations to guide medical decision-making (see &ŝŐƵƌĞϭͲϲ͘ϵ).

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Example #3: Philosopher Rebecca L. Walker, a Professor in the Department of Social Medicine at UNC, studies the relationship between moral theories and biomedical practices.

Why are human-animal bonds important in ethical primate research?

Method Dr. Walker uses virtue ethics to assess experiments with infant macaques (monkeys) conducted by American psychologist Harry F. Harlow in the 1950s.

&ŝŐƵƌĞϭͲϲ͘ϵ͘ ŶĞdžĂŵƉůĞŽĨĞƚŚŝĐĂůƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ

DĞĚŝĐĂůͬ,ĞĂůƚŚ,ƵŵĂŶŝƟĞƐZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĂƚhE Scholars engaged in medical/health humanities research often work in humanities departments, such as English and Comparative Literature, Religious Studies, and Philosophy. At UNC, some medical/health humanities scholars are affiliated with the UNC Center for Bioethics or Social Medicine Department. Additionally, many of these scholars are connected to ,,/s (Health and Humanities: An Interdisciplinary Venue for Exploration). Through the HHIVE, undergraduates can volunteer, assist with research projects, or contribute to the ,ĞĂůƚŚ,ƵŵĂŶŝƟĞƐ:ŽƵƌŶĂů.

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For more about research approaches and methods in the Humanities, please review Part 1͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϯ.

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>ŽĐĂƟŶŐǀŝĚĞŶĐĞ Health and medical researchers draw from a number of different disciplines to find appropriate evidence. Below is a list of useful databases to which the UNC Libraries subscribe.

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ǀĂůƵĂƟŶŐ^ŽƵƌĐĞƐ After you determine whether a source is presenting primary or secondary research, you should evaluate the study design, results, and generalizability of the study.

Study Design First, consider whether the method of the study was appropriate for the research question. For instance, a self-report study of the weight-loss effects of eliminating gluten might be less appropriate than a clinical study in which a control group and a study group eliminated gluten and a health researcher measured the effects. Also, identify any limitations in the study. For example, you should consider how the researchers controlled the variables in their study (i.e., Did they use a placebo or control group?).

Results

'ĞŶĞƌĂůŝnjĂďŝůŝƚLJ Finally, assess the participant group. Who was being studied? If a particular study only included healthy men ages 25–40, the results might not be applicable to other populations (e.g., women, children, the elderly, etc.). Also, how many people participated in the study? The “power” of a study (i.e., its generalizability) increases when there are more participants/samples. For more about primary and secondary sources and how to evaluate them, see Part 2,ŚĂƉƚĞƌϮ.

K h d  K D   ϯ͗ Z    / E '  ,   >d ,   E   D   /   > Z  ^   Z  ,  ^ d Z d  ' /   > >z In order to read health and medical research strategically, you will need to develop your research assessment skills and become familiar with medical vocabulary.

ZĞĂĚŝŶŐƌŝƟĐĂůůLJ When reading health and medical research, start by considering the audience. Who is the target audience for the document—health researchers? Practitioners? Public audiences? What is its purpose—to inform, to persuade, to evaluate? Who authored the information, and are NOT they anFOR authoritative and credible source? DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

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Next, look at the outcomes of the study. Are the results “disease-oriented” or “patient-oriented?” “Disease-oriented evidence” refers to changes in physiology, such as blood pressure, blood sugar, cholesterol, etc. These measures are important, but in some situations it is more relevant to look for outcomes that are “patient-oriented” because they directly affect patients’ lives. Such outcomes include morbidity, mortality, and cost.

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When it comes to health, especially, readers can encounter many different sources of information, ranging from the CDC or the United States Surgeon General to materials that pose as authoritative but are actually trying to sell readers on a product or theory. In other cases, research may seem authoritative but is actually funded by an industry with a vested interest in the results, as in soda-company-funded studies that assert soft drinks are not bad for you. Sometimes, these materials can even pose as authoritative by borrowing the layout, terminology, and features of medical journal articles. While using only sources available through UNC databases provides one check on these tendencies, you should still read critically by evaluating the strength of the evidence provided for each claim and considering potential sources of bias.

ZĞĂĚŝŶŐǁŝƚŚ'ĞŶƌĞǁĂƌĞŶĞƐƐ Like researchers in the natural and social sciences, health science researchers value methods and data. The genres used in health and medical fields tend to emphasize how the data were gathered, what the results were, and why they are significant for researchers or practitioners. Here are the types of questions that you should keep in mind when reading any health science texts: Genre •

What genre is this?

•

Who is the intended audience?

•

How is it organized?

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Methods •

What evidence does the author use to support the argument?

•

Does the author use qualitative or quantitative methods?

•

If the methods are experimental, was it a blind or double-blind, randomized study? Was there a placebo or control group?

•

Why did the researcher decide to use those specific methods?

•

Was the researcher relying on existing scholarly sources when choosing those methods?

•

Did the researcher pay attention to sample size and representation when choosing research subjects?

Argument •

What other rhetorical conventions is the author using to convince readers?

•

What other sources does the author cite? How do these additional sources support the author’s argument?

Results and Discussion •

How did the researcher analyze the results?

•

How did the researcher present the results?

•

Did the researcher draw on other scholarly work to discuss the significance of the data?

•

Is that other scholarly work relevant (i.e., related by topic or method, not outdated)?

•

Does the researcher make appropriate claims based on the research method and results?

Most scholarly health science genres will include a general introduction, review of literature, description of methods used to acquire data, explanation of the results of the data, discussion of the significance of the data, and conclusion discussing the larger implications of the findings for researchers or health practitioners.

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ĞĂůŝŶŐǁŝƚŚDĞĚŝĐĂůsŽĐĂďƵůĂƌLJ Medical practitioners use a special lexicon. Medical terminology and abbreviations help healthcare providers communicate with each other by standardizing communication and facilitating documentation. Consider the example of a note from a patient chart in &ŝŐƵƌĞϭͲϲ͘ϭϬ:

dŚĞƉĂƟĞŶƚƉƌĞƐĞŶƚĞĚůĞƚŚĂƌŐŝĐďƵƚƌĞƐƉŽŶĚŝŶŐĂƉƉƌŽƉƌŝĂƚĞůLJŝŶƚŚĞ͘ ZĞĐĞŶƚ,ͬŽƉŽůLJƵƌŝĂͬƉŽůLJĚŝƉƐŝĂͬƚĂĐŚLJĐĂƌĚŝĂ͘d,ΘD //E

In addition to using abbreviations when writing notes, practitioners learn to use special medical terminology, which was created using prefixes and suffixes from Latin and Ancient Greek. The chart below offers a few examples of commonly used prefixes and suffixes.

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medical terms into plain English. So, while it is important to become familiar with medical vocabulary, you should keep in mind that this technical lingo may be gibberish to some audiences. Read more about responding to specific audience needs in Part 2͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϭ. To get a better idea of how Health Sciences articles work, examine this annotated sample article.

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KhdKDϰ͗tZ/d/E'Khd,>d,EͬKZD//E Ethics refers to values or principles used to guide action, and it is important to understand key ethical issues when communicating about health and medicine. Ethics are important in research, in patient-provider interactions, and when engaging with the public.

ŽŶŇŝĐƚƐŽĨ/ŶƚĞƌĞƐƚ Medical scientific research requires substantial financial support. While there are some funds available through the US government (e.g., The National Institutes of Health) and private philanthropic organizations (e.g., The Gates Foundation), private companies are a major source of funding. Companies fund pharmaceutical and biotechnology research in hopes of developing products they can sell. As a result, there is potential for “conflicts of interest.” In other words, there may be a financial incentive for researchers to arrive at particular conclusions. A conflict of interest may lead to bias, or researchers may feel pressure to fabricate, exaggerate, or otherwise alter research. As a result, researchers are required to disclose any individual and institutional financial relationships that might produce conflicts of interest.

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/ŶĨŽƌŵĞĚŽŶƐĞŶƚ Research studies that involve human participants are subject to a variety of legal and ethical requirements because participants are often in a vulnerable position. When human subjects are involved, participants must give a declaration of consent or “informed consent.” Patients must also give informed consent before surgical procedures or other interventions. Patients have the right to decide what happens to their bodies, and their decisions cannot be coerced in any way. In order to be considered ethical, the participants’ or patients’ decisions must be informed, meaning they are sufficiently knowledgeable about potential risks and potential conflicts of interest have been disclosed. Also, patients must clearly and decisively give authorization for the researcher or doctor to act. Thus, medical researchers and practitioners must communicate relevant information accurately and in language that participants/patients can understand in order for them to give informed consent.

DĞĚŝĐĂůƚŚŝĐƐ Newly minted physicians take an oath (called the “Hippocratic Oath”) to uphold specific ethical standards, such as preserving patients’ privacy. There are four key principles in medical ethics: autonomy, justice, beneficence, and non-maleficence. Autonomy means that patients should be fully informed about risks and benefits of all procedures and that patients should never be coerced into a decision. Justice requires that physicians and other healthcare providers not allow bias or prejudice to influence the care they provide to patients. Beneficence means that providers should always have the intent of doing good for the patient. Lastly, non-maleficence is another way of saying “do no harm,” a key tenent of the Hippocratic Oath.

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There are a number of ways that these principles apply to patient-provider communication. For example, medical ethicists argue that physicians should strive to understand patients’ needs and interests as well as their family relationships and resources. Communicating with patients about their lives (not just their bodies) can help physicians respect patients’ autonomy and discern the most beneficial course of treatment for each unique patient.

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ƚŚŝĐƐŽĨWŽƉƵůĂƌ,ĞĂůƚŚ:ŽƵƌŶĂůŝƐŵ The first step in communicating a new health or medical finding to a popular audience is to scrutinize the research. Be particularly weary about promoting underpowered studies. While important and profound insights can be derived from an N=1 (i.e., a one study subject), it is considered unethical to promote small studies to the general public. Two consequences of low statistical power are (1) the likelihood of overestimating effect and (2) the low reproducibility of results. Thus, it is unethical to advertise low-power results to the public because it is impossible to accurately determine if the results will be replicable. Within the scientific community, low-power research is regarded cautiously until confirmed by more research. Keep the following tips in mind when communicating the research findings and assessing popular health articles: •

Relate the quality of evidence and the generalizability of results Hypothetical Scenario: A major news outlet publishes a story about a new at-home DNA testing kit. As you read the story, you notice that it references a press release from the company, but does not discuss research about the test. Upon review, you discover that the company has conducted a small pilot study (with 50 participants), but has not published the results in a peer-reviewed journal. You determine that the news story does not accurately represent the quality of the evidence.

•

Acknowledge limitations of the study

•

Identify conflicts of interest Hypothetical Scenario: A study reports that a new brand of high-protein chocolate bars has been found to reduce injuries among high school athletes. As you read this study, you should ask yourself: Who stands to benefit from this study? What is the relationship among the researchers, the lab/university, and the company that manufactures this chocolate bar? If there is a financial incentive for the researchers to find certain results or if the relationship is not discussed, you should be concerned about the potential for conflict of interest.

•

Report the cost of any interventions Hypothetical Scenario: A popular news outlet reports that laser eye treatment can cure migraines. As you analyze this story, you should take note of whether the story adequately discusses the costs of the intervention. Will it be covered by major insurance

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Hypothetical Scenario: You are an editor for a popular health magazine, and you need to review an article titled “Experimental Drug Reduces Tumors in 75% of Participants.” As part of your assessment, you review the original research article and discover that this story is reporting on a Phase I trial of a new drug. However, the news story does not tell readers that the Phase I trial was conducted primarily to assess the safest dose for patients. Also, the story fails to acknowledge that the trial is too small and preliminary to make any big claims about the drug’s effectiveness.

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providers? Are there other expenses that should be considered? In this case, imagine if the procedure costs thousands of dollars out-of-pocket (i.e., it is not covered by insurance) and patients are required to buy expensive prescription sunglasses after the procedure. For some patients, the expense may not be a burden; however, the ethics of health journalism promote upfront transparency about costs. •

Avoid sensational language Hypothetical Scenario: A headline reads, “Hope Restored: Breakthrough Study Finds Miracle Cure for Victims of Cancer.” This is pure sensationalism, meaning it uses strong, emotional language (at the expense of accuracy) to provoke public interest. This headline plays on readers’ emotions by talking about “victims” and promising “hope.” Don’t follow this example! Health journalists should avoid labeling someone with a disease or a health condition a “victim” and allow consumers to decide how much “hope” to assign to a study/finding. Also, this headline is likely distorting the success of the study by calling it a “breakthrough” “miracle cure.” Keep in mind that true medical “breakthroughs” are measured in years: years of study leading up to the innovation and years of research afterward to confirm it. Also, medical science is not supernatural. Highly trained professionals conduct precisely designed studies that lead to medical advances. Finally, “cure” is a loaded and ill-defined term. Does it mean absence of disease? Does it mean no recurrence of symptoms? Does it mean that patient is “cured” for today, a month, 5 years, or “forever”? Be precise when reporting anticipated outcomes.

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ŝǀĞƌƐĞ'ĞŶƌĞƐĨŽƌŝǀĞƌƐĞƵĚŝĞŶĐĞƐ Medical researchers and healthcare professionals write often in many and diverse genres. They write project proposals and IRB applications; they compose informed consent forms and recruitment materials; they share their findings with other specialists and popular audiences. In addition to employing various genres of writing, health and medicine experts work within and across multiple disciplines. For instance, healthcare providers may use medical science research to determine a diagnosis while also drawing on social health science findings to understand patients’ cultural contexts and employing medical/health humanities tools to reflect on morally complex situations. Also, to effectively care for the sick and injured takes a team of researchers and professionals—including medical scientists, physicians, surgeons, pharmacists, nurses, occupational and physical therapists, chaplains, and social workers. Furthermore, supporting the health and well-being of individuals and communities requires cooperation among many groups, such as public health experts, policy makers, and spiritual/religious communities. In practice, healthcare is a multidisciplinary and collaborative project—and writing is one of its essential components.

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In 2018, the City of Raleigh shared a first draft of the Master Plan for Dorothea Dix Park, a plot of over 300 acres in the heart of the city that was formerly the site of the North Carolina State Insane Asylum, popularly known as Dorothea Dix Hospital. As part of the master planning process, researchers at UNC’s Community Histories Workshop were asked to study the history of the site and propose how the new park development could commemorate that history. Before becoming the site of Dix Hospital, the land in question was a plantation and, before that, hunting grounds for indigenous Clovis, Woodland, and Mississippian peoples. The Community Histories Workshop approached students in ENGL 695: Research Methods and Practices, to get involved in this historical research and consider how they might share their findings with public audiences.

2-1

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In this chapter, we will use this example to examine the rhetorical situations we encounter when we compose, the different genres we may produce based on our research, the different discourse communities (academic and public) that we encounter, and the opportunities and constraints writers face in each unique situation. Here, you will see how students in ENGL 695 responded to a rhetorical situation to produce different genres that addressed the needs of different audiences, or discourse communities, that have a stake in the history and present use of Dix Park.

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K h d  K D  Ϯ͗ > K  d / E '   E    E  >z  / E '   y  D W >  ^ K&^W/&/'EZ^ Once students in ENGL 695 had figured out the rhetorical chart for their assignment, they began conducting research on individual patients listed on a ledger found in the State Archives in Raleigh. They used hE >ŝďƌĂƌŝĞƐ ĚĂƚĂďĂƐĞƐ to find historical records such as census information, newspaper articles, and military papers for patients who had lived at Dix. Sometimes they reached a dead end, finding little information about a given person. With some tenacity and luck, though, each student found enough information about at least one person on their list to begin composing a blog post about them. With raw materials in hand, they were ready to begin drafting a post.

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First, though, students needed to know what kind of blog post they were going to write. Thankfully, Dr. Allen had already posted some examples of blog posts for individuals he had researched. Students examined the blog posts in class and discussed what they generally included and how they were written. Together, they came up with a list of criteria and features for their blog posts, as shown in Figure 2-1.3.

&ŝŐƵƌĞϮͲϭ͘ϯ͘ EŽƚĞƐŽŶĂŐĞŶƌĞĂŶĂůLJƐŝƐĨŽƌďůŽŐƉŽƐƚƐĂďŽƵƚƉĂƟĞŶƚƐĂƚŝdž,ŽƐƉŝƚĂů

Students decided that they would all follow roughly the same guidelines, but recognized that the individual stories they were trying to tell might lead to some different ways of approaching the blog post.

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When you get an assignment in ENGL 105/105i (or any course, for that matter), looking up examples of the genre is an important step to help you get started. By looking at examples, you can see what’s typically included, how the genre is usually organized, and what type of writing style is used. Each genre assumes a set of common features that are more or less stable across instances of that genre, although variations also happen. Looking at multiple examples will help you to get a sense of which features are most stable and which ones vary. These examples might also help you to imagine the possibilities for your own assignment.

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If you are having trouble, you can always ask your instructor for help. Another pro tip is to ask someone who has recently written the same genre for a similar purpose. For instance, if you were working on a fellowship application you might ask around to see if anyone else you know applied for the same fellowship last year. The goal is obviously not to copy that person’s application, but to use the kind of questions shown here to figure out how to write that type of application. Once you find examples of a genre, you can use the following questions as a heuristic: •

Design: How is the document laid out? Are images included? What kinds? What kinds of headings or subheadings are used? Is it laid out single-spaced or double-spaced? Are there columns?

•

Organization: How is the document organized? Are there standard sections given (as in a resume or scientific research article), or do the sections seem to vary? How are parts or sections organized? (for instance, chronologically? In order of importance?)

•

Content: What goes into each section of the genre? Does the genre tend to draw on specific types of evidence or research? How is that information integrated (through quotations? Paraphrase? Summary?)

•

Citation: Is information cited in the document? What citation style is used? If not, how are the sources of information flagged (or are they provided at all?)

•

Style: What type of writing style is used? Is it very formal? Informal? Or somewhere in between? How technical is the language? What kinds of sentences are used?

•

Variation: How stable or standardized does the genre seem to be? How much variation do you see between examples, or very little? What does that tell you about the rhetorical choices available to you as the writer?

Whenever you are looking at examples for a new assignment, using these questions can help you to get a deeper grasp on the genre you are writing and what its features seem to be. You can also get a sense of where you have room to innovate or where you might have to stick with more standard conventions in order to produce a document that is recognizable as an example of that genre.

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To find examples of a genre, the easiest strategy is to start with a simple web search. When searching, though, try to find examples that are as close as possible to your rhetorical situation. For instance, if you are writing a grant proposal for an undergraduate research award, try going first to the website for that award to see if examples are provided. If not, you might search for “undergraduate grant proposal example” or even search for the name of the award in question, rather than searching for just “grant proposal.”

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Up until now, it may seem that genres exist “out there,” as empty forms or templates ready to be filled. A richer perspective on genre, though, suggests that genres are sites of social action: conventionalized ways of performing certain tasks or accomplishing certain goals. Consider a resume. A resume can be understood as a form or template—in fact, your word processing program probably includes several templates that you can use to create one. From a deeper perspective, though, a resume is a way of accomplishing the task of getting a job. That is the social action it performs. We have resumes because, over time, the way that you get a job in our society has stabilized so that it involves a ritualized performance of certain genres: the cover letter, the resume, the job interview, the offer letter. As you can see, genres tend to fit together in groups or sets that, together, do the work of organizations or discourse communities. To give a few other examples, consider: •

How do you get a passport? ĺ Fill out a passport application.

•

How do you get your money back for a faulty Internet purchase? ĺ Write a complaint letter to customer service (or complain orally over the phone).

•

How do you get an internship? ĺ Fill out an application and write an application essay or personal statement.

If you go to work for a new company, you will likely find that it shares its own set of genres used to perform regular activities: memos, emails, reports, proposals, forms, and so on. Part of learning the job is learning which genre to use when—and how to write it. A genre is more than a form, then; rather, it is a conventionalized way of getting a job done, part of a ritual or set of activities performed in a given organization. In academic research, genres work in a similar way, offering ritualized ways for researchers to conduct research, share the results, and get funding to do more research. Increasingly, with an emphasis on “engaged research” that addresses public audiences, researchers must blend their traditional academic research (with its unique genres read primarily by other scholars) with projects that address outside audiences. Another way of understanding genres as social action, though, is to think about how you can use genres to do work you think is important. Consider the Dorothea Dix project as a whole. If you go to the website for the Dix organization, you will see a page listing the Master Plan as the primary genre that is currently in the works. But you will also see a range of other genres listed: FAQs, an executive summary, a glossary of terms used, City Council presentations, past meeting minutes and reports. Most of these documents focus on the future of Dix Park: they offer a shining vision of a vibrant, colorful, and engaging space for people to have fun and enjoy the outdoors. Overall, the history of Dix Park is granted less emphasis. The blog posts students composed may seem like a small part of this slew of genres, but they constitute one way that the Master Planning committee could recognize the history of the Dix site. The explicit goal of the blog posts may have been to narrate the history of one individual who lived at the Hospital, but the larger social action the blog posts could perform would be to shine light on the unsung people who lived and worked on the site, especially people with mental illness who are often unrecognized and forgotten.

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So, when preparing to write in any genre, it can be helpful to answer the following questions: •

What social actions does the genre I am writing perform? In other words, what does that genre do in the world?

•

How does my genre form part of a genre set? How do the different genres fit together to perform the work of an organization?

•

How can I use genres to do something I feel is important—to make an intervention in the world?

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If genres are sites for social actions, then, we can use them as more than just forms to complete. We can use genres to perform social actions we value and, therefore, to take action in the world. This involves recognizing that, while they have some shared features, genres are not monolithic: they provide a set of options or a range of possibilities for addressing a situation. The blog posts students wrote for the Dix project conveyed patients’ experiences differently, focusing on different elements of mental health in the period we covered. In her blog post, for instance, Emily Long used the example of Confederate soldier Nathan Rowland to highlight how limited understandings of what we would now recognize as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) meant that veterans did not get the kind of treatment they needed. Sometimes more than one genre can be a good response to a rhetorical situation. After they composed their blog posts, students in ENGL 695 thought about how else they could recognize the history of Dix Hospital. During their research and writing, they found a lot of information about some of the patients. In class, they discussed how sometimes, narrating another person’s history felt strange or even somewhat unethical. As a class, they brainstormed a range of other projects they could work on to share that history in a different way. Here are some examples: •

Two students, Tierra and Nicholaus, became interested in the history of Cherry Hospital, a segregated facility that opened up shortly after the period we studied to care for African American patients. They created a website based on their research, highlighting how conditions at Cherry Hospital differed from those at Dix Hospital.

•

Two other students, Savita and Kat, paired up to create an interactive online game that allows players to imagine what it might have been like to live at Dix Hospital. They drew on archival records and architectural plans to help users navigate through the hospital using text commands.

•

One student, Marissa, choreographed and videotaped a dance inspired by autobiographical accounts of living in a psychiatric hospital in the 1960s.

Each genre opened up different methods and ways of using genres as social actions to respond to the rhetorical situation. For their project, Tierra and Nicholaus stuck with the discipline of public history. As they did in their blog posts, the pair used historical documents—such as reports and records they found at hE͛ƐtŝůƐŽŶ>ŝďƌĂƌLJ—to generate an historical narrative of life at Cherry Hospital. But they used a different genre, a website (see &ŝŐƵƌĞϮͲϭ͘ϰ), that allowed them to provide more information organized into multiple pages, rather than a single blog post.

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For their project (&ŝŐƵƌĞϮͲϭ͘ϱ), Kat and Savita not only switched the genre (from a blog post to an interactive game) but also changed disciplines and research methods. Their project might be considered an example of digital humanities scholarship; however, their goal was not necessarily to provide an accurate historical record but to provide a context for imaginative inquiry. Thus, while they relied on historical documents, they gave themselves some freedom to imagine case histories for individual patients that were based on real people but allowed for some creative liberty.

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Marissa also engaged more imaginatively with her sources of information, which included memoirs such as Girl, Interrupted (based on Susanna Kaysen’s experiences at McLean Hospital in Virginia, which had a similar architectural layout to Dix Hospital). For her project, Marissa had a unique set of rhetorical choices to make: what song to use, where to shoot the video, what to wear. In class, she discussed several possible song ideas with her group and weighed how each song conveyed a mood or message. She wanted something that portrayed the gravity of mental illness while still providing hope, so she chose settings on campus and around town that similarly balanced seriousness (such as the edge of Jordan Lake) and hope (such as Merritt’s Pasture).

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For class assignments, you may be asked to write a specific genre, but you may also be given the opportunity to choose from a range of options. Or, you may wish to revise an assignment that began as one genre and consider how else you might present that information. You might even be interested in sharing your research and writing with others as part of an ePortfolio WĂƌƚ Ϯ͕ ŚĂƉƚĞƌ ϲ, submission to an undergraduate journal, or some other type of venue. •

What genres might I use to respond to this rhetorical situation? What social actions would each genre allow me to perform? Which one(s) best fit my purpose, audience, and/or role?

•

What would each genre allow me to do—and not do?

•

What rhetorical choices do I have within a given genre?

•

What constraints do I have within a given genre?

•

Can I blend, warp, or mix genres to do something new?

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In any rhetorical situation, then, here are some questions to consider:

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d,tZ/d/E'WZK^^ Writing can be a daunting task for anyone. Sitting down to a blank page can make even the most experienced writers anxious. Sylvia Plath claimed that “everything in life is writable about if you have the outgoing guts to do it, and the imagination to improvise. The worst enemy to creativity is self-doubt” (83). Whatever your writing strengths or experiences, try not to let the idea of writing overwhelm you. Even famous writers, from novelists to journalists, don’t produce perfect first drafts. All writing, and academic writing in particular, is a process. This process involves steps that range from coming up with ideas to ensuring that every single word fits precisely with your overall goal. This chapter will outline many of those stages as well as provide strategies that will help you maximize each stage’s potential contribution to the best possible final product.

 E E / E '     Z  & d The following are a few strategies that will help you as you prepare a draft:

KƵƚůŝŶŝŶŐ Once you have some ideas for your composition, you can make an outline. An outline is a step-by-step plan. It helps with overall organization by grouping ideas together to create a framework, or skeleton, for the logical progression of the composition. While outlines can be formal or informal, the outline you use to craft your composition will ultimately be shaped most by the genre and by readers’ expectations for what they will encounter in the draft that emerges from that outline. For instance, some genres (such as a grant proposal) have highly structured sections with specific conventions you must follow. Other genres (such as a film review) allow you more flexibility in your organization. In either case, though, readers will expect your writing to be logical and coherent.

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A good place to start with your outline is your argument or working statement of purpose for your document.

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First, consult your notes. Settle on your key pieces of evidence that support your argument and how you might synthesize and organize the information you’ve already gathered. Second, consider how your research (if applicable) will factor into your outline. Craft your ideas around connecting back to your argument or central focus, and don’t forget to include specific evidence to support your claims and/or illustrate your points. Some writers create bullet point outlines that loosely group ideas together while others construct detailed outlines with topic sentences for each paragraph and preliminary research and data mapped below these topic sentences. In any variation, though, the outline should represent the main sections or ideas for the composition, in order, with corresponding subtopics or content filed under their respective main ideas. You can outline almost anything, so practice by making a quick outline of your favorite book or movie. For your main ideas, give broad plot points like you’re telling the story to a friend in one minute; for your subtopics, put the more nuanced details you might include if you had five minutes to tell the story. Here’s a very basic example: I.

There were three little pigs. a.

One had gone to Duke and built a house of straw.

b.

One had gone to N.C. State and built a house of sticks.

c.

One had gone to UNC and built a house of bricks.

II. A wolf wanted to eat them. a.

The wolf was both big and bad.

b.

The wolf had an above-average lung capacity.

c.

The wolf was rather polite.

III. The wolf came to town looking for dinner. He blew down the house of straw. • b.

He blew down the house of sticks. •

c.

Duke pig ran to the house of sticks. Duke pig and N.C. State pig ran to the house of bricks.

He did not blow down the house of bricks. •

The house was too strong.

•

All three pigs were safe.

•

The wolf was not ready to call it a day.

IV. The pigs succeeded in scaring off the wolf. a.

The wolf was still hungry, and also overconfident.

b.

The wolf climbed the house of bricks to go down the chimney.

c.

The wolf landed in a fire, jumped out, and got on the next train out of town.

Here’s an example of an outline for a policy brief supporting physical education in schools: I.

Introduction a.

Physical education in United States schools is imperiled due to policy changes and lack of resources.

b.

Obesity is rising among US children.

c.

Provide purpose statement here: this brief will demonstrate how physical education provides multiple benefits for students (learning, memory, executive function, test scores).

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a.

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II. Students who have daily physical education learn math and vocabulary more easily. a.

Describe results from 2017 study on vocabulary learning and 2018 study on math learning among elementary school students.

III. Students who have daily physical education show memory improvement. a.

Describe 2016 study on memory/retention among 3rd graders

IV. Students who have daily physical education show improvements in executive function. a.

Describe results of 2015 study on executive function among 5th graders who had physical education daily vs. those who did not.

V. Students who have daily physical education have higher test scores. a.

Describe results of 2009 and 2012 studies regarding increased test scores.

VI. Recommendations. a.

Based on this research, recommend that policymakers mandate daily physical education be implemented in all NC elementary schools by 2026.

(“Physical Education” 1–3) And here’s an example of an outline for a grant proposal (^ƵŵŵĞƌhŶĚĞƌŐƌĂĚƵĂƚĞZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ &ĞůůŽǁƐŚŝƉĨƌŽŵhE͛ƐKĸĐĞĨŽƌhŶĚĞƌŐƌĂĚƵĂƚĞZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚͿ: I.

Project goals and aims a.

Use photography to investigate how human activity impacts streams in Chapel Hill.

b.

Research question: how can photography provide evidence of human impact on streams?

II. Project background and significance a.

Previous research shows art can affect public perception of environmental problems.

b.

Project will show how art can influence public understanding of scientific issues.

III. Methods a.

Conduct field research by exploring streams/rivers in the Chapel Hill area.

b.

Take photographs at stream sites in Chapel Hill.

c.

Take audio recordings from field sites.

d. Glaze fire photographs on ceramic tiles. e.

Arrange photographic tiles and sounds in a meaningful order for exhibit.

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IV. Preliminary work and experience a.

Describe my previous work experience with photography and mounting an exhibit.

V. Final products and dissemination plan a.

Describe final exhibit: how many works, where they will be shown, etc.

VI. IRB Statement a.

Not applicable.

VII. References (Emery & Nam 1–3)

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Notice that each outline differs based on the genre and discipline. What you choose to include will vary based on factors such as your preferences, the assignment, the genre, how much research you need to manage, and how much time you have to devote to the activity.

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Also, outlining can be helpful at any point in the writing process (you can outline individual paragraphs, or even just sentences) when you need to strategize about relationships between ideas and how to most effectively organize those ideas in order to highlight those relationships. For more information on outlines, here’s a helpful video from the UNC Writing Center.

ĞǀĞůŽƉŝŶŐĂtŽƌŬŝŶŐƌŐƵŵĞŶƚ An argument is a claim that you advance in your document and support with evidence. In high school, you may have learned to organize essays around a thesis, or a concrete, threepart statement that explicitly states what your whole paper will say. While that model can be a solid foundation on which to build a successful composition, in college writing the term “argument” is preferred because it better addresses the main goal. That is, college level compositions should usually respond to existing claims that circulate in a discipline. Your goal is to extend current research in that field by providing a new interpretation, adding to existing knowledge, challenging dominant interpretations, and so on. You do so by contributing an argument: a claim that you advance that extends, contradicts, challenges, or confirms existing research in the field. In other words, a thesis is a summary of points; an argument takes a position in an ongoing conversation within a discourse community. Consider the difference between these two arguments: 1.

Frankenstein’s monster is not human because he was never born; he has a body made of other people’s parts, and he is unable to feel cold.

2.

While some scholars have argued that Frankenstein’s monster is not human because he has no uniform genetic makeup, upon examination of his mental and emotional capacities it is obvious he can speak beautifully and reason both logically and ardently. Frankenstein’s monster is, therefore, not only human—he is more human than Victor.

Keep in mind that your argument usually comes early in your composition, although location varies by discipline and genre. (A good way to find out where writers usually state their argument, if they provide one explicitly, is to examine models of your target genre.) Sometimes, the true argument for a composition is implicit; the writer of the grant proposal outlined above, for example, doesn’t come out and say “you should give me the grant money” but instead provides an implicit argument for the project’s importance and the writer’s qualifications to undertake that research. Developing a working argument also involves understanding the genre and rhetorical situation. As you begin the process of forming your ideas into an argument, think about the following questions as guidelines: •

Do you need a clear statement of your argument? Not all college writing assignments require you to explicitly state your argument, although many do. For instance, a conference paper assignment that asks you to take a stance about the racial practices within American politics requires an argument. A conference paper in the natural sciences may begin with a statement that describes the purpose of a study and its main findings and may end with a larger argument about the specific contributions of that research to the discipline. Meanwhile, a marketing proposal may have an implicit argument (you should hire your firm to market your project) even though the

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The first argument is simply a list of observations. The second argument provides a clear overview of what the composition will argue without relying on a “shopping list” of ideas. The second argument also situates itself within a specific scholarly debate, and it showcases the writer’s creativity and analytical skills by presenting a specific, interpretive (not obvious) reading of the text. The argument is a roadmap for where your composition will take your audience, but it doesn’t need to list every single stop along the way.

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document itself may be organized around a statement that outlines the contents of the document and its purposes. •

What kind of argument is required? Refer to your assignment’s rhetorical chart or ask your instructor about the assignment’s purpose. How and where an assignment signals its argument depend on its goals, and, more specifically, its genre. For instance, a genre whose purpose is to persuade almost always has an argument (whether it be implicit or explicit). A genre focused on informing an audience may not have an explicit argument but a statement of purpose or simply an outline of the contents.

Also, there are no rules about when to craft your argument. In fact, for college-level writing based on research, you should start with a question that your research may answer, and your claim will emerge based on the results of your research. In most fields, researchers are expected to remain open to the idea that their initial assumptions could be wrong. For instance, imagine you conduct a research project on the effects of a straw ban on overall plastic consumption at universities. While you started the project with a belief that a straw ban is a good idea, your research shows the effects of straw bans to be minimal in comparison to the overall plastic waste produced on college campuses. In that case, your argument would have to reflect the results of your research, and you would have to be sure not to be biased by your prior opinion. So, don’t be afraid to create your argument after you’ve conducted your preliminary research and/or formed a research question. Never hesitate either to change your argument during the writing process. In fact, most seasoned writers revisit their arguments after they have a full draft since we often have more clarity about our ideas after we have written through them. Until the final version of the assignment is submitted, it helps to think of the argument as a “working claim” that may change as you continue to research and write about your topic. There are many effective methods for generating an academic argument. Keeping in mind that an argument is often a work “in progress.” One useful model is the “They Say, I Say” approach championed by Gerald Graff and Cathy Birkenstein’s They Say / I Say. •

They Say: What have others said about your topic?

•

I Say: The ideas I will add, argue, or prove about this topic.

Creating a working argument is your chance to enter the conversation about ideas that you are interested in. In college-level writing, your goal may not necessarily be to argue that a position is “correct” but that it is plausible.

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Another example is the XYZ model (adapted from Wayne Booth’s Craft of Research), which provides a basic formula you can follow to make a working argument appropriate to almost any academic situation. The XYZ model has three parts: •

Current scholarly conversation: “Existing research indicates (x).”

•

Disruption or gap: “However, my research has shown (y)” or “Researchers have not yet explained (y).”

•

Claim: “In this paper I will add/argue/demonstrate (z).”

You will notice these moves in the introduction to many academic articles, conference papers, and other genres because they help writers to establish the scholarly conversation and show how their research extends or challenges existing research. The wording you finally settle on should be your own, but these three moves will help you generate an argument you can use to guide your drafting. For more information, see the UNC Writing Center handout on ĂƌŐƵŵĞŶƚ.

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Once you’ve created a working argument and considered your organizational strategy, you’re ready to write the first draft of your composition. It’s important to remember that the purpose of your initial draft is to give you something to work with. Professional writers do not generate a final product immediately. In academic and professional contexts, almost all published pieces of writing require multiple drafts. An early draft is by nature unfinished, so don’t worry about anything other than trying to write what you can. Don’t be too critical of your early draft, and remember that an early draft is not the final draft. The following strategies may be useful to you as you begin a draft:

'ĂƚŚĞƌzŽƵƌ/ŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶ All the work you’ve done to this point should be accessible so you can use it. Even assignment sheets and prewriting activities can be resources to help with your first draft. You don’t need to have researched extensively to write a draft, but if you have researched, have your primary and secondary sources close at hand. If you have conducted empirical research, you should start by analyzing that data, identifying the main patterns that data show, and comparing that data to your research question or hypothesis.

tƌŝƚĞƌŽƵŶĚzŽƵƌĂƚĂ Researchers in many fields write by prioritizing the key findings from their research. For instance, a scientist writing a journal article may primarily have charts and graphs that show the quantitative results from a study. Those visualizations form the backbone of the results section, and the scientist may begin writing by describing, analyzing, and interpreting the visuals for the audience. Similarly, a researcher in sociology may begin by pulling out relevant quotations from an interview that illustrate key themes or common findings. This researcher may organize the body of a journal article by the themes, explain each theme, and then provide examples of each one. Similarly, a researcher in the humanities may gather relevant passages from a source text in order to create the basis for the body of a conference paper. The researcher might start by quoting from those source texts and then move on to analyze and interpret each quotation for the audience.

ĞƌŽƌĂŌ

hƐĞzŽƵƌKǁŶsŽŝĐĞ There will be time during revisions to consider word choice and tone, so during drafting, write in whatever voice makes you comfortable. In fact, the closer your writing mirrors your thinking the easier it will be to add, subtract, and modify content later. Even first-person pronouns and contractions are perfectly fine early on (and, in some cases, later).

&ŽůůŽǁzŽƵƌKƵƚůŝŶĞ͕ƵƚĞ&ůĞdžŝďůĞ Your outline is particularly important to your first draft because it reminds you what to say and in what order. And while you’ll certainly want to address your outline’s main points, it’s also fine if certain sections of your outline get more attention than others. Also, don’t feel constrained to write everything about one point before moving to another; leave gaps and return later.

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Don’t worry about opening with a mind-blowing sentence. Just write. Choose a time and a place with minimal distractions to begin writing. Try to write down as many of your ideas as possible without worrying about organization or style. Some writers call this a “brain dump” or “zero draft.” Once you have these ideas down, you can go back later to reorganize them, add detail, and polish the writing.

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tƌŝƚĞŝŶ^ĞĐƟŽŶƐ Choose one section to start with—it doesn’t have to be the introduction! For example, in a social sciences conference paper you might start with the methods section and then choose another body section to write. Many writers will leave the introduction and conclusion to write last since those can be easier once you have laid out all of the ideas and evidence in the body of a document. Breaking up a composition into component sections also helps you to set a realistic timeline for drafting.

dƌLJŝīĞƌĞŶƚŽŵƉŽƐŝŶŐdŽŽůƐ Experiment with different composing tools and find out what works best for you. While most of us are used to writing on a computer, you may find that certain programs are better for helping you to get ideas down. For instance, some students recommend programs such as OmWriter or Scrivener, which allow you to focus on content without worrying about formatting. Some like to go back to pen and paper to compose a first draft. You might also experiment with voice dictation tools (now available with most operating systems); some people find it easier to say what they want to say rather than writing it down.

^ƚĂƌƚ^ŵĂůů One good way to confront procrastination is to choose a very small goal to start with. For instance, your small goal could be to print out a source article or review an outline you already wrote. By starting with a small task, you can make the task seem less daunting. From there, motivation to complete another task will often follow. If you have a list of small, manageable tasks to check off, you will know what to do next. After reviewing an outline, for instance, your next task could be to write one section of the outline.

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The final stages of the writing process, revision and editing, are themselves multifaceted processes. To be truly effective, they require substantial time and careful planning. After the push to finish drafting, writers may feel tempted to hurry through these last stages of the writing process; however, revision and editing offer writers the opportunity to “re-see” their own work through the audience’s eyes and craft a document that fully meets this audience’s needs. Novice writers also often confuse or conflate revision and editing. Revision involves much more than changing a few words or correcting grammatical errors; it involves thinking carefully about how to strengthen your ideas and make the writing more effective. During revision, writers re-examine an entire composition and focus on higher-order concerns— such as genre, audience, purpose, organization, support, and rhetorical situation—that impact a composition on the paragraph or even global level. Editing, on the other hand, focuses on sentence-level concerns. These lower-order concerns include tone, sentence structure, sentence variety, and word choice. To illustrate the value of revising before editing, consider the following metaphor: you have a new apartment, and the movers just dropped off all your furniture and boxes. You open up a box of room accessories—lamps, vases, collectibles—and set them up all around the room. Then, you try move your furniture to where it belongs. In order to do this, though, you have to remove the accessories you just set up, put the furniture in its place, and replace the accessories. In this metaphor, revision is the furniture, and editing is the accessories. Any time you spend on editing before you revise is likely to be wasted. Proofreading is different than both revision and editing. Proofreading, sometimes referred to as copyediting, is the act of polishing the composition into the best possible final product.

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Most proofreading is word-level and addresses problems with spelling, grammar, punctuation, and other issues of “correctness,” all of which can affect the audience’s impression of your composition.

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As with other stages of the writing process, revision, editing, and proofreading become stressful when you try to complete the entire process all at once or in too short a time frame. You can minimize this stress not only by building time for these practices into your writing schedule, but also by creating a detailed plan for revision, editing, and proofreading.

ZĞǀŝƐŝŽŶ^ƚƌĂƚĞŐŝĞƐ As you revise, always keep in mind that revision involves re-examining an entire composition in order to focus on higher-order concerns (genre, audience, purpose, organization, evidence/support, and rhetorical situation). Again, revision is much more than editing; it requires careful consideration of the myriad ways a composition’s ideas can be strengthened to make the writing more effective. The following strategies can help make your revisions even more efficient and effective:

ǀŽŝĚWƌŽĐƌĂƐƟŶĂƟŽŶ Revision takes time. You might be able to perform a few basic edits the night before an assignment is due, but attempting to revise without time to examine your writing fully is extremely stressful. Procrastination tends to be the biggest barrier to effective revision; there is little or no time to revise work that is written at the last minute. If you have trouble with procrastination, set a small goal that will be easy to complete. This could involve simply printing out your composition and then using a highlighter to mark every source of evidence (material from primary or secondary research) in it. After that simple task, you could consider whether there is enough evidence or if more is needed.

Stay Genre Focused As you revise, be mindful of the genre you are writing. For instance, if you are creating a conference poster on the effects of water ecology in the sub-Artic region of Canada, ask yourself: does this sound like something a scientist would write on a conference poster? Consider adding revision passes in which you check to make sure that you have followed the genre’s specific conventions, and frequently consult examples, especially any provided by your instructor. For more information about genre, See Part 2͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϭ.

Use Feedback Provided by Your Instructor and Peers

Keep in mind, your instructor may identify an improvement area in one place, but you should check for other instances in the composition where this suggestion for improvement is also applicable. An issue that needs addressing in one paragraph may need addressing in other paragraphs.

Ask for Help There are many resources for revision assistance at UNC. Your writing group, the Writing Center, and your instructor are all great places to start. Whoever you decide to go to for help, let your reader know where you are in the revision process and ask specific questions (“How can I make my paper better?” is not a specific question). Here are a few ideas: •

Does my argument seem persuasive for my intended audience? How can I strengthen it?

•

Does my writing follow the genre’s conventions and expectations?

•

Does my second paragraph have enough support?

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Even if you have already reviewed and integrated draft workshop or instructor feedback from an earlier draft, review this feedback again for elements you may have missed or misunderstood on first review. If needed, ask your reviewers/instructor for clarification.

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•

Did I integrate source material effectively when discussing my third source?

•

Can you show me a few places where my tone and language do and don’t match my target audience?

•

Could you point out places that aren’t clear to you?

Instructor office hours, in particular, provide an opportunity to ask your instructor for specific clarification on previous feedback and/or to ask for additional feedback.

^ĞĞtŝƚŚ͞EĞǁLJĞƐ͟ Again, give yourself time away from the assignment to help you gain the perspective you need to think “like a reader” and approach your own work as an outsider. Reading your own writing with revision in mind is quite difficult. Allowing your drafts to sit for a day or three (or however long it takes to forget some of what you’ve written) before returning to them can help you see them with “new eyes” and identify big-picture issues. Don’t sit and stare at your composition for hours on end. The farther you can get from the mind space in which you wrote the first draft, the more effective your second, third, or tenth drafts will look because you will be able to approach the draft as an outsider would.

Revise in Passes Don’t try to revise your composition all at once every time you re-read it. Read through your composition numerous times, concentrating each pass through on one specific issue. For example, you may first focus on the quality of your supporting evidence by checking that research is consistently integrated throughout your composition; then, you may read again to ensure each piece of evidence includes an appropriate amount of interpretation for the genre and discipline. Reading for one dimension of your composition at a time will keep you from trying to fix everything at once. Use comments on past assignments and drafts to help you decide what to look for.

Know Yourself

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Not all of these strategies will work for you every time. University-level writing may be new to you, but you have written before. Maybe you know that you tend to worry about generating a clear argument, maybe you often receive comments on awkward transitions, or maybe you’ve never written more than five pages on any subject. Yet, maybe you also know that you are a logical thinker who follows an outline well and you are great at understanding your audience’s needs. All writers have strengths and improvement areas, and it’s important to identify both so you can continue capitalizing on your strengths while addressing those improvement areas.

ĚŝƟŶŐ^ƚƌĂƚĞŐŝĞƐ ZĞĂĚŝŶŐĂĐŬǁĂƌĚƐ Starting with the last sentence on the last page of your project, go sentence by sentence, looking for ways you can improve each sentence. Moving backwards prevents you from jumping ahead cognitively, and can help you see where sentence-level and word-level editing may be necessary.

Edit in Passes Working in passes is just as important in editing as it was in revision. During the editing phase, try a pass to check for sentence variety or for a specific mechanical issue, such as runon sentences. Reviewing a resource (such as a UNC Writing Center handout) on the specific issue before you look for that concern can help make each editing pass more efficient.

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^ĂǀĞKŌĞŶ

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Revised and edited compositions will look substantially different from original drafts. Develop a strategy to avoid potential data loss. For example: •

Google Docs will auto save as you write.

•

Dropbox has a feature that retains all previous versions of a file (every time you save it) for several months.

•

A separate document can archive all your deleted work until you are sure you won’t need it.

dŚĞWĂƌĂŵĞĚŝĐDĞƚŚŽĚ This is a multi-pass editing exercise for strengthening verbs and eliminating repetitive language. It employs the following steps, which should be completed independently of each each other (i.e., you should devote at least one pass through the draft to each step and not try to do more than one step at a time). 1.

Locate long, convoluted, or “choppy” sentences.

2.

Strive for fewer prepositions.

3.

a.

Circle every preposition (of, in, about, for, onto, into).

b.

Rework the sentence to cut down on the number of prepositions.

Strive for strong verbs. a. Find and replace forms of the verb “to be” (am, are, is, was, were) with stronger verbs. Consider, for example, the stark difference between “this quote is important because” and “this quote demonstrates…” b. Find and replace unnecessary nominalizations with strong verbs. Nominalizations are noun forms created from verbs or adjectives (e.g., demonstration ĸ demonstrate). To find nominalizations, search your document for nominalization endings (-tion/ion, -ment, -ity/-ty, or -ness). c.

5.

Find and replace/remove. a.

Redundancies (e.g. “I will propose and suggest,” “He explains to us saying”)

b.

Clichés (“There is no time like the present”)

c.

Vague phrases (“The medical professional told a man he was in love”).

Eliminate any long wind-ups (e.g. “It is important to note that . . .,” “One key aspect of this is…”).

Here’s a video from the UNC Writing Center with more tips for writing concisely.

WƌŽŽĨƌĞĂĚŝŶŐ^ƚƌĂƚĞŐŝĞƐ Hit Spell Check If you do nothing else, hit spell check before you submit your assignment. Technology has given us this magical tool, and there’s no faster way to lose an educated reader’s respect than to misspell a word. Don’t mindlessly accept the spellchecker’s suggestions, though; carefully consider each suggestion and decide if the correction fits your sentence.

Read Out Loud Hearing the words as they come off the page helps tremendously, and listening to your prose can be an easy way to recognize places your wording is convoluted or confusing. Having someone else read out loud to you (a friend, a classmate, even your computer) will help even more, because you will notice places they “trip” while reading, and you can highlight those areas for editing. Most computers have a built-in function called “text to speech”

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4.

Eliminate passive voice by moving the agent (doer) into the subject position.

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that will read your paper to you. You can also use Google translate to listen to your paper. Simply search for “Google translate,” in any search engine, and once there, copy and paste a section of your composition in the left hand box. Make sure that English is selected as the language and click the sound icon on the top right hand of either box. Listen and make changes as needed.

Change Devices Simply seeing a composition in a different format will help you visualize it differently. Send your draft to a friend’s computer, change the font and spacing, or (gasp) print it out and look at it again carefully in this new context. Anything to get you away from the context/location in which you wrote originally will help. Be creative.

^ƉĞůůŚĞĐŬŐĂŝŶ;ƵƚEŽƚǁŝƚŚƚŚĞ^ƉĞůůĐŚĞĐŬĞƌ͊Ϳ Spell check is on this list twice for a reason. Do it early, do it often. Although spellcheckers are useful tools, they don’t catch usage errors such as incorrect homophones (words that sound the same but are spelled differently with different meanings). For instance, you may inadvertently write, “It is hear that I arrive at my conclusion,” when you meant to use the homophone “here.” Even with spellcheckers, you should proofread your work.

KƚŚĞƌ,ĞůƉĨƵů^ƚƌĂƚĞŐŝĞƐ The following methods are also helpful and can be used at various points in the writing process.

Reverse Outline Reverse outlining is simply generating an outline for a composition that has already been written. Creating a reverse outline after writing a partial or complete draft can be especially helpful as a way to double-check the organization and flow of your ideas and ensure you’ve completed all parts of the assignment included all of an assignment’s required elements.

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It’s easiest to reverse outline with a hard copy of your text and a handful of colorful highlighters or markers. Once you have those: 1.

Read the text out loud and take notes in the margins every few sentences to remind you what that small section is talking about.

2.

Highlight each of these sections in a different color (if you find connected themes or ideas, you can highlight them in the same color as the corresponding section).

3.

Write a bullet point or two describing the highlighted sections to identify the main ideas.

4.

Fill in the space between these bullet points with the subtopics that arrive.

You now have a reverse outline, but you’re not quite finished. 1.

Read your new outline (again, out loud is better), listening to make sure everything flows logically. a.

Do the main ideas follow each other sequentially?

b.

Does each main idea have subtopics that relate to it and each other?

2.

If the reverse outline feels jumpy, odds are you either need to add evidence to your claims or you’re talking about the same point in more than one place. Look for any gaps and add content that would help a reader make sense of your thoughts.

3.

Compare your outline to the assignment sheet your instructor gave you to make sure you’ve completed all of the requirements.

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Here’s a video overview of these steps from the UNC Writing Center.

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Summary & Analysis In this strategy, you will summarize your whole composition in one paragraph and analyze the paragraph. 1.

Read each paragraph and write a one-sentence summary of the paragraph.

2.

Combine all those one-sentence summaries into one paragraph. This paragraph is a very basic representation of how your argument develops as currently constituted.

3.

Read the paragraph (out loud) and check it for unity, clarity, and logical progression. If there are any elements of the paragraph that seem out of place, illogical, or vague, revisit the section that sentence was based on and try to diagnose the issue.

If there are any paragraphs that were difficult to summarize, pay special attention to what concerns may be causing this difficulty, such as organization, logic, or support.

 y  Z  / ^   Ϯͳ Ϯ  ͗ ^ h D D  Z z  Θ  E  >z ^ / ^ EXERCISE

Chop It Up Looking at each paragraph out of context can help you see ways to make your paragraphs more logical and cohesive. After you have a partial or complete draft: 1.

Print each paragraph on its own page.

2.

Shuffle the pages and give them to a friend or classmate.

3.

Ask this reader to put the individual paragraphs in what seems to them the most logical order and return it to you.

If the reader’s order matches yours, you’re well on your way to a solid composition. If not, troubleshoot: for example, if the reader switches your introduction and your conclusion, your conclusion may be summary heavy. If the reader puts your body paragraphs in the wrong order, you may have to work on topic sentences, paragraph-to-paragraph transitions, and/or the overall flow of your argument and evidence.

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Color-Coding At any point during the writing process, from freewriting to early editing, consider “color coding” your writing by assigning different colors to individual themes or ideas that are prominent in your writing. The color schemes will then allow you to see how these themes or ideas are organized throughout the paper and, in turn, help you to see the reader’s perspective better. For example, you can assign a different color to each bullet point on your first outline. Then, once you have a draft, read your paper and highlight each section or sentence or paragraph with its corresponding color from the outline. Although the paper’s organization need not follow a rigid pattern, it should still present ideas logically and not veer off topic. For more information on color coding, watch this ǀŝĚĞŽ from the UNC Writing Center.

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EXERCISE

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K h d  K D   ϱ͗ t Z / d / E '  t / d ,    ' Z K h W WĞĞƌŽůůĂďŽƌĂƟŽŶ Collaborating on a composition can be a polarizing experience—most people either love it or hate it. Whatever your current opinion about group work, writing with a group can be an excellent experience because your potential for creating interesting, engaging prose and solid, thoughtful arguments increases with each person you add to the mix. Groups will vary in size and members will vary in ability, but the following principles can help you end up with a strong and seamless final product:

 EXERCISE

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 K E  h  d / E '  W Z / D  Zz  Θ  ^  K E  Zz  Z  ^  Z  , Throughout your college career and beyond, you will be asked to conduct research and use source material in your writing. Using source material shows readers that you are ready to engage in an ongoing critical or scholarly conversation about your topic. Using that material well and giving credit appropriately demonstrates that you understand the conversation and are capable of adding your own potentially valuable insights. Conducting research and writing a research-based product may never be an easy task, but with practice the research and writing process can become more efficient and rewarding.

K  d / E '  ^ K h Z   ^ 'ĞƫŶŐ^ƚĂƌƚĞĚ Choosing Keywords

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Getting started can sometimes be the most intimidating part of the research process. Remember, though, that the writing process starts the moment you receive an assignment or have an idea for a topic (Review WĂƌƚϮ͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϮ for ideas about finding topics). As you start exploring ideas for your project, write them down as soon as possible since they can easily translate into possible research questions or keywords for your source searches. You might ask yourself: •

What background information do I need to find to better understand my topic?

•

What are the key terms that writers use when addressing this topic?

•

What central claim(s) might I want to make? What are the issues or controversies inherent in these claims?

For more information about the prewriting process, see Part 2͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϮ.

ƌĞĂƟŶŐĂZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚWůĂŶ To help make your research more efficient, consider crafting a research plan or schedule. For example, a research plan for a law-focused project that has a one-week research time frame might have the following steps: Day 1: Choose a topic and generate research questions. Day 2: Brainstorm a working list of possible keywords/search terms. Days 3–4: Begin preliminary searches in LexisNexis, HeinOnline, and LegalTrac. Days 5–6: Read through source material and prewrite about how to use it; discover new questions and subtopics that may shift or redefine your research topic. Days 6–7: Additional research in LexisNexis, HeinOnline, and LegalTrac. As you work through your research plan, take notes about your strategies and results. These notes will be helpful for future research tasks and/or if you need to ask for assistance at any point in the process.

ZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚYƵĞƐƟŽŶƐ Research questions are also a productive way to guide your work. A research question is essentially the question you are attempting to answer. Having guiding questions in the back of your mind can help you organize your thoughts and your argument. As you formulate these questions, remember that:

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•

A research question should start with “how,” “why,” or “what.”

•

A research question should be open-ended (i.e., not answerable with a simple “yes” or “no,” or a quick response, such as a statistic). It should instead require you to conduct research in order to answer it.

•

A research question should have a debatable, multifaceted answer that requires you to weigh in (not just to report what is known).

•

A research question should (ideally) expand on what is already known in a field (especially for academic research genres such as journal articles, conference posters, or conference papers). Alternatively, a research question can involve drawing on information produced by scholars in order to make recommendations for how it should be applied to address real-world problems.

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džĂŵƉůĞƐŽĨŝŶĞīĞĐƟǀĞƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚƋƵĞƐƟŽŶƐ͗ •

Is there a correlation between stress and the “freshman fifteen”? (answerable with yes/no)

•

Who invented LASIK surgery? (quick response)

•

In what country do the most drug overdose deaths occur? (quick response)

•

How does weight gain correlate with academic performance for college students?

•

How common are night vision disturbances after LASIK surgery, and what can be done to treat them?

•

Why does Iceland have the most drug overdose deaths in the world, and how can they combat this particular problem?

Let’s look at the strengths of this last question. First, it is not a yes/no question; the answer is clearly complicated and will require some research. Second, it starts with “why” (and follows up with a “how”). Finally, the question does not have an obvious answer; it will take time to answer it, and different sources will offer different perspectives on the issue. As noted in WĂƌƚϮ͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϮ, a solid research question can also translate easily into a working argument. In most cases, you can simply remove the interrogative (question) words and question mark and fill in the blanks. If we remove “Why does” from the first half of the Iceland question, we’re left with “Iceland has the most drug overdose deaths in the world,” and your research will allow you to finish the statement: “Iceland has the most drug overdose deaths in the world because it is easy to ship to and because many citizens have the means to purchase drugs.” (Of course, your next step would be to conduct research to determine whether this working argument is valid.) If you run out of material answering one research question, ask a second, related question and see where it takes you. (For example, you could identify strategies other countries have used to address overdose deaths given similar factors.) For more on how to move forward in the writing process with this argument, see Part 2͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϮ.

^ĞĂƌĐŚŝŶŐĨŽƌ^ŽƵƌĐĞƐ͗ĂƚĂďĂƐĞƐ͕^ĞĂƌĐŚŶŐŝŶĞƐΘKƚŚĞƌZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ After you have a topic and research questions in mind, the next step is to take your keywords and research questions to the library databases or to reputable search engines and generate an initial pool of findings. While starting with a library search may seem intimidating, the depth and quality of the library’s resources will inevitably save you time. The UNC Libraries offer many tutorials and resources to guide your searches. In addition, the library offers discipline-specific research guides and databases that can yield specialized sources such as court cases, medical studies, multimedia sources, and interviews. The /ŶƚƌŽĚƵĐƟŽŶƚŽhE>ŝďƌĂƌŝĞƐdƵƚŽƌŝĂů gives you a quick introduction to the libraries on campus, including what you can find in each of them, the services provided for students,

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and how to reach out for research help. Even if you do not have formal instruction, you can seek out individual help from UNC librarians at any of the university’s libraries or online. When you contact a librarian, be prepared to explain the following: •

Your composition’s goals/purpose (refer to the rhetorical chart)

•

Your topic choice

•

Your research questions (if applicable)

•

What research you have conducted so far and with what success

Once your searches are under way, start looking for more or better keywords for additional searches. When you find a source that interests you and/or meets your needs, examine that source for new terminology. If you are using a library database search, look at related search terms and narrowing criteria that the database suggests, or look at the keywords that are associated with that source in the database (if you started out with a search engine, look up your article in a library database and do the same). For example, you may have searched for “film” and found a helpful source, but the database entry for that source may list “cinema” among the keywords instead. Refining your next search to include “cinema” in the keyword search may, therefore, yield exciting new results. You can also check out the source material that your source mentions or cites, along with the list of references (if available) at the end of the source, to see if this material is also relevant to your discussion. Similarly, book reviews and literature reviews can lead you to additional sources on your topic. Most library databases also allow you to narrow your search by source type so you can limit your results to more popular sources, such as magazines and newspapers, or to peer-reviewed, scholarly sources.

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^ƚĂLJŝŶŐƵĚŝĞŶĐĞͲ&ŽĐƵƐĞĚ You should also make sure that, throughout your search, you are thinking like your future reader. Refer to your assignment’s provided rhetorical chart or ask your instructor to specify an intended audience for the composition. As you look for sources, you can ask yourself: •

What would my reader want or need to know about this topic?

•

What position might my reader take on this topic?

•

What would my reader think about the value of this source?

 y  Z  / ^   Ϯͳ ϯ  ͗ W   Z  / E d  Z s /  t EXERCISE This video from the UNC Libraries provides more tips for “Starting Your Search in the Right Place.”

K h d  K D   Ϯ͗  s > h d / E '  ^ K h Z   ^ ĞƚĞƌŵŝŶŝŶŐƌĞĚŝďŝůŝƚLJĂŶĚZĞůŝĂďŝůŝƚLJ With possible sources in hand, your next task will be to make sure that you move forward only with credible and reliable resources that will not only help you explore your topic and answer your research question, but also demonstrate your authority to your audience.

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Keep in mind that credible and reliable sources are trustworthy and useful because they: •

Use citations or attribution to give credit to the sources they used.

•

Are well organized and logical.

•

Support their arguments convincingly and do not rely on fallacies or misrepresentations.

•

Are free from or acknowledge bias and engage alternative viewpoints fairly.

•

Are written by credible and reliable authors, who are authorities in the field and/or experienced writers.

•

Come from credible and reliable publications.

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If you are unsure about the credibility or reliability of a source you found on the web through a search engine, look for that source in one of the library databases and/or do additional research on the publication and/or author. You can also ask your instructor or a librarian to help you evaluate the source. Library databases contain only sources from credible and reliable publications. You should still, however, read the source critically to make sure that it meets the other criteria listed above. Examples of sources that are often fine for preliminary topic exploration but almost always unacceptable in final college-level writing products include (but are not limited to): •

General encyclopedias (such as Encyclopedia Britannica)

•

General dictionaries (such as Dictionary.com or Webster’s; this does not include specialized dictionaries, such as the Oxford English Dictionary)

•

Open-source references (such as Wikipedia)

1.

Does the source name an author/authors?

2.

Google the author. Is the author qualified to write on this topic?

3.

Does the source include a publication date?

4.

Are you familiar with the publication in which the source appears?

5.

Look at other sources in this publication. Do you notice specific biases?

6.

Does the source engage alternative viewpoints or counterarguments fairly?

7.

Does the source cite sources and include a reference page and/or does the source use attribution (such as “according to”) to list sources?

8.

Are the cited sources qualified to speak to this topic?

9.

Does the source have a clear focus or argument?

10. Does the source support this argument well? 11. Is the source well organized? 12. Does the source come from a site that does not allow user edits? If you answered “no” to any of the questions above, consider the effect of that specific element on the credibility/reliability of your source. What will your readers think when they notice this omission? How might the omission affect the strength of your own composition if you choose to use this source?

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The following questions can help you evaluate sources:

122

ƵĚŝĞŶĐĞƉƉƌŽƉƌŝĂƚĞŶĞƐƐ But just because a source is credible and reliable does not mean that it is appropriate for your composition or your audience. To determine whether a source is appropriate, you’ll want to consider factors such as: •

Publication date: Will your audience be expecting the most current research on the topic?

•

Expected register of discourse: Are you writing to insiders or outsiders? Experts or non-experts? Will your audience be expecting your composition to include or steer clear of jargon and technical language?

•

The types of sources valued in the discipline/genre: Should you only use scholarly sources as evidence or can you bring in popular sources as well? Do you need both primary and secondary research?

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dLJƉĞƐŽĨ^ŽƵƌĐĞƐ Primary vs. Secondary Sources In your research, you will find two main source types: primary and secondary. Your assignment may specify what type you should use; or, you may need to rely on your own judgment about what will best meet the audience’s expectations for the genre in which you are writing.

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Primary sources present original material or original research. They are often “first-hand” sources or provide evidence from such sources. Examples of common primary sources include (but are not limited to): •

Research study data

•

Interviews

•

Survey data

•

Field observations

•

Letters/diaries

•

Novels, poems, and other literature

•

Court cases

•

Laws/statutes

Secondary sources, on the other hand, interpret primary sources. They offer an informed perspective on how to read and apply primary material and/or make arguments about primary sources’ meaning, relevance, or significance. Examples of common secondary sources include (but are not limited to): •

Scholarly books and journal articles

•

Magazine and newspaper articles

•

Law review articles

Not all sources, however, will fit perfectly into these two categories. If you have questions about what type of source you are looking for or working with, be sure to ask your instructor or a librarian for clarification.

Popular vs. Scholarly Sources The sources you locate will also fall into one of two categories—popular or scholarly— depending on their intended audiences. Popular sources target a broader audience than scholarly sources, which usually speak to academic audiences with significant background knowledge aboutDISTRIBUTION or experience in a field. NOT FOR - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

It is important to carefully choose the source that fits your audience’s expectations; inappropriate sources can alienate an audience. Imagine, for example, that you picked up a brochure about a new fitness program at your gym, but instead of the expected overview of the basics of the plan and how it might help your endurance training, the brochure provided detailed references to current research on anaerobic fitness and its effects on endurance and cardiac strength. This brochure would not meet your needs and, therefore, would not be valuable to you, regardless of the validity of the research. Similarly, if the doctors who wrote that brochure attended an Exercise and Sports Medicine conference, their colleagues would expect to hear about the research findings—not the workout strategies—so they could discuss the potential application of this research to future research in the field.

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Consult your rhetorical chart and/or ask your instructor for information about the intended audience and rhetorical situation for your composition. Then, ask yourself what type of sources would best fit this audience and situation. If an audience and situation calls for a scholarly source, consider one of the following types of sources: •

Academic: books, articles, literature reviews, and other sources written by experts in their fields and published by credible and reliable academic presses

•

Peer-reviewed: books and articles written by experts in their fields and published by credible and reliable academic presses after a vetting process in which other experts determine the source material’s value and potential influence on the field

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ƵƐĞƐƉĞĐŝĂůŝnjĞĚůĂŶŐƵĂŐĞ͕ŽƌũĂƌŐŽŶ͕ƚŚĂƚ ŵĂLJďĞƵŶĨĂŵŝůŝĂƌƚŽĂƌĞĂĚĞƌŽƵƚƐŝĚĞƚŚĞ ĮĞůĚ

ƵƐĞũĂƌŐŽŶƐƉĂƌŝŶŐůLJ͕ĂŶĚĚĞĮŶĞƵŶĨĂŵŝůŝĂƌ ǁŽƌĚƐƋƵŝĐŬůLJǁŚĞŶƚŚĞLJĚŽĂƉƉĞĂƌ

ĂƌĞĂƚůĞĂƐƚĨŽƵƌƉĂŐĞƐůŽŶŐ;ĂůƚŚŽƵŐŚƐŚŽƌƚĞƌƐŽƵƌĐĞƐŵĂLJďĞĂĐĐĞƉƚĂďůĞͿ

ĂƌĞƵƐƵĂůůLJĨĞǁĞƌƚŚĂŶĨŽƵƌƉĂŐĞƐůŽŶŐ

&ŝŐƵƌĞϮͲϯ͘ϭ͘ ^ĐŚŽůĂƌůLJǀƐ͘ƉŽƉƵůĂƌƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ

^ŽƵƌĐĞDĂƉƉŝŶŐ͗ŽŶŶĞĐƟŶŐ^ŽƵƌĐĞƐĂŶĚYƵĞƐƟŽŶƐ Now that you have credible and reliable sources, it’s tempting to jump right in and start reading. Before you do so, however, let’s think about a few questions: •

How can you be sure that information you find is relevant to your chosen topic?

•

How can you keep track of information from different sources and easily find it again when it comes time to put together your final project?

NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

,WdZϮͳϯ  K E  h  d / E '  W Z / D  Zz  Θ  ^ K E  Zz  Z ^  Z ,

Note that the terms academic, scholarly, and peer-reviewed are often used interchangeably, so make sure you are clear on the specifics of required source requirements. Figure 2-3.1 below compares the key characteristics of scholarly and popular sources.

124

You can easily address the questions above through the process of source mapping. In this process, researchers begin by breaking down topics into a series of key questions or headings that shape the research process. For instance, here is the source mapping for a scholar who wanted to do a project about cell phone use: WƌŝŵĂƌLJZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚYƵĞƐƟŽŶ͗;ϭͿ͘,ŽǁŚĂǀĞĐĞůůƉŚŽŶĞƐĐŚĂŶŐĞĚƵƐƐŽĐŝĂůůLJ͍ ^ƵƉƉŽƌƟŶŐYƵĞƐƟŽŶƐ͗ ϭ͘tŚŝĐŚƐŽĐŝĂůŐƌŽƵƉƐŽƌƉŽƉƵůĂƟŽŶƐƵƐĞĐĞůůƉŚŽŶĞƐŵŽƐƚŽŌĞŶ͍tŚŝĐŚŐƌŽƵƉƐƵƐĞĐĞůů ƉŚŽŶĞƐůĞƐƐŽŌĞŶ͍ Ϯ͘tŚĂƚĞǀŝĚĞŶĐĞŝƐƚŚĞƌĞƚŚĂƚĐĞůůƉŚŽŶĞƐŚĂǀĞƉƌŽǀŝĚĞĚƵƐǁŝƚŚŐƌĞĂƚĞƌŽƌůĞƐƐĞƌĨƌĞĞĚŽŵ͍ ϯ͘ŽĐĞůůƉŚŽŶĞƐŵĂŬĞŝŶĚŝǀŝĚƵĂůƐĨĞĞůƐĂĨĞƌ͍ ϰ͘,ŽǁĚŽĞƐĐĞůůƉŚŽŶĞƚĞĐŚŶŽůŽŐLJŝŵƉĂĐƚŽƵƌƐŽĐŝĂůŝŶƚĞƌĂĐƟŽŶƐ͍ ϱ͘,ĂƐƚĞdžƚŵĞƐƐĂŐŝŶŐĐŚĂŶŐĞĚŽƵƌŵŽĚĞƐŽĨĐŽŵŵƵŶŝĐĂƟŽŶ͍tŚĂƚĂƌĞƚŚĞƉŝƞĂůůƐŽĨĨĞǁĞƌĨĂĐĞͲƚŽͲĨĂĐĞŽƌǀŝĂƉŚŽŶĞĐŽŶǀĞƌƐĂƟŽŶƐ͍

By taking a broad topic about cell phone use and breaking it down into smaller, more manageable chunks, this scholar is better able to tackle the research required for the project. The scholar can use these numbered questions to organize bits of information found in various sources. For instance, let’s see how this researcher has organized the sources after going through some library databases: ŝďůŝŽŐƌĂƉŚLJ ŶŐƐƚĞƌ͕ůĞdžĂ͘͞ŶdžƉůŽƌĂƚŽƌLJ^ƚƵĚLJŽĨ^ƚƵĚĞŶƚƐ͛hƐĞŽĨĞůůWŚŽŶĞƐ͕dĞdžƟŶŐ͕ĂŶĚ^ŽĐŝĂů EĞƚǁŽƌŬŝŶŐ^ŝƚĞƐ͘͟Psychological ReportsϭϬϳ͘Ϯ;ϮϬϭϬͿ͗ϰϬϮͲϰϯϯ͘

,WdZϮͳϯ  K E  h  d / E '  W Z / D  Zz  Θ  ^ K E  Zz  Z ^  Z ,

YƵĞƐƟŽŶƐϭ͕ϰ͕ĂŶĚϱ͘ 'ůĂƐĞƌ͕DĂƌŬ͘͞,ŽǁĞůůWŚŽŶĞƐĂƌĞ

/Eͳdyd/dd/KE

D>

DŝŐƵĞůZŽŝŐĐŽŶĐůƵĚĞĚƚŚĂƚ͞^ƚƵĚĞŶƚƐǁŝůůƵƐĞǁƌŝƟŶŐƐƚƌĂƚĞŐŝĞƐƚŚĂƚƌĞƐƵůƚ ŝŶƉůĂŐŝĂƌŝƐŵǁŚĞŶƚŚĞLJĨĂĐĞƚŚĞƚĂƐŬŽĨƉĂƌĂƉŚƌĂƐŝŶŐĂĚǀĂŶĐĞĚƚĞĐŚŶŝĐĂů ƚĞdžƚĨŽƌǁŚŝĐŚƚŚĞLJŵĂLJůĂĐŬƚŚĞƉƌŽƉĞƌĐŽŐŶŝƟǀĞƌĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ͟;ƋƚĚ͘ŝŶhŶŝǀ͘ŽĨ ůďĞƌƚĂ>ŝďƌĂƌŝĞƐ͕ƉĂƌ͘ϱͿ͘

APA

ZŽŝŐ;ϭϵϵϱͿĐŽŶĐůƵĚĞĚƚŚĂƚ͞^ƚƵĚĞŶƚƐǁŝůůƵƐĞǁƌŝƟŶŐƐƚƌĂƚĞŐŝĞƐƚŚĂƚƌĞƐƵůƚ ŝŶƉůĂŐŝĂƌŝƐŵǁŚĞŶƚŚĞLJĨĂĐĞƚŚĞƚĂƐŬŽĨƉĂƌĂƉŚƌĂƐŝŶŐĂĚǀĂŶĐĞĚƚĞĐŚŶŝĐĂů ƚĞdžƚĨŽƌǁŚŝĐŚƚŚĞLJŵĂLJůĂĐŬƚŚĞƉƌŽƉĞƌĐŽŐŶŝƟǀĞƌĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ͟;ƋƚĚ͘ŝŶhŶŝǀ͘ŽĨ ůďĞƌƚĂ>ŝďƌĂƌŝĞƐ͕ƉĂƌ͘ϱͿ͘

^;EĂŵĞͲ zĞĂƌͿ

ZŽŝŐ;ϭϵϵϱͿĐŽŶĐůƵĚĞĚƚŚĂƚ͞^ƚƵĚĞŶƚƐǁŝůůƵƐĞǁƌŝƟŶŐƐƚƌĂƚĞŐŝĞƐƚŚĂƚƌĞƐƵůƚ ŝŶƉůĂŐŝĂƌŝƐŵǁŚĞŶƚŚĞLJĨĂĐĞƚŚĞƚĂƐŬŽĨƉĂƌĂƉŚƌĂƐŝŶŐĂĚǀĂŶĐĞĚƚĞĐŚŶŝĐĂů ƚĞdžƚĨŽƌǁŚŝĐŚƚŚĞLJŵĂLJůĂĐŬƚŚĞƉƌŽƉĞƌĐŽŐŶŝƟǀĞƌĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ͟;ƋƚĚ͘ŝŶhŶŝǀ͘ŽĨ ůďĞƌƚĂ>ŝďƌĂƌŝĞƐ͕ƉĂƌ͘ϱͿ͘

If you find that you want to integrate both sources (the original as well as the quoted text) into your work, you will need to signal both the author of the article and the speaker of the quotation. This is called a “quote within a quote,” or an “embedded quotation.” To cite a quote within a quote, use double quotation marks (“”) to frame the longer quote, and single quotation marks (‘’) to frame the quote-within-a-quote. Example 5: Citing an Embedded Quotation

,WdZϮͳϯ  K E  h  d / E '  W Z / D  Zz  Θ  ^ K E  Zz  Z ^  Z ,

/dd/KE /Eͳdyd/dd/KE ^dz>

D>

dŚĞhŶŝǀĞƌƐŝƚLJŽĨůďĞƌƚĂ>ŝďƌĂƌLJƐLJƐƚĞŵĂĐŬŶŽǁůĞĚŐĞƐƚŚĞĚŝĸĐƵůƚLJŽĨ ƉĂƌĂƉŚƌĂƐŝŶŐŚŝŐŚůLJƚĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůǁƌŝƟŶŐ͕ƌĞĨĞƌƌŝŶŐƚŽĂƐƚƵĚLJĐŽŶĚƵĐƚĞĚďLJ DŝƋƵĞůZŽŝŐĂŶĚƌĞƉŽƌƚĞĚŝŶWƐLJĐŚŽůŽŐŝĐĂůZĞƉŽƌƚƐ͗ƚŚĞƐƚƵĚLJ͞ĨŽƵŶĚƚŚĂƚ ͚ƐƚƵĚĞŶƚƐ΀ŵĂLJƚƵƌŶƚŽ͙΁ƉůĂŐŝĂƌŝƐŵǁŚĞŶƚŚĞLJĨĂĐĞƚŚĞƚĂƐŬŽĨƉĂƌĂƉŚƌĂƐŝŶŐĂĚǀĂŶĐĞĚƚĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůƚĞdžƚĨŽƌǁŚŝĐŚƚŚĞLJŵĂLJůĂĐŬƚŚĞƉƌŽƉĞƌĐŽŐŶŝƟǀĞ ƌĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ͛͟;ƉĂƌ͘ϱͿ͘

APA

/ŶZŽŝŐ͛ƐƐƚƵĚLJ;ϭϵϵϱͿ͕ƉĂƌƟĐŝƉĂŶƚƐǁĞƌĞĂƐŬĞĚƚŽƉĂƌĂƉŚƌĂƐĞ͞ƚǁŽƐĞŶƚĞŶĐĞƐƚĂŬĞŶĨƌŽŵĞŶŚĂƵƐĞƌŶ;ϭϵϳϴͿ͚͗^ŝŶĐĞƐƵďũĞĐƟǀĞĂŶĚŽďũĞĐƟǀĞƚĞƐƚƐŽĨ ŝŵĂŐĞƌLJĂďŝůŝƚLJŚĂǀĞŶŽƚƌĞƐƵůƚĞĚŝŶƉƌĞĚŝĐƚĞĚƉĞƌĨŽƌŵĂŶĐĞĚŝīĞƌĞŶĐĞƐ͕ƚŚĞ ŽŶůLJǁĂLJƚŽĚĞƚĞƌŵŝŶĞŝĨĂƉĞƌƐŽŶƚŚŝŶŬƐǀŝƐƵĂůůLJŽƌŶŽŶǀŝƐƵĂůůLJŝƐƚŽĂƐŬƚŚĂƚ ƋƵĞƐƟŽŶĚŝƌĞĐƚůLJ͙KŶĞŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚĮŶĚŝŶŐŝƐƚŚĂƚŵĂŶLJŶŽŶǀŝƐƵĂůƚŚŝŶŬĞƌƐ ŚĂǀĞƌĂƚŚĞƌǀŝǀŝĚŝŵĂŐĞƌLJ͕ďƵƚƚŚĞLJĐĂŶƐƚĂƚĞǁŝƚŚĐŽŶĮĚĞŶĐĞƚŚĂƚƚŚĞLJĚŽ ŶŽƚƚŚŝŶŬŝŶƉŝĐƚƵƌĞƐ͛͟;Ɖ͘ϵϳϱͿ͘Ύ

/ŶZŽŝŐ͛ƐƐƚƵĚLJ;ϭϵϵϱͿ͕ƉĂƌƟĐŝƉĂŶƚƐǁĞƌĞĂƐŬĞĚƚŽƉĂƌĂƉŚƌĂƐĞ͞ƚǁŽƐĞŶƚĞŶĐĞƐƚĂŬĞŶĨƌŽŵĞŶŚĂƵƐĞƌŶ;ϭϵϳϴͿ͚͗^ŝŶĐĞƐƵďũĞĐƟǀĞĂŶĚŽďũĞĐƟǀĞƚĞƐƚƐŽĨ ŝŵĂŐĞƌLJĂďŝůŝƚLJŚĂǀĞŶŽƚƌĞƐƵůƚĞĚŝŶƉƌĞĚŝĐƚĞĚƉĞƌĨŽƌŵĂŶĐĞĚŝīĞƌĞŶĐĞƐ͕ƚŚĞ ^;EĂŵĞͲ ŽŶůLJǁĂLJƚŽĚĞƚĞƌŵŝŶĞŝĨĂƉĞƌƐŽŶƚŚŝŶŬƐǀŝƐƵĂůůLJŽƌŶŽŶǀŝƐƵĂůůLJŝƐƚŽĂƐŬƚŚĂƚ zĞĂƌͿ ƋƵĞƐƟŽŶĚŝƌĞĐƚůLJ͙KŶĞŝŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚĮŶĚŝŶŐŝƐƚŚĂƚŵĂŶLJŶŽŶǀŝƐƵĂůƚŚŝŶŬĞƌƐ ŚĂǀĞƌĂƚŚĞƌǀŝǀŝĚŝŵĂŐĞƌLJ͕ďƵƚƚŚĞLJĐĂŶƐƚĂƚĞǁŝƚŚĐŽŶĮĚĞŶĐĞƚŚĂƚƚŚĞLJĚŽ ŶŽƚƚŚŝŶŬŝŶƉŝĐƚƵƌĞƐ͛͟;Ɖ͘ϵϳϱͿ͘Ύ *Always reproduce any citations included in the source you are citing, in this case, Zenhausern (1978). You would then include both Roig and Zenhausern in your list of references.

NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

Paraphrasing

131

Paraphrases express an author’s original ideas in different words and in a different order. Just changing a few words or using a thesaurus to rewrite the passage is not enough; the paraphrase needs to be in your unique voice while still staying true to the passage’s original meaning. All paraphrases must be cited. You may include an in-text signal if you want to call attention to the original author or source. Example 6: Paraphrase, Author Indicated in In-Text Signal /dd/KE ^dz>

/Eͳdyd/dd/KE

D>

/ŶNow You See It͕ƉƌŽĨĞƐƐŽƌĂƚŚLJĂǀŝĚƐŽŶĂƌŐƵĞƐƚŚĂƚƚŚĞĂďŝůŝƚLJƚŽŐŝǀĞ ĂŶĚƌĞĐĞŝǀĞĨĞĞĚďĂĐŬŝƐĂŶĞƐƐĞŶƟĂůƐŬŝůůŝŶƚŚĞĚŝŐŝƚĂůĂŐĞ;ϭϬϳͿ͘

APA

ĂǀŝĚƐŽŶ;ϮϬϭϭͿŚĂƐĂƌŐƵĞĚƚŚĂƚƚŚĞĂďŝůŝƚLJƚŽŐŝǀĞĂŶĚƌĞĐĞŝǀĞĨĞĞĚďĂĐŬŝƐ ĂŶĞƐƐĞŶƟĂůƐŬŝůůŝŶƚŚĞĚŝŐŝƚĂůĂŐĞ͘Ύ

^;EĂŵĞͲ zĞĂƌͿ

ĂǀŝĚƐŽŶ;ϮϬϭϭͿŚĂƐĂƌŐƵĞĚƚŚĂƚƚŚĞĂďŝůŝƚLJƚŽŐŝǀĞĂŶĚƌĞĐĞŝǀĞĨĞĞĚďĂĐŬŝƐ ĂŶĞƐƐĞŶƟĂůƐŬŝůůŝŶƚŚĞĚŝŐŝƚĂůĂŐĞ͘Ύ

*Note that page numbers are not needed for paraphrases in APA and CSE styles.

/dd/KE ^dz>

/Eͳdyd/dd/KE

D>

dŚĞĂďŝůŝƚLJƚŽŐŝǀĞĂŶĚƌĞĐĞŝǀĞĨĞĞĚďĂĐŬŝƐĂŶĞƐƐĞŶƟĂůƐŬŝůůŝŶƚŚĞĚŝŐŝƚĂůĂŐĞ ;ĂǀŝĚƐŽŶϭϬϳͿ͘

APA

dŚĞĂďŝůŝƚLJƚŽŐŝǀĞĂŶĚƌĞĐĞŝǀĞĨĞĞĚďĂĐŬŝƐĂŶĞƐƐĞŶƟĂůƐŬŝůůŝŶƚŚĞĚŝŐŝƚĂůĂŐĞ ;ĂǀŝĚƐŽŶ͕ϮϬϭϭͿ͘Ύ

^;EĂŵĞͲ zĞĂƌͿ

dŚĞĂďŝůŝƚLJƚŽŐŝǀĞĂŶĚƌĞĐĞŝǀĞĨĞĞĚďĂĐŬŝƐĂŶĞƐƐĞŶƟĂůƐŬŝůůŝŶƚŚĞĚŝŐŝƚĂůĂŐĞ ;ĂǀŝĚƐŽŶϮϬϭϭͿ͘Ύ

*Note that there is one subtle difference between APA and CSE styles. While both use the name-year format, in APA the name and year are separated by a comma. In CSE no comma is used.

^ƵŵŵĂƌŝnjŝŶŐ Summaries concisely convey the main idea of a longer passage from an original source—or even the main idea or finding of an entire article or study. Summaries must be cited and signaled. Note that no citation styles require page numbers for very broad summaries, such as a recap of the main argument for an entire book (as in the examples below). Example 8: Summary, Author Indicated in In-Text /dd/KE /Eͳdyd/dd/KE ^dz> D>

/ŶNow You See It͕ĂǀŝĚƐŽŶĂƌŐƵĞƐƚŚĂƚŽƵƌĐƵƌƌĞŶƚĞĚƵĐĂƟŽŶƐLJƐƚĞŵŝƐĨĂŝůŝŶŐƚŽĞƋƵŝƉƐƚƵĚĞŶƚƐĨŽƌƚŚĞĚĞŵĂŶĚƐŽĨƚŚĞĚŝŐŝƚĂůĂŐĞ͘

APA

ĂǀŝĚƐŽŶ;ϮϬϭϭͿŚĂƐĂƌŐƵĞĚƚŚĂƚŽƵƌĐƵƌƌĞŶƚĞĚƵĐĂƟŽŶƐLJƐƚĞŵŝƐĨĂŝůŝŶŐƚŽ ĞƋƵŝƉƐƚƵĚĞŶƚƐĨŽƌƚŚĞĚĞŵĂŶĚƐŽĨƚŚĞĚŝŐŝƚĂůĂŐĞ͘

^;EĂŵĞͲ ĂǀŝĚƐŽŶ;ϮϬϭϭͿŚĂƐĂƌŐƵĞĚƚŚĂƚŽƵƌĐƵƌƌĞŶƚĞĚƵĐĂƟŽŶƐLJƐƚĞŵŝƐĨĂŝůŝŶŐƚŽ zĞĂƌͿ ĞƋƵŝƉƐƚƵĚĞŶƚƐĨŽƌƚŚĞĚĞŵĂŶĚƐŽĨƚŚĞĚŝŐŝƚĂůĂŐĞ͘

NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION - FOR INSTRUCTORS USE ONLY

,WdZϮͳϯ  K E  h  d / E '  W Z / D  Zz  Θ  ^ K E  Zz  Z ^  Z ,

Example 7: Paraphrase, Author Not Indicated in In-Text Signal

132

Example 9: Summary, Author Not Indicated in In-Text Signal /dd/KE /Eͳdyd/dd/KE ^dz> D>

ZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĞƌƐƐƵŐŐĞƐƚƚŚĂƚŽƵƌĐƵƌƌĞŶƚĞĚƵĐĂƟŽŶƐLJƐƚĞŵŝƐĨĂŝůŝŶŐƚŽĞƋƵŝƉ ƐƚƵĚĞŶƚƐĨŽƌƚŚĞĚĞŵĂŶĚƐŽĨƚŚĞĚŝŐŝƚĂůĂŐĞ;ĂǀŝĚƐŽŶͿ͘

APA

ZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĞƌƐŚĂǀĞĂƌŐƵĞĚƚŚĂƚŽƵƌĞĚƵĐĂƟŽŶƐLJƐƚĞŵŝƐĨĂŝůŝŶŐƚŽĞƋƵŝƉƐƚƵĚĞŶƚƐĨŽƌƚŚĞĚĞŵĂŶĚƐŽĨƚŚĞĚŝŐŝƚĂůĂŐĞ;ĂǀŝĚƐŽŶ͕ϮϬϭϭͿ͘

^;EĂŵĞͲ ZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĞƌƐŚĂǀĞĂƌŐƵĞĚƚŚĂƚŽƵƌĐƵƌƌĞŶƚĞĚƵĐĂƟŽŶƐLJƐƚĞŵŝƐĨĂŝůŝŶŐƚŽĞƋƵŝƉ zĞĂƌͿ ƐƚƵĚĞŶƚƐĨŽƌƚŚĞĚĞŵĂŶĚƐŽĨƚŚĞĚŝŐŝƚĂůĂŐĞ;ĂǀŝĚƐŽŶϮϬϭϭͿ͘

Also note that, in the natural and social sciences especially, researchers may cite multiple studies that all convey the same main finding or pattern. In the humanities, these kinds of statements are likely to be followed by more detailed descriptions of what each researcher has found (often using a quotation or paraphrase). In the natural and social sciences, depending on the genre, writers are more likely to let these summaries stand on their own, leaving it to the reader to check out the original sources, if desired.

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Example 10: Summary, Multiple Sources Indicating a Finding or Trend /dd/KE ^dz>

/Eͳdyd/dd/KE

D>

ZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĞƌƐƐƵŐŐĞƐƚƚŚĂƚŽƵƌĐƵƌƌĞŶƚĞĚƵĐĂƟŽŶƐLJƐƚĞŵŝƐĨĂŝůŝŶŐƚŽĞƋƵŝƉ ƐƚƵĚĞŶƚƐĨŽƌƚŚĞĚĞŵĂŶĚƐŽĨƚŚĞĚŝŐŝƚĂůĂŐĞ͘&ŽƌĞdžĂŵƉůĞ͕ŝŶNow You See It͕ĂƚŚLJĂǀŝĚƐŽŶĂƌŐƵĞƐƚŚĂƚƚŚĞĂďŝůŝƚLJƚŽŐŝǀĞĂŶĚƌĞĐĞŝǀĞĨĞĞĚďĂĐŬŝƐ ĂŶĞƐƐĞŶƟĂůƐŬŝůůŽĨƚŚĞĚŝŐŝƚĂůĂŐĞ;ϭϬϳͿ͘

APA

ZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĞƌƐŚĂǀĞĂƌŐƵĞĚƚŚĂƚŽƵƌĞĚƵĐĂƟŽŶƐLJƐƚĞŵŝƐĨĂŝůŝŶŐƚŽĞƋƵŝƉ ƐƚƵĚĞŶƚƐĨŽƌƚŚĞĚĞŵĂŶĚƐŽĨƚŚĞĚŝŐŝƚĂůĂŐĞ;ĂǀŝĚƐŽŶ͕ϮϬϭϭ͖ZƵďŝŶ͕ ϮϬϭϮ͖ŽǁĞŶ͕ϮϬϭϭͿ͘

^;EĂŵĞͲ zĞĂƌͿ

ZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĞƌƐŚĂǀĞĂƌŐƵĞĚƚŚĂƚŽƵƌĞĚƵĐĂƟŽŶƐLJƐƚĞŵŝƐĨĂŝůŝŶŐƚŽĞƋƵŝƉ ƐƚƵĚĞŶƚƐĨŽƌƚŚĞĚĞŵĂŶĚƐŽĨƚŚĞĚŝŐŝƚĂůĂŐĞ;ĂǀŝĚƐŽŶϮϬϭϭ͖ZƵďŝŶϮϬϭϮ͖ ŽǁĞŶϮϬϭϭͿ͘

For more information about how to cite quotes, paraphrases, and summaries in MLA, APA, and CSE style, see the UNC Libraries ŝƟŶŐ/ŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶdƵƚŽƌŝĂů, which includes information on CSE, MLA, APA, and Chicago styles. The library also offers a ĐŝƚĂƟŽŶďƵŝůĚĞƌƚŽŽů.

 y  Z  / ^   Ϯͳ ϯ & ͗ ^ K h Z    / E d  ' Z d / K E  t K Z < ^ , K W EXERCISE Here’s a helpful video overview of Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summary from the UNC Writing Center

Common Knowledge The term “common knowledge” refers to information that is widely known. What type of information falls under this heading is best assessed on a case-by-case basis in consultation with your instructor or a librarian. What counts as common knowledge often depends on the discipline. For example, the assertion that “writing is best taught as a process” is common knowledge among composition and rhetoric scholars and would not require a citation

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for that audience. However, in an article written for science professors, the claim that “writing is best taught as a process” might require a citation. Since common knowledge varies by discipline, the following five rules of thumb are helpful: •

If you find the same information in multiple sources, it is likely common knowledge.

•

If you find that this information tends to be used without citation in your discipline or genre, it is likely common knowledge.

•

If your audience assumes the information, it is likely common knowledge.

•

If the information would be found in a basic encyclopedia entry or very introductory course, it is likely common knowledge.

•

If several sources offer different answers to the same question, it is very likely that no answer can be considered common knowledge.

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Compare the following examples: •

Plagiarism is discouraged in academic settings.

•

Plagiarism is a punishable act, and the sanctions assigned by a jury-of-peers on UNCCH’s Honor Court range from one semester of probation to one year of suspension (Instrument of Student Governance III.B.).

In the first case, no citation is needed because it is assumed that the audience already knows that plagiarism is unacceptable in scholarly settings. In the second case, a citation is needed because the writer is citing a specific piece of information about plagiarism, information that the audience is unlikely to know already.

Academic Integrity and Plagiarism Whenever you use research to support your ideas, you must act responsibly and honorably by giving due credit to the authors of that research. The source material you are engaging with is someone else’s intellectual property and, therefore, should be respected for the time, effort, and creativity, the author(s) devoted to producing and publishing it. Documenting your sources not only acknowledges the value of the cited ideas, but also bolsters your own authority, demonstrates your knowledge of the topic, and provides your readers with the reference information they need to explore the topic further. Plagiarism is an academic integrity issue because plagiarism misrepresents some element(s) of a writer’s work. This misrepresentation—intentional or unintentional—falls into three main categories: 1.

Misrepresenting a source’s ideas as your own, usually by not including citations

2.

Misrepresenting a source’s voice or words as your own, usually by forgetting quotation marks or by not putting paraphrased material entirely in your own voice

3.

Misrepresenting unoriginal work as original work, usually by submitting previously graded material as a new composition or by over-reliance on source material

Consider the following strategies for avoiding each type of plagiarism: How to avoid misrepresenting a source’s ideas as your own: •

Cite! Cite all paraphrased, quoted, and summarized material that is not common knowledge for your audience and use these citations to differentiate between your ideas and the source’s. When in doubt, ask for help.

•

Be stylish. Carefully follow the required citation and reference formatting conventions.

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,WdZϮͳϯ  K E  h  d / E '  W Z / D  Zz  Θ  ^ K E  Zz  Z ^  Z ,

It is important to remember the difference between “common knowledge” and “readily available.” Just because a fact or document is readily available online, even on multiple websites, does not mean that the fact or document is common knowledge. Be generous with your attributions, especially when using electronic sources. When in doubt, cite your sources.

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How to avoid misrepresenting a source’s voice or words as your own: •

Again, cite! Start citing as early as possible in the research and writing process; cite while you take notes, and cite while you draft so you don’t lose track of what ideas are yours versus the source’s.

•

Be careful. Find a reference management system that works for you: printing out sources, using notecards, or using a digital reference tool, such as Mendeley or Zotero.

•

Avoid copy/paste. It is much easier to leave out quotation marks, forget to add a citation, or use too much source material when copying and pasting. Even if you unintentionally lose track of the boundaries between your own work and the source’s as you moved through the writing and research process, this sort of appropriation still counts as plagiarism.

How to avoid misrepresenting unoriginal work as original work: •

Be honest. Buying a paper, recycling a friend or family member’s work, and copying ideas from sources without credit are all possible types of academic dishonesty.

•

Be analytical. Remember that source material only supports your ideas; your ideas are the most important and should therefore dominate each paragraph. Always lead in to and follow up on all source material with your own ideas in your own voice. For all source evidence, visualize that you are a making a “source sandwich”: start with your ideas to set up what’s to come, bring in the source information, wrap up with your ideas that explain the relevance of this source information to your analysis/argument. Never leave source material “hanging” with no context.

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For more information about how to avoid plagiarism, check out the UNC Libraries Identifying Plagiarism and Why We Cite Tutorial as well as this “Why We Cite” video from the UNC Writing Center.

 y  Z  / ^   Ϯͳ ϯ ' ͗ / E d  > >   d h  >  W Z K W  Z d z EXERCISE

,ŽǁƚŚĞ>ŝďƌĂƌŝĞƐĂŶ,ĞůƉzŽƵǁŝƚŚZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ The UNC Libraries have over 9 million items in their collections, but they also have friendly and welcoming staff who are experts in how to do research. Their job is to help you navigate the large and sometimes overwhelming library system to find the articles, books, films, and data you need. There are many ways to reach out to the Libraries when you need help with research or citation. You can visit any of the library service desks in person and ask any staff member for help. The >ŝďƌĂƌŝĞƐĂŶĚ,ŽƵƌƐƉĂŐĞ will help you figure out where the libraries are on campus and when they’re open. You can also visit the >ŝďƌĂƌŝĞƐ͛ŽŶƚĂĐƚhƐ page to ask a question via email, phone, or chat. If you would like more in-depth help, please book an E'>ϭϬϱͬϭϬϱŝZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ,ĞůƉĂƉƉŽŝŶƚŵĞŶƚ online. Once you pick the appointment time that works with your schedule, you’ll get an email confirmation. Bring your assignment and your laptop to the Undergraduate Library desk, where you’ll meet with a librarian who can coach you through creating a research plan, finding what you need more efficiently, and moving forward in your research with more confidence and clarity. Dayna Durbin is the Undergraduate Teaching and Learning Librarian who specifically works with first-year and transfer students. She would be happy to meet with you to talk about your research or answer your questions about how to use the libraries. You are encouraged to ĞŵĂŝůŚĞƌ at for help!

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Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com

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W h  > / ^ , / E '   E   W Z  ^  E d / E '  zK h Z  Z  ^   Z  , The work and ideas you produce in ENGL 105/105i have the potential to live outside the classroom through publication and/or presentation. Often, student work can provide valuable contributions to many academic fields, popular genres, and news formats. Your work might appear in a public-facing course wiki or WordPress site, a campus publication such as The Daily Tar Heel or Cellar Door, a popular magazine, or an academic journal. In addition to sharing your ideas with a wider audience, publishing and presenting your work can help you polish and refine those ideas. It can also teach you more about the writing process, particularly about how to revise work for specific audiences and venues. Additionally, publishing and presenting your work can help you develop your professional portfolio and show your contributions to a field. Regardless of why you are publishing or presenting, or where you do so, you want your work to make the best impression. In this chapter, you will learn how to find publications and presentation venues suitable for your work as well as how to prepare your work to be published and/or presented.

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By the end of this chapter, you will be able to: 1.

Identify and analyze publication options.

2.

Prepare a draft for publication.

3.

Follow formatting guidelines and submit a work for publication.

4.

Analyze the differences and similarities between written and oral composition.

5.

Write for an oral mode of presentation.

6.

Design multimedia to effectively support an oral presentation.

7.

Prepare for a performance.

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/͘W h  > / ^ , / E 'zK h ZZ ^  Z  ,

137

K h d  K D   ϭ͗ /   E d / & z / E '   E    E  >z  / E ' W h  > /  d / K E  K W d / K E ^ /ĚĞŶƟĨLJĂWƵďůŝĐĂƟŽŶ Finding a target publication that suits your work is the first step of this process. But before you know which publication you’re going to submit to, you first need to identify your audience. You must ask yourself, “Who wants to read this work?” (It will also help to review the discussion of audience in Part 2,ŚĂƉƚĞƌϭ.) Your answer will vary depending on what kind of composition you have produced. For example, if you have stumbled upon a new work of literature in the archives at UNC’s Wilson Library and have written about the significance of this text, you might want to publish this finding. But who cares about it? Other scholars working on the author’s work will likely want to know about your discovery. Additionally, if the author has particular campus or Chapel Hill connections, local historians might be interested. Students and other town residents might want to know, too. Ultimately, you will have to decide to whom your work is most relevant. For example, if you have spent time discussing the author’s significance as a citizen of Chapel Hill, a North Carolina historical publication may be best. If your work instead has focused on the literature and how the author has influenced other contemporary writers, you might consider an academic literary journal.

If you find yourself looking elsewhere, one place to start is with a search engine. Conducting a search for “historical publications,” for example, yields the EĞƉĂƌƚŵĞŶƚŽĨƵůƚƵƌĂůZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ, which has a list of historical publications that might be good venues for your work. Similarly, if an academic journal is something you’re considering, there are several online resources you might start with including the ůƐĞǀŝĞƌ:ŽƵƌŶĂů&ŝŶĚĞƌ, ^ƉƌŝŶŐĞƌ:ŽƵƌŶĂů^ĞůĞĐƚŽƌ, or the :ŽƵƌŶĂůͬƵƚŚŽƌ EĂŵĞ ƐƟŵĂƚŽƌ. Including some brief details about your work in your searches on these tools will help you compile a list of potential academic publications. Other compositions might fit better in more popular publications. For example, if you have composed a well-researched think piece on UNC’s confederate monument controversy, you’ll want to cast a wider net than specialized historical or literary audiences. Online news outlets and op-ed sections in online and print news sources might be more suitable places. Popular outlets include The Washington Post, The New York Times, Vice, Broadly, Vox, Bustle, Refinery29, BuzzFeed, Cosmopolitan, Slate, and Huffington Post. Publications such as these often publish hundreds of op-eds a year, and many of these op-eds attract national attention.

 y  Z  / ^   Ϯͳ ϰ  ͗ Z ,  d K Z /   >  ^ / d h d / K E ^ EXERCISE

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,WdZϮͳϰ Wh >/ ^,/ E' EWZ ^Ed/E'zKhZZ^Z,

Finding these publications might take a bit of research. The KĸĐĞĨŽƌhŶĚĞƌŐƌĂĚƵĂƚĞZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚ has a ĐŽŵƉƌĞŚĞŶƐŝǀĞůŝƐƚŽĨƉƵďůŝĐĂƟŽŶƐ that accept undergraduate work. If you’re still looking, check out dŚĞhŶŝǀĞƌƐŝƚLJŽĨEŽƌƚŚĂƌŽůŝŶĂWƌĞƐƐ and ƵŬĞhŶŝǀĞƌƐŝƚLJWƌĞƐƐ for more options.

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ŶĂůLJnjĞĂWƵďůŝĐĂƟŽŶ Because there are often many options, the question becomes, “How do I choose?” Spending time with some of the publications you think are most relevant for your work will help you. Before publishing in a particular journal or outlet, you should first spend some time reading it. Understanding a publication’s mission and goals is an important first step to determining whether your work is the right fit. A good place to find this information is the “about” or “submissions” section of a publication’s website. What are the aims and scope of the publication? For example, the North Carolina Historical Review seeks “to publish articles and annotated documents pertaining to the history of North Carolina. The editors and the committee consider originality of material and interpretation, sources, clarity of thought, style, and interests of readers” (“Editorial Policy”). By contrast, the ^ŽƵƚŚƚůĂŶƟĐYƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJ “provides bold analyses of the current intellectual scene, both nationally and worldwide. Published exclusively in guest-edited special issues, this award-winning centenarian journal features some of the most prominent contemporary writers and scholars tackling urgent political, cultural, and social questions” (“About the Journal”). Returning to the hypothetical Wilson Library find above, and assuming that the composition’s focus is more historical, the North Carolina Historical Review seems like a better fit than the South Atlantic Quarterly because the kind of intellectual work we’re imagining the piece will accomplish isn’t focused on emergent political questions. In addition, examining the topics and titles in recent issues can provide important insights into a publication’s suitability. For example, some titles from works published in the North Carolina Historical Review include “The North Carolina State Library as a Cultural Resource, 1812–1914,” “In Defense of the Nation: Syphilis, North Carolina’s ‘Girl Problem,’ and World War I,” and “The Medical Dimension in Cornwallis’s Army, 1780–1781.” From these titles, we can tell that the content is deeply rooted in particular historical moments—date ranges are included in two of the three examples here, and a specific war in another.

,WdZϮͳϰ Wh>/^,/E'EWZ^Ed/E'zKhZZ^Z,

If the publication’s information and titles seem to be a good fit, the final step is to read some of the works themselves. As you do, ask yourself the following: •

What is the scope of these pieces?

•

What is the main goal of the pieces? Are they informative, argumentative, or entertaining?

•

What is the tone? Is it academic, humorous, or colloquial?

•

What kind of language is used? Is it professional, full of jargon, or casual?

•

Is my work already in line with this, or could it be reasonably shaped to be so?

If the answer to your last question is yes, then it’s time to consider the guidelines and constraints of your publication.

'ƵŝĚĞůŝŶĞƐĂŶĚŽŶƐƚƌĂŝŶƚƐ When considering a publication, make sure your work aligns with what the publication is looking for. Publications are usually upfront with potential authors about what they’re looking for in the content of pieces. Here’s an example from the North Carolina Historical Review: The editors of the North Carolina Historical Review and the Advisory Editorial Committee seek to publish articles and annotated documents pertaining to the history of North Carolina. The editors and the committee consider originality of material and interpretation, sources, clarity of thought, style, and interests of readers. Materials primarily genealogical are not accepted (“Editorial Policy”). And if it’s genealogical, it will not work for this journal. Since our perspective on the Wilson Library archive find aligns with these guidelines, this publication sounds suitable.

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K h d K D Ϯ͗W Z  W Z / E ' Z  & d& K ZW h  > /  d / K E

139

WůĂŶĂƌĂŌ

When, drafting for publication, you will follow the same writing process discussed in Part Ϯ͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϮ. There are some additional factors to consider, though:

Focus Because you’re writing for a publication, you need to ensure not only that the focus of your piece is clear (as you would for any composition), but also that the focus aligns with the publication’s as stated in the submission guidelines. And if it does not fit these guidelines, be sure to add a step to your revisions to remedy this. For example, if you are writing a piece for South Atlantic Quarterly, you need your scope to consider “urgent political, cultural, and social questions.” However, you might find that parts of your piece spend too much time rehashing a debate from further in the past. One option would be to summarize the past debate more quickly in your article and narrow your focus so that your piece remains more attentive to contemporary issues.

Style When you’re revising a publication, in addition to larger components like focus, structure, and your argument, you’ll want to keep an eye out for choices in language and sentence structure that may or may not align with the style of your publication and the type of work you are submitting to that publication. Let’s take a look at a few examples, paying particular attention to diction, sentence structure, voice, tone, purpose, and audience. The results show pig bones excavated from these sites were from animals raised as far away as Scotland, North East England and West Wales, as well as numerous other locations across the British Isles. The researchers believe it may have been important for those attending to contribute animals raised locally at their homes. (Cardiff University) From key phrases like “The results show” and “The researchers believe,” we can tell that this is an informative document—these phrases introduce information to the reader. These phrases also suggest a somewhat formal or professional tone. The sentences begin with subjects like “the results” and “the researchers,” which are followed by verbs. Including sentences in subject, verb, object order—the order of sentences written in active voice—is a stylistic choice often made for readability and clarity. The diction is accessible—none of the words here are unfamiliar, and even if the place names are new, not knowing exactly where West Wales is doesn’t detract from our understanding. Such accessible word choice suggests that the text is for a general audience. The following passage, from a research article in the journal Science Advances though, has a very different style, even though it’s about a similar topic: Pigs are the prime animal used in feasting but have not previously been subjected to provenancing isotope analysis, as cattle have been favored as an animal more likely to have been moved under human control. In addition, porcine enamel was initially considered susceptible to diagenetic alteration, but research has since demonstrated that pigs retain biogenic strontium (6), thus releasing the potential of this important class of remains. The data presented here further support this research in showing great diversity in isotope values at single sites, demonstrating that diagenetic strontium from the burial environment has not homogenized the results. (Madgwick, et al.)

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,WdZϮͳϰ Wh >/ ^,/ E' EWZ ^Ed/E'zKhZZ^Z,

First, here’s an example from a news release in Science Daily:

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This excerpt is likewise informative, as indicated by phrases such as “Pigs are the prime animal used in feasting” and “The data presented here,” which both work to convey information to the reader. There is also an emphasis on clarity, as the sentences follow the same subject, verb, and object order. Some of them are in active voice. One sentence, however, begins with, “In addition, porcine enamel was initially considered….” This sentence is in the passive voice, since the thing being acted upon (“porcine enamel”) is in the subject position, and the sentence doesn’t have a direct agent of action. Passive voice is often an indicator of formal scientific writing (as discussed in WĂƌƚϭ͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϮ). Phrases such as “provenancing isotope analysis,” “porcine enamel,” “diagenetic alteration,” “biogenic strontium,” and “diagenetic strontium” also jump out. These words can be called “jargon”—highly specific words related to a particular field of research. In addition to conveying an academic tone, this word choice limits the audience to people already in the field. Both examples concern the same basic information, and they use very different styles to convey it. As you write and revise, aligning the diction, sentence structure, voice, tone, and purpose of your writing with the publication’s expectations will increase the likelihood of your submission’s acceptance. Some publications also have “house style” rules that govern if/how writers use headings, treat specific terms, incorporate visuals, and/or cite sources. Be sure to check with the publication’s editor to make sure that you understand and follow these rules. Information about following a publication’s formatting guidelines will be provided in Outcome 3.

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ƉƉůLJ&ŽƌŵĂƫŶŐ Editors usually want submissions that are consistently formatted. Formatting guidelines make documents readable, and editors usually have many submissions and manuscripts to read. Making sure your piece follows the formatting guidelines your publication sets out will also help prevent editors from having negative first impressions of your piece. Let’s take a look at the submission guidelines for the North Carolina Historical Review: Manuscripts should generally not exceed thirty-five double-spaced typed pages, including text and notes. Occasionally, longer manuscripts are accepted. Text and notes must be double-spaced, and the latter should appear on separate sheets at the end of the essay. The author’s name should appear only on the title page of the manuscript. The journal follows The Chicago Manual of Style, sixteenth edition, in matters of capitalization, punctuation, abbreviation, citation, and the like. The editors will provide an abbreviated style guide upon request. Authors should submit for consideration two print copies of their manuscripts to the managing editor, Historical Research Office, Office of Archives and History, Department of Natural and Cultural Resources, 4610 Mail Service Center, Raleigh, North Carolina 27699-4622. Please also send an electronic copy to the managing editor at ĂŶŶŝĞ͘ ŵŝůůĞƌΛŶĐĚĐƌ͘ŐŽǀ. (“Editorial Policy”). From this, we know how long our piece can be, what formatting style is expected, where the notes should go (if any), the spacing of the document, and how many copies will need to be sent and to where. We also should note what isn’t listed: elements such as font face and size, margins, and headers. So, you can make some style and design choices—with caution, of course. The document should look neat and polished.

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Specifically, be sure to choose a readable font. Many editors appreciate a serif font, such as Times New Roman (usually size 12), because it’s easy to read. When using a sans-serif font, choose one that is readable, such Helvetica, Calibri, or Arial (usually size 11) and not overly stylized. Font sizes between 10 and 12 will keep your piece legible.

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In general, your document should also follow consistent spacing conventions. Margins should be 1 in.-1.5 in. on all sides. A 1-in. margin on all sides is standard for many types of documents, including many university assignment submissions. If not otherwise specified, make sure your document is double-spaced (with no extra spaces between paragraphs).

^ƵďŵŝƚĨŽƌWƵďůŝĐĂƟŽŶ Once your document has been drafted, revised, and formatted, it’s time to submit. Be sure to follow a publication’s submission guidelines. For example, the scholarly interdisciplinary journal south asks for the following: Please direct all submissions to our online submissions manager. Submissions delivered by email or physical mail will no longer be accepted. Manuscripts must be submitted with an abstract (maximum 250 words). Please review our guidelines for submission for our editorial preferences. Due to the heavy volume of submissions, the editors request that essays be limited to a maximum of 7,500 words (including notes and works cited). Please allow four to six months for review and notification. (“Submissions”) Submitting your piece using the formatting and methods indicated by your publication will make a strong first impression.

dŚĞWƵďůŝĐĂƟŽŶWƌŽĐĞƐƐ So what happens now?

If you’re publishing to a print or online publication with an editorial board, the first thing you’ll need to do is wait. As the submission guidelines for south suggest, you might be waiting a while.

ZĞũĞĐƟŽŶ Keep in mind that most pieces are rejected, often more than once; so, don’t get discouraged! Publications receive many submissions, and their decisions sometimes come down to minutia. Rejection is a normal part of the publication process. In the best rejection scenarios, an editor will tell you why, and this feedback can be useful for either revising with these critiques in mind or looking toward different publications whose scope and aims match those of your work. But sometimes a rejection is basically just a simple “no thank you.”

Revise and Resubmit A revise and resubmit response is excellent! It means editors are interested in publishing your work, and they want you to make some changes so that your work better fits their standards and goals. This process will be much like the revision process discussed In WĂƌƚϮ͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϮ. You’ll want to carefully read through editors’ comments, create a clear list of revisions, work through this list to make those revisions, and review the comments again to ensure that the changes you’ve made are addressing the comments. Then, you’ll send your piece back to the editor with a letter that briefly but clearly outlines the areas you’ve revised.

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If you’re self-publishing to a public-facing web page, such as a wiki or a WordPress site, congratulations! You’re published!

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Acceptance Once your article is accepted, you can celebrate! Congratulations! However, even with acceptance, the process has just begun, and there is much more to do before final publication.

WƌŽŽĮŶŐ Authors will often receive page proofs from the publication before work is published. By the proof stage, the work will have passed through multiple stages of editing (often including copyediting) at the publication, and it will be typeset/formatted for printing. The editor will indicate what types of changes are possible at this point in the process, but typically, writers are only allowed to make sentence-level changes. So, you should check sentence structure, word choice, and tone carefully.

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This is also the time to check the support you’ve included for accuracy, ensuring that you’ve quoted everything as it appears and paraphrased or summarized information in ways that do justice to the original source. You should check the accuracy of your citations and references in particular. This extra step will help you make sure your piece is as correct and credible as possible.

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K h d  K D   ϰ͗  E  >z  / E '  t Z / d d  E  s  Z ^ h ^  K Z  > KDWK^/d/KE Have you ever tried to listen to an in-class presentation but had trouble paying attention because you were either bored or confused? Even when a presentation’s topic is interesting and its argument is convincing, audience members can have trouble following the presentation if the author does not recognize that presenting research orally is different from presenting research in a written form. Specifically, the composition and delivery process is different for the author; a speaker can emphasize certain words through vocal tone while a writer can use punctuation for a similar effect. Similarly, the reception of an oral presentation is different for the audience; whereas a reader can go back to re-read a confusing section of text, a listener does not have that same luxury. Writing and speaking are both forms of composition, and, therefore, they have certain elements in common. Written and oral composition both communicate and convey ideas from an author to an audience, and both have rhetorical situations. Sometimes, these rhetorical situations might even be quite similar. For example, an instructor might deliver a lecture orally in class and then, after class, might email the lecture notes to the students.

The main difference between written and oral composition is the relationship among the author, the text, and the audience. In written composition, the audience has greater access to the text. They are able to read at their own pace; to highlight, underline, or annotate significant ideas; or to re-read confusing sections. By contrast, in oral composition, the audience has less access to the text but greater access to the author. They are able to pose questions to the author and ask for clarification that the text alone might not be able to provide. For an author, the prospect of interacting directly with an audience may be intimidating. However, the increased access to the audience can also be beneficial for authors because they can alter texts to better meet their audiences’ needs. For example, if an audience seems confused or disengaged, an author can adapt the presentation with improvised explanations or humor.

 y  Z  / ^   Ϯͳ ϰ  ͗ Z    / E '  s ^ ͘  > / ^ d  E / E ' EXERCISE

K h d  K D   ϱ͗ t Z / d / E '  & K Z  d ,   W Z  ^  E dd / K E The unique relationship among the author, the text, and the audience influences how an oral presentation should be composed. In order to share your research with others, present your ideas in a coherent order, and formulate a persuasive argument, you will probably write down parts (if not all) of your presentation beforehand. Most presenters can cover about eight pages of double-spaced text in 20 minutes, which is a common length for academic conference presentations. While presenters in some fields typically read a printed paper, in many fields, presentations are extemporaneous—not memorized or read directly from notes—and accompanied by presentation slides (such as PowerPoint or Google Slides). If

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Of course, there are notable differences between written and oral composition as well, and an author needs to understand these differences in order to design an effective oral presentation. Consider, for example, that an audience who listens to a paper cannot see the divisions between paragraphs and, therefore, might have trouble recognizing when a presenter is shifting from one idea to a new one. Or consider that a listening audience cannot see parenthetical citations or footnotes, so a presenter must rely upon other strategies, such as incorporating the author’s name in a signal phrase (i.e, “According to Professor Swift͙” or “As indicated in Taylor Swift’s analysis͙”) to convey that he/she is borrowing ideas from other sources.

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you are unsure what type of presentation style to use, ask someone who has attended the same conference before, or reach out to the conference organizer for information. Although there are many elements that combine to make a presentation successful, here are four specific strategies that can help you write an effective oral presentation.

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ZĞƉĞĂƚ͕ZĞƉĞĂƚ͕ZĞƉĞĂƚ͙ Again, because the audience does not have the luxury of going back and re-reading content in an oral presentation, it is important to reiterate key ideas and information. When practicing for an oral presentation, you should be in the habit of telling the audience what you are going to tell them, telling them, and then telling them what you already told them. Finding the balance between effective repetition and unnecessary redundancy can be difficult (after all, you don’t want the audience to feel like you are beating them over the head with an idea). One strategy for effective repetition is to repeat key terms and buzzwords over the course of your presentation. For example, if your presentation analyzed the evolution of democracy from ancient Athens to the present, then “democracy” might be a keyword that you could repeat. In a written medium, repetition can be superfluous and add little to your argument, but in an oral format, repetition can help remind your audience of your main points and keep them on track.

hƐĞsĞƌďĂůƵĞƐ Phrases such as “in this presentation, I will argue that…” are not always necessary in written communication because organizational and contextual factors may highlight your argument for your reader. However, because these factors may not be as obvious in oral communication, including verbal cues in an oral presentation can be useful for leading your audience through your argument and directing their attention to especially important ideas. Other types of verbal cues draw attention to different parts of an argument (first, second, etc.) or show the relationship between ideas (on the one hand…on the other hand…). It is helpful to give listeners an overview of your presentation upfront. When using presentation slides, you can include this overview as a bulleted list on a slide.

ƌĂŌŝŶŐĂ͞^ĐƌŝƉƚ͟ Finally, you will want to consider how closely your presentation will stick to a “script” that you have written out beforehand. At academic conferences, as mentioned above, some scholars read a fully written draft, others work from a few notecards with important points, and still others rely upon presentation slides for content cues. The context, discipline, and rhetorical situation of the presentation can help you decide which approach would be most appropriate, but you can also take into account your own level of comfort with public speaking. If the thought of presenting research to a live audience unnerves you, then you might prefer a complete “script” to bullet points.

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Regardless of which approach you choose, you will not want to read directly from the page the entire time, as this will bore the audience. If you were to read the paper verbatim, why wouldn’t they just skip the presentation and ask you for a copy afterwards? Ad-libbing intermittently or speaking extemporaneously can help keep the audience engaged and help you look more confident. If you are concerned about speaking extemporaneously, you can plan for some “improvised” comments while drafting your presentation.

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In addition to composing your presentation, you will also want to consider the logistics of reading your text aloud. For example, your script will need to be legible and accessible if you are planning to read from it at the presentation. Therefore, you should: •

Type your presentation notes if you have messy handwriting.

•

Write or print the text in a large size so you don’t have to squint to read it.

•

Number your pages or notecards so you don’t skip any and can rearrange them if they get out of order.

•

Double space your “script” so you can more easily keep track of where you are in your presentation.

•

If you plan to read from an electronic device (laptop, tablet, etc.), find a steady surface for it. You should also position the device so that you can see the text clearly without obstructing the audience’s view of you.

While drafting your presentation, you can also prepare for the question-and-answer time by brainstorming three potential questions that the audience might ask you based on your presentation. Then, write down your answers to those questions.

When deciding what material to include on handouts or presentation slides, be sure to choose information that will complement, rather than distract from, your presentation. Too much text can be overwhelming for the audience, and bullet points can likewise be distracting because the audience reads the bullets instead of listening to what the speaker has to say. Instead of text, visual representations of data (in the form of graphs, charts, illustrations, or photographs) can be more beneficial because they inform without distracting the audience. You can also use stock images to make your presentation more visually appealing, but the connection between your presentation and the images should always be clear. Finally, your multimedia can imitate common practices in your discipline; for example, natural science presentations often have slides with graphs that depict the results of an experiment, while humanities presentations often have handouts that include direct quotations that the speaker plans to analyze. When designing multimedia, you want the final product to be as accessible to your audience as possible. If audience members are struggling to see your multimedia, then they will not be concentrating on the content of your presentation. Specifically, you should consider the physical space in which you will be presenting and the needs of your audience. For example, if you are presenting in a large lecture hall, your text size should be large enough so that people in the back row can still read your slides. Similarly, higher-contrast color choices and consistent text alignment can help make your content easier to see. The UNC Undergraduate Library Design Lab guide also offers a ŐƵŝĚĞŽŶƉƌĞƐĞŶƚĂƟŽŶƐůŝĚĞƐĚĞƐŝŐŶ.

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K h d  K D   ϲ͗   ^ / ' E / E '  D h >d / D   /  Multimedia in oral presentations can range from PowerPoint or Prezi slides, to video or sound clips, to physical handouts distributed to audience members. Not every presentation includes multimedia, but multimedia tools can help keep your audience engaged and help them follow your content.

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When you plan to use multimedia or other forms of technology (such as a microphone) during a presentation, it is always a good idea to check that the technology is working ahead of time and to be prepared in case there is a malfunction. By smoothly recovering from failed technology, you can demonstrate that you are well-prepared, and this level of preparation can increase your credibility with the audience. In particular, printed handouts can be an excellent backup option in case a projector experiences technical difficulties. For more help with digital and media projects, see Part 2͕ŚĂƉƚĞƌϱ.

 y  Z  / ^   Ϯͳ ϰ  ͗ Z  s / ^ / E '  ^ > /   ^ EXERCISE

K h d  K D   ϳ͗ W Z  W Z / E '  & K Z  d ,   W  Z & K Z D  E   An oral presentation is a performance; how you look and how you speak will influence how your audience reacts to your research. If you appear confident in your argument, then the audience might be inspired by your demeanor and might be more likely to find your argument convincing. However, if you appear unsure about your argument, then your audience might be more likely to question you and the persuasiveness of your presentation. Also, a performance consists of both vocal and visual components, so you will want to take both into account as you prepare for your presentation.

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sŽĐĂůWĞƌĨŽƌŵĂŶĐĞ When presenting, it is important that you speak clearly, loudly, and slowly so that the audience will be able to hear and understand you. Effective speakers enunciate, focusing especially on consonants at the ends of words and phrases, and adjust their volume depending on the space so that everyone, even those in the back row, can hear their presentation. (Remember that more bodies in a room will absorb sound more easily, so you will need to speak more loudly in a full auditorium than in an empty one.) Also, effective presenters speak slowly enough that the audience catches every word, rather than every third word, because people often need more time to process what they hear (versus what they read or see). Additionally, because nervous speakers tend to speed up their rate of talking, you should speak at a speed that seems almost awkwardly slow to you. If you feel yourself getting nervous, try taking a deep, well-timed breath (after a paragraph, not in the middle of a sentence) to help calm you. Usually, the tone of an oral presentation is conversational yet professional, but above all, it should not be robotic. Because a dull monotone will bore listeners, effective speakers modulate and inflect their voices to keep the audience alert and interested. Furthermore, in a paper, you can use different fonts, underlining, highlighting, and italicizing to draw emphasis (although this is not always recommended, depending on the genre). In speech, though, you must rely on your voice to emphasize your arguments with pauses, with increased volume or pitch, and, of course, with vocal stress. Finally, effective speakers avoid verbal fillers, such as “um,” “like,” or “ya’know.” Most people use these words and phrases in colloquial speech when searching for a word or idea, but when speakers use them in formal presentations, they sound inexperienced, uninformed, and unconvincing. Instead of using verbal fillers, you can simply pause, which will make you seem thoughtful. Because verbal fillers occur naturally in your day-to-day speech, you will need to actively avoid using them in your presentations. You can do this by recording yourself practicing so you can note where you use fillers and/or by asking a friend to listen to your presentation and keep a tally of how many filler words you use so you can measure your improvement over practice sessions.

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In summary, to make your vocal performance effective, you should: •

Enunciate.

•

Speak loudly and slowly.

•

Breathe.

•

Inflect and modulate your voice.

•

Avoid verbal fillers.

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sŝƐƵĂůWĞƌĨŽƌŵĂŶĐĞ The visual element of presentations also has multiple aspects that you should consider. For example, to encourage the audience to take you seriously, be sure to wear appropriate clothing, which can range from business casual to formal depending upon the discipline and occasion. Other visual aspects include conveying energy through your body language, using the presentation space effectively, and maintaining confident posture. One common challenge for actors or presenters is figuring out what to do with their hands during a performance. You should feel free to use hand gestures because they can positively contribute to your presentation by helping you emphasize a point or suggest a progression of ideas. However, pacing or rocking backwards and forwards can make you seem nervous, less confident, and thus, less persuasive.

In sum, to make your visual performance effective, you should: •

Dress professionally.

•

Maintain confident posture.

•

Use effective gestures and movements.

•

Try to make eye contact.

•

Have fun.

 y  Z  / ^   Ϯͳ ϰ  ͗ s K   >  Θ s / ^ h  >  W  Z & K Z D  E   EXERCISE

WƌĂĐƟĐĞWƌĞƐĞŶƟŶŐ You might assume that you are adequately prepared for an oral presentation just based on your class conversations about the topic. However, a formal oral presentation differs significantly from everyday speech, so you must practice ahead of time if you want to do well. As you prepare for your performance, you can follow these strategies: •

Practice the presentation in full in order to perfect your timing, to look up more during the presentation, and to be aware of any tricky areas (so you don’t mispronounce anything or struggle reading your own words).

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The final, and most important, element of visual performance is your face. It is imperative that you seem visually engaged with the presentation and the audience. Smiling, when appropriate, is one method of keeping them engaged. If it appears as though you are not enjoying your own presentation, your audience will likely mirror your disinterest. Maintaining eye contact is another key way of connecting with the audience. However, in order to look up from your notes and speak clearly to the audience, you need to know the material very well; so, again, you will need to prepare effectively in order to deliver a presentation that is successful on all levels.

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•

Speak exactly as you would during the actual presentation. Miming can be fine for practice, but if you speak under your breath or rush through sections during rehearsal, chances are you will do the same thing during the real presentation.

•

Practice in front of friends and family, so you have an audience that will be able to give you feedback.

•

After you have finalized your presentation, record yourself delivering it aloud. Watch your recording, and create a list describing what techniques you employed well and what techniques you could improve. Then, practice delivering your presentation a few more times and actively try to maintain your good aspects while improving your ineffective ones.

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 / ' / d >  > / d  Z   z The medium of your composition can dictate much of its content. With the increasing use of digital multimedia composition, it is important to learn how each medium shapes the way we write and argue. Effective communicators must master a wide variety of writing not only across different genres, but also across different media. These media can include videos, websites, emails, algorithms, blogs, wikis, podcasts, infographics, and many other types of digital writing. Determining what medium will be most effective to communicate a message is as essential as determining what to write about.

z  / E '  D h >d / D   /   '  E Z  ^ DƵůƟŵĞĚŝĂŝŶŽŵƉŽƐŝƟŽŶ Multimedia projects change static texts to dynamic compositions. Composing in different media requires writers to consider additional rhetorical factors that might influence how to best communicate to your intended audience. The advantage of multimedia composition is that it helps writers reach a “real” audience more easily—that is, it’s often easier to post a video or blog online than it is to publish a written composition.

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dŽĞƚŚŝĐĂůůLJ ĂŶĚŚŽŶĞƐƚůLJ ƌĞƉŽƌƚŽŶĂƌĞĐĞŶƚŚĞĂůƚŚŽƌ ƐĐŝĞŶƟĮĐƐƚƵĚLJ ŝŶĂŶĞŶŐĂŐŝŶŐ ĨŽƌŵĂƚ

zŽƵĂƌĞĂƐŬĞĚƚŽǁƌŝƚĞĂ ďůŽŐƉŽƐƚĨŽƌEĂƟŽŶĂů'ĞŽgraphicƚŚĂƚĞdžĂŵŝŶĞƐĂŶĚ ĞdžƉůĂŝŶƐĂƌĞĐĞŶƚŚĞĂůƚŚŽƌ ƐĐŝĞŶƟĮĐƐƚƵĚLJ͘

If you are writing for a blog, you can use embedded hyperlinks to allow people to find further detail or context about a topic. You can also use full-color images without worry about printing costs. Finally, since web users can easily navigate away from a page, you can anticipate that the first paragraph of the blog posts needs to contain the most important information and hopefully enough interesting details to keep people reading.

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K h d  K D   ϯ͗ h E   Z ^ d E  / E '   / ' / d >   K W z Z / ' , d tŚĂƚ/ƐŽƉLJƌŝŐŚƚ͍ A copyright grants its owner or creator the rights to control their intellectual or artistic product. This control includes the right to profit from the sale or performance of their work and to seek legal recourse if others use their work without permission. To use another’s artistic or intellectual product, you must obtain permission, and this usually involves paying the copyright holder for

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usage rights. In our digital age, copyright protection extends not only to copies of the written word and recordings of sound, but also to visual images such as photographs, videos, and websites. Copyright usually protects a product for 70 years after the death of the creator.

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tŚĂƚ/Ɛ͞&ĂŝƌhƐĞ͍͟ “Fair use” standards provide certain limitations on copyrighted materials. The specifics around what is considered fair use are highly contested. Fair use will only provide limited protections for the following uses: •

Work produced for an in-class activity that will not be shown on a public-facing site

•

Work that uses a limited amount (no more than 10% of the material) of verbatim (identical) material from the source—without the copyright owner’s express permission—for such purposes as criticism, comment, reporting, or teaching

This is not an exhaustive list, but the items on it do apply to many of the activities you will encounter in your classes. The trouble is, many of the laws and rules that address fair use and education were written well before the internet’s creation. So you must be careful with what you use, how much you use, and how you use it. The final way that fair use applies is if a new derivative work is transformative; in other words, if a work uses in-copyright source material in completely new, unexpected ways, using that material would fall within fair use standard. Think about a remix of a song, for example. If the beat and chorus are completed changed, then it becomes a new song. However, when a song blatantly reuses the main beat of a song (such as Pharrell and Robin Thicke’s “Blurred Lines” using Marvin Gaye’s “Got to Give It Up” ) then the beat is not transformed enough, and fair use may not apply. Remixing your medium enough can create a new work, but the standards for what makes a work transformative are constantly being challenged in court. You do not always need to use copyrighted material, but if you do, you must be very careful and ask your instructor if you are unclear. The UNC Libraries also offer helpful ĨĂŝƌ ƵƐĞĂŶĚĐŽƉLJƌŝŐŚƚƌĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ. Use the following flowchart to determine if your use of an in-copyright song or image falls within fair use:

Personal

For class

Reproduces the original work completely

Not Fair Use

Creates a new work with a new purpose

Uses some of the work to criticize, comment, or parody

Fair Use

As you can see, if you use something such as an in-copyright song or an image in its entirety for a class video or a blog, then you are not covered by fair use standards. However, if you are criticizing or commenting on the image or song, then you are covered. If you remix the image or song to make it a completely new entity, then you are also covered.

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tŚĂƚƌĞƌĞĂƟǀĞŽŵŵŽŶ>ŝĐĞŶƐĞƐ͍ Creative Commons (CC) licenses are free, easy-to-use copyright licenses that provide a standardized way to give permission to share and use creative work. CC licenses let you easily change your copyright terms from all rights reserved to some rights. CC licenses are not an alternative to copyright. They work alongside copyright and are used by many creators of content to relax copyright restrictions on their work. Materials with CC licenses are easy to use in your own work because the permission you need is right on the material. There is a wide variety of different licenses, from attribution (you need to credit the original work) to non-attribution (you do not need to credit the original work). For more information, visit ĐƌĞĂƟǀĞĐŽŵŵŽŶƐ͘ŽƌŐ.

tŚLJ/ƐdŚŝƐ/ŵƉŽƌƚĂŶƚ͍ You can’t just use any image you want to in a class multimedia project. The law automatically grants full copyright over any creative work to its creator, and creators retain those rights unless they actively decide to forgo them in part or totally. Fair use can usually be invoked for educational purposes, so if you are creating work just for a class and it is posted to Sakai or a website that is protected by an Onyen login, you may have more flexible copyright rules. However, any other use of copyrighted material leaves you open to copyright infringement issues. If you want to publish your work online or use it for a journal, you will need to seek permission to use copyrighted work. Therefore, make sure that you are using images, audio, and video from a source that allows you to reuse it, or explore options to gain usage rights from the content creator.

,ŽǁŽ/&ŝŶĚƉƉƌŽƉƌŝĂƚĞŽŶƚĞŶƚ͍ Using an advanced search for content that is labeled for reuse or has a Creative Commons license is the easiest way to find images for your projects. If you use a Google Image Search, find the Tools button and the usage rights drop-down menu and select “Labeled for Reuse.” This will ensure you get images with the appropriate usage rights. As with any resource, be sure to cite where you found the image.

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W Z  W Z / E '   E  e W K Z d & K > / K An ePortfolio is an individual website where you, as a student, can select, collect, reflect on, and publish the best projects you’ve completed at UNC. It can include all types of projects, from traditional print genres such as essays, proposals, or reports, to multimedia genres such as videos, oral presentations, and interactive websites. Think of an ePortfolio as the next generation document beyond a traditional resume. A resume is a one-page, one-dimensional snapshot representation of who you are. In comparison, an ePortfolio is a multidimensional, archive or album of your work that allows viewers to experience your abilities first-hand. In your ENGL 105/105i class, you may be asked to produce what is called a showcase portfolio, or a portfolio you design for a variety of audiences, including instructors but also prospective employers or other audiences. ePortfolios provide useful evidence when you are applying for fellowships, internships, jobs, or other professional opportunities within and outside the university. Therefore, while you might start your ePortfolio in ENGL 105, you will be encouraged to continue to expand, maintain, and curate your ePortfolio for different audiences, drawing from all the classes you take throughout your college career. Any UNC student may create an ePortfolio (regardless of whether your 105/105i instructor includes it in the course). This chapter will provide the basic information to get you started.

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At UNC, you may be encouraged to create a showcase portfolio of the best work you produce throughout your academic career. &ŝŐƵƌĞϮͲϲ͘ϭ is an example of a portfolio created during a student’s first year in ENGL 105i: Writing in the Social Sciences. As shown in this screenshot, your web portfolio will likely consist of these parts: an “About Me” page, two or three major projects, and a “Reflection” page.

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Since an ePortfolio is composed of your best work, i.e., projects that are selected, edited, and revised, your English 105/105i instructor may ask you to include a “Reflection” component. Because English 105/105i focuses on helping you develop your writing process (see Part 2, ŚĂƉƚĞƌϮ), your class showcase ePortfolio will likely include a reflective element that may not be present in your overall undergraduate showcase ePortfolio. You will be asked to write about how you selected and revised the work you included in the ePortfolio. These reflections are designed to help you to think consciously about your personal learning goals and course learning outcomes. They also provide a chance for you to develop your voice and identity as a writer, thinker, and creator by critically reflecting upon the choices you made with your projects.

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One big advantage of ePortfolios is that they are “web-sensible,” and can accommodate digital and non-digital genre formats. Depending on your course and instructor, you will be producing a variety of different genres, ranging from articles, reports, and presentations, to podcasts, webpages, and posters. Some genres, such as a literature review article, can be produced in either print or a digital format. But others, such as a podcast, can only be captured and accessed through a digital platform. You can organize and arrange your ePortfolio as you progress through your college career. Your ongoing collection may consist of “multimedia-rich, interlinked, hypertextual documents” that you can “compose, own, maintain, and archive on the Internet” (“Principles and Practices in Electronic Portfolios”). Therefore, no matter what genres, media, or formats you compose, they can all be included in your showcase ePortfolio.

ĞWŽƌƞŽůŝŽƐƌĞ,ŝŐŚůLJƌĞĂƟǀĞĂŶĚ&ůĞdžŝďůĞ EPortfolios are highly creative and flexible in content, design, function, purposes, and audiences. How you design your ePortfolio can contribute to the overall impression of the type of content, skills, and finished products you include. Consider elements of design such as images and their arrangement, color combinations, type font, and the relationships among these elements to make a strong first impression. Also, the success of your ePortfolio will depend on effective organization. You want your readers to be able to understand what content is available and to make it easy for them to navigate easily around the ePortfolio.

When considering the types of content to include in your ePortfolio, you should think about displaying a wide range of competencies that could apply to the types of positions you seek. You could include creative work (i.e., performances, fiction writing, game design), document-based analysis projects (i.e., analysis of original archival research, literary analysis, literature reviews), or data-driven work (i.e., conclusions drawn from survey data, results from laboratory experiments, interpretations of field research). Highlighting your various competencies will allow outside viewers an opportunity to determine how you might fulfill their organization’s needs.

ĞWŽƌƞŽůŝŽƐĞǀĞůŽƉdŚƌŽƵŐŚŽƵƚzŽƵƌhŶĚĞƌŐƌĂĚƵĂƚĞĂƌĞĞƌ Because your ePortfolio is something that will evolve with you over time, think of it as a living document. With your ePortfolio, you can create an online persona. The “About Me” page can focus on your background, competencies, and other dimensions of your experiences and training. Something you wish to highlight early in your academic career might not be the best representation of your skill set once you are a junior or a senior.

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An effective ePortfolio has a rhetorical function—to reach a particular, target audience. As you create and revise your portfolio, think about who your intended audience might be. It may include faculty, staff, potential employers, as well as family members, friends, and the general public. Who needs to know about your skills, abilities, competencies, and accomplishments? To determine your intended audience, consider your professional goals and purposes in creating the ePortfolio. Do you plan to apply for a job that requires design and writing skills? Are you seeking an internship with a company as a videographer or web designer? Do you wish to apply to the business school or another professional major? Because you are in control of the content and design of your ePortfolio, you can adjust it at any given time to reach a particular audience. Doing so will allow you to have a repository of work to share with potential fellowships, internships, and employers who are likely interested in seeing documentation of the skills you have developed during your time as an undergraduate student.

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In the example below, &ŝŐƵƌĞϮͲϲ͘Ϯ, the student has created an ePortfolio that showcases different types of writing, including tabs for “Creative Writing” and for “Journalism”. Your ePortfolio should ideally highlight the areas and skill sets in which you are most competent and that will help you to get the fellowship, internship, or job you are seeking. Therefore, when curating your ePortfolio, you should think about your audience and the types of skills they are seeking.

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Carolina students can construct their ePortfolios using the ǁĞď͘ƵŶĐ͘ĞĚƵ platform, which runs on WordPress. WordPress is an extensively customizable, user-friendly platform that allows students to create their own personal websites. Furthermore, WordPress is a platform that is widely used in the professional world, meaning that your familiarity with how to design a WordPress site is itself a competency that you can display to potential employers! Because you have access to WordPress through UNC’s web.unc.edu site, you have control over how your portfolio materials can be accessed by outside parties. Users can opt to make web.unc.edu ONYEN protected, meaning that no one outside of the UNC community can find or access your showcase portfolio. Alternatively, you can opt to allow any member of the public to access your materials and for your materials to show up in results of popular search engines such as Google. When deciding which platform option to use and what materials to include in your ePortfolio, you might consider the following questions: •

What constitutes my best work?

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Have I revised and edited the work, eliminating errors, to reach a professional standard?

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Do I need a writing sample or evidence of other skills for an application to a fellowship, internship, or job?

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Who is my audience? Would this audience (whoever has access to your ePortfolio) consider any part of my materials controversial?

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Am I comfortable with all the materials included in my ePortfolio? Do any materials need to be removed or new ones added, given a specific audience?

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What kinds of competencies am I showing to the public?

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If your ENGL 105/105i instructor asks you to create an ePortfolio in class, you will be given the instruction needed to design your personal site. Your instructor will also provide you with instructions about what types of documents to include and how to reflect critically on your writing process. If your ENGL 105/105i section does not use an ePortfolio but you are interested in creating one for your own personal development, you can use the following campus resources:

hŶĚĞƌŐƌĂĚƵĂƚĞ>ŝďƌĂƌLJĞƐŝŐŶ'ƵŝĚĞƐ In the House Undergraduate Library, you can visit ƚŚĞĞƐŝŐŶ>Ăď or the DĞĚŝĂZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ ĞŶƚĞƌ;DZͿ. The Design Lab at the UNC House Undergraduate Library has created extensive guides to help students navigate creating multimedia projects. When creating an ePortfolio, the ƋƵŝĐŬŐƵŝĚĞŽŶŵĂŬŝŶŐtŽƌĚWƌĞƐƐǁĞďƐŝƚĞƐ is particularly helpful. This guide includes a planning worksheet, a video tutorial, and a quick guide to using WordPress on the web.unc. edu platform. To get individualized help setting up your ePortfolio, you can also set up an appointment with a librarian who specializes in digital design. To do so, visit the ĞƐŝŐŶ>Ăď ŚŽŵĞƉĂŐĞ and then click on the red “Make an appointment” box.

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In addition, you may visit or consult with the ŝŐŝƚĂů>ŝƚĞƌĂĐLJĂŶĚŽŵŵƵŶŝĐĂƟŽŶƐ;>Ϳ Lab housed in the Department of English and Comparative Literature. It is staffed by faculty and students who specialize in digital humanities work. Students seeking support to create an ePortfolio outside of class are encouraged to ĐŽŶƚĂĐƚ Courtney Rivard, director of the DLC Lab, to set up a consultation with a DLC staff member.

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