Sustainable Tourism Dialogues in Africa 9783110702491, 9783110702460

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Sustainable Tourism Dialogues in Africa

De Gruyter Studies in Tourism

Series editor Jillian M. Rickly

Volume 7

Sustainable Tourism Dialogues in Africa Edited by Judy Kepher-Gona and Lucy Atieno

ISBN 978-3-11-070246-0 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-070249-1 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-070256-9 ISSN 2570-1657 Library of Congress Control Number: 2021952141 Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2022 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston Typesetting: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd. Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck www.degruyter.com

Acknowledgements The editors wish to acknowledge with gratitude the support and contribution of individuals and institutions that have made this publication a reality. First, we would like to give special recognition to our colleague Job Odhiambo Ochieng and entire team at Sustainable Travel & Tourism Agenda – (STTA) for their unwavering support and patience as we dedicated more time to this book. Our gratitude also goes the independent peer reviewers, who responded promptly to our invitation to review the chapters, managing to keep deadlines. We are indebted to Kwakye Donkor of Africa Tourism Partners and Professor Bernard Kitheka of Missouri State University for referrals to reviewers. You reminded us of the meaning of Ubuntu. We appreciate Dr George Gona for much guidance. We would also like to acknowledge the 17 universities in Kenya with whom we have organized monthly inter-university dialogues on sustainable tourism in Africa since 2017. We have learnt much from our interaction with the students in this program, or STTA Young Change Makers, as we courageously refer to them. They have challenged us to research and remain informed of issues around sustainable tourism in Africa. Last but not least we acknowledge all the contributors, without whom this publication would not have been possible. To our families, thank you for cheering us on and believing with us that stories of sustainability are stories of possibilities. UBUNTU

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Preface Sustainable tourism has never been more important, particularly in Africa. We are living in unprecedented times as we face the existential climate crisis; pollution of land, oceans and the atmosphere; severe declines in biodiversity; and since 2020 the threat of the COVID-19 pandemic. Sustainable Tourism Dialogues in Africa is a timely and welcome addition to the literature on sustainable tourism. The editors have compiled 22 analyses drawn from across the continent, and with a series of case studies and examples that highlight Botswana, Kenya, Rwanda, Senegal, Tunisia and Zimbabwe. Themes of cultural, wildlife and urban tourism, community-based tourism operations such as homestays, and perspectives of youth are incorporated. The dialogues consider the recent effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourism in Africa in World Heritage Sites and for micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs). The climate change crisis is addressed in two chapters that discuss the urgency of adaptation, and application of Blue Growth in African destinations. Primary research is included, with dialogues based on analyses of literature, archival methods, observation, stakeholder interviews and workshop discussions. Application of theories (e.g. planned behavior), policy instruments (e.g. the Sustainable Development Goals) and approaches (e.g. the new Landscape Performance Approach) are tested. Notably in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic, authors explain how tourism in Africa affected. Across the region we have seen how international arrivals have evaporated, tourism enterprises have drawn on reserves to sustain salaries of their staff but jobs have been lost. The diverse web of value chain linkages of tourism has been clearly illustrated as local economies have lost the visitors that frequented restaurants, bought craft and used transportation. Tourism revenue that had been used to bolster wildlife monitoring and protection efforts in conservancies and national parks disappeared (see Spenceley 2021a, b). Illustrating this clearly, case study chapter in the book on Tanzania explains how people employed in tourism have been more vulnerable to shocks of the pandemic they lack social protection, and existing inequalities in the labor market threated to become wider, while there is a fear that gender-related violence will increase. Despite this, market research increasingly shows that travelers are, more than ever, interested in visiting destinations that contribute to local economies and benefit nature (Spenceley et al, 2021b). People want their trips to leave benefits rather than damage them, but they need guidance and support from policy makers and practitioners to do so. Chapter authors provide series of practical recommendations for planning and policy in African countries to strengthen sustainable tourism frameworks, and support inclusive community benefits and resiliency. These include options for governance, the environment and marketing strategies, in addition to the

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role of communities and entrepreneurs, government and private sector in sustainable tourism. The book will be a valuable resource for academics, policy makers and researchers tackling how to make tourism in Africa sustainable – and of benefit to the people that live there. Certainly, it is a volume that I will include on my bookshelf and refer to regularly. Dr Anna Spenceley Chair, IUCN World Commission on Protected Area (WCPA) Tourism and Protected Areas Specialist Group Director, Global Sustainable Tourism Council Member, Independent Advisory Panel member, Travalyst UNWTO Panel of Tourism Experts Honorary fellow, School of Sport and Service Management, University of Brighton Senior research fellow, School of Tourism and Hospitality, University of Johannesburg Advisory fellow, African Wildlife Economy Institute Editorial board member, Journal of Sustainable Tourism Associate editor, Journal of Ecotourism

References Spenceley, A. (2021a) COVID-19 and protected area tourism: Spotlight on impacts and options in Africa, International Cooperation and Development, European Commission, Available from: https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/bda7e04d-7c9c-11eb-9ac901aa75ed71a1/language-en/format-PDF/source-194167807. Accessed 16th April 2021 Spenceley, A. (2021b) Nature-based tourism: Building back better post COVID-19: Re-establishing a sustainable and resilient travel industry. Luc Hoffmann Institute Available from: https://lu choffmanninstitute.org/future-nature-based-tourism-report/. Accessed 16th April 2021 Spenceley, A., Baez, A., Barborak, J. Blye, C-J., Bricker, K., Cahyadi, H., Corrigan, K., Halpenny, E., Hvenegaard, G., King, D., Leung, L., Mandic, A., McCool, S., Naidoo, R., Newsome, D., Ruede, D., Sano, J., Sarhan, M., Santamaria, V., Sousa, T. B., and Zschiegner, A-K. (2021) Sustainable recovery of tourism in protected areas form the COVID-19 pandemic, Transforming Vision into Action – Oped, UNWTO. Accessed 16th April 2021

Contents Acknowledgements Preface

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Part I: Dialogues on Policy Portia Pearl Siyanda Sifolo 1 Sustainable Tourism Development: Time to Re-Focus and Adapt in Africa 3 Judy Kepher-Gona and Lucy Atieno 2 Inclusive Tourism, Domestic Small Businesses and Tourism Development Policy in Kenya 15 Bonface O. Kihima, Vincent O. Oluoch and Jane M. Kathurima 3 Institutional Frameworks for Homestays in Kenya: From Exclusion to Inclusion 33 Emmanuel Musa Samdi and Teresa M. Nmadu 4 Sustainable Management and Ecotourism Destination Governance in Africa 49 Abdou Ba 5 Featured Example: Tourism and Migration in Senegal

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Part II: Dialogues on Product G. Mahender Reddy, Agita Livina, and Eudora Hagan 6 Wildlife Tourism Research in Africa: A Bibliometric Analysis

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Refiloe J. Lekgau and Tembi M. Tichaawa 7 Wildlife Tourism, Employment and Livelihood Strategies in Tsabong, Botswana 99

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Fergus T. Maclaren, Jacinta Nzioka-Mbithi and Jonathan Karkut 8 Tourism’s Uneven Premise: Dealing with Destination Development and Management Challenges, and Global Pandemic Effects, at African World Heritage Sites 115 Njiiri Wallace and Mugwima Njuguna 9 Urban Tourism Diversification: Rejuvenation of Natural and Cultural Heritage in Historic Parklands, Nairobi 145 Dominic Kinyua Gitau, Mugwima Njuguna and Ephraim Wahome 10 Rurality: Promotion of Vernacular Landscapes as a Stimulus for Sustainable Rural Tourism Development in Kenya 165 Lebone Coleen Magogodi 11 Featured Example: Gastrotourism in Botswana, Zambia and Zimbawe

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Part III: Dialogues on Planning Joseph Muiruri Njoroge 12 Tourism Adaptation Frameworks for Climate Change: A Review

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Moez Kacem 13 Sustainable Tourism Growth and Climate Change Impacts: Case of Tunisia 219 Alina Zajadacz and Josepha Uwamahoro 14 Voices of Young People in Rwanda Regarding the Development of NatureBased Tourism 247 Amata Mwalo Mathias, Tom Olielo and Destaings N. Nyongesa 15 Influence of Local Structural Factors on Tourism Backward Linkage with Local Micro Entreprises Within Kisumu County, Kenya 267 Dennis Karanja, Carolyne Wanza and Fred K. Ngunjiri 16 Measuring Tourism Destination Sustainability: A Landscape Performance Approach 297 Ongoma Felix Mark Otieno and Alan Dixon 17 Featured Example: Community-Based Ecotourism in Laikipia, Kenya

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Part IV: Dialogues on Communities Judy Kepher-Gona and Lucy Atieno 18 Community-Based Tourism in Africa

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Francis R. Bagambilana 19 How COVID-19 Threatened Sustainability of Livelihoods in Tourism Destinations of Tanzania During the Second Quarter of 2020 337 Kamila Krygier and Anna Grodzki 20 Peace Sensitive Tourism – Harnessing Tourism’s Positive Social Impact 357 Roniance Adhiambo and Leonard Akwany 21 Communities in Sustainable Tourism Development – Case Studies Greg Bakunzi 22 Featured Example: Community-Based Tourism in Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda 395 Author Biographies List of Reviewers List of Figures List of Tables Index

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Editors Note That Africa has embraced sustainable tourism is no longer in question. Almost every destination in Africa has a representative agency for ecotourism or sustainable tourism. There is a plethora of eco-certification schemes for tourism in Africa as well as several eco-awards and a growing number of professionals in this field. Twenty years ago, it was inconceivable to think about a sustainable tourism consultancy in Africa. In the last decade, dialogue in tourism events has been dominated by sustainable tourism speak. Perhaps what remains in contention is whether Africa has embraced sustainable tourism as a sign of accountability, commitment or from necessity. As the practice and interpretation of the concept evolves, so have been the dialogues in Africa. From debate on legitimacy of sustainable tourism discussions in Africa given that tourism in the continent is yet to reach optimal levels; optimal meaning European or North America levels, to dialogues on patronage through partnership models, supply chain domination, need for an African definition of sustainable and place of technology. This book is about this and many other debates. So, what is behind the debates? Notably, global events have and continue to shape sustainable tourism dialogue in Africa. From the 1992 Agenda 21 for Sustainable Travel and Tourism Industry, the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, UN 2002 year of Ecotourism, 2015 Millennium Development Goals, to the 2017 UN Sustainable Development Goals, there are links to evolution of sustainable tourism dialogue in Africa and these events. This despite distinct differences in products, production and consumption patterns of tourism between the north and south. It has been argued that conceptualization of sustainability as a human development philosophy based on shared human values, liquefies all boundaries, therefore differences in location, products, production and consumption patterns would not limit its application. This argument has not discouraged debates on whether there can be an African model of sustainable tourism. Africa’s first comprehensive continent-wide dialogue on sustainable tourism was hosted by Kenya in 1997. The theme was “Ecotourism at a Crossroads – Charting the Way Forward.” Presentations by key speakers focused on need for local communities in tourism destinations to benefit from tourism, respect for community livelihoods and their cultures, and protection and conservation of natural resources that support tourism. Ecotourism was defined as travel to natural areas that protects the environment, respects local cultures and benefits local communities. The crossroads conference ended with a call for tourism to be accountable to communities and the environment through “good tourism” certification. Key takeaways from this conference of eco-certification, community respect and benefit, travel to natural areas (rustic tourism) would shape dialogue in sustainable tourism in Africa for a decade. Five years earlier, at the Earth Summit, in 1992, the world had committed to a development model with futuristic outlook. There was a commitment to have the interest of future generations in today’s development. The Kenya conference, like https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110702491-205

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the Earth Summit, focused on the future of places where tourists go and consideration of people in those destinations. The limiting definition of ecotourism to a travel model influenced the practice and dialogue in sustainable tourism in Africa for decades. From the mid-1990s, there was a shift to rustic lodges, bucket showers, eco-toilets and less emphasis on quality of service. Lodges begun to employ untrained local staff without much investment in their skills. A look at eco-certification schemes developed in the 1990s until the mid-2000s reveals emphasis on these elements as best practices. It also marked the emergence of corporate tourism foundations to support community development in destinations. In equal measure, the United Nations Millennium Development Goals saw a shift towards clean energy, recycling, waste management and rise of community-based tourism models to promote inclusion of communities in tourism and address poverty in destinations. It also heralded a strong focus on women in tourism because of the need to end discrimination against women, introducing issues of rights in sustainable tourism. The source of the influence notwithstanding, sustainable tourism dialogue in Africa focused on eco-labels, energy saving, water saving, community engagement, high value experiences, awards and conservation for a long time. The emphasis on certification was so strong that several European based sustainable tourism certification schemes launched in Africa and continue to eat into the market share of local and regional certification schemes. Fair Trade Tourism, one of Africa oldest eco-certification schemes, covering eight countries, is on the brink of collapse as global brands carve into their markets. This has raised concerns that sustainable tourism is a patronizing concept aimed at dictating and limiting tourism growth in Africa. Overtourism and commitment to reduction of greenhouse gas emissions are cited as some examples for patronage which fuel dialogues on illegitimacy or premature introduction of sustainable tourism dialogue in Africa. Because sustainability in general is interdisciplinary in nature, it is characterized by shifts in practice and focus, as has been evident in the evolution of sustainable tourism in Africa. Globally sustainable tourism remains contentious in many fronts. This is partially the reason why eco certification labels continue to grow geographically, numerically and in conceptualization. The launch of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) signalled a new chapter in sustainable interpretation globally. The 17 Goals broaden the agenda by embracing issues that are relevant for humanity irrespective place and industry. Further, the targets make it feasible to take action and report on progress. It may be too soon to capture the influence of the SDGs on sustainable tourism dialogue in Africa in this publication, but the dedicated focus on SDG 8, SDG 12 and SDG 14 by tourism, has opened new discussions on sustainable tourism in Africa. These designated SDGs for tourism have not escaped scrutiny in sustainable tourism dialogues in Africa. For example, SDG 8, on decent work for all is perceived as an upfront to a sector that employs many unskilled workers. It is interpreted as

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an opportunity to import labor into rural areas and deny local people jobs. On the other hand, SDG 12 on sustainable consumption and production is perceived as a means to create markets for “green” products from outside Africa, further deepening the current imbalance of trade. Jointly, events, industry responses, global trends and lessons from practice around the world and from interactions have merged to create Africa’s sustainable tourism landscape. This landscape dominates research, literature, support and investments in sustainable tourism in Africa. First, sustainable tourism landscape is defined by formation of distinct membership organizations serving the interest of “good tourism” operators. In Kenya, this interest is served by Ecotourism Kenya since 1996. In Tanzania it is served by Responsible Tourism Tanzania and South Africa by Fair Trade tourism. These exclusive organizations have contributed to dialogues of exclusion and elitism of sustainable tourism. Second, because of borrowing from the west, particularly early green labels like Green Globe, the landscape is defined by certification labels. As mentioned, several European labels are collaborating with, merging or taking over sustainable tourism certification in Africa. Closely associated with these labels are hefty label use fees, which are prohibitive for many operators in Africa. This has fuelled dialogues of elitism, because the fee locks out many potential early adopters. Instead, scepticism by micro, small, and medium enterprises owned by indigenous people persists. The South African Fair Trade Tourism label has made considerable progress in including community-based tourism and small enterprises in their model. Third, sustainable tourism is perceived as a set of practices that businesses can add onto their operations and qualify for a label, if not charge a premium price for their products. It is not perceived as a business management model. This perception has had impact on policy and destination development and promotion strategies. Even destinations with long term awareness of sustainable tourism, like Kenya, are still struggling to define sustainable tourism in policy and provide guidelines for development that outline sustainable tourism practice. In 2020, Kenya banned the use of single use plastic water bottles in national parks. This is perhaps the only policy directive that supports sustainable tourism. Yet the directive was not anchored in policy for tourism development in conservation areas. It was reactive and not strategic. Fourth, sustainable tourism practices are largely linked to wise resource use, conservation, charitable support for social services like water, education and healthcare and, local employment, support for tourism dependent community enterprises local art and craft and culture. This engagement has often raised questions of impact and value, with arguments that tourism businesses are deriving more benefits from efforts than the community and environment. Fifth, despite destinations using sustainable tourism in various documents, both promotional and regulatory, there are no roles aligned to sustainable tourism in public sector. Few countries have clearly defined sustainable tourism policies, raising

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questions of African governments commitment to sustainable tourism. Many sustainable tourism associations are struggling, forcing them to seek patronizing partnerships. No doubt, the broad nature of the SDGs is reshaping sustainable tourism dialogue in Africa. Barriers between sustainable tourism and other disciplines are being flattened and speak of patronage is being reshaped with partnerships and collaborations. Novel, authoritative Pan African sustainable tourism organizations are emerging to articulate and define sustainable tourism in the continent and advocate for alternative approach to sustainable tourism that demystify traditional thinking. One such organization, is Sustainable Travel & Tourism Agenda (STTA). For STTA, sustainable tourism is a quality management system that is conscious to global human development values. This approach fits well with the SDGs. The effects of this approach are evident in this book. Today issues of peace, inclusion, equality, decent work and more have found their way into these dialogues. The 22 chapters of this book demonstrate the diversity and richness of sustainable tourism in Africa. Consequently, it can be argued that Africa is the next big frontier for sustainable tourism dialogues as stories of new possibilities. This book is about opening the spaces for sustainable tourism dialogue in Africa by sharing this with as many readers as possible, demonstrating that it is not a niche segment of tourism but a management model that challenges all actors to deliver. Thus, sustainable tourism dialogues in Africa are stories of new possibilities in tourism policy, product development, planning and community engagement, to unlock growth potential of tourism in the continent. Judy Kepher-Gona and Lucy Atieno

Part I: Dialogues on Policy

Portia Pearl Siyanda Sifolo

1 Sustainable Tourism Development: Time to Re-Focus and Adapt in Africa Introduction Prior to coronavirus disease (COVID-19) discovered in China in 2019, the Sub-Saharan Africa’s travel and tourism market was deemed small, yet, substantial to the continent. Africa received around 5% of the estimated 1.4 billion international tourist arrivals in 2018 according to the World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) (2020). In its Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report, the World Economic Forum (2019) indicated that the African countries gross domestic product (GDP) contribution totalled approximately $42.1 billion, with 37.4 million tourist arrivals in 2017 and 1.5 billion international tourist arrivals in 2019. Hence, the WTTC (2020) identified Africa as the second-fastest growing tourism region with 5.6% growth in 2018, against a global average growth rate of 3.9%. Unfortunately, the figures completely changed due to the advent of COVID-19. The year 2020 affected most travel and tourism companies including corporation with years in the industry such as aviation, accommodation, cruising, and those in the hospitality value chain among others. A study conducted in by Almeida and Silva (2020) on the impact of COVID-19 on tourism sustainability concurs that the tourism industry saw major crashes in commercial aviation, closed hotels, and businesses. The effects of the pandemic had an impact on the development of tourism activities worldwide. The impact of COVID-19 in Africa is overwhelming: according to Cilliers, Oosthuizen, Alexander, Pooe, and Moyer (2020, p.2), the impact of COVID-19 has constrained Africa’s progress towards attaining the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The forecast study by Cilliers et al. (2020) estimates that Africa’s economy will be smaller in 2030 between US$349 billion and US$643 billion. “In 2030, an additional 38 to 70 million more people would be classified as extremely poor in Africa: this translates to poverty rates of 35% to 37% of Africa’s total population” (Cilliers et al., 2020, p.2). COVID-19 caused a strong impact on international tourism, whose real economic and social effects are still far from being accounted for. Yes, there were unprecedented societal changes brought by the COVID-19 pandemic, which dramatically affected tourism. This concept note is by no means trying to come up with the solutions, nor exposing the misfortunes of our beautiful continent (Africa). It is about identifying sustainable destination development strategies that may assist businesses to reap dividends that are beneficial, not only to the tourism sector in the African continent but for Micro Small & Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) to re-focus and adapt to the opportunities presented by African continental free trade agreement (AfCFTA). On the same vein, it does not mean that AfCFTA would solve all Africa’s https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110702491-001

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problems. The African Continental Free Trade Area could diversify and boost African economies by harmonizing trade liberalization at the continental level, promoting economic diversification and intra-African trade, and fostering a more competitive manufacturing sector (Gondwe, 2020, p. 1).

Can Africa’s Tourism Performance be Sustainable? Africa’s tourism performance continues to improve as many governments consider tourism as a driving transformative and inclusive growth strategy (Kituyi, 2017). In the same vein, Susanto (2019) pleads that this natural status must be maintained. Although COVID-19 presents a challenge, there is a dire need to join the cause of African continental free trade that is about enhancing regional integration and trade facilitation in the continent. Innovation in Africa should prioritise continental infrastructure to contribute towards the wellbeing of society. The role of the Micro Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) is crucial to promote economic activity in most countries in the continent. MSMEs contribute to the economies in various ways, such as economic growth, wealth generation, creation of employment opportunities, and increased flow of capital. Lest we forget, a call for sustainable and inclusive growth in the world, particularly in low-income countries where tourism is an increasingly popular component of development strategy. According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) (2017), tourism offers the African continent one of the most promising opportunities for development. In other words, the tourism industry presents opportunities for economic growth and encourages development. Sustainable tourism development must be promoted because the industry creates jobs whilst stimulating local culture and products in the destination area. Due to the cross-cutting nature of tourism, it makes the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) a compelling instrument to contribute to all 17 objectives. Although the concerns affecting sustainability for tourism businesses in the continent will be minimally highlighted, this chapter brings the sustainable destination development strategies in the regions in Africa, whilst advocating for adaptation to reap dividends that are beneficial to the businesses in the African continent. As a benefit, the tourism industry comprises a few unique and intangible components that demands synchronised financial commitment to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the nation. Therefore, it is crucial for the continent to be resilient regardless of the challenges facing, not only leaders but also, the communities at large. Tourism integrates all three dimensions of sustainable development (social [people], economic [profit], and environmental [planet]), and their linkages in a balanced manner. Therefore, it could be argued that the performance of the tourism sector depends on all the stakeholders involved for the sector to be sustainable. All 17 SDGs serve as integrated and are indivisible to effectively implement all the

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goals set to be achieved in 2030. Castor, Bacha, and Nerini (2020, p.1) warn that an interlinked nature of the entire Agenda must be considered for sustainability purposes. Perhaps delving to sustainability concepts and the stakeholders’ roles is important.

Sustainability and Stakeholder Engagement Sustainability is multifaceted, a transdisciplinary approach that seeks understanding of complexity through linking and integrating diverse types and sources of knowledge on both the human (e.g., social, economic) and natural (e.g., ecological, hydrologic, geophysical) components of the system and their interactions is needed (Liu, 2012). Sustainability of an organization depends on the sustainability of its stakeholder relations, hence involving stakeholders from several fields with diverse interests, there may be greater potential for integrative/holistic approaches to policy development which may advance (Jamal & Getz, 1995). Buy-in and consensus are critical concepts to consider in tourism development. In other words, MSMEs should be aware of the stakeholders buy-in and consensus when it comes to their business practices in the society, regardless of the geographic location. For MSMEs to prosper, better understanding of the regional economic community (REC) practices where they are located is critical for growth and sustainability purposes. There should be a buy in among stakeholders on promoting sustainable tourism development. There are eight RECs in the continent, Arab Maghreb Union (UMA), Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), Community of Sahel-Saharan States (CEN-SAD), East African Community (EAC), Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), and the Southern African Development Community (SADC). All regions have the potential to create detailed action plans with definite timelines, responsibilities, and the human and financial resources that will be required for implementation of the set plans. Cooperation and collaboration among the RECs may promote competitiveness of the tourism industry in the continent due to the unique selling points they possess. Moreover, there should be a sense on inclusion and competitiveness among the RECs (and in other preferential trade partners) to cover measures that go beyond multilateral negotiations. This can be one of the roles for the integrated regions (not taking away the responsibilities of each country and the private sector). Therefore, one may argue that through the existence of the AfCFTA, cooperation and planning for future trends is possible. For tourism to be sustainable, it requires a coordinated and carefully crafted approach to planning and to its management. Sustainability encompasses policy efforts to enhance and accelerate technological progress, efficiency and pollution reduction. Although the travel and tourism industry

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is dynamic and complex in its nature, it is famous for driving socio-economic development and creating jobs. There is a plethora of literature on the correlation between tourism, development, economic growth as well as sustainability (Brau et al., 2007; Dritsakis, 2012; Kibara et al, 2012; Lee & Chang 2008; Narayan, 2010; and Seetanah, 2011). The impact of tourism on the economies of African countries cannot be understated.

Tourism Destination Development Strategies While sustainable tourism development concepts have been explained in several studies, this chapter draws inspiration from the question, where could the focus be for MSMEs in Africa after COVID-19 pandemic? Additionally, what are the opportunities for MSMEs during the life of AfCFTA? This project fills that gap. The Agenda 2063 has been a source of inspiration since 2013 when it comes to the development of national and regional sustainable development plans. Therefore, tourism businesses need to continuously engage the supply chain to unlock a sustainable future. Vanek (2021), concurs that “Africa could be the world’s biggest free-trade zone by area when its treaty becomes fully operationally by 2030.” Moreover, the African Union chairperson (Cyril Ramaphosa) also emphasised that “AfCFTA is the start of a new era of trade between African countries as the continent realizes its great potential of its abundant natural and human resources” (Vanek, 2021, para. 3). It is indeed time to re-focus and adapt sustainable tourism destination development strategies due to a strong consensus among stakeholders including indigenous people, local communities, visitors, industry and government in general about the adoption of sustainable tourism practices in the world. This is evident from the African continental free trade agreement where all 54 countries decide to come together excluding Eritrea. Adam and Kimbu (2020) suggest that domestic and regional tourism must be critical components in recovery strategies for African tourism. Rogerson and Baum (2020, p. 435) harmonize that “African countries should redefine community-based tourism to remodel their tourism offering in order to comply with changing demands of post-COVID-19 visitors as well as to refocus their offerings to accommodate new (maybe domestic) markets or to move out of tourism altogether.” McCabe and Qiao (2020 p. 13) advocate for “social tourism as a highly effective stimulus to the domestic tourism economy due to its contribution to greater sustainability and resilience in the travel and tourism sector, particularly during COVID-19 pandemic.” Social tourism considers “ethics, quality of life for all, the growth and development of the modern mass tourism system that positions tourism as a positive consumption activity in modern societies” McCabe and Qiao (2020, p. 2). Some researchers warn against the competing use of resources and compatibility with local culture (Tumusiime &

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Vedeld, 2012; Kieti et al., 2020 cited in Rogerson & Baum, 2020, p. 435). Therefore, social tourism is about being considerate to the stakeholders. Again, there is a paradigm shift of what really constitute sustainable tourism development without considering diversity and the power of pan-African market.

Methodological Perspective The present chapter adopts a qualitative research approach in a form of text analysis also referred to as content analysis in social science research to scrutinize sustainable tourism development strategies in Africa. Key developmental reports were used for analysing textual data and involves “drawing inferences from data by systematically identifying characteristics within the data” (Clatworthy & Jones, 2001, p. 317). This technique is good for making inferences by objectively and systematically identifying special characteristics of messages (Holsti, 1968, p. 608) from brochures, magazines, newspapers, websites or any other medium that can be turned into text. In this case, some academic journals, newspapers and African documents were carefully analysed to synthesise the sustainable tourism destination development strategies likely to be considered by the MSMEs post-COVID-19 and during the time of AfCFTA.

Lackadaisical Approach to Sustainable Tourism Development and Blind Spots in Africa Reasons for lackadaisical approach vary: one of the prominent challenges in Africa that affects sustainability is the infrastructure. Productivity and output directly as part of GDP formation and as an input to the production of other sectors is affected by hard and soft infrastructure. Owusu-Manu, Jehuri, Edwards, Boateng and Asumadu (2019) state that the African continent requires US$37bn for the maintenance of existing infrastructure and US$38bn for new infrastructure to address the huge infrastructure deficit (See World Bank, 2013). According to the African Economic Outlook (2017, p. 87), 70% of Africa’s population is under the age of 30, and more than 80 % of the workforce is either unemployed or engaged in informal and subsistence activities. This presents a challenge. Moreover, the rapid technological disruptions that could eliminate whole industries and leave the youth wondering how to adapt to new technological advancements is also adding to the challenge. Although the COVID-19 pandemic revealed numerous challenges in several societies, the pandemic accorded different countries an opportunity to re-set their economies. For example, air pollution dropped significantly and the use of technology escalated

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throughout the world. The World Economic Forum (2020, p.2) emphasise that “technological innovation defines the current era that can be leveraged to unleash human potential.” Therefore, education is necessary for generations to come to adapt to the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) to capacitate the human development and to transform societies. Africa must adopt a culture of observing tourism development blind spots that could derail or disturb Africa’s idea of investment in tourism throughout the journey towards 2063 and beyond (Sifolo & Sifolo, 2018). There were three blind spots in the continent were identified by Sifolo and Sifolo (2018) that must be addressed to reap the tourism dividends as follows: – Illicit financial flows are defined as money that is illegally earned, transferred or utilized: illicit financial flows have been cited as one critical cost to the continent. These funds may typically originate from various sources including commercial, criminal activities, and bribery as well as theft by government officials (AU/UNECA, 2015, p. 9-13). The African continent has lost in excess of US$1 trillion over the past 50 years and continues to lose approximately US$50 billion annually because of illicit financial flows (AU/UNECA, 2015). – Evolution of technology: A deliberate strategy to work with technology rather than against it should be encouraged. Michael Danquah cited in AmankwahAmoah, Osabutey and Egbetokun (2018, p. 172) emphasised on the nations to be efficient by being able to adopt and adapt already existing technology from world technology leaders and successfully apply it domestically. – Global risks can cause significant negative impact on several countries or industries within the next 10 years (Gap, 2017). Worldwide dangers require steady checking and calculating into tourism formative plans. In this manner, worldwide hazard as a dazzle spot includes all daze spots and requires watchfulness and technique.

Key Components to Procure Tourism Profits within the Continent Although tourism does not appear as one of the major solutions to the myriad challenges, infrastructure and industrialisation or manufacturing are at the top of the list to end poverty and to generate employment for the 12 million young people in the continent. For example, the Nelson Mandela School of Public Governance (2021), in its webinar captures that the “AfCFTA is a potential game-changer for African transformative industrialisation translating possibilities into reality however requires research and policy insights to guide the design and implementation of pragmatic policy programmes.” Tourism is however one sector that has the capacity to attract not only foreign direct investment but directly impact the community through tourism development. The African Economic Outlook (2017) indicated that attracting foreign investment can improve

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trade logistics, increase the knowledge and skills of local entrepreneurs, gain the confidence of international buyers, and gradually make local firms competitive. This strategy is already being used with great success in Bangladesh, Cambodia, Ethiopia, Mauritius, Rwanda and Vietnam (African Economic Outlook, 2017), perhaps technological adaptation could impact the economy in a sustainable manner.

Technological Adaptation Governments have the responsibility to build, nurture, and improve the environment that allows not only the youth to realize their potential to uplift economies but the society at large. Although technology brings benefits, there are unintended consequences (jobs displaced by a shift in division of labor between humans and machines). Sifolo and Sifolo (2018) identify good governance as a tool to be used against blind spots to development. Solutions such as e-regulations on cybersecurity and privacy is critical to take full advantage to protect current and potential clients. Therefore, identifying potential disruptors for MSMEs to achieve the set goals and strategies is paramount. Although disruptive technology affects the regulatory and policy matters, for example, Airbnb locations are often not subject to the same zoning or licensing requirements as other commercial accommodations: solutions to deal with technological disruptions must be stated especially those challenges disrupting the labor market (such as human capacity building). According to Susanto (2019, p. 441) “tourism resources such as human resources, physical resources, knowledge resources, and capital resources will not create many benefits unless they are backed by supportive government regulation, which include favorable investment policy, communication, and cooperation across countries.” Today’s developing countries require “rethinking the process by which states and non-state actors interact to design and implement policies,” (World Bank Group, 2007, p. 2). Perhaps the African countries may identify the country that specializes in the production of goods and services that they can produce most efficiently (there by adopting a comparative advantage). For example, identifying the MSMEs that are excellent is data science, since data is shaping the future to enhance competitiveness for the AfCFTA to improve the quality of life in the long term. Countries should be “encouraged to propose and try out innovative integrated solutions” (Le Blanc & Roehri, 2012, p. 34).

Reducing Supply Chain Barriers Reducing supply chain barriers could increase global GDP. For instance, in Madagascar, supply chain barriers can account for about 4% of total revenues of a textile producer (through higher freight costs and increased inventories), eroding the benefits of duty-free access to export markets. Cooperating across boundaries and time

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zones to minimize production costs and maximize market coverage. Value chains (the networks of activities for producing and getting a product to consumers), spanning the manufacturing process and transport are necessary. The commitment, coordination, and cooperation are three core functions of institutions that are needed to ensure that rules and resources yield the desired outcomes. In this regard, commitment is viewed as the support of consistent policies over time to ensure that promises are delivered.

Future of Tourism in the Post-COVID-19 Era: Possibilities, Challenges and Prospects An opportunity exists to develop new models and approaches of how sustainable tourism research and practice can support the “new normal” in light of the pandemic disease. Domestic tourism, particularly, leisure and business travel spend is identified as one of the key drivers to the sector’s initial recovery from COVID-19 (WTTC, 2020). Although COVID-19 disrupted the world in an unprecedented manner, Africa has the trade agreement to look forward to which will cover a market consisting of 1.2 billion people and a combined GDP of $3 trillion (Shendruk, 2020). Moreover, the elimination of tariffs on 90% of goods produced on the continent, tackles non-tariff barriers to trade and guarantees the free movement of persons (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development [UNCTAD], 2019). Perhaps it is time to re-define tourism sustainability in the midst of pandemic. The services sector has a critical role to play in the structural transformation of the regions, as a high value-added standalone sector of its own (including in information and communications technology, energy, financial services and tourism) or as an intermediate sector facilitating the transformations of the industrial and agriculture sectors in Africa (UNCTAD 2019, p. 42). According to Almeida and Silva (2020), the responsibilities include identification of the places where there is a demand for social and environmental sustainability, with more nature and fewer crowds. Usually, small hotel units and resorts tend to cater for fewer crowds. These are some of the most sought-after places by tourists in the post-COVID-19 pandemic era. The prospects of AfCFTA enhances regional integration and trade facilitation. AfCFTA promotes trust between supply chain partners: this could lead to a reduction in trans-action costs when it comes to Africa trade. The business environment in the continent has an opportunity to identify gaps that exists. Below is a table presenting a window of opportunities for the MSMEs in the continent post-COVID-19. It is important to mention that there are more opportunities than the ones presented in Table 1.1.

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Table 1.1: A window of opportunity for MSME’s in the Africa. General opportunities post-COVID- era

Possible strategies likely to be explored in the AfCFTA

Acceleration of the digitalization of tourist operations (Almeida & Silva, ).

Africa is home to  countries, the culture, the languages, and people are diverse. Several services may be needed. For example, air transport services

Cultural values shift from short-term materialism Building resilient supply networks, including toward a more socially beneficent ethic, a local production and more sources that are realization that we are all in this together diverse. (Goffman, ) Promote an African response framework and medical research partnerships for COVID-, and lead on disease and public health surveillance on the continent

Local production of medical equipment, including medical masks, hazmat suits, face masks/ shields and medication

Improvement or maintenance of water and sanitation outdated infrastructure, particularly in urban areas.

Food security and production value chains

Investment in sustainable tourism research such as modern and locally available material for water distribution and sanitation facilities (Cilliers, Oosthuizen, Alexander, Pooe & Moyer, , p. )

Development of business models and social investment models, with interactive opportunities across renewable energy (OECD/ ACET, , p. )

Source: Developed for this concept note

Rogerson and Baum (2020) stated that the challenges for developing countries in both technological and medical responses to COVID-19 in re-starting their tourism sectors are likely to combine social, infrastructure and, above all, cost concerns, all of which could put poorer countries at a major competitive disadvantage. Therefore, it is critical for MSMEs to look at the benefits associated with international trade, particularly now in the era of AfCFTA with caution. According to Mankiw (2014, p. 87), “international free trade has benefits such as increased variety of goods, lower costs through economies of scale and increased competition.” Therefore, Africa needs capable institutions with leadership that is “encapsulated in the ethos of Ubuntu.” African institutions should drive transformation of the African economies in a coordinated manner. Moreover, having long term plans between the RECs could impact the sustainability of the African economies. Whilst, long-term plans revolve around leadership, transformative and ethical leadership is needed at all levels to achieve the African Union Agenda 2063 aspirations for tourism (Sifolo, 2020). The African Continental Free Trade Area could boost African economies by harmonizing trade liberalization at the continental level, promote economic diversification and intra-African trade, and foster a more competitive manufacturing sector.

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Conclusion The positive effect of the tourism sector on the continent’s developmental agenda is undisputed. What is questionable are the recovery strategies after COVID-19 pandemic. Organizations must continue to adapt modes or practices that best suit a local destination owing to the relationship quality expected from their relevant stakeholders. For example, trust, loyalty, engagement, and commitment from the local communities together with the tourism enterprises in the destination is paramount for the sector to thrive. “African cities should be patient in developing a culture of sustainability and transformation” (Le Blanc & Roehri, 2012, p. 34), the latter is based on a continuous analysis of their local identity and history. The continent has so much to offer (for the people of Africa and the world), with many of the strengths and resources being unique to the continent. There is a call to customize the expectations of locals to ensure sustainability in a destination.

References Abdou, D. M. S., & Nasser, H. (2018). Tourism and environmental degradation in the russian federation. International Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, 3(5), 64. Adam, I., & Kimbu, A. N. (2020). Strategies Africa’s tourism requires to manage blow from coronavirus. The Conversation, 23. African Economic Outlook, A.E. (2017). African economic outlook 2017: Entrepreneurship and industrialisation. African Economic Outlook, https://doi.org/10.1787/aeo-2017-en Almeida, F., & Silva, O. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 on tourism sustainability: Evidence from Portugal. Advances in Hospitality and Tourism Research (AHTR), 8(2), 440–446. Amankwah-Amoah, J., Osabutey, E. L., & Egbetokun, A. (2018). Contemporary challenges and opportunities of doing business in Africa: The emerging roles and effects of technologies. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 1(131), 171–174. AU Commission. (2015). AGENDA 2063 The Africa we want a shared strategic framework for inclusive growth and sustainable development first ten-year implementation plan 2014–2023. Addis Ababa: AU Commission). Brau, R., Lanza, A., & Pigliaru, F. (2007). How fast are small tourism countries growing? Evidence from the data for 1980–2003. Tourism Essentials, 13(4), 603–613. Butler, R. W. (1980). The concept of a tourist area cycle of evolution: Implications for management of resources. Canadian Geographer/Le Géographe canadien, 24(1), 5–12. Cilliers, J., Oosthuizen, M., Alexander, K., Pooe, T. K., & Moyer, J. D. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 in Africa: A scenario analysis to 2030. ISS Africa Report, 2020(24), 1–40. Chou, M. C. (2013). Does tourism development promote economic growth in transition countries? a panel data analysis. Economic Modelling, 33, 226–232. Castor, J., Bacha, K., & Nerini, F. F. (2020). SDGs in action: A novel framework for assessing energy projects against the sustainable development goals. Energy Research, & Social Science, (68), 101556. Clatworthy, M., & Jones, M. (2001). The effect of thematic structure on the variability of annual report readability. Accounting, Auditing, & Accountability Journal, 14(3), 311–326.

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Dritsakis, N. (2012). Tourism development and economic growth in seven Mediterranean countries: A panel data approach. Tourism Economics, 18(4), 801–816. Gap, G. G. (2017). World economic forum. Cologny/Geneva. Goffman, E. (2020). In the wake of COVID-19, is glocalization our sustainability future? Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy, 16(1), 48–52. doi:10.1080/ 15487733.2020.1765678 Gondwe, G. (2020). Assessing the impact of COVID-19 on Africa’s economic development. In United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Gössling, S., Scott, D., & Hall, M. (2021). Pandemics, tourism and global change: A rapid assessment of COVID-19. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 29(1), 1–20. doi:https://doi.org/10. 1080/09669582.2020.1758708 Holsti, O. (1968). Content analysis in political research. In D. Bobrow, & J. Schwartz (Eds.), Computers and the policy-making community (pp. 608). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Jamal, T. B., & Getz, D. (1995). Collaboration theory and community tourism planning. Annals of Tourism Research, 22(1), 186–204. Kibara, O. M., Odhiambo, N. M., & Njuguna, J. M. (2012). Tourism and economic growth in kenya: An empirical investigation. International Business, & Economics Research Journal, 11(5), 517–528. Kieti, D., Nthiga, R., Plimo, J., Sambaaje, P., Ndiuini, A., Kiage, E., … Baum, T. (2020). An African dilemma: Pastoralists, conservationists, and tourists reconciling conflicting issues in Kenya. Development Southern Africa, 37(5), 758–772. Kituyi, G. M. (2017). Social media and health behaviour in Sub Saharan Africa (Doctoral dissertation, Makerere University Business School). Le Blanc, D., & Roehri, R. A. (2012). Back to Our Common Future Sustainable Development in the 21st century (SD21) project Summary for policymakers. Lee, C., & Chang, C. (2008). Tourism development and economic growth: A closer look at panels. Tourism Management, 29, 180–192. Liu, W. (2012). Patterns and impacts of tourism development in a coupled human and natural system. Michigan State University. Fisheries and Wildlife. McCabe, S., & Qiao, G. (2020). A review of research into social tourism: Launching the annals of tourism research curated collection on social tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 85, 103103. Mankiw, N. G. (2014). Principles of economics. Nelson Education. Narayan, P. K., Narayan, S., Prasad, A., & Prasad, B. C. (2010). Tourism and economic growth: A panel data analysis for Pacific Island countries. Tourism Economics, 16(1), 169–183. Nelson Mandela School of Public Governance. (2021). The Mandela School brings together policymakers and industry experts. Available at: http://www.mandelaschool.uct.ac.za/news/ mandela-school-brings-together-policymakers-and-industry-experts. Accessed 15 March 2021. OECD/ACET. (2020). Quality infrastructure in 21st century Africa: Prioritising, accelerating and scaling up in the context of pida (2021–30). Owusu-Manu, D. G., Jehuri, A. B., Edwards, D. J., Boateng, F., & Asumadu, G. (2019). The impact of infrastructure development on economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa with special focus on Ghana. Journal of Financial Management of Property and Construction. Rogerson, C. M., & Baum, T. (2020). COVID-19 and African tourism research agendas. Development Southern Africa, 37(5), 727–741. Seetanah, B. (2011). Assessing the dynamic economic impact of tourism for island economies. Annals of Tourism Research, 38(1), 291–308. Shendruk, A. (2020). The world’s largest free trade area starts up on Jan. 1, 2021. Retrieved January 05, 2020, from https://qz.com/1951523/what-is-the-african-continental-free-trade-area-afcfta/

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Sifolo, N., & Sifolo, P. P. S. (2018). Blind spots to reaping tourism dividend: Key strategic developmental lessons for Africa. Journal of African Foreign Affairs, 5(5), 63–84. Sifolo, P. P. S. (2020). Effective Leadership in the 21st Century: Lessons for the Tourism Sector in the African Continent. In Tourism. IntechOpen. Susanto, A. B. (2019). The effect of government policy and environmental sustainability on the performance of tourism business competitiveness: Empirical assessment on the reports of international tourism agencies. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 9(6), 439–446. Tumusiime, D. M., & Vedeld, P. (2012). False promise or false premise? Using tourism revenue sharing to promote conservation and poverty reduction in Uganda. Conservation and society, 10(1), 15–28. UNCTAD. (2019). Economic Development in Africa Report 2019: Made in Africa – Rules of Origin for Enhanced Intra-African Trade. New York: UN. UNECA. (2015). Illicit Financial Flows: Report of the High Level Panel on Illicit Financial Flows from Africa. Addis Ababa: UNECA and AU. United Nations Development Programme. (2018). Human Development Indicators and Indices: 2018 Statistical Update Team. Washington DC, USA. United Nations General Assembly. (09 February 2016). Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 22 December 2015: The International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development. (A/RES/ 70/193). UNWTO. (2017). Tourism for Development on the occasion of the International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development 2017. New York: UNWTO. UNWTO. (2017). 2016 Annual Report. Retrieved August 18, 2019, from http://www.e-unwto.org/doi/ book/10a.18111/9789284418725. Vanek, M. (2021). New era of trade between African countries begins. Retrieved March 09, 2021, from https://www.businesslive.co.za/bd/world/africa/2021-01-01-new-era-of-trade-betweenafrican-countries-begins/ World Bank. (2007). The World Bank Annual Report 2007. The World Bank. World Bank. (2013). Annual Report 2013: End Extreme Poverty, Promote Shared Prosperity. Washington, DC: The World Bank. World Economic Forum. (2019). The Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2019. Retrieved January 05, 2021, from https://reports.weforum.org/travel-and-tourism-competitiveness-re port-2019/regional-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/#:~:text=Sub%2DSaharan%20Africa’s% 20travel%20and,of%20the%20global%20total%2C%20respectively Wattanakuljarus, A., & Coxhead, I. (2008). Is tourism-based development good for the poor? A general equilibrium analysis for Thailand. Journal of Policy Model, 10, 1–27. World Economic Forum. (2020). The Future of Jobs Report 2020. World Economic Forum, Geneva, Switzerland. World Travel and Tourism Council. (2020). Global Economic Impact, & Trends 2020. London: UK.

Judy Kepher-Gona and Lucy Atieno

2 Inclusive Tourism, Domestic Small Businesses and Tourism Development Policy in Kenya Introduction While tourism is a priority economic sector in many countries globally, there are notable incidences where it fails to optimize benefits of its successes for development of hosting regions. Hosting regions comprise domestic small businesses as well as large multi-national companies, and each of these may have different realities of what successes of tourism mean. Often, tourism businesses which are medium and large scale in developing countries, dominate the tourism landscape by influencing in policy direction and marketing. In Kenya, they are referred to as mainstream tourism, as government has from time to time consulted them to set standards for regulation of tourism, a sector which contributed 8.8% of the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2019. A number of studies have revealed that economic successes of tourism, and its contribution to GDP is not a panacea for development (Figini & Vici, 2010; Niewiadomski, 2014; Campos, Hall, & Backlund, 2018). These studies hint that the exclusionary nature of tourism, downgrades values of its core contribution to societies and sustainable development. As a result, an agenda for inclusive tourism is urgent, and this can be shaped through policy environment, to provide clarity and consistency on what inclusive tourism should be. Scheyvens and Biddulph (2017), define inclusive tourism as transformative tourism in which all forms of marginalized people are engaged in ethical production or consumption of tourism and the sharing of its benefits. Tourism at various levels, has policies to support inclusivity. Research on accessible tourism is a dominant theme in view of consumption in inclusive tourism. Likewise, in practice, policies for accessibility, as a form of inclusive tourism dominate from global and government level policy, to organizational policies. On the assessment front, Village for All, has a deliberate system of principles to guide accessible hosting (Village for All, n.d.). For places hosting tourism, including destinations and facilities, Village for All is able to give a score of accessibility based on needs including: food allergy, use of wheelchair, visual and hearing impairment, needs for family travel and requirements for elderly travelers. Relatedly, the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), has a set of guidelines for accessible and inclusive tourism. These ideally cover steps in the customer journey, beginning with travel planning, to transportation, stay at tourism related establishments and tourist activities, in order to support access needs for travelers. The guidelines emphasize inclusion of persons with disability in tourism,

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in both production and consumption spaces, e.g., through employment and selfemployment opportunities, or consumption and use of tourism products and services. Detailed policy guidelines for inclusive Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in tourism focus attention on SDG 8 on decent work and economic growth, SDG 9 on industry innovation and infrastructure, SDG 11 on sustainable cities and communities, and SDG 12, on responsible consumption and production (United Nations 2020). Other policy guidelines for inclusive tourism focus attention on inclusive growth, to allow for inclusivity in terms of tourism production, which according to Hampton and Jeyacheya (2013) aligns to redistribution strategies of economic benefits from tourism to reduce inequalities. Associated examples in pursuit of inclusive economic participation in practice are in community-based tourism, and pro-poor tourism, which have profound commonalities with inclusive tourism in their focus on empowerment of local communities. However, the goals for inclusive tourism are broader, focusing on empowerment at all levels (Scheyvens & Biddulph, 2017), and not only that of local communities. It is thus important for governments to have policy measures that can drive inclusive growth in tourism development. This is particularly significant for SubSaharan Africa, where Makoni and Tichaawa (2018) quote the (World Travel & Tourism Council, 2015), to emphasize that the region has not prioritized tourism product development as a major economic booster, attributing this partly to outdated policies. Certainly, such an approach undermines core elements for inclusivity in tourism production and consumption. For the case of Zimbabwe, the authors detail product development setbacks in terms of the country’s rigidity in diversifying source markets for its tourism products. Between 1999 and 2015, Zimbabwe’s key source markets in the west shrunk by 60.3%, whereas the Asian and regional African market markets grew by 65% and 37% respectively (World Travel & Tourism Council, 2017). Yet findings by Makoni and Tichaawa (2018) show that policies for product development are insistent on attracting and retaining the shrinking key source markets. Kihima (2015) notes a similar situation in Kenya, where domestic markets are ignored, with extensive focus on international markets. Successes of developmental issues, including those of tourism, are interwoven with policy decision making and implementation. For this to be realized it is important to have inclusivity as a guiding principle behind policy, because a considerable number of developmental problems that we face today are inequality problems in disguise. This is evidenced by significant synergies and complementarities that exist between SDG 10 on reduced inequalities, and other SDGs. Unfortunately, in reality, there are examples illustrating how government policy environment related to tourism perpetuates inequalities. This happens in policy failures to conform with the dynamics of population participation in tourism production, especially when taking into account local social groups. Writing about “The Year of Return,” in Ghana 2019, (Yeboah 2019) argues that despite government ingenuity to boost tourism, the initiative had no tangible inclusive policy for the northern part of the country where slaves were abducted from. The initiative bypassed inland slave trade routes in the North, which boast of

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attractions including the slave wall of Gwollu and slave camps of Pikworo. Yeboah, (2019) maintains that exclusive focus on the trans-Atlantic slave trade due to political and prejudiced reasons, erases representation of crucially important aspects and legacies of inland slave trade that distressed Northern Ghana. This way, the policy environment is deliberately exclusionary, cultivating islands of tourism growth out of reach of marginalized regions and populations. Njoroge, Ratter and Atieno (2017) advise on the integration of deliberative inclusionary processes in policy making, as remedial to address failures in such nondemocratic policy approaches. This view is echoed by (Stoffelen, et al. 2019) who agree that stakeholders view is significant in tourism policy and product development, as it enhances equity. Taking an equity perspective to a study of urban development and tourism in Rotterdam, Nieuwland and Lavanga, (2020) explain that local entrepreneurs do not feel included in urban development strategies, as these target outsider investors who come to the city. In their opinion, foreign investors in the city do not benefit local economy, therefore, their contribution is not sustainable. Findings from the study show that Rotterdam city was undergoing a cultureled urban regeneration process, yet issues of equality and inclusiveness were not addressed, hence a recommendation for policy to take into consideration the question of whose city Rotterdam was, and who should benefit from the tourism development strategy. A consensus on attempts to conceptualize inclusive tourism, is its focus on representation of the marginalized, and widening the range of stakeholders who can participate in tourism in hosting regions. A practical example for tourism production is Airbnb as a tool for inclusive tourism. Airbnb is developed on a concept of widening stakeholder participation in production of tourism, encouraging local people in tourism entrepreneurship through offering accommodation (Kadi, Plank & Seidl, 2019), or destination experiences. Inclusivity is essential for long term sustainability of destinations in global south, as it curves a trajectory of tourism development that benefits a considerable percentage of destination communities (Butler & Rogerson, 2016). Despite the African Development bank having a 2013–2022 strategic plan with an overarching objective to achieve growth that is inclusive within the continent, Bakker and Messerli (2017) observe a lack of tourism specific inclusive growth projects in this initiative. Also, there are very few studies in tourism research, that focus on inclusive tourism in terms of its production, as majority focus on needs for inclusivity in terms of consumer access. Thus, our chapter extensively explores inclusive tourism in terms of policy environment support for widening participation of destination stakeholders in tourism production. A policy area for consideration of this would be the participation of domestic small businesses in the production of tourism. According to Scheyvens and Biddulph (2017), ethical consumption and production are key components of inclusive tourism. Nonetheless, parameters for inclusivity in tourism development remain unclear, especially on the production front where

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research is scant. This is because the conceptualizations of inclusivity overlook deeper questions of engagement, especially the terms and conditions under which the marginalized are engaged in ethical production or consumption of tourism. This question is particularly important in examining the inclusion of domestic small businesses in production of tourism, because research has over time subtly implied their complete exclusion in access to benefits from tourism value chains. There is evidence to show that tourism has been developed as an elitist industry, and needs restructuring to allow involvement of small domestic small businesses. For instance, all-inclusive products lock out local entrepreneurship in tourism (Saarinen, 2017). Research by Niewiadomski (2014) cites the hospitality sector example where 15% of businesses which are internationally branded dominate 52% of businesses access, to show that large companies in tourism production space block entry of new local actors. Relatedly, Mueller (2020), analyses how destinations across Africa fail to retain tourism spend, describing the root cause as “Neo-colonialism 3.0,” where key destination actors loose up to 60% to 80% of their revenues in commissions to dominant foreign based Online Travel Agencies (OTAs). Campos, Hall and Backlund, (2018), point out a different perspective on the relationship between large multinational businesses and domestic small actors in tourism. They argue that large tour operators, as multi-national companies, often seen as agents of “exclusion than inclusion . . . through socio cultural ignorance or disruption, limited returns to local economies, human rights abuse, and other negative impacts . . .” (p 633), can be influential and instrumental in enabling more inclusive forms of tourism to allow community integration to tourism value chains. The exclusive nature of tourism production (Niewiadomski, 2014; Saarinen, 2017), is particularly glaring in terms of benefits for host regions in events tourism destinations (Clark & Misener, 2015; Huang, 2011), and the urgency for an inclusive tourism agenda emphasized by (Campos, Hall & Backlund, 2018; Scheyvens & Biddulph, 2017). The exclusive nature of tourism production is also evident in public and private tourism governance with existence of separate policies for domestic small businesses in tourism and separate industry associations. Magayu (2014) argues that the whole concept of Community-Based Tourism Enterprises (CBTEs) in Kenya is an effort to integrate domestic / community small firms into tourism production. An insistent challenge is that for some destinations, despite availability of policy documents to encourage inclusive tourism, problems for exclusion still persist. This chapter focusses on the MSME policy environment in Kenya, to: 1. Explore the extent to which current policy environment is inclusive of tourism MSMEs. 2. Question if policy environment is supportive of tourism production by MSMEs.

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Methodology We opted for a qualitative inquiry, to build up on quantitative survey findings by the Kenya Private Sector Alliance (KEPSA) in 2019 on the policy environment for MSMEs in Kenya. Their findings showed that the policy environment was not favorable for the enhancement of MSMEs, including those in tourism. So, our qualitative inquiry serves to give deep insights on policy environment for tourism MSMEs in Kenya. We compiled and analysed a set of policy documents relevant to current tourism MSME environment in Kenya. This process began by consulting online resources and impact research studies to search and purposively select policy documents related to tourism MSME environment. We then used framework from the Kenya Private Sector Alliance (KEPSA) assessment index, adopting it to qualitatively assess the MSME policy environment support for critical areas for tourism production, i.e., financial support, regulation and tourism promotion. This assessment was informed by qualitative data, from one workshop with young tour operators in Nairobi in October 2019, and subsequent narrative inquiries with five leaders from associations that represent small domestic firms in tourism business in Kenya, and one MSME policy analyst in 2020. See Table 2.1 for participant contextual information. Each provided close detail analysis, and we considered the sample size sufficient for a qualitative study. This was to facilitate judgements about efficiency on policy and allow an interpretive analysis of policy documents against framework categories for inclusion. The workshop provided insights about tourism promotion, while the narrative inquiry focused on questions of regulation and economic measures for inclusion. Narrative inquiry has been employed as an analytical frame in tourism studies, for example, Seo and Park, (2018) on policies to promote medical tourism in Korea, or Smith, (2019) for a narrative analysis supporting product development. These studies agree that narratives are material in bringing forth candid experienced meanings that give better understandings of issues in research questions.

Table 2.1: Participant contextual information for narrative inquiry. Code Institution/ Business Role in respective organization Category A

Government

MSME policy analyst, based in Nairobi County

A

Tour operations & marketing

Leadership role in formal nationwide association for tourism entrepreneurs, based in Nairobi County

A

Tour operations

Leadership role in formal nationwide association for tourism entrepreneurs, based in Nairobi County

A

Tour operations

Member in different associations for tourism entrepreneurs

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Table 2.1 (continued ) Code Institution/ Business Role in respective organization Category A

Boat operations

Leadership role in formal association for traders in beach tourism, based in Kwale County, coastal Kenya

A

Beach experiences

Leadership role in informal association of youth entrepreneurs in beach tourism, based in Kilifi County, coastal Kenya

The KEPSA MSME policy index provides guideline to monitor and evaluate progress achieved through the implementation of MSMEs policy. Our narrative inquiries, focusing on the inclusion question, went in-depth on the eight policy dimensions in KEPSA index, which are: 1. Enabling environment and business regulatory environment 2. Reliable infrastructure and access to inputs 3. Human capital and entrepreneurial skills development 4. Access to MSME financing 5. Effectiveness of MSME representation 6. Supportiveness of framework for business development 7. Market linkages and expansion initiatives 8. Innovation, ICT adoption and technology transfer These are discussed under three broad themes: economic measures, regulation and tourism promotion, which emerged from the responses, as important areas to support MSME integration to tourism production. We conclude this section with remarks on tourism MSME resilience model.

Findings The MSME sector in Kenya was largely unregulated in the 1990s. There was no single government entity to support the Small and Medium Enterprise (SME) sector, and so the government established Micro and Small Enterprises Authority (MSEA), basically an overarching agency to support development of the sector. Its key mandate was the policy environment for MSMEs. Today, the main documents in the MSME policy environment are: – Sessional Paper number 2 of 2005, outlining aims for developing MSMEs for employment and wealth creation, in order to reduce poverty. – 2006 policy on MSMEs. This policy integrates tourism, among other sectors of the economy, into wider national strategies of inclusive growth. This policy can thus

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be a valuable tool to encourage inclusive tourism, if its implementation responds to prevailing context of tourism relations. – MSME Act of 2012, established to promote, develop and regulate MSMEs. – 2020 bill for the development of MSMEs MSME policies are regulatory in nature, addressing issues like licensing and work sites. Youth enterprise and women enterprise policy are presented as priority focus in view of inclusion. The policy environment on MSME in Kenya, has intent on being supportive for business development. Policy is informed that MSMEs provide considerable amount of economic activity to the country, and majority are in informal sector. The MSME policies are biased for manufacturing and small producers of fast-moving consumer goods popularly known in Kenya as Jua Kali (industries operating under the open skies). The inclusion of other sectors like MSMEs in tourism is implied: the underlying commonality being an assumed informality. However, policies in the MSME environment are yet to address the underlying causes of this informality. This has led to constant attacks on MSMEs for compromising standards and risking market value. Tourism MSMEs continuously face reproach from mainstream sector, where stakeholders largely comprise established bigger companies. According to a tourism association leader, the approach to attack tourism MSMEs perceived to be operating illegally, and hence evading taxes, cannot bring steady reforms to support inclusion. The leader expressed displeasure that: . . .tourism regulation charges penalty fee for every year you conducted business but never had a license. This penalty is punitive and does not make sense. They need to do away with it. -A2

Economic Measures The current policy on MSMEs is yet to achieve its targets. This is the 2006 policy on MSMEs, developed from sessional paper number 2 of 2005. Baseline report on lifeline of MSMEs shows that before shocks like the COVID-19 pandemic, almost half of the MSMEs closed in under three years. The (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, 2016) survey shows that close to 50% of MSMEs are closed within the first two years of operations. A survey report on tourism MSMEs in Kenya by (Odhiambo, et al. 2020), shows that 65% of such businesses are less than six years old. Access to financing requires collateral, and this limits access for youth, women, and smallscale entrepreneurs. Collateral shortfalls are largely due to the fact that tourism MSMEs are majority owned by young people, who are dependent on family and own savings to finance business capital, and they rarely have collaterals. This challenge was confirmed by MSME policy analyst who participated in the study, and went on to say:

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Aspects of financing being affordable and accessible for MSMEs as stated in the 2006 draft are not authoritatively provided . . .. Commercial lending institutions also require risk mitigation collateral in issuing loans, and all other fiscal compliance documents. However, financial structure of MSMEs allows them to operate with basic registration, lacking some business registration documents. -A1

MSME policy effort to be favorable for inclusion of the marginalized has a priority action for women inclusion through 30% procurement slots. This however has conditions that very few in MSMEs would meet to qualify for tenders if they operate informally, e.g., requirement for company registration which some do not have. The Tourism Finance Corporation (TFC), an organization dedicated to fund local tourism investors in Kenya to foster an integrated tourism industry, has not been accessible for MSMEs since inception. Whereas it has funded many indigenous Kenyans to start or grow their tourism businesses, the requirements are out of reach for MSMEs. Economic measures introduced during COVID-19 pandemic were the closest the MSMEs in tourism in Kenya got to accessing state funds. However, the economic incentives for COVID-19 were not relevant to supporting tourism MSMEs. One respondent confirmed that the greatest impact for MSMEs during the pandemic was financial, arguing that a targeted stimulus package for the tourism supply chain would be of great assistance. Two major reliefs offered under the funds that favored MSMEs, waiver of listing on Credit Reference Bureau (CRB), and relief tax, were still not applicable to businesses which are informal or unregistered. By design, the fund was set aside for refurbishment of hotels and lodges, many of which are not within the MSME bracket. Questioning the disbursement of these funds, one respondent commented “By the way, COVID-19 aside, a lot of Tour Operators have lost hope in tour business since, majority feel, hospitality facilities are being favored at their expense. -A3”

COVID-19 relief funds for ranger salaries, under tourism relief fund, to support conservation, basically supported conservancies which do not fall in the category of MSMEs. Conservancy turnovers and number of employees place them outside the MSME category. Overall, there is inadequate financial system and inadequate sustainable financing for tourism investment by domestic small businesses despite growing tourism industry. In the current policy frameworks, MSMEs are way beyond the reach of benefits for government goodies, and this explains why many targets are yet to be reached, hence rethinking enhancements to the framework in the 2020 MSMEs bill. The 2020 bill for development of MSMEs has cabinet approval, awaiting signing by president into law. It outlines issues on government support for women led enterprises, and improving work business environment. Parameters for the 2020 draft policy are similar to those of 2006, with focus areas having an addition on emphasis on innovation, work site improvement, licensing and supporting start-ups. Even after approval, there will be work to break this down to different economic sectors. While policy acknowledges evidence on the need for MSME inclusion in economic production, its implementation is not equally informed, or as informed as should be.

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MSME advancement through financing is mentioned, defined and explained in 2006 policy, and 2012 act. Policy documents acknowledge MSMEs, identify actions for financial inclusion, but implementation fails to provide resources to support. Whereas for COVID-19 support for tourism, resources are provided, there is evidence of technical exclusion of MSMEs in implementation. Therefore, economic policies need to be redistributive in order to create a supportive environment for MSME inclusion in economic production.

Regulation Regulation is pivotal in allowing entry of players into any industry. Overall regulation for MSMEs in Kenya is under state department for trade under Ministry of industrialization Trade and Enterprise Development. MSME regulation for tourism is supported through the ministry, at the Tourism Regulatory Authority. When regulations do not provide for unique conditions for MSMEs, it becomes discriminatory by default and minimizes entry and growth of new entrants. In depth questions with leaders of associations that represent domestic small businesses in tourism, on policy dimensions that relate to regulations, show that the policy environment is not inclusive to support MSME advancement. Specifically, for tour operators, registration requirements for MSMEs by regulation bodies had a number of issues beyond their reach. An area where most respondents seemed to agree on was on the need of tax and licence breaks, especially for the single business permits. Some comments on suitability of conditions for tourism start-ups are listed below: Every Tour Operator to have an office in a business premise. This overlooks the fact that some Operators have ample space in their houses which they have converted to office space, for convenience and cost efficiency. The regulation authority does not recognize such set ups. -A2 You must have a Tour Vehicle or get a contract from TRA registered Tour Operator. Some of these contracts are now being issued at a fee by the registered operators. At least for potential association members, we guarantee them this contract. -A3 You must have studied tourism or employed at least 2 tourism professionals in your company. -A3 It is so unfortunate that Memorandum and Articles of Association is no longer proof of business registration. This is an added cost to us in small businesses, especially those who registered way before 2015. -A4 They require lease agreements from landlords. They do not recognize sub lease. This means, if you are hosted as a sub-leasee, you can never get their license. -A2 Let them combine the license for Tours and Travels, then charge a flat rate figure. At the moment they are separated. Every Tour operator at some point also offer air ticketing services. -A4

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Frustration in the policy environment for the entrepreneurs is expressed in this statement: At the moment, beyond the license, we don’t feel support for small businesses. There are very many unregistered operators out there doing business yet they don’t pay taxes nor have license. I think we need to amend the Tourism Act in order to relook at the mandate of regulatory authorities for tourism business. License application should be digitized, then regulation should enhance surveillance on conformities to the gazetted requirements. -A2

The known and regularized MSMEs in tourism in coastal areas are beach operators. This is because of their shaky relationship with beach hotels. Beach operators acknowledge that there are few licensing requirements for them to operate, and the tax system is low cost for their businesses. Mainly because their declared revenues are below the taxable bracket. Compared to the MSMEs in tour operations, licensing for MSMES in coastal region, has categories for curio sales, local guided experiences, and safaris. Beach operators are in direct competition with hotels in terms of services and products they offer beach tourists. The absence of regulations to support their integration means their margins must be very low to compete the hotels who have the benefit of scale. This explains why many MSMEs do not service their third anniversary despite having entrepreneurship skills. Regulation is one of the areas where tourism MSMEs encounter challenges. According to study respondents, regulation listens to mainstream industry stakeholder concerns of MSMEs crowding the business environment, and embarks on punitive measures to block MSME entry to tourism production space. Implementation space is dominated by logic of mainstream tourism stakeholders, and MSMEs find it difficult to add their voices, as this is purely about “ . . . who has the strongest networks, and what is their relationship with the public sector.”- A3

MSMEs in tourism are still struggling to be recognized by regulation, which is not open to their inclusion in tourism production. Thus regulation, in words of Saarinen, (2017), blocks entry of new local players to tourism.

Promotion Promotion of tourism happens at company level and at destination level through Destination Marketing Organizations (DMOs). DMOs are reliant on large international exhibition events and marketing agents based in key source markets. Costs of participating in these international exhibitions are inhibitive for MSMEs. Sometimes DMOs use publications for marketing and invite industry to advertise. MSMEs cannot afford the advertising costs. These excludes MSMEs from public funded destination marketing despite being taxpayers. MSMEs rely on direct sales

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through social media platforms. Their promotion is focused on packages they offer from time to time. Even if they made it to the big exhibitions, their business models would not allow them to sign big contracts with international suppliers. They are limited in many instruments necessary for international partnerships. When MSMEs have been included in tourism promotion, it has been opportunistic because of their adventurous nature. In Kenya, the DMO has worked with MSMEs to open new circuits by selecting influencers among them for explorative tours. Yet, for a long time in the development of Kenya’s tourism, conventional tourism promotion to international markets makes scant references if any, to niche products developed by MSMEs. Current trends show there is every indication that MSMEs influence product and destination development. Small businesses are opening up non-conventional attractions in Kenya. For example, northern Kenya, which hardly had an offer in the early 2000s, was opened up by MSMEs, and is now a popular destination for explorative tours taken by domestic markets. This has also revived a cultural festival in Turkana, northern Kenya. Day trips and weekend getaways were not included in mainstream tourism offers and have now been popularized by small businesses/ young tourism entrepreneurs. Also, there is stiff competition between small and established businesses in tourism marketing. For example, boat operators feel disadvantaged in competing with established hotels for clients. Some use family-owned boats, passed down across generations, requiring constant repair. Furthermore, they can hardly afford insurance costs, so these factors can be discouraging to clients. Despite local small domestic entrepreneurs having rich itineraries, including boat rides, sunsets, bonfire, beach, curio and village walks, they have not experienced any support for in terms of market information or market access. Safari companies promoting coastal region found online have many clients, as compared to our local experiences, which are not visible in marketing spaces. Our work is therefore seasonal. We switch from tourism to deep sea fishing. -A6

Overall, relationship for tourism promotion with MSMEs is not institutionalized, but actualized as a commercial engagement when need arises.

MSMEs Resilience Model The narrative of many MSMEs not surviving their third anniversary notwithstanding, there are unique resilience approaches that have sustained many more. These alternative ways for MSMEs to do business, include flexibility on bookings and cancellation policies, and marketing communication that appeals to domestic markets. MSMEs allow for payment on day of travel, without prior booking. There are no penalties if you book and not show up. Flexible pricing and coopetition that allows for

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sharing of service vehicles and office spaces despite being business competitors has built their resilience. The MSME resilience model has disrupted traditional tourism. Take the example of domestic tourism in Kenya, which has been ignored, with priority focus on growing international arrivals (Kihima, 2015). Some challenges for domestic tourism identified by Kihima, (2015) include perception by locals that travel is expensive, lack of a saving culture among Kenyans, overfocus on international markets by mainstream tourism, high cost of services and no prior planning for holidays. Online offers by MSMEs have overcome these barriers, creating awareness of same day booking, encouraging payment on instalments, promoting affordable group travel, using peer influence to show travel is affordable, among other message strategies online. Their offer depicts a tourism more inclusive in terms of price, flexibility of travel, communication, places and destinations. They have infiltrated social media, promoting places and creating awareness of product offerings. Social media is important for domestic consumers, and therefore a viable platform for MSMEs to promote their offers online, especially through Facebook, disguised as organic users (Roth-Cohen & Lahav, 2019). Kenya has about 87% of its population as internet users (Internet World Stats n.d.). The need for digitalization of tourism became more critical during the COVID-19 pandemic, and this facilitated evolution of online low-cost campaigns for travel offers by young tourism entrepreneurs in Kenya through Facebook groups. These spaces are largely occupied by the domestic markets. The young entrepreneurs undisclosed and disclosed messaging on Facebook offer interaction to attend to inquiries and demystify the myths about tourism.

Discussion Despite established operators having reservation about MSMEs, the latter are changing business models, and making tourism more inclusive for consumption by domestic markets and budget travelers. This is an area where policy, when outdated, is irrelevant and fails (Makoni & Tichaawa, 2018). There are good policies to support enhancement of MSMEs, including those of tourism in Kenya. What appears to be lacking is a solid dialogue by stakeholders who support policy implementation in the MSME policy environment, to align practice to policy goals for inclusive tourism. For tourism MSMEs, key support players are in financing, promotion and regulation. Making the institutional infrastructure for implementation of policy more inclusive is critical to integration of MSMEs in tourism. The traditional institutional infrastructure is dominated by representation from mainstream tourism, therefore susceptible to discriminatory tendencies and elite capture across destinations. This therefore makes policy governance exclusive.

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To What Extent is the Current Policy Environment Inclusive of Tourism MSMEs? Policy documents on regulation acknowledge MSMEs, but implementation does not consider them as a strategic priority. For example, tourism promotion in Kenya has no action for inclusion of MSMEs. Tourism MSMEs in Kenya have tailored niche products and helped diversity market sources by appealing to domestic tourists. Yet, akin to findings by Makoni and Tichaawa, (2018), tourism policy is rigid to embrace new products and markets. This also validates argument by the (World Travel & Tourism Council, 2015), on countries in Sub-Saharan Africa not optimizing on product development as a key economic booster for tourism. Problems persist despite policy framework, because key policy support players for financing, regulation, and tourism promotion, are not adequately informed on how best to support MSMEs. Policy implementation thus turns out to be discriminatory. This limits participation of MSMEs in production of tourism. Therefore, tourism production continues not to be inclusive, as domestic small businesses who encounter challenges of forcing integration are absent. This may have implications for market reach because mainstream operators lack agility to adapt to new markets. There are also implications for tourism consumption in the destination not being inclusive, in terms of markets that can access products offered. It is therefore important that key support players to structure their governance about prioritizing MSME inclusion, breaking it down to relevant actions, resources provided and reporting on evidence.

Policy Environment Supportive of Tourism Production by MSMEs Based on framework by Leiper (1990) on key elements for an attraction system, destinations develop products on three key elements, i.e., people in production and consumption, attractions as the central product element and marketing communication to promote offers. These elements interact with different policies, to provide support to successfully develop products in destinations.

People Policy implementation environment allows tourism development plans to bypass participation of MSMEs, limiting potential of domestic small businesses in the production of tourism. Disenabling regulation and inadequate financial systems restrict entry of new small players to tourism and constrains their enhancement to scale up business due to inaccessibility of resources as support for established players dominates.

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It is important to allow entry for new players, particularly entry for MSMEs, which are the backbone of tourism in Africa. Their inaccessibility to tourism markets implies that we are locking down a large segment of our economy, and consequently narrowing lateral growth and opportunities of tourism. We restrict it to a small group of players, who when they cannot hold, tourism crumbles in a very short time. By having policy goals aligned to increasing productivity among MSMEs, governments have the additional benefit of providing domestic consumers access to tourism experiences as destinations build resilience. A survey by Sustainable Travel & Tourism Agenda (2020) showing a surge in domestic travelers to Maasai Mara during the COVID-19 pandemic period, characterizes domestic travel experiences as spontaneous escapes, which relate to offers by MSMEs. Inclusive policy environment for tourism can help achieve destination growth targets.

Attractions Africa’s tourism product is exclusive by design. Safari and beach tourism feature mostly in tourism promotion and is traditionally consumed by foreign markets. There is reluctance to promote niche products, designed by MSMEs, perceived as not being attractive to foreign markets. Products promoted through policy implementation infrastructure are therefore not representative of all offers by destination players. It is important that tourism products designed can be consumed by a wide range of different segments of the economy/ different demographics; especially by finding a balance in making tourism accessible in terms of consumption, for both international and domestic markets. It is also important to make tourism accessible in terms of its diversity of products, developing products that can be consumed throughout the year, and at different seasons of the year. MSMEs in Kenya have proven that they are not limited to seasons as they package different products throughout the year.

Marketing/ Communications Traditional promotion of tourism in Kenya focuses on international markets and the middle class for domestic and regional markets. Businesses are dependent on few market dominating distribution options. This restriction in markets relates to the restrictive products of beach and safari. Building tourism development models that will diversify the markets and products requires inclusion of MSMEs that have the agility to explore new products and markets. Including MSMEs has the additional benefit of retaining more revenue in destinations. Indeed, our chapter introduction cites (Mueller, 2020; Nieuwland & Lavanga, 2020) to highlight that one of the setbacks for inclusive tourism is having tourism production that does not support local economies, and this is not sustainable.

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The business models in tourism today are leaking tourism revenue. Institutionalized exclusion through unequal businesses practices and policy inhibits lateral growth of the industry in many ways. Africa has not been able to build its own brand of an online booking platform and continues to lose revenue through commissions. Businesses are thus left with very little to operate on and built operations. In case of a disruption, they are left stranded, because many are a hand to mouth business. MSMEs have the ability to bypass traditional booking platforms and keep more spend in destinations. Inclusivity in tourism production is important to help build resilience against economic uncertainties. To make tourism industry more inclusive, the following should be done: 1. Revisit our investment objectives in tourism, beginning by questioning the kind of impacts that we want tourism to have in destinations, breaking it down to what type of tourism that would be needed for that, what type of product will be needed for that and further to tourist arrivals. Today, our investment question is switched on the reverse. Destinations end up meeting these objectives at any costs, bringing in any investor and consequently exposing destinations/ communities to risks including exclusion from tourism. 2. Developing inclusive policies requires an overhaul of assumptions held by key support players for policy implementation. First of all, recognizing the contributions of domestic small firms to tourism development. Secondly, ensuring that support for implementation of policies can facilitate tourism investment in an inclusive manner. For tourism to be sustainable, it has to be inclusive on both the production and consumption fronts.

Recommendations These recommendations are deduced from key information obtained in discussions with representatives of tourism MSMEs in Kenya and can inform review of policies to make tourism production more inclusive. – Policy governance should be conscious, not to be discriminative, to enable diverse level entry to tourism business. – Regulation should include incentives that encourage small businesses to register the enterprises. This will solve data problem. – During crisis, support programs for MSMEs should be differentiated from mainstream tourism and should consider the unique nature of their operations. e.g., exemption from corporate tax for MSMEs registered for a set period of time since business inception, before proceeding to the next tax bracket. Businesses can review and apply for exemption after the stipulated period.

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– Provide mentorship to MSMEs, instead of penalties, to allow them grow. Provide incentives tied to responsibility, e.g., participate in mentorship, and be able to report on performance and get exemption, etc. – Allow multiple representative bodies for operators in destinations. Monopolization of tourism by associations has made tourism exclusive. Countries in Africa should beware of the pitfall of pursuing tourism growth on a trajectory that intentionally misses out contribution from MSMEs. MSMEs in tourism in the continent need support for their integration to economic production. It is high time that tourism in Kenya, as well as the continent at large, appreciates the value and power of MSMEs to fuel diversity, inclusiveness, and lateral growth. To unlock growth in tourism in Africa, there is need of broader participation of MSMEs, majority of which are run by women and youth.

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Makoni, L., & Tichaawa, T. M. (2018). Stakeholder’s assessments of tourism policy and product development in Zimbabwe. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 7(4), 1–19. Mueller, T. (2020). Building resilience through revenue retention in destination (keeping more spend in destinations). Sustainable Tourism Africa Summit, Nairobi: Sustainable Travel, & Tourism Agenda. Nieuwland, S., & Lavanga, M. (2020). The consequences of being “the Capital of Cool”. Creative entrepreneurs and the sustainable development of creative tourism in urban context of Rotterdam. Journal of Sustainable Tourism. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582. 2020.1841780 Niewiadomski, P. (2014). Towards an economic – Geographical approach to the globalization of the hotel industry. Tourism Geographies: New Research Paradigms in Tourism Geography, 16(1), 48–67. Njoroge, J., Ratter, B., & Atieno, L. (2017). Climate change policy making process in Kenya: Deliberative inclusionary process in play. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 9(4), 535–554. Odhiambo, J., Jones, A., Novelli, M., Gona, J. K., & Atieno, L. (2020). COVID-19 and the state of play of Tourism Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) in Kenya. Project Report, Responding to COVID19: MSMEs’ Stabilisation and Acceleration Program, co-developed and delivered by STTA, CENTRIM and the University of Brighton Responsible Futures Agenda., Nairobi: Sustainable Travel, & Tourism Agenda. Roth-Cohen, O., & Lahav, T. (2019). Going under-cover: Online domestic tourism marketing communication in closed and open facebook groups. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 25(3), 349–362. Saarinen, J. (2017). Enclavic tourism spaces: Territorialization and bordering in tourism destination development and planning. Tourism Geographies, 19(3), 1–13. Scheyvens, R., & Biddulph, R. (2017). Inclusive tourism development. Tourism Geographies, 20(4), 589–609. doi:10.1080/14616688.2017.1381985 Seo, B. R., & Park, S.-H. (2018). Policies to promote medical tourism in Korea: A narrative review. Iranian Journal of Public Health, 47(8), 1077–1083. Smith, S. A. (2019). Heritage tourism and new western history: A narrative analysis of six Colorado museums. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 14(1), 1–18. Stoffelen, A., Adiyia, B., Vanneste, D., & Kotze, N. (2019). Post apartheid local sustainable development through tourism: An analysis of policy perceptions among “responsible” tourism stakeholders around Pilanesberg National Park, South Africa. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 28(3), 414–432. Travel, S., & Agenda, T. (2020). Domestic tourism in kenya during COVID 19 – A rapid assesment of visitor trends at maasai mara national reserve- sekenani gate. Survey Report, Nairobi: Sustainable Travel, & Tourism Agenda. United Nations. (2020). Policy Guidelines for Inclusive Sustainable Development Goals. Tourism. Thematic Brief, Geneva: United Nations. Village for All. (n.d.) Village for all. Retrieved November 2, 2020 from https://www.villageforall.net/ en/score-of-accessibility/. World Travel and Tourism Council. (2017). Economic impact 2017 zimbabwe. London: WTTC. World Travel and Toursim Council. (2015). Governing national tourism policy. London: WTTC. Yeboah, K. A. (2019). All Africa. All Africa. December 19. Retrieved November 2, 2020, from https:// allafrica.com/stories/201912200004.html.

Bonface O. Kihima, Vincent O. Oluoch and Jane M. Kathurima

3 Institutional Frameworks for Homestays in Kenya: From Exclusion to Inclusion Introduction Homestay accommodation presents an opportunity for the host families, as well as local population at large, to participate in tourism and derive direct livelihoods while for the government: it presents a platform to equitably distribute tourism benefits (Kimaiga, Kihima & Pepela, 2015). It also provides one of the avenues for integrating host population into the tourism industry (Kihima, 2015). Ideally, homestays provide accommodation and other cultural experiences for visitors during their stay. Homestay accommodation are generally owned and/or managed by host families, and generate wider community benefits including employment opportunities, additional revenues to families, appreciation and preservation of culture and heritage and inclusivity in the tourism agenda in destination areas (Kimaiga, 2015). Homestays is a form of community-based tourism that depend on local, social and institutional structures that embrace individual initiatives (Wondirad & Ewnetu, 2019). It is recognized as a tool for strengthening the social and economic capacities of host families while taking advantage of the nation’s abundant natural and cultural heritage (Kimaiga, Kihima & Pepela, 2015). With travel trends becoming more experiential, policy makers are becoming more aware of the role played by homestay accommodation in communities (GoK, 2007; GoK, 2008). Kenya’s vision 2030 identified the tourism sector as one of the key pillars in transforming Kenya’s economy (GoK, 2007). One notable aspect identified under the tourism component in the first medium term plan was the certification of 1,000 homestay accommodation to promote cultural tourism in Kenyan homes (GoK, 2008). However, as Mayaka and Prasad (2012, p. 55) note, “quite often it is the lack of proper implementation framework that frustrates otherwise good intentions.” The certification process, though intended by the year 2012, has not been done to date. The intention was to increase the number of accommodation beds in the country by bridging the gap of quality accommodation as envisaged under the plans (GoK, 2007). In addition, this was intended to enhance community participation in tourism and also as a platform for the local people to directly profit from the tourism industry. In 2011, the Government of Kenya embraced further the homestay sector by developing “approved criteria for homestays” (DoT, 2011) to provide guidelines and standards for setting up of homestays. These criteria included five broad areas: location and accessibility of the house, premises quality in terms of facilities and amenities, hygiene and sanitation, safety and security and general services. With this, the licensed homestays are expected to maintain the required standards at all times. In https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110702491-003

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2012, a mapping and identification exercise for homestays throughout the country was conducted where 331 homestays in 26 counties were identified (Kimaiga, 2015). This was done with the objective of developing criteria for licensing and regulating homestays. By 2017, the homestays grew to 587 in Kenya (personal communication from Kenya Community Based Tourism Network – KECOBAT). However, despite these efforts, the homestays sector in Kenya is far from being fully developed and is not yet a visible segment within the tourism sector. In addition, its impact at destination level is still insignificant and undocumented. Statistics on homestays are still missing in official government data on tourism hence making it difficult to estimate the magnitude of this sector within the tourism industry in Kenya. Moreover, the institutional framework within which the sector operates is still weak with nearly all the homestay operators in the country operating without official recognition by the Tourism Regulatory Authority (TRA). Thus, while the Tourism Act 2011 provides for national tourism frameworks implemented through five-year development strategies, there has been no deliberate effort to develop the homestays sector. Moreover, the Act has no mention of the key coordinating institutions for homestays to act on delegated authority. Instead, the Tourism Strategy (GoK, 2013) covers homestays under niche tourism products. This chapter therefore endeavours to address conceptual gaps in homestays definition, operational challenges as well as regulatory/legal obstacles that face homestays in Kenya. The aim of this chapter is to present the desired institutional framework within which homestays can sustainably thrive. Data was obtained through a review of literature and focus group discussions (FGDs) with stakeholders from three regional workshops held in Mombasa, Nairobi, and Kisumu between November 2018 and May 2019. A total of 67 respondents participated in the exercise (37 homestay operators, 10 county government representatives and 20 representatives from coordinating institutions). This chapter calls for a transition to a business-friendly homestay to accelerate the adoption of the concept in the country and accelerate its development. This chapter is divided into three sections: 1) revisiting the concept of homestays, 2) analysing the strategic challenges contributing to exclusion of homestays within the tourism sector and 3) determining relevant interventions needed to spur inclusion of homestays as a tourism product.

The Concept of Homestays According to Kayat (2010), a homestay is where the host invites guests to stay with them in their home at a fee. Thus, homestays offer small-scale accommodation facilities, which enables the host community to participate in tourism. The host provides accommodation and their individual houses to cater for visitor needs. The concept

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first came into existence in Europe in the 1970s and were primarily located within plantations or rural farmlands located away from urban areas (Kakiya, 2019). Homestay is a unique hospitality system in which a visitor stays with the host family and as such becomes a member of the family (DoT, 2011). Homestay accommodation is a term with specific cultural associations such as private homes, interaction with a host or host-family, sharing of space which becomes public and where a visitor pays directly or indirectly to stay in private homes. In homestay accommodations, the boundaries of private homes are opened to public space (Nadiri & Hussain, 2005). According to Lynch, McIntoch, and Tucker (2009), homestays are heritage houses or farmhouses, or homes, or hill cottages that are now used for accommodating guests, especially visitors. Such visitors are usually keen on living in home-like environments where they interact closely with their host families and or the local population. Across the globe, there are varied terms used in characterizing the homestay concept hence no particular or universally accepted characterization. Such terms like in the United States include bed and breakfast, small hotels, guest house, cultural stay, farm stay, selfcatering and host family (Kakiya, 2019). Other terms used include: educational homestay, cultural homestay, volunteer stay, leisure stay and heritage homestay (Mapjabil et.al, 2011; Getz & Carlsen, 2000). In Australia it is referred to as farm stay, Japan and South Korea as educational homestay, South Africa as leisure stay, Canada as cultural and heritage homestay, USA as agriculture and educational homestay and Singapore as urban homestay (Hamzah, 2010). The plethora of terms used in different places and contexts can equally be confusing to both practitioners and policy managers alike. By and large, the term homestay is commonly used to refer to visitor or tourist experiences when hosted by particular families which they interact with as they partake of their everyday activities (Chong, Manga, Yao & Shau, 2016). In homestays, visitors participate in the daily activities of their host families as well as neighboring communities, exchanging with them experiences, cultural practices and knowledge (Boonratana, 2010; Kakiya, 2019). However, the principle behind the homestay program remains fundamentally the same in all countries as put forward by Kalsom (2010) who defines it as an act of staying in someone’s home (at a fee) together with the family unit that occupies it. This means that homestay is a segment of hospitality and tourism which emphasizes on cultural aspect of the destination and interaction with the host family. Ideally, the host families are expected to treat their visitors as members of the family and involve them in their daily activities. This enables the visitor to not only learn the lifestyles of the local community but also experience local cultures. Indeed, the homestay concept is largely aimed at empowering households that host visitors through the earnings they get when they offer services to the visitors. It also enables tourism activities to diffuse beyond major tourism poles through provision of accommodation facilities in areas not otherwise served by major hotels. Thus, although, the development of homestays has not bridged the gap of quality accommodation envisaged under Vision 2030, they have provided a unique opportunity for

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visitors to immerse themselves into the rich and diverse cultural exchange (Kimaiga, 2015). Besides, the development of homestays has enhanced the spread of tourism benefits to the local communities in the country (Kimaiga, Kihima & Pepela, 2015).

Homestays in the Kenyan Context An attempt to estimate the contribution of homestays to the socio-economic development of Kenya is well captured in a study commissioned by the World Bank and Airbnb (the global leader in online selling with over 5.3 million homestay listings). The study shows that homestay host families across Africa have earned over US$ 400 million in income from hosting since the Airbnb was founded in 2008. The study also established that a typical homestays host in Kenya earned US$ 920 in 2018 while Kimaiga (2015) put average earnings per homestay in Kenya at approximately US$ 600 per annum. Though the amount seems small, it is nevertheless the right step in empowering communities hence contributing to several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Hall (2000) refers to such form of empowerment as development in the Community since the community members are active actors in the tourism process and not passive recipients. The Kenyan Department of Tourism (DoT, 2011) defines a homestay as an owneroccupied private residence where the primary aim is residence, and the secondary purpose is providing accommodation to few paying guests. In addition, the Kenya Community Based Tourism Network (KECOBAT) defines homestays as a unique hospitality system in which the tourist stays with the family as a member of the family (KECOBAT, 2020). It aims at equipping the visitor with knowledge on the hosts’ way of life such as the agricultural system, folk arts, sports, and cuisine. This means that this kind of accommodation is located in a residential space, majority of which is dedicated to the host family. Thus, one of the conditions spelt out for legibility into a homestay facility in Kenya is that it should have at least one room and a maximum of six rooms for visitor accommodation in one house. The Kenyan criteria further clarifies that a homestay is not a hotel, motel or a typical Bed and Breakfast (B&B). It is a non-commercialized, private residence where the owner or promoter of the unit along with his/her family is physically residing in the same unit or home environment. However, the reality on the ground differs from the above definitions and provides conceptual challenges as to what really constitutes a homestay. First, while Kalsom (2010) notes that a homestay is an act of staying in someone’s home, it was noted from the focus group discussions (FGDs) that the presence of a host family as a condition for a homestay may be problematic and limiting since some families may have secondary homes set aside for homestay accommodation. In reality, such may qualify as self-catering homestay since the host family does not reside within

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the property most of the times or even at the time of hosting clients. Secondly, there are several proprietors who have commercial homestay in rented apartments in urban areas all of which are not owner occupied. The latter is contrary to DoT (2011) definition of a homestay being a non-commercialized, private residence. Indeed, such commercial homestays are characterized by the absence of a host family and ownership of the homestay operator putting to the fore the question of eligibility of such facilities being considered as homestays. These may in actual sense be classified as guest houses, commercial apartments, bed and breakfast, and not homestays. To illustrate the point, a study on homestays done by Kakiya (2019) in central Kenya, found out that 62.5% of the respondents had 6–10 guest rooms while 16.7% had a capacity of 11–15 guest rooms and 12.5% had 15 guest rooms and above. This is way beyond the normal homestay facility where one would find the usual one or two spare rooms for guests as defined by the DoT (2011). Such urban homestays are highly commercialized apartments that have been rented out by a proprietor and do not constitute owner occupied house for use.

Stakeholder Theory The discussion in this chapter is anchored on stakeholder’s theory (Deng et al, 2016; Wondirad & Ewnetu, 2019) and the need to elaborate on the role of actors involved in value addition within the homestays sector. This theory calls for multi-stakeholders’ inclusion (Deng et al., 2016) approach to provide for inclusivity of the homestays in the mainstream tourism sector. It involves institutional inclusion to create valueaddition for the operators. Such would include laws, regulations and policies, and their enforcement characteristics (North, 1990). The institutional inclusion will ensure a common understanding among the stakeholders involved as well as placing the operators at the center of product development, management and marketing. This inclusivity will also ensure local control of planning procedures, predominance of small businesses, often family-owned and multi-active, which support a diversified economic fabric, creating new tourist areas and products. Such tourism can only thrive in an environment where there is improvement in tourism governance, political actions and private initiatives such as the creation of a national homestay coordinating network and even local homestay management committees that are currently not in place. Such a network can have primary roles of marketing, training, licensing as well as giving the sector much needed visibility at the national level. Currently, the development of the homestay sector in Kenya is more spontaneous than planned. The diversity of homestay accommodation facilities resulting from the differing conceptual definition can definitely create confusion among clients with a complex chain of stakeholders each purporting to represent the sector.

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Strategic Challenges Facing Homestays in Kenya Exclusion in Policy and Planning Process Inclusivity in tourism involves making key actors in the tourism process part of decision making on the use of their cultural spaces: identifying the potential of tourism resources and activities within their environments and conservation of the same (Jayasooriya, Perera & Niroshini, 2019). Building confidence of community members gives them the motivation to plug into both national and local tourism development agenda. However, the integration of different stakeholders in tourism policy and planning processes remains complex in nature (Dredge & Jenkins, 2007; Wondirad & Ewnetu, 2019). Such complexity exhibits itself in the slow level of engagement of host communities in policy and planning process. Thus, although the National Tourism Blueprint (KNTB) 2017 has a provision for community engagement as a priority for innovation and change for future tourism (GoK, 2017), lack of interpretation and implementation of this clause undermines such a process (Mayaka & Prasad, 2012). It is worthwhile noting that where policy gaps exist, the homestay sector device its own coping mechanism in operating homestays. Consequently, the homestay sector develops by default with each homestay operator doing what he/she thinks is good for the industry. Moreover, the operators continue to run the homestays with limited knowledge and professionalism, and with little or no tourism or hospitality background (Kimaiga & Kihima, 2018). In Kenya, there is lack of proper implementation frameworks of the existing legal and policy documents which frustrates various aspects of tourism like the homestays sector. Policy documents – for instance, the Tourism Act 2011 that provides for the development, management, marketing, and regulation of sustainable tourism and tourism-related activities and services (GoK, 2011) – do not have provisions for homestay development. Similarly, in the Vision 2030 blueprint for Kenya, tourism is one of the components of the economic pillar (GoK, 2007) but homestays are not among the flagship projects. This leaves homestays in Kenya to develop by default with no guiding framework that could direct this critical sector. The success of homestays cannot therefore be guaranteed in the absence of a well-thought framework hence leading to exclusion. The aforementioned greatly undermines the inclusion of homestays into the mainstream tourism sector. As a result, real community inclusion becomes illusive hence enterprising personalities take advantage of an already proliferate community structure for their own benefits (Okello & Novelli, 2014) and registering their urban properties as homestays. A remedy to this situation is to clarify in the policy, what inclusion and participation means in the homestays context (Mayaka, Croy, & Cox, 2018) and in the context of the homestay sector.

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Inclusion works best when there is seamless co-ordination within the structures of governance, that is, from the national government to the county governments. Effective governance structures become a means through which gaps in legal frameworks that benefit all stakeholders are effectively implemented (Cole, 2006). Moreover, the role of government in tourism and governance is vital in determining the success of the homestay sector and gives it a voice. In Kenya, the national government has the oversight role of making policy and regulating tourism activity in the country. However, at the county level, there is still weak interpretation and implementation of national tourism policy and plans (Ndivo & Oketch, 2019) creating more exclusion of the operators at the local level.

Compliance with Legal and Regulatory Requirements Licensing has its origin in regulation, and it is a common practice globally (Charles, 2019). Licensing is a legal process that makes provision for regulating tourism industry with a view to promoting its wellbeing and development (Dredge & Jenkins, 2007). Effective use of regulatory frameworks has many benefits such as maintenance of standards and enhancing competitiveness of a destination by eliminating mediocrity in tourism service provision (Dredge & Jenkins, 2007). Licensing is also another way national and county governments generate revenue that helps improve and enhance service delivery to the citizenry (Devas & Kelly, 2001). Legal and regulatory frameworks further shield tourists from rogue operators thereby guaranteeing them safety and security within a destination. Benefits to business owners include incentives that encourage entrepreneurs in tourism industry such as custom duty waiver for imports, access to training opportunities and capacity building programs by government agencies, access to financing and endorsement of membership to industry associations. Moreover, community members who choose to carry out tourism activities and projects of any form are guided by the rules set by government agencies thus minimizing conflicts between all tourism stakeholders. Regulations involving homestays and other accommodation facilities include health and hygiene regulations, fire and safety regulations, rights and duties of homeowners, neighbors, and occupants among others. Homestays in Kenya, just like other forms of accommodation facilities, are required to comply with the necessary legal and regulatory requirements stipulated in the Tourism Act, 2011, part VI. The Act in part states, “No persons shall undertake any tourism activities without complying with all the necessary legal requirements.” The power to enforce these regulations is vested in a government agency – Tourism Regulatory Authority (TRA) that was established by the Tourism Act of 2011 (GoK, 2011). According to TRA categorization of tourism establishments, homestays are clustered with other accommodation facilities, which include hotels, guesthouses, resorts, camps, apartments among others.

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As a result, all these establishments are required to obtain a number of legal and other documents (see Table 3.1) before they are allowed to operate. Table 3.1: Requirements for licensing of tourism activities and services (including homestays). Regulatory Requirements

Agencies

Business permit

Registrar of companies

EIA for new facilities / environmental audit for existing facilities

NEMA

Lease agreement/ copy of title deed of premises occupied by the homestay

Owner

Summary of skilled and unskilled staff in employment

Owner

Curriculum Vitae and relevant certificates of the Manager

Owner

Health insurance certificates for food handlers’ certificates in case of hotels and restaurants

Public Health

Compliance with the formulated guidelines and prescribed measures for sustainable tourism

TRA

Copy of the current health clearance certificate

Public Health

Evidence of insurance cover for the premises

Insurance companies

Copy of menu and tariff

Owner

Manager’s letter of appointment:

Owner

The number of regulatory and other requirements homestays are required to obtain (see Table 3.1), is clearly a laborious process unattainable by many homestay operators in rural areas. While legal and regulatory frameworks are meant to facilitate growth of accommodation facilities with consequent benefits to local people, it can also be a hindrance to a well-thought-out strategic plan. Consequently, such gaps create other challenges for both government and homestay operators. For instance, from focus group discussions carried out, it was established that out of the total number 587 homestay owners in Kenya, only eight were dully registered and licensed by TRA in 2019. Thus, the operation of homestays outside regulatory framework has lots of implication even on client safety and satisfaction. Moreover, according to Charles (2019), the multi-sectoral agencies mandated to collect taxes, fees, and levies are sometimes characterized by conflicting objectives, which is counterproductive to any form of development. For instance, county governments collect fees for business permits and renewals for all businesses within their jurisdictions. The process of collecting such levies becomes more or less rent-seeking opportunity for enforcers characterized by harassment as observed by Devas and Kelly, (2001). In addition, on a national level, TRA has a mandate to conduct routine

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quality audits to assess compliance to minimum standards. It also collects license fees ranging from Kenya shillings (Ksh.) 1,000 to 3,000 from the businesses. Still, the Tourism Fund demands its share in form of the tourism levy of 2% from revenue collected not to mention annual tax returns demanded by the Kenya Revenue Authority from all businesses. Subjecting homestays to the same criteria that apply to large-scale commercial accommodation facilities undermines the objectives of homestays and puts extra burden to the operators who find it cumbersome to run homestay facilities. However, managing homestays without specific regulations and outside the regulatory framework may cause conflicts and inconveniences between homestay operators, visitors, neighbors, and communities. In order to safeguard the interest of all parties involved, the government must consider homestays as entities with special requirements and develop a special criteria and standards for their operations. One such special requirement is the consideration that homestays are first of all residential and occasionally commercial. Best practices can be learnt from Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) support for community-based projects such as green hotels, ecotourism, tourism heritage and homestays. This support is in terms of developing operating standards that specifically address special interests for niche tourism facilities and activities where homestays fall. Out of this support, Malaysia has developed homestay program that won UNWTO Ulysses award in 2012. If homestays sector is to grow to a level envisioned by the government, a business friendly legal and regulatory framework acceptable to the stakeholders should be in place. Such needs to be accompanied by high level of consultation and transparency as envisioned in the stakeholder theory.

The Burden of Compliance Table 3.2 elucidates responses from the focus group discussions on TRA requirements to homestay operators. Generally, homestays are individually owned and small scale hence the ability to meet the stringent and rigorous licensing requirements is limiting. This leaves several potential practitioners with no option but not to comply with the licensing process and continue operating outside the regulatory framework. Blanket consideration of all accommodation enterprises in one category fail to acknowledge the context under which homestays operate. For instance, the provision that homestays should undertake an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) or annual environmental audit is burdensome and fails to recognize that most homestays are simply provided by a homeowner setting aside spare bedrooms/rooms to host visitors. In fact, rural homes do not undertake EIA prior to their construction neither do they carry out annual environmental audits. In many places, homeowners do not have deeds or leases because the land is not titled or the mother title is still held by the

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Table 3.2: Homestay owners’ response on compliance. TRA requirements

Stakeholders’ response

Proposed intervention

EIA for new facilities/ Environmental audit for existing facilities

Not necessary for homestays since the home was constructed for residential and not commercial purpose

Homestays should not be subjected to this requirement

Lease agreement/ Copy of title Most homes do not have deed of premises occupied by individual title deeds. the homestay

Title deeds should not be applied for licensing of homestay businesses

Evidence of regular inspection by public health officials & a copy of current health clearance certificate (Less than three months)

Health clearance certificate do not apply in homes since no individual is assigned to handle food. Food handler’s certificate is for commercial food outlets

Food health certificate could be used if this is deemed critical

Medical certificate of food handlers

This currently applies to commercial institutions in the business of serving food for large numbers Medical certificate not applicable to homes

Training required for homestay operators on how they can maintain hygiene and sanitation. Inspection of the food preparation area is essential Development of standards for hygiene and sanitation for homestays operators is crucial

Managers’ CV

Manager’s role not required in a homestay since the concept of a homestay is a family set up Management is a family affair

Standard developed on the level of host & visitor interaction The host is encouraged to have regular contact with the visitor to indicate type of services and other activities on offer

Skills of other staff employed

Host and other members of the household are core operators

Training for all members of the household is deemed necessary

Compliance with the formulated guidelines and prescribed measures for sustainable tourism

This is not a problem since licenses are issued by TRA in collaboration with the Ministry of Tourism

Criteria for registration should be aligned to key requirements in the tourist areas

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Table 3.2 (continued ) TRA requirements

Stakeholders’ response

Proposed intervention

Insurance cover for the premises

Insurance companies may not be keen to insure rural homes/ huts

Homestay owners are encouraged to take insurance covers for their premises Insurance companies are always willing to evaluate and recommend an appropriate cover

Copy of menu tariff

Most homes serve meals Homes do not maintain a strict menu Food prepared is according to what is available

For the purpose of transparency simple list of food served with tentative prices to guide visitors in making choices

family patriarch. In addition, most homestays are generally owner-owned and operated. As a result, they do not require the services of external managers for their dayto-day operations. Still, a lack of online registration and payment has also made the whole process cumbersome. Moreover, as is the case currently, there is a lack of an umbrella association to coordinate homestays at the local level. Such institutional gap has led to failure in organizing conferences, symposia and related training to upgrade the skills of homestay operators. Also, there is no common homestay marketing platform. Such an institution could provide the much-needed link between individual operators and government. The missing link was exemplified during the focus group discussions where some county governments representatives were not even conversant with the concept of homestays hence could not support what they did not know. Further, several counties do not have operational tourism policies from which the homestay sector can be supported. Due to the aforementioned, alternative proposals were suggested from the focus group discussions (FGDs). In particular, the alternative proposals to current licensing arrangements calls for a tailored single business permit to facilitate registration of homestays. The need to review the TRA regulations on homestays licensing emanates from two key areas of concern and policy gaps that should be addressed. First, the TRA regulations for licensing homestays (Table 3.2) are burdensome to the homestay operators and need to be reviewed. Secondly, the centralized tourism management system demands the central government takes final decisions through TRA regional offices, when in fact devolution is in operation. Views from the FGDs were that disputes and issues arising from homestays should be handled at the county government level.

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Professional Homestay Operations Even though homestays present an opportunity for local communities to leverage tourism benefits, they lack the requisite knowledge and skills to operate profitably. Juma and Khademi-Vidra (2019) note that only professional management can guarantee success in such facilities and that they should be managed as a business in structure and in form. Such professionalism requires skills such as customer care services, basic record keeping, and interpretation of local tourism products. Such were found to be missing among homestay operators in Kenya (Kimaiga, Kihima & Pepela, 2015). Indeed, knowledge and understanding of visitors is important in running a homestay since visitors come with a number of expectations. Such include the urge to experience authentic local cultures local, foods, language, artifacts and music (Jamal, Othman & Muhammad, 2011). With this understanding, the homestay operators should be able to understand that the visit by the client is more than just seeking for food and lodging. To sustain client expectations, homestay owners are required to have specialized skills and knowledge in customer care, basic food and beverage techniques, marketing skills, packaging of authentic cultural itinerary, local tour guiding and knowledge on cultural and resource conservation. Essentially, capacity building for community members is very important if homestay programs are to achieve the intended purpose of increasing bed capacity and community empowerment. This component was largely found missing since each operator is on his/her own trying to figure out the best way to run the homestay. The operators therefore need to reflect on deliberate and collaborative management actions of: thinking of the client, appealing to the client, proper management of the homestay environment while collaborating with other stakeholders to improve on the tourism experience (Kihima, 2015). Such would depend also on motivation, creativity and resourcefulness of the homestay owner/operator.

Interventions Towards Inclusion The exclusion of homestays from the mainstream tourism sector is as a result of many factors beyond licensing and regulation. Creativity and resourcefulness of the homestay operators is therefore needed in harmonizing the cultural experience that will consequently determine the level of satisfaction of clients. This handicapped nature of operators makes the hotel and lodging industry to continue dominating the accommodation sector in the country. While the latter have a notable association – Kenya Hotel Keepers and Caterers Association (KAHC) the homestay sector is still fragmented in nature with each operator operating independently. This makes the sector largely invisible even among the policy makers. Nevertheless,

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the homestay sector in Kenya has showed the potential to engage communities in tourism. What is lacking is the enabling policy and legislation to enable the sector build on initiatives already in place. Moreover, to develop an ideal homestay, operators require finances to help improve their accommodation component in order to have them fit into the prescribed standards. A study done by Kimaiga, Kihima and Pepela (2015) revealed that homestays in Kenya lacked the very basic amenities such as decent beddings, and mosquito nets. Further, data collected from twenty homestays within Lake Victoria region (Ogucha et al, 2015) showed that 71% of tourists who used those facilities were dissatisfied with the services they received. With proper recognition from the policy makers, the homestays sector can access government financing to improve on their image. Consequently, with enhanced image, inclusion into the tour packages by the travel intermediaries would not be a challenge. While the Kenya National Tourism Blueprint 2030 priority strategy number three, states in part that government intends to “Increase community participation by implementing programs and projects designed to improve awareness of tourism within the local community” (GoK, 2017), there is no baseline information to demonstrate that such kind of programs happen in the local communities. Therefore, the homestay operators are yet to benefit from government programs because they have not been tailored towards this sector or there are no systems put in place to implement them. This is despite the fact that spread of tourism has penetrated places outside the major tourism poles making the concept of homestay timely. Indeed, tourism has multiple and varied sectors with diverse interests and widely different viewpoints on development. These interests combined with the pace of change; greatly increase complexity and uncertainty, creating a turbulent environment among the sector players in tourism destinations. The implication therefore is that destination stakeholders need to come up with a more inclusive and context based legal and policy framework for the tourism sector (Mayaka & Prasad, 2012).

Conclusion The operational legal requirements covering homestay sub-sector should endeavour to cover three main areas where the government is involved in tourism development, namely, (1) planning, (2) legislation and regulation and (3) coordination and co-operation (Churugsa, McIntosh & Simmons, 2007). This should be with an aim of maintaining a keen eye on high level of security, safety and cleanliness; embracing a think and act tourism mindset; and ease of accessibility to tourists. Indeed, the policy frameworks to manage the homestay tourism have not been put in place to support operators that have invested in this unique hospitality sector, particularly to promote rural or village tourism. This has left enterprising individuals

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setting up hotels and apartments by registering them as homestays obscuring the real homestay sector in the country. This may also lead to unpredictable quality and standards of operations and over commercialization of the concept. Still, such facilities may turn into cheap hotels with questionable standards hampering efforts to build trust and improve the homestay reputation. The need for a clearer categorization of homestays both in urban and rural areas is of essence. However, such should be owned by the family leasing it out for such a purpose and provide more than food and lodging. This chapter calls for separate homestay standards with the existing registration fee structure being maintained under the licensing framework. Nevertheless, Homestays should be encouraged to have insurance cover, to cushion families in the event of unplanned mishaps while the visitor is with the family. Moreover, the proposal is to have an appropriate and simplified licensing requirement taking into consideration the very nature of homestays as a form of tourism accommodation in spare household rooms. Such include restricting the proposed licensing requirements to the following: completed application form, copy of ID of proprietor, certificate of good conduct, application fee payable once and license fee as per applicable category payable annually into a specified government bank account. The following should therefore be taken into consideration to develop the homestay sector in Kenya: review the licensing systems to limit to the assessment criteria to registration, involve the county government in the development of the homestays within their jurisdictions, strengthen grievance mechanisms in this sector, simplify documentation for data capture and management, ensure that no tourism levy should be levied on homestays under article 105 and introduce Class J to cater for homestays operators.

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Kimaiga, R. K., & Kihima, B. O. (2018). Homestay Tourist Accommodation as a Tool for SocioEconomic Well-Being of Rural Communities in Kenya. Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Management, 6(4), 143–151. Lynch, P. A., McIntoch, A. J., & Tucker, H. (2009). Commercial Homes in Tourism: An International Perspective. London, & New York: Routledge. Mapjabil, J., Siti Asma, M. R., Munir, S., & Sharmini, A. (2011). State program of development of peninsular Malaysia: Profile, products and prospect in Malaysia. Journal of Society and Space, 7(2), 45–54. Mayaka, M., Croy, W. G., & Cox, J. W. (2018). Participation as motif in community-based tourism: A practice perspective. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 26(3), 416–432. Mayaka, M. A., & Prasad, H. (2012). Tourism in Kenya: An analysis of strategic issues and challenges. Tourism Management Perspectives, 1, 48–56. Nadiri, H., & Hussain, K. (2005). Perceptions of service quality in north Cyprus hotels. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 27(3), 785–804. Ndivo, R. M., & Oketch, R. N. (2019). Tourism Governance in Transition Period: Restructuring Kenya’s Tourism Administration from Centralized to Devolved System. Tourism Planning, & Development, 17(2), 166–186. North, D. C. (1990). Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. New York: Cambridge University Press. Ogucha, E. B., Riungu, G. K., Kiama, F. K., & Mukolwe, E. (2015). The influence of homestay facilities on tourist satisfaction in the Lake Victoria Kenya Tourism Circuit. Journal of Ecotourism, 14(2–3), 278–287. Okello, M. M., & Novelli, M. (2014). Tourism in the East African Community (EAC): Challenges, Opportunities, and ways forward. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 14(1-2), 53–66. Wondirad, A., & Ewnetu, B. (2019). Community participation in tourism development as a tool to foster sustainable land and resource use practices in a national park milieu. Land Use Policy, 88(104155), 1–13.

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4 Sustainable Management and Ecotourism Destination Governance in Africa Introduction In recent years there has been significant progress in the field of sustainability. In the business management domain, there is the move from narrower definitions of sustainability of competitive advantage based on superior economic performance to greater recognition of the importance of other dimensions of performance connected to the social and environmental impacts of firm behavior (Harrison, Bosse & Phillips, 2010 cited in Zollo, Cennamo & Neumann, 2013). Any change in socio-economic dimensions will have an impact on the environment and vice versa, whether positively or negatively, immediately or eventually. Moreover, in many cases, negative results are irreversible (Awan, 2013). According to United Nations Environment Programme (2007), it is crucial to meet the needs of this generation without sacrificing the ability of future generations to meet their needs, and this has been the definition of sustainable development since the publication of the Brundtland Report in 1987. Today, sustainable development involves not just one but four complex interacting systems. It deals with a global economy that now spans every part of the world; it focuses on social interactions of trust, ethics, inequality, and social support networks in communities (including new global online communities made possible by revolutions in the information and communications technologies, or ICTs); it analyses the changes to complex Earth systems such as climate and ecosystems; and it studies the problems of governance, including the performance of governments and businesses (Sachs, 2015, p. 8)

The journey towards sustainable development requires that businesses, governments and individuals take action, i.e., changing consumption and production behaviors, setting policies and changing practices. Businesses have to find innovative ways to be profitable and at the same time, improve the environmental performance of production processes and products. According to Fennell (2015), ecotourism continues to be embraced as a contrast to mass tourism because of its promise of achieving sustainability through conservation, community development, education and learning and the promotion of nature-based activities that are sensitive to both ecological and social systems. However, the extent to which this promise has been realized is subject to debate. While observation and appreciation of natural features and related cultures are peculiar with ecotourism, physical exercise and the challenging situations in the natural environment are the focus of adventure tourism. Why should ecotourism be viewed differently from other forms of sustainable tourism? Reasons provided by Wood (2002, p. 13) include the following:

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“Specialized marketing to attract travelers who are primarily interested in visiting natural areas. 2. Management skills that are particular in handling visitors in protected natural areas. 3. Guiding and interpretation services preferably managed by local inhabitants that are focused on natural history and sustainable development issues. 4. Government policies that earmark fees from tourism to generate funds for both conservation of wildlands and the sustainable development of local communities and indigenous people. 5. Focus attention on local people and give them the right of prior informed consent, full participation and, if they so decide given the means and training to take advantage of this sustained development option.” 1.

The debate around sustainability management is a recent phenomenon with some scholars arguing for redefining the term management to include sustainability. The central issues addressed in the discipline of business history is concerned with how business enterprises innovate and create wealth, as well as patterns of success and failure in that process. However, they now exist a compelling stream of new research focused on the environmental consequences of economic growth (Bergquist, 2017), which has led to the continuous need for the development of conceptual approaches to theories of sustainability management for application to management research, education, and practice. However, since the consideration of theories of sustainability management is relatively new for most management scholars, dialogue among stakeholders should begin, to better describe, develop and apply this and related theories of sustainability management as significantly, effectively, and urgently as possible. Starik and Kanashiro (2013) defined sustainability management as the formulation, implementation and evaluation of both environmental and socio-economic sustainability-related decisions and actions. However, Hörisch, Freeman and Schaltegger (2014) believe that sustainability management research which builds on conventional management theories is necessary to integrate sustainability to mainstream business studies discussions. Their concern is that solely focusing on a distinct sustainability management theory might separate sustainability management from general management studies. They therefore feel that conversation with mainstream business scholars and practitioners is of crucial importance in order to influence management decisions and to support transitions toward corporate sustainability. Setting up a distinct theory of sustainability management means that sustainability scholars want conventional businessmen and businesswomen to learn their language. In contrast, building on existing approaches that are also applicable in other fields of interest reflects the position that there is a need to learn the language of general business studies to promote sustainability management. Both approaches are certainly justified, and most likely, both approaches are necessary.

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The concept of sustainable management is part of corporate/destination governance. According to Hanyu and Mingfang (2014), until recently previous research on tourism destination management have focused on the role of government as the most critical stakeholder in destination management, leading to a top-down approach which puts the government at the center of attention. However, scholars have started to recognize that stakeholders such as residents, tourists and tourism business are essential parts of a destination and have significant influences on local social and economic development. The recognition has significantly impacted on the need for corporate governance in the tourism industry and ecotourism, in particular, to design their business plans and strategies with stakeholders in mind (Hanyu & Mingfang, 2014). Tourism governance involves managing organizations (travel agencies, tour operators, hotels and restaurants), local public authorities (public transport and information points), and the third sector (tourism cooperatives, cultural associations). The tourist destination becomes a network of relations between all of the actors (Franzoni, 2015). The term “destination governance,” in general, refers to a system through which the various organizations relate to each other and their stakeholders in a tourism destination. A stakeholder gets linked to each other through relations, connections and integrated processes of governance (planning, control, assessment and accountability), in order to facilitate the overall effectiveness of the system (Franzoni, 2015).

Africa’s Tourism Challenges The tourism industry plays an increasingly important role in the global economy. It contributes 5% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 30% of service exports and 235 million jobs. Approximately 1 billion people travel internationally. By 2030, consumer spending on tourism, hospitality and recreation in Africa should reach about USD $261.77 billion, USD $137.87 billion more than in 2015. However, except in a few countries, such as Mauritius and Seychelles, where the tourism sector’s share of the economy is particularly large, tourism in Africa is still at an early stage of development and strongly connected with more general and longstanding development challenges, including infrastructure and security. Recently, most countries in Africa have already drafted strategic plans to develop the sector as an economic opportunity and development catalyst. Countries such as the Gambia, Kenya, South Africa and Tanzania are all putting significant efforts into advancing travel and tourism development. Botswana, Mauritius, Rwanda and South Africa are mainly working hard to improve their business environment for tourism investment (Signé, 2018). While government’s role in tourism development is essential in its development due to the cost implications and necessity of public goods for which the industry depends on, the active involvement of the private sector cannot be overlooked if truly sustainable destinations

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are to be developed. It then implies that the models that have made the private sector vibrant and successful need to be examined in the context of ecotourism management. The slow growth in most African countries is traceable to poor management of the destinations. Some challenges in places like Zimbabwe have been traced to the macro-economic environment as the primary threat to this ecotourism venture. The lessons to be learnt from the Mahenye ecotourism venture as it relates to Zimbabwe and Southern Africa region is that local communities alone without technical support, such as business marketing and promotion assistance from established tourism enterprises cannot facilitate economic viability and overall sustainability of ecotourism ventures. (Chiuts, Mukoroverwa, Karigambe & Mudzengi, 2011). In Nigeria, ecotourism destinations are threatened by insecurity, neglect and government bureaucracy as the government still own 100% of main tourism destinations (Bankole, 2002). Generally, some of the primary challenges to investing successfully in Africa’s tourism sector include infrastructure and institutions, environmental and security risks, economic risks related to the problems of poor infrastructure and economic mismanagement, and the high cost of doing business in Africa. Also, strong linkages between the public and private sector are necessary to enable businesses to enter and operate effectively in the tourism industry, as coordination is required across multiple sectors, such as infrastructure, finance, education and transport. Effective strategies depend on the consideration of visa requirements and marketing. After initial development, destination promotion is critical for attracting clients and financing. Some destinations are already ripe for positive marketing, such as those with particularly attractive endowments. Individual submarkets are highly receptive to different kinds of endowments, such as untouched beaches, active volcanoes, big game or a variety of bird species. Local content creation, over the long term, working successfully in Africa’s tourism market, will depend on maintaining effective partnerships with the public sector and developing linkages with the local community. Supporting a basis for tourism also requires gaining support from the local community, which makes visitors feel welcome and contributes to the authentic experience that many travelers are looking for. Where collaboration with the local community has been poorly managed, the tourism industry has been associated with contributing to sociocultural crises, such as the spread of disease, rising crime rates, income inequalities, prostitution, and exploitation. Effective partnerships also emerge when businesses directly engage the local community in their activities, such as creating cultural experiences for visitors or investing in education and training exercises to increase local employment in the industry. When businesses are planned and managed wisely, tourism can enhance a sense of pride among local communities, generate economic activity and direct employment for locals, and preserve resources, historic sites and traditional activities. All of this contributes to a positive feedback loop that bolsters the longterm sustainability and profitability of investment in Africa’s tourism market. The

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tourism industry is also at the center of the objectives of the African Union Agenda 2063. Over the next ten years, the World Travel & Tourism Council predicts that tourism will create at least 3.8 million new jobs on the continent – increasing the size of the industry by roughly 30% – and generate $33.5 billion in direct investment from the United States alone. Long-term projections estimate that arrivals on the continent will continue to grow by an impressive 4.4% through 2035 – from 120 million to 280 million domestic and international travelers each year. All these signal potentials for returns to investment in tourism in the coming decades and Africa is getting ready to reap the benefits (Signé, 2018). It is from the above challenges and potentials that this review systematically searches through literature to determine the level of engagement of management scholars in ecotourism destination management research that have been done in the last 20 years. The assumption here is that management scholars have a great responsibility of extending the commitment it has given the corporate world through research to the ecotourism sector. Is there generally accepted definition of sustainable management concept in literature? Do ecotourism destination management researchers anchor their studies on management theories? Do the recommendations from ecotourism destination management researchers rely on explicit management theories and practices? These concerns are the drivers of this study. It was considered necessary to scrutinize and synthesise a large volume of research on ecotourism destination management as a phenomenon of interest, seeking to generate new insights from integrating empirical evidence, in setting directions for future research for management scholars. In doing these, we adopt the approach proposed by Al-Tabbaa, Ankrah and Zahoor (2019).

Management Theories and Disruptive Potentials for Ecotourism To make progress on these kinds of intellectual and practical questions, individual researchers (and, indeed, the entire research enterprise) operate in two distinct but highly related worlds: the abstract (the world of concepts/ideas) and the concrete (the empirical/observable world). This is why this study assumes that the adoption of management theories in ecotourism destination management research is critical to the growth and development of the sector. Hence it can trigger the disruptive approach that would allow tourism researchers and practitioners to think outside the box. In this light, therefore, Hussain, Ul Haque and Baloch, (2019) observed that it is essential to note that management theories have been essential issues of discussions among management scholars, and depending on the management philosophy inclinations of scholar or practitioner specific theories tends to appeal to them while others do not. This has led to a series of debates and reviews of management theories

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over the years. These can be broadly categorized into three schools of thought namely: classical management theory, neo-classical management theory and modern management theory respectively. Classical theories placed greater emphasis on scientific methods, administrative approach. and bureaucratic structures for managerial practices, thereby focusing on the task efficiency. In contrast, neo-classical school of thoughts focus on the human’s individual needs, their relations at work, behavioral aspects, and the motivations behind effectiveness. These two, therefore, could be said to promote efficiency and effectiveness. Lastly, is the new management school which argues that there is “no one fit method for all situations” thereby focusing on systems and contingent approaches. In contrast, organizational humanism and management science remain as the core concept to operate in a dynamic environment. Additionally, the latest work of Foucault and Bourdieu is used to explain the modernity of Management (Hussain, Ul Haque & Baloch, 2019). In their conclusion, Hussain, Ul Haque and Baloch, (2019) observed that Frederick W. Taylor is known to be a “father of scientific management” the scientific management school focused on the “one best way” to do the task with economic and monetary rewards. They further observed that the major drawback of this school of thought is that it treats and views worker from the lens of economics only. In contrast, workers’ behaviors are not always directed by financial needs as there are other motivational needs apart from economic gains. Therefore, one way of doing things may not necessarily apply to all situations. They relied on scientific methods to measure efficiency. While the human relations school largely focused on the human side of enterprise, with emphasis on individual needs that drives people to do well at the workplace. They further concluded that despite changes in the contemporary life still management practices of the modern-day revolve around the earlier schools of management including: classical and neo-classical schools of thoughts. They further observed that there is a shift in paradigm from “task-orientation,” “efficiency,” “structural patterns” and “one fit for all” to “people-orientation,” “effectiveness,” “flexibility” and “situational stance.” However, although, the challenges of the modern-day management appear to be largely altered due to increased complexities, context, and connectedness, the management practices are largely driven from the traditionalists and human relations school of thought. Today managers are using the pragmatic approach to deal with the contemporary management challenges by using the mix of strategy resulting from the classical and neo-classical schools of management. By using the situation as a context, organization as a system, individual needs as part of organizational humanism, and contingent approach to managing workforce through a wide range of managerial practices that are driven from schools of management. Therefore, the purpose of management theories remained on the effective and efficient management of resources in order to retain the best talent and survive in the dynamic environment by

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using the approach and style that is in the best of organizational interest (Hussain, Ul Haque & Baloch, 2019). It can be argued from the forgoing that these metamorphosis in management theories were results of practical realities behind the growth and development of the private sector today. The level of disruptions in the management of the private sector organizations is responsible for its continuous adoption of new ways of doing a thing. What could be the level of engagement of management professionals in ecotourism destination management in Africa? Disruption could simply be viewed as a displacement of the traditional ways of doing things and the adoption of a more efficient and effective way of doing it with the maximization of the benefits of technological innovations. The understanding and adoption of appropriate management theories in ecotourism destination management research could lead to appropriate disruptive strategies. That should transform the tourism sector to adopt the desired competitive culture of the private sector but without neglect of the affected stakeholders, which should ensure respect for sustainability principles.

Methodology A systematic review has become a methodology for reviewing the accumulated knowledge in different fields by scrutinizing and synthesising a large volume of research on a specific topic or phenomenon. To generate new insights from integrating empirical evidence, identifying knowledge gaps and inconsistencies and setting directions for future research (Al-Tabbaa, Ankrah & Zahoor, 2019). This study is aimed at systematically reviewing research carried out on sustainable management of ecotourism destinations in Africa. The phenomena of interest are the anchoring theories for the studies and their related recommendations thereof. The study examines how anchoring theories influence the type of management recommendations made for a disruptive change in ecotourism destination management in Africa. According to Tranfield, Denyer and Smart (2003), this methodology has sufficient momentum from academics, practitioners, and government in stirring the urgent need to re-evaluate the process by which management researchers conduct literature reviews. Over the last 15 years, medical science has attempted to improve the quality of the review process. It is assumed here that applying specific principles of the systematic review methodology used in the medical sciences to management research will help in counteracting bias by making explicit the values and assumptions underpinning a review. By enhancing the legitimacy and authority of the resultant evidence, systematic reviews could provide practitioners and policymakers with a reliable basis to formulate decisions and take action. It is particularly sobering if one considers the growing pressures upon practitioners in today’s global trading

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environments to do this in shorter cycle times. The nature of the field of management research has been the subject, over the years, to considerable analysis and discussion. Much of this discussion and debate has focused upon the ontological status of the field, particularly its fragmented and divergent nature. The 1990s saw an extensive debate concerning the nature of management research within the British Academy of Management, which focused on the ontological status of the field, and particularly the extent to which academic-practitioner relations were to be privileged (Tranfield, Denyer & Smart, 2003). It is based on the strength of a systematic review that it was adopted for this study (see Figure 4.1).

Step 1: Specifying the Man Review Questions In an attempt to disrupt the ecotourism destination management in Africa positively, it is essential to ask the critical questions that should form the basis of recommendations proposed. The questions raised by this study include the following: – Is there generally accepted definition of sustainable management concept in literature? – Do ecotourism destination management researchers anchor their studies on management theories? – Do the recommendations from ecotourism destination management researchers rely on explicit management theories and practices?

Step 2: Defining the Initial Review Sample In line with the template provided by Al-Tabbaa, Ankrah and Zahoor, (2019), this study chose to cover a time frame of 20 years that is from 2000 to 2020 because the sustainability concept is a recent phenomenon. In 1983, the United Nations created a Commission to address the growing concern over the accelerating deterioration of the human environment and natural resources and the consequences of that deterioration for economic and social development. The commission produced a report called the Brundtland Report, which popularised the most commonly used definition of sustainable development. “Development that meets the needs of current generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (United Nations, 2010). According to the Brundtland report and the general definition of sustainable development, economic, ecological and social aspects are supposed to be given equal weight (Widok, 2009). Therefore sustainability, as used today, is a 21st century phenomenon. It informs the choice of the timeframe for this study. This study further defines its search terms and the combinations by first specifying the key concepts, which include: sustainability, ecotourism, tourism, destinations, governance, location, management theories and community tourism. Then using

4. Sample Size generated by this initial stage is 287

3. Limited to empirical and l iterature review studies

Figure 4.1: Systematic Literature Review Process. Source: Adapted from Al-Tabbaa, Ankrah and Zahoor (2019)

Do the recommendations from ecotourism destination management researchers rely on clear management theories as used in the study?

Do ecotourism destination management researchers anchor their studies on management theories?

1. Specifying the study time frame: 2000 to 2020

Is there a generally accepted definition of sustainable management concept in literature? 2. Determining the key term for searching and the Boolean combinations

Step 2: Defining the Initial Review Sample

Step 1:

Specifying the Review Main Questions

2. Result of screening as final Sample generated an initial sample of 58 and further screening ended with a sample size of 11 for the purposes of data extraction and analysis

1. Defining the strong and closer themes to the phenomena of interest for inclusion/exclusion criteria

7. Recommendations

6. Interpretation and conclusions

5. Commented on the link and its significance

4.Compare theory used and the recommendations made to establish the link.

3. Identify the academic discipline of the researchers

2.Identify theories and recommendations used in each study.

1. Used tabulation techniques

Step 4: Data Extraction and Synthesis

Step 3: Selecting the final Sample

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the Boolean operators “odds ratio (OR)” and “AND” various keywords were combined to establish searching terms as follows: – “Sustainability” OR “Ecotourism” OR “Africa” “Community tourism” AND; – “Destination” OR “Location” AND; – “Management” OR “Governance” AND; – “Theories” OR “Philosophy” An example is Sustainability AND Tourism AND Management AND Africa. The electronic databases were used for the study to identify articles that were mainly empirical studies as they are expected to be paired review journals; this is to ensure that the literature reviewed was empirically validated and tested. Elsevier (science direct), Academia, Research Gate, Google Scholar and Mendeley were the sources. The choice of these databases is because they are well known for publications in management, social sciences and tourism. Several researchers across the world also utilize them. This process produced 287 journal articles as the initial sample before applying the selection criteria.

Step 3: Selecting the Final Samples At this stage, each article was scanned through by reading the topic, abstract, Literature review and the recommendations before applying inclusion and exclusion criteria. The critical themes used for this purpose include: forms of tourism, motivations for tourism stakeholder participation, the formation of tourism destinations, operationalisation of tourism destinations and performance of destinations. The studies included were examined to provide insight into the understanding of the review questions earlier raised. The following questions were used to determine inclusion and exclusion. 1. Does the Study focus on ecotourism destination in Africa? 2. Is it an empirical or a literature review study in ecotourism or sustainable tourism? 3. Does the study address issue around tourism stakeholders’ participation? 4. Does the study focus on rural tourism and cultural tourism? 5. Does the study address management of ecotourism destinations? 6. Does the study focus on sustainable management of ecotourism destinations? 7. Does the study examine ecotourism destination development or performance? Condition for inclusion is the answer to question one must be yes and any other one yes from questions two to seven. The result of this process is the inclusion of 58 studies from 278 journal articles. In the final selection, the following questions were raised to select the studies that were analysed: 1. Is the study anchored on a clear theoretical framework? 2. Did the study make recommendations?

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This process led to the selection of 11 studies for the analysis that met the last criteria leading to step 4, which is the extraction and analysis.

Step 4: Data Extraction and Analysis At this stage, the 38 studies were categorized and tabulated in line with the three key research questions for description. Below is the result of this:

Interpretation The review process has shown that very few studies in sustainable tourism/ecotourism research in Africa have strong theoretical foundations and also clear recommendations for the same study. It is evident on the fact that out of the initial sample of 287 articles, only 58 articles scaled to the second stage and 11 articles to the final stage for analysis. These eleven studies have explicit, anchoring theories and recommendations. It was based on the extracted eleven studies that we examined the three review questions set at the beginning of the study, which includes the following: – Is there generally accepted definition of sustainable management concept in literature? – Do ecotourism destination management researchers anchor their studies on management theories? – Do the recommendations from ecotourism destination management researchers rely on clear management theories and practices? The first observations show that there is no generally accepted definition for the concept of sustainable management; however, there are ongoing debates as to the need to redefine the term management to include sustainability, given the importance of sustainability and human/business survival. Also, from the Table 4.1, comparing the use of management theories and recommendations made according to the academic discipline of the researchers, it would be generally observed that each author’s discipline influences the theory and the recommendations used in his study. Finally, it would be appropriate to say that Ecotourism destination management researchers come from different disciplines, but in this study, 7 out of 11 representing 63% are from management or related discipline. However, this is because the eleven met the inclusion criteria and their recommendations are mostly management inclined. The challenges here, however, is that they are not driven by specific management strategies but general in most cases.

Academic Discipline: Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine Location: Cameroon

Title of Study : Determinants of Ecotourism Trade-in Cameroon (Sama & Molua, ) No acceptable definition of sustainable management stated

Author/s Affiliated Review Question : Academic Discipline Is there a generally and Study Location accepted definition of sustainable management concept in the study?

Study Topic

Table 4.1: Extraction and Analysis.

The recommendations of the study are based on the economic theory used in theory.

Do the recommendations from the study rely on clear management theories as used in the study?

Did the ecotourism destination management researchers anchor their studies on management theories?

The model for specification in this study is based on the classical economic a theory which assumes that income and price factors constitute an important role to determine the demand for ecotourism

Review Question :

Review Question :

The study focused on Ecotourism in Cameroon from an economic perspective. Therefore, they have not anchored on management theory. However, there is a secure link between theory and recommendations made, suggesting that the more management scholars are engaged in sustainable tourism research, the more management options for disruptive management strategies would be available.

Review Comment

60 Emmanuel Musa Samdi and Teresa M. Nmadu

Academic Discipline: Urban and Regional Planning Location: Nigeria

Academic Discipline Geography and Planning Location: Nigeria

Title of Study : Indigenous peoples’ perception of ecotourism in Cross River State, Nigeria (Ojong, Eja, Undelikwo & Agbo, )

Title of Study : The Economic Impact of Tourism Development in Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria (Adeboye, Jegede & Eniafe, ) No acceptable definition of sustainable management stated

No acceptable definition of sustainable management stated

The study used the product life cycle theory in which sales of a new product are seen to slowly grow and then experience a period of rapid growth, before stabilising and subsequently declining. This falls with management thinking.

Human society and the physical environment The theory was used.

However, the recommendation does not reflect the anchoring theory. The recommendation can be classified as being more of a social science perspective than management science.

The recommendation was influenced by the social theory used (human society and the physical environment)

(continued)

The weak link between the theory and the recommendations could be explained from the fact that the authors’ primary discipline influenced the recommendations than the business theory used.

The study which examined a critical aspect of ecotourism provided recommendations in line with its discipline as such the absence of management theory as expected. Therefore, the more management scholars get involved in tourism research, the more positive disruptive management strategies would be recommended.

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Author/s Affiliated Review Question : Academic Discipline Is there a generally and Study Location accepted definition of sustainable management concept in the study?

Academic Discipline No consensus Tourism according to the Management and study Geography Location: Zimbabwe

Study Topic

Title of Study : Community Tourism Entrepreneurship for Sustainable Tourism Management in Southern Africa: Lessons from Zimbabwe (Chiutsi & Mudzengi, )

Table 4.1 (continued)

Yes There is a link between the theory and the recommendation as recommendation centered around entrepreneurship models while also emphasising on specifics in marketing

Do the recommendations from the study rely on clear management theories as used in the study?

Did the ecotourism destination management researchers anchor their studies on management theories?

The approach is a paradigm shift towards developing a community tourism entrepreneurship model that seeks to place local communities at the center of tourism management, thereby deriving direct income from tourism activities.

Review Question :

Review Question :

The connections in this study between theory and recommendations are apparent. The recommendations suggested that the existing management processes can be disrupted positively by adopting modern management techniques around entrepreneurship.

Review Comment

62 Emmanuel Musa Samdi and Teresa M. Nmadu

Academic Discipline: Urban Planning and Tourism Management Location the Gambia

Academic Discipline: Tourism and Hospitality Location Ghana

Title of Study : Segmentation by motivation for rural tourism activities in The Gambia (Rid, Ezeuduji & Pröbstl-Haider, )

Title of Study : Community Participation, Risk Management and Ecotourism Sustainability Issues in Ghana (Eshun & Tichaawa, ) No acceptable definition of sustainable management stated

No acceptable definition of sustainable management stated

Risk management theory was adopted for this study, and the model discussed extensively this anchored the study

Consumer behavior theory was adopted to explain recreationists’ choices by motivations, attitudes and preferences, all of which are strictly related concepts

The recommendation was solid and driven by risk management and ways to minimize risk in ecotourism

There is a strong link of theory to the recommendation as key marketing strategies such as market segmentation were recommended with precise specifications that would encourage decision making.

(continued)

This displayed the significance of the link between theory and recommendation

“the empirical and theoretical outcomes of the study can help toward developing practical risk management strategies for sustainable ecotourism development in Ghana.”

This study observed that

This study demonstrated the importance of linking anchoring theory to recommendations as these would give the research the desired value for effective decision making. It is an excellent example of management theory and management recommendations

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Academic Discipline: Commerce Location: Zimbabwe

Title of Study : Ecotourism within communities in Zimbabwean resort areas (Marunda & Chaneta, ) No acceptable definition of sustainable management stated

Author/s Affiliated Review Question : Academic Discipline Is there a generally and Study Location accepted definition of sustainable management concept in the study?

Study Topic

Table 4.1 (continued)

The recommendations do not align with the theory anchoring the study. It is because the recommendation did not discuss the various stages of the tourist life cycle and strategies required to go through it sustainably.

Do the recommendations from the study rely on clear management theories as used in the study?

Did the ecotourism destination management researchers anchor their studies on management theories?

This model of the tourist life cycle was adopted which provides a useful insight into understanding how destinations evolve and have to cater for different categories of tourists at each stage of the life cycle and that tourism will impact negatively on the destination if proper management decisions are not met.

Review Question :

Review Question :

There is no clear link between theory and practice. Therefore, specific management recommendations driven by the philosophy of management were not strong enough to guide decision-makers.

Review Comment

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Academic Discipline: Business and Tourism Location: South Africa

Academic Discipline: Science & Technology Location: Tanzania

Title of Study : An ecotourism model for South African National Parks (De Witt & Der Merwe, )

Title of Study : Towards success of ecotourism networks in Tanzania: A case of Tanzania association of tour operators (Pasape & Mujwiga, ) No acceptable definition of sustainable management stated

No acceptable definition of sustainable management stated

The study adopts the stakeholders’ theory which is very relevant in st century management thinking.

The adopted model is referred to as the Ecotourism Opportunity Spectrum (ECOS). It is based on existing models such as the ROS and the TOS. The ECOS model was developed to analyse the factors that affect and imply multistakeholder participation in managing an area as an ecotourism site The recommendation was rather general and not tied to specific management strategies and processes that could be used by decisionmakers

There is a strong connection between the theories and the recommended ecotourism management model developed showing input, process and output

(continued)

Although the stakeholders’ theory was used as the anchoring theory, the recommendations were weak, strong recommendations that are implementable from the management of stakeholders should have strengthened the recommendations.

The result of this study can be of significant importance to ecotourism management researchers; the model developed could be used to develop disruptive management strategies.

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Academic Discipline: Tourism and Hospitality Management/ Regional science Location: Kenya

Title of Study : Community-Based Tourism and Sustainable Development of Rural Regions in Kenya: Perceptions of the Citizenry (Juma & Khademi-Vidra, ) A clear and generally acceptable definition of sustainable management is still a debatable issue.

Author/s Affiliated Review Question : Academic Discipline Is there a generally and Study Location accepted definition of sustainable management concept in the study?

Study Topic

Table 4.1 (continued) Review Comment

The recommendation from this study strengthens the argument that sustainable tourism management researchers need to “Despite communal examine management ownership and theories and link their Management, only recommendations to professional Management these theories if a positive of CBT will guarantee disruption is expected in long-term sustainability tourism management. for jobs and livelihoods. CBT”

The recommendations have a strong link with the theoretical framework of the study concluded that

Do the recommendations from the study rely on clear management theories as used in the study?

Did the ecotourism destination management researchers anchor their studies on management theories?

This study was anchored on sustainable development theory. It examined several management issues from this perspective.

Review Question :

Review Question :

66 Emmanuel Musa Samdi and Teresa M. Nmadu

Academic Discipline: Tourism Studies/ geography and environment Location: Kenya

Source: Computed by researchers 2020

Title of Study : Sustainable Ecotourism Management in Kenya (Okech & Urmilla, ) No generally accepted definition of sustainable management as a concept. The recommendations are strongly linked to the theory, and the recommendations may not be on specific “that from a managerial management strategy, but perspective, the it strongly recognized the stakeholder theory posits importance of that the various groups management as it can and should have a observed that immediate, direct influence on short-term and managerial decisionlong-term planning and making. As such, effective management actions management demands need to be taken in order synchronous attention to to stop the current the genuine interests of reduced use and localized all appropriate overuse of the stakeholders” Amboseli and Mara.

The study adopted the stakeholders’ theory as the anchor and also recognized This is another strong link between theory and relevant recommendations based on the theoretical framework. This study can be built upon by carrying out further investigating on the specific management strategies that would be quickly adopted by policy-makers and decision-makers such as tourism managers.

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Conclusion and Recommendations The study concludes that the slow growth and development of the tourism sector in Africa is partly because management scholars and the private sector play very insignificant roles than they do in the corporate world. Governments around Africa are not encouraging tourism education and research from a management/Business perspective. Also, the term management which focus more on shareholders’ interest may account for the largely profit oriented mind set of those given the responsibility to manage destinations. There seems to be low level of engagement in ecotourism destination management by researcher from the management discipline in Africa. This lack of engagement could affect innovations and creativity negatively because recommendations made may not be specific and implementable from a competitive and long term backed by survival strategies at the face of challenges. Relying on government funds donations may not be sufficient. This study recommends as follows: 1. For disruptive changes to happen in Africa’s Sustainable Tourism sector, there is the need to encourage the participation of the private sector mindset, which is usually driven by management scholars. Management scholars can be encouraged to be well engaged. If Africa’s academia develops and makes tourism education a department in the faculty of management sciences, preferably that social sciences, the private sector mindset would be imparted on tourism. Ecotourism has to be driven like any other business but with the concept of sustainability principle in mind, and these can best be done by those who drive the private sector (management scientist). 2. There is also the need to re-examine the definition of the concept of management to include the principle of sustainability.

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Okhiria, A. O., Adeboye, A. E., & Usdame, J. O. (2014). Threats and Challenges of Tourism to Indigenous Culture in some selected Tourism sites in Akwa Ibom, Nigeria. European Journal of Business and Social Sciences, 20–28. Onyeabor, E. N. (2016). Ecotourism Potential of Ebonyi state, Nigeria: Assessing ecological sites, cultural resources and attitudes of Host-communities. International Journal of Development and Economic Sustainability, 53–72. Pasape, L., & Mujwiga, S. (2017). Towards success of ecotourism networks in Tanzania: A case of Tanzania association of tour operators. Journal of Hospitality Management and Tourism, 14–24. Rengasamy, D. (2016). The role of theory in social science research (with special reference to business and management studies). IJARIIE-ISSN(O)-2395-4396, 1(Issue-3), 120–125. Rid, W., Ezeuduji, I., & Pröbstl-Haider, U. (2014). Segmentation by motivation for rural tourism activities in The Gambia. Tourism Management, 102–116. Sachs, J. D. (2015). The age of sustainable development. New York: Columbia University Press. Salazar, N. B. (2012). Community-based cultural tourism: Issues, threats, and opportunities. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 9–22. Sama, G., & Molua, E. (2019). Determinants of ecotourism trade in Cameroon. Natural Resources, 202–217. Signé, L. (2018). Africa’s tourism potential Trends, drivers, opportunities, and strategies. London: Africa Growth Initiative, Brookings Institution. Snyder, H. (2019). Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines. Journal of Business Research, 333–339. Starik, M., & Kanashiro, P. (2013). Toward a theory of sustainability management: Uncovering and integrating the nearly obvious. Organization & Environment, 26(1), 7–30. Tranfield, D., Denyer, D., & Smart, P. (2003). Towards a methodology for developing evidenceinformed management knowledge by means of systematic review. British Journal of Management, 14, 207–222. United Nations. (2010). Sustainable development: From Brundtland to Rio 2012 background paper. New York: United nation. Widok, A. (2009). Social sustainability: theories, concepts, practicability. Environmental Informatics and Industrial Environmental Protection: Concepts, Methods and Tools, 43–51. Wood, M. E. (2002). Ecotourism: Principles, practices and policies for sustainability. France: United Nations Environment Programme. Zollo, M., Cennamo, C., & Neumann, K. (2013). Beyond what and why: Understanding organizational evolution towards sustainable enterprise models. 26(3), 241–259. DOI: 10.1177/1086026613496433 http://oae.sagepub.com

Abdou Ba

5 Featured Example: Tourism and Migration in Senegal Introduction I opened my travel agency in Dakar Senegal in 2012 and have been working with young people to deliver both inbound and outbound tours within the region. My travel agency also organizes annual pilgrimage trips to Mecca. I got support from the National Agency for Tourism Promotion, in terms of familiarization trips for product awareness in my region, and also received packaged information on how to manage business. My entrepreneurship journey in tourism has been revelatory of the opportunities in the sector that the younger generation in my country Senegal can engage in, especially because many college graduates struggle to find jobs. Because of its geographical position, a solid democracy, a social and political history, Senegal offers many opportunities for young people to get active in the tourism trades. Tourism is Senegal’s second-largest economy behind agriculture and fishing (primary sector). Since 2012, the country has been developing incubation centers to enable young people with vocational training to enter tourism, because the sector offers many opportunities to reduce the rising unemployment rate. Ideally, it is not difficult to start up a tourism business because the state has set up a special fund dedicated to the sector (The Tourism Promotion Fund), typically referred to the young graduate aspiring to enter the field. The government has also set up a delegation called the Rapid Entrepreneurship Delegation (DER) for young people and women. This is a line of credit whose interest rate is very low. Both initiatives allow young people to start-up businesses, once their project idea has been approved by the funding teams. These institutions also monitor and evaluate projects put in place by young people, providing long-term support to maintain the life of the project. However, there are many organizational constraints, and poor management which fail to optimize benefits of these support systems for the youth. Thus, the problem of youth unemployment is still a challenge in Senegal, and this reason pushes some to migrate to Europe in search of economic opportunities. Often, they take risky journeys across the seas in their search of better economic opportunities in Europe. Whereas migration presents opportunities for tourism in both origin and destination countries, high risk journeys of young people from west Africa to Europe have been detrimental to development of countries of origin, with unquantified costs on brain drain and other social consequences. Economic reasons are the main cause of illegal emigration, and the hospitality and tourism sector in destination countries provide better opportunities for employment. Indeed, young people who https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110702491-005

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think that they cannot achieve their dreams of prosperity in Senegal try at all costs to go to Europe. Contrary to what many people think, most of these young people are not unemployed. They have formal or informal economic activities that allow them to free up subsidies to finance their migration adventure. However, their wages are usually low in informal job sectors, thus the urge to search for greener pastures. The migration crisis for countries in West Africa presents legal, cultural, as well as economic issues for policy.

Why the Journeys? For the younger generations, the social success of their brothers and sisters who live in Europe especially in Spain, Italy and France, is one of the greatest catalysts of this social phenomenon. Indeed, a considerable number of those in diaspora manage to put their families back home in enviable social conditions, for example providing them with beautiful houses. When back on vacation to visit their families, they showcase very pleasant lifestyles, definitely a source of admiration for the youthful population. This puts a great psychological pressure on them and intensifies their desire to leave the country to match social status of their peers who emigrated. In our society where polygamous families are numerous, the rivalries linked to this phenomenon are very strong and sometimes ignite the psychological pressure highlighted above which is reinforced by social divisions. Some parents therefore encourage these journeys, at times even helping to finance trips through sale of their belongings, for example jewellery, land or houses. Those who succeed in these journeys merit admiration and respect, whereas the unsuccessful ones are side-lined in social spheres. The recent increase in youth unemployment rates in the country fuels illegal emigration. Since economic activities in the rural world are very limited and have low profit margins, young people are used to going to cities to do odd jobs. With the policy of municipalities to reorganize cities, street vendors who invaded the streets of Dakar are no longer wanted. The artisanal and industrial sector is stifled mainly by free trade agreements and the unrestrained pace of imports of all kinds of products from China and Europe. These factors render the sector structurally unable to absorb the huge mass of unemployed in an ever-growing young population. Both informal trade and artisanal sector, where youth engage with ease, have an overlooked connection with tourism. As a growing number of tourism experiences is packaged out of ordinary lifestyles, artisanal activities by youth can help create a unique product identity for both urban and rural places in Senegal. Yet, policies for development of our regions constrain these ordinary activities. As a result, young people miss out a primary trade income, which implies missing out possible additional income from tourism.

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A lack of academic qualifications is a contributing factor to high unemployment rates. Those joining the labor market upon graduating from learning institutions, lack capacities of contributing to expand economic production, as they solely aim to fit in the existing production systems. This is because learning at tertiary institutions has a bias to encourage skills for employment as opposed to skills for entrepreneurship. Consequently, the dream of many young graduates is to have an academic certificate for employment, and not acquiring skills to venture into business, which has ample opportunities to expand scope of economic production and create more jobs. This, tied to the structural difficulties in accessing low-cost financing for business start-ups by youth, makes the entrepreneurship bid challenging.

Consequences of Illegal Emigration One dire consequence of illegal emigration is the loss of lives. This is ever devastating for families, especially bearing in mind the fact that some sell off their property to finance the trips, expecting positive returns from it. Thus, financing for the trips is a gamble. It is important to note that the destination European countries, since the 2008 financial crisis, have been grappling with unemployment challenges for their labor markets. Subsequently, our youth, most of whom have no relevant training or trade for the job market in countries they emigrate to, have slim chances of job security once they arrive in Europe. They are at times employed in in very precarious jobs with low wages. As illegal immigrants who lack residence permits, many choose to stay in their destinations for years without being able to return home. For those who left the country at the age of 25 to 30, this accumulated period of illegal stay obscures their social development, e.g., starting a family, and other development back home. Returning home, building a house and starting a family is no longer easy as it was before the 2008 financial crisis. A house of 20,000,000 francs (30,000 euros) requires savings of 10 years at a rate of 300 euros per month or about 30% of the average salary for those lucky enough to work all year round non-stop. This is a very difficult scenario for illegal immigrants, who lack access to basic social services from the state. For these reasons they live in precarious conditions and fall prey to organized crime.

Solutions to the Problem Two major possible ways to address the issues of illegal emigration are: i) negotiating mobility restrictions to soften strict border controls, and ii) making the environment for economic production, both through employment and entrepreneurship, favorable to young people.

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Negotiating Mobility Restrictions to Soften Strict Border Controls To stop risky journeys of our young people in the makeshift “Barça or barsax” canoes, our governments through Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and Arab Maghreb Union (UMA) must make decisions to save the lives of their youth who perish in the oceans and desert. In 2018 The Guardian newspaper reported that 34,361 migrants had died in the oceans. It should be noted that the majority of African migrants come from Nigeria, Ghana, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. It would be helpful if our governments work with the European Union to relocate reception centers for immigrants to be received in Africa. So, illegal immigrants accessing Europe through sea, can be sent back by special flights to reception centers located in Africa, to filter out asylum seekers, between those who are entitled to political asylum and those who are pushed by economic immigration.

Making the Environment for Economic Production Through Employment and Entrepreneurship Favorable to Younger Generations Our countries can foster growth in tourism to give jobs to our young people. In this case, they will have to make more aggressive reforms to boost domestic private sectors, and improve access to financing for young people in order to set up businesses. Tourism is an important economic sector for many countries in West Africa, supporting employment, providing gross domestic product, and earning foreign exchange for countries. Globally, the sector average contribution to jobs is one out of every 10. Like in many other countries in Africa, the nature of tourism in West Africa being outdoors, means that product development based on communally owned natural resources, presents opportunities for young people to participate in tourism. Vocational training must be stepped up and school and university programs must be aligned with the socio-cultural and economic needs of our countries.

Conclusion If the younger generation in the region continues to lack access to meaningful economic activities in terms of employment or entrepreneurship, the thorny issue of illegal emigration will flourish. The drama of emigration can be transformed into a lever for inclusive development. Inclusive development is possible through tourism, among other sectors of the economy, to validate the right of young people to stay in their countries while contributing to the economy.

Part II: Dialogues on Product

G. Mahender Reddy, Agita Livina and Eudora Hagan

6 Wildlife Tourism Research in Africa: A Bibliometric Analysis Introduction Africa is the second largest and the second most populous continent in the world, covering 6% of the earth’s total surface area and 20% of its land mass (Sayre, 1999). Africa is endowed with many national parks, reserves and conservation areas which serve as home to many of the world’s most famous fauna such as lions, rhinos, cheetahs, giraffes, hippos, leopards, zebras, elephants and many others. More than 1100 species of mammals live in Africa (Anton & Anton, 2007). South Africa is a popular tourist destination for wildlife viewing (Durrheim & Leggat, 1999). In Africa, wildlife tourism can be experienced in a wide variety of settings, inter alia fully protected areas, private protected, community protected areas and state protected areas (Funston et al., 2013). Several large areas of land are designated for multiple purposes like hunting and recreation (Archabald & Naughton-Treves, 2001). Fundamental aspects of competitiveness of South African tourism reveals that tourists are interested to choose South Africa because of wildlife, scenery, cultural diversity, climate, value for money, variety of attractions and specific icons (Du Plessis et al., 2017). Wildlife tourism is increasing steadily in Africa from last the two decades and recent statistics show that the number of tourist visits to Africa increased from 35 million in the year 2005 to 56 million in 2013 with a revenue of US$ 34.2 billion, and the number is expected to increase to 134 million international arrivals by 2030 (World Tourism Organization, 2014, 2015). Tourism is considered as a tool that contributes to sustainable development (Livina & Reddy, 2017; Sharpley, 2000). About 30 countries have put forward tourism as an agenda and priority sector for development (EIF, 2019), with increased economic activity and poverty alleviation and sustainable development (Christie, et al., 2013; World Tourism Organization, 2013). Several African countries have protected their biodiversity including wildlife with better conservation strategies and sustainable use of resources for several years (Milliken & Shaw, 2012). For instance, a study examined the social and economic impact of South Africa’s Karoo National Park on wildlife and local economy and found that the park resources, particularly the tourism activities in the park provided the several benefits such as income, employment and conservation of biodiversity (Onchwati et al., 2010). To better understand the sustainable management of wildlife tourism in Africa, the state of knowledge of research over the years is essential. Practitioners of African wildlife tourism industry can apply research findings to manage tourism in a susta inable manner with improved services to the tourist and positive benefits to the stakeholders. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110702491-006

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In this regard, several studies examined various aspects of sustainable tourism management in Africa. However, to the best of knowledge of the researchers, there are no studies focusing on bibliometric analysis in wildlife tourism research, especially in the African region. The bibliometric analysis of wildlife tourism research in Africa provides a better understanding of the trends and state of the art of research both for researchers and practitioners on sustainable management of wildlife tourism. In this regard, this study aims to clarify the extent of academic research in the area of wildlife tourism in Africa. In doing so, authors conducted a bibliometric analysis of wildlife tourism research in terms of productive authors, productive journals, productive countries, productive institutes, citation analysis of journals and authors, funding institutes, research themes and trends. The study was conducted using the online Scopus database of the documents published on wildlife tourism in Africa from the year 1970 to 2020.

Theoretical Framework Wildlife tourism involves experiencing wildlife in the natural setting (Packer & Ballantyne, 2012; Higginbottom et al., 2003). For example, Kenya attracts most of the international tourists due to the opportunity to see the wildlife in natural and pristine environment (Akama, 1996). Experience of wildlife watching provides several benefits like awareness, appreciation, reconnection and recreation of nature and wildlife (Ballantyne et al., 2007; Ballantyne et al., 2011). The experiencing of wildlife watching by tourists has become the business of wildlife tourism and leading foreign exchange earner in several countries (Reynolds & Braithwaite, 2001). These wildlife tourism activities may provide several negative impacts if the tourism is not properly managed, and these impacts include disturbance to the wildlife, feeding, disease, distress, disruptions to natural behaviors and breeding patterns, increased infrastructure, pollution or destruction of habitats (Green & Giese, 2004; Green & Higginbottom, 2001; Reynolds & Braithwaite, 2001). For instance, a study examining the utilization of natural resource for economic development found that the overdependence of wildlife and wildlife tourism resources will have long term sustainability issues (Van Schalkwyk et al., 2010). Effective sustainable and responsible management of wildlife tourism will increase the positive impacts and minimize the negative ones. Effective management of wildlife is understanding and managing the public’s relationship to this resource (Reynolds & Braithwaite, 2001). In this regard several studies examined various aspects of sustainable wildlife tourism management such as tourist motivation, stakeholder participation, community participation, sharing of revenue generated from tourism, conservation of the protected areas and wildlife, education and quality interpretation, management of human and wildlife conflict. For example, a study which examined the sustainable management of

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tourism in the protected areas of Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe suggested adopting the community participatory wildlife management programs for the better management of tourism and conservation of the wildlife (Ngoka & Lameed, 2012). Similarly, another study pointed out the social role of protected areas in South Africa and suggested to involve the local community for the resource management, particularly wildlife tourism management through community participation approach so that the communities around the protected areas will also benefit. Community participation will lead to poverty alleviation around the protected areas (Wells, 1996). Another study on the same lines, elucidated on wildlife conservation and its impacts on household development in Zambia, and it was found that wildlife tourism contributes to the pro-poor development of the communities considering the minimized impacts of human-wildlife conflict (Richardson et al., 2012). One of the studies elucidated on the sustainable management of the Masai Mara Game Reserve in Kenya through stakeholders’ participation approach to protect and preserve the park resources for future generations (Saayman et al., 2009) and strengthening the collaborative approach of ecosystem and tourism management (Fabricius et al., 2001). Other studies also examined the behavioral aspects of the wildlife tourist and other tourism stakeholders in Africa, such as, the travel motivations of tourists visiting the Kruger National Park of South Africa and found that the factors like “nature,” “activities,” “attractions,” “nostalgia,” “novelty” and “escape from routine” influence the selection of this largest conservation area (Saayman et al., 2008). Experience of nature-based tourism and its impact on post consumption behavior of tourists visiting Game Reserves of South Africa corroborated that there is a relation between wildlife experience and post consumption behavior (Sotiriadis, 2017). Akama (1996) has pointed out the influence of western environmental values on conservation of wildlife and development and promotion of nature-based tourism resources. Spenceley et al., (2017) elucidated on the implications of user fee of Tanzania’s Game Reserves on conservation, and outcome of comparison with the protected areas of Botswana, Zimbabwe, Namibia, and South Africa. Managing human and wildlife conflict of tourism is an important aspect of sustainable wildlife tourism (Hemson et al., 2009; Omondi, 1994). Several studies have carried forward various aspects such as use of wildlife resources conservation and conservation conflicts (Skonhoft, 1998), fatal and nonfatal attacks on tourists by wild mammals in South Africa (Durrheim & Leggat, 1999), wildlife-based land use and its impacts (Lindsey et al., 2013), contradiction between the financial implications of conservation and management of large carnivores in Zimbabwe (Funston, Groom & Lindsey, 2013). Price implications on altering the farmers’ behavior on conflict between the commercial game and carnivores in South Africa (Pirie, Thomas & Fellowes, 2017) are some of the studies. Reintroduction of large predators in the African protected areas have increasingly aimed to improve the ecological integrity, conservation of threatened species and enhance the benefits of tourism (Hayward et al., 2007). In this regard, few

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studies focused on introduction of animals for wildlife or ecotourism in protected areas, for instance, introduction of elephants and the impact on animal welfare in the Phinda private game reserve in South Africa (Druce et al., 2006), role of wildlife tourism in reintroduction of threatened species in Africa and sustained economic benefits to the tourism stakeholders (King & Higginbottom, 2008).

Methodological Framework Bibliometrics is an emerging field of research that employs quantitative analysis to analyse research trends through bibliographic sources (Merigó et al., 2015). Bibliometric analysis provides systematic information and mapping of academic research to measure the scientific publications (Ramos-Rodrígue & Ruíz-Navarro, 2004). It is an emerging aspect of research method, widely used in the recent past to know the scientific contribution of wide variety of areas or disciplines of research, journals, journal rankings, productive countries and regions, productive research areas, most contributing authors, and citations impact over a period of time (Evren & Kozak, 2014; Kolle et al., 2018; Vishwakarma & Mukherjee, 2019) and also explains the state-of-art of research to be explored (Della et al., 2019). Bibliometric analysis papers consist of several disciplines (Cunill at al. 2019), including business management, wildlife and tourism. For example, studies on focused on finance and economics (Costa, et al., 2019), marketing (Samiee, 2012) global biodiversity conservation (Liu et al., 2011), wildlife (Rana, 1994) human dimensions of wildlife (Vaske, 2006), tourism and hospitality (Ertaş et al., 2020; Koseoglu et al., 2016; López-Bonilla et al., 2020; Mulet-Forteza et al., 2019; Okumus et al., 2018). Quite a number of papers published in the context of nature tourism, ecotourism, and wildlife tourism include research progress in ecotourism (Liu, et al., 2020), perspectives on past and future of ecotourism (Shasha et al., 2020), sensitive and protected areas tourism (Sánchez-Cañizares et al., 2018), progression of Chinese wildlife tourism research (Cong, et al., 2017), sustainable wildlife tourism (Hassan et al., 2014; Zhu et al., 2017). There are few studies on African nature-based tourism such as, “A bibliometric analysis to illustrate the role of an embedded research capability in South African National Parks,” in which the articles provided the research topics and role of embedded researchers in creating related knowledge (Van et al., 2016). Bibliometric analysis provides country or continent-wide research progression, for example tourism and hospitality research in Turkey (Evren et al., 2014; Köseoglu et al., 2015), Chinese wildlife tourism research (Cong et al., 2017), country wide tourism research analysis (Mauleón-Méndez et al., 2020). However, there were no studies conducted on wildlife tourism research in Africa by using the bibliometric analysis. Though there were several abstract data bases like Web of Science and Google Scholar, this study was carried out by using Scopus online abstract database. Scopus database

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was used for the study of wildlife tourism research progression in Africa due to the fact that this database provides information on several types of documents such as articles, notes, books, book series, reviews, conference papers and more (Fingerman, 2006). Authors carried out a bibliometric analysis of scientific papers indexed in the Scopus online database, which was accessed in July 2020, applying search strategy of keywords, wildlife tourism in Africa, with “Article title, Abstract, Keywords,” with the following result shown: (TITLE-ABS-KEY (“wildlife tourism”) AND TITLEABS-KEY (Africa) and PUBYEAR > 1970 AND PUBYEAR < 2020. The time period chosen was limited to a period of five decades, starting from 1970 to 2020, as there were no documents published before 1970 on African wildlife tourism. A total of 290 documents were selected for the study consisting of articles, review papers, editorials, corporate reports and survey reports. Document search included open access and other publications from the year 1970 to 2020: including all authors, source titles of Scopus indexed journals, all keywords, affiliated organizations and countries; includes all languages. However, the documents were mainly published in English (283 documents) followed by German (four documents), French (one document), Polish (one document,) and Russian (one document). Then the export documentation setting included citation information, bibliographic information, abstract and keywords, funding and other details, and the same is exported into comma-separated values with an excel spreadsheet. In addition to this, manual coding and data entry is applied, wherever necessary. Microsoft Excel, Tableau and VOS viewer data visualization software were employed for analysis, with manual coding wherever necessary. Data visualization tools help to communicate research results to the wider public with simple visualizations (Fielding, et al., 2008). The word “document” in the study is interchangeably used for the article, chapter, book, book series, notes, survey reports and editorial and review papers.

Results This section of the study deals with the results of the research output of wildlife tourism of Africa in terms of year-wise publications, most frequently published journals, most contributing authors, most contributing institutions by affiliation, documents by type, most contributing countries, documents by funding sponsors, most frequently cited articles and keyword analysis.

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Yearly Publication Output Research output on wildlife tourism research in Africa over five decades starting from 1970 is shown in Figure 6.1. It is noticeable that wildlife tourism research over the 50 years has shown steady progress. From 1970 to 2000 very few articles were published on African wildlife tourism, on an average there was one publication per year, overall, there were 30 publications in 30 years. However, there was an increased growth of publications from 2001 to 2010, on an average there were 10 publications each year and all together 108 documents were published. The number has increased from 10 to 15 articles per year from the year 2011 onwards. 22

Number of publications

20

19

19 16

15

16 13

12 13 10

12

11

12

11

8 6

7

5 1 0

19

17 17

1

1

2 2

0 00 00 00 0 0 000 0 0 1970

1975

1980

1985

0

4

2

1 1

1990

2

3

8 6

2 22

0 0 1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

2020

Year Figure 6.1: Yearly publication output. Source: Author. Figure is produced by the authors from scopus data

Most Frequently Publishing Journals Figure 6.2 lists the top journals that have published a minimum of 4 research articles on wildlife tourism in Africa. These are Journal of Sustainable Tourism which published the most and ranked number one with 13 articles, and this journal is considered as one of the reputed journals with the highest impact factor. The second highest contributor of articles was the Journal Biological Conservation with 11 publications. Journals like Plos One, Koedoe, and Development Southern Africa published eight articles each. Journal of Ecotourism published seven articles followed by African Journal of Hospitality Tourism and Leisure and Tourism Management published six articles each. Other journals like African Journal of Ecology, African Journal of Wildlife Research, Environmental Conservation, Great Plains Research, and Journal of Environmental Management published four articles each. Most of the journals are reputed journals with high impact factor.

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Name of the journal Journal Of Sustainable Tourism Biological Conservation Plos One Koedoe Development Southern Africa Journal Of Ecotourism Tourism Management African Journal Of Hospitality Tourism And Leisure Journal Of Environmental Management Great Plains Research Environmental Conservation African Journal Of Wildlife Research African Journal Of Ecology

13 11 8 8 8 7 6 6

0

1

2

3

4 4 4 4 4 4

5 6 7 8 9 Number of publications

10

11

12

13

14 15

Figure 6.2: Most productive journals publishing wildlife tourism research of Africa. Source: Author. Figure is produced by the authors from scopus data

Most Contributing Authors Authors who have contributed at least four articles on wildlife tourism research in Africa are shown in Figure 6.3. The following authors were listed as top ten authors based on the number of publications ranging from a minimum of four to a maximum 12 articles on wildlife tourism in Africa. Saayman Melville from North-West University, South Africa ranked top with 12 articles. Spenceley Anna affiliated to IUCN WCPA Tourism and Protected Areas Specialist Group and University of Johannesburg in South Africa, and Okello Moses Makonjio from Moi University, Kenya published six articles each. Three authors, namely Lamers Machiel A.J, Van Der Duim, Rene and Prins, Herbert H. T. from Wageningen University & Research, The Netherlands published five articles each. Similarly, Mbaiwa Joseph E from University of Botswana, Botswana and Van Der Merwe from Peet North-West University, South Africa published five articles each. Other two authors, Slotow Robert H from UCL, United Kingdom and BöhningGaese Katrin from Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main, Germany published four articles each. Author Saayman, Melville

12

Spenceley, Anna

6

Okello, Moses Makonjio

6

Van Der Merwe, Peet

5

Van Der Duim, V.RenÃ

5

Prins, Herbert H.T. Mbaiwa, Joseph E.

5 5 5

Lamers, Machiel A.J. 4

Slotow, Robert H. Böhning-Gaese, Katrin

4 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Publications

Figure 6.3: Most contributing authors of wildlife tourism research of Africa. Source: Author. Figure is produced by the authors from scopus data

10

11

12

13

14

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Most Contributing Institutions by Affiliation Figure 6.4 shows the most contributing institutions by affiliation on wildlife tourism research in Africa with a minimum of eight publications. Top ten institutes contributing to wildlife tourism research published a minimum of eight articles during the assessment year from 1970 to 2020. North-West University in South Africa ranked number one with 15 articles followed by University of Botswana, Botswana with 11 articles, and Wageningen University & Research, The Netherlands 12 articles. University of Cape Town and Universiteit van Pretoria in South Africa published 11 articles each. Other universities namely Stellenbosch University, University of Johannesburg, University of South Africa and University of KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa published ten, nine, eight and eight respectively. University of Oxford in United Kingdom published eight articles. Analysis shows that most of the universities that contributed articles on wildlife tourism in Africa were mainly from Africa, particularly from South Africa. Affliation North-West University, South Africa University of Botswana, Botswana Wageningen University & Research, Netherlands University of Cape Town, South Africa Universiteit van Pretoria, South Africa Stellenbosch University, South Africa University of Johannesburg, South Africa University of South Africa, South Africa University of Oxford, United Kingdom University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

15 13 12 11 11 10

0

2

4

6

9 8 8 8 8 10 Documents

12

14

16

Figure 6.4: Most contributing institutions by affiliation. Source: Author. Figure is produced by the authors from scopus data

Documents by Type Result of the analysis of types of type documents published on wildlife tourism research in Africa from 1970 to 2020 shown total 290 documents. Types of documents published on wildlife tourism research in Africa from 1970 to 2020 were presented. In the analysis, conference revisions and errata were excluded because they were not relevant for the study. As a result, 219 articles, 24 book chapters, 20 reviews, 12 books, eight conference papers, three editorials, two notes, one short survey and one letter were obtained for the study. Among all the documents, articles contributed the most, representing 76% of overall documents.

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Most Contributing Subject Areas Figure 6.5 shows the most contributing subject area of wildlife tourism research in Africa. Results show that most of the contribution to wildlife tourism research was from Social Sciences and Environmental Science with 120 documents each followed by Agricultural and Biological Science with 87 documents, and Business, Management and Accounting with 66 documents. Other major contributing subject areas are Earth and Planetary Sciences with 31 documents, Economics, Econometrics and Finance with 25 documents and Arts and Humanities with 21 documents. Other subject areas contributed 63 documents on wildlife tourism in Africa. Subject Area Social Sciences Environmental Science Agricultural and Biological Sciences Business, Management and Accounting Others Earth and Planetary Sciences Economics, Econometrics and Finance Arts and Humanities Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology Multidisciplinary

120 120 87 66 36 31

0

25 21 15 12 10 20 30

40

50 60 70 80 Number of documents

90

100

110

120

130

Figure 6.5: Most contributing subject areas on wildlife tourism in Africa. Source: Author. Figure is produced by the authors from scopus data

Most contributing countries The country-wide contribution of research articles on wildlife tourism in Africa, is presented in Figure 6.6. Analysis shows that ten countries contributed a minimum of ten publications each during the assessment period of 1970 to 2020. South Africa was ranked at the number one position in wildlife tourism research in Africa with 91 published documents. The United States of America was ranked second with 63 research articles and United Kingdom was ranked third with 46 publications. Kenya and The Netherlands were ranked fourth and fifth with 24 and 23 articles respectively. Country South Africa United States of America United Kingdom Kenya Netherlands Australia Botswana Tanzania Namibia Germany

91 63 46 24 23 22 19

0

12 12 10 10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Number of documents

Figure 6.6: Most contributing countries on wildlife tourism research in Africa. Source: Author. Figure is produced by the authors from scopus data

80

90

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Other countries like Australia with 22 documents, Botswana with 19 documents, Namibia with 12 documents, Tanzania with 12 documents, and Germany with 10 documents ranked sixth to tenth respectively. Most contributing countries on wildlife tourism research in Africa were mainly from Africa.

Documents by Funding Sponsors The most contributing funding sponsors on wildlife tourism research in Africa is shown in Figure 6.7. Funding sponsors from the USA such as United States Agency for International Development published seven documents and National Science Foundation published five documents and ranked first and second, respectively. Other institutions like Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft from Germany with four documents, National Research Foundation from South Africa with four documents, European Commission, Belgium, Europe with three documents, Australian Research Council from Australia with two documents, Inyuvesi Yakwazulu-Natali from South Africa with two documents, Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada from Canada with two documents, South African National Parks from South Africa with two documents and The Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency from Sweden with two documents, ranked third to tenth respectively. Funding sponsor United States Agency for International Development, USA National Science Foundation, USA National Research Foundation, South Africa Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Germany European Commission, Belgium, Europe The Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, Sweden South African National Parks, South Africa Social Sciences and Humanities Reserach Council of Canada, Canada Inyuvesi Yakwazulu-Natali, South Africa Australian Research Council, Australia

7 5 4 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 0

1

2

3

4 Numbers

5

6

7

8

Figure 6.7: Funding sponsor on wildlife tourism research in Africa. Source: Author. Figure is produced by the authors from scopus data

Most Frequently Cited Articles Table 6.1 shows the most frequently cited articles on wildlife tourism in Africa from the year 1970 onwards with a minimum of 91 citations per article. The intellectual influence of research on wildlife tourism in Africa was listed based on the criteria of the most cited articles. The article titled “Conservation outside of parks: Attitudes of local people in Laikipia, Kenya” (Gadd, 2005) published by the Journal of Environmental Conservation received highest number of citations with 158, followed by the article “Segmentation by visitor motivation in three Kenyan national

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reserves” (Beh & Bruyere, 2007) published by the Journal of Tourism Management received the second highest citation with 157. Other journals published between the years 1996 to 2013 also received high citations of 150 with a minimum of 91. All these articles were published in reputed journals having highest quartile and impact factor. Table 6.1: Ten most cited articles on wildlife tourism research in Africa. S No Year

Document Title

Authors

Journal Title





Conservation outside of parks: Attitudes of local people in Laikipia, Kenya

Gadd, M.E. Environmental Conservation







Segmentation by visitor motivation in three Kenyan national reserves

Beh & Bruyere







Expansion of human settlement in Kenya’s Maasai Mara: What future for pastoralism and wildlife?

Lamprey & Journal of Reid Biogeography







A review of the impacts of nature-based recreation on birds

Steven et al.,

Journal of Environmental Management







The bushmeat trade in African savannas: Impacts, drivers, and possible solutions

Lindsey et al.,

Biological Conservation







Western environmental values and nature-based tourism in Kenya

Akama, J.S.

Tourism Management







Entrepreneurs, elites, and exclusion in Thompson Human Ecology Maasailand: Trends in wildlife & conservation and pastoralist development Homewood





Who is on the Gorilla’s payroll? Claims on tourist revenue from a Ugandan National Park









Tourism Management

Citations



World Development



The potential and pitfalls of global Duffy, R. environmental governance: The politics of transfrontier conservation areas in Southern Africa

Political Geography



Community, lions, livestock and money: A Hemson spatial and social analysis of attitudes to et al., wildlife and the conservation value of tourism in a human-carnivore conflict in Botswana

Biological Conservation



Adams & Infield

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Keyword Analysis VOS viewer software was used for visualizing the graphical information of article keywords (Van Eck & Waltman, 2010). Illustration of keywords co-occurrence provides the theoretical gap of the field, and color and size of the circle represents the most closely linked items (Mulet-Forteza et al., 2019). Cluster analysis of author-provided keywords also explains the focused area research or trending topics of research in a particular field (Kolle et al., 2019). The cluster analysis of African wildlife tourism research based on author-provided keywords is displayed in the Figure 6.8. A total of 710 author-provided keywords are limited to a minimum occurrence of three times, and the result shows seven clusters with 51 items. Cluster I contains keywords related to the wider aspects of Africa such as national parks, nature-based tourism, Zambia, tourists, wildlife conservation and constraints. Cluster II illustrates the key words related to conservation aspects of protected areas, livelihood, Masai Mara, East Africa, conflict, tourist revenue sharing and Okavango delta. Cluster III shows the keywords related to aspects of wildlife such as Kenya, sustainability, livestock, land use, Botswana, climate change and ecosystem services. Cluster IV presents the keywords related to broader aspects of tourism such as Namibia, biodiversity, nature conservation, economics and sustainable development. Cluster V looks at keywords related to aspects of South African wildlife tourism such as, poaching, hunting,

Figure 6.8: Co-occurrence of author provided keywords of wildlife tourism research in Africa. Source: Author. Figure is produced by the authors from scopus data by using VOSviewer

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communities and management. Cluster VI provides the keywords related to aspects of climate change, ecosystem services, Botswana and wildlife. Cluster VII shows the keywords related to aspects of ecotourism representing wildlife tourism, wildlife management, community, Africa and conservation. The cluster analysis of author-provided keywords confirms that the greatest portion of the research was concerned with wildlife tourism in Africa. It was mainly focused on components of sustainable development such as biodiversity, ecosystem services, wildlife management, nature conservation, wildlife conservation, community, community conservation, constraints, conflict, livelihood, tourist revenue sharing, economics, climate change, poaching, hunting, communities and management. Research examined mainly the protected areas, wildlife tourism, nature tourism and ecotourism of South Africa, East Africa, Zambia, Kenya, Botswana and Namibia. These keywords explain the various dimensions of sustainable tourism representing the larger canvas of sustainable developmental goals.

Discussion and Implications Research on wildlife tourism, particularly with regards to Africa in the context of sustainability aspects of wildlife tourism is an emergent discipline. However, several studies in the past examined the sustainability aspects of wildlife tourism in Africa. Africa, being a popular wildlife tourism destination offers various tourism activities and provides several benefits (Funston, Groom, & Lindsey, 2013). Being a popular wildlife tourism destination, it is important to know the practice of sustainable tourism principles to provide long term and positive benefits. To better understand the sustainable management of wildlife tourism in Africa and the state of knowledge of research, authors applied the bibliometric analysis method to understand the state of the art of research on sustainable management of wildlife tourism. Citation analysis shows that the most cited articles are mainly focused on community participation and attitude and visitor motivation representing the social aspects of sustainable development. This can be considered as an important component of African wildlife tourism to progress towards the sustainable tourism. Result of the bibliometric analysis on wildlife tourism in terms of author affiliation and funding sponsor shows that there has been significant contribution of research made by both developing and developed countries, and also combination of both developed and developing countries. Authors or the authors affiliated to the universities and countries with diverse ecotourism and wildlife tourism destinations and sustainable practices provides diverse research output with multiple and broader implications. Similarly, the papers published on wildlife tourism in Africa are prominent journals with high impact factor and this may be interpreted that the reputed journals with high impact factor have given an attention to the sustainable wildlife tourism of Africa.

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Jenkins and Schröder (2013) and Dangi and Jamal (2016) have insisted the importance of multidisciplinary approach to achieve the sustainable tourism. This study revealed that the most contributing subject area of wildlife tourism research in Africa are social sciences and environmental science, agricultural and biological sciences, business, management and accounting, earth and planetary sciences, economics, arts and humanities. This has further provided a proof that the wildlife tourism research is multidisciplinary and also attracted the attention of researchers from various fields. Multidisciplinary approach helps the African wildlife tourism authorities or stakeholders of tourism to realize and integrate various aspects of sustainable tourism, in particular sustainable developmental goals. Keyword co-occurrence analysis provides a network of themes and their associations that represent the conceptual space of a field (Cancino et al., 2017) of wildlife tourism in Africa. The cluster analysis shows that the greatest portion of the research was concerned mainly with environmental and economic dimensions of sustainable tourism such as biodiversity, ecosystem services, nature conservation, wildlife conservation, community conservation, constraints, conflict, livelihood, tourist revenue sharing, economics, climate change, while there is limited research on social dimensions of sustainable tourism like poaching, hunting, communities and management. With increasing focus on ecosystem services and preserving natural ecosystems, it is opined that more future research studies would focus on wildlife tourism mechanisms, regulations, legislations and conflict management. Such kind of studies can facilitate decision makers and policymakers, wildlife tourism promoters and participants to work together to minimize the impacts of tourism activities on ecosystems, particularly on wildlife. Future studies should continue to insist on empirical evidence on the practice of sustainable tourism, aiming at enhancing resource efficiency and sustainable production and consumption of various wildlife tourism resources. There is not much discussion in the academic literature of wildlife tourism on aspects such carrying capacity, interpretational benefits. It is important to consider that African wildlife tourism should insist more on physical and social dimensions of wildlife tourism (Higham, 1998). Further it is important to consider the interpretation and educational benefits of wildlife tourism (Curtin, 2010; Moscardo, 2004; Zeppel & Muloin, 2008) for the achievement of the goals of sustainable wildlife tourism in Africa. Without considering the gender aspects and women participation there will not be sustainability of tourism (Alarcón & Cole, 2019; Scheyvens, 2000). Several studies insisted on the importance of aligning the planning, policy, and management aspects of tourism with the global sustainable developmental goals. In this regard, it is an important area of consideration. Several sustainable development goals like gender, conservation, information and communication technology (ICT) or digital technology, circular economy, responsible consumption and production and poverty alleviation should be integrated in the development and management of sustainable wildlife tourism in Africa (Gössling & Hall, 2019; Hall, 2019; Karla, 2019).

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Conclusion Wildlife tourism provides economic benefits to Africa while contributing to the conservation of protected areas, as well as creating employment for local communities. Idyllically, appropriate implementation of sustainable tourism principles in the wildlife tourism destinations can put various efforts from the stakeholders of wildlife tourism such as governmental organizations, local communities, tourists, travel and hospitality service providers and tourism managers together to better protect wildlife and the local ecosystem. However, due to the lack of complete understanding on its quintessence, many wildlife tourism practices have been widely questioned and criticized in the recent past. In this connection, responsible and sustainable planning and management is required to overcome adverse impacts and maintain ecological balanced socioeconomic objectives. This has gained academic attention to study the impacts and implications of wildlife tourism. In order to understand the progress and implications of wildlife tourism research, a bibliometric analysis was conducted to measure the progress of research. The results show that the overall publications had been gradually increased over the years. The key journals include Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Biological Conservation, Plos One, Koedoe, Development Southern Africa, Journal of Ecotourism, and Tourism Management. The leading countries in this field in terms of wildlife tourism research include United States of America, United Kingdom, Kenya, The Netherlands, Australia, Botswana, Namibia and Tanzania. The leading researchers of wildlife tourism research were mainly in the universities from Africa, these are South Africa, Kenya, Botswana and other countries such as The Netherlands and the United Kingdom contributed the most for wildlife tourism. The intellectual influence of research on wildlife tourism in Africa based on the criteria of the most cited articles shows that the research focused on conservation and community participation in Kenya, visitor motivation of Kenyan national reserves received the highest citations. Top most cited articles were published in reputed journals with the highest quartile and impact factor. Visualization of keywords co-occurrence provided the theoretical gap of the field. These are mainly concerned with various dimensions of sustainable wildlife tourism such as biodiversity conservation, wildlife management, community participation, constraints and conflict, tourist revenue sharing, climate change and ecosystem services and human wildlife conflict. Research in the past focused on the protected areas, wildlife tourism, nature tourism and ecotourism of South Africa, East Africa, Zambia, Kenya, Botswana and Namibia. Overall, the wildlife tourism research in Africa focused on various aspects of sustainable tourism representing the larger canvas of sustainable developmental goals.

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Limitations and Future Scope of the study Like any other research, this study too has some limitations. The data for the study were collected from online Scopus abstract data base, however there were several journals that published research papers but were not indexed in Scopus and they were not considered for the study considering the issue of certified knowledge or publications. Future researches should focus on well-known databases or indexed journals and articles like Web of Science or Google Scholar may be included. Further, future studies may apply advanced bibliometric techniques to study the coword analysis, co-citation and co-authorship analysis, to learn more about research collaboration of authors on wildlife tourism in Africa. The research terms were limited to wildlife tourism in Africa: and further studies may focus on each country of the African continent. Despite these limitations, the present study provides a significant contribution towards literature, both for researchers and industry, to enable them to carry forward the research agenda of sustainable wildlife tourism in Africa.

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7 Wildlife Tourism, Employment and Livelihood Strategies in Tsabong, Botswana Introduction Globally, protected areas have become the most widely accepted means for biodiversity conservation and local community development (Black & Cobbinah, 2018; Eshun & Tichaawa, 2020a; Stone & Stone, 2020; de Koning et al., 2017; Markwell, 2018). De Koning et al. (2017) explain that while protected areas were historically established and controlled by the central government for biodiversity protection, their role has evolved to encompass the values of the local community. This was driven by the ethical and pragmatic need to recognize community ownership of, and dependence on, natural resources (de Koning et al., 2017; Markwell, 2018; Moswete et al., 2020). As a consequence, protected areas in Sub-Saharan Africa are underpinned by conservation, tourism, and community development goals (Black & Cobbinah, 2018). Niche forms of nature-based tourism, such as wildlife tourism and ecotourism, have been associated with protected areas and have been argued to draw the majority of international tourists to Southern Africa (United Nations World Tourism Organization [UNWTO], 2019; United Nations Conference on Trade and Development [UNCTAD], 2017). Southern Africa, home to numerous protected areas, has proven to be a competitive wildlife tourism destination, owing to the abundance and diversity of wildlife resources and wilderness landscapes (UNWTO, 2015). Eshun and Tichaawa (2020a) emphasise how this form of tourism is increasingly becoming a flagship tourism model for countries within the African continent. Wildlife tourism has been associated with economic development, sustaining community livelihoods and reducing poverty in rural regions of countries in the subcontinent, where most protected areas are located (Black & Cobbinah, 2018; Lekgau & Tichaawa, 2019; Manwa et al., 2017; Mbaiwa, 2018; Snyman, 2017). Despite the affirmation that protected areas, and associated wildlife tourism, are crucial to conserving biodiversity and improving community livelihoods, their contribution to the latter goal remains widely contested in the literature (Baghai et al., 2018; Cobbinah et al., 2017; Cobbinah et al., 2015; Eshun & Tichaawa, 2020b; Harilal & Tichaawa, 2018; Larkin, 2014; Mbaiwa et al., 2011; Moswete et al., 2020; Stone & Nyaupane, 2017; Thondhlana & Cundill, 2017; UNWTO, 2015). Indeed, the dynamics between wildlife tourism and host community development is still an emerging research area in Southern Africa. In Botswana, much of this research has been conducted in host communities near, or adjacent to, protected areas in northern and central Botswana (see Black & Cobbinah, 2016, 2017; Mbaiwa, 2015, 2017, 2018; Rylance & Spenceley, 2017;

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Snyman, 2012, 2017; Stone & Nyaupane, 2017) with focus only recently shifting to lesserknown areas such as southern Botswana (see Lekgau & Tichaawa, 2019; Moswete et al., 2020; Moswete & Thapa, 2018; Manwa et al., 2017). The present chapter focuses on Tsabong, which is a transit site to the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) (Moswete et al., 2012). Owing to its transit status, the Government of Botswana has set to develop wildlife tourism in the area, in conjunction with the KTP, to create jobs and foster economic development in the community (Lekgau & Tichaawa, 2019). In line with the argument presented by Eshun and Tichaawa (2020a) contending for further research in this subject area, the study examines the role of wildlife tourism, from the KTP, in contributing towards employment and economic development in the Tsabong community.

Wildlife Tourism, Protected Areas and Development Many countries in Southern Africa have strategically leveraged the wildlife tourism pull of protected areas to aid in the local development of adjacent host communities (Atangaz, 2019; Black & Cobbinah, 2017; Eshun & Tichaawa, 2020b; Mbaiwa, 2017; Moswete et al., 2012). Increasingly, wildlife tourism literature has focused on host communities and transfrontier parks in the region (see Chiutsi & Saarinen, 2019; Lekgau & Tichaawa, 2019; 2020; Spenceley, 2008; Moswete et al., 2012; Moswete & Thapa, 2018). In Southern Africa, the establishments of transfrontier parks gained prominence amongst conservationists in the 1990s (Lekgau & Tichaawa, 2020; Spenceley, 2008). Trans frontier parks are defined as large areas comprising of one or more protected areas that span across two or more countries. Transfrontier parks are promoted as valuable mechanisms to conserve biodiversity over a larger geographical region, promote international cooperation and improve opportunities for wildlife tourism (Chiutsi & Saarinen, 2019; Spenceley, 2008). Wildlife tourism in trans frontier Parks has been positioned as a source of income, employment and opportunity for livelihood diversification whilst simultaneously providing a strong incentive to protect the natural resources which form the foundation of this type of tourism (Larm et al., 2017). Some scholars (see Eshun & Tichaawa, 2020b; Moswete et al., 2020) explain that livelihood strategies for many communities in Sub-Saharan Africa have been solely tied to forest and rangeland resources, which has led to the degradation of such areas. Additionally, several studies cited issues such as park-people conflicts, human-animal conflicts and local community marginalization as those common in many protected areas in the region (Baghai et al., 2018; Cobbinah et al., 2015; Cobbinah et al., 2017; Eshun Tichaawa, 2020b; Harilal & Tichaawa, 2018; Larkin, 2014; Mbaiwa et al., 2011; Moswete et al., 2020; Thondhlana & Cundill, 2017; UNWTO, 2015). Community marginalisation in trans frontier parks is further exacerbated owing to the institutional arrangements of the two or more countries, thereby limiting their inclusion in management and conservation decisions (Lekgau & Tichaawa, 2019). Further, Chiutsi and Saarinen (2019)

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affirm wildlife tourism in transboundary protected areas to often serve non-local needs while severely harming host communities, necessitating the evaluation into these protected areas. In response to the above concerns, many countries in Southern Africa have adopted the Integrate Conservation Development Programmes (ICDPS) to find a balance between conservation, tourism, and local development (Black & Cobbinah, 2018). These ICDPs have different names in different countries in Southern Africa, such as Living in a Finite Environment in Namibia, Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) in Zimbabwe and Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) in Botswana (Black & Cobbinah 2018). CBNRM in Botswana, which is carried out through community-based tourism (CBT) or community trusts, recognized that communities are crucial conservers of biodiversity and that a community will only manage these natural resources if the benefits exceed the costs (Stone & Stone, 2020). Accordingly, much of the policy response to the above issues has been to include host communities in wildlife conservation. In Botswana, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks had established a policy framework that governs the management of protected areas in the country, including the KTP (Southern African Development Community [SADC] 2005). This policy framework includes the National Ecotourism Strategy (NES), the Wildlife/National Conservation Policy, the Tourism Policy, the Wildlife Conservation and National Parks Act of 1992, and the National Policy on Resources Conservation and Development (Lekgau & Tichaawa, 2019; Moswete et al., 2012). Broadly, this policy framework enables communities to take ownership of natural resources, wildlife tourism, and conservation in their locality. Furthermore, while the individual Acts and strategies included in this policy framework each have different specific focuses, a common emphasis of all these policy documents is on establishing sustainable wildlife tourism and conservation sector that improves livelihoods, protects traditional rights, increasing income flowing into the community and creates employment opportunities.

The KTP in Botswana The KTP is located in the southwestern part of Southern Africa and was formed from the amalgamation of the South African Kalahari Gemsbok National Park and the Botswana Gemsbok National Park (Lekgau & Tichaawa, 2019; Moswete et al., 2020). The KTP has existed for more than eight decades and has been declared a flagship model for international collaboration for conservation and local development for protected areas (Thondhlana et al., 2015). In 1999, the former presidents of South Africa and Botswana signed the bilateral agreement which stipulated the management objectives that would govern the KTP (Peace Parks Foundation, 2019). The main objective

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of the KTP pertained to maintaining the ecological integrity of the unique Kalahari region (Moswete & Thapa, 2018). The subsequent objectives related to improving the regional management of the Kalahari ecosystem, increasing the international profile of the KTP and maximizing the economic potential of surrounding communities (Moswete & Thapa, 2018; Lekgau & Tichaawa, 2019). The present study focused on the last objective, which relates to promoting economic development in communities adjacent to the KTP through wildlife tourism. While the KTP is managed as one ecological system, it is governed by two sets of policies and strategies (from the two different countries), and therefore the route to achieving the established objectives is done so autonomously by the two governing authorities. In the case of Botswana, Moswete et al. (2020) contend that the KTP, a resource endowed area, is of particular importance to local adjacent communities. Indeed, the geographical location of the KTP (far from major towns) and the diverse cultural and natural resources in the area has influenced the government of Botswana to leverage the protected area for local community development (Moswete et al., 2020). The focus of the present chapter is on the Tsabong community. While it is not one of the immediate surrounding communities to the KTP, Saarinen et al. (2012) explains that this community developed as a transit site for tourists visiting the KTP (as seen in Figure 7.1). This status enabled the community to leverage the tourist pull of KTP to aid in the village’s wildlife tourism development. The government of Botswana had strategically position Tsabong as an emerging wildlife tourism destination to alleviate the dire socio-economic conditions present in the community. Accordingly, the government had invested in some infrastructural developments to aid this emerging wildlife tourism sector, such as the improvement of roads and telecommunications (Saarinen et al., 2012). Important offices have also been established in Tsabong, such as the Department of Tourism and the Botswana Tourism Organization (BTO). The BTO had partnered with the local community trust (Tsamama community trust) to establish the Tsabong Camel Park to engage and foster community participation in wildlife tourism (Moeng, 2011). Tsabong has been underscored to be the most tourism developed village in the Kgalagadi District (Manwa et al., 2017). It is this background that makes Tsabong an excellent case study site in which to test the objective of the study.

Methodology This study is purely qualitative. The history of the KTP, and the subsequent community development, necessitated the data collection process to be divided into two phases. The first phase involved a documentary analysis in the examination of historical and policy documents concerning the KTP, to establish the context in which the Park was created and the objectives and aims the two countries had set in the

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Figure 7.1: Map of Tsabong. Source: authors

establishment of the trans frontier Park. The study focused on the objective that was directed to increasing employment opportunities and alleviating poverty in the adjacent community, which in the present study, is Tsabong. Informed by the first phase, the second phase of the research involved the collection of primary data. Two study populations were considered in this phase: the host community and tourism stakeholders in Tsabong. In this second phase of data collection, semi-structured interviews were conducted with the tourism stakeholders, comprising of business owners (both formal and informal), and representatives of the conservation authority, tourism authorities, community trust and government authorities. This group was thought to hold information regarding the nature of wildlife tourism in the KTP and Tsabong, and its contribution to job creation, poverty alleviation and local development. Adopting a purposive sampling procedure, the researchers interviewed nine respondents. Open ended questions were used to allow for exploratory discussions with the respondents, with the questions having sought to understand the extent to which wildlife tourism has contributed to employing Tsabong residents, in creating entrepreneurial opportunities and the nature of community participation in wildlife

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tourism. Following these initial interviews, a focus group was held with community representatives. Tsabong is a small community, comprising of 9471 people (Statistics Botswana, 2012). To gain an accurate representation of the community’s view (on wildlife tourism), the focus group included community leaders, members of the community employed in wildlife tourism, and community members that had resided in Tsabong for more than ten years. These individuals were postulated to hold valuable insight as to how the sector had contributed to employment opportunities and the livelihood strategies in the community. Further, owing to the study objective, and the positioning of wildlife tourism in the KTP towards local development in Tsabong, it was imperative to investigate and share the views of the community, as the beneficiaries of these strategies. Therefore, similar questions were posed to the community focus group to gauge their perspective on the role of wildlife tourism on the economic development of the village. The sampling procedure followed was a mixture of purposive and snowball sampling to invite these individuals to the focus group. In total, ten community members were involved in the focus group discussion. Data collection took place during May 2019 and the correct ethical procedures were followed by the researchers during this process. The focus group discussions and interviews were recorded (with prior permission), transcribed and loaded into Atlas.ti. This data analysis software, for qualitative data, enabled the coding and thematic grouping of the findings. In interpreting the findings, it is important to note the limitations in the study design, primarily the small sample size included. This was partly a result of the research being exploratory, seeking to understand the views and opinions of both community and the wildlife tourism stakeholders in the role of wildlife tourism on employment and livelihood strategies, which are discussed in the following section.

Findings and Discussion Contribution to Employment Wildlife tourism is a relatively new economic activity in the Tsabong community (Saarinen et al., 2012). One of the main proponents for wildlife tourism is that the sector aids in economic diversification by providing new employment opportunities, entrepreneurial opportunities, and inter-sectoral linkages. Accordingly, the study respondents were asked to provide their views on the contribution of wildlife tourism to employment creation. In the focus groups, one community member stated that, “Most of the people here found work because of wildlife tourism” (FG2) and another added that, “We are locals and we are employed here [Tsabong Camel Park]” (FG6). As indicated, the focus group was in agreement that wildlife tourism offers new employment opportunities to the community. Another participant in the focus group

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added, “I think it [wildlife tourism] has an important impact because it has created some jobs, especially in our area, because, as you can see, there are not that many places we can work in. Yes, there are many shops, but this thing [wildlife tourism], it really create[s] jobs” (FG5). The above statement resonates with the assertion, by Eshun and Tichaawa (2020a), that remote and rural community are often characterized by limited economic opportunities and that wildlife tourism offers much needed income generating potential through the establishment of wildlife tourism establishments and experiences (Snyman, 2012). Arguably, it is this rationale that supported the creation of the Tsabong Camel Park which was established in connection to the KTP and intended to include the Tsabong community (amongst two other communities) in wildlife tourism. Indeed, the camel park was conceptualized to be complementary to the KTP, offering a wide range of wildlife experiences (such as camel riding, dune surfing and 4x4 driving), often purchased by wildlife tourists, visiting Tsabong on their way to the KTP. Indeed, Moeng (2011) explained that one of the objectives of the Tsabong Camel Park was to create more jobs in the three communities. One respondent had supported the contribution of the camel park to employment, stating, “There are more employment opportunities. Here, we have to sometimes close at night, because . . . there is a shortage of staff, so if there were more people, we can open at night” (R8). Moreover, one interview respondent explained as follows: With the Tsabong Camel Park, that’s actually for the community, as a wildlife tourism attraction. So, because it was created for the community, the three villages involved in the Community Trust, most of the people working there are from those three villages. They were selected, and they have first priority when it comes to employment. So, the Camel Park is also important for the community. (R2)

Accordingly, the above indicates the focus on developing wildlife tourism for employment creation, arguably in line with the national policies governing wildlife tourism and conservation in Botswana. Markwell (2018) underscores that the sustainable utilization of wildlife, as most southern African countries are attempting to do, provide a strategy to achieve goals in conservation and community development. Botswana is one such an example as the government of Botswana, in shifting its attention to the southern Kgalagadi district, not only invested heavily in infrastructure but also built important offices to enable the development and growth of wildlife tourism operations in the community. Indeed, some of the interview respondents noted the increase in wildlife tourism establishment in the community, mostly pointing to accommodations such as lodges and guesthouses. One representative of governing authorities illustrated some growth of tourism establishment in the community by explaining that, “There are 25 tourism enterprises in the district, 24 accommodations and 1 mobile safari operations” (R4).

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In discussing the impact of wildlife tourism on employment creation in Tsabong, some of the focus group participants noted that the sector in the community has yet to make the impact it has in northern Botswana – a popular wildlife tourism region in the country. For example, one participant argued, “In this community, I don’t really know or see if wildlife has helped that much, that I know of here. Some places, maybe yes, like in Chobe [northern Botswana], but here I haven’t seen any change. I’d say that it will someday” (R5). Many of the respondents highlighted the difference between the development of wildlife tourism in Tsabong and northern Botswana. The respondents explained that wildlife tourism has yet to gain much prominence in the community and that most of the community members were still heavily dependent on farming activities. It is important to note that the types of wildlife tourism establishments growing in Tsabong are small-scale accommodations, most of which are self-catering and thereby have low visibility and impact on the community. This directly relates to the number of individuals that can be sustained by the wildlife tourism economy as one manager of a self-catering accommodation establishment reflected: “So, as it [wildlife tourism] grows slowly, so do us [tourism businesses]. We only started with two employees, so that is two cleaners, and now we have about six of them. So, I think it is helping, but at [i.e., on] a very little scale” (R6). The above statement explains that the growth trajectory of wildlife tourism development in the community (and subsequently, job creation) is dependent upon the growth of wildlife tourism in the district, specifically in the KTP. This may be of concern, considering the KTP has adopted a low tourism impact plan that ensures conservation of the natural resources therein (Lekgau & Tichaawa, 2019). This is in line with the overall tourism development in the country, as most protected areas use a “Low Volume, High Value” strategy to ensure minimum destruction of the natural environment through wildlife tourism activities (Mbaiwa, 2015). Evidently, this low scale approach to wildlife tourism may severely impact the contribution to employment. Many respondents added that this was exacerbated by the dominance of the accommodation sector in the community. For instance, one focus group participant commented, “I think [that] it is just jobs at this point because we don’t have many attractions where tourists could do some activities. So, for now, we only benefit from employment” (FG2). Another respondent, a representative from the tourism department, expanded on this as follows: Much of the tourism activity [of the region] takes place in the community. In Tsabong, it is the accommodation sector . . . [and although] it creates employment, it is not that much. In the past year and a half, only one hotel has been licensed, do you see how small that is? It would seem [that] it does create employment but not at a large scale.

Such comments largely focus on the transit status of Tsabong. Since wildlife tourism largely developed in the area from the need to provide accommodation to tourists visiting the KTP, this has significantly shaped the nature of wildlife tourism in

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Tsabong and therefore the accrued impacts. Similar views are presented by Saarinen et al. (2012) having contended that the transit status of the community could hinder the community’s individual tourism development. Consequently, while the KTP is immensely useful in drawing wildlife tourists to Tsabong, further growth may arise from diversifying from just accommodation-centered development. Indeed, the nearby camel park may be seen as a start since it offers activities, such as camel riding and 4x4 racing. Many of the interviews with the relevant stakeholders reaffirmed such sentiments. One respondent commented, “They come in hired vehicles and they rarely sleep here because we are near the entry point for the KTP so they don’t stay long. So, we also have a camp that is not [frequented], it is not utilized, but when they are passing by Tsabong they like camel riding and quad bikes” (R3). Such views illustrate the interest of tourists while in the community. Furthermore, another interview respondent, a representative from the Department of Wildlife and National Parks, expressed the following: “Tourists come here to view our wildlife and landscape” (R1) which suggests a limitation in the tourism potential to the inherent natural resources of the region.

Wildlife Tourism Linkages To extensively explore the contribution of wildlife tourism to the Tsabong community, an examination of the linkages between the wildlife tourism industry and the local economy was conducted. Cai et al. (2006) argue that the examination of tourism inter-sectoral linkages is crucial to gaining a more comprehensive view of tourism’s impact on economic development. In the context of rural areas, tourism linkages are often an aspect of pro-poor tourism (Rogerson, 2012; Rylance & Spenceley, 2017). This section of the study specifically focused on business owners, from within which the data revealed the lack of linkages to other local sectors in Tsabong. For example, some of the respondents stated the following: Most of us [business owners] go there [to Gaborone]. We normally buy in there because Gaborone is the biggest city in Botswana, so that is where all things can be bought. In Gaborone, they [suppliers] buy their goods from outside [of the country], and then they all gather there in Gaborone to go sell [to us]. (R4) We buy from a company in Gaborone. Normally, what we buy is the soap and all that, because that is normally what we need. Because we are a self-catering business, we are not concerned with food stuff to cater for the visitors. So, we just get what we need in Gaborone. But our towels and curtains and all that stuff, we get that from South Africa. (R2)

The above quotes indicate how Gaborone (the capital city of Botswana) serves as the main source of supplies for the tourism establishments in Tsabong. Largely, the discussions with the business owners pointed to Tsabong only sourcing basic products that can be gained from grocery stores in the area, which are not locally owned

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but maybe a part of a larger chain of stores. For more specific items, the respondents found Gaborone to be the closest town in Botswana to find these items. One respondent explained, “Here in Tsabong, you can find your basic stuff, like vegetables and washing powder and stuff. But, in terms of hotel stuff, you need those [to be] of quality. So, you will find them somewhere else, and that is why we go to Gaborone and South Africa” (R6). It is important to take into consideration that most of the tourism establishments in Tsabong are mostly accommodations and are common to being self-catering lodges and small guesthouses. This may reduce the need for constant sourcing of supplies, such as those relating to food and beverage. Further, the findings show that the common supplies of these establishments are not produced in Tsabong (towels, curtains and sheets) and this may be because the local economy is predominantly centered around farming and agriculture (Moswete et al., 2020). Accordingly, the researchers found it important to explore the agricultural linkages to these tourism establishments. This is due to the potential for tourism to support the local agricultural sector through the creation of backward linkages (Rogerson, 2012; UNCTAD, 2017). As such, wildlife tourism may be an attractive economic sector for local farmers in Tsabong. However, the respondents had the following to say, “There aren’t any local producers, really. There are no people producing anything in this small place, Tsabong. It is only just recently that we are seeing these small businesses, for example, a lady came the other day selling eggs. So, then we hired the lady to become our supplier, and then, when she was supposed to supply, she failed” (R4). Evident from this response is that a lack of consistency in supply may be a problem for tourism in Tsabong. This may be specifically directed at micro-enterprises in the community. Interestingly, the findings also show the willingness of tourism establishments to source some of their supplies from local producers. For instance, one respondent explained, “Usually, we source in Tsabong. It is only for things like tailors that we’ll go to Gaborone, because of [the] limited [number of] suppliers here in our community. But we do source from butcheries in Tsabong, and [we] source locals for some minor construction [work], like painting, tiling and filling of [the] geyser” (FG2). This statement, taken from a representative of the camel park, suggests that where possible, wildlife tourism establishments do provide ad hoc jobs to members of the community. UNCTAD (2017) stresses the importance of linkages as spurring local development, entrepreneurial opportunities, and therefore employment creation.

Entrepreneurial Developments in Wildlife Tourism Albeit incrementally, wildlife tourism has been noted to be a growing economic sector in Tsabong. Some respondents highlighted the slow increase in wildlife tourism

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establishments in the community, with one respondent, a representative of the BTO, stating: And, other than just Tsabong Camel Park, there are also motels around that. You know, a lot of guests, especially those that come from South Africa, because we are closer to the border, and Namibia to the trans frontier Park. But because of sometimes distance, and sometimes time, they get stuck, and they also get to spend the night in Tsabong. That also gets to benefit the community, considering that all the motels around are for the locals. (R7)

Additionally, another respondent explained, “And then we have, in 110km, the Mabuasehube gate [the Botswana entry into the Kgalagadi transfrontier Park]. So, from there you have some accommodation facilities, they are not many, just a few. Only recently, we have some mushrooming. So, we are hoping on them, in terms of employment” (R6). The above statement illustrates the use of the KTP as a way to facilitate development in Tsabong, particularly in leveraging the transit status of the community. However, it is important to note that this development is not only recent but, as mentioned earlier, also occurring at a very slow pace. Many of the respondents agreed that the lack of financial resources is a prominent reason behind this slow development. As an example, one respondent offered the following: “But really, we [Department of Tourism] try to pass on information, creating tourism awareness [such as] which activities people can do. But you know where the problem is? Tourism projects need money, they need money and land. And many of the locals don’t have that here [in Tsabong]” (R4). While being the administrative capital of the district, Tsabong still faces the same dire socio-economic condition prevalent in the region which includes low employment rates and high levels of poverty (Saarinen et al. 2012; Manwa et al. 2017). While the draw of wildlife tourism may make use of the inherent natural and cultural resources of the area, the financial requirements for the development of tourism facilities, such as accommodations, may still be beyond the capacity of many of the community members. Interestingly, some of the respondents in the study pointed to some of the development in the community to be owed by individuals who are not from the community. For instance, one participant of the focus group noted that “I don’t think we are benefitting much from it, because you will find that even the . . . [commercial] places that are here, are not owned by the Batswana. Well, maybe except the mall, it is owned by someone who is from Tsabong. But then most of the hotels, they are not owned by Batswana” (FG6). Furthermore, another respondent added, “Yes, most of the business[es] are started by people who are from outside Tsabong. Those are the people that are coming and establishing businesses in wildlife tourism here” (FG4). Interestingly, similar cases can be found in other wildlife tourism destinations in Botswana. Mbaiwa (2017) highlights that citizens of Botswana are often disadvantaged in tourism development in the country, pointing to limited capital, experience

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and skills as the primary factors for such unfavorable conditions. Evidently, the present study findings confirm this assertion. One of the major concerns arising from this circumstance is that it enables economic leakages, as not all economic returns from wildlife tourism are felt in the community. Indeed, this may account for the prevailing argument that the community representatives presented – in that the only benefit from wildlife tourism is employment. Other respondents in the interviews offered a different perspective, expressing their concern that there is still much to be developed, in terms of wildlife tourism, in Tsabong and that there is little awareness of wildlife tourism. For instance, two respondents argued as follows: I don’t think they value it as much as I wish they would, maybe it is because I’m coming from [a] place where there is nothing that has got tourism-related events, they should be more active in tourism because they’ve got a lot in their community. (R4) I don’t know if they even think about wildlife tourism. There are so many things people can use to get tourists, like hunting. They are always hunting. They just feel like it is okay to just do that. They don’t want . . . that chance to embrace [the] hunting season to make something bigger from that, other than haphazardly hunting. (R8)

It is important to note that these statements were presented by individuals within the wildlife tourism sector of Tsabong. In Tsabong, the focus on wildlife tourism has only emerged a few years back and as such, communities are still learning about the sector and the benefits therein. Largely, it is the few employed or operating in wildlife tourism that have a greater insight into the growth potential of the sector. Furthermore, the latter statement above specifically proposes more exploration into the consumptive form of wildlife tourism. It is of importance to note that hunting has been particularly controversial in Botswana. Indeed, the country had introduced a hunting ban in 2014 which has severely hampered the livelihoods of many communities in the country, who have utilized their wildlife resources in that manner (Mbaiwa, 2018). Mbaiwa (2018) affirms that consumptive wildlife tourism, conducted in a wildlife quota system that enables selective hunting, had increased revenue received from tourism to the local communities in Botswana. In fact, this form of wildlife tourism is described to have a significant monetary impact compared to the non-consumptive form. Interestingly, the country had recently amended the ban opening up possibilities for this form of wildlife tourism in Tsabong. However, the statement presented above also indicates that the community does not have much awareness and knowledge regarding wildlife tourism. This may also stem from the fact that the national organizations responsible for developing wildlife tourism in the region (Department of Tourism, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Kgalagadi Conservation Society) may not be supporters of this form of tourism owing to its controversial nature regarding sustainability. However, at the time of the study, there was one establishment that was offering hunting expeditions which does suggest that this form of wildlife tourism has some potential in diversifying the tourism offerings in the community.

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Conclusion For the most part, research into wildlife tourism destinations considers host communities residing closest to, or inside, protected areas (see Atanga, 2019; Harilal & Tichaawa, 2018; Eshun & Tichaawa, 2020a; Larkin, 2014; Snyman, 2012). The study provides some valuable theoretical contributions as it considers a transit site, that is, a wildlife tourism destination that emerged as a consequence of the tourism pull of the KTP. While Tsabong arguably does not have a direct claim to the KTP, primarily due to its distance from the protected area, the village has been included as one of the communities the KTP considers in achieving its management objective (i.e., to realize the economic potential of surrounding communities). As such, this study argues the importance of considering the contribution made by wildlife tourism in transit destinations as a way to spread the economic benefits of tourism in the region. The present study found wildlife tourism in Tsabong to have contributed to employment opportunities, predominantly originating from the accommodation sector thereby suggesting that these jobs largely exist due to the transit nature of the village. However, the study also illustrated that the transit status, which may result in the dominance of the accommodation sector, may have limited opportunities to meaningful contribution to employment opportunities as most of the accommodations were largely small, self-catering lodges and guesthouses (employing less than 10 employees). Further, it is important to consider that remote, wilderness areas such as Tsabong, facing dire socio-economic conditions, livelihood strategies from wildlife tourism may be limited due to the minimal linkages with other economic sectors, and limited community participation owing to financial barriers and limited knowledge on wildlife tourism. Overall, the study argues wildlife tourism in Tsabong to be an important economic sector in the community, one that is still in its developing stages. Future research in this area should consider adopting a quantitative approach to obtain a wider gauge of wildlife tourism contribution to employment and livelihood strategies in the community.

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Moswete, N., Thapa, B., & Child, B. (2012). Attitudes and opinions of locals and national public sector stakeholders towards Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, Botswana. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology, 19(1), 67–80. Moswete, N., Thapa, B., & Darley, W. K. (2020). Local communities’ attitudes and support of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park in southwest Botswana. Sustainability, 12(4), 15–24. Moswete, N., & Thapa, B. (2018). Local Communities, CBOs/ Trusts,and People–Park Relationships: A Case Study of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, Botswana. The George Wright Forum, 35(1), 96–108. Peace Parks Foundation. (2019). Peace Parks Foundation Annual Review 2019. Stellenbosch: Peace Parks Foundation. Rogerson, C. M. (2012). Tourism–agriculture linkages in rural South Africa: Evidence from the accommodation sector. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 20(3), 477–495. Rylance, A., & Spenceley, A. (2017). Reducing economic leakages from tourism: A value chain assessment of the tourism industry in Kasane. Development Southern Africa, 34(3), 295–313. Saarinen, J., Hambira, W. L., Atlhopheng, J., & Manwa, H. (2012). Tourism industry reaction to climate change in Kgalagadi South District, Botswana. Development Southern Africa, 29(2), 273–285. Snyman, S. L. (2012). The role of tourism employment in poverty reduction and community perceptions of conservation and tourism in southern Africa. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 20 (3), 395–416. Snyman, S. L. (2017). The Role of Private Sector Ecotourism in Local Socio-economic Development in Southern Africa. Journal of Ecotourism, 16(3), 247–268. Southern African Development Community (SADC). (2005). Handbook on environmental assessment legislation in the SADC region. Gaborone: SADC. Spenceley, A. (2008). Requirements for Sustainable Nature-based Tourism in Transfrontier Conservation Areas: A Southern African Delphi Consultation. Tourism Geographies, 10(3), 285–311. Stone, M. T., & Nyaupane, G. P. (2017). Ecotourism influence on community needs and the functions of protected areas: A systems thinking approach. Journal of Ecotourism, 16(3), 222–246. Stone, M. T., & Stone, L. S. (2020). Challenges of community-based tourism in Botswana: A review of literature. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa, 75(2), 181–193. Thondhlana, G., Shackleton, S., & Blignaut, J. (2015). Local institutions, actors and natural resources governance in Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park and surrounds, South Africa. Land Use Policy, 47, 121–129. Thondhlana, G., & Cundill, G. (2017). Local people and conservation officials’ perceptions on relationships and conflicts in South African protected areas. International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services and Management, 13(1), 204–215. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). (2017). Economic development in Africa report 2017. Tourism for transformative and inclusive growth. Geneva: United Nations. United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). (2015). Towards measuring the economic value of wildlife watching tourism in Africa – Briefing paper. Madrid: UNWTO. United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). (2019). The Economic Impact of Global Wildlife Tourism. Madrid: UNWTO.

Fergus T. Maclaren, Jacinta Nzioka-Mbithi and Jonathan Karkut

8 Tourism’s Uneven Premise: Dealing with Destination Development and Management Challenges, and Global Pandemic Effects, at African World Heritage Sites Introduction UNESCO Cultural and Natural World Heritage site nominations are often sought by African nations to leverage their nascent tourism industries and subsequent community economic development and conservation revenue benefits. When a location does achieve this unique status, however, there are myriad number of factors that can affect a community from realizing continuous use and sustainable livelihood opportunities. The African Union’s Charter for African Cultural Renaissance (2006) recognizes the important role that culture pays in mobilizing and unifying people around the common ideals of Pan-Africanism. Multilateral agencies and financial institutions have since indicated (notably through the UNESCO 2018 report World Heritage for Sustainable Development in Africa and the UNWTO’s Agenda for Africa) the need to ensure that destination sustainability planning resonates with inclusive community benefits and economic transformation. Capacity building initiatives have already emerged on the ground through the African World Heritage Fund Category 2 Centre for UNESCO, UNESCO National offices, emerging ICOMOS National Committees (such as in Kenya) and IUCN regional representatives. There are, however, several aspects affecting communities living within and on the periphery of sites, from the realization of benefits inherent from gaining World Heritage status. Namely: – Operational challenges: Limited organizational capacity and financial resources; dealing with irregular and not always accountable levels of governance. – Site sustainability: Visitor attraction and management; participation of underrepresented groups; and maintenance of traditional cultural use and activities. – Community resiliency: Dealing with pressures to leave traditional lands, occupations and residential areas; tourism sector’s ability to respond to unforeseen circumstances like global pandemics, financial crises, natural disasters and regional conflicts. The United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) provide a useful framework to outline how communities can benefit from sustainable forms of tourism. These include specific SDG targets that address cultural/natural heritage and tourism (i.e., Targets 8.9 Sustainable Tourism, 11.4 Cultural and Natural Heritage, 12b Sustainable https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110702491-008

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Tourism Reporting and 14.7 Marine-based Tourism). The UNWTO may argue that tourism can both positively and negatively affect all 17 SDGs. The COVID-19 crisis has fully exposed the fragility of the global visitor economy, and the dependence countries have placed on deriving benefits from tourism industry investments. Local communities that depend on the continuous flow of monies to sustain wellbeing, infrastructure and services are now bereft. This has affected their ability to conserve wildlife, habitats and cultural heritage, to quickly get these World Heritage sites to generate revenues again. This chapter will address the points raised above for communities living within and on the periphery of African World Heritage sites using the following methodology: – Provide an overview of the World Heritage Convention and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and how they influence the concept of sustainable tourism. – Identify key issues that should be addressed in formulating cohesive sustainable destination development and management plans for tentative and nominated African World Heritage sites; – Present the current state of destination development and management for these sites in the context of the global COVID-19 pandemic; – Provide case study examples of individual nominated and tentative World Heritage sites in Ethiopia, Ghana and Kenya on how tourism sustainability and resiliency challenges are affecting and being addressed by local communities; and – Propose a roadmap to reinforce tourism sustainability and community resiliency at African World Heritage sites, as the “next normal” evolves.

The World Heritage Convention and Sustainable Tourism Promotion The concept of World Heritage was inculcated with the signing of UNESCO’s Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (henceforward referred to as the World Heritage Convention) in 1972, determining to preserve and celebrate the best of the best monuments and protected areas. Applying the term “Outstanding Universal Value” (OUV), candidate sites must demonstrate “cultural and/or natural significance which is so exceptional as to transcend national boundaries and to be of common importance for present and future generations of all humanity.” The focal elements of the World Heritage Convention are its strategic objectives referred to as the 5 Cs: a. Strengthen the credibility of the World Heritage List, as a representative and geographically balanced testimony of cultural and natural properties of outstanding universal value; b. Ensure the effective conservation of World Heritage properties;

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c.

Promote the development of effective capacity-building measures, including assistance for preparing the nomination of properties to the World Heritage List, for the understanding and implementation of the World Heritage Convention and related instruments; d. Increase public awareness, involvement and support for World Heritage through communication; and e. Enhance the role of communities in the implementation of the World Heritage Convention. (UNESCO 2002, 2007) In some instances, it has been posited that there is little or no link between inscription on the World Heritage List and tourism development, and, beyond this, local development (Prud’homme, 2008). Sustainable tourism at these destinations, however, relies on the development and delivery of quality experiences that do not degrade or damage any of the property’s natural or cultural values (i.e., OUV) and visitor attraction. There is subsequently a two-way relationship between World Heritage sites and tourism: – World Heritage properties are often the major attractions for a country’s or region’s tourism sector; and – Tourism offers world heritage stakeholders the ability to meet the requirements of the Convention to “present” (or communicate) World Heritage properties to the public and to generate funds for conservation, while also realizing community and economic benefits through sustainable use. (UNWTO, 2015) The adoption and use of the 2030 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) can encourage more sustainable forms of tourism. Specifically, there are four SDG Targets out of the 165 total that correlate to tourism and cultural heritage at World Heritage sites. These Targets include: – 8.9 – By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism which creates jobs, promotes local culture and products. – 12b – Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism which creates jobs, promotes local culture and products. – 14.7 – By 2030, increase the economic benefits to SIDS and LDCs from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism. – 11.4 – Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage. The first two SDG targets are focused on supporting sustainable livelihoods and unique intangible cultural heritage; the third is concerned with the conservation and sustainable use of marine resources; and the fourth target supports the preservation of cultural resources, of which tourism may be one of the leading contributors to both economically support and physically and/or experientially diminish

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a destination. The sustainability dissonance between these targets is that where the development and expansion of a visitor economy (i.e., any direct, indirect, and induced economic activity resulting from visitors’ interactions with their destination) (WTTC, 2020a), has provided the revenue necessary to preserve monuments, historic sites and intangible cultural heritage, the increasing volumes of tourists can also result in significant damage and demands on these same resources (McClimon, 2019). One example of trying to remedy this circumstance for World Heritage sites is derived from the United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG) 2018 report Culture in the Sustainable Development Goals: A Guide for Local Action, which acknowledges the interpolation of tourism and culture when referencing SDG 8 – Decent Work and Economic Growth. It posits that cultural aspects can be integrated into tourism strategies, while ensuring that this does not imply decontextualization of cultural identities, traditions, and assets relevant to the benefits that are reinvested in cultural activities. Authorities responsible for urban World Heritage sites and other forms of intangible and tangible cultural heritage can ensure that the local tourism model is sustainable, balanced across the city or region, connected to the local communities, and interacting with cultural ecosystems (ULCG, 2018).

Africa, the World Heritage Convention and Tourism The World Heritage List is unbalanced due to vast scale of large singular or contiguous protected areas versus the more numerous tangible cultural heritage entities. In terms of the total 1,121 sites as of November 2020, there are more cultural (869) than natural (213) properties (along with 39 mixed cultural/natural heritage properties). Different religions and spiritualities are not equally represented, with the majority being Christianity-based sites (60) located around the world, almost doubling the sites of the next largest denomination, Hinduism (32), which have all but one site (Angkor Wat, Cambodia) located in India. It should be noted that while most major religions around the world have at least one site nomination, it is dependent on the interests and inclinations of the nation where these sacred sites are located to promote their nomination for World Heritage status. More generally, historic towns (in Europe and Latin America) and prominent religious and military buildings are overrepresented, as are some historic periods. On the other hand, “living” and “traditional” cultures are underrepresented. The imbalance has mainly geographical and administrative reasons. Some regions, in particular Europe, are overrepresented. Many southern countries, especially in SubSaharan Africa, are poorly represented on the List, (Università della Svizzera Italiana, 2018). The causes for this underrepresentation are in no small part due to a number of systemic and financial factors. For many countries in Africa, staging a World Heritage

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nomination is a lengthy, complicated and expensive process. Technical and professional skills, reliable historical records, and architectural renderings are not often readily available nor up to date. On occasion, a site has been nominated, the national governments cannot ensure that necessary measures and funding are available to protect these venues. The first 12 World Heritage sites were nominated in 1978, including three from Africa: Simien National Park (Ethiopia), Rock-Hewn Churches in Lalibela (Ethiopia), and Isle de Gorée (Senegal). While Africa had a seemingly strong start on the List, of the 1,121 current total number of World Heritage sites, there are only 129 total sites across the continent, representing only 8.6% of all sites around the globe (compared to 47.2% in Europe and North America, and 23% in Asia and the Pacific) (UNESCO, 2020f). This is in spite of the continent’s abundant richness in unique histories, cultures and biodiversity. At the African Cultural Heritage and the World Heritage Convention – First Global Strategy Meeting in 1995, it was noted that the 17 nominated African World Heritage properties at that time were made up on one hand of prehistoric sites dating back to the earliest era of humanisation, and on the other, of groups of buildings or monuments from the colonial period. The specifically African cultural and natural heritage were thus reduced to the smallest share. The causes of this circumstance were deemed to be numerous and varied: 1. The cultural priorities of Africa were not those of the 1972 World Heritage Convention; 2. In Africa, the notion of heritage rarely coincides with that of the 1972 Convention; 3. The inscription procedures provided for by the Operational Guidelines have for a long time been inadequate for conditions in African countries; and 4. The African States Parties to the Convention have not drawn up tentative lists in sufficient numbers. (UNESCO, 1995). Despite considerable challenges in obtaining and maintaining a World Heritage nomination, the key question remains: why do African nations continue to pursue these arduous investments of time, money and effort? Sites capable of meeting the strenuous requirements receive the mantle of a globally recognized brand to promote tourism. For African countries trying to establish and nurture their emerging visitor economies, World Heritage is a significant endorsement to marketing themselves as national symbols, like Kenya’s ubiquitously named Mount Kenya, Egypt’s Great Pyramids of Giza and Mosi-o-Tunya (Victoria Falls) shared between Zambia and Zimbabwe. UNESCO World Heritage Centre publications have highlighted the qualities of African tourism development based on culture and heritage, assigning tourism with the following mission: “tourism will, therefore, assist in removing existing stereotypes and misrepresentations of indigenous African cultures. In this regard, cultural

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tourism may well contribute to the promotion of international harmony and crosscultural understanding” (Akama & Sterry, 2000, p. 14). The coexistence of African heritage and heritage of European origin, complicate tourism development and its objectives. The latter are often legacies and relics of colonializations (Addo, 2011), “Thus, at this level, a fundamental difference is being established between the conception of an inheritance-based European heritage and that of an African heritage, whose function, for a large part, has no significance other than its intended use or the symbolism it transfers” (Ouallet, 2003, p.74). Boswell and O’Kane (2011) suggest that indigenous heritage is managed according to types of tourism development and management approaches in line with Western practices and/or run by international actors, resulting in particular relations between heritage and local communities. Several studies associate World Heritage nominations with the tourism development of the African continent (AIMF, Spenceley, 2005), pointing out the potential for (world) heritage to become a driving force behind tourism and, furthermore, for local development in Africa. Therefore, written reports and analyses on tourism in Africa often set out its “sustainable,” “participatory” and “ethical” side, while at the same time warning against tourism development that follows the European model and development of a tourism system founded on the promotion of monumental heritage resources to the detriment of a more diffused and shared approach (Principaud, 2010).

African World Heritage Site Tourism and the COVID-19 Pandemic The COVID-19 pandemic has seen most African nations’ tourism sectors drastically decline. Tourism was one of Africa’s fastest growing economic development sectors from 2007 to 2016, experiencing an average 4.5% annual growth rate. The African visitor economy employs over 20 million people, or 6.5% of the total workforce (and even 20% in some countries), accounting for 8–10% of the continent’s GDP. According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization’s (UNTWO) World Tourism Barometer, Africa was the world’s second fastest growing tourism region (after the Middle East) in 2018 with a 7% increase representing 67 million people, or 5% of the global total (UNWTO, 2020). The UNWTO has since estimated that international arrivals to Africa in the first quarter of 2020 are estimated to be down by 12%. Subsequently, the African Union has projected that the tourism and travel sectors in Africa could lose at least US$50 billion and at least two million direct and indirect jobs (or 8% of the 24.6 million total in 2019) (WTTC, 2020b). At the June 2020 meeting of African tourism ministers, the UNWTO Commission for Africa acknowledged that the COVID-19 crisis can lead to an opportunity to encourage and expand intra-African tourism. There was also

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consensus on the urgent need to work on designing a continental roadmap both for the response to the crisis and in preparation for the post-pandemic recovery that prioritizes the following initiatives: 1. Unlock growth through investment promotion and public-private partnerships. 2. Promote innovation and technology. 3. Promote travel facilitation, including enhanced connectivity and tourism visa policies. 4. Foster resilience, including through promoting safety and security, and crisis communications. 5. Advocate for “Brand Africa.” There have also been opportunities to make the industry more sustainable in support of the United Nations’ SDGs. The global COVID-19 pandemic, however, has exposed the vulnerabilities of Africa’s tourism industries and where consolidation and resilience building, not expansion, should be the focus moving forward. As of 4th August 2020, only 167 of the 197 countries who are signatories of the World Heritage Convention, having at least one nominated Site have indicated the following status: – 71 countries have closed access to sites totally (40%); – 57 countries have kept their sites open (34%); and – 39 have countries with partial site closure (includes those that are re-opening World Heritage sites slowly after the pandemic appears to have subsided) (26%). (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2020). From an African context, 90% of the 54 countries shut down their World Heritage sites (UN Information Centre in Cairo, August 25, 2020). Notable properties from the Forts and Castles World Heritage site in Ghana’s Central Region (discussed later in this chapter) of Elmina Castle and Cape Coast Castle have been especially hard-hit. All the major attractions and subsequently all 57 hotels in the region have closed down. It is estimated that directly or indirectly some 1,500 jobs have been lost (World Bank, 2020). Visitor access may still be possible to certain public areas of these sites, such as city centers, urban ensembles or agricultural landscapes, while other parts of the site may be closed, including site museums, visitor facilities, religious and/or emblematic buildings. As well, many intangible cultural heritage practices such as traditional festivals and gatherings have been halted or postponed, and with the closure of markets for handicrafts, products, and other goods, indigenous women’s revenues have been particularly impacted. Elsewhere at natural sites and National Parks, including World Heritage properties, however, there has been an increase in the risk of poaching, partly due to the decreased presence of tourists and staff in the park. There are reports of at least a dozen rhinos being killed in natural parks across Africa, although the true extent of the problem is currently unknown. In late April 2020, 12 rangers in Virunga National

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Park, a UNESCO World Heritage property in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, were killed in the deadliest attack in the park’s recent history. Some African World Heritage sites have taken unique steps to deal with the loss of visitors and conserve the resources within their borders. In the Ngorongoro Conservation Area of the United Republic of Tanzania where the Maasai community lives alongside the wildlife, there is a daily live-stream of site activity. Park rangers at the Bwindi Impenetrable Forest in Uganda have begun to wear masks to protect the mountain gorillas. A notable site recently affected by political and social instability is the Tomb of Askia in Gao, Mali. Nominated in 2004, it is the most important and best conserved vestige of the powerful and rich Songhai Empire that extended through West Africa in the 15th and 16th centuries. It has also been listed on the World Heritage in Danger List since 2012 due to the situation of armed conflict in the northern region of Mali and the serious threats to conserving its OUV (UNESCO World Heritage, 2020b). An extensive rehabilitation project on the Tomb was only very recently launched, but was paused due in part to COVID-19. This situation has been exacerbated with the forcible removal of President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta by military coup on 18 August 2020 (BBC, 2020).

Case Studies: Tourism Sustainability and Resiliency Challenges at African World Heritage Sites The following cases provide an overview of the setting, operational challenges, site sustainability, community resiliency and responses, and future planning for tourism at one Tentative and two nominated World Heritage Sites: the Sof Omar Cave Complex, Ethiopia; Forts and Castles, Volta, Greater Accra, Central and Western Regions, Ghana; and Thimlich Ohinga in Kenya.

Sof Omar Cave Complex, Ethiopia Ethiopia has eight cultural World Heritage sites (with accompanying nomination year): Rock-Hewn Churches, Lalibela (1978), Fasil Ghebbi, Gondar Region (1979), Aksum (1980), Lower Valley of the Awash (1980), Lower Valley of the Omo (1980), Tiya (1980), Harar Jugol, the Fortified Historic Town (2006) and the Konso Cultural Landscape (2011), and one natural site, Simien National Park (1978). There are also seven sites placed on Ethiopia’s Tentative List between 2008 and 2020, including the Holqa Sof Omar: Natural and Cultural Heritage (Sof Omar: Caves of Mystery) (2011) (See Figure 8.1). The Holqa Sof Omar: Natural and Cultural Heritage (henceforward “Sof Omar”) was added as a Tentative mixed site using the following rationale:

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– The cave system is an outstanding example to represent the major stage in the earth’s evolutionary history. – The cave system contains superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty and natural aesthetic significance. Additionally, this site has exceptional cultural significance to the spiritual life of the Islamic community which make pilgrimages there, aligning with the OUV specified under criteria (iii), (v) and (vi) (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2020d).

Setting The social and aesthetic positioning of natural cave systems as spiritual and reflective settings is a global phenomenon, and one with considerable tourism appeal. This is represented in the UNESCO World Heritage List through a number of existing properties, including subterranean elements, such as the Ennedi massif (natural and cultural landscapes in Chad) or the Maloti-Drakensberg Park mixed site on the Lesotho-South Africa borderlands. The Sof Omar cave complex is situated in a remote corner of Oromia region in the South East of Ethiopia, state authorities nominated it in 2019 to become the country’s 10th World Heritage site. What is particularly notable about the site at Sof Omar is that it provides a rare circumstance of what UNESCO terms a “mixed site” – where the significant natural geological attributes combine with unique aspects of living cultural heritage and religious traditions. Sof Omar was nominated as a mixed heritage candidate, as both facets have a fragility that will benefit from being jointly conserved and managed. The natural heritage features of the site have been placed under increasing developmental pressures, however, from the local agricultural sector. The cultural elements are also in a vulnerable position due to the sensitivity of the Sufi expression of Islam in the contemporary setting of the religion in Ethiopia (Østebø, T., 2009) as well as the wider African context (e.g., Mali, Sudan, Libya, Egypt). Consequently, placing the property on the World Heritage list is viewed by local and national authorities as an important step in the recognition not only of its universal significance, but in addressing the complex and delicate conservation and developmental concerns required when managing the Sof Omar site.

Operational Challenges Sof Omar was introduced to Ethiopia’s Tentative World Heritage list in 2011 and submitted for nomination by the World Heritage Committee in 2019–2020. There is an opportunity for communities and authorities at Sof Omar to consider how best to balance the needs of varying interests around the site. For a property located in

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Figure 8.1: Map of Ethiopia showing the Sof Omar WHS cave network.

such a remote corner of the country and with limited resources to draw upon locally, the recognition of its World Heritage candidacy is a significant achievement. Local and national agencies have come together in the preparation of its nomination dossier to UNESCO, with its mixed heritage site categorization generating, a broad variety of environmental, geological, cultural, community and interest groups involvement. Expanding interest in the Site has led to a number of community-based tourism developments over the past decade. Initiatives promoted by regional authorities are managed by the traditional community custodians of the property have emerged to better facilitate visitation around the caves. These included the installation of some manmade pathways and electrical lighting run off a diesel generator, inside a section of the caves. Although well intentioned, they are not

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Figure 8.2: Tourists at one of the Sof Omar caves entrances. Source: Photo by Dr. Raoul Bianchi (2019©)

the most suitable or sustainable solutions, particularly when considering the conservation of the subterranean geological and environmental fabric. This experience highlights the need for wider exchanges between the different stakeholders. For instance, further sharing of specialist professional experience, can be beneficial in aiding a two-way flow of knowledge (Chirikure et al., 2010), which in this case might help to outline appropriate adaptations to enable cave visitation. A further project led to the construction of a visitor information center and guest house in the village gateway to the cave, that were to be run by the local community (Williams, 2020). However, these steps alone couldn’t overcome the isolation of the site on the edge of the tourist map, and these facilities remain unused. This is compounded by the current lack of transport infrastructure, including no paved roads to the site, alongside limited interpretation, tourist information or promotion (Bayih & Tola, 2017). This underlines how sustaining tourism development efforts will require a more integrated approach beyond an initial buy in from local community groups and authorities.

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Site Sustainability One component that can be said to be more active at Sof Omar is the organization and participation of local community interests. This has evolved through the involvement of the traditional chief of the community, known as “Abbaa Gada,” from whom permission to enter the caves must be sought, although specific conditions or guidelines for access are not currently mapped out (personal communication, 2011). This custodian is the present representative who maintains a centuries old living and intangible cultural heritage expression. This supports the spread and maintaining of Islamic mysticism or Sufism, through oral and commemorative festivals and pilgrimage that continue to this day at Sof Omar. The physical backdrop for the Sufi beliefs and the Site’s cultural significance, is the natural cave system and surrounding woodlands, that are equally venerated and conserved by the local community. Such a backdrop provides a compelling practical example of what ICOMOS and IUCN (two of UNESCO’s World Heritage advisory bodies) describe as the “Nature-Culture Journey” (Potts, 2017) to sustain heritage sites. The remarkable longevity and cultural connection of the faith is testimony to the close relationship with the natural setting and its lasting social significance within Ethiopia and across East Africa, where pilgrims regularly travel to the site from across the region including Somalia (Semu, 2016). The community stakeholders in Sof Omar would appear to be in a strong position to meet the challenges of managing a mixed World Heritage site. Local valorisation and association with “their” heritage around Sof Omar, does bode well for future conservation and development efforts (Chirikure, 2013). The additional hurdles described in maintaining sustainable growth of tourism, however, and in understanding its particular geotourism needs when effectively managing a show cave, both highlight the complex weave of sensitive local management and understanding required to fully sustain such an emerging destination.

Community Resiliency Community groups are strongly committed because they do not separate out cultural and environmental interests, but consider them as combined elements as a whole. This has ensured that the Sof Omar site has remained resilient to pressures of alternative land use, loss of traditions or habitats, a challenge all too familiar in Ethiopia, as seen in the long-running search for solutions to these same issues within the Simien National Park World Heritage site (Girmay, 2016; Esa, 2018). The integration of diverse heritage assets drawing visitors to Sof Omar, including pilgrimage, geotourism, cultural tourism and festival events, may help ensure that the site does not become too over-reliant on one form of tourism or tourist segment. Nonetheless, with tourism development around Sof Omar in an early phase, input from a

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broad range of disciplines and sectors, can help demonstrate to local groups, how they can benefit from forging more direct links and understanding with complementary tourism or conservation organizations. Equally, the challenges of a mixed natural and cultural heritage site, demand ongoing technical and financial capacity building efforts alongside effective engagement with regional and national agencies. As Chirikure et al. (2010, p.41) have pertinently outlined in the arena of heritage management, “community participation is not an event but a process which evolves over time.”

Responses and Future Planning Building on its bid to be recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site but acknowledging such a status is not a development or conservation panacea, additional steps are beginning to emerge to complement current efforts, including; – Provide training and capacity building through national agencies to reach both federal and regional levels of government. Areas of training include further community heritage protection and management, professional development of museums and collections, enhancing interpretation and presentation, professional skills upgrading, and collaboration with external research institutions. – Place the caves in a broader context of neighboring natural and cultural heritage locations as Sof Omar is currently isolated and regionally limited by on site infrastructure and regional access. One strategy being considered is to place the three nearby existing and tentative UNESCO World Heritage sites in a triangular common heritage tourism circuit. This could be developed through a common narrative demonstrating linkages between Sof Omar and the built heritage at Dirre Sheikh Hussein, out to the walled city of Harrar (a World Heritage site) and up into the unique ecosystem in the nearby Bale Mountains National Park. – Devise a management plan for the site that requires an integrated approach to cultural and natural heritage aspects, and places the property in a regional, national and international context while still maintaining a prominent, local community voice.

Forts and Castles, Volta, Greater Accra, Central and Western Regions, Ghana Ghana has two World Heritage sites: The Forts and Castles, Volta, Greater Accra, Central and Western Regions, located between Beyin in the Western Region to Keta in the Volta Region nominated in 1979, and the Asante Traditional Buildings, northeast of Kumasi, nominated in 1980. These sites joined the World Heritage List shortly after the inaugural UNESCO intake in 1978. Three cultural and two natural sites were placed on Ghana’s Tentative List in 2000, but none of those sites have yet been successfully nominated since then.

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The Forts and Castles, Volta, Greater Accra, Central, and Western Regions (henceforward, “Forts and Castles”) were selected under OUV Criterion (vi): “The Castles and Forts of Ghana shaped not only Ghana’s history but that of the world over four centuries as the focus of first the gold trade and then the slave trade. They are a significant and emotive symbol of European-African encounters and of the starting point of the African Diaspora” (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2020c).

Setting The Forts and Castles were fortified trading posts, founded as links along European trading routes between 1482 and 1786, that spanned a distance of approximately 500 km along the Ghanaian coast. These structures were built and occupied at different times by traders from Portugal, Spain, Denmark, Sweden, Holland, Germany and Britain. They initially served the gold trade of European chartered companies. The growing demand for human labor in the New World (Brazil, the Americas and the Caribbean) saw these forts and castles playing a significant role to warehouse and then transmit captives to these overseas destinations during the enslavement period, and later during the 19th century, in the suppression of that dark trade.

Figure 8.3: Map of Ghana showing the main sites of the Forts and Castles WHS.

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About 600,000 slaves were transported to America, or 5% of the 12 million slaves taken from Africa, with the great majority transported to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and Brazil (Wikipedia, 2020a). The property consists of 28 properties: three castles (Cape Coast, St. George’s d’Elmina and Christiansborg at Osu, Accra), 15 forts (Good Hope at Senya Beraku; Patience at Apam; Amsterdam at Abandzi; St. Jago at Elmina; San Sebastian at Shama; Metal Cross at Dixcove; St. Anthony at Axim; Orange at Sekondi; Groot Fredericksborg at Princesstown; William (Lighthouse) at Cape Coast; William at Anomabu; Victoria at Cape Coast; Ussher at Usshertown, Accra; James at Jamestown, Accra and Apollonia at Beyin), four forts partially in ruins (Amsterdam at Abandzi; English Fort at British Komenda; Batenstein at Butre; Prinzensten at Keta), four ruins with visible structures (Nassau at Mouri; Fredensborg at Old Ningo; Vredenburg at Dutch Komenda; Vernon at Prampram and Dorothea at Akwida) and two sites with traces of former fortifications (Frederiksborg at Amanful, Cape Coast and Augustaborg at Teshie, Accra) (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2020c). In 1994, UNESCO initiated the Slave Route project in Ouidah, Benin, on a proposal from Haiti, which pursued the following objectives: – Contribute to a better understanding of the causes, forms of operation, stakes and consequences of slavery in the world (Africa, Europe, the Americas, the Caribbean, the Indian Ocean, Middle East and Asia); – Highlight the global transformations and cultural interactions that have resulted from this history; – Contribute to a culture of peace by promoting reflection on inclusion, cultural pluralism, intercultural dialogue and the construction of new identities and citizenships. (UNESCO, 2020). While the various components of the Forts and Castles site are unique for their prominent size, locations and European architecture, it is important to note that as destinations, they represent a sinister part of human history. Slavery-related tourism can be classified as dark tourism: tourism involving travel to places historically associated with death and tragedy. The main attraction to dark locations is their historical value rather than their associations with death and suffering (Foley, 1996).

Operational Challenges Responsible for 28 different properties along a 500 kilometre coastline, some of these dating back over 500 years, there are a number of management challenges for authorities. From a structural integrity standpoint, several factors affect the conservation and management of the aged buildings, particularly those of stone and masonry construction located near coastlines where tropical weather continuously erodes, weathers and disintegrates infrastructure.

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The site’s properties are predominantly clustered in two administrative regions and two metropolitan areas with a majority of the properties based in large or growing urban centers such as Accra, Cape Coast and Elmira. The Ghana Museums & Monuments Board (GMMB) acting as the responsible national management authority (AWHF and ComMark Trust for Tourism, 2015). Each property’s history and design differ with the various occupational forces having initiated the construction and/or trade operations. There are also significant variations in the state of the physical structure, access and location, involvement of local government and traditional leadership structures. A joint UNESCO World Heritage Centre/ICOMOS/ICCROM Advisory Mission to selected structures in the Forts and Castles site in April-May 2019 found a number of concerns that needed to be addressed. Specifically, from a governance and operational perspective, the Mission noted that the State Party lacks capacity for the effective management, presentation and conservation of the site. This circumstance is aggravated by the absence of an integrated/harmonized approach in the planning processes of the State Party, outdated heritage laws, as well as much needed Stakeholder Engagement and Involvement Framework (UNESCO WHC, 2019). A proliferation of threats emanates from development projects and adaptive reuse without guidance from the needed guidance of the World Heritage Committee and its Advisory Bodies, resulting in tourism developments which is unsympathetic

Figure 8.4: Elmina Castle also known as St. George of the Mine Castle, in Ghana. Source: Damien Halleux (2010)

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to the OUV, authenticity, and integrity of the site (UNESCO WHC, 2019). This leads to the second set of operational challenges affecting the growth of tourism in the country, which is concentrated with sites connected to the forts and castles. This increased volume will eventually stress the sites and their ability to properly accommodate visitation. Historically, there are three broadly defined visitor groups touring the Forts and Castles: local residents, most of whom are school-age youths on field trips; Europeans and diaspora Africans, i.e., black people from the historic, slave-derived diasporas of the Caribbean and the United States; and from newer diasporas, constituted by economic and/or political instability and war (Richards, 2005). The Year of Return, Ghana 2019 was an initiative of the Ghanaian government to commemorate the sadness and destruction of the enslavement period, and was also intended to encourage African diasporans to come to Ghana to settle and invest. The year 2019 is symbolic as it commemorates 400 years since the first enslaved Africans landed in Jamestown, Virginia, in the United States, indelibly marking the beginning stages of what would become the institution of slavery in America. The Year’s objectives were: – To make Ghana a key travel destination for African Americans and the rest of the African diaspora. – To rebuild the lost past of these 400 years. – To promote investment in Ghana and foster relationships with African Americans and the African diaspora. (Year of Return, 2019) With the support of the marketing and social media campaign to promote the destinations and events for the Year, approximately, 1.5 million tourists, including celebrities, politicians and world leaders took part, generating US$1.9 billion dollars in accrued revenue. There was subsequent growth of 18% in international arrivals from the Americas, United Kingdom and the Caribbean with total airport arrivals increasing by 45% for the year. Estimated tourism spending significantly increased from US$1,862 in 2017 to the current figure of US$2,589 per tourist, with a national economic impact estimated at US$1.9 billion (Prentice & Sibeko, 20 August 2019). The goal now is to build on that momentum. The Honourable Minister for Tourism, Culture, and Arts, Mrs. Barbara Oteng-Gyasi said that the tourism ministry intends to implement a campaign-oriented project, “Beyond the Year of Return – A Birth right,” over a 10-year period, with the aim of bringing in an estimated 4.3 million international travelers and approximately US$8.3 billion annually from tourism by 2027 (Greenwood Davis & Williams). How larger venues like Cape Coast, Elmira and Christiansborg Castles deal with this doubling of visitation to the country will require thoughtful, conscientious planning relative to the site’s OUV that is integrated with local community, service and infrastructure development.

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Site Sustainability Members of the UNESCO Advisory Mission in 2019 recommended that the three castles of St. George at Elmina, Cape Coast, and Fort Christiansborg at Osu, in Accra undertake efforts to maintain their integrity and authenticity (UNESCO WHC, 2019). This may be due, in part, to the revenue generated from their scale and prominence in print and electronic marketing by the Ghana Tourism Authority and tour operators. It was noted in the remaining twenty-five forts and castles (some in a state of ruins), lack of action on monitoring, maintaining, conserving, protecting and managing the individual properties are affecting the integrity and the authenticity of the site. There is little maintenance, nor is there conservation on most of the sites, and in several of them, there is even a general sense of abandonment (UNESCO WHC, 2019). Consequently, visitation is affected by perspectives of site safety, accessibility and sense of welcome. Properties within the site are also experiencing ongoing development pressures, (justification or convincing demonstration of pressure needed) such as James Fort, in Accra’s Jamestown sector. This was due in part to the increase in Accra’s gross population density in 2000 was 10.03 persons per hectare, which now exceeds 250 persons per hectare in Jamestown, compared to higher-income areas, densities ranged between 17.5 and 40 persons per hectare (Wikipedia, 2020b). There are also proposed urban renewal projects underway. Several concerns have been raised by local parties and heritage activists regarding the replacement of this historic fishing port with a Chinese-backed mechanised factory. A development information billboard close to James Fort presents this “Artistic Impression of the Jamestown Fishing Harbor Complex project”. The Harbor Complex will totally surround the fort and will negatively affect its OUV, and the traditional livelihoods of communities around the site (Iain, 2019).

Community Resiliency The communities that live around the Forts and Castles properties grow ever larger, amidst urban settlements originally laid-out for smaller populations, particularly in Accra, whose population base has grown more than 20% since 2010 to 2.5 million people (World Population Review, 2020). This increasing density generates land use pressures, and the limited livelihood options encroach on the properties, causing concern for their conservation status. The 28 individual properties lack a complete and cohesive tourism product making it difficult to perceive them as a combined, single World Heritage site. Some properties are well maintained, easily accessible and have ample visitor facilities and trained staff on site, while others are difficult to find, lack clear access regulations and offer empty rooms or collapsed ruins without any interpretation (AWHF, 2015).

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The Heritage and Cultural Society of Africa (HACSA) was established in 2016 as a non-profit NGO with a mission to highlight the importance of heritage and culture for sustainable socioeconomic development and poverty alleviation in Africa, promoting and celebrating African heritage and culture and the dynamism and blending of cultures. The HACSA acknowledges that Ghana has limited resources to maintain the Forts and Castles’ thirty historic structures. It has subsequently taken on the role of advocating for the protection and preservation of the World Heritage site as well as the many “slave routes” that reach from the interior of the country out to the coast. To share this responsibility and financial burden, this is framed as a joint national and international responsibility that needs collaboration between the public, private and non-profit sectors (McCormick, 2019). To support visitation to these sites, the HACSA organized tours as part of the Year of Return programme in 2019, led by an expert in archaeology and heritage studies: – The Jamestown Slave Route Tour provided visitors with the opportunity to explore the internationally recognized vibrant community, including visits to Jamestown/ British Accra and the Kwame Nkrumah Mausoleum. – The Osu Slave Route Tour involved visits to Danish Osu/Christiansborg, including the World Heritage Site. They also offered additional tours that touch on components of the World Heritage site, including the Ashanti, Eastern Slave Route, Northern Nature & Cultural, and Western Heritage & Cultural Tours (HACSA, 2019).

Responses and Future Planning Prior to the pandemic, the 2019 Year of Return was a marketing and tourism boon for Ghana. This was driven by the solemn commemoration of the enslavement period and the desire of the diaspora to visit those departure points on the Ghanaian coast where their ancestors had tragically departed the continent. The Beyond the Return tourism promotion program is still feasible, once the pandemic subsides, but there is opportunity at this time to remedy some of the issues that have been affecting Forts and Castles properties as destinations and reinforce their role as core elements of Ghana’s visitor economy. The following initiatives can be undertaken to improve the management of the Forts and Castles’ properties, while enhancing their tourism promotion: – Develop short, medium, – and long-term conservation and management plans for individual sites addressing site and structural concerns identified in recent AWHF and UNESCO studies, on a triage basis. The intent is to maintain the structural integrity and perimeter of these sites in conjunction with input from communities and municipal governments.

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– Renew efforts to improve the existing marketing to better reflect the 41-year-old nominated site, and how the World Heritage designation can be better leveraged. With the potential post-COVID-19 tourism driven by the Beyond the Return marketing program, there are opportunities to implement digital technologies such as augmented/virtual reality and visitor data analytics to provide enhanced, immersive experiences and gain a better sense of visitor flow and interests to support local businesses and amenities around these sites. – Improve onsite signage and interpretation to enhance visitor understanding of the significance and understanding of the complex histories of these properties. While the efforts of HACSA are commendable, and provide an authoritative perspective of the site’s sense of place, there are different types of travelers, on different types of visiting arrangement, receiving a range of information and history. Official, consistent, and cohesive interpretation is necessary to advance OUV rationale and significance of these properties in Ghanaian history and culture.

Thimlich Ohinga Archaeological Site, Kenya Kenya has four cultural World Heritage sites (with accompanying nomination year): Lamu Old Town (2001), Sacred Mijikenda Kaya Forests (2008), Fort Jesus, Mombasa (2011) and the Thimlich Ohinga Archaeological Site (2018), along with three natural sites: Lake Turkana National Parks (1997, 2001), Mount Kenya National Park/ Natural Forest (1997, 2013) and the Kenya Lake System in the Great Rift Valley (2011). There are seventeen sites currently on Kenya’s tentative list, with four proposed between 1997–1999 and 13 in 2010. Thimlich Ohinga Archaeological Site (henceforward, “Thimlich Ohinga”) (see Figure 8.6) was selected under the following OUV Criteria: – Criterion (iii): Thimlich Ohinga provides an exceptional testimony to settlement traditions in the Lake Victoria Basin. It illustrates shared communal settlement, livestock cultivation, and craft industry patterns, utilized and practiced by several successive inhabitant groups of different linguistic origin. The archaeological evidence testified not only to the communities’ spatial organization but also to an elaborate system of interrelations between the different Ohingni within proximity to each other. It therefore allows to understand and further research community interaction patterns between the 16th and the mid-20th century in the region. – Criterion (iv): The settlements of Thimlich Ohinga provide an impressive reference to spatial planning and settlement types in the wider Lake Victoria Basin, at a period in history characterized by increased human mobility as a result of social, economic, and environmental pressures that affected human populations in the region. The massive stone walled enclosures at Thimlich Ohinga mark an important episode in the migration and settlement of the Lake Victoria Basin and Sub-Saharan

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Africa as a whole. Thimlich Ohinga also illustrates an outstanding example of undressed dry-stone construction typology characterized by a three-phase building technology using stones of irregular shapes in two phases joined together by a third middle phase. – Criterion (v): Thimlich Ohinga, as the best-preserved example of Ohingni constitutes a representative and outstanding example of Ohingni, a distinctive form of pastoral settlement that persisted in the Lake Victoria Basin from the 16th to the mid-20th centuries (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2020e).

Figure 8.5: Map of Kenya showing transportation network and position of Thimlich Ohinga WHS.

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Setting Thimlich Ohinga was first gazetted by the Kenya Government as a Monument in 1982 and is Kenya’s seventh and latest World Heritage site listed in 2018 under the Cultural Landscape Category. “Thimlich” means “frightening dense forest” in Dholuo, the language of the Nilotic Luo people living in the area, and Ohinga” means “a large fortress”. The site is comprised of several stone structure and enclosure walls ranging from 1–4.2 metres in height and 1–3 metres in width. They are built from local stones and blocks without mortar and dated over 500 years old. The Site covers an area of 21 hectares in size. Oral histories suggest that Thimlich Ohinga was constructed by the then-inhabitants to serve as protection against outsiders in the Kadem and Kanyamwa areas, as well as from neighboring ethnic groups from what is now Tanzania. The architectural style of the Thimlich Ohinga mirrors the building style of the Great Zimbabwe Empire, a territory 3,600 kilometres to the south of what is now Zimbabwe. The Luo people are believed to have moved to Thimlich Ohinga in the 15th to 19th centuries, making modifications and repairs to Bantu structures, prior to their eastern migration. This re-occupation and repair did not interfere with the preservation of the original structures. Aside from being a defensive fort, Thimlich Ohinga was also an economic, religious, and social hub. Archaeological research carried by the National Museums of Kenya has unveiled pottery manufacturing as well as yielding human and animal bones, signifying a human settlement. Since its gazetting, the Site has been protected under the Museums and Monuments Act, with the National Museums of Kenya (NMK) and the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) responsible for its preservation and management. This includes its indigenous trees and small mammal species present in the surrounding forests. The host community has lived inside Thimlich Ohinga and around the area for many centuries, developing cultural and heritage values through the use of the site as their home, shrine and special meeting place for specific rituals.

Operational Challenges Access to Thimlich Ohinga by road and air from various national and regional tourism circuits is inadequate. The site is located in Migori County, an area of the Western Kenya Tourist Circuit, whose potential has not yet been exploited. Planned accessibility improvements and new hospitality facilities and structures have been outlined in the Thimlich Ohinga Site Management Plan. A tourism lodge is proposed for construction around the Site for overnight guests, as opposed to the development of homestays which may better represent the valued live culture that the host community can

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showcase to the guests. Intangible culture through such interactions is one of the key criteria which added a significant OUV aspect to the listing of the site.

Figure 8.6: Restoration work on the walls of Thimlich Ohinga. Source: Photo by Jacinta Nzioka Mbithi

The Thimlich Ohinga structures, however, are not in a good state of repair. Chipped or disintegrating stone, and sections of falling walls and entrances have to be restored to ensure visitor safety along the nature/walking trails for touring around the site. The quality and timeliness of restoration impacts the value associated with these types of sites. Sufficient skilled restoration capacity, planning and funding, however, are key constraints to undertaking any restoration programs. In terms of the cultural usage of the Site, the local community has used it as a site for religious practices and traditional rights of passage for years. Residents would visit, give offerings, and worship their gods in times of challenge such as drought. Now that Thimlich Ohinga and its use and conservation have been formalized under the terms of its Site Management Plan, this means there are constraints within the Site to the very practices that are key to its intangible cultural heritage context. These restrictions could regrettably mean the eventual loss of these important customs and traditions.

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Site Sustainability Thimlich Ohinga is currently surrounded by indigenous vegetation and few small mammal species which may face disturbances from the planned tourism developments. Site access to guests is possible throughout the year, despite the fact that the site only provides periodical access by residents, goes against the tenets of sustaining intangible local culture. With increased demand for newer tourism products, controlling visitor numbers to the Site is a challenge for authorities. Given the religious attachment that the host community has to Thimlich Ohinga, local community reaction to the potential of increased visitation by outsiders is unpredictable. Before its World Heritage listing, traditional ways of conservation were used by the local people to maintain Thimlich Ohinga’s cultural significance and use. From the early twentieth century, however, such conservation methods changed or disappeared as the Site was abandoned. After its World Heritage nomination in 2018, new approaches to site conservation were introduced, threatening the sustainability of the Site’s cultural values. The introduction of professionals such as biologists, geologists, archaeologists and anthropologists; however, have enhanced the research and information about the site, increasing its value locally and globally.

Responses and Future Planning Thimlich Ohinga’s World Heritage site listing has been deemed positive by citizens and adds to Kenya’s destination prestige and marketing profile. This has also enhanced the attractiveness of the Western Kenya sub destination ensuring preservation of other sites within the region, leading to new tourism products. Positive steps that have been implemented in the Site’s medium to long term development plan include: – Apply an integrated management approach incorporating participation of the host community, to ensure that local traditional knowledge and intangible culture will be reflected in all developments. A local Management Committee has been proposed in the Site Management Plan to undertake this approach. – Use local material, local supplies and encourage local gatherings for live cultural performances that will enhance part of the sub-destination’s rich intangible cultural heritage so that it doesn’t become a stand-alone landscape, but one more infused with rich, traditional culture. This enhances cultural preservation by the host as they showcase these as responsible tourism products. – Support Thimlich Ohinga’s position as part of an eventual wider diverse destination including the nearby Ruma National Park renowned as the home of the Roan Antelope. Lake Victoria, which also borders Uganda and Tanzania, and as the world’s second largest freshwater lake, enables a large variety of water-based activities, adventure and agritourism.

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– Broaden training and capacity building programs already in place, and convene awareness forums to enlist buy in, as well as enhance knowledge in heritage protection, interpretation, and upgrade customer engagement at the Site. Learning institutions and the NMK recommend further archaeological studies and document the findings, enhancing knowledge on the Thimlich Ohinga’s heritage foundations and its connection with other sites within the continent, attributed to the migratory origin communities who built the Site. – Establish a visitor information center to encourage and attract visits to Thimlich Ohinga by local school and university students, as part of their expanded, hands on curriculum field studies. – Develop site branding to enhance a differentiated positioning of the County of Migori as a World Heritage site, while providing the opportunity for storytelling to make it an attractive destination to cultural enthusiasts. Lifestyle Stories from local people, both present and past, will be woven into this storytelling and marketing communications, including associated social media channels and websites. This enhances host community pride and increases the desire to conserve their cultures, by creating awareness within larger national and international audiences.

Conclusions As of Summer, 2020, tourism to and within Africa is challenged by the COVID-19 pandemic, with countries enacting disparate responses, including those cited in the World Heritage case studies. In August 2020, Ghana was awarded the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) Safe Travels stamp, that enables travelers to identify destinations and businesses around the world which have adopted the global standardized health and hygiene protocols. As well, Ethiopia has now reopened the Addis Ababa International airport for overseas arrivals, with strict quarantine protocols in place, while Kenya reopened for international tourism on August 1st, 2020, and all internal travel restrictions were lifted on the same day (Kucheran, 2020). It will take a considerable period of time to restart visitor economies across Africa, beyond the initial important health and safety measures. This period of limited movement and interaction with the continent’s World Heritage sites represents an opportunity to rethink tourism, the benefits accrued by local communities, and the long-term investment of time, money and effort to maintain them and enhance their tourism profiles. This is in keeping with the intentions of the SDGs, particularly those that directly touch on tourism and cultural/natural heritage (i.e., SDG Targets 8.9, 11.4, 12b and 14.7). What has become clear is that there needs to be a more rigorous and resilient approach to ensure site integrity and authenticity as embodied in its OUV. The three case examples demonstrate the need to support the following tourism planning efforts:

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– Provide sufficient training to support effective visitor management and promotion capacity at individual World Heritage sites; – Incorporate the site as part of a larger tourism marketing plan for a district, region or country that leverages the World Heritage brand to drive visitation; – Ensure that the community is involved as stakeholders in the tourism planning and management of individual sites, that does not compromise the traditional use of these venues. Moving forward, there is much uncertainty as to what the “new/next normal” will look like for tourism at World Heritage sites. The range and types of World Heritage sites across the fifty-four African nations having signed on to the World Heritage Convention underscores the uneven site management approaches, valuation and visitation that authorities have to contend with.

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Njiiri Wallace and Mugwima Njuguna

9 Urban Tourism Diversification: Rejuvenation of Natural and Cultural Heritage in Historic Parklands, Nairobi Introduction Given that tourism markets are volatile with uncertain and ever-changing lifestyles of consumers, there is need for tourism companies to innovatively diversify their products. This chapter focuses on urban tourism diversification in Nairobi to include the exploration of natural and cultural heritage. The prospect of this heritage as a resource for broadening the product matrix for tourism is discussed given its cultural value and economic potential. In discussing the case of the historic neighborhood of Parklands in Nairobi, Kenya, this chapter provides a sample of exceptional examples of art deco architectural heritage buildings that reflect aesthetic, historical and associational values that merit the place as a marketable destination choice. Further, the historical, urban, and socio-economic development of Parklands is documented as an outstanding example of diverse experiential qualities of place. Finally, this chapter recommends action points for planning and marketing historic Parklands as a diverse urban tourism product.

Urban Tourism Diversification Urban tourists are becoming more discerning of their choices of leisure pursuits and are less accepting of the standardized and predictable experiences afforded by most ordinary touristic encounters (Timothy & Boyd, 2015). In Nairobi, examples of such ordinary encounters include performing and visual arts in theatres and cinemas, music and sporting events, arts and crafts, gastronomy in food sampling, industry and factory visits, as well as popular cultural expressions in shopping, fashion and media. Divergent aspects of heritage have helped to specialize tourism in heritage places. These include religion and spirituality, immigrant societies, slavery, mining and manufacturing, art, transportation innovations, explorers, wine and agriculture, architectural styles and many more (Sörvik & Kleibrink, 2015). It follows that, by increasing assorted patterns of activities and locations beyond what currently exists in Nairobi is necessary for more experience-oriented outcomes which existing patrimony has to offer.

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Heritage and Urban Tourism Heritage involves continuity which is viewed as part of cultural tradition of a society whereas tourism involves change (Rodwell, 2010). Zancheti and Jokilehto (2014) posit that the continuity of traditional values in heritage tourism require that it demonstrates an enhanced ability to change. In this view, the more that heritage enables a tourist to anticipate and adapt to change, the more powerful that heritage becomes. Heritage tourism can be defined, broadly, as the harnessing of cultural, historical and ethnic components of a society or place as resources to attract tourists (Salazar & Graburn, 2014). In this sense, heritage tourism can refer to religious tourism, diaspora tourism, living culture, historic cities, archaeological sites and ancient monuments. Despite the importance of traditional historic sites as heritage destinations, tides are changing as more places without world famous heritages desire to become involved in tourism. Intangible heritage is now rightfully recognized as being worthy of conservation and tourism promotion (UNESCO, 2013). In some places, where holy pilgrimages and grand tours are experienced, such as Israel and France respectively, tangible remains of the indigenous past rarely exist (Stefano, Davis & Corsane, 2012). This leaves intangible culture in such contexts as the most prominent form of heritage tourism resource that broadens socio-economic implications in cultural destinations. Timothy and Boyd (2006) observe that an evolution wherein tourists still desire to experience grandiose built heritage, would also want to consume a more balanced, accurate, inclusive and less sanitized versions of the past portrayed by cultural imposters and unknown facts of history. This alternative reveals how ordinary people managed to survive, not just how the aristocracy lived. Further, as the urban tourist becomes more dissatisfied with traditional attractions on the beaten tourist path, the heritage product is expanding to include features that were initially not considered attractive. This chapter, hereafter, discusses in detail emerging global trends in heritage tourism in the following section.

Emerging Trends in Heritage Tourism In Kenya, urban centers such as Kisumu, Malindi, Diani, Narok, Naivasha, Machakos and Nanyuki have continued to rally in lending considerable tourist appeal to the urban milieu. There are emerging global trends and spatial contexts that have rarely been considered by urban tourist discussed hereafter.

Heritagization of Local Cuisine Cuisine particularly that associated with ethnic foods is becoming an ever more important part of the heritage experience. Timothy and Ron (2013) state that gastronomy

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reflects cultural values and practices, historic recipes, eating habits, human struggles with nature and realities of geography that help formulate pride, build nationalism and maintain ethnic identities. In Nairobi, this immaterial culture is seen in the prominence of established grilled meat eateries such as Kenyatta and Burma Markets, Kamakis on the Eastern bypass, Njugunas and Maxland in Westlands. Others include Ole Polos in Kiserian and Carnivore Simba Saloon which are local attractions for tourists and residents.

Heritagization of the Ordinary Past Rural landscapes allow visitors to learn about what life was like for ordinary folk, a much different perspective to the bygone emphasis on the patrimony of the social elites (Carr, 2008). In the Nairobi metropolitan region, barns, fences, fields and agricultural patterns practiced at the Brown’s Cheese farm in Tigoni, Fairview Coffee Estate in Kiambu and at the Maasai Ostrich farm at Isinya are part of a larger narrative that can provide a more comprehensive glimpse into the ordinary past.

Heritagization of the Dark Past Melancholic epochs in history are materialized in built forms such as mausoleums, cemeteries, burial sites, crematoriums, prayer gardens and memorials as heritage of the dark past. Ashworth and Hartmann (2005) state that one manifestation of democratized vernacular heritage is the increasing prominence of historic places that enable contextualization of the past. These include as battlefields, disaster sites, prisons, slave quarters and concentration camps. In Nairobi, these sites include the Nairobi War memorial, Bahai, Indian Maktau and Kariokor cemeteries as well as the Resurrection Gardens. These urban spaces are seen as not only places of death and commemoration, but also places of peace and solitude.

Marketability of Authenticity Objective authenticity suggests that places, events, artefacts and sites can be verified as genuine. Zhu (2012) states that the desire for genuine and credible cultural construction and representation in diverse heritage contexts can be found in untouched nature, traditional indigenous performance, private community space or ethnic festivals. Further, authenticity in material culture includes traditional building materials, indigenous crafters, original colors, accurate timeframes and official certifications of authenticity. In the spirit of marketing, souvenir vendors sell products that are marked as authentic with the use of authenticity certificates and photos of the artisan

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attached to the artwork. This renders them more sellable as observed in most established galleries in Nairobi such as the Go Down Arts Centre, Mat Bronze and Kitengela Glass.

Heritage Branding The potential for increased tourism in conjunction with conservation causes many countries to create inventories of heritage sites for consideration by international conservation bodies. Chhabra (2010), argues that to be branded by organizations such as the international Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural property (ICCROM) and UNESCO deems a country’s patrimony universally valuable and important enough to be recognized as a preeminent example of human heritage. It thus adds status, sanctity, and appeal to particular sites that have value for tourism. This outcome has proven successful in the historic old towns of Lamu and Mombasa at the Kenyan coast.

Heritage Cultural Tours As destinations begin to look for alternatives to traditional mass tourism, themed routes have become a more commonplace focus for promotion and marketing. Digance (2006), states that a threefold spatial typology comprising of points, nodes and corridors help in developing commercial aspects of heritage sites. Points include churches, monuments and waterfalls. Nodes include historic city centers comprising of several point attractions. Corridors include connected points and nodes such as coastlines and transportation routes. From a management perspective, these typologies help spread the benefits of tourism and can help alleviate tourism pressures on individual sites (Timothy & Boyd, 2015). In this regard, cultural tours connecting attraction points, nodes and corridors in Nairobi can promote heritage raising its value, awareness and economic potential.

Interstitial Heritage Spaces Interstitial spaces such as international borders and transportation hubs to include airports, railway stations, and bus depots are points of transit. Interstitial spaces are starting to be recognized as venues for sharing heritage, even if it is displaced from elsewhere (Adey, 2006), Films portraying the natural and cultural heritage of Iceland are available in sound theatres at the country’s Keflavik International Airport transit area.

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Nonetheless, borderlands are in many cases significant tourist destinations for drinking, gambling, shopping and prostitution, or because they are themselves interesting anomalies in the cultural landscape (Timothy, 2001). In Kenya, these activities are observed in urban centers such as Namanga, Malaba and Moyale that comprise of the daily life of many border communities.

Tourist Intentions and Motivations Urban tourists search for authenticity in the past, in nature, in the lives of people, or in faraway exotic destinations that are different from home. Timothy (2014) states that tourists describe experiences satisfied by heritage as highly spiritual and extremely meaningful. Religious heritage tourism for instance, is based upon pilgrims’ desires to visit holy places, venerate deity, or seek forgiveness and healing. Huh, Uysal and McCleary (2006) state that some attractions are at the highest scale found on UNESCO’s World Heritage List. Stonehenge, the Egyptian Pyramids, the Eiffel Tower, Beijing’s Forbidden City and Hadrian’s Wall are a few examples of global proportions. Further, at a lesser heritage scale, are national-level heritage attractions. These being nationalistic in nature, are typically associated with civil wars, founding pioneers, national development and national cemeteries. At the lowest heritage scale, there is personal heritage tourism which involves travel to experience sites, locations, people and events associated with one’s own personal or familial past. Common activities include doing genealogical research, visiting cemeteries and churches, meeting distant relatives and attending clan gatherings (Basu, 2007). Finally, urban tourists’ intentions and motivations for visiting attractions can be viewed through the lens of the Theory of Planned Behavior developed by Ajzen (1991) discussed hereafter. Abilities, tastes and desires differ in beings and this is applicable in tourism and tourist pursuits. The Theory of Planned Behavior has been used to explain leisure activities, such as hunting, boating, biking, climbing, jogging, beach activities, casino gambling (Hrubes, Ajzen & Daigle, 2001). This theory indicates that the intention to visit heritage places is to be based on attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control (Ajzen, 1991). In this chapter, attitude refers to the extent to which a tourist has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of the intention to visit a heritage site. Subjective norms can be understood as recommendations (or lack thereof) by others that might influence tourists’ destination selection. Further, perceived behavioral control refers to the perceived ease or difficulty of traveling by visitors which could refer to choice destination outcomes.

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Hence, in actualizing the full potential of heritage as a tourist product in Nairobi, destination marketing organizations partnered with psychologists and sociologists can elevate heritage experience, memory and satisfaction among urban tourists.

Evolution of Nairobi as a Tourist Destination Choice Characteristics of natural heritage during the colonial period stimulated the development of a positively branded destination image. This image was created by exposure from early big game hunters, film and literary works produced on the colony (Duder, 2007). These works include Out of Africa by Karen Blixen, The Man Eaters of Tsavo by John Henry, Flame Trees of Thika by Elspeth Huxley, Born Free by Joy Adamson and White Mischief by James Fox, among others. The colonial regime, keen on ensuring continued financial stability, projected a mystical destination, one of paradise. Great hunters, who elevated colonial Kenya as a destination choice, included the former American president, Theodore Roosevelt, King George VI and the Queen Mother and the Nobel Prize winner in literature, Earnest Hemmingway (Wahome & Gathungu, 2013). Thus, motivations that drove the tourism industry and the progressive enhancement of Nairobi’s destination image over time merits further discussion for present day urban tourism. Wahome, Njuguna and Nyachwaya (2018) argue that Nairobi became a municipality after WWI in 1919 as recognition of its growth as an urban center. Its plan for a settler capital included zoning arrangements done by F. Walton Jameson of Kimberly in 1926 who was a town planning consultant. This was followed by the development of a master plan for Nairobi in 1948. In 1950, the presentation of royal letters elevated Nairobi to city status. Nairobi as a tourist destination was equipped with tourists’ facilities and a rich 50-year-old urban heritage collection. Further, Wahome, et al. (2018) state that different kinds of sports were initiated to include rickshaw races and target shooting from the Norfolk veranda. This promoted a form of attractive urban tourism with assorted locations and activities. This socialization process culminated in entertainment attractions such as the New Stanley built in 1902 which provided unique leisure in a Wild West style. The Muthaiga Club built in 1913, introduced a dimension of sophistication and aspiration lifestyle embraced by the upper European echelons (Van Ham, 2008). Huxley (1968) states that assorted tourists’ itineraries included fox hunting before breakfast and playing cricket before lunch. Thus, diverse patterns of activity in diverse attractions are necessary in developing heritage as a visible tourism product in Nairobi.

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Natural Heritage in Nairobi Natural heritage contains superlative natural phenomena and locations of exceptional natural beauty, record of life, earth’s history, ecological, geological and biological processes from the point of view of science or conservation. Examples of natural heritage attractions in Nairobi include the Nairobi National Park, Nairobi Snake Park, Uhuru Park, and Nairobi Arboretum. It also consists of protected urban forests such as Karura and Ngong Hills forest sanctuaries as well as Oloolua forest which is home to the Institute of Primate Research. Conservation organizations that protect endangered animal species include the Giraffe Centre and the David Sheldrick Wildlife Trust which reintroduce orphaned black rhinos, giraffes and elephants back into the wild.

Selected Cultural (Built) Heritage in Nairobi Nairobi has valuable cultural heritage enriched by foreign influences over time resulting to groups of separate and connected buildings which, because of their architecture, their homogeneity and their place in the urban landscape, are of outstanding cultural value. This is evidenced in the city’s historic buildings, monuments, temples, mosques and libraries. According to (Muhoro, Munala & Njuguna, 2016), this built heritage that expresses imported values tempered with local flavor is protected by the National Museums and Heritage Act of 2006. Examples of this built heritage includes the Law Courts and City Hall constructed in the Classical style, Westminster building constructed in the Renaissance style, the Nairobi Gallery formerly known as the old Provincial Commissioner’s Office building constructed in the Georgian style and the Norfolk Hotel constructed in the Tudor style. Monuments existing in Nairobi reinforce the primacy of contemporary political power. They educate the populace about important national events or figures in history in form of statues, gardens, memorials and fountains. These include the Jomo Kenyatta, Dedan Kimathi and Tom Mboya statues as well as the Carrier Corps memorial. Others include the Jeevanjee gardens, Galzon-Fenzi memorial and the Hamilton fountain. Religious built heritage existing in Nairobi includes Jamia mosque, the Old Gurdwara Siri Guru Singh Sabha, Holy Family Basilica among others that satisfy deep spiritual needs. Finally, intangible heritage comprising of philosophy, law, politics, history, medicine and arts is preserved in in form of rare books, journals and periodicals at designated libraries such as the Karen Blixen Museum and the MacMillan Library.

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The Case of Historic Parklands, Nairobi Parklands lies directly north of Nairobi central business district, on the first bluff of the highland area above Nairobi River. Along this bluff runs Parklands Road, forming the southern boundary of the precinct. North to Parklands Road, six streets named First through to Sixth Parklands Avenue run approximately east to west as shown in Figure 9.1. The east the area is bounded by Limuru Road and City Park: to the west is Mpaka Road. The northern edge of the precinct abuts Karura forest. The overall scheme is roughly rectangular, about one square kilometre in area within coordinates as: 01 15 36S and 36 49 05E.

Figure 9.1: Location Map of Parklands Area.

Historical Development of Parklands Morgan and Halliman (1967) state that Parklands started in 1906 as a housing zone for government workers and during 1906–1926, it developed without following any urban planning principles. Nevertheless, there was plot by plot development as land parcels were subdivided and slowly covered with buildings. The plan for a Settler Capital undertaken by F. Walton Jameson and Kimberly in 1926, rejected renovation of the Asian

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quarters on the basis of high cost implications (Thornton, Siberman & Anderson, 1948). Hirst (1994) argues that it instead affirmed Parklands neighborhood and opened it up for the occupation of high-income Asians. By this time 90% of the total area belonged to Europeans while 10% belonged to Asians. During 1927–1946, land parcels in Parklands were subdivided into half-acre plots and density specifications changed to one house per half-acre. Emig and Ismail (1980) argue that this happened because there was an increase of wealthy Asians who could afford to compete with Europeans hence the need to segregate them by creating a zone for them. Command Paper 1922 of 1923 had abolished segregation in residential areas based on race. European land owners in Parklands could now sub-divide their plots, sell them to the Asians and use the money to buy plots in more exclusive zones (Emig & Ismail, 1980). This led to the flight of Europeans from Parklands in preference for the low-density areas designated for them and the area became an exclusively an Asian zone (Hirst, 1994).

Architectural Heritage Attractions in Historic Parklands The Asians bourgeoisie chose the Art Deco style for their houses as a contrasting design language conspicuously different from the British cottages. Nevanlinna (1996), argues that this international style was done as a statement of modernity and an upto-date style as well as a poke in the eye of the colonial regime. Wahome et al. (2018) state that European driven housing schemes ignored the values of other nonEuropean populations. Muhoro, Munala and Njuguna, (2016) state that Indians were provided with bungalows at Pangani in Nairobi which lacked basic functional elements like living rooms, courtyards and more importantly privacy. The Indian non-registered architects took advantage of this shortcoming to modify such buildings by introducing contrasting building elements. Wahome et al. (2018) state that this was done through straightforward importation from India with a direct reference to the merchant houses of Gujarat. This style became more widely accepted because of its ease in execution thereby endearing itself to public and private property designers (Wahome et al., 2018). An approximate count indicates over 90 examples of Art Deco buildings in Parklands as shown on Figure 9.2. Aesthetically, the Parklands group of Art Deco houses is notable for its architectural merit with examples shown on Figures 9.3, 9.4 and 9.5, respectively.

95 Limuru Road Geometrically, the floor plan is symmetrical, with the exception of expansion of the downstairs living room and upstairs master bedroom into a semi-circular doublepillared porch observed at the front elevation as shown in Figure 9.6. The northern

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Figure 9.2: Art Deco Architectural Heritage Buildings in Historic Parklands. Source: Authors (2020)

Figure 9.3: Art Deco Architecture on First Avenue, Parklands. Source: Photo by authors (2020)

side is finished with rounded corners, sunbreaks and port holes for windows. The decision to convert this eclectic form from residential to office use has kept the building in good condition in an area rife with insipid development.

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Figure 9.4: Art Deco Architecture on Second Avenue, Parklands. Source: Photo by authors (2020)

Figure 9.5: Art Deco Architecture on Third Avenue, Parklands. Source: Photo by authors (2020)

The HN Shah House This house is located on a one-acre lot at the corner of Second Parklands Avenue and Ita Road. As a solution to sun shading, curved sunbreaks follow the corners above the window line on both storeys as shown in Figure 9.7. This continues around the entire building with a semi-circular balcony projecting from the western elevation. The flat roof includes nautical element such as portholes, railings, prows and a small captain’s bridge mechanical block.

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Figure 9.6: Semi-circular double pillared porch. Source: Photo by authors (2020)

Figure 9.7: Continuous sunbreaks. Source: Photo by authors (2020)

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The Moolraj House The long, ship-like stepped façade of this showpiece residence, shown in Figure 9.8, dominates the section of Parklands Road third in a row of fine modern houses. The asymmetrical front centers on a three-storey round projected prow, with portholes along the flanking upper storey reinforcing nautical design.

Figure 9.8: Ship-like stepped façade. Source: Photo by authors (2020)

Natural Heritage in Historic Parklands Concern for natural heritage led to the declaration of Nairobi City Park located east of historic Parklands which had served as a hunting ground, as a zoological garden and public park in 1925 (Wahome et al., 2018). Game hunting was common in the park, for sport and was a source of bush meat for the large contingency of British troops stationed in Nairobi during the World War I (1914–1918). In 1921, after Kenya had become a crown colony of the British Imperial Empire, the park got its iconic music band stand. This historic object is memorable for performances by the King’s African Rifles brass band and various touring Indian performance arts groups (Chege, 1992). In 1923, the park assumed a more cultured forest characteristic over a wild one, achieved by Superintendent Henry Powell who developed luxuriant formal gardens that won the park global acclamation in 1947. The park’s accolade attracted eminent

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visitations from Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth in 1959, The Queen Mother, the first Vice President of India Sir. Arvella Radhakrishnan amongst others (Huxley, 1968). In September 2009 through Legal Notice No. 130 in the Kenya Gazette, 60 hectares of Nairobi City Park were gazetted into law as a Government of Kenya’s national monument under the National Museums and Heritage Act (Deisser & Njuguna, 2016). The Park facilities that attract city residents and tourists include: green open spaces, band stand, bowling green restaurant, fish ponds, a maze, plant nurseries, nature trails and sports play fields as well as the Pio Gama Pinto cemetery and the Murumbi Peace Memorial. An estimated 50 indigenous tree species and orchards, some of them found only in Kenya, are found in the park. Common plant species include Olea europeae var. africana, Croton megalocarpus and Warburgia ugandensis. The park has approximately 300 bird species and is also home to hundreds of insects, Dikdik and the Sykes monkeys (Makworo & Mireri, 2011).

Current State of Heritage Conservation in Historic Parklands Cardinal to urban tourism, the experiential qualities of historic Parklands contribute to perceived value and consequently the urban experience of Nairobi. That being said, demolitions and discordant alterations to the built heritage is akin to the pollution of a common pool resource that eventually precipitates a tragedy of the commons. Attritions by contemporary edifices as observed in the example shown in Figure 9.9 reduce heritage value and the colorful history evident in Art deco heritage buildings diminishing the spirit of place. Further, visual pollution as a result of excessive advertisement is seen to overload heritage spaces, violating order leading to chaos. Again, local color is destroyed. City Park, measuring 150 acres, has suffered neglect, overcrowding, and alienation for private use loosing 50 acres to private developers through illegal allocation. This has occurred over time through the establishment of institutions such as the Swaminaraysn Haveli Temple. Other facilities in hitherto park land include the Premier Academy, Premier Club and the Hawkers’ Market which has created land use conflicts manifested as of noise, solid and liquid waste. The park does not have a specific budget, personnel and equipment for its maintenance. Therefore, its value as a serene environment for leisure, recreation and nature conservation is increasingly threatened. This dire situation needs immediate amelioration.

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Figure 9.9: Abrasive edifices adjacent erode scale and historic color. Source: Photo by authors (2020)

Strategic Interventions for Heritage Tourism in Historic Parklands Designation and Conservation Cultural heritage in historic Parklands meets the National Museums of Kenya’s criterion for listing. To justify its heritage significance, built heritage in the area exhibits architectural values in its Art Deco International style associated with the architectural period of 1930s. Its historical value relates to the colonial epoch of Kenya as well as the urban development of Nairobi since 1920. It represents diverse materials, engineering and artistic craftsmanship, as well as an investment of energy and finance. Proposed conservation policies for heritage buildings, are to be prescribed in an established urban conservation zone in historic Parklands.

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Urban Conservation Conservation, which continues the useful life of built heritage and adapts existing structures to new requirements as an alternative to demolition, is a sustainable development approach. This elevates the artefact culturally, socially and economically. Under a broader conservation plan, the heritage buildings in historic Parklands are to be identified, preserved, restored, misappropriations corrected, discordant elements removed and adapted to compatible uses that maintain the spirit of place. That way, tourists will be attracted to the authentic place.

Cultural Heritage Tour Heritage tours may positively affect the intangible heritage of historic Parklands and consequently its interpretation of Asian- African cultural qualities and relations. This may be achieved by establishing visitor information services, a clear signage system and the adequacy of related amenity responsible for visitors’ convenience, comfort and satisfaction. This is to encourage spontaneity and episodic events experienced in vistas connecting cultural heritage to natural heritage comprising of Karura forest in the North and City Park to the east.

Place Branding The consistent advertisement of cultural and natural heritage in historic Parklands can be undertaken in travel books such as the National Geographic and online platforms such as the Lonely Planet and TripAdvisor. Art Deco heritage buildings can attractively provide space for cuisine, accommodation, shopping, media, and fashion. The interpretation of immaterial culture could facilitate the tourists to understand, feel, and relive the Asian-African heritage in form of ceremonies, music, language, dance, religion, folklore and art forms.

Conclusion The tourists’ perceived value of heritage sites is at the core of intended behavior to re-visit and market such places as memorable destination choices. Divergent heritage aspects that can help in the shaping of a coherent destination image for urban tourism in Nairobi includes the conservation of built heritage, nature and immaterial culture to elevate experience and sustain tourist flow. Further, the promotion of this heritage will deter negative impacts of urban change which include attrition of

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historic townscape character by contemporary edifices, unemployment, crime, the imitation of luxury, erratic consumption, demoralization, cultural alienation and the dilution of traditional family values. Historic places in Nairobi are an ongoing composition of traces constructed of meanings and values. What remains marginalized, are the meanings and values which different individuals tend to attach to such special interest areas. An analysis of this heritage is necessary to investigate thoroughly the various theoretical underpinnings and contextualisation of differing heritage meanings, interpretations, attributes and cultural ideologies. Viewed this way, the continuity with change of cultural and natural heritage in Nairobi will sustain its destination attractiveness and competitiveness. Residents, heritage curators, religious institutions, destination marketing organizations in partnership with urban designers, psychologists and sociologists can meet tourists’ expectations through interesting emerging global trends. These include the heritagization of Asian-African living culture such as cuisine, religion and history that celebrates iconic leaders in the ordinary and dark past. Place branding is cardinal in transforming Art Deco architectural heritage and adjacent natural forests as a tourist product for cultural renaissance lending tourist appeal to the urban milieu. Discerning urban tourists seeking to experience the disparate and momentous can enjoy authentic experiences by combining business, family experience and luxury recreation in an Asian-African setting. The development of a tourism code with strict guidelines for heritage protection guarantees for the safety and security of tourists and residents alike. This allays fears and enables long term sustainable development. Further, impetus for heritage tourism development in Nairobi would come from sponsorship, financial schemes and incentives from private sector participation through innovative marketing, branding, promotional events and image development.

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Chege, P. (1992). Public parks in Nairobi: A case study of Uhuru Park, City Park and Jeevanjee Gardens. Unpublished Thesis, University of Nairobi. Chhabra, D. (2010). Branding Authenticity. Tourism Analysis, 15(6), 735–740. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1988). The flow experience and its significance for human psychology. Psychological studies of flow in consciousness (pp. 15–35). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Deisser, A., & Njuguna, M. (2016). Conservation of Natural and Cultural Heritage in Kenya: A CrossDisciplinary Approach. London: UCL Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/j. ctt1gxxpc6 Digance, J. (2006). Religious and Secular Pilgrimage: Journeys Redolent with Meaning (pp. 36–48). London: Routledge. Duder, C. (2007). Review of Black poachers white hunters: A social history of hunting in colonial Kenya by Edward J. Steinhart. Canadian Journal of African Studies, 41(3), 637–639. Emig, S., & Ismail, Z. (1980). Notes on the Urban Planning of Nairobi. Copenhagen. Diploma Thesis, The Royal Academy of Fine Arts, School of Architecture. Goss, J. (2016). French Art Deco. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Hirst, T. (1994). The Struggle for Nairobi. Nairobi: Mazingira Institute. Hrubes, D., Ajzen, I., & Daigle, J. (2001). Predicting hunting intentions and behaviour: An application of the theory of planned behaviour. Leisure Sciences, 23(3), 165–178. Huh, J., Uysal, M., & McCleary, K. (2006). Cultural Heritage Destinations: Tourist Satisfaction and Market Segmentation. Journal of Hospitality, & Leisure Marketing, 14(3), 81–90. Huxley, E. (1968). White man’s country 1914–01931 (Vol. 2). London: Chatto and Windus. Makworo, M., & Mireri, C. (2011). Public open spaces in Nairobi city, Kenya, under threat. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 1107–1123. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370–396. Morel, G. (2012). Art Deco. Editions Place des Victoires. ISBN 978-3-7774-8031-2. Morgan,, & Halliman, D. (1967). The City of Nairobi. In Morgan, W., Nairobi city and region (pp. 98–120). Nairobi: Oxford University Press. Muhoro, T., Munala, G., & Mugwima, N. (2016). Reflections on architectural morphology in Nairobi, Kenya. In Njuguna, M., & Deisser, A.-M. (Eds.), conservation of culture and heritage in Kenya. UCL Press. Nevanlinna, K. A. (1996). Interpreting Nairobi: The cultural study of built forms. Helsinki: Hakapaino Oy. Rodwell, D. (2010). Historic urban landscapes: Concept and management. In UNESCO, & WHC (Eds.), Managing Historic Cities, paper 27 (99). Salazar, N. B., & Graburn, N. H. (2014). Tourism Imaginaries: Anthropological Approaches. Oxford: Berghahn. Salvadori, C. (1996). We came in Dhows (Vol I). Nairobi: Paper chase Kenya LTD. Sörvik, J., & Kleibrink, A. (2015). Mapping Innovation Priorities and Specialisation Patterns in Europe. Brussels, Belgium: European Commission. Stefano, M. L., Davis, P., & Corsane, G. (2012). Safeguarding Intangible Cultural Heritage. Woodbridge, UK: Boydel. Thornton, W., Siberman, L., & Anderson, P. R. (1948). Nairobi master plan for a colonial capital: A report prepared for the Municipal Council of Nairobi. London: His Majesty’s Stationary Office. Timothy, D. J. (2014). Contemporary Cultural Heritage and Tourism: Development Issues and Emerging Trends. Public Archaeology, 13(1–3), 30–47. Timothy, D. J. (2001). Tourism and Political Boundaries. London: Routledge. Timothy, D. J., & Boyd, S. W. (2006). Heritage Tourism in the 21st Century: Valued Traditions and New Perspectives. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 1(1), 1–17.

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Dominic Kinyua Gitau, Mugwima Njuguna and Ephraim Wahome

10 Rurality: Promotion of Vernacular Landscapes as a Stimulus for Sustainable Rural Tourism Development in Kenya Introduction Rural heritage tourism makes a comparatively small sector in the entire global tourism. According to Irandu and Shah (2016) a great portion of tourism endeavors are focused on the littoral and in historic urban areas. This chapter thus highlights the potential of the countryside as places where sustainable tourism can be advanced efficaciously. Various discourses have portrayed rurality in terms of a context and a condition (Soini & Birkeland, 2014). Rurality as a context has been connoted as a place with countryside condition and under-developed. Its landscapes are called cultural, customary or vernacular. When activities associated with countryside like agriculture, forestry, soft landscapes, low population levels and nature preservation occur within an urban area, a rural condition is enhanced. Chigbu (2013) describes this countryside condition as of place-based homeliness shared by persons with communal heritage. The persons dwell in conventional, culturally delineated places legally accepted to be rural. Fong, Lo, Songan and Nair (2017) explain that the interaction of nature illustrated by physical environs, culture and depicted by local systems form a key component of rural tourism. This interplay thus proposes opportunities for fostering alluring tourism services, idiosyncratic tourism products, and contributions. It also enhances sustainability of local societies in the face of shifting economic, cultural, social configurations and countryside restructuring. Rurality can be a recipe for tourism development when people travel from one rural place to another. In the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), an intergovernmental economic organization explains that rural tourism has been explained as, the movement of persons from their usual residential places to the countryside (Lane & Kastenholz, 2015). It asserts that this movement must take at least one day to at most six months, for vacation, leisure and recreational purposes. Singgalen and Simange (2018) explain that countryside is a platform through which rural tourism is enhanced. It contains attractions that are an indispensable pull factor, from which it obtains the benefits of possessing a multiplicity of cultures, fauna and flora. According to Salman (2018), sustainable rural tourism is envisioned upon the conventional distinct characteristics like small-scale initiatives, vernacular architecture, customary societies and practices. The rural places have been developing organically

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while connecting with local socio-cultural ties. They are ecologically sustainable and represent a complex configuration of the exciting conditions, economy, culture and history. Fong et al. (2017) explains that rural settings provide the needed natural resources, serene and picturesque sceneries. They are essential to allow rural tourism experience as well as controlling hazards, tensions, anxieties and constraints of urban encounters. Various researchers have criticized rural tourism as an ineffective kind of tourism. Miller, Rathouse, Scarles, Holmes and Tribe (2010) aver that rural tourism is not “a magic panacea” for disabling the composite challenges experienced by rural areas. However, but it may be a tool that offers an avenue for rural development. In the same manner, local communities ought to nurture the conservation of the natural and cultural aesthetics in order to ensure that the tourism trade is sustainable with longlasting benefits (Mutambara & Mthembu, 2018).

Aspects Underpinning Rural Heritage Tourism Development Rural heritage tourism is an evolving activity accepted globally (Rosa & Yoshiaki, 2010). It has been developing around distinct physical, communal, cultural and social attributes of rural landscapes. Kenya’s implausible tourism fascination dwells in its large miscellany of tourism products. The countryside sceneries intermixed with vast open spaces, agricultural landscapes, forested landscapes picturesque hamlets, human settlements and local cultural capital are elements of the rural idyll. Exceptional climatic conditions, natural aesthetics, improved infrastructure in various parts and convivial communities, accentuate the fast-growing tourism. Mutambara and Mthembu (2018) divulge that the countryside has developed attractiveness to tourists with its integration of principal activities. They assert that tourists choose places, which offer opportunities for appreciation and experience. Furthermore, the interaction between the sceneries, social actors, and local community becomes a tool for rural tourism advancement. Giampiccoli and Saayman (2018) concur that rural tourism is socially composed in a negotiated course. It involves various social actors who incessantly restructure it in order to correspond to their insights, agendas, needs, perceptions, and values. Amaral and Figuera (2016) argue that rural tourism development is mainly carried out by external entities, which may include government, non-governmental agencies and community-based organizations. It is therefore necessary to have an insight of rural tourism development by evaluating it through an actor-oriented constructivist approach. The approach exhibits that sustainable rural tourism may not be attained without integration of actors and involvement of the communities that it concerns.

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Shucksmith (2016) alludes that sustainable tourism is centered towards improving the standards of a community. The effectiveness of its progress is enhanced when the local community takes the lead and owns it. By so doing, it develops into community-based tourism (CBT). According to Juma and Khademi-Vidra (2019) the CBT mandates a community to have a control in the tourism management and share significant benefits created by the tourism activities. CBT has therefore appeared as a potential remedy for mitigating the negative impacts of mass tourism, and an approach for organizing social structure of local communities.

Collaborations and Involvement of the Main Actors in the Rural Tourism The Kenya tourism policy recognizes the role of stakeholders, here referred to as actors. They include the national and county governments, the public and private sectors, non-governmental organizations and the community-based organizations. There are also tourism service providers, traditional entities such as local clans, council of elders and the representatives of marginalized groups. Visitors too are part of tourism actors, without whom no tourism can take place. Rasoolimanesh and Jaafar (2016) explain that the actors’ collaboration is fundamental for the tourism progressions, as local community takes the lead. The community should be provided with spontaneous participation, whereby they have the power to decide and control the process. They acknowledge that actors’ collaboration and coordination are currently at the forefront of more tourism research. Charleen, Kumbirai, and Forbes (2014) explain that the tourism industry is typified by a plethora of actors with varied interests and values. A lack of their effective coordination has thus escalated the tourism challenges. Their integrations are significant for promoting strong bonds, a sense of belonging, confidence, trustworthiness and credibility. Rasoolimanesh and Jaafar (2016) confirm that integration in rural tourism can inspire residents’ sense of belonging, establish social networks, improves a community’s pride and enhance appreciation of the value of tourism. To succeed, ample research, formulation of integrated strategies and their implementation need to be effected. Charleen et al. (2014) posit that for a rigorous tourism development, a research, strategy formulation and implementation must be integrated together. Figure 10.1 illustrates a model of tourism actors in the rural tourism development. It describes that a strategy formulation is needed in order to create alternative courses of actions, which would be applied in strengthening actor’s involvement as well as to promote sustainable development. Strategy formulation comprises of the capacity building and developing systematic networks for channelling inputs for the tourism development.

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RESEARCH

STRATEGY FORMULATION

IMPLEMENTATION

EVALUATION TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

Figure 10.1: A Conceptual model of tourism actor’s involvement in rural tourism development. Source: Adopted from Charleen, Kumbirai and Forbes (2014)

A Theoretical Perspective: Actor-Oriented Approach Actor Oriented Constructivist Approach is the theoretical framework underpinning this discussion, as demonstrated by Figure 10.2. It is a framework generated from Actor Network Theory, which was derived in the 1980s, from sociological studies of science and technology. Ever since, it has dispersed into varied perspectives of sociological investigations (Swagemakers, Rodriguez, Garcia & Fernandez, 2014). Though researchers have not intensely applied this framework on tourism, it can be utilized to promote rural tourism development. One of its significant principles is that of general symmetry. The principle disapproves the notion of researchers from distinguishing between statuses of likely actors, whether natural, indigenous, worldwide or social. Instead, it centers on the progression of network consolidation and development. According to Swagemakers et al. (2014), the approach interprets a cultural landscape as a panacea for an active constant rural progression, with actors and processes collaborating to achieve maximum benefits. This approach makes it possible to establish an account of all the rural economic potential, power hierarchies and structures, policy establishments and social realities. It is sustainable because the benefits accrued to rural tourism are conserved at the expense of any negative impacts associated with tourism activities. It is thus founded upon the definition of sustainable development by Brundtland Commission, as the development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Brundtland, p. 16, 1987).

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Vernacular Landscapes

Collaborations

Collaborations

Rural Idyll & Rationality

Participation

Collaborations

Involvement

Socio-Culture

Economy

Environment

Conservation

Research

Economic Development

Sustainable Rural Tourism

Actors

Actors

Involvement

Participation

Collaborations

Figure 10.2: Actor – Oriented theoretical framework. Source: Authors (2020)

The approach demonstrates vernacular landscapes as idyllic places to thrive in. As Irandu and Shah (2016) explain, Kenyan vernacular landscapes are diverse and scenic in their own way. Inland areas contain populous agricultural highlands famed for animal husbandly, maize, tea and coffee plantations. Western region is characterized by panoramic views of lakes, rivers and forested portions, while the North of Kenya is arid and semi-arid, with scattered species of vegetation. The rural coastal region possesses some fine beaches, and vernacular homesteads that are primarily Swahili in style and form. The Swahili vernacular culture has provided greatly to the melodious and culinary heritage of Kenya. All these landscapes are rational in that they are planned to enhance tourism actors attain consistent tourism benefits. In order to achieve the intended results, the development must fit in the local cultures, be sustainable environmentally and socially as well as fostering the local economy. WTO (2020) concur that, tourism activities should give the local economy long term values and mitigate any harmful impacts. This is by safeguarding the natural eco-systems, social processes, and integrity of the surroundings. The possibilities can be conquered if ample tourism research is done to balance conservation of the local heritage and development of the local economy. The promotions of local democracy, equity, wellbeing and collaborations of actors with

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the available power structures will thus enhance the accomplishment of the sustainable tourism. The various actors include the county and national governments, local communities, private entities, and non-governmental organizations. The county and national governments provide the power hierarchies and local political structures. Provision of infrastructural developments, social services and other amenities is a factor of political structures. The local community must thus cooperate with the government in the entire process of sustainable development. This is stipulated in the Kenyan Constitution, Chapter 5, part 2 and sub-section 2 that, “every person has a duty to cooperate with State organs and other persons to protect and conserve the environment and ensure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources” (The Constitution of Kenya, 2010). The community is a formidable actor in this process and the progression therefore ought to be founded on its interests. Part 2, sub-section 1, d, of Chapter 5 of the Kenyan Constitution emphasize the need to “encourage public participation in the management, protection and conservation of the environment.” The local communities understand their needs well and their resource base, on which the development is based. Their concerns and loyalty are significant because if they do not ratify the initiative, no progress can be attained amicably. Suffice it to say, the livelier and vigorous a local community is, the more likely it is to embrace visitors and tolerate them.

Rural Heritage Tourism as a Brand for Rural Socio-Economic Development Rural tourism enhances a renewed contact of tourists with nature and hence an experience of rurality (McGregor & Thompson, 2011). Okech, Haghiri and George, (2012) imply that the authentic or supposed rurality is attractive on its own, giving a contrast to the contemporary urban environment. This attraction therefore makes this tourism a panacea for the challenges encountered by rural communities. Maeer and Killick (2013) aver that rural tourism is a brand that creates complimentary economic benefits and give values to existing activities. It becomes an economic activity that exploits and is dependent upon the countryside. Welteji and Zerihun (2018) explain that it can be a novel activity that alters the balance between the major industries like the agriculture, tertiary or the service segments. It can expand the local economy by offering fresh markets for local yields and services: it is also an opportunity for new sources of revenue for local producers and farmers. Parwez (2017) suggests that rural tourism is a stimulus for the creation of new entrepreneurships, which empowers communities to obtain new potency and gain in their local economic endeavours, while safeguarding their standards of living.

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It is argued that rural tourism is more than a substitute to other conventional forms of tourism. Fong et al. (2017) alludes that it acts as a state of mind, in which persons actively pursues a relaxation and adventure experience in a countryside environment. It also provides socio-cultural ties with local communities. The Australian Heritage Council (2012) upholds that the integration between tourists and local people create internal and external personal bonds, strengthens their identity and enhances self-assurance, confidence and cohesion. The rural heritage tourism can, on the other hand, become a tool for the change of general perceptions. Rural areas are perceived as under-developed and poor places to thrive in. However, Sanagustin-Fons, Latifa and Mosene, (2018) contend that rural tourism is an approach for endogenous socio-economic development. Harrison (2010) supports that rural tourism centers on improving the socio-economic circumstances, providing the highest quality of life, and social aptitudes. Hwang and Stewart (2016) describe it as a platform for enhancing local communities’ resilient behaviors, and perceptions. It provides a community with a collective ability to respond to and survive in a context with change. Rural tourism thus influences change and renews the local initiatives, while establishing new trajectories for posterity. By so doing, it becomes a contributor to the restructuring of the countryside image and nuances of rural imaginations (Chang, Chien, Cheng & Chen, 2018).

Research Approach Literature focusing on sustainable rural tourism development with respect to rural vernacular landscapes has been evaluated. A corpus of academic papers, government policy documents, the Kenyan Constitution, reviewed journals and scholarly articles published in refereed journals of heritage, sustainability, sociology and tourism were reviewed. In addition, an exploratory study of the various rural settings was undertaken. Then, empirical informal discussions with people in various rural areas, with the inclination to getting the insights of their perception on rural tourism provided valuable primary in-puts. Rural visitations were conducted in Mwea, a rice growing area, followed by a visit in the Kitale, Muranga, Kiambu, Nakuru and Kinangop areas. This helped in identifying the trends of tourism activities as well as the current social and economic trends. The findings were composed into themes, which formed the basis for the discussions.

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The Significance and Meaning of the Rural Tourism in Kenya Kenya is endowed with unique vernacular landscapes comprising of land and water, in varied climatic conditions that differ by location. The highest point is the Mt. Kenya, 5197 meters above sea level and the lowest point is on the Indian Ocean with zero meters. Kenya’s landscapes thus comprise of low plains, rising into central highlands, fertile plateau and intersected by the Great Rift Valley. The landscapes offer varied activities, unique in their existence thus qualifying as tourists’ destinations in Kenya. It is said that a tourism destination is a place that provides distinct tourism products. According to Juma and Khademi-vidra (2019), a rural destination profile is expressed by the experience it presents to tourists, its remoteness, accessibility, contextual identity, and the special features it avails. Kadi, Jaafar and Hassan, (2014) discuss essentials of traveling to experience the rural destination. Rural areas hence offer local built heritage and activities, which authentically symbolize the past narratives of the local people. Ernesto (2020) asserts that rural destinations consist of cultural, historic and natural endowments, encompassing features of living culture. They possess history that people value for their continuity, local pride, permanence and self-worth.

Examples of Vernacular Landscapes as Rural Tourism Destinations in Kenya The diverse rural landscapes confer enormous ecological and economic potentials in product and experience in the following ways: In Kenya, there are tourism activities directly associated with the agrarian surroundings, what Na-Songkhla and Somboonsuke, (2012) refer to as agrotourism. The activities involve selling agrarian commodities and handicrafts, offering agrarian accommodations, educational tours, consuming farm meals and entertainments. Figures, 10.3 and 10.4 show rice farming and processing in Mwea respectively. Rice farming is the landmark activity in the area. A tour to this place is intriguing as the rice growers demonstrate farming methods up to the rice processing in the factory. Additionally, a tour to maize growing areas provides an enthralling experience of green edible landscapes. Figure 10.5 shows an agricultural landscape with maize plantations in Kitale. Moreover, it is a thrilling moment viewing distant vistas of the Aberdare ranges in the Kinangop area. The nexuses of locally green cultivated farms and the ranges provide a sense of relaxation, appreciation, reduction of stress, enhances curiosity and inspiration. Integration with local people fosters a collective community and

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Figure 10.3: Rice farms in Mwea. Source: Author (2020)

Figure 10.4: Rice processing in a factory. Source: Authors (2020)

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Figure 10.5: Maize farming in Kitale. Source: Authors (2020)

promotes social bonding while bolstering the local culture. Figure 10.6 shows desirable farms in Kinangop, extending views to the alluring vistas ahead. Figure 10.7 shows pleasant terraced and cultivated landscapes of Kikuyu in the Kiambu County. A walk through and interactions with its natural elements creates a sense of place, place attachment, experience and meaning. Adams (2013) explains that such attributes increase appreciation of the place ecological values. A sense of place is established through personal experiences, communal interactions and identities. Consequently, experiencing the places enable the locals to understand the kind of places they live in, place meaning to their lives and what the places enable them to achieve. This becomes an approach to cultivate ecological place meaning where communities build more sustainable places. Cultural tourism is another form of tourism in Kenya, whereby visitors engage with a community’s culture and lifestyle in their setting. As Kiper (2013) alludes, visitors learn the history of its people, daily activities, local architecture, art, religion and other elements shaping the community’s lives. For example, a visit to the Mukurwe wa Nyagathanga, a Kikuyu Shrine in Murang’a County informs about the customs, culture and traditions of the Agikuyu community. The shrine is found in a landscape with vernacular structures representing the nine clans of the Agikuyu. There is also a conserved Ficus Sycomorus and other trees species, where the Agikuyu people worshiped their God (Ngai) from. Their existence is a contribution to the conservation of nature.

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Figure 10.6: A cultivated farm in Kinangop. Source: Authors (2020)

Figure 10.7: Sloped landscapes of Kikuyu in Kiambu County. Source: Authors (2020)

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On the other hand, the lower Rift Valley region consists of Maasai communities who practice pastoralism and are semi-nomadic. They build temporary or semi-permanent shelters, alongside or surrounding cattle shelters. They are known for large herding of cattle and goats, their distinctive civilizations and unique mode of dressing. They are cordial and receive visitors to their places, in order to experience their traditions, lifestyle, and culture. Figure 10.8 shows Maasai cattle in search of pasture.

Figure 10.8: The Maasai herd looking for pasture. Source: Authors (2020)

Other places have maintained built vernacular structures, some original and some with modern adaptations. Figure 10.9. shows a traditional hut in Kisii County and at the background are houses with modern roofing corrugated iron sheets. Figure 10.10 shows a vernacular Maasai hut fortified with twigs and surrounding cattle yard, while Figure 10.11 displays tactfully built wooden houses at Kinangop. Green tourism and ecotourism are also found in various parts of Kenya. Green tourism is a form of tourism in the countryside green areas and is regarded as more environmentally responsive than the conventionally mass tourism (Lee, Honda, Ren & Lo, 2016). It is depicted as an approach that seeks to advance a symbiotic relationship between the physical and social settings in order to achieve sustainability values. Figure 10.12. shows temporary human settlements in a symbiotic setting with green

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Figure 10.9: A traditional hut in Kisii county. Source: Author (2017)

Figure 10.10: Vernacularly built Maasai huts surrounding a cattle yard. Source: Authors (2020)

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Figure 10.11: Wooden and concrete finished houses at Kinangop. Source: Authors (2020)

tea farm surroundings in Karatina. Kiper (2013) describes ecotourism as a form of sustainable nature tourism where the landscapes are fully or almost unmodified, occurring in a physical or aqua environment. Ecotourism enhances environmental conservation and ensures benefits are directed to the local communities. Figure 10.13 expresses a natural setting with trees, birds and small lake ecosystems. The rocky and wilderness tourism is another type where tourists experience areas in wilderness and natural sceneries of a rural area. Saeborsdottir, Hall and Saarinen (2011) explain that it usually includes non-consumptive interactions with wild animals, birds, and nature activities like hill climbing, birds watching, hiking, nature trailing and wild photography. The landscapes may also provide small scale consumptive activities such as food courts and eateries. Figure 10.14 shows an astounding Karue hill in Embu. It portrays fascinating sceneries and visual appeal from a distance as one succeeds in ascending to the top, amidst its challenging terrain.

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Figure 10.12: Settlements in a tea farm in Karatina. Source: Authors (2020)

Figure 10.13: Natural Small Lake Ecosystem in Karatina. Source: Authors (2020)

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Figure 10.14: The Karue hill in Embu. Source: Author (2019)

A Legal and Institutional Framework for Rural Tourism in Kenya The Kenyan national tourism is set upon a very strong legal and institutional framework. The legal framework guiding the tourism development includes: the Constitution of Kenya of 2010, the National Tourism Policy (Sessional Paper of 2010), the Tourism Act of 2011 and the National Museums and heritage Act of 2006. There are also the County Tourism Act of 2019, Protection of Traditional Knowledge and Cultural Expressions Act, 2016, the Wildlife Policy and Vision 2030 Bill and Public Participation Bill. The Tourism Regulatory Authority (TRA) is the institution regulating tourism in Kenya. The Constitution of Kenya (2010) gives provisions for protection of land, environment and resources in Chapter five. The part 2 of this chapter deals with environment and natural resources, highlighting the statutory obligations in respect of the environment. Among other obligations, section one of part 2 states about utilization of the environment and natural resources for the benefit of the people of Kenya. The rural resources and culture are interpreted to be covered in this part.

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The National Tourism Policy, the Sessional Paper of November 2010, seeks to accomplish a sustainable tourism that provides a better quality of life for all and sundry. The tourism policy and the conforming Tourism Act (2011) envisage tourism products and projects future development in the designated tourism area plans with the aim of promoting sustainable tourism development. The guiding principles in the Sessional Paper No.1 of 2010, enhances sustainable tourism and guides its development. They give directions in the following areas: Community values, code of practice, environmental assessment, equitable benefits and value for visitors as well as sustainable use of resources. Issues of inter and intra generational equity, conservation, public participation, the principle of subsidiarity and the precautionary principle are also highlighted. Included are the polluter and user pays principle, capacity building, and international cooperation too. Though the principles are not explicit to rural tourism, they are applicable for its sustainable development. The National Museums and Heritage Act of 2006, is an Act of Parliament mandated to amalgamate the law involving the national museums and heritage. It also gives provisions for the establishment, control, management and development of national museums, and the identification, protection, conservation and transmission of the cultural and natural heritage of Kenya. Among other objects, the Act seeks to safeguard the cultural heritage, natural heritage and object of historical, cultural or scientific interest. The Act further mandates the National Museums of Kenya to identify, protect, conserve and transmit the cultural and natural heritage of Kenya; and promote cultural resources in the context of social and economic development. Due to the fact that many of these objects and products are found in the rural areas, the Act can thus be utilized to promote the rural tourism amicably. The County Tourism Act of 2019, which was initially formulated as a bill for an Act of Parliament provides for the development, management, marketing, and promotion of local tourism by the county governments. It is also mandated to provide for the regulation of sustainable local tourism, interrelated activities, and services. Though it provides the guidelines for local tourism management, many counties have not maximally enforced them, in order to develop and conserve rural tourism. The Kenya National Tourism Blueprint (KNTB), developed in 2017 on the foundations of Vision 2030, has provided detailed strategic guidelines on tourism development in Kenya. However, it is not specific to rural areas but on general national tourism. It aims at integrating sub-strategies that are interdependent, progressive and adaptive. It gives a model that capitalizes on the prevalent and evolving tourism resources, while countering the shifting tourism necessities, changing environmental and social sensitivities. KNTB (2017) also seeks to enhance conservation and sustainability of the natural resources in Kenya. The Tourism Regulatory Authority (TRA) is the institution mandated by the Tourism Act (2011) to formulate guidelines and prescribe measures for sustainable tourism development. Through the TRA Regulations (2014), the guidelines inform and direct establishment of all tourism services and facilities in Kenya, including

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the rural areas. Each region has a tourism area development plan, and all tourism activities are therefore permitted to operate if they comply with the plans and other relevant local tourism sector guidelines.

Impediments to Rural Tourism in Kenya The Kenyan tourism industry has experienced various challenges that retard its progression in the rural areas. The challenges include: – Inadequate and less improved infrastructure hinder the opportunities for exploiting local resources for tourism developments. Access to viable tourists’ destinations therefore becomes difficult. For example, accessing various Northern and North Eastern parts of Kenya is difficult due to poor roads: air travel is limited and no rail transport. – Scarcity of and access to clean water deviate tourism efforts: tourists fear visiting such areas because they are prone to disease outbreaks. However, the county governments are keen to ensure fair water distribution, though they have not sufficiently accomplished it. – Lack of energy hinders tourism too. Arid and semi-arid parts of Kenya have severe winds and solar heat, enough for renewable energy harnessing. Lack of exploitation fails to ensure there is enough electricity for use in promoting sustainable tourism efficiently. – Insufficient capital investment impedes production of tourism products effectively. Local activities like crafts, jua kali artisans, agriculture, fishing, beekeeping are rural brands whose decline in production limits the progress of the tourism. – The market consciousness of rural tourism has been weak. This scenario continues to mark rural tourism unpopular as much emphasis of market promotions have been on national parks, beaches and mountains such as Mt. Kenya and the Aberdares. Lack of robust awareness and collective marketing has contributed to the tourism’s low market share. – The lack of sufficient and qualified experts in rural tourism inhibits its progress. The tourism education and training are focused on urban tourism. Consequently, there are no ample and qualified rural tour guides, to handle the local tourism operations. This may lead into production of non-standard services and products. – The variances between the traditional and contemporary cultural products derail rural tourism. Tourism is a platform where one culture meets another, therefore rural tourism has been at the frontage of intermingling with the modern culture. For example, built forms have embraced institutionalized building materials at the expense of locally produced materials. As Sruthi (2013) explains, the local vernacular building materials and styles lose popularity, leading to decline of local identity, history and memory. Du and Shi (2019) imply that the vernacular brands enhance the creation of place attachments and a sense of place. When the place attachment and

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a sense of place are destroyed, a tourist loses a sense of experience and interest to visit the place again. – Conflict between economic development and heritage conservation is an impediment to success of rural tourism. Conservation and development are mutually exclusive. As Roza and Yoshiaki (2010) explain, rural tourism has double roles of conserving the local environment and sustaining the community’s livelihoods. There has been destruction of forests and water reservoirs, ruining the natural heritage, and therefore the aspect of local tourism declines. – A lack of ample research on rural tourism hampers its advancement. Much research has been focused on urban and littoral areas, and therefore redirecting all interests thereon. The nature and type of actors, their values and their involvement should be identified through research. Sources of funding, what to fund and creation of the chain of funds’ distribution are further hindered by poor research. – Political influence and governance issues have slowed the strengthening of the tourism. Upon the devolution of governance in Kenya, conflicts of interests had emerged between national and county governments. A case example includes the conflict of control, of the Ndaka-ini dam water between the Murang’a County Government and the national government. The county government has on several occasions threatened to stop the flow of the dam’s water to Nairobi, if the local population cannot benefit from its water. The dam is the main source of water supply to the Nairobi City, and one of the tourism destinations in the Murang’a County. A similar case has occurred between the Narok County and the national government, concerning the control of the proceeds from the Maasai Mara game reserve. Failure to identify the entity of government that would control tourism resources within a county area has been aggravating the conflict. This has in turn caused some local unrest. As Sausmarez (2013) admits, political unrest in Kenya has kept the rural tourism destination unsafe, tourists fear to visit such places, thus hampering opportunities to strengthen the local economy. – Overexploitation of the common rural tourism resources, with minimal or no control deteriorates the tourism endeavours. This is referred to as the tragedy of commons: a situation whereby the resources (commons) are utilized but the users are not keen to safeguard them. Consequently, the rate at which the resources are exploited overwhelms the rate of their replacement, and this is the tragedy. These rural commons include pasture lands, forests and riparian grounds among others. The tragedy has thus been limiting their potential as tourism destination. – Insecurity and terrorism have also troubled rural tourism progress. They have been experienced along the Coast of Kenya, in the North Eastern region, and parts of Nairobi thus creating fear. The Kenya National Tourism Blueprint 2030 acknowledges that the Kenyan tourism industry has undergone various challenges in recent times due to negative impacts of the terrorists’ attacks. Gurso, Chi and Dyer (2010) insinuate that rural areas are ecological and protected places which, when they are insecure, cannot meet the cultural, social and recreational needs of a tourist. In a

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situation of insecurities, hostilities, terrorism activities, global warming and natural disasters, no tourism development can thus be accomplished. – Epidemics can be another hindrance to rural tourism development. The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic restricted tourists’ movements. Tourism places have been deserted, while the rural communities keep a wide berth from tourists for the fear of attracting the virus. This situation therefore continues to derail the promotion of rural tourism. As much as there are laws and institutions guiding tourism in the country, improper understanding of their implementation derails their utilization in the promotion of rural tourism. County governments have not established vibrant tourism departments, with qualified tourism experts and researchers to spearhead operations of the tourism.

Developing Strategies for a Sustainable Rural Heritage Tourism in Kenya Rural tourism is a potential industry that is not fully exploited, thus the need for effective development strategies. The OECD (2010) explains that tackling the main and complex challenges encountered in the tourism industry calls for integrated strategies. Consequently, each county government in Kenya should establish an integrated inventory of all tourism resources for digitization. Digital information is crucial because it is disseminated fast and widely (Ernesto, 2020). Websites progressively provide readily virtual previews of a wide range of tourism destinations, range of tourism products, accommodations, varied current prices and associated frequency of travel services to tourists. WTO (2020) suggests that electronic promotions also enlarge competition and awareness for tourism destinations and products. These further increase the value of rural products, to the triumph of the rural places as tourists’ destination. A destination can thus be competitive if it offers products and services in a manner that exudes importance to the tourists. The national and county governments should ensure that infrastructural development is strengthened. Tourism infrastructure comprises of the auxiliary and complementary amenities, structures, equipment, methods and resources required for the functioning of tourists’ destination. There are also physical and social infrastructures as well as public amenities. The physical infrastructure includes proper access roads, ports, railroads, traffic lights, signage, power and electricity, effective drainage systems, waste management facilities and water distribution. Social infrastructure includes sports and entertainment arenas, museums and cultural centers, educational facilities and healthcare. Jovanovic and Ilic (2016) agree that the fulfilment of any tour program can be measured by such services. In this regard, each county government in Kenya has a role to fast-track maximum utilization of local tourism aptitudes, whose uniqueness and charisma can attract substantial numbers of domestic and international tourists.

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The incentives to farmers can boost the agricultural brands. Agriculture being one of the salient activities may serve as tourists’ attractions as well as incomegenerating activities through the sale of products. Boosting of agriculture may enhance establishment of related agricultural manufacturing industries, which would produce tourism products too. Informal activities, such as the Jua Kali sector, can enhance transformation of rural tourism. The county governments need to facilitate their establishment, through such initiatives like site and service, as well as private and public partnerships. Jua Kali artisans need working spaces, funds, training, brands development, their products promotions and ethical markets. Some of the Jua Kali products include art, costumes, kitchen appliances, toys, house fittings, ornaments, agricultural tools, figurines and sculptures amongst others. Encouraging and supporting local traditions is an aspect that creates diversity. Kenya is endowed with varied ethnic groups, each with their own way of living. Consequently, local governments in conjunction with local communities ought to host regular conferences, workshops or festivals for showcasing local traditions. These traditions and customs are brands for tourism attractions and need to be conserved for the ultimate benefits of the local inhabitants. Dumcke and Gnedovsky, (2013) admit that local communities should be the protector of their own traditions and culture. In order to accomplish this, they should be able to inherit the maximum benefits accrued due to the utilization of their heritage resources. The skilled actors on tourism should offer education and training to the local people, in order to instil relevant knowledge and skills. The local community ought to be trained in a wide range of products that include Information Communication Technology (ICT), customer care, verbal and non-verbal communication skills, general hygiene, first-aid services, brands standards and knowledge, understanding of customers’ needs and basic marketing skills. This necessitates them to become initiators and stewards of their heritage resources, while motivating them to be selfdriven and dedicated on their own. Vukovic, Subic and Cvijanovic (2014) explain the categories of people who ought to be trained for effective knowledge dissemination. These include local trainers, local tourism providers and tourism officials in the local authorities. Erdelji, et al. (2013) assert that training of the local people is a way of identifying their social, cultural and economic needs. Adoption of the community-based tourism and the collaborations with other external actors ought to be embraced. Giampiccoli and Saayman (2018) describe community-based tourism as a form of tourism where a local community is given priority and empowered to manage their tourism developments. They host tourists in their territories, give them insight into their culture, traditions and day-to-day lives. This enhances cultural sustainability. Soini and Dessein (2016) explain cultural sustainability as the development that enhances control of people’s own lives, and which is attuned to their culture and values while strengthening the community’s identity. The local human resource capacity is utilized effectively and the community is able to

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sustain domination. Gursoy et al. (2010) affirms that sustainable rural tourism can significantly be motivated through the engagement of the local community. The tourism section of county governments should develop ecological sustainability ethics as guiding principles for local tourism. These include an overall code of practice and conduct on tour operations, environmental and social impacts assessments. Establishing of tourism development approaches harmonious with the overall sustainable developments’ objectives, identifying erroneous areas and endangered species for protection from extinction is significant too. These protected zones need to be incorporated into and subject to the comprehensive local management plans. County governments need to formulate specific tourism sectoral plans, aiming at enhancing county tourism circuits. This means that the sectoral plans should be integrated with the county development plans, within the scope of the wider national planning processes like the National Tourism Policy. The plans should be holistic, addressing local economic, environmental, cultural, institutional and social development guidelines.

Recommendations and Conclusions The success of sustainable rural tourism lies in the efforts of all actors. Local communities take the lead effectively when empowered intellectually, financially and socially. They hold the local resources, have the local histories, are cognizant of the local needs and hence their acknowledgement is paramount. They will appreciate and embrace the tourism if they are able to share its benefits and experiences. Furthermore, the tourists will enjoy if the local reception is conducive. An empirical study is significant as it identifies varied actors in each locality, their interests and involvement in the tourism endeavours. There may be possibilities of reviewing and eliminating actors’ conflicts thus nurturing a philosophy of shared vision, integration, and cohesion. The county governments should work with communities to enhance conservation of vernacular architecture, advance effective accommodation facilities and improve transportation. They should also promote utilization of green energy and safeguard the modified landforms such as mining areas as well as promoting safe tourism environments. On the other hand, when the social fabric is safeguarded, the other values accrued to the tourism development will henceforth emerge. Social values are a product of cultural and historical contexts, in the competing economic and political agendas. In rural areas where social capital is a binding element, it is therefore significant to note that rural heritage and communities are mutually exclusive. Therefore, the interactions of local social actors, tourists and physical orientations, legal and institutional processes will be a great contributor to the promotion of the rural sustainable tourism in Kenya.

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Salman, M. (2018). Sustainability and Vernacular Architecture: Rethinking what identity is. In Urban and Architectural Heritage Conservation within Sustainability. Intech-Open Access PeerReview. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82025. Corpus ID: 158295449 Sanagustin-Fons, V., Lafita-Cortés, T., & Moseñe, J. (2018). Social Perception of Rural Tourism Impact: A Case Study. Sustainability, 10(2), MDPI AG. Retrieved from, 339. doi:http://dx.doi. org/10.3390/su10020339 Sausmarez, N. (2013). Challenges to Kenyan tourism since 2008: Crisis management from the Kenyan tour operator perspective. Journal of the Current Issues in Tourism, 16(7–8), 792–809. doi:10.1080/13683500.2013.785488 Shucksmith, M. (2016). Re-imagining the rural: From rural idyll to good countryside. Journal of Rural Studies, 59, 163–172. doi:10.1016/J.JRURSTUD.2016.07.019 Singgalen, Y. A., & Simange, S. M. (2018). Livelihood and Rural Tourism Development in Coastal Area North Maluku Province Indonesia. OP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 156 012010, 156, 1–10. Soini, K., & Birkeland, I. (2014). Exploring the scientific discourse of cultural sustainability. Geoforum, 51, 213–223. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.12.001 Soini, K., & Dessein, J. (2016). Culture-Sustainability Relation: Towards a Conceptual Framework. Journal of Sustainability, 8(2), 167. doi:10.3390/su8020167 Sruthi, G. S. (2013). Mud Architecture. International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, 2(1), 47–52. Retrieved 22 July, 2020, from http://www.rroij.com/ Openaccess/Mudarch.pdf Swagemakers, P., Rodríguez, D. C., García, M. D. D., & Fernández, X. S. (2014). Fighting for a future: An actor-oriented planning approach to landscape preservation in Galicia. Geografisk Tidsskrift – Danish Journal of Geography, 114(2), 109–118. doi:10.1080/ 00167223.2013.876206 Tarawneh, M. B., & Wray, M. (2016). Incorporating Neolithic villages at Petra, Jordan: An integrated approach to sustainable tourism. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 12(2), 155–171. doi:10.1080/ 1743873X.2016.1165231 The Republic of Kenya. (2007). Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS). Protected Areas Planning Framework. Nairobi: Government Printers. The Republic of Kenya. (2007). Kenya Vision 2030. Nairobi: Government of Kenya. The Republic of Kenya. (2008). Kenya Vision 2030, Sector Plan for Tourism 2008–2012. Nairobi: Government of Kenya. The Republic of Kenya. (2010). Ministry of Tourism, Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2010. Enhancing Sustainable Tourism in Kenya. Nairobi: Government Printers. The Republic of Kenya. (2010). The Kenya Constitution. Nairobi: Government Printer. The Republic of Kenya. (2014). Guidelines for Development of Tourism Area Plans; Tourism Regulatory Authority. Nairobi: Government Printers. The Republic of Kenya. (2017). Kenya National Tourism Blueprint 2030. Nairobi: Government Printers. Vuković, P., Subić, J., & Cvijanović, D. (2014). Importance of education and training local population in process of development rural tourism in Serbia. Journal of the Geographical Institute Jovan Cvijic SASA, 69(1), 29–37. doi:10.2298/IJGI1901029D Welteji, D., & Zerihun, B. (2018). Tourism – Agriculture Nexuses: Practices, challenges and opportunities in the case of Bale Mountains National Park, Southeastern Ethiopia. Agriculture and Food Security, 7, 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-018-0156-6 World Tourism Organization and European Travel Commission (WTO). (2020). Handbook on Tourism Destination Branding – Executive Summary, Japanese version, UNWTO, Madrid, doi: https:// doi.org/10.18111/9789284421534

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11 Featured Example: Gastrotourism in Botswana, Zambia and Zimbawe Introduction Gastrotourism, also known as food tourism, involves travel with motivations for key attractions in destination’s food culture. Destination image can be developed as a gastro tourism experience. Countries like Botswana and Zambia have natural resources that can make such experiences more enjoyable for both the casual and serious visitors experiencing gastro tourism. For example, Zambia is known for its iconic Victoria Falls, numerous natural, cultural and heritage assets, including: lakes in northern Zambia for beach and water activities, wetlands in northern Zambia for birdlife and various cultural ceremonies across the country. The country has a very good variety of food and gastronomic products, as well as a very strong culture, presenting a stable mix of pull factors for visitors. On the other hand, Botswana prides itself with mining, wildlife and other natural and cultural places, like the Matsieng Foot Print, Tsodilo hills, Okovango Delta, Toutswemogala Hill Iron Age Settlement, Central Kalahari Game Reserve, Chobe Linyanti System, Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape, Gcwihaba Caves, Makgadigadi Pans Landscape and Tswapong Hills cultural landscape. Overall, countries in southern Africa, including Zambia, Botswana and Zimbabwe, are known for their rich nature-based tourism products. A range of diverse cuisines in these countries can be developed for gastrotourism products to appeal to foodies. The countries can use this development to strengthen their image as destinations for gastrotourism for competitive advantage. Food consumption in the tourism industry is mainly considered a supporting tourist experience and seldom as a core attraction for visitors. However, food consumption is not only regarded as food intake but also recognized as knowledge gathering about the context, history, and culture of different destinations and establishing social activities in which people relate to other people in social, cultural and political terms. Chang et al. (2010) and Molz (2007) attested that in the same way, food consumption in the context of tourism is also acknowledged to have a symbolic meaning and importance, and a way of experiencing different cultures. According to Richards (2002), eating is considered as an essential tourist activity and it is also claimed that through eating tourists often encounter a specific type of action that fulfils the visual, auditory, taste and smell of all the five senses. This sensory enjoyment leads tourist to achieve the experiential part of their tourism experience as well as helping them to be happy because of positive emotions. The experience also gives tourists the chance to explore the other culture through sensory channels and in this sense local food becomes a key element of destination. In this context gastrotourism can be seen as inspiring and promoting https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110702491-011

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practices so that visitors can engage in the production of these specific foods and consume local foods and beverages. This is supported by Mahachi-Chatibura (2016), who analysed the positives of introducing local cuisine to hotel restaurant and considered Setswana cuisine (for Botswana) as an option for diversification of tourism offer in Botswana. Unfortunately for gastrotourism development, some countries lag behind because they underestimate the role that the local cuisine can create as a tourism product. Multiple pathways are possible for harnessing culinary resources in these countries to develop gastrotourism products. These can be through organizing events such as food tasting, or foodie itineraries to experience attributes of specialist food production, planning for food festivals in cultural settings, and taking farm visits linked to food sourcing experience. Festivals can be an opportunity to promote awareness of local cuisine and its preservation as a cultural heritage. Gastrotourism is also a niche that can be experienced with celebrity chefs live cooking sessions. All these can either be the core product or the complementary factor in attracting different visitor segments. Gastrotourism, therefore, has tremendous potential to improve both local and international tourist experiences, and to contribute to destinations' branding and competitive marketing.

Cuisines Found in Some Parts of Southern Africa Zambia Cuisine Traditional cuisine constitutes an important element of Zambian culture. The main staple food in Zambia is maize/corn. Zambian cuisine is mostly based on flour from white variety of corn which is mealie meal (a local name). In Botswana, the same name (mealie meal) is used. Zambians call it nshima. In Zimbabwe it is called sadza. Nshima has a very interesting way of preparation and serving, giving it an authentic cultural value that can be showcased in gastrotourism experience.

Nshima Preparation Process To prepare Nshima, maize flour is added gradually to boiling water while vigorously stirring. When it reaches a creamy consistency, it is called porridge and can be taken for breakfast with peanut butter or sugar. For soft nshima, more maize flour is added until it reaches a texture of mashed potatoes. For a stiffer serving, extra maize flour is added, and the final meal is called hard nshima (see Figures 11.1 and 11.2). The hard nshima can be taken for lunch or dinner with vegetables or meat. Apart from nshima

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there is another breakfast dish samp, which is crushed and boiled corn seeds that can be served with sugared peanut butter, rice served with sugar boiled corn on the cob, and vitumbua, a pastry similar to doughnuts but without filling. Sweet potato leaves can also be eaten with nshima. Kapenta which is a small sardine (limnothrissa) can also be used as an accompaniment to nshima.

Traditional Way of Eating Zambians’ traditional way of eating has some similarities to other African countries. Here, cutlery is not used during meal times, as it is a traditional practice just to eat with washed hands. Families have their meals together, often sitting around a bowl with food to be shared. When the commonly known traditional dish nshima is served in the shared bowl, the accompaniments, either vegetables or meat are given to everyone in separate bowls. The plate that the food is served on is the one that all use. They use one hand to eat, taking nshima, rolling into a ball and then making a small scoop on one end of the ball, and scoop the accompanying relish, then eat. The most popular relish in Zambia is the fisashi which is a group or a variety of dishes with a mix of many ingredients such as dried or fresh vegetables, mushrooms, add sauce made from peanuts. Ifinkubala is another dish made up of all edible caterpillars which are collected from certain tree species. The culinary experience in Zambia is unique. In Zambia some communities eat baboon meat, kudu, springbok or crocodile meat. As a tourist it is worthwhile to visit places of interests which serve these delicacies, for example Kalimba crocodile farm. The crocodile tail is considered the tastiest bit and very expensive. Another culinary experience in Zambia can be indigenous fermented foods for example mabisi (milk based), munkoyo and chibwanta, (both cereal based) are nonalcoholic beverages. They are mostly made by women and can be found in the local market.

Zimbabwe Cuisine Zimbabwe is a landlocked country which lies between Limpopo river south and Zambezi river on the north in the South-central Africa. Zimbabwe has very rich traditional cuisine. Cornmeal is the staple food of Zimbabwe. The national dish of Zimbabwe is sadza. Sadza has different eating patterns, thereby presenting both symbolic and authentic cultural values, that can be presented in a gastrotourism experience. There is the sadza served in the afternoons, which is normally called sadza re masikati meaning lunch. Sadza re Manheru which means sadza of the evening, is served for dinner. This dish can be eaten with relish or any kind of meat. Dovi (peanut butter stew) is another national dish of Zimbabwe (Oktay & Sadikoglu, 2018).

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Figure 11.1: Nshima preparation process. Source: Photo by author

Figure 11.2: Sevred Nshima. Source: Photos by author

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Sadza Preparation Process Bring the water to a boil in a pot. Add cornmeal to the boiling water. Reduce heat to medium to low, stirring the mixture constantly with a wooden spoon. Cook for about five minutes. Slowly adding the cornmeal. When the mixture is very thick and starts to pull away from the sides of the pan, transfer to a serving bowl or plate. Use a wooden spoon to shape the mixture into a round shape. Wet hands can be used to help shape the sadza (see Figure 11.4). People also frequently eat sadza with curdled milk, typically called lacto (mukaka wakakora). Sadza is also eaten with dried Tanganyika sardine, recognized regionally as matemba or kapenta. A more dilutant form of porridge is bota. It is prepared with a lesser quantity of cornmeal as compared to that used for sadza, and normally seasoned with ingredients like butter, milk, peanut butter, or, on certain occasions, jam. Bota is normally consumed as breakfast (see Figure 11.5).

Dovi Preparation Process Fry onions with butter in a pot until browned. Add salt, garlic and seasonings, while stirring. Add green peppers and chicken. Once the chicken is browned, add the tomatoes and mash them with a fork. Add some little water and simmer for five to 10 minutes. Add half the peanut butter to the pot, lower heat and continue to simmer. In a separate pan, cook the spinach, add few drops of water to a saucepan with the spinach and heat over medium low until spinach leaves are limp and tender. Add the remaining peanut butter to the spinach and heat for five minutes (see Figure 11.3). Other traditional foods are muboora, or pumpkin leaves. These can be eaten fresh and are commonly mixed into stews, like dovi (peanut butter stew). Kapenta (tiny dried fish) is also a common snack.

Traditional Way of Eating In Zimbabwe according to the traditional cuisine culture, before eating a meal, a dish of water is placed on the dining table for diners to clean their hands. The right hand is used to eat and for those who use left hand are expected to use right hand when eating since use of left had is considered impolite. Cutlery is not used at the table when diners sit in a circle on the floor and eat food from one dish. The practice of sharing is the communal way of eating, so diners while eating with others, must pace themselves accordingly. Older children learn to pace themselves at the same rate as their younger siblings so that they will not eat too much or too fast and everyone will have a fair share. Guests, however, are served instead of helping themselves. Traditionally, Zimbabweans leave a small amount of food on a plate to show

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that they have been more than sufficiently provided for. When eating sadza, the right hand is used, pinching off a chunk from the bowl, then rolling it into a ball in their palm, dipping the ball into relish and bite off the relish flavored bit. This process is repeated by everyone to their satisfaction at the end of the meal. Overall, the communal way of eating, is truly representative of the social values in Zimbabwe’s gastronomic practices.

Figure 11.3: Spinach cooked in peanut butter. Source: Photo by author

Figure 11.4: Sadza, Zimbwabwean cuisine. Source: Photo by author

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Figure 11.5: Bota, normally consumed for breakfast. Source: Photo by author

Botswana cuisine The local culinary can be used as attraction for people looking for authentic, different and original tastes. The effective use of these attractions will positively contribute to rural and regional development. It is of great importance to plan to make this development sustainable. Keeping local dishes (ingredients) preparation process, cooking style and presentation style can be made for economic gain. Most tourists visit certain places or region for their original tastes. With this being noted, it is very important for local culinary and region to benefit from local culinary experiences in accordance with the sustainable development principles in tourism. Botswana has plenty natural resources that make tourism experiences more enjoyable. The country also boasts a range of food and gastronomic products, as well strong cultural resources. With a creativity in its tourism product development, these can be used to attract large numbers of tourists and identify regions to develop gastro destinations. Botswana’s food can be used as the focus of the travelers during their visit at different places, so it can be promoted as a gastronomy tourism destination. Greater Gaborone (mainly Mochudi in the South of Botswana), Greater Francistown (mainly the city of Francistown in the Northern part of Botswana) and Maun are destinations where one can enjoy the beautiful scenery (Matsieng foot prints in Mochudi, basket weaving, the Plateaus and Chobe and Okavango river in Maun/Kasane and the Domboshaba hills in Francistown), and additionally get taste of their gastronomic offers ranging from an immense variety of ingredients, flavors, traditional beverages and local food.

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Foods Found in Botswana The main staple food for Batswana is sorghum. Even though there are many tribes in Botswana, sorghum meal constitutes the local meal. Millet meal is commonly found in the northern part of Botswana (Francistown) and sour porridge found in Mochudi (Southern part of Botswana). Maun local food is tswii which is found in water. Tswii is a vegetable that is found under water. The preparation process for millet porridge is very easy but it needs some expert skills in the process, to prepare a fine beverage with no lumps. You need to pour the millet powder gradually into the boiling water, stirring very fast. The millet can be served soft or very stiff. It is normally eaten during lunch or dinner with milk or sour milk, delele (vegetable leaves) and or meat. The millet is tastier when prepared outdoors on fire and three-legged pot. There are other side dishes that go well with millet like cooked dried bean leaves. Normally this dish is eaten by hands no cutlery is needed (Delele, see Figure 11.8).

Cuisines found in the Northern Part of Botswana (Kalanga/Bakalanga Cuisine) The Kalanga traditional cuisine consists of a variety of a mixture of flavors, colors, textures that have a distinct character and unique to the Bakalanga region. With these features, they definitely present a unique aesthetic value for a gastronomic offer in tourism. The different dishes commonly found in the Kalanga tribes are mokoto which is a mix of different meats from a cow. Mokoto consists of meat all different types of offal’s which are intestines, liver, lungs, tripe and stomach. These are cooked in one pot, in a three-legged pot. When tender and soft, salt is added. It is dished in one plate where individuals will pick a piece from the dish. This meat is only eaten by elderly married men. It can be eaten with zengwe (millet porridge) or sorghum porridge (bogobe). Tjimoni is a mix of samp, jugo beans and groundnuts. These are cooked together until soft. When well done, the groundnut powder is added and mixed well. Salt is added to enhance taste. This dish is eaten without any relish. It is mainly cooked by elderly women in three legged pots (see Figure 11.7). Ntiyani is a mix of sorghum powder or millet with milk. Milk is boiled and while boiling, millet or sorghum powder is added stirring continuously with traditional wooden whisk (lefetlho) to avoid lump forming. This meal should not be stiff since it is eaten as breakfast. This kind of dish is only eaten by elderly men or herd boys. It is forbidden to be eaten by women. Nvo (Kgatsele) or colostrum in English: This is the first sticky white or yellow fluid secreted by the breast few days after birth before breast milk comes in. This milk is obtained from cows or goats and is heated slowly in a three-legged pot. The milk is stirred slowly to avoid burning and sticking. When it becomes custardy, it is

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removed from fire and left to cool. Women are not allowed to eat this, and it is solely eaten by elderly men or herd boys. There are also foods in Kalanga that are used as snack. Magwalila (kabu) is dried maize cooked until very soft. It is normally eaten as a snack and others use it as an accompaniment to tea. Moxhangwa is a mix of maize and melon. Maize is cooked until soft the melon is added and cooked until soft as well. When it is done, it is stirred using a traditional wooden whisk (lefetlho) until all the melon is mixed with maize and in a pouring consistency. Sugar is added to enhance taste. The moxhangwa is left to cool and served. The melon imparts a unique flavor and color to the dish. Topi (melon porridge) is a mix of sorghum or millet powder with melon. The melon is cooked until very soft then it is stirred with traditional wooden whisk (lefetlho) to a pouring consistency. Sorghum powder or millet powder is gradually added while stirring with traditional wooden whisk to avoid forming of lumps until it is in the form of a soft porridge. It can then be left on fire to cook, while continuously being stirred. This dish can be served with milk, sour milk or meat. The unique flavor of the melon should be felt, and it should retain its orange color when serving. Most of the time people prefer to share the meal on one dish, eating with their hands. Often, they sit in a circle while enjoying the traditional topi. This dish is normally eaten by hands, no cutlery is needed (Refer to 11.6). Phane (mopani worms) are greyish caterpillars after their green guts have been squeezed out. They are harvested late in their larval stage when they have not yet burrowed underground to pupate into their moth phase. Mopane worms can be smoked under fire or cooked in boiling water then dried. They can then be cooked into mopani stew where tomatoes are added and accompanied with millet or sorghum porridge or can be eaten dry as a snack (see Figure 11.9).

The Southern Part of Botswana The Bakgatla are found in the southern part of Botswana in a district called Kgatleng. There are a variety of tourism activities that this tribe prides itself with, including the Bogwera (initiation school for boys), Bojale (initiation school for girls) and the traditional choirs (Dikopelo).

The Bakgatla Cuisine Traditional cuisine is part of the Bakgatla culture. Consumption is the integral part of the tourist experience. Local food is a fundamental component of a destination’s attributes adding to the range of attractions like the Matsieng Footprint, the Phuthadikobo Museum, and the overall tourist experience. The local food that are unique

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Figure 11.6: Topi (melon porridge). Source: Photo by author.

Figure 11.7: Tjimoni, a mix of samp, jugo beans and groundnuts. Source: Photo by author.

to an area are one of the distinctive resources that may be used as marketing tools to get more visitors. Seswaa (Ponded meat) is one of the common dishes found within Bakgatla cuisine. The Bakgatla pride themselves with unique skills for preparing this dish very well. The preparation process is quite interesting. The meat is cooked in big three-legged pots,

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Figure 11.8: Delele (vegetable leaves). Source: Photo by author

Figure 11.9: Phane (Mopani worms). Source: Photo by author

mostly on outdoor fire. The meat is cut in pieces that can go well into the pot. It takes time to cook for it to be tender. Some stock from the meat is set aside to be added to the pounded meat at a later stage. When soft, it is separated from the bones by pounding with a wooden stick that is specifically designed for that (in Setswana is called Tswaiso). Salt is added. If the meat tends to be very dry, the stock that was put aside is added. This kind of meat is only cooked by men and they are the ones who eat that meat. Seswaa is eaten with hard porridge/millet using hands (see Figure 11.10).

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Ngati is a mix of cow stomach and some parts of the meat from a cow and the cow cervix. This kind of meat is only cooked by elderly women who are married. The process of cooking this meat is very simple. All different meats and cow stomach are cooked in one pot at once, boiled until tender. Once cooked the meat is removed from the pot and cut into very small pieces using a knife and then taken back into the pot and pounded just to make it stick to each other. Salt is added to taste. No cutlery is used when eating, every one eats with their hands. This meat is only eaten by married women only (see Figure 11.15). Sour porridge, in Setswana is called bogobe jwa ting. The process of making sour porridge is unique. The sorghum powder is mixed with boiling water in a clay pot, stirring very fast to avoid burning of the sorghum powder. The mixture is left to ferment until it is sour. For the cooking process, the water is boiled in a pot and the fermented mixture is gradually added to the boiling water, while stirring to avoid lumps. The mixture is cooked for approximately ten minutes and then sorghum powder is added to make a bit hard. The pot is left on the glowing charcoal to cook and continually stirring to make sure that all the mixture is cooked. After it has been cooked it can be dished on plates. The bogobe jwa ting goes well with seswaa, meat, milk, sour milk or even relish (see Figure 11.11). Diphaphatha (flat bread rolls): The dough is made and left to ferment. This kind of bread is cooked under hot charcoal on a three-legged pot lid. There is a need to keep on turning the bread until golden brown. They are normally cooked by women. This bread can be eaten with tea or bean soup or gravy. There are some women who use the traditional beer foam for fermentation (see Figure 11.13). Traditional beer (in Setswana is called bojalwa jwa Setswana): This beer is made from sorghum only. The sorghum is soaked in water and left in a clay pot overnight. Then removed from the water and covered in a clay pot until it ferments. After it has all fermented, it is removed from the clay pot and put on the sunlight to dry. After fully dried they are pounded with a mortar and a pestle or grinded on a flat stone with round or oval stone (in Setswana is called tshilo and tshilwana). The sorghum is pounded to a powder. This powder is then mixed with hot water and covered to ferment. It normally takes a day to ferment. It is then cooked to a consistency of light soft porridge, then cooled, mixed with cold water and covered in clay pots overnight. Once the foam is formed, it means it is ready (see Figure 11.16). The women will bring in traditional metal strainers (in Setswana is called motlhotlho) to remove the spent grains. This beer is consumed on small calabashes (in Setswana is called phafana). Calabash is obtained from dried marrow vegetable (in Setswana is called lekgomane). People who drink this beer sit on a circle and share the calabash. It is passed from one person to the other (see Figures 11.12 and 11.14). Morobolo is a mix of dried powdered watermelon or melon seeds mixed with milk. The milk is boiled and while boiling the seed powder is gradually added, stirring continuously to avoid lumps. This is made to a consistency of light soft porridge. After cooked it is left to cool. It is normally eaten as a dessert.

11 Featured Example: Gastrotourism in Botswana, Zambia and Zimbawe

Figure 11.10: Seswaa (Pounded meat). Source: Photo by author.

Figure 11.11: Sour Porridge, in Setswana called bogobe jwa ting served. Source: Photo by author

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Figure 11.12: Traditional beer in a clay pot. Source: Photo by author

Figure 11.13: Diphaphatha (flat bread rolls). Source: Photo by author

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Figure 11.14: Drinking traditional beer. Source: Photo by author

Conclusion Food has a significant meaning and has social value for African cultures. Food also has a symbolic meaning in the context of tourism. It is an indicator of social differences, for example along gender, or even age, and is a symbol of identity of which we and our culture and community differ from others. When tourists experience a new local cuisine, they are actually experiencing a new culture, therefore gastronomy can be a motivator in many ways to add on to destination pull factors. Gastrotourism supports destination sustainability, through heritage preservation by respecting the interests in local culture, tradition and authenticity of gastronomic experience.

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Figure 11.15: Ngati: a mix of cow stomach and some parts of the meat from a cow and the cow cervix. Source: Photo by author.

Figure 11.16: Traditional beer foaming. Source: Photo by author

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References Chang, R.C.Y., Kivela, J., & Mak, A.H.N. (2010). Food preferences of Chinese tourists. Annals of Tourism Research, 37(4), 989–1011. Mahachi-Chatibura, D. (2016). Local Cuisine Potential Tourism Attractor and Marker of National Identity in Botswana. Journal of Gastronomy and Tourism, 2(2), 117–134. Molz, G.J. (2007). Eating Difference: The Cosmopolitan Mobilities of Culinary Tourism. Space and Culture, 10(1), 77–93. Richards, G. (2002). Gastronomy: An essential ingredient in tourism production and consumption. In A.M. Hjalager, & G. Richards (Eds.), Tourism and gastronomy (pp. 11–16). London: Routledge.

Part III: Dialogues on Planning

Joseph Muiruri Njoroge

12 Tourism Adaptation Frameworks for Climate Change: A Review Introduction Tourism is one of the fastest growing industries globally. It has continued to record an average of 3.5–4% despite the global challenges experienced in the last decade including the latest COVID-19 pandemic (UNWTO, 2019). Tourism is appreciated due to its social economic contribution to the global GDP estimated at 9%. It is also considered a big GDP contributor for many developing economies that have embraced tourism estimated between 10–13%. It is also considered strategic poverty eradicator and a tool for achieving sustainable development (UNWTO-UNEP-WMO, 2008). Despite the potential for tourism in the advancement of better livelihood among community’s climate variability remains one of the phenomenon challenging tourism. However, we must acknowledge that tourism is both a victim and a vector of climate change. As a vector it is estimated that tourism contributes to about 5% of global greenhouse gases (GHGs) where 85% of the GHG comes from the aviation industry. As a victim we must appreciate that tourism depends largely on climate and nature-based resources which are already being threatened (IPCC, 2007). These threats can be direct or indirect. In order to limit the vulnerability of tourism to climate change adaptation and mitigation have been proposed. Mitigation largely focuses on strategies aimed at limiting the contribution of GHGs whereas adaptation deals with strategies aimed at limiting vulnerability and resilience enhancement. Hence, for the purpose of this research note focus will be on adaptation. Adaptation is adjustment in ecological, social, or economic systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli, and their effects or impacts. This term refers to changes in processes, practices, or structures to moderate or offset potential damages or to take advantage of opportunities associated with changes in climate. It involves adjustments to reduce the vulnerability of communities, regions, or activities to climatic change and variability. (IPCC, 2007, p. 881)

With the urgency of limiting vulnerability and promote resilience at destination, researchers and practitioners have continued to advance knowledge both theoretical and practical applications. In a review of literature, it is noted that there have been six adaptation knowledge domains being advanced: consumer adaptation, destination adaptation, business adaptation, adaptation policy, frameworks for adaptation and sustainable adaptation being a newer knowledge domain (see Figure 12.1).

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Business adaptation

Consumer adaptation

Sustainable Adaptation

Tourism Adaptation

Adaptation Policy

Destination Adaptation

Frameworks for adaptation

Figure 12.1: Climate change adaptation knowledge domains in tourism literature. Source: Njoroge (2015, p. 4)

Business adaptation is believed to emanate from the business operators in order to ensure continuity of their operations. However, they have been criticized for being economic sustainability oriented neglecting social cultural and environmental sustainability of the destination (Weaver 2011). That is evident in some ski resorts where artificial snows are made limiting communities’ access to clean water resources and uneconomical use of energy in the process. One example is a study on Fiji resorts where operators are reported to be willing to adapt but not keen at reducing CO2 (Becken, 2005). Consumer adaptation deals with how the tourist will respond to changing product quality due to the impact of climate change on destinations. This is informed by the fact that tourists are motivated by the quality of the environment hence it is expected that there will be “losers” and “winners” (Saarinen et al., 2012). Destination adaptation focuses on how destination managers adapt to the changing environment and to the risks posed by it. Studies focusing on destination adaptation have been analysis of risks, vulnerability, and evaluation of destinations adaptive capacity in order to provide alternative pathways. This follows the post Djerba declaration of 2003 which called for destination managers to take action (See UNWTO, 2003). Adaptation policy knowledge domain on the other hand also follows post Djerba declaration at a meeting held from 9th to 11th April 2003 convened by World Tourism Organization. The meeting that was attended by tourism players, policy makers, experts and NGOs called upon industry players to come up with policies that will guide destinations in the process of adaptation. Frameworks for adaptation knowledge domain considers tourism as a practical industry (Kaján & Saarinen, 2013) and frameworks are tools for guiding industry

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players in the adaptation process. Advancement in tools for adaptation has evolved in the last decade and they are reviewed in the next section. The last but not least is sustainable adaptation knowledge domain. This knowledge domain is concerned by all other knowledge domains with a concern of sustainability in all approached being considered. In order to understand this next section is a review of tourism adaptation frameworks.

Tourism Adaptation Frameworks: A Review As mentioned above, adaptation frameworks provide practical tools to aid the process. In a review of tourism adaptation framework, the earliest proposed tool is the work of Scott et al. (2006) who enlists three types of adaptation that include: technical; behavioral and business management. This proposal is limited at guiding stakeholders the step-to-step adaptation process. Becken and Hey (2007) proposed a risk approach in profiling risks. This approach has been used in planning domains where risks are evaluated based on exposure. However, this approach may be tricky to employ in tourism because of the complexity nature of tourism industry. Later a more tourism dedicated adaptation tool can be traced to the work of Simpson et al. (2008), “A Framework for Climate Change Adaptation in the Tourism Sector.” The framework proposes seven steps process for adaptation. One of the strengths held by that proposal is that it emphasizes on the need for collective action among stakeholders. However, Jopp et al. (2010) criticized the approach because it did not recognize the role of the consumers in the adaptation process. The model provides local and national feedback but limited to global feedback. Jopp et al. (2010) provided a more practical framework for adaptation named Regional Tourism Adaptation Framework (RTAF) (see Figure 12.2). The framework is informed by the need to have a step-by-step process of adaptation and the need for collective action. RTAF is implemented in two phases. The first phase is vulnerability and resilience evaluation. This involves the definition of the tourism system, identification of risks and opportunities, adaptive capacities are also assessed. The second phase involves identification of adaptation options, options assessment, testing the options with consumers and implementing the best options. RTAF is complimented for being simple; emphasizes on the need for stakeholder’s involvement, need oriented, takes local approach, considers the demand side and acknowledges opportunities. However, it has its share of weaknesses that include lack of feedback between local and global processes, business-oriented, lack of explicit adaptation assessment and limited to local opinion and knowledge (See Njoroge, 2014). As debate on the need for sustainable adaption continued in the last decade it was clear that not all adaptation is good. This is because an adaptation at one level

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Increase resilience and resistance

Assess the vulnerability and resilience of the destination

4. Adaptation Process 1. Define the tourism system – Engage stakeholders – Contextualise Destination

2. Establish risks and opportunities

3. Determine adaptive capacity

(a) Define the Problem (b) Identify R & O (c) Assess R & O (d) Categorise R & O

– Factors that limit or enhance vulnerability

(a) Identify options (b) Assess options (c) Test with consumers (d) Implement (e) Evaluate

Increase readiness

Decrease vulnerability to climate change risks

Action opportunities presented by climate change

Figure 12.2: Regional Tourism Adaptation Framework (RTAF). Source: Jopp et al. (2010)

can lead to maladaoptation at another level (Becken & Hay, 2007; Owuor, Mauta & Eriksen, 2011). Therefore, there was a need to rethink on integrating the need for sustainability in the adaptation process and options. So, what is sustainable adaptation? There is no agreement on the meaning if this term (Brown, 2011). However, there is speculation among scholars that sustainable adaptation has been coined from the two terms: sustainability and adaptation. Sustainability as associated with development refers to the ability to meet the current need for development without jeopardizing the need of future generation. Adaptation on the other hand is coined from the word adapt which means to adjust to condition as a response to a stimulus. Whilst sustainability has been hardly been discussed in earlier IPCC texts only in a later IPCC (2007) report Chapter 18 was the term sustainability discussed. It argues that a successful adaptation largely depends on the adaptive capacity. This adaptive capacity can be enhanced through: “improvement of access to resources, poverty reduction, reducing inequities, improving education and information, improving infrastructure, eliminating intergenerational inequities, respecting experienced local experience, moderating structural inequities, assuring comprehensive and integrative responses, encouraging active participation among stakeholders and by improving institutional capacity and efficiency,” (IPCC 2007, p. 899). Since not all adaptation are good (Brown, 2011; Ericksen et al., 2011) there is a need to operationalize the definition of the tern sustainable adaptation. Leichenko and O’Brien (2008, p. 31) state that sustainable adaptation is coined from the terms “sustainability” and “adaptation” to infer the need to “reduce vulnerability” and enhance “long term resilience.” This definition is informed by the nexus that exists between climate change vulnerability and poverty. This is provided Ericksen et al. (2011) through a critical analysis of the linkages between climate change and poverty reduction in an investigative report commissioned by the Norwegian Agency

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for Development Cooperation (Norad). The linkages between vulnerability and poverty can be summarized as: 1. Any added risk by climate change to current ways of securing wellbeing, 2. The particular strategies or adaptive capacity of poor people in the face of climate stresses and 3. The causes of vulnerability, or specific factors and conditions that make poor people vulnerable to climate stress’ (Ericksen et al., 2011). In order to address these linkages sustainable adaptation measures have been proposed including: (a) reducing the risk on wellbeing of the poor, (b) enhancing adaptive capacity and, (c) addressing the root cause of vulnerability (Ericksen et al., 2011, p. 342). Similar views have also emerged including pro-poor climate change adaptation (Tanner & Mitchell, 2008) and community-based adaptation (Ensor & Berger, 2009) all agreeing with measures aimed at reducing vulnerability among the poor and enhancing their means of securing livelihood in the long-term perspective. Having considered all these factors Csete and Szécsi (2012, p. 104) analysis the interrelations between sustainability and tourism adaptation portfolio in the examined micro-region and argues that sustainable adaptation can be achieved examining the interaction between the aspect of sustainability (environmental, economic, social and institutional) and types of adaptation (management, behavioral, educational, political and technical) (See Csete & Szécsi, 2012, p. 104). This analysis provides a valuable input in identifying possible pathways in achieving sustainable adaptation. However, it does not provide a step-by-step process for sustainable adaptation. Therefore Njoroge (2014) proposed an enhanced Regional Tourism Sustainable Adaptation (RTSAF) (see Figure 12.3). RTSAF proposes a two-phase adaptation stage. The first stage is the assessment of vulnerability and resilience of the destination. This is addressed in three steps. First by defining the tourism system through stakeholders’ engagement in order to conceptualize the destination. The second step is establishment of risks and opportunities through problem definition, identification of risks and opportunities assessing the risks and opportunities and categorization of risks and opportunities. The third step is determining adaptive capacity through evaluation of factors that limit or enhances vulnerability. The second phase involves six steps. First, identifying the adaptation options, assessing the options, testing with all stakeholders, ranking the options, implementing the most viable option and evaluating the options. Finally, this framework also appreciates the need for global and local feedback and identifies the need for regional adaptation authorities communicate to national adaptation authorities that can also give feedback to the global process, i.e., IPCC.

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Global process (e.g. IPCC)

National Adaptation Authority

Regional Tourism & Adaptation Authorities

Assess the vulnerability and resilience of the destination 1. Define the tourism system – Engage stakeholders – Conceptualize the destination

2. Establish risks and opportunities (a) Define the problem (b) Identify R&O (c) Assess R&O (d)Categorize R&O

3. Determine adaptive capacity – Factors that limits or enhance vulnerability

Increase resilience and resistance

4. Adaptation process (a)Identify options (b)Assess options: – Evaluate the economic implication – Evaluate the environmental impact – Social implication – Effectiveness, local acceptance, ease of implementation (c)Test with: – Operators – Host community – Consumers (d) Rank the options (e) Implement the most viable options (f) Evaluate Increase readiness

– Decrease vulnerability to climate change – Promote social equity, environmental integrity and sustainable development – Capitalize on the opportunities presented by climate change

Figure 12.3: Regional Tourism Sustainable Adaptation Framework (RTSAF). Source: Njoroge (2014: p. 29)

Conclusions To conclude it is important to appreciate the advancement of knowledge in the development of tourism adaptation knowledge domains. The advancement of adaptation frameworks is also acknowledged. It will be of interest for adaptation scholars to see the applicability of these proposed frameworks as part of knowledge development and practical application. For practitioners it is important to remember that tourism will continue to face many risks in this era of uncertainty. It is therefore prudent that practitioners to be always prepared in order to respond swiftly and strategically. It is also necessary to have continuous risks and opportunities analysis so that they can minimize the potential risk and or maximize opportunities provided by any eventuality currently and in the future.

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References Becken, S. (2005). Harmonising climate change adaptation and mitigation: The case of tourist resorts in Fiji. Global Environmental Change, 15(4), javascript, 381–393. doi:10.1016/ j.gloenvcha.2005.08.001 Becken, S., & Hay, J. E. (2007). Tourism and climate change: Risks and opportunities. Clevedon: Channel View Publications. Brown, K. (2011). Sustainable adaptation: An oxymoron? Climate and Development, 3(1), 21–31. Csete, M., & Szécsi, N. (2012). Tourism adaptation portfolio; fostering regional sustainability. Periodica Oeconomica, 99–108. Ensor, J., & Berger, R. (2009). Understanding climate change adaptation. Lessons from communitybased approaches. Warwickshire, UK: Practical Action Pub. Ericksen, S., Aldunce, P., Bahinipati, C. S., Martins, R. D., Molefe, J. I., Nhemachena, C., et al. (2011). When not every response to climate change is a good one: Identifying principles for sustainable adaptation. Climate and Development, 3, 7–20. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3763/ cdev.2010.0060 Fussel, H.-M. (2009, June 3–4). Getting the foundations right: Adaptation assessment frameworks. Paper presented at the Working with Climate Change: An Adaptation Symposium, Melbourne, VIC. IPCC. (2007). Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. In Core Writing Team. Pachauri, R. K., & Reisinger, A. (Eds.), Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (p. 104). Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC. Jopp, R., Delacy, T., & Mair, J. (2010). Developing a framework for regional destination adaptation to climate change. Current Issues in Tourism, 13, 591–605. Kaján, E., & Saarinen, J. (2013). Tourism, climate change and adaptation: A review. Current Issues in Tourism, 16(2), 167–195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2013.774323 Leichenko, R. M., & O’Brien, K. L. (2008). Environmental change and globalization: Double exposures. New York, USA: Oxford University Press. Njoroge, J. M. (2014). An enhanced framework for regional tourism sustainable adaptation to climate change. Tourism Management Perspectives, 12, 23–30. doi:https://doi.org/10.1108/ TR-12-2017-0203 Njoroge, J. M. (2015). climate change and tourism adaptation: Literature review. Tourism and Hospitality Management, 21(1), 95–108. https://hrcak.srce.hr/140171 Owuor, B., Mauta, W., & Eriksen, S. (2011). Sustainable adaptation and human security: Interactions between pastoral and agro pastoral groups in dry land Kenya. Climate and Development, 3(1), 42–58. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3763/cdev.2010.0063 Redclift, M. R. (1987). Sustainable development: Exploring the contradictions. London: Routledge. Saarinen, J., Hambira, W., Atlhopheng, J., & Manwa, H. (2012). Tourism industry reaction to climate change in Kgalagadi South District, Botswana. Development Southern Africa, 29(2), To link to this article, 273–285. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2012.675697 Saarinen, J., & Rogerson, C. M. (2013). Tourism and the Millennium Development Goals: Perspectives beyond 2015. Tourism Geographies, 16(1), 23–30. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/ 14616688.2013.851269 Scott, D., McBoyle, G., Minogue, A., & Mills, B. (2006). Climate change and the sustainability of skibased tourism in eastern North America: A reassessment. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 14, 376–398. Simpson, M. C., Gössling, S., Scott, D., Hall, C. M., & Gladin, E. (2008). Climate change adaptation and mitigation in the tourism sector: Frameworks, tools and practices. Paris, France: UNEP, University of Oxford, UNWTO, WMO.

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Tanner, T., & Mitchell, T. (2008). Entrenchment or enhancement: Could climate change adaptation help to reduce chronic poverty? IDS Bulletin, 39(4), 6–15. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.17595436.2008.tb00471.x UNEP & UNWTO. (2005). Making tourism more sustainable. A guide for policy makers. United Nations Environment Programme and World Tourism Organization. UNWTO. (2003). Climate change and tourism. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Climate Change Tourism, Djerba, 9–11 April. Madrid: UNWTO. Retrieved August 9, 2013, from http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/unwto_highlights13_en_hr_0.pdf. UNWTO–UNEP–WMO. (2008). Climate change and tourism: Responding to global challenges. Madrid: United Nations Publications. Weaver, D. (2011). Can sustainable tourism survive climate change? Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 19, 5–15. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2010.536242 World Tourism Organization. (2019). International Tourism Highlights, 2019 Edition. Madrid: UNWTO. doi:https://doi.org/10.18111/9789284421152

Moez Kacem

13 Sustainable Tourism Growth and Climate Change Impacts: Case of Tunisia Introduction Tourism and travel are vital contributors to global economy and especially important for many developing countries. Being victim of several crises, the tourism sector has been weakened or even damaged especially by the recent health crisis, COVID-19. The UNWTO defines sustainable tourism as “Tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social, and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment, and host communities” (UNWTO & UNEP, 2005). The sustainability of tourist activities is usually linked to six issues: the role of tourism demand, the nature of tourism resources, the imperative of intragenerational equity, the role of tourism in promoting sociocultural progress, the measurement of sustainability and forms of Sustainable development (Zhenhua, 2003). To ensure a sustainable growth for the tourism sector (destinations and private actors), it is of paramount importance that strategies and policies are in accordance with the SDGs (United Nations Sustainable Development Goals), especially SDG 8 Decent work and economic growth, Responsible consumption and production, and SDG 14 Life below water (UNWTO & UNDP, 2017). In Tunisia, tourism recorded an important upturn in 2019 compared to 2018. Indeed, the country welcomed 9.4 million tourists, i.e., +13% compared to 2018. In terms of overnights, the country recorded 30 million overnights (i.e., +10% compared to 2018). Tunisia offers 244,000 beds spread over 17 tourist areas scattered throughout the territory. The occupancy rate recorded in 2019 was 44.7% (ONTT, 2019). According to the National Institute of Statistics (INS), tourism directly employed 158,000 persons in 2019. Over the 17 touristic regions considered by the Tunisian National Tourist Office, nine are dedicated to beach tourism. Tunisia totals 2290 km of coastline divided in 68% continental, 20% island linear and 12% artificial linear (APAL, 2015). Thus, there are about 80 kilometres allocated to tourist-real estate complexes which represent 6 to 7% of the entire coastline. It is crucial to adopt an eco-systemic approach of space and resources taking into consideration environmental, economic and social issues involved by tourism activity concentrated on the Tunisian coast. This challenges us to a better understanding of the specificities of existing (or possible) interactions between nature and the different actors of tourism projects on the seaside.

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Today, tourism is a pillar of the Tunisian economy, but it is also a weakened sector with possible mutation in terms of tourist flows and activity diversification. This tourist destination is characterized by tourism focused on beaches and all-inclusive packages. Moreover, the sustainability of the sector was a transversal axis in Tunisian tourism conferences carried out by the concerned ministry in 2017. Characterized by the vulnerability of jobs, Tunisian tourism started an administrative restructuration (Ministry of Tourism & Handicraft, 2017). As climate leads to extend tourism seasons, affects tourism operations and influences environmental conditions that both attract and deter visitors, the sector is considered to be highly climate sensitive. The effects of a changing climate will have considerable impacts on tourism and travel businesses. That is why the need to implement sustainable tourism has become more felt with the amplification of the phenomenon of climate change and its very serious impacts on the sector. In some parts of the world, these impacts are increasingly becoming evident (Cabrini, Simpson & Scott, 2009). In Tunisia, we experienced this climate impact in 2018 during Nabeul Flood. This phenomenon has been irritated in recent years by the increasingly visible impacts of climate change: sea level rising, extreme weather, erosion and biodiversity degradation. In this chapter, I study the impact of climate change as an environmental variable which can tackle the growth of Tunisian tourism, especially since the country has suffered, for several decades from negative pressures of mass tourism, the default mono-product. From these considerations, this chapter proposes some solutions to mitigate these impacts. Such solutions could spring from three main fields: governance, marketing, and innovation.

Scope and Methods This chapter aims at suggesting solutions to mitigate impacts of climate change on both tourism sector in Tunisia and at demonstrating the importance of these impacts in order to create a collective awareness of this phenomenon. By doing this, it provides, in the following sections, a context analysis aimed at giving a portrait of the five main dimensions in which climate change can threaten the development of the tourism sector: – The disruption of coastal tourism due to sea level rise – The decrease of biodiversity – The degradation of ecosystems and landscapes – The increase of operating expenses – The health risks

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The analysis of climate change impacts is essentially based on literature review, which carried out over the period 2016–2018. However, the expert panel was carried out in May-June 2020 for two purposes: first, validate that the impacts are still unchanged; second, exploring the panel discussion in order to analyse possible solutions leading to mitigate these impacts on Tunisian tourism. In order to define the possible solutions for climate change impacts on tourism industry in Tunisia. Interviews have been organized with an expert panel. The experts were chosen mainly depending on their involvement in the tourism sector but also in the management of natural ecosystems. Thus, they belong to both official authorities and the private sector, as you can see in the Table 13.1. Table 13.1: Composition of the expert panel. Ref Expert Organization

Quality

E

Ministry of tourism and handicraft

Minister

E

National Tunisian Tourism Board

General director

E

Real Estate Tourism Agency

General director

E

General Direction of forests

Director

E

National Agency for protection of Environment

CEO

E

Ministry of Environment

Responsible of the relationship with NGOs

E

National Agency of coasts Protection

CEO

E

Tunisian Travel Agency Association

President

E

Tunisian Hotels Association

General Secretary

E

Tunisian Guides of tourism association

President

E

National Institute of Meteorology

Head of Department Weather Forecast

The panel discussion was conducted through interviews with open questions to allow the team members express themselves more freely on the phenomenon of climate change affecting, consequently, various technical and socio-economic aspects. Interviews have been conducted through phone calls, Skype videoconferences, WhatsApp calls, and survey via Google forms. It is important to highlight that due to COVID-19 measures, it was not possible to make a face-to-face interviews with the panel team in May and June 2020.

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Context Analysis The Mediterranean area is the first tourist region in the world with more than 256 million arrivals in 2017. It represents 46,000 km of coastline distributed among 21 countries and the region stands for one-third of world tourism. The number of international visitors may increase from 58 million in 1970 to 500 million in 2025 (Plan Bleu, 2018). Tourism activity is mainly concentrated on the coast and is strongly seasonal as it is focused on the seaside product. For countries on the southern coast of the Mediterranean, tourism is a strategic fundamental sector for economic development. It directly employs 2.5 million people (4.4% of total employment) in 2017 and is likely to grow by 1.9% on yearly average by 2028. Tourism activities are the main reason for coastline urbanization. This is why mass tourism exacerbates many of the problems that exist in urban areas: water resources consumption, land use, rural exodus and extinctions of animal and plant species. The Tunisian tourism development model was based on the creation of seaside resorts on the coast, which led to a sharp increase in bed capacity. This model has also caused a strong dependence on foreign tour operators. The Tunisian tourism strategy and the several studies carried out (World Bank- JICA) have emphasized the importance of the diversification of tourism products as well as the transition to more sustainable tourism after having concluded the disastrous impacts of the current model. The location, the natural and socio-cultural heritage of Tunisia confer some advantages in tourism: Tunisia had 850 hotel properties in 2019, spread over 17 regions with a capacity of 244,000 beds but only 180.000 of them are exploited (ONTT, 2019). However, this activity has shown its limits in many ways, including the disparity of economic impact on the social and geographic imbalance and growing dependence on global phenomena (economic crises and concentration of flows by large transnational tour operators). Climate change is one of the threats hampering the development of the tourism sector in Tunisia. In fact, during the last decade we noticed several changes both in demand and in offer. In 2019, Tunisia welcomed 9.43 million tourists, with an increase of about 13% compared to 2018 and +20% compared to 2010 (ONTT, 2019) See figure 13.1. However, this improvement hides important details concerning the structure of the inbound markets. By referring to other economic aggregates such as the trade deficit coverage rate or the National tourism receipts, we can deduce other conclusions which confirm the change undergone in recent years by Tunisian tourism industry. In fact, tourism contributed to the trade deficit coverage rate within 98% in 1988. Today, this rate is around 25% according to the latest report from the Central Bank (Tunisian Central Bank, 2020) See figure 13.1. There is a direct relationship between the sustainability of the current offer and the impact of climate change. Indeed, more this offer is diversified, focused on the

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Figure 13.1: Arrival insights 2019. Source: Data collected from ONTT

principles of sustainable tourism (certifications), and dispersed far from the coasts which are overexploited: more the impact will be mitigated. As Table 13.2 shows, major transformations have taken place in the offer of accommodation. Since 2013, the new laws led to the appearance of new forms of sustainability-oriented accommodation based in non-coastal regions. In 2019, almost 90% of beds were based in coastal zones, which prove that tourism industry is mainly attached to the sea. We also note that the number of beds in classified accommodation dropped by 66.27% from 2010 to 2019. This is strongly due to the various economic crises experienced by the sector during this decade. The weak development of the tourism offer in non-coastal regions demonstrates the failure of the diversification strategy of tourist products adopted since 2010. This has led to deterioration in the positioning of the destination as a low-cost one in the Mediterranean. However, moving away from the coast and opting for alternative accommodation reflects awareness among stakeholders of the importance of natural heritage and the development of other types of tourism. Tourism sector decision-makers need to know the links between tourism and the natural and cultural environments, including the effects of environmental factors on and the impacts of tourism on the environment. Responsibility requires knowledge.

.



.



.



.

.

.



.

.

Non classified Hotels

.







.



Appart Hotel













Host Rooms

Source: Data collected from the ministry of Tourism 2010–2019

.



Total

.



Non-Coastal Zones

.



Coastal Zones

Classified Hotels

Table 13.2: Dispatching of beds by category and by Region.

.

.





.

.

Resorts

.







.



Time share













Charming Hotels













Rural residences

.

.





.

.

Family pensions

.



.







Camping

.

.

.

.

.

.

Total

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Using existing and newly gathered data, changes in environmental, social and economic conditions can be detected. This piece of information, in turn, enables the status of issues relevant to a destination’s sustainability to be gauged on an ongoing basis. Decision making in tourism planning and management can, therefore, be improved. The objective is to reduce future risks to both tourism industry and to destinations (UNWTO, 2004). It is important to point out that there are large gaps in the raw data collected from several other components of the offer such as natural parks whose entries are free and generally not counted. This creates difficulty in monitoring and developing the offer. We can summarize the sustainable tourism via this SWOT analysis as shown in Table 13.3.

The Impact of Climate Change on Tunisian Tourism Industry According to a study carried out by the World Bank (Dasgupta, Laplate, Murray & Wheeler, 2009), Tunisia was identified among the top 12 developing countries that are both highly exposed and vulnerable to coastal threats of sea level rise. The study found out that approximately 5% of the population would be impacted by 1m rise in sea level. The report identifies Tunisia among seven of the most vulnerable coastal countries worldwide, in terms of the percentage of population exposed to SLR impacts. In the interim, a non-linear increase in sea level is expected with a 20cm increase by 2040 and a 60cm increase by 2080 (with a mean of 74mm) (IPCC, 2014b). Moreover, according to research by Dasgupta et al (2011), the combined effects of 10% intensification of storm surges in addition to 1m sea level rise (in line with expected global maximum predictions of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report, AR5) will highly impact Tunisia in terms of proportion of land area, GDP, urban land area agricultural area and wetland exposed. The study revealed that most economically important areas (accounting for more than 25% of GDP) are prone to storm surges in Tunisia (Dasgupta et al, 2009). A subsequent study by Milano et al. (2013) confirmed these predictions and noted that combined with climate change, pressure on water resources is projected to place catchment areas of Tunisia at very high levels of water stress. It is expected that the ratio of annual water withdrawals to annual renewable water resources will be greater than 80% by 2050. Analysing the vulnerability of the tourism sector refers to three major risks which must be taken into account when developing the Integrated Coastal Zone Management strategy: the impact of climate change, over tourism and excessive coast urbanization and the degradation of biodiversity.

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

The coastal regions are suffering from land degradation with many factors: soil erosion, vegetation removal, salinization, compaction, pollution. This land degradation contributed to decreasing the attractiveness of the destination The water scarcity is more important in coastal regions due to rainfall averages but also the increase of domestic and industrial (including tourism) consumption. Lack of institutional coordination regarding natural resources management, ecotourism strategy implementation and climate change adaptation (in charge of the Ministry of Environment) Lack of mainstreaming climate change into tourism legislation and regulations (such as hotels classification criteria) Repetitive incidents of poaching in natural parks sometimes organized by travel agents in addition to climatic factors represent serious threats to biodiversity The high cost of modern energy-saving or low-water consumption equipment tackles hotel renovation investments, especially in the presence of debts

–

–

Adoption of the sustainable development concept through the new constitution (2014) and the regulation of the solidarity and social economy (2020). A national strategy for the green economy is formulated on the basis of an integrated approach including a shortterm goal to create green jobs (2016–2020) in many sectors such as Tourism, Transportation. Adoption of the National strategy on climate change since 2012 in Tunisia with a section dedicated to the Tourism sector. Hydraulic infrastructure development has been coping with droughts and floods during the last decade. Today, available water resources are already mobilized at a rate exceeding 80% in Tunisia. This could provide the Tourism industry with the required quantity of water especially in summer The funding of several sustainability certification programs by the State or by certain donors for the benefit of tourism stakeholders contributed to a better management of waste and the rational consumption of natural resources in hotels but also to conserve a lot of natural sites in rural regions favoring wider involvement of local populations in tourism activity

Weaknesses

Strengths

Table 13.3: SWOT Analysis.

226 Moez Kacem

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Difficulties in implementing regulatory and institutional reforms due to political factors and accelerate change of Tourism Ministers in the last years. For the same reasons, the foreign investments in the tourism industry are falling down Lack of studies applied to impacts of climate change on tourism industry and on the sensibility to environmental issues among decision-makers Education and training in tourism sector is not in line with the new needs of emerging markets. They are also focused on archaic and obsolete programs not taking into account the new challenges of climate change and sustainability needs Droughts in rural areas associated with water scarcity enhance pushfactors for migration into cities. This will aggravate socioeconomic conditions in urban regions but also create a shortage in qualified skills in rural regions for the tourism industry Tourism is strongly influenced by international and regional factors that contribute to a contrast in managing a long-term strategy and which makes the destination more exposed to risks (political, security, health, etc.) Tunisia is highly exposed to an accelerate rise in sea level, the cost of which, in terms of economic loss, is estimated at 0.3% of tourism GDP’s contribution until 2050 and the disappearance of 1000 jobs yearly (GIZ, 2013)

–

–

International cooperation and climate funds ratification of the United Nations Framework of climate change convention and the Kyoto protocol by Tunisia the decline in mass tourism and the disappearance of several large TOs in the world following the Coronavirus crisis appears favorable to the development of other more sustainable and more sensitive tourism models to environmental factors The integration of tourism among the sectors which are subject to climate change in studies carried out by major world institutions (IUCN, UNWTO, WTTC, among others). The majority of these studies are open source and can benefit decision makers to design their future strategies for tourism industry

Threats

Opportunities

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Universal awareness about the tourism sector vulnerability to climate change started at the end of the 1990s. The triggering of this dynamic was made by the signature of Kyoto Convention (1997), confirmed by Djerba (2003), consolidated by Davos (2007) and reached its peak by the devoting a year of sustainable tourism by the United Nations dealing in part with the relationship between tourism and climate (2017). The tourism sector is one of the strategic development sectors that will also be affected by sea level rise and coastal erosion. Tourism infrastructure could be damaged and will have to be elevated or reinforced. Decommissioning of some hotels may be leading to job losses (Ministry of the Environment and local affairs, and UNDP, 2013). This vulnerability was unanimously recognized by member countries at the United Nations World Tourism Organization in Djerba during the international conference on tourism and climate change (IPCC, 2014a): This was confirmed by Davos Declaration which clearly states: The climate is an essential resource for tourism, as this sector is extremely sensitive to the consequences of climate change and global warming, many of which are already being felt, and it is estimated that it contributes around 5% to global CO2 emissions

Several studies over impact of climate change on tourism show that the Mediterranean region is among the most exposed areas to this phenomenon. A warming of 1 °C to 3 °C will be suffered by the countries of this region by the 2020 (IPCC 2016). Potential risks are: – The amplification of the erosion process – The sea level rise which will have a negative impact on coastal ecosystems and hotel facilities as well as on beaches – The increasing of water problems with an increasingly remarkable scarcity of water – The recurrence of extreme weather events such as drought, floods, destructive storms, etc. These risks will generate not only huge material losses but also disruptions to the functioning of the tourist value chain and will concretely lead to the following consequences: – Regression of the quality of tourist services, especially the degree of comfort; – The disruption of coastal tourism due to sea level rise; – Increased operating expenses for the hotels (energy and water supply costs); – Possible conflicts over natural resources use and increased tension on food supply; – Decrease in biodiversity and degradation of the ecosystems and of marine and terrestrial landscapes that are real assets for the development of alternative tourism products; – Increased health risks as well as risks associated with extreme events

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Compounding Tunisia’s vulnerability is the fact that its coastal zone is characterized by fast growing urbanization and construction boosted by tourism and real estate development. An increase in infrastructure-heavy investments in “hard” shoreline protection measures intended to reduce erosion (such as groins, seawalls, breakwaters, levees, etc.) have been found to trap sediments and accelerate erosion processes. In parallel, over-abstraction and inefficient use of ground water, especially in agriculture has resulted in more active intrusion of seawater and soil salinization. Agriculture and industry along the coasts have also increased the pollution/degradation of lagoon systems, floodplains and wetlands.

Regression of the Quality of Tourist Services The increase of temperature and decreasing of precipitation under climate change are expected to have a significant impact on the attractiveness of tourist destinations and their competitiveness through a seasonal and spatial redistribution of tourist flows. Seasons should be extended and regions suitable for tourism should include new territories and sites in order to affect positively tourism flows. This trend is expected to increase with climate change and urban sprawl, strongly impacting the tourism sector. Warming, extreme rainfall and erosion, combined with other factors, could lead to disaffection of tourist destination, unless this activity crucial to the country’s development is redesigned. Schematically, climatic variables recognized as having an impact on tourism are classified into different categories: temperatures, climate, precipitation, wind and humidity, safety, pleasantness (sunshine, daily distribution of diurnal precipitation) and comfort (thermal, hydrological, climatological-pathological). The categorization of these variables makes it possible to highlight the parallel evolutions of destination resorts and origin of tourists. It is therefore important not to consider only the climatic determinants of tourism at the destination place. The climate at the point of departure is also decisive in the evolution of a market. This is the case, for instance, in the European senior market (especially in Eastern Europe and Russia) which increases in winter given the significant fall in temperatures (in Russia it can reach −30°C). It is obvious that looking for comfort and a fair price to quality ratio is a goal shared by all tourists going to a tourist destination. This evidence is questioned by the disastrous effects, in some cases, of climate change. In Tunisia, hotels are affected by several structural problems (the main one is indebtedness) added to the natural phenomena, still uncontrolled. This led to the revision of classification for a considerable number of establishments. Indeed, according to figures from the Tunisian Ministry of Tourism, the number of uncategorized hotels increased from 8 units in 2014 to 194 units in 2018. It is important to note that 50 units have been definitely deprived of their stars.

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Torrential rainfall in record time can cause startling floods and is an ordinary illustration of climate change. This was experienced by Tunisia in September 2018 in the governorate of Nabeul. The seaside resorts have been victims of these events and the material losses of the tourist sector amount to a few hundreds of millions of dinars (Tunisian Trade Authority, 2018).

The Disruption of Coastal Tourism Due to Sea Level Rise The Ministry of Environment and Land Planning projected that sea level is expected to vary between 0.38m and 0.55 m by 2100 (Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development [MEDD] & UNDP, 2012). The IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) (IPCC, 2014) considers new evidence of climate change which suggests that future sea level rise may be significantly higher with up to 0.98m through the next century with a rise of 12cm by 2050. It is generally accepted that rising sea levels are the most crucial aspect of Tunisia’s vulnerability to climate change (Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development, 2012a) and already instances of sea levels rising up to four times higher than the world average have been reported in some areas (in combination with subsidence) (from AAP, 2009). The impacts of climate are likely to have significant socio-economic implications, for example Tunisia’s Second National Communication (SNC), indicated that a scenario of 0.5 m sea level rise would result in a loss of 10,000 hectares of agricultural land and 53% of coastal fresh aquifer, a total damage to natural and infrastructural productive capital worth US$2.6 billion (10% of GDP in 2006), annual economic losses of US$126 million (with 65% in the tourism sector) and approximately 35,000 lost jobs (1% of the total active population). Sandy beaches, which represent close to 35% of Tunisia’s coastline and which underpin 80% of the tourism industry, are particularly threatened and predicted to disappear at an accelerated rate as a result of climate change (e.g., sandy beaches on the Island of Djerba are likely to be completely lost under a 1m sea level rise). The loss of beach amenity value will have huge implications for revenue generated from tourism which will also be directly affected by damage to infrastructure and changes in the length and quality of climate-dependent tourism seasons (Simpson et al., 2008; Steyn & Spencer, 2012). Since tourism is largely seaside in Tunisia, the coastline constitutes a fundamental tourist resource. The acceleration of sea level rise is therefore a major threat to this sector. Tunisia risks a 50 cm rise from now to 2100 which will cause the submersion of 18,000ha of the littoral. In addition, the SLR will manifest itself by phenomena of erosion and salinization of aquifer. Marine erosion is a real threat for Tunisian coast and for the tourism sector. In total 8% (127 linear kilometers) of the coastline is affected by erosion. Signs of beach erosion have already been observed and are becoming pronounced on heavily anthropogenic

13 Sustainable Tourism Growth and Climate Change Impacts: Case of Tunisia

N

O. El Abid

Bizerete Raf Raf

Cap Serrat

Raoued Tabarka

231

Hacuaria

Kelbia

Tunis Solman

Hammamet

Sousse

Hergia Shanes Teboulba Mahdia Ghdabna

Sidi Fraj

Chebba

Chattar

a b c

The Mediterranean Sea

El Madfoun

Beni Khar Nansul

Well developped beaches without signs of erosion Wide beaches with important amanities Beaches that are regressive despite the absences of amenities Beaches migrating to the mainland Beaches with contrasting evolution over short distances Beaches subject of severe erosion

O.El Melah Gabés Jerba

d

Zarzis

e f

50 km

Figure 13.2: Impacts of climate change on Tunisian beaches. Source: Ministry of Environment Tunisia (2008)

shores. Shoreline retreat often reaches speeds of 0.5mto 1.5 m/y, but can reach 7 m/y, affecting many tourist destinations. Nearly 440 km of coastline (26.6% of the Tunisian coastline) have been assessed (MEDD, 2007) as having a very high vulnerability to marine submersion and erosion, especially on the gulfs of Hammamet (40% of its total beaches), Tunis (30% of its total beaches), and at a lesser degree on the islands of Djerba and Kerkennah (respectively 24% and 14% of their total beaches). However, it is crucial to remember that seaside tourism, the basic product of the tourism industry in Tunisia, benefits from a very important coastal linear, in particular on the island of Djerba and in the Gulf of Hammamet. Consequently, a tourist linear loss estimated at 41.6 km until 2100 may occur unless adaptation measures are implemented immediately. This impact will not only affect hotels, whose facilities are very expensive and highly endangered, but also marinas and ports. Seven marinas exist over the entire coastline: Sidi Bou Said, Hammamet, Elkantaoui, DjerbaHoumet-Souk, Bizerte, Tabarka and Monastir. Yachting is a Tunisian tourist product with high added value

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Figure 13.3: Concentration of ports and marinas on the Tunisian coast. Source: Master plan for the development of the Tunisian coast for yachting and cruising

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See figure 13.3. Its turnover is estimated at 20 million dinars, divided between port revenues (4MD), professional services (6MD), and local expenses of foreign boaters (10 MD). Despite these low figures, yachting has great potential for development given the saturation of marina in the north part of the Mediterranean Sea and rising prices for wintering. Sea level rise and thunderstorms constitute the major risks for this activity. Globally, the vulnerability study that was led by the Deutsche Gesellschaft fürInternationaleZusammenarbeit (GIZ, 2012) estimates the loss of economic capital to 3.5 billion dinars (10% of GDP) of which nearly 2 billion dinars are incumbent on the tourism sector. For tourism, these losses will be recorded mainly in coastal cities: Nabeul (444 million dinars), Sousse (723 million dinars), and Gabes-Medenine (768 million dinars). Sea level rise will cause an average annual loss of 0.3% of GDP from now till 2050 (the equivalent of 101 million dinars) and the loss of nearly 1000 jobs.

Increase in Hotel Operating Expenses Climate change will primarily affect hotel energy consumption (water and electricity). Secondly, the food supply will also be disrupted, which can be directly reflected in the competitiveness of tourist establishments. Tourism industry consumes 430 million KW representing 5.47% of high and medium voltage electricity sales (INS, 2017). The transition to solar energy is slow in the tourism sector because of the structural crisis and the weight of debt close to 50%. This cash crisis hit several aspects related to the exploitation such as the difficulties to set up a re-lamping plan (acquisition of bulbs and LED spotlights), replacement of machines and equipment by others with low energy consumption, more expensive maintenance of boilers, and lack of investment in energy saving equipment (presence detectors in common premises, smart faucets, new generation air conditioners). Regarding water consumption, tourism has been on an upward trend since 2012, rising from 14.1 million cubic meters to 16 million cubic meters in 2016. Although the sector consumes only 3.6% of total water consumption in Tunisia, it is spread out on a very short period (June, July and August), characterized by low rainfall and acute household consumption. However, the demand for water also focuses on areas that are naturally yet poorly endowed with drinking water resources (coastlines, islands, oases). In addition, tourist activity often relies on equipment which consumes a lot of water, such as golf courses, swimming pools or aquatic centers. As a sector standard, the average consumption per tourist in a hotel must not exceed 300 litres per night. This average is often far behind and the estimated ratio for 2016 is 520 litres/night (INS, 2016). For the hotel industry, the issues are not only quantitative but also qualitative. Indeed, for most seaside hotels, the high salinity of water is a problem both in terms of irrigation of green spaces and in terms of use in the kitchen and in the rooms. This is why tourism sector is allowed to produce water by desalination. Some large

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resorts already have their own desalination plant. Nevertheless, this very expensive adaptation option is not feasible for smaller and financially fragile structures. Due to the scarcity of available water resources for the tourism sector, the operating cost of the hotels is very negatively impacted. The intensification of heat periods should also affect hotels in their energy management, especially linked to air conditioning, to ensure the ambient temperature comfort of tourists. It increases the operating cost of hotels where general expenses (energy, insurance) represent 20% to 27% of all operating expenses. Climate change will also have an impact on the availability of certain food products and their sales prices. The transformations imposed on the agriculture sector because of the scarcity of water and global warming will constitute an additional constraint for the programming of the dishes and the gastronomic offer. Irregularities in supplies will be more and more frequent and buffets will be more expensive. Thus, the ratio of food consumption (Food Cost) which represents between 30% and 35% of sales may slide to an upper bracket ranging from 40% to 45% contributing to increase the financial fragility of hotels.

Degradation of Ecosystems and Landscape The diversification of tourism offers and the opening up of the inland are both a priority in the Tunisian tourism strategy. The National Tourism Strategy is inspired from a study elaborated by Roland Berger Consultancy firm in 2019. The products of alternative tourism (ecotourism, Sahara tourism, agritourism) that respond to the principles of sustainable tourism as reported by the United Nations World Tourism Organization and the United Nations (Sustainable Development Goals, Millennium Development Goals), will be viable only with a strategy for safeguarding biodiversity and marine and terrestrial ecosystems. For tourists seeking alternative tourism products, the beauty of landscape and the environmental educational component are the essential motivations for traveling. Climate change induced by human activity affects the distribution of plant and animal species. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Assessment (2019) 20% to 30% of plant and animal species assessed would be threatened by extinction if the global average temperature increased from 1.5º to 2 °C. Biodiversity is crucial for the development of tourism activity and its sustainability. Thus, it is crucial to take into account four fundamental elements that soften the interaction between tourism activity and the preservation of biodiversity, especially under the pressure of climate change: – The great transformation of grounds and the conversion of agricultural land or forests into tourism projects. It concerns mainly the wetlands based directly on the littoral, but also the reserves and natural parks. The agritourism projects must

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take into consideration this element at different stages of the project (design, construction, operation, closure); – Invasive species: native species artificially introduced into the green spaces of hotels or golf courses. These species can be a hazard on the ground as well as on local vegetation. – Overexploitation: the use of species, nutrients, water and other biological resources in an abusive way which can lead to a rapid decline in biodiversity. – Pollution: uncontrolled discharge of wastewater, lack of a solid waste recovery program, overuse of pesticides and chemical fertilizers, air pollutants, can all cause threats to individual species, and ecosystems in general.

Increased Health Risks The damage caused by climate change can have serious health consequences. The appearance of viruses and epidemics on a tourist destination is destructive of its brand image and represents a brake on tourist influxes. In several destinations, World Health Organization and World Tourism Organization acted to underline the emergence of epidemics such as Ebola. Obviously, tour operators and the big tourist groups will follow such restrictions and will desert the destination until the restrictions are lifted. According to a study made on the relationship between risks and the choice of tourist destination (Croutsche & Roux, 2005), hygiene and epidemics come respectively in third and fourth places, just after wars and terrorism like brakes when buying a trip for tourists. Table 13.4: Types of Risks. Average Rating based on a scale of  (low perception) to  (high perception) Wars

.

Events

.

Terrorism

.

Transportation Risks

.

Hygiene



Natural disaster

.

Epidemic

.

Pollution

.

Security, theft

.

Accommodation Risks

.

General insecurity

.

Drug

.

Working in an anticipatory manner and preparing contingency plans upstream can mitigate the impact of climate change that can refer to health risks. This work cannot be done in an occasional way but rather regularly (team or permanent cell), on the macroeconomic scale (destination) or on the microeconomic scale (the hotel).

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Degradation of the Biodiversity Natural resources represent for many developing countries an undeniable competitive advantage in the promotion of their tourist destinations and an asset in terms of attractiveness. However, tourism sometimes threatens the very biological resources on which it depends. Biodiversity is a complex system of species and ecosystems that make up our planet. However, this teeming diversity is being degraded at an alarming rate. A real asset for the tourism industry, biodiversity is also a factor of sustainability of the sector. According to the Mediterranean Wetlands coastal Program (MedWetCoast) program, 35% of species would be threatened on the coast of Tunisia. Concreting, anthropization of natural beaches, overcrowding, nocturnal activities and trampling beaches, are possible causes of the loss of biodiversity on the Tunisian coast. This observation is not too different from what happens in other seaside resorts. According to the WWF, vertebrate populations (mammals, birds, fish, reptiles and amphibians) have been reduced by 60% since 1970 (WWF, 2018). In fact, some estimation indicates that global financial needs for biodiversity conservation range from US $150 billion to US $440 billion a year. According to the latest report on trends in the ecological footprint in the Mediterranean (Global Footprint Network, 2012), the region currently uses almost two and a half times more natural resources and ecological services than its ecosystems can ensure. However, when the development of tourism lacks planning or good governance, it can cause irreversible effects on ecosystems by exerting considerable pressure through the uncontrolled expansion of infrastructure and polluting activities (transport, construction, waste generation and discharges of wastewater). Table 13.5: Synthesis of the impact of tourism on Biodiversity. Spaces

Sites/Houses

Origins of impacts

Wildlife underwater

National Park of Zembra and Zembretta

Spearfishing

Caouanne Turtle

Iles Kuriat

Boating

Avifauna and bat

Nature Reserve of El Haouaria

Over frequentation and hunting

Avifauna

Lagoon of Borj Kastil

Over frequentation

Salines of Thyna

Touristic urbanization

Beaches and Dunes of Zouraa, Nefza and Dar Chichou

Cabana

Source: Impact of tourism on marine and coastal biodiversity of the Mediterranean (PAS-BIO – P59)

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If Tunisia succeeded relatively in safeguarding its natural wealth, it would partly due to their supervision in the 17 national parks, 27 nature reserves, 256 wetlands and six sites inscribed on international lists (including United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization). We also may underline that with the emergence of new forms of tourism in Tunisia (ecotourism, hiking and camping) practiced by groups, often with few supervisions, the level of harassment of wildlife in nature reserves and forest environments is more remarkable. The use of wetlands as recreational sites (e.g., for hiking, bird watching, cycling, angling) is becoming more common. Wetland habitats are important for many water birds not only for breeding but also for wintering and migration during the winter months. Human disturbance may prevent birds from reaching their breeding sites, and access to food supplies or perching areas, temporarily or for extended periods of time. Moreover, sandy beaches are breeding grounds for sea turtles, such as the Caretta-caretta, which is considered to be endangered in the region. Many of their sites have been spoilt or disturbed by the influx of tourists on the beaches.

Solutions and Mitigation According to the expert panel, to mitigate the impacts of climate change on tourism sector, especially in coastal regions, it is necessary to work on three essential aspects: redefining the governance model of the sector, adapting the marketing strategy and improving aspects related to the environment. These components are complementary and strongly correlated. Thus, implementing a strategy to tackle climate change impacts depend on the synergy between the above mentioned aspects.

The Governance of the Sustainable Tourism Since the first post-independence government considered tourism as a strategic development opportunity for the national economy, the governance of the sector has become a mechanism shared between the public sector and private actors. Nowadays, we should highlight that the Tunisian authorities remain the only responsible for land regulation and development policy and is also the responsible for the use of public funds in the promotion of tourism. However, private stakeholders represented by the Hotels association (FTH), the Travel Agencies association (FTAV), the Tourism Interprofessional Association (Fi2t) and some others are participating to decision making and strategy elaboration, underlined E8, E9, and E10. The Panel team confirmed that the current governance model with the large multiplicity of stakeholders demonstrates many limits and introduces great slowness in decision-making or the

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creation of a consensus around common strategic orientations. That is why it looks evident to work closely on resolving the problems linked to institutional agreements between public players on the one hand, but also between public and private players on the other hand. To have a more efficient governance model based on sustainable tourism values and able to give tangible results in terms of mitigating the effects of climate change on the Tourism industry, the expert panel estimates necessary to: – Reduce the involvement of the administration in management but maintain respect of the regulation and the strategic choices; – Directing the future investments towards projects located far from the coast and preserving the environment. Such projects must benefit from tax advantages compared to mass tourism projects; – Giving more decision-making autonomy to territories and local authorities, especially with the new regulation which aims at decentralization. Thus, reconfiguring tourism in the regions according to the wishes of the local populations can contribute to better performance and more viable projects. This should be in harmony with the national strategy of sustainable tourism; – Create a commission in the Tourism Ministry responsible for solving administrative problems, especially when this problem involves several public actors and slows down investment; – Provide financial and tax advantages concerning the use of new technologies or ecological equipment that allow better water consumption or the use of clean energy in tourism accommodation projects; – For any tourism project, a special chapter on the possible impacts of climate change must be required as part of the environmental study currently required by the law. A plan of mitigation should be also provided in case of the impacts will be considered as medium or high levelled; – Creating a fund which will be supplied through an additional tax on turnover and which will be used to ensure the continuity of the activity in the case of an incident resulting from climate change (unexpected floods, fire in forests or gardens belonging to a tourist project, the extinction of biodiversity for a natural park).

Adapting of the Marketing Strategy The current strategy is inspired by the study carried out by the Roland Berger firm in 2009. Results from panel discussion shows that majority consider sustainable tourism as a transversal axis and requires, the diversification of tourist products by moving towards alternative products far from the coast and the mass product. This strategy is not completely focused on sustainable tourism which requires a specific strategy based on market studies with a spot-on customer behavior and especially the importance given to environmental and social criteria in the destination choice

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or the product purchase. The expert panel believe that any marketing strategy adaptation should review the 4Ps: price, product, promotion, and place.

Adapting the Product For the current product which is intended for a mass clientele and represents the main component of the tourist offer in Tunisia, it would be appropriate to adapt it to a demand increasingly concerned with respect for the environment and respect for the hygiene. Most of expert panel believe that it would be appropriate to reduce properties investments on the capacity extension (more beds) to direct them towards the purchase of equipment to save energy and to reduce water consumption. They believe that the rise in sea level as well as the amplification of the erosion on the coast threatens this product in the long term and substitute solutions must be found. For E2 and E8, innovating in the concept of the classic hotel industry starts from ecological constructions to sales (restaurants, bar, shops), including rooms and common places. Otherwise, abandoning the all-inclusive formula will allow customers to reduce their dependence on hotel amenities and go out to immerse themselves in the local population which may reduce the use of beaches for example. According to E1, E2, and E3, it is necessary that properties based on the coasts affiliate to a sustainable development certification programs such as Travelife, Green Globe, or Green Key. They confirm that stakeholders as well as the State can set up actions to encourage and support such a program. Adapting the offer is also encouraging diversified accommodation such as guest houses, charming residencies, rural residencies, and any other categories different from classic hotels. However, these categories of accommodation should be located away from coasts and destined to customized clientele. Most of expert panel believe that the development of alternative tourism products is able to mitigate the impact of tourist activity on the coasts and the pressure exerted on urban cities while offering a different experience fact to the customer. According to E9, this will require new regulation and especially new tax policies.

Adapting the Price As mentioned above, the expert panel think that the all-inclusive formula is not far suitable and should be substituted by the dynamic packaging. This can give more flexibility to the customer to design his travel, to personalize it and to make it profitable as well. So that, it can reach more actors in the sustainable tourism value chain and generate more receipts. According to panel team, the price reduction exercised more and more by Tunisian tourism players has contributed to the deterioration of its strategic positioning on the Mediterranean region. This is why they should no

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longer use the price as a tool to attract customers. Instead, it will be appropriate to innovate the offer. It is also important to deploy revenue management tools with the use of new technologies to optimize prices in real time in parallel with the variation in demand.

Adapting the Distribution Channel Currently, sales are strongly dependent on foreign tours operators. This provides guaranteed and easy gains without marketing efforts. However, this model contributes to a major risk related to the international context. The current COVID-19 health crisis is a perfect illustration of this weakness. E1 and E2 underline the importance of enhancing the presence of tourism actors on booking engines. This will let them generate direct incomes but also target tourist worldwide. For E8, it will be appropriate to encourage Tunisian stakeholders set up their own tour operators outside the country and work on promoting national destination. The current and future players should be aware of the importance of sustainable tourism and participate in the promotion of innovative projects within this framework. It is important to facilitate the participation of small actors (MSME) in the international fairs of tourism and especially in those focusing on sustainable tourism. According to E2, E8 and E10; the launch of reservation platforms specific to every region can contribute to the spread of the tourist season and increase the occupancy rate. This can also benefit other players in sustainable tourism such as guides, craftsmen, sellers of bio-cosmetics.

Adapting Promotion Most of the promotional campaigns made by the Tunisian tourist office are oriented towards seaside tourism. Furthermore, participation in international trade fairs is mainly focused on traditional European markets. Today, professionals rely heavily on the presence of their products in the various tours operators brochures to be sold. It is an outdated communication policy, when customers increasingly resort to OTAs (Online Tours Operators) and make their decision online. According to E1 and E2, the upcoming campaigns must ever more promote other tourist products while highlighting aspects of sustainability, local products, and handcraft. The annual budget allocated by the ministry of tourism to marketing is 50 million dinars (18 million Euros), thus, E8, E9 and E10 consider that this budget is weak and must be reviewed by granting more facilities to SMEs to be able to participate in international tourism fairs and target other non-traditional market niches specializing in sustainable tourism products. A recent survey made by Expedia Group (n.d) shows that travelers are turning to OTAs throughout the purchase journey. In fact, along with insights into

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destination, accommodation and travel preferences, the research shows travelers are turning to a variety of resources for trip inspiration, planning, and booking, including online travel agencies (OTAs). Nearly half of respondents turn to an OTA for inspiration, 73% for planning, and 93% would use an OTA to book travel in this environment, illustrating an opportunity for travel brands to drive awareness and demand with a highly qualified audience. Consequently, for Tunisian tourism professionals, it is recommended to work closely with international OTAs, convert classic travel agencies to OTA and ensure greater visibility on online communication channels with dynamic and merchant websites.

Improvement of the Environment Reducing Pollution According to most of the interviewees, pollution is reducing attractiveness of Tunisia as a tourist destination. In the last decade, the country has experienced an unprecedented deterioration in environmental aspects. E5 and E6 believe that the industrial waste dumped, in an uncontrolled manner, on the coasts, besides, the spectacular quantities of plastic visible in public places and the discharge of untreated grey water into the seas are all alarming factors that have contributed to this degradation. That is why they recommended the implementation of a national program which could reduce this type of pollution. Government decree n° 32 of January 16, 2020 announced the ban on the production, import, distribution and possession of plastic bags, starting from March 01, 2020.The application of this decree will be gradual, on March 01, 2020 for supermarkets and pharmacies, and January 01, 2021 for producers and importers of plastic bags. This new regulation could help reduce the use of plastic and the generated waste. However, E5, E6 and E7 think that the government should pay more efforts and investment to protect coasts from industrial waste that is considered as dangerous for ecosystems and wildlife. According to E4, the protected areas based in the coasts (wetlands) are now more threatened than ever. The threats come, on the one hand, from the effects of climate change and on the other, from pollution. Additional budgets devoted to the safeguard of these areas will be necessary in addition to a colossal work of sensitization of the local populations. Coercive aspects are also important and penalties must be higher to stop crimes against the environment, according to most of interviewees. A great work to encourage promoters to launch their own companies for recycling and collecting waste is highly recommended by E6, E9 and E10 as well. Besides, they highlight that today, several sectors of this value chain are lacking and municipalities are increasingly unable to manage the quantities of waste with their own means.

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Conserving Biodiversity E4, E5 and E6 believe that sustainable tourism should contribute to conserve biodiversity especially in protected areas. Activities such as ecotourism depend on the landscape attractiveness and the biodiversity availability. However, they confirm that the number of poaching incidents has increased considerably in recent years. Thus, involving the local population, via sustainable tourism activities, can consolidate the efforts of the State to conserve biodiversity. According to panel team, developing outdoor tourism activities (such as biking tours and hiking) can lead to the enhancement of the natural and cultural heritage of the country, generate additional income for the locals and provide a more interesting experience for tourists. It remains important to devote part of the receipts to maintaining natural sites and conserving biodiversity.

Climate Change Mitigation According to panel team, stopping the erosion on the Tunisian coast and saving the beaches depend on reducing tourist activities. This depends necessarily on diversifying tourist products in internal regions. E11, E4 and E5 confirm that the climate change impacts will be felt more over the next few years, especially with regard to the phenomenon of global warming or even extreme weather conditions. To this end, professionals in the tourism sector as well as the authorities must set up a monitoring department which will have among its tasks monitoring the evolution of these impacts and defining plans for their mitigation. Nevertheless, E1 and E2 validate that collaboration between the Tourism Ministries and the National Institute of Meteorology is not yet established. For E10, E8 and E9 a specific fund should be set up to finance the continuity of tourist activities after crisis, including natural crisis resulting from climate change. Such a fund can be supplied via a tax levied on annual turnover and consolidated by donations from international donors or subsidies granted by foreign states.

Conclusion Sustainability is seen as a factor that contributes to improve the competitiveness of destinations and tourism stakeholders in Tunisia. That is why reference to sustainable tourism growth is now taken into consideration in most strategic tourism planning documents. However, it is important to understand the complex role of sustainability that affects destination competitiveness. To reach this goal a strong theoretical background for managerial decision-making is needed, in order to give

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destination managers a range of tools with which we could analyse and increase the success factors related to the sustainability process implementation (Crouch & Brent, 2003). Currently, there are several institutions and programs working on global goals and frameworks which have direct and indirect implications for both climate change impacts and tourism growth. These include the IPCC – AR6 (expected for 2021), the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (SDGs) including a climate goal and many others. The last scientific report (IPCC, 2014b) alarmed about the continued emission of greenhouse gases that will cause further warming and long-lasting changes in all components of the climate system, increasing the likelihood of severe, pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems. Limiting climate change would require substantial and sustained reductions in greenhouse gas emissions which, together with adaptation, can limit climate change risks. Besides, it insisted on the fact that adaptation and mitigation are complementary strategies for reducing and managing the risks of climate change. This chapter has considered the possible impacts that could be produced for instance: the regression of the quality of tourism services, the disruption of coastal tourism due to sea level rise, the increase of operating expenses, the degradation of ecosystems and landscapes, the increase of health risks, and excessive urbanization of the coast and the decrease of biodiversity. All these risks or impacts are more intense when – as it happens in Tunisia – the destination depends on a mono-product, in this case mass tourism, which is too closely linked to the coasts. In fact, Tunisia is a tourist destination that is highly exposed to climate change, whose impacts can threaten the sustainability of tourism activity in the medium and long terms. These impacts can affect tourist infrastructures, influence negatively the foreign investments in this sector, or even reduce the tourist attractiveness of certain sites or territories. That is why adopting a tourism development strategy based on the principle of sustainability is necessary. In order to tackle the climate change impacts on tourism industry, especially in the coastal regions, it is recommended to follow three major emergency exits: acting on marketing, on the environment or even on governance methods. The main issues of this work consist in demonstrating the major impacts of climate change on the tourism sector. Such impacts are highly felt at the level of the offer which has witnessed a spectacular deterioration in recent years but also identified via the evolution in tourist behavior and a structural change in demand. However, the expert panel conducted in this project allowed knowledge about the degree of awareness among stakeholders and officials of climate change, whether or not they have adopted solutions to mitigate the possible impacts, and the several categories of solutions.

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Alina Zajadacz and Josepha Uwamahoro

14 Voices of Young People in Rwanda Regarding the Development of NatureBased Tourism Introduction Tourism in Rwanda is under development. Natural values, including national parks, play a significant role in the potential tourist state. In 2017, Rwanda recorded 1.6 million tourist arrivals (most from Africa and Europe). The number of visitors in national parks was 94,036 (Statistical Yearbook, 2019). The development of nature-based tourism can have both positive and negative consequences for designation in developing countries; however, positive effects are often noted, especially in terms of economic and social development, which also contribute to the protection of the environment. For instance, “nature tourism in Least Developed Countries (LDCs) adds economic value to assets which would have a little or no value in the absence of this type of Tourism. Consequently, it adds to the economic opportunities available in LDCs” (Tisdell, 2013, p. 9). Despite the ability of nature tourism to attract visitors to rural and remote localities, its economic benefits to such areas are likely to be much lower than tourists visits to more central area. In extreme cases in developing countries, local people may only experience negative economic effects from development of nature tourism in their neighborhood. It is noted that a type of tourism a country can develop depends on its existing assets as well as its ability to develop new man-made tourism attractions. “Most LDCs, are at an economic disadvantage in developing the latter type of attractions. Problems involved in deciding on what constitutes nature-based tourism and in determining its magnitude are raised,” (Tisdell, 2013, p. 5). According to National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (2016), Rwanda’s tourism activities are concentrated in protected areas, particularly in national parks. Biodiversity conservation and poverty reduction alleviation have been two major challenges for Rwanda. Rwanda’s tourism development, mostly nature-based can be a key source of development, poverty alleviation and employment. Rwanda’s key assets such as protected areas, national parks and nature reserves can sustainably optimize to support ecotourism efforts. There are several aspects that have contributed to the successful revival of the tourism sector in Rwanda. First and foremost, the government has shown a clear commitment to the development of the tourism sector and has established itself as a safe destination in the region. The early development of a strategy and policy demonstrated this commitment. Furthermore, the government involved the private sector from the start and has implemented policies that enhanced the business environment and promoted private sector investment in tourism, thereby

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marketing Rwanda as a destination. The business environment has improved markedly in recent years, promoting private sector involvement in tourism. In addition, Rwanda has always seen tourism as an instrument to reduce poverty, for example by directly involving local communities. (Nielsen & Spenceley, 2010, p. 2)

The main goal of the research is to present ideas and concerns from young people in Rwanda regarding the development of nature-based tourism, against the background of the tourist potential of national parks (Volcanoes National Park, Akagera National Park, Nyungwe National Park and Gishwati Mukura National Park). In the research, in order to holistically approach the studied problem, the triangulation method was used to combine the results of field research with the results of social research (surveys) and the analysis of secondary data (e.g., generated on the TripAdvisor tourist website). The study used the knowledge of the realities of the area of the indigenous inhabitant of Rwanda, as well as the results of field research conducted during the geographic seminar in Rwanda in January-February 2020, visits to national parks as well as interviews with their employees. The perspective of assessing their tourist values in a broad international perspective was possible thanks to the analysis of the rankings and opinions generated about them on the TripAdvisor tourist website. The results of a survey conducted among Rwandan youth in June-July 2020 were discussed against the background of the description of the current state of tourist values of nationalist natives and opinions about them. The aim of the survey was to show ideas and concerns of young people in Rwanda regarding the development of nature-based tourism as a basis for a recommendation for sustainable tourism development planning in this country. The study is a continuation of the work of the authors on nature-based tourism in Rwanda, the results of which were presented, inter alia, in the article entitled “The diversity of the geographical environment of national parks in Rwanda as centres of nature-based tourism.” (Zajadacz & Uwamahoro, 2020)

This work is carried out on the basis of a “dialogue” combining research, elaboration, and interpretation of results from an external (European) and internal (African) perspective.

Nature-Based Tourism, Responsible Travel and Sustainable Goals Nature-based tourism is “a form of tourism that involves experiencing natural places, often through outdoor activities enjoying different natural attractions” (Andrades, Caldito & Dimanche, 2015, p. 24). Nature-based tourism, along with community-based tourism, requires management of tourism development in the context of responsible

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tourism, understood as “tourism that maximizes the benefits to local communities, minimizes negative social or environmental impacts, and helps local people conserve fragile cultures and habitats” (Centre for Responsible Travel, 2018, p. 1). This approach favors the implementation of sustainable tourism, defined as tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and host communities’ (UNWTO, 2020). Tourism is also identified as one of the tools to “by 2030, increase the economic benefits to small island developing States and least developed countries” (UN Sustainable Development Goals, 2020).

Tourism Potential of Rwanda’s Natural Environment Rwanda is located in the great lakes region of central Africa covering 26,338 km2, including 24,210 km2 of land and other areas under water and swamps. Rwanda’s population is estimated in 2018 as 12 million citizens (Statistical Yearbook, 2019). Rwanda is a land locked country, also known as the Land of thousand hills. The central and western part of the country is dominated by a portion of the Albertine Rift Mountains that gives way to forest, savannahs, plains and swamps as you move eastward. Numerous lakes dot the landscape, with Lake Kivu being the largest and making up most of Rwanda’s western border. Lake Kivu is one of 20 deepest lakes in the world and has a maximum depth of 1.575ft (480 m). There are other notable lakes, including: Burera, Rohondo, Muhazi, Rweru and Ihema. Rising in the southwest is the longest river of Rwanda called Nyabarongo. The river merges with the Rubavu in the southeast forming the Kagera river (Moen, 2020; Zajadacz & Uwamahoro, 2020). Rwanda has five volcanos, 23 lakes and numerous rivers, some of them forming the source of Nile River. Lake Kivu was formed in the depression and the straight fold that separates the watersheds of the Nile and Congo Rivers. This fold, the Crest of Congo-Nile, is mountainous range that covers 20 to 40km, it is located at an altitude of around 2,000m above sea level with a highest peak of 3,000m. It is “bordered to the north by volcanic mountains whose peak, Karisimbi is 4,507m” (Byanafashe & Rutayisire, 2016, p. 24). The variety of the landscape is the green country which is dominated to the north by volcanos and bordered by Lake Kivu to the west. Between the Congo–Nile crest and the Akagera-Bugesera depressions, there is a central plateau that reaches an altitude of 2,000m. This region is covered by hills separated by marshy valleys with flat bottoms rich in alluvium. To the east, along the border with Tanzania, the Akagera River crosses large swamps located at an altitude between 1,300 and 1,500m (Byanafashe & Rutayisire, 2016, p. 24). In Rwanda, the great animals of the wild are protected from poachers and roam free in the vast national parks (SIDA, 2017).

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Rwanda has a highly and mountainous relief with an altitude ranging between 900m and 4,507m, and has a tropical temperate climate due to its high altitude. The average annual temperature ranges between 16°C and 20°C, without significant variation. Rainfall is abundant, although it presents some irregularities. Rwanda possesses a relatively big quantity of water: rivers, lakes and mash lands occupy a surface area of 211,00ha. That is about 8% of the national territory (Twgiramungu, 2006; Zajadacz & Uwamahoro, 2020). The most popular tourist attractions include four national parks and Lake Kivu (Figure 14.1). There are also nature museums, the Museum of Natural History and Museum of Environment.

Figure 14.1: The location of the national parks in Rwanda. Source: Author

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Tourism Potential of Rwanda’s National Parks The Volcanoes National Park (VNP) stretches in the southern part of the volcanoes range which constitutes Rwanda’s northern border with the Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda. The park is characterized by an altitudinal layering of vegetation, from the bamboo forest (at 2300–2600m) to the afro-alpine vegetation resembling that of tundra from 4200m up to the summit of Karisimbi (4507m). This park is the sanctuary of mountain Gorillas, the main tourist attraction of Rwanda’s and endemic to the volcanoes range and the National Park of Bwindi in Uganda. “The local ecology (high altitude, high rainfall, cool temperature) results in a diversified biodiversity,” (National Strategy, 2003, p. 12). VNP covers 160 km2 of rainforest and encompasses five of the eight volcanoes in the Virunga mountains namely Karisimbi, Bisoke, Muhabura, Gahinga and Sabyinyo. It is home to the mountain gorillas and the golden monkey, and was the base for the primatologist Dian Fossey. VNP is blessed with a number of bird and plant species. Gishwati Mukura National Park (GMNP) is a rainforest fragment located just south of VNP in western Rwanda (within the altitudes 2000–300m). It is part of the CongoNile divide forest complex that includes Nyungwe National Park in Rwanda and the Kibira National Park in Burundi. GMNP is made up of two separate forests – the larger Gishwati and small Mukura, forming a total of 34km2 plus a buffer zone. Apart of the Albertine Rift and the Congo-Nile divide, GMNP is very rich in biodiversity though the majority of it has been lost through deforestation and loss of habitat (Kisioh, 2015). The GMNP inhabits a high population of Chimpanzees, the animals that are close to humans. Most of them have been habituated and are available for tracking. It has over 100 bird species. It is also home to other different animals such as golden monkeys, L’Hoest’s monkeys and baboons. Nyungwe National Park (NNP) lies in the southwestern Rwanda partly abutting Burundi border. It is one of the oldest rainforests in Africa. Nyungwe is rich in biodiversity and especially beautiful. The mountainous region is teaming with wildlife including a small population of Chimpanzees as well as 12 other species of primate including L’Hoest’s monkey endemic to Albertine Rift. There are 75 known mammals in NNP such as the cerval cat, mongoose, congo clawless otter and leopard to name but a few. With the great floral diversity, the forest is home to more than 200 different types of trees and a myriad of flowering plants. NNP is the biggest Rwanda’s national park at 970km2. Akagera National Park (ANP) is establishing itself as the Rwanda’s big five game park. Located on the north-eastern of Rwanda borders Tanzania and incorporates the Akagera River. ANP, in contrast to others national parks, is dominated by swamps and lakes which follow the meandering course of the Akagera national river. The relatively warm and low – lying plains of Akagera comprise savannah, woodland, wetland, and a dozen lakes. ANP was founded in 1934 to protect animals and vegetation. It is the largest protected wetland in Africa. It is named after the Akagera River, which

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flows along its eastern boundary. The park used to cover over 2,500km2 but in 1997 in size by close to 50%. A lot of lands were reallocated with the refugees returning to Rwanda after the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. In 2010, the African parks assumed management of Akagera in partnership with the Rwanda Development Board (RDB). This contributed to better management and protection of the park’s nature. Lake Kivu is one of the African Great Lakes and part of the East African Rift. Its depth is 240m on average (but reaches up to 485m) and has a surface area of 2400km2 (Muvundja et al., 2009; Kranenburg et al., 2020). It is situated on the border between Rwanda and Democratic Republic of Congo. Lake Kivu differs greatly from other African Great lakes by its volcanic origin, high altitude, the strong and permanent stratification in its water column that is due to the physic-chemical properties of its water (Schmid & Wüest, 2012). Lake Kivu, which is a holiday destination to Rwandans and foreigners, is extraordinarily gorgeous and enclosed by steep, green terraced hills along the Congolese border. Its shores are surrounded by three resorts towns that are Rubavu, Rutsiro and Rusizi and connected by a roller-coaster road that sometimes leads through luxuriant plantation fields a patch of foggy rainforest to offer sweeping views over the blue water. Lake Kivu is the largest of numerous freshwater bodies in the valleys of Rwanda.

Rwanda’s National Parks Rating in TripAdvisor The users of TripAdvisor (currency of the data on July 18, 2020), expressed both points and descriptive assessment for three national parks: ANP, NNP and VNP. Most of the assessments concerned VNP, then ANP and NNP. It is characteristic that in the case of all national parks, positive ratings at the Excellent level prevailed. Negative ratings appeared occasionally (Figure 14.2). Comparing the number of ratings in TripAdvisor for individual national parks with the number of visitors (Table 14.1), it can be noticed that although ANP is a park that is visited more often, VNP enjoys much greater popularity in social media. In the case of VPN, the structure of the ratings is clearly dominated by positive ones (generated 1,179 reviews, including 1,076 excellent, very good 83, average 11, poor five and terrible four). among the examples were: The guides get you incredibly close to the gorillas while still maintaining your safety. When the gorillas moved closer to us, our guide had us sit and avoid eye contact to make sure we didn’t accidentally provoke the animals. But, for reference on how close we got to the gorillas, one of the subordinate silverbacks kicked me as he passed (thankfully not very hard). It was, by far, one of my favorite experiences in Rwanda. I got some incredible photos and memories that will last a life time. [Amazing, Once in a Lifetime Experience, Gabby O., Feb. 2020]

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Terrible

Poor Average Very good Excellent All 0

ANP

200 All 451

400 Excellent 230

600 Very good 172

800 Average 38

1000 Poor 9

1200 1400 Terrible 2

NNP

259

162

64

22

3

8

VNP

1179

1,076

83

11

5

4

Figure 14.2: Number of reviews from TripAdvisor users about national parks, by rating category. Source: https://www.tripadvisor.com/ access: 18.07.2020.

Table 14.1: National Parks Visits in 2017. National Park

Volcanoes

Akagera

Nyungwe

No. of Visitors

,

,

,

Gishwati No data

Total ,

Source: Statistical Yearbook 2019

Would highly recommend. We did a trek in Uganda and Rwanda, and the Rwanda experience was definitely more polished and you were able to get closer to the gorillas. [Amazing, Life changing experience, Andrew, Feb. 2020]

Similarly, with regard to ANP, positive ratings at the highest level prevailed on TripAdvisor (generated 451 reviews, including 230 excellent, very good 172, average 38, poor nine and terrible two). Among the examples were: Due to staying in Kigali and not having time to schedule in an overnight stay we opted for the half day game drive. After a 2.5-hour drive, we arrived at the visitor centre. We were then given a 20-minute briefing by our guide Emanuel who was excellent prior to the game drive. Our short time there limited us to the southern part of the park but were delighted that on a short 5-hour game drive we saw a lone elephant, giraffes, zebras, impalas, antelopes, baboons, monkeys, warthogs, and water buffalo and numerous birds. Our party of 5 thoroughly enjoyed the game drive and I would recommend the park for anyone visiting Rwanda. [Amazing, Enjoyable game drive. Redutd7, Feb. 2020]

Also, in relation to NNPs, positive rating definitely dominated on TripAdvisor (generated 259 reviews, including 162 excellent, 64 very good, 22 average, 3 poor, and 8 terrible). Among the examples were:

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The Canopy Walkway is EXTREMELY well built. Because you can’t see all the way to the bottom, it is somehow less scary. Our kids were fine. We took a few deep breaths. But then did it again. The Ishigishigi Trail takes you to the Canopy Walkway, but it is a good 2 hours of steep up and down with a small family and involved some carrying on the way back. We then saw monkeys near Gisakura with a guide. It was 1 hour and $40 per adult. But you don’t pay to get in to the park and this is the equivalent. We saw a few Colobus, and it was OK. Not sure we’d rush back to do it again though. The staff at Nyungwe were great and went out of their way to be helpful. [Amazing, Canopy Walkway is a must, Martin, July. 2020]

Both the number of visitors to national parks, as well as the number of entries and the nature of the opinions show the greatest tourist attractiveness of the two parks: ANP and VNP. The ANP is visited more often, which may be determined by easier accessibility and a comfortable way of sightseeing (in cars, boats) that does not require much effort on the part of visitors. On the other hand, the routes in the VNP are more difficult, but they guarantee extreme experiences, which may translate into a large number of entries in social media.

Youth Demographic Characteristics Rwanda youth was defined as the population aged from 14 to 35 years before 2015. Since then, the new national youth policy revised youth age to be from 16 to 30 years. Overall, youth population (16–30 years) makes up 26.6% of the total population of Rwanda. The largest age group in youth is 16–20 years which comprises 10.2% of the total population. The age group 21–25 years comprises 8.4% of the population and finally 26–30 years group represents 8.0% of the total population (EICV5 2018). The demographic situation in Rwanda is determined by two main characteristics: a population that is young and women dominated. The sex ratio of youth population in Rwanda shows that there are 92 youth males over 100 youth females. Urban areas have 95 males for every 100 females this is higher compared to rural areas (91 males to 100 females), the age group that has the highest sex ration is 16–20 years with 97 males per 100 females (EICV5, 2018).

Problems and Challenges of Young People in Rwanda Economic development is being observed in Rwanda. The poverty rate dropped from 56.7% in 2005/6 to 38.1% in 2017 (ILO 2018, World Bank 2020). Nevertheless, many economic challenges still limit the country’s capacity to foster inclusive development. These include limited capacity of the economy to create sufficient quality jobs, poorly skilled human capital, poor economic infrastructure that limits growth of the private sector, limited access to capital for new entrepreneurs and micro, small and medium-sized enterprises, and heavy reliance on donor funding (FAO,

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2020). International agency and government investment on youth remains low. Few programs and opportunities of professional development exist for most of Rwanda’s youth. The Rwandan government has a national policy but still limited investment. According to Behuria (2019), challenges appeared in Rwanda’s attempt at economic leapfrogging as surveys showed higher-than-expected unemployment and underemployment. In 2012, as part of the economic development and poverty reduction strategy, the government recognized that there had been difficulties in creating employment for its young, educated population. The results of the 2016 Labor Force Survey indicate that the unemployment rate in Rwanda stood at 17.8%. The rate was higher among the female labor force (21.0%) than the male labor force (15.2%). Young people (15–24 Years) experience higher unemployment (23.0%) than adults, with young women having much higher unemployment rates compared to their male counterparts (26.0% and 20.4%, respectively). The unemployment crisis among young people is not only driven by inaccessible jobs, but also inequality, and discrimination by age and gender. The majority of youth do not have the required competences to be absorbed in the labor market so that their ability to secure fulfilling jobs and productive work is often undermined. The government’s commitment towards addressing the challenge of unemployment among youth does not make critical linkages with expected changes in population. Apart from the workforce development authority and other agencies, a number of programs like the National employment program have been rolled out. Yet the challenge of creating decent jobs for the population persists, as the government statics recently showed, with 30% of the population categorized as underemployed (Behuria, 2019). Creating economic linkages around tourism and sharing the benefits more widely are important policy objectives in Rwanda’s tourism development. Tourism in Rwanda impacts the development of young people who engage in development activities and economic based. Apart from increasing revenues and infrastructure development, tourism contributes to the community development through arts and handicraft products made by youth and women who sell their products as souvenirs to tourists. Locals become tour guides, waiters, and waitresses in the hospitality industry. Through activities supporting tourism industry in Rwanda, young people become entrepreneurs.

Social Economic Impact of Tourism Industry on Young People and Community in Rwanda The tourism industry has managed to make an impact on nations not only economically, but socially as well. In Africa, tourism is not only seen as a means to strengthen existing economies, but also as a means to rebuild them. This rebuilding process means that the people themselves must make a significant contribution to progress, and their involvement in the tourism industry is one way of accomplishing this (Mazimhaka, 2006).

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Benefits to the local community from tourism have been noted across the country including the communities surrounding the touristic attractions. Multiplier effects are often cited to capture secondary effects of tourism spending and show the wide range of sectors in a community that may benefit from tourism. This often translates into decisions and public policies that are favorable to tourism. Community support is important for tourism, as it is an activity that affects the entire community. Tourism revenues have reached the communities through support of schools, and other small local projects. This is a government expenditure from the tourism revenues. The benefits are that education and other social economic benefits spread evenly to the community (Asaba, 2018).

Purpose and Methods of Research The main goal of the research is to present ideas and concerns of young people in Rwanda regarding the development of nature-based tourism, against the background of the tourist potential of national parks (VNP, GMNP, NNP, ANP). In the first stage of the study, the tourism potential of four national parks was analysed. The characteristics of the studied area and its values were based on the results of field research (knowledge of the area of an indigenous inhabitant of Rwanda and the results of the geographic seminar held in Rwanda in January-February 2020), secondary materials, as well as the content generated by the users of the TripAdvisor tourist website, showing the popularity of the studied areas from the perspective of visitors). In the second stage social research is planned in the community of young people in Rwanda (June-July 2020), allowing to present their perspectives in the field of developing tourism based on nature. The study explored three main issues related to the views of young Rwandans about (1) their country’s natural attractions, (2) domestic tourism and (3) the impact of tourism on sustainable development in Rwanda.

Findings – Opinions of Young Rwandans on Tourism in Rwanda The survey was conducted on-line among 180 young people from Rwanda. Adults over 18 years of age participated in the research. The largest group were people aged 25–31 (Table 14.2).

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Table 14.2: Characteristics of the respondents (in %). Age

Gender

Education

–

–

–

Female

Male

Undergraduate

Postgraduate

Still studying

.

.

.

.

.

,

.

.

Source: Author. Survey (n=180)

Opinions on Natural Attractions Young Rwandans recommend attractions related to ANP and VNP, especially to foreign tourists. However, when asked which natural attractions they have visited so far, they most often indicate Lake Kivu, then ANP and NNP. VNP was visited by less than 20% of the respondents. Also, among the indicated main natural attractions, the VNP came after ANP, NNP and Lake Kivu (Figure 14.3).

42.2

Lake Kivu 6.7 7.2

Gishwati Mukura National Park

57.2

71.1

12.2

Nyungwe National Park

67.8 64.4

42.2

Akagera National Park

80 77.6

44.4

Vulcano National Park 0 recomended

10

20

30

71.6

56.1

19.4 40

the most attractive

50

60

70

80

90

visited

Figure 14.3: Opinions of young Rwandans on the main natural tourist attractions in Rwanda [in %]. Source: Author. Survey (n=180)

Most of the respondents (77.2%) answered the open question: Apart from National Parks and Lake Kivu as tourist destinations in Rwanda, is there other areas that can be considered in the improvement that have the nature attractions? Attention was paid, inter alia, to on:

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With its varied ecosystems and abundance of wildlife and national parks, Rwanda offers many activities unique to the country and region trying to improve mountains and turn them into national parks like Rubavu mountain, and Gishwati-Mukura national park that was launched recently, and also how to conserve the hot springs and turn them into well-known tourist attractions in the areas to be found. [original transcription]

Also mentioned: volcanoes, mountains, hot springs, caves (e.g., Musanze caves), lakes, the crater lakes, rivers, Nile source, swamps, different landforms, a breath-taking landscape though it can be viewed by helicopter, natural forests and their animals’ plantations, canopy walkway, plantations area (tea and coffee plantation), agrotourism, many species of birds, artificial park (zoo), nature museums. Specific places were also indicated: In the south part of the country there are: Inzu yumurage, Roc of Kamegeri, Roc of Ndaba, ibisi by a huye, Nyina wa Jambo ikibeho and Intabo ya Ngunda in bugoyi, we also have the rivers like akanyaru. In the west, the mentioned places are: Amashyuza in Rusizi and Rubavu districts, Urutare rwa Ndaba Kibuye. In the Eastern side, there are: Lake Muhazi in Rwamagana side, rocks of Ngarama in Gatsibo district, Liberation tourism trail, Lake Muhazi on Rwesero side, Waterfall Rusumo and Buhanga eco parks. And in the northen part we found: Ibere rya bigongwe Nyabihu district and Ikirenge cya Ruganzu, volcanoes like Muhabura, Sabyinyo, Burera and Ruhondo.

Domestic Tourism According to young people in Rwanda, in general, Rwandans think that traveling is for white people or foreigners only. Some think that it is expensive. This is a results of the fact that many young people are unemployed. Even those who are interested, are unable to afford traveling, even domestically (Figures 14.4 and 14.5).

18%

26%

Very interested Interested

56%

Not interested

Figure 14.4: Interest of young people in tourism in Rwanda (in %). Source: Author. Survey (n=180)

Tourism sector in Rwanda seems to be unknown domestically for both young and adult people. Based on the survey, the results show that many young people are unaware of tourism and opportunities that are available in the tourism sector. There is a need of improvement in order to achieve a sustainable and developed tourism industry, which is known domestically and internationally. In response to the question “what are the activities that can encourage aged and young people to participate in nature-based tourism in Rwanda?” the answers

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Ignorance 6% 24%

17%

Poverty Busy (don't have time)

3%

Uninterested 50% Other Figure 14.5: Reasons for Rwandans not being interested in tourism. Source: Author. Survey (n=180)

were: picnic (64.4%), photography (47.8), swimming (40.6%), hiking (26.7%), campfire (19.4%) and other (13.9%). With regard to the problem “what policies can be implemented to improve domestic tourism in Rwanda?” the following solutions are indicated: professional training about the importance of tourism (53.9%), advertisement (40.6%), presentations and gathering about the country beauty (40.0%), improving geographical education (25.6%). There was a great agreement of opinion regarding the question “can improving domestic tourism have an impact on the social-economic activities in Rwanda?” The majority of respondents answered yes (95.1 %), a small group answered no (4.9%). Most of the respondents (96.4%) also think that development of tourism can increase economic opportunities for young people in Rwanda. 3.6% people were of the opposite opinion.

Opinions of Young Rwandans on the Impact of Tourism on the Sustainable Development Tasks regarding the impact of foreign tourism on living conditions in Rwanda were divided. More than half of the respondents indicated a positive impact on the condition of infrastructure and the standard of living of young people. On the other hand, with regard to the natural environment, despite the predominance of opinions about a positive impact, a significant group of respondents (37.2%) also indicated a negative impact (Figure 14.6). More than three-quarters of the respondents (77.2%) answered the open-ended question: “what is tourism contribution to the goals of sustainable development in Rwanda?” All statements highlighted the positive impact. Mainly, the implementation of economic and social goals, less often ecological ones, was indicated. The systemic impact of tourism in supporting all aspects of Rwanda’s sustainable development was also recognized. Examples of statements are presented in Table 14.3.

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Figure 14.6: Opinions on whether foreign tourism affects the improvement or deterioration of selected aspects of life in Rwanda [in %]. Source: Author. Survey (n=180)

Table 14.3: Opinions of young Rwandans on the impact of tourism on the sustainable development of Rwanda. The goals of sustainable development Economical – main, indicated aspects: financial revenues from the development of foreign tourism, GDP growth, revival of other sectors of the economy, attraction of foreign investors.

Sample statements (original transcription): The tourism industry contributes to the Rwanda sustainable development goals through getting the foreign currency by attracting the foreign investment, hence the national revenue increase, source of money earning especially for the youth job creation, etc. Once they bring dollars when they come in Rwanda, those dollars are used in different sectors to increase the economy of the country. Tourism industry first of all contributes a lot on Rwanda’s economy, so through the currencies paid by tourists’ sustainable development is reached. Contribute a lot on GDP. It brings to us foreign money (currency) which increase the development of the country.

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Table 14.3 (continued ) The goals of sustainable development Social – main, indicated aspects: improving the quality of life, jobs, education, infrastructure development.

Sample statements (original transcription): Let’s take an example of one goal “ End of Poverty” nowadays many people are being employed due to high number of tourism activities we have here in Rwanda such as hotels, tour companies etc., through all these, tourism is contributing a lot in sustainable development. Tourism contributes to sustainable development in Rwanda in the ways helping to improve the standard of living, help in education, increase of infrastructure etc. When the tourism sector improve, money from it helps in building infrastructures (schools, roads, hospitals, etc.) and also helps in maintaining/protecting these touristic areas. It improves people’s standard of living in one way or another. Job opportunities to people living near the touristic site, Taxes, new knowledge to citizens near the touristic site. It has the capacity to create job and extend services and products that support both tourists and local people in the areas.

Ecological – main, indicated aspects: environmental protection

Sample statements (original transcription): Tourism sector even contribute more to the development of Rwanda as this stimulate the government to take care of natural beauty of Rwanda as well as increasing of infrastructure. By making Rwanda be famous all over the world in terms of natural conservation and environment protection.

System – main, indicated aspects: Sample statements (original transcription): the positive impact of tourism on all Rwanda is gifted not only with breath-taking aspects of sustainable development in landscapes, diverse flora and fauna as well as rich Rwanda. traditional culture but with people who love their country and stand up for nature conservation and the wellbeing of their communities. Art and handicraft products made by youth and women who sell their products as souvenirs to tourists. Locals become tour guides, waiters and waitresses in the hospitality industry. Families grow nutritious foods in their backyards and gardens. Community members are educated about good hygiene and sanitation and implement measures to prevent the development and spread of infectious diseases.

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Table 14.3 (continued ) The goals of sustainable development Tourism Sector in Rwanda is very important for the benefits it brings and due to its role as a commercial activity that crates demand and growth for many more industries. Also, tourism generates more employment, revenues and play a significant role in development of Rwanda by improving infrastructures, and build country’s brand value, image and identity. Rwanda leads Africa’s sustainable tourism development. Through facilitation, training and education, capacity building, funding and encouragement, the initiative supports community members in developing their unique tourism products and services for sustainable income as well as conserve nature and their health. Consequently, it helps to contribute in the development and innovation of rural-urban regions, it helps in making long term investments, it helps in infrastructure developments like roads, hospitals, etc., and it also helps in research development by facilitating the tourism sector students. Source: Author. Survey (n=180).

Among “the most environmental challenges that affect the nature-based tourism in Rwanda,” according to respondents, there are: climate change (64.4%), disaster management (55.5%), water pollution (21.1%), food security (15.6%) and water security (11.7%). In turn, in response to the question “in the facilities that are given to tourists in Rwanda, what services you think needs improvement based on your experience?”, the following answers were mentioned: transport (30.4%), guidance service (28.0%), accommodation (25.6%) and food service (16.1%). To the question “in which aspect do you think, the effort can be put in order to attain a sustainable nature-based tourism in Rwanda?” respondents replied as follows: educational aspect (38.1%), community development (35.1%), economic aspect (15.5%) and political aspect (11.3%). There was a great agreement in the answer to the question “is the environmental structure of Rwanda facilitate tourism development and sustainability?” The overwhelming majority of respondents answered yes (95.2%) and a few said no (4.8%). The question “what are the economic opportunities available for young people in the tourism domain?” was answered by 76.7% research participants. The answers were mainly related to such issues as: tourism creates a new job, development infrastructure, technology and young people become entrepreneurs. Selected statements in their original form are provided below.

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1)

2)

3) 4)

5)

6)

7) 8)

263

The economic opportunities available for young people are: to create the innovation activities in different domains like (in agriculture & livestock, medical, art, etc . . .). To be an entrepreneur. Opportunity to make the best own things by using the materials that have been found in our country. To be influencing ladies, young people are connected with job opportunities in the place of living. As the government is put emphasis on the young generation to create themselves a job, the tourism sector is one of the opportunities that young people might use to make money un different aspects such as creative arts, guidance and even creating services that host tourists like coffee shops, cultural activities showroom and touring service around the country. As young people in Rwanda can help them in creativity so that their economy can be improved in terms of skills and knowledge they have. There are job opportunities in tourism domain whereby a young person can serve as a guide, driver, influencer etc. it also helps the young generation to satisfy some of their basic needs so it increases their standards of living. Young people can serve as guides to tourists, they can work in restaurants and hotels, they can serve as drivers, they can facilitate development of IT tools that can serve in tourism sector, they can teach local language to tourists and so on. They improve knowledge and skills and they gain economic growth and also language skills selling made in Rwanda. Get a job for being freelancer guide. Porter for tourist. With tourism sector in Rwanda, young people benefit from many trainings and courses that help them to communicate with tourists and help them where it’s necessary. Also, in Rwanda, more jobs in hospitality domain are available in the hotels and restaurants for young people and this help them to improve their lives. Now poachers were turned into park rangers to realize the income from time to time brought by tourism itself. The economic opportunities available for young people are 1) job opportunities, 2) the business climate for small enterprises development and 3) tourism also tends to employ a relatively high proportion of young people and to purchase products such as food and crafts, produced by young people in the formal sector.

Opinions on actions that can increase interests of young people in the tourism sector, were as follows: – Creating investment opportunity for young people in tourism (62.8%) – Increasing awareness of the opportunities in tourism (50.6%) – Providing soft skills in hospitality and tourism (40.0%) – Providing funding (32.8%).

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Conclusions Rwanda, despite its small area, has a diverse natural environment, the unique values of which are tourist attractions appreciated by foreign tourists. This is evidenced not only by the number of visitors, but also by the number and positive nature of reviews on the TripAdvisor travel community for national parks. Also, the opinions of young Rwandans about natural attractions prove the awareness of their uniqueness and high tourism potential for the development of nature-based tourism. Statements concerning domestic tourism show some differences between the places recommended for tourists and those visited by the respondents themselves. For foreign tourists, Rwandans mainly recommend ANP and VNP, while they themselves most often visit holiday destinations related to Lake Kivu. Recreational preferences are also confirmed by the most popular leisure activities, such as picnic, photography and swimming. Such a picture indicates developed inbound tourism centers (mainly VNP and ANP) and domestic tourism destinations (mainly the shores of Lake Kivu). Opinions on the impact of tourism on sustainable development in the country have shown that Rwandans are aware of the consequences of developing foreign tourism, both positive and negative. The benefits mentioned primarily include the possibility of improving the standard of living, thanks to the income generated by incoming tourism. On the other hand, threats were seen mainly in the context of the degradation of the natural environment. Generally speaking, it can be said that young people have a very positive attitude towards the development of the tourist services sector. In numerous statements, the respondents indicated economic, social, and ecological benefits, as well as pointed to the multiplier effect of tourism contributing to the sustainable development of the country in a multi-faceted and systemic way. Young people in Rwanda see many environmental challenges facing the development of nature-based tourism, both of a global nature (e.g., climate change), and local (e.g., poverty, high population density). In this situation, by generating significant income, tourism appears to be the most effective way of securing the most valuable natural areas against intensive settlement and economic exploitation. The presented research results indicate a high level of understanding and support for the development of tourism in a sustainable manner, which bodes well for naturebased tourism planning and the implementation of these plans with the approval of the inhabitants. Summing up, it can be stated that young Rwandans are open to dialogue and discussion related to the development of tourism in their country, they show knowledge and interest in nature-based tourism. They are aware not only of the benefits but also of the threats to tourism development, especially in relation to the condition of the natural environment. They treat domestic tourism mainly in terms of recreation, while foreign tourism in the context of jobs and improvement of living standards. They often declare that they would be willing to work in the tourism

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services sector, not only as employees, but also as entrepreneurs. Planning the development of tourism in this African destination, such as Rwanda, can therefore be based not only on (1) the diverse potential of the natural environment and its protection through nature-based tourism, but also on (2) a positive attitude towards this dynamically developing, young society, and raising its living standards as a result of community-based tourism.

References Andrades, C. L., & Dimanche, F. (ed.). (2015). Nature-based tourism in Russia. Technical Report TEMPUS Project NETOUR: Network for Excellence in Tourism through Organizations and Universities in Russia, funded with support from the European Commission Spain. Asaba, C. O. (2018). Rwanda’s tourism opportunities. The New Times. Retrieved June 25, 2018, from https://www.newtimes.co.rw/business/rwandas-tourism-opportunities. Behuria, P. (2019). The Persistent Challenges of Development in Rwanda. Retrieved August 5, 2020, from http://www.effective-states.org/the-persisitent-challenges-of-development-in-rwanda/ Byanafashe, D., & Rutayisire, P. (2016). History of Rwanda. From the Beginning to the End of the Twentieth Century. Kigali: National Unity and Reconciliation Commission. Center for Responsible Travel. (2018). The Case for Responsible Travel: Trends, & Statistics. Retrieved July 25, 2020, from https://www.responsibletravel.org/docs/The_Case_for_Respon sible_Travel_2018_FINAL_FOR_WEB.pdf. EICV5_Thematic Report. (2018). Utilities and Amenities. Retrieved 25 July, 2020, from https://www. statistics.gov.rw/publication/eicv5-thematic-report-utilities-and-amenities. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization on the United Nations). (2020). Rural youth employment and agri–food systems in Rwanda A rapid context. Retrieved 2020 July, 25, from http://www. fao.org/3/ca7717en/CA7717EN.pdf. ILO (International Labor Organization). (2018). Decent Work Country Programme (DWCP) 2018–2022. Retrieved 2020 July, 25, from https://www.ilo.org/. Kisioh, H. (2015). Gishwati Forest Reserve. Retrieved 2020 July, 25, from https://www.birdlife.org/ sites/default/files/attachments/gishwati_forest_reserve_interim_management_plan_fha.pdf. Kranenburg, W., Tiessen, M., Veenstra, J., De Graaff, R., Uittenbogaard, R. B., Bouffard, D., . . . Van Lipzig, N. (2020). 3D-modelling of Lake Kivu: Horizontal and vertical flow and temperature structure under spatially variable atmospheric forcing. Journal of Great Lakes Research. (in print). Mazimhaka, J. (2006). The Potential Impact of Domestic Tourism on Rwanda’s Tourism Economy. A research report submitted to the Graduate School of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts by coursework in Tourism Studies. Moen, J. (2020). World Atlas. Rwanda geography. Retrieved 2020 July, 25, from https://www.worl datlas.com/webimage/countrys/africa/rwanda/rwland.htm. Muvundja, F. A., Pasche, N., Bugenyi, F. W. B., Isumbisho, M., Müller, B., Namugize, J.-N., . . . Wüest, A. (2009). Balancing nutrient inputs to Lake Kivu. Journal of Great Lakes Research , 35, 406–418. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. (2016). Republic of Rwanda. Retrieved 2020 July, 25, from https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/rw/rw-nbsap-v2-en.pdf.

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National strategy and action plan for the conservation of biodiversity in Rwanda. (2003). Retrieved 2020 July, 25, from https://www.vub.be/klimostoolkit/sites/default/files/documents/bd_ policy_rwanda.pdf. Nielsen, H., & Spenceley, A. (2010). The success of tourism in Rwanda – Gorillas and more, Background paper for the African Success Stories Study. Retrieved 2020 July, 25, from http:// citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/. Schmid, M., & Wüest, A. (2012). Stratification, Mixing and Transport Processes in Lake Kivu. In Descy, J. P., Darchambeau, F., & Schmid, M. (eds.), Lake Kivu. Aquatic Ecology Series (Vol. 5). Dordrecht: Springer, Statistical Yearbook, Rwanda, 2019. SIDA Report on Economic Geography of Rwanda. (2017). Sustainable Development Goals. Retrieved 2020 July, 25, from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/. Tisdell, C. (2013). Nature-based Tourism in Developing Countries: Issues and Case Studies. Working Papers No 190 on Economics, Ecology and the Environment. The University of Queensland. p. 1–63. Twgiramungu, F. (2006). Environmental Profile of Rwanda. Kigali: Report financed by the European Commission. World Bank. (2020). Rwanda Overview. Retrieved 2020 July, 25, from https://www.worldbank.org/ en/country/rwanda/overview. Zajadacz, A., & Uwamahoro, J. (2020). The diversity of the geographical environment of national parks in Rwanda as centers of nature-based tourism. Prace Geograficzne. Jagiellonian University in Krakow (in print). Websites (last accessed: 14.08.2020) https://www.kagerasafa ris.com/museums-of-rwanda/ https://visitandtourrwanda.com/gishwati-mukura-nationalpark/ https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/rw/rw-nbsap-v2-en.pdf https://www.visitrwanda.com/ destinations/gishwati-mukura-national-park/ https://acaciasafari.co.ug/lake-kivu-rwandasafari-attractions/ https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/ https://www.tripadvisor.com/ https://www.newtimes.co.rw/business/rwandas-tourism-opportunities (published on June 25, 2018)

Amata Mwalo Mathias, Tom Olielo and Destaings N. Nyongesa

15 Influence of Local Structural Factors on Tourism Backward Linkage with Local Micro Entreprises Within Kisumu County, Kenya Introduction Tourism is critical to many economies of developing countries yet its economic potential has not been fully exploited. Globally, tourism support between 40–50% of the GDP of developing countries but the countries get less than 30% tourist receipts (Fletcher, Fyall, Gilbert & Wanhill, 2018). Though the tourist’s expenditure in local economy coupled with its associated induced and indirect economic activities determines local economic effects of tourism (United Nation Environmental Programme, 2011), the tourism economic impact of economies of almost all countries of sub-Saharan, Africa, according to United Nation Conference on Trade and Development, UNCTAD, has not been optimal (UNCTAD, 2017). The economic impact of tourism has generally been undermined by erosion of multiplier effect caused by income leakages from the destination economy (Weaver & Lawton, 2014). For example, according to preliminary study conducted by World Bank in 2013, Tanzania experienced income leakage which accounted for 50% of all proceeds from package holiday sold to European Market (World Bank, 2013). Various attempts have been made in Sub-Saharan Africa to optimize tourism backward linkage with mixed results (Fayissa, Tadessa & Nsia, 2007). Backward linkage is defined by Weaver and Lawton (2014) as goods and services supplied to tourist industry from within the destination. The pro-poor tourism that is predicated on increasing levels of tourist arrivals to a destination, encouraging backward linkage of tourism through local production of high quality and diverse product, which can induce tourists to spend and ensuring that the poor local people receive a high proportion of tourist expenditure has so far not yielded desired result (Ashley & Goodwin, 2007). Also, community–based tourism which put emphasis on equitable appropriation of tourism benefits by community members, sensitivity to community rights, gaining cooperation and adequate community involvement in decision making was expected to guarantee success of tourism enterprise, but is yet to produce desired results (Drumm & Moore, 2002; Figgis & Bushel, 2007). Further, community–based tourism model has been successful in few places of SubSaharan Africa such as Community Area Management Program for Indigenous Resources in Zimbabwe, Chobe Enclave Trust in Botswana, Community Camp site in Namibia, community–based initiative in South Africa and Heart–to-Heart Women Cooperative https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110702491-015

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in Kenya (Cromptom & Christie, 2001; Timothy, 1999; International Labor Office, 2013), but lack of expertise or education amongst community members have not only been a hindrance to local community’s optimal participation in tourism (Timothy, 1999; Shepherd & Bowler, 1997) but also their involvement in project have been perceived by developers to be costly in terms of adjustment and delay (Jenkins, 1993). Thus, unlike in developed countries, tourism full potential in contributing to economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa is far from being optimized generally (Fayissa et al., 2007). Tourism economic impact on local economy, quantified through multiplier effect, is realized through the extent of backward linkage with local economy (Weaver & Lawton, 2014). Whereas in Australia manufacturing, transport, construction, entertainment and commercial fishing account significantly for tourism backward linkage with the destination economy (Weaver & Lawton, 2014), backward linkage of tourism with extractive activities in Kenya has been inadequate (Yobesia & Valle, 2009). Kisumu County, one of the 47 counties in Kenya, has such key attraction as Lake Victoria which also provide base for fishing activity for local people but whose economic viability is undermined by the expansive carpet of floating aquatic weed that clog water ways and hinder fishing activities, pollution and inappropriate fishing methods (Communication, Economic, Planning, & Development Executive Committee, 2018). Other attractions in the county include diverse cultural products and wildlife whose tourism potential have not been fully realized (Babu, Haghiri & Oketch, 2012). Also, the performance of hospitality industry in Kisumu County is poor because of very low occupancy rates from domestic and business tourism whose demand is affected by seasonal sporting activities, religious and political events and conferences and workshops (Kenya Bureau of Standards, 2012). Thus, seasonality of tourism in the County is partly dependent on seasonality of international tourism and partly on seasonality of sporting activities, religious and political activities. Since tourism backward linkage and its related income multiplier effects can only be robust in economically diverse and larger destination which has high level of local participation in tourism activities (Weaver & Lawton, 2014; Fletcher et al., 2018), the precondition for strong tourism backward linkage with local economy seems not to obtain in Kisumu County. Therefore, the economic situation in the county does not guarantee better prospects for growing youthful population who are unemployed and deficient in crucial entrepreneurial skills (Communication, Economic, Planning & Development Executive Committee, 2013); yet, whose involvement in tourism activities can lead to economic empowerment and reduction of security (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Commerce & Tourism, 2013). Many studies have covered ways of boosting the tourism economic impact on the local economy by looking at strategies for enhancing local participation in tourism activities in Sub-Saharan Africa including Kenya (Ashley & Goodwin, 2007; Cromptom & Christie, 2001). However, there are few studies which have examined and

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quantified effects of local structural factors on the tourism backward linkage with the local micro enterprises in Kisumu County with specific focus on establishing the association between the number of income streams within tourism enterprises and extent of the local purchase ratio; analysing the moderating effect of the tourism seasonality on the nexus between the size of tourism enterprises, the patronage rate and the extent of local purchase ratio; and the determination of the effect of the patronage rate, the size of tourism enterprise and the length of visitor stay within tourism enterprises on the frequency of the local weekly supply, the local purchase ratio and the value of local supplies. The current study adopt a cross section survey of 106 tourism enterprises from which quantitative data were collected from managers using self – administered questionnaires and analysis done using inferential statistics. The following section provides a review of literature related to product portfolio, patronage and backward tourism linkage. It also includes research methodology, result and discussion and finally ends with conclusion, recommendation and limitations.

Literature Review Theoretical Perspectives on Tourism Backward Linkage The efficacy of tourism development in poverty reduction at the local level and at the national level, according to United Nation Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA), is conditioned on strong tourism backward linkage with the local economy (UNECA, 2011), high level of tourist arrivals and significant tourist expenditure within the local economy (Goeldner & Ritchie, 2003). According to the Overseas Development Institute (ODI), procuring significant supplies from local enterprises, increasing tourists’ expenditure within the local economy, and boosting the capacity of local business owner to supply the tourist industry are some of key means of strengthening tourism backward linkage and increasing the local appropriation of tourism’s economic benefits (ODI, 2006).

Number of Income Streams and Tourism Backward Linkage The role of number of income streams in tourism backward linkage can be appreciated from the perspective of product portfolio theory, Boston Consulting Group (BCG) framework and product life cycle theory. Income streams in the context of this study means revenue points or different revenue categories within an enterprise. According to the product portfolio theory, a business that has broad portfolio has greater ability to spread risks and opportunity than one with narrow portfolio (Nigel, Campell & Stonehouse, 2003), and confers flexibility to business in adjusting its product mix in

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face of changing market conditions (Chandra, 2006). The benefits of broad product base to tourism enterprise were also confirmed by Lennon (2001) when he noted that diversified product offerings at different retail outlets within tourist attractions led to increased revenue as a result of more visitor spending at the attraction site in Scotland. However, differences in products’ lifespans in their respective markets can affect ideal product mix and affect adjustment in the same. Fortunately, product life cycle concept provides useful insights in maintaining balance of product mix at various stages of life cycle (Nigel et al., 2003). Additionally, BCG framework provides criteria for adopting optimal product mix on the basis of their ability to generate cash flow for either maintaining or developing product portfolio. Based on the framework, different categories of products have been identified, labelled, and classified as stars – products in a growing market and with high market share; cash cow – products with large market share but in declining market; question marks – products in a growing market but with decreasing market share; and dogs – products in a declining market and with decreasing market share (World Tourism Organization, 2011). The level of income generated from each product categories is affected by its relative market share and market growth rate (Philip, William & Rajunor, 2012), and the stage in product life cycle at which the product has reached (Khairat & Alvameedy, 2016). Thus, income streams differ in terms of the amount of cash generated and consumed. Though the role of income streams in promoting backward linkages with local has been implied, the empirical relationship between number of income streams in tourism enterprises and the extent of local purchase ratio has not been revealed.

Effect of Tourism Seasonality on Size of Tourism Firm and Tourism Backward Linkage Kenya experience annual fluctuation of the visitor volume that is associated with climatic variation, political instability, global financial crisis and animal movements (World Bank, 2010). Kenya experience three main tourism seasons in a year: The peak season is experienced between months of November through March, low seasons cover months from April to June and shoulder seasons extending from July to October (Weru et al., 2007). The overall national tourism seasonality affects seasonality of tourism activity within such specific regions of the country as Kisumu County, apart from seasonality of the domestic tourism and events which result from domestic institutional arrangements. Thus, seasonality of tourism activity at national level varies across the year and it is reflected at the regional and local level. There are different perspectives on tourism seasonality. Seasonality as systematic, irregular, intra–year movement in tourism activities is attributed to timing of production and consumption decisions of economic agents, weather changes and the calendar (Hylleberg, 1992). Thus, daily, weekly, monthly and yearly fluctuations in tourism constitute seasonality (Cooper, Fletcher, Gilbert & Wanhill, 2005).

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According to Butler and Mao (1997) seasonality has two dimensions namely natural or physical and institutional seasonality. Natural seasonality, which increases with increase in the distance from the equator, is the temporal variation in such natural phenomena as rainfall, and leads to the temporal fluctuation in the tourism phenomenon typified by, inter alia, number of visitors, and their expenditure increases (Hartmann, 1986; Butler, 1994). Institutional seasonality on the other hand is based on human behavior and consumer decision making, for example, the decision on vacation time. Intensity of tourism resource use within a year varies as a result of seasonality (Corluka, 2019). Similarly, seasonal patterns of cash inflows and outflows amongst tourism enterprises are attributed to seasonality of demand (Nigel et al., 2003). In summary, fluctuations in tourism activity within a destination affect performance of tourist industry, and the extent of tourism backward linkage with local economy. The consequences of tourism seasonality on destination can be managed through appropriate policy interventions. For example, Lee, Galloway, Seers and O’Mohany (2008) found out that seasonality had both favorable and adverse effects on wine and mountain tourism and it was moderated by business location, personal characteristics of operators and the tourists. Additionally, location of tourism enterprises within a destination (Baum & Hagen, 1999) and the breath of tourism product within a destination (UNWTO, 2014) affect the degree of tourism seasonality effect. Also, the seasonal pattern of demand for product is mostly pronounced in tourism (Nigel et al., 2003). For instance, peak seasons are so associated with inflationary tendencies, overcrowding and poor service delivery as low season is characterized by low occupancy rate, underutilized tourism infrastructure, unemployment and reduced income with associated welfare challenges (Middleton & Clerk, 2001). In exploring factors influencing seasonality of tourism in Oman, Veena (2019) found out, based on a sample of tourism industry’s employees that climatic, personal, and policy-based factors affected seasonality, and recommended differentiation of experiences as a way of mitigated tourism seasonality. From the finding, Veena (2019) seems to agree with the position of UNWTO (2014), and Butler (2001) that the effect of tourism seasonality can be managed by diversifying markets, staggering holidays, promoting domestic tourism, tax incentives and differential pricing. However, the previous studies did not explain the moderating effect of tourism seasonality on the relationship between size of tourism enterprise level of patronage of tourism enterprises and tourism backward linkages. In summary, though tourism seasonality can adversely affect tourist destination, its negative effects can be minimized through some appropriate interventions.

Patronage Rate of Tourism Enterprises and Backward Linkage The destination geographic location, economic situation in tourist source market and destination area and business practices within the destination affect visitor

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volume and economic benefits appropriated from tourism by the local economy. Patronage rate is the number of visitors served by tourism enterprise within a period of time. Determinants of visitor arrival to a destination which in turn affect patronage rate include exchange rate, distance between countries, presence of regional trade, and economic remoteness of a destination (Culiuc, 2014). The level of tourism activity, as indicated by number of tourists, their length of stay and average expenditure in an economy, determines the tourism’s economic significance (Fletcher et al., 2018). For instance, patronage level has positive bearing on new job creation, creation of new businesses and diversifying local economy (Edgell, 2008). It does also, not only affect financial status of business (Drumm & Moore, 2002), but patronage level is also central to survival of local enterprises (World Wide Fund for Nature, 2001). Though small tourism enterprises create economic linkage with local community by offering employment opportunities for local people and purchasing local goods whose quality determine extent of economic relationship (Ateljic & Page, 2009), the backward linkage with the local economy can be enhanced within the framework of pro-poor tourism which is underpinned by three key components namely achieving optimal tourist arrivals, inducing maximal expenditure by tourist by offering of diverse and quality experiences, and ensuring that a large proportion of tourist expenditure is appropriated by local people (Ashley & Goodwin, 2007). Whereas Fletcher et al. (2018), Edgell (2008), Ateljic and Page, (2009) and World-Wide Fund for Nature (2001), converge in perspective on the positive role played by tourism on local economic development, Ashley and Goodwin (2007) provides pre-conditions for which such development can be realized. However, they have not made any observation on role of product portfolio and tourism seasonality in tourism backward linkage with local economy. Similar observation was made by Gomes de Menezes, Viera and Moniz (2009) that the increase in tourist arrivals does not guarantee increased local income unless tourists’ expenditure is increased by putting up measures that induce longer length of stay of tourists in a destination, and minimizing income leakage by local capacity building, establishing effective quality control mechanisms, packaging local product appropriately and improving marketing and distribution channels (Cromptom & Christie, 2001). Additionally, according to the study by Mshenga and Richardson, (2013) which examined linkage between tourism and micro small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) in the coastal region of Kenya, age, size and membership to association affected level of participation in tourism by the MSMEs while bed capacity, age of hotel and characteristics of management affected hotel backward linkage with MSMEs. The finding of Mshenga and Richardson (2013) confirms the position advanced by Ateljic and Page (2009) that tourism create backward linkage with local economy and it makes further contribution by revealing determinants that specifically affect linkage between hotels and local MSMEs in coastal region of Kenya. However,

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previous studies have not established any finding about determinants of tourism linkage with local MSMEs in some mainland areas of Kenya, particularly Kisumu County. In summary, the level of risk and opportunity exposed to tourism enterprises is influenced by product portfolio whose income streams should be sustained by evaluating the product mix over time. Last but not least, tourism seasonality has both positive and negative effect on tourist industry that can be mitigated with appropriate interventions. Lastly, receipts from tourism can be enhanced by increasing rate of patronage, visitor length of stay and average tourist expenditure. However, previous studies have not implicitly linked product portfolio, tourism seasonality, and rate of enterprise patronage to tourism backward linkage with local economy. To fill the gaps this study is guided by three key proposed hypotheses in its investigation based on foregoing literature: The first is that the proportion of local purchase ratio has no significant relationship with the tourists’ facilities number of income streams. Secondly, tourism seasonality has no moderating effect on the nexus between size of tourism enterprise, patronage rate, and extent of local purchase ratio. Finally patronage rate, size of tourism enterprise and length of visitor stay within tourism enterprise has no effect on frequency of local weekly supply, local purchase ratio and values of local supply.

Research Methodology Research Paradigm and Design The study adopted positivism philosophy with a mixture of functionalist and radical structuralism paradigm (Bryman & Bell, 2011). The justification for the choice of the philosophy and paradigms was that the conduct of tourism enterprises, and their relationships with micro enterprises are basically observable social reality from which factual data was used in the study. Based on data and theoretical perspectives, hypotheses were tested from which generalizations were made towards improving or fundamentally change structure of business relationship between tourist industry and local businesses in the Kisumu County in order to optimize backward linkage. Causal research design was the most appropriate in the study as it provided insights into the relationships among variables and the outcomes emanating from their relationships (Mooi, Sarstedt & Mooi-Reci, 2018). In other words, the study adopted methods of natural science in the analysis of business reality which is fundamentally social reality (Saunder, Lewis & Thornhill, 2009).

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Target Population, Sampling Technique and Sample Size The target population for the study was 266 Tourism Enterprises which were not only duly registered by Tourism Regulatory Authority (TRA) but also operated within Kisumu County and have been in operation for at least one year. The enterprises included hotels, guest houses, restaurants and clubs. From the target population a sample of 106 enterprises was drawn using on stratified random sampling (Kothari, 2004). Fisher Formulae for sample size determination was applied in determination of study sample size. The formula is given as n=

z2 × P × ð1 − PÞ e2

Where P is the proportion of population with desired characteristics, e is the margin of error and Z is quantile on a standard normal distribution corresponding to probability of 0.95. Since the population under study was less than 10,000 the calculated N ×n . Therefore, based on the population sample size was adjusted using the formulae N +n of 266 Enterprises, a confidence level of 95% and a margin of error of 7.5% the sample size for the study were 106 (Cohen, Marrison & Mansion, 2007).

Data Collection Instrument Self–administered questionnaire was distributed to 110 managers of tourism enterprises in the morning hours and collected back either in the evening or the following day. The instrument covered such thematic areas as profile of tourism enterprises, performance of tourism enterprises, characteristics and seasonality of expenditure on supplies and level of patronage. Quantitative and qualitative data pertaining to tourism enterprises and their suppliers were captured by the instrument. However, out of 110 questionnaires 106 complete questionnaires were used in the analysis.

Validity and Reliability of the Instrument While face validity refers to the apparent reflection of the content of the concept by a measure (Bryman & Bell, 2011), content validity is the extent to which adequate coverage of the investigative questions has been achieved by a measure (Cooper & Schindler, 2014). Both face and content validity are assessed by the judgment of panel of experts (Bryman & Bell, 2011; Cooper & Schindler, 2014). Accordingly, the questionnaire used in the current study was screened for face and content validity by a panel of experts in tourism and economics department of Maseno University

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during proposal presentation stage. Reliability, based on internal consistency, was determined by correlating a set of 23 questionnaire items measuring similar concept. According to Bryman and Bell, (2011), internal reliability is applied to a measure with multiple indicators and Cronbach’s alpha ranging from 0.80 to 0.70 is mostly acceptable levels. Similarly, set of items in the questionnaire of current study were assessed for reliability and based on 94 valid observations, the Cronbach’s alpha was 0.820 and it was deemed satisfactory.

Data Analysis and Presentation Determination of Association between Income Stream and Local Purchase Ratio To find out the correlation between number of income streams in tourism enterprises and local purchase ratio, Pearson’s chi-square statistics was used in conjunction with Cramer’s V statistics and Contingency coefficient c. Pearson’s chi-square statistics is applicable in establishing relationship between two discrete variables (Heuman & Schomaker, 2016). The number of income streams within tourism enterprises is a discrete variable but the local purchase ratio is a continuous variable. The local purchase ratio was approximated by discrete variable by diving range of values of local purchase ratios into intervals as was suggested by Brandt (2014). The size of class interval was determined using the formulae: interval size = Range/(1+3.3log(N) (Kothari, 2004). The two variables were represented in a 2 × 3 Contingency table and significance of their dependence determined based on observed and expected frequencies, and p value.

Evaluating Moderating effect of Tourism Seasonality Multivariate Analysis of Variance was used, based on a mixed design model with seasonality as within subject factor (repeated measures), level of weekly patronage, and size of tourism enterprise were both treated as between subject factor (Raykov & Marcoulides, 2008). Wilk’s Lamda, F value and p values for interaction between size of tourism enterprises and tourism seasonality, and interaction between tourism seasonality and weekly rate of patronage were determined and their respective p values compared with significance level.

Analysis of the Effects of Patronage Rate, Visitor Length of Stay and Size of Tourism Enterprise In order to analyse the effect of patronage rate, size of tourism enterprises on value of weekly supply, frequency of local supply and local purchase ratio, a factorial design

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involving three factors was adopted. The factors were patronage, visitor length of stay, and size of tourism enterprises. Table 15.1 indicates levels at which the three factors were measured. The continuous dependent variables were frequency, value of local supply and local purchase ratio. Therefore, multivariate analysis of variance was used to determine the significance of main effects of the factors and their interactions on the dependent variable vector. Table 15.1: Factors Measurement Levels and Sizes. Between-Subjects Factors Factor Duration of Stay

Tourism Enterprise Size

Rate of Weekend Patronage

Levels

Value Label

N

.

One night and less



.

More than one night



.

 and less patrons



.

 through  patrons



.

 and more patrons



.

 and less customers per week



.

 through  customers per week



.

 and more customers per week



Assumptions of Multivariate Analysis of Variance The key assumptions of multivariate analysis of variance are homogeneity of variance – covariance matrix of dependent variables, independence of observation and normal distribution of dependent variable observation (Raykov & Marcoulides, 2008). Homogeneity of variance was not violated (Box M Test =103.671, F value = 0.953, p value = 0.595). The observations were independent as the questionnaire were distributed to and collected from geographically separate enterprises with independent management. The requirement for normal distribution was met as group sizes of observations in Table 15.1 are 30 and above thus consistent with central limit theorem.

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Result and Discussion Association between Number of Income Streams of Tourism Enterprises and Local Purchase Ratio From Table 15.2, the observed frequencies are found to be generally lower than expected frequencies for the enterprises with between one- and two-income streams across the three intervals of local purchase ratio. However, the observed frequencies are more than expected frequencies for enterprises with between three and four income streams across all intervals of local purchase ratio factor. It appears that the relationship between income stream factor and local purchase ratio factor depended on level of income stream factor. Table 15.2: Association between Income Streams and Local Purchase Ratio. Local Purchase Ratio Intervals Between . & . Income Stream Factor

Between  and 

Between  and 

Total

Between . & .

Between . & .

Total Between . & .

Count











Expected Count

.

.

.

.

.









.

.

.

.

Count Expected Count

 .

Count











Expected Count

.

.

.

. .

Tables 15.3 and 15.4 indicate that the income stream factor is independent from local purchase ratio factor (Pearson’s chi-square statistics = 0.388, Cramer’s V = 0.169, Contingency Coefficient = 0.167, p value = 0.388). Therefore, the number of income streams within tourism enterprises had no bearing, whatsoever, on the extent of local purchase ratio, and the hypothesis that proportion of value of local purchase has no significant relationship with tourists’ facilities number of income streams was not rejected at 5% significance level. The lack of relationship between number of income streams and extent of backward tourism linkage was attributed to reliance on income streams from products which had low tourism relative market share and whose relative growth rate was in the decline as was previously found out by Philip et al. (2012), or to significant reliance of tourist industry on importation of supplies

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Table 15.3: Chi-Square Tests. Value

Df

Asymp. Sig. (-sided)

Pearson chi-square

.



.

Likelihood ratio

.



.

Linear-by-Linear association

.



.

No. of valid cases ()

Table 15.4: Symmetric Measure. Value Nominal by nominal

Approx. Sig.

Phi

.

.

Cramer’s V

.

.

Contingency Coefficient

.

.

No. of valid cases ()

outside Kisumu County as was previously observed by not only Akama (2000) when he observed that significant amount of tourism revenue in Kenya is lost through leakages, but also Sinclair (1990) and Bachaman (1998) who established that insignificant proportion of total tourism revenue cascaded down to local people at the grass root level and, lastly, by Ashley (2006) that income leakages were attributed to limited local economic diversification and heavy reliance on imports. Lastly, the lack of correlation could be attributed to the fact that most tourism enterprises in Kisumu County were relatively newly established and thus had not been in industry long enough to establish linkage with local enterprises. This was in line with observation of Ruane and Gorg (1997) that firms generally increase their backward linkage with local economy over time. The new revelation from the current study is that in Kisumu County specifically, number of income streams within tourism enterprises has no effect on tourism industry backward linkage with local micro enterprises. The implication is that optimizing tourism product mix within Kisumu County as a destination whose tourist industry is not robustly linked with local not is likely to increase indirect income multiplier effects.

15 Influence of Local Structural Factors on Tourism Backward Linkage

279

Seasonality Effect on Relationship between Size of Enterprise and Rate of Patronage with Local Purchase Ratio The results reflected in Table 15.5 first, indicate that the effect of weekly rate of patronage on extent of local purchase ratio is not dependent on tourism seasonality (Wilks’ Lamda = 0.862, F value = 1.437, p value = 0.167). The current finding differs from the previous finding by Lee et al. (2008) that tourism seasonality is moderated by personal characteristics of the tourists. Secondly, the effect of size of tourism enterprise on local purchase ratio is independent on tourism seasonality (Wilks’ Lamda = 0.955, F value = 0.433, p value = 0.929). This is a unique finding from the current study which adds new information on previous findings of Veena (2019) and Mshenga and Richardson (2013). Lastly, there is a significant main effect of tourism seasonality on local purchase ratio (Wilks’ Lamda = 0.523, F value = 16.991, p value = 0.000) which confirms the previous perspective that tourism seasonality is reflected in seasonal pattern of cash flow amongst tourism enterprises (Nigel et al., 2003). In conclusion, apart from the business location, characteristics of tour operator and tourist having moderating effect on tourism seasonality (Lee et al., 2008), the current study, additionally, established that tourism seasonality has no moderating effect on relationship between size of tourism enterprises, rate of patronage and extent of local economic linkage possibly because of lack of significant linkage between tourism enterprises and local economy. This has implication on the scope, and level of local production and sale to tourist industry: If local suppliers are not sufficiently enabled to produce and supply adequate quantities of supplies which are of right qualities to tourist industry, the high proportion of imports will continue to cause income leakages out of the local economy. Table 15.5: Multivariate Tests of Tourism Seasonality. Effect Seasonality

Value F

Hypothesis df

Error df

Sig.

Pillai’s Trace

. .b

.

. .

Wilks’ Lambda

. .

.

. .

Hotelling’s Trace

. .

.

. .

Roy’s Largest Root

. .

.

. .

. .

.

. .

. .b

.

. .

. .

.

. .

.

. .

Seasonality-Size of Enterprise Pillai’s Trace Interaction Wilks’ Lambda Hotelling’s Trace Roy’s Largest Root

b b b

c

. .

280

Amata Mwalo Mathias, Tom Olielo and Destaings N. Nyongesa

Table 15.5 (continued) Effect

Value F

Seasonality – Patronage rate Pillai’s Trace Interaction Wilks’ Lambda

. .

Seasonality – Size of Enterprise – Patronage rate Interaction

. .

Hypothesis df

b

Error df

Sig.

.

. .

.

. .

.

. .

.

. .

Hotelling’s Trace

. .

Roy’s Largest Root

. .

Pillai’s Trace

. .

.

. .

Wilks’ Lambda

. .

.

. .

Hotelling’s Trace

. .

.

. .

Roy’s Largest Root

. .c

.

. .

c

Result from Table 15.6 shows that on overall the length of stay had no significant main effect on frequency of local supply, local purchase ratio and value of local weekly supply (Wilk’s lamda = 0.925, F value = 2.340, p value = 0.079). Frequency of local supply, local purchase ratio and value of weekly local supply were also generally not affected by size of tourism enterprise (Wilk’s lamda = 0.935, F value = 0.979, p value = 0.441) and weekly occupancy rate of tourism enterprises by visitors (Wilk’s lamda = 0.960, F value = 0.597, p value = 0.733). This seems to contradict previous findings of Mshenga and Richardson (2013) that bed capacity is one of the determinants of hotel procurement from local businesses, and findings of Fletcher et al. (2018) that visitor length of stay influences tourism economic impact on local economy. The contradiction may be attributed to differences in study contexts and techniques of analysis: The current finding was based on MANOVA, was concerned with enterprises in Kisumu county, but the previous study was conducted on enterprises based in coastal region of Kenya and was based on Tobit regression analysis (Mshenga & Richardson, 2013). However, a close examination of results in Table 15.7 provides some more insightful information. From Table 15.6, the effect of visitors’ length of stay in tourism enterprises on value of weekly supply and weekly frequency of supply was moderated by rate of weekly occupancy (F value = 4.090, p value = 0.020) and size of tourism enterprise (F value = 3.976, p value = 0.022) respectively. Also, length of stay had main effect only on local purchase ratio (F value = 4.867, p value = 0.030). Compared with the previous finding by Gomes de Menezes et al. (2009) that effect of tourist arrivals on local income was conditioned by tourists’ length of stay, the current study advances knowledge by additionally establishing that effect of visitors’ length of stay on local income would vary with rate of occupancy and size of tourism enterprises in which visitors were accommodated. The implication of the finding is that failure to invest

15 Influence of Local Structural Factors on Tourism Backward Linkage

281

Table 15.6: Multivariate Testsa. Effect Intercept

Value F

Size of Tourism Enterprise

Patronage Rate

Length of Stay – Size of Tourism Enterprise Interaction

Length of Stay – Patronage Rate Interaction

Error df Sig.

Pillai’s Trace

. .b

.

. .

Wilks’ Lambda

. .

b

.

. .

. .

b

.

. .

Roy’s Largest Root . .b

.

. .

Hotelling’s Trace

Length of Stay

Hypothesis df

Pillai’s Trace

. .b

.

. .

Wilks’ Lambda

. .

.

. .

Hotelling’s Trace

. .

.

. .

Roy’s Largest Root

. .

.

. .

Pillai’s Trace

. .

. . .

Wilks’ Lambda

. .b

. . .

Hotelling’s Trace

. .

Roy’s Largest Root

. .

.

Pillai’s Trace

. .

. . .

b b b

. . . c

. .

. . .

b

Wilks’ Lambda

. .

Hotelling’s Trace

. .

Roy’s Largest Root

. .

.

Pillai’s Trace

. .

. . .

Wilks’ Lambda

. .

. . .

Hotelling’s Trace

. .

. . .

Roy’s Largest Root

. .c

.

Pillai’s Trace

. .

. . .

Wilks’ Lambda

. .

. . .

Hotelling’s Trace

. .

. . .

Roy’s Largest Root

. .

.

. . . c

b

b

c

. .

. .

. .

282

Amata Mwalo Mathias, Tom Olielo and Destaings N. Nyongesa

Table 15.6 (continued) Effect Size of Tourism Enterprise – Patronage Rate-Length of Stay Interactions

Value F

Hypothesis df

Error df Sig.

Pillai’s Trace

. .

. . .

Wilks’ Lambda

. .

. . .

Hotelling’s Trace

. .

. . .

Roy’s Largest Root

. .c

Pillai’s Trace

. .

. . .

Wilks’ Lambda

. .

. . .

Hotelling’s Trace

. .

Roy’s Largest Root

. .

.

. .

. . . .

c

. .

a Design: Intercept + Length of Stay + Enterprise Size + Patronage Rate Factor + Length of Stay – Enterprise Size Interaction + Length of Stay – Patronage Rate Factor Interaction + Enterprise Size – Patronage Rate Factor Interaction + Length of Stay – Enterprise Size – Patronage Rate Factor Interaction b Exact statistic c The statistic is an upper bound on F that yields a lower bound on the significance level.

Table 15.7: Tests of Between-Subjects Effects. Source

Dependent Variable

Type III Sum of Squares

Df Mean Square

Corrected Model

Weekly Supply Freq

.a



.

. .

Weekly Supply Value

.b



.

. .

Local Purchase Ratio

.c



.

. .

Weekly Supply Freq

.

 . . .

Weekly Supply Value

.



Local Purchase Ratio

.



Intercept

.

F

Sig.

. .

. . .

15 Influence of Local Structural Factors on Tourism Backward Linkage

283

Table 15.7 (continued) Source

Dependent Variable

Type III Sum of Squares

Length of Stay

Weekly Supply Freq

.



.

. .

Weekly Supply Value

.



.

. .

Local Purchase Ratio

.



.

. .

Weekly Supply Freq

.



.

. .

Weekly Supply Value

.



.

. .

Local Purchase Ratio

.



.

. .

Weekly Supply Freq

.



.

. .

Weekly Supply Value

.



.

. .

Local Purchase Ratio

.



.

. .

Weekly Supply Freq

.



.

. .

Weekly Supply Value

.



.

. .

Local Purchase Ratio

.



.

. .

Weekly Supply Freq

.



.

. .

Weekly Supply Value

.



.

. .

Local Purchase Ratio

.



.

. .

Size of Tourism Enterprise

Weekly Occupancy Rate

Length of Stay * Size of Tourism enterprise

Length of stay * Weekly Occupancy Rate

Df Mean Square

F

Sig.

284

Amata Mwalo Mathias, Tom Olielo and Destaings N. Nyongesa

Table 15.7 (continued) Source

Dependent Variable

Type III Sum of Squares

Size of tourism enterprise Patronage Rate Interaction

Weekly Supply Freq

.



.

. .

Weekly Supply Value

.



.

. .

Local Purchase Ratio

.



.

. .

Weekly Supply Freq

.



.

. .

Weekly Supply Value

.



.

. .

Local Purchase Ratio

.



.

. .

Weekly Supply Freq

.



.

Weekly Supply Value

.



.

Local Purchase Ratio

.



.

Weekly Supply Freq

. 

Weekly Supply Value

.



Local Purchase Ratio

.



Weekly Supply Freq

.



Weekly Supply Value

.



Local Purchase Ratio

.



Length of Stay – Size of tourism enterprise – Patronage Rate Interaction

Error

Total

Corrected Total

a

R Squared = .177 (Adjusted R Squared = .019) R Squared = .206 (Adjusted R Squared = .053) c R Squared = .124 (Adjusted R Squared = –.045) b

Df Mean Square

F

Sig.

15 Influence of Local Structural Factors on Tourism Backward Linkage

285

in tourism marketing and in providing incentives to developers to expand their existing facilities undermines tourism economic impact on local economy. The results featured in Table 15.8, show that the weekly rate at which local businesses supplied tourism enterprises varied with the visitors’ length of stay and capacities of tourism enterprises: The tourism enterprises in which visitors spent not more than one night and with capacities of not more than 30 patrons and at least 97 patrons procured local supplies thrice a week, while those with between 31 and 96 patrons procured supplies at a rate of four times a week. However, the tourism enterprises which accommodated visitors for more than a night and with capacity of at most 30 patrons, between 30 and 96 patrons, and with at least 97 patrons ordered supplies almost thrice, twice and four times a week respectively. Similarly, Figure 15.1 reinforces the fact that the rate at which tourism enterprises procured supplies from local businesses varied with visitors’ length of stay and capacities of various tourism enterprises from a different perspective. To illustrate, the tourism enterprises with capacities of between 31 and 96 patrons and whose visitors spent not more than one night, ordered local supplies more frequently a week than tourism enterprises with capacities of at most 30 and at least 97 patrons. However, the tourism enterprises which accommodated visitors for more than a night and with capacities of at least 97 patrons made orders for local supplies most frequently a week, followed by enterprises with capacities of at most 30 patrons. Tourism enterprises which ordered local supplies with least frequency in a week were those with capacities of between 31 and 96 patrons. Moreover, positive change in visitors’ length of stay had a positive effect on frequency of weekly purchases of supplies for tourism enterprises with capacity of at least 97 patrons but a negative effect on frequency of weekly purchases for both enterprises with capacities of at most 30 patrons and those with between 31 and 96 patrons. In general, the frequency at which tourism enterprises ordered local supplies in a week was moderated by visitors’ length of stay and size of tourism enterprises. This is similar to the previous position that level of tourists’ expenditure on local economy is conditioned on visitors’ length of stay (Gomes de Menezes et al., 2009). The new insight from the current finding, however, is that the effect of positive change in visitor length of stay on the frequency of weekly procurement by tourism enterprises was moderated by size of tourism enterprises. The key implication of this finding is that tourism backward linkage with local economy may not be optimized if tourist destination is not dominated by tourism enterprises of ideal sizes given the level of patronage. According to Table 15.9, the expenditure made by tourism enterprises on local supplies varied by visitors’ length of stay and by the rate of weekly patronage of tourism enterprises: Tourism enterprises which accommodated visitors for at most one night and whose actual weekly patronage rates were at most 10, between 11 and 30, and at least 31 spent on average Kshs 11097(US$101), Kshs7616 (US$69.5), and Kshs 16681 (US$152) respectively. On the other hand, the tourism enterprises which experienced weekly patronage rate of at most 10, between 11 and 30, and at least 31

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Table 15.8: Length of Stay - Size of Tourism Enterprises Interaction Effect. Dependent Variable

Frequency of Weekly Supply

Length of Size of Tourism Stay Factor Enterprises Factor

One night and Less

More than One night

Value of Weekly Supply

One night and Less

More than One night

Mean Std. Error

% Confidence Interval Lower Bound

Upper Bound

 and less Patrons

.

.

.

.

 through  Patrons

.

.

.

.

 and More Patrons

.

.

.

.

 and less Patrons

.

.

.

.

 through  Patrons

.

.

.

.

 and More Patrons

.

.

.

.

 and less Patrons

. .

. .

 through  Patrons

. . . .

 and More Patrons

. .

. .

 and less Patrons

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

 through  Patrons  and More Patrons

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Table 15.8 (continued) Dependent Variable

Length of Size of Tourism Stay Factor Enterprises Factor

Local Purchase One night Ratio and Less

More than One night

Mean Std. Error

% Confidence Interval Lower Bound

Upper Bound

 and less Patrons

.

.

.

.

 through  Patrons

.

.

.

.

 and More Patrons

.

.

.

.

 and less Patrons

.

.

.

.

 through  Patrons

.

.

.

.

 and More Patrons

.

.

.

.

patrons, and whose visitors spent more than one night purchased local supply worth Kshs 6670(US$61), Kshs18043(US$165) and Kshs 8957(US$82), respectively. This is in conformity with the previous findings that bed capacity of hotels increases volume of purchases from local MSMEs (Mshenga & Richardson, 2013), that achieving optimal tourist arrivals and maximizing tourist’s expenditure on local economy magnify tourism economic impact on local economy (Ashley & Goodwin, 2007). Moreover, the uniqueness about current finding is that the amount of expenditure by tourist industry on local economy is likely to be moderated by visitors’ length of stay and level of patronage of tourism enterprises. The implication of this is that tourism income multiplier effect is not likely to be maximized without aggressive promotion of existing tourism opportunities and creating new diversified activities within Kisumu County. According to Figure 15.1, the value of local purchases made by tourism enterprises seemed to depend on the visitors’ rate of weekly patronage and their length of stay. For example, tourism enterprises which accommodated visitors for a duration of up to one night and which received at least 31 spent the most on local purchases, followed by enterprises which got at most 10 patrons. Tourism enterprises which received between 11 and 30 patrons per week spent the least on local procurements. However, tourism enterprises whose visitors spent more than a night and received between 11 and 30 patrons spent the most on local supplies, followed by enterprises which got at least 31 patrons. Tourism enterprises which received at

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Table 15.9: Length of Stay – Weekly Patronage Interaction Effect. Dependent Variable

Frequency of Weekly Supply

Length of Stay Factor

One night and Less

More than One night

Value of Weekly Supply

One night and Less

Weekly Patronage Factor

Mean

Std. Error

% Confidence Interval Lower Bound

Upper Bound

 and less Customers per week

.

.

.

.

 through  Customers per week

.

.

.

.

 and more Customers per week

.

.

.

.

 and less Customers per week

.

.

.

.

 through  Customers per week

.

.

.

.

 and more Customers per week

.

.

.

.

 and less . . Customers per week

. .

 through  Customers per week

. .

. .

 and more . . . . Customers per week More than One night

 and less Customers per week

. .

. .

 through  . . . . Customers per week  and more Customers per week

. .

. .

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Table 15.9 (continued) Dependent Variable

Local Purchase Ratio

Length of Stay Factor

One night and Less

More than One night

Weekly Patronage Factor

Mean

Std. Error

% Confidence Interval Lower Bound

Upper Bound

 and less Customers per week

.

.

.

.

 through  Customers per week

.

.

.

.

 and more Customers per week

.

.

.

.

 and less Customers per week

.

.

.

.

 through  Customers per week

.

.

.

.

 and more Customers per week

.

.

.

.

most 30 patrons spent the least on local supplies. From these, it is apparent that positive change in visitors’ length of stay has positive effects on tourism enterprises whose weekly patronage rate is between 11 and 30 patrons but negative effects on tourism enterprises with at least 31 weekly patronage, and at most 10weekly patronage. The new finding contradicts the earlier finding by Ruane and Gorg (1997) that large and expanding firms tended to have lower linkages than other firms. Therefore, visitor length of stay is likely to optimize tourism backward linkage with local economy among large tourism enterprises with between 11 and 30 rate of weekly patronage. The implication of the finding is that there is optimal size of tourism enterprises which can deliver greater backward linkage of tourist industry with local economy as long as tourists’ activities are vibrant within a destination. Figure 15.2 Moderating Effect of Visitor Length of Stay on the nexus between Weekly Patronage of Tourism Enterprises and Value of Weekly Supply.

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Estimated Marginal Means of Frequency of Weekly Supply Size of Tourism Enterprises

4.0

30 and less Partons 31 through 96 Partons 97 and More Parons

Estimated Marginal Means

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5 One night and Less

More than One night

Length of Stay Figure 15.1: Moderating Effect of Visitor Length of Stay on Relationship between Size of Tourism Enterprise and Frequency of Weekly Supply.

Conclusion, Recommendations and Limitations The new revelation from the current study is that in Kisumu County specifically, the number of income streams within tourism enterprises has no effect on tourism industry backward linkage with local micro enterprises. The implication is that optimizing tourism product mix within Kisumu County as a destination whose tourist industry is not robustly linked with local economy will not increase indirect tourism income multiplier effects. The current study, additionally, established that tourism seasonality has no moderating effect on relationship between size of tourism enterprises, rate of patronage, and extent of local economic linkage possibly because of lack of significant linkage between tourism enterprises and local economy. This has implication on the scope, and level of local production and sale to tourist industry: If local suppliers are not sufficiently enabled to produce and supply adequate quantities of supplies which are of right qualities to tourist industry the high proportion of imports will continue to cause income leakages out of the local economy of Kisumu County.

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Estimated Marginal Means of Value of Weekly Supply Weekly Patronage

20000.0

10 and less Customers per week 11 through 30 Customers per week 31 and more Customers per week

Estimated Marginal Means

17500.0

15000.0

12500.0

1000.0

7500.0

One night and Less

More than One night

Length of Stay Figure 15.2: Moderating Effect of Visitor Length of Stay on the nexus between Weekly Patronage of Tourism Enterprises and Value of Weekly Supply.

Lastly, the study has established that effect of the visitors’ length of stay on local income would vary with rate of occupancy and size of tourism enterprises in which visitors were accommodated. Also, the effect of positive change in visitor length of stay on the frequency of weekly procurement by tourism enterprises was moderated by size of tourism enterprises. Likewise, the amount of expenditure by tourist industry on local economy is likely to be moderated by visitors’ length of stay and level of patronage of tourism enterprises. Finally, visitor length of stay is also likely to optimize tourism backward linkage with local economy among large tourism enterprises with between 11 and 30 rate of weekly patronage. These findings unique to the current study have two main implications: First, failure to invest in tourism marketing and in providing incentives to developers to expand their existing facilities undermines tourism economic impact on local economy. Secondly, there is optimal size of tourism enterprises which can deliver greater backward linkage of tourist industry with local economy as long as tourists’ activities are vibrant within a destination. It is, therefore, recommended that awareness of tourism economic potential be created among owners of local business community and tourist industry. Further,

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capacity building should be conducted on local business community in rural areas so that they can meet expectations of tourist industry. Lastly, County government should not only provide incentives for tourism development and expansion, but also collaborate with tourist industry in jointly marketing tourism opportunities for both domestic and foreign tourists. The key limitations of the study were in the choice of respondents, tools of data collection, and margin of error used in determination of sample size. Though managers of tourism enterprises were the key respondents who provided both information concerning their businesses and their relationship with local businesses, more accurate and unbiased data would likely be obtained if local businesses were also included as respondents. The questionnaire was adopted as key collection tool and was not supplemented with observation and interview. Lastly, the finding from the study provides inferences which are limited to tourism enterprises within Kisumu County. In light of these weaknesses, future research should consider a larger sample based on a smaller margin of error and use multiple data collection tools for triangulation of study findings. Last but not least, future studies should not focus on enterprise managers but also get data directly from identified local businesses which operate in tourism industry. Lastly, comprehensive insights would be established if structural equation modelling was adopted in the analysis of structural factors affecting tourism linkage with local economy.

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UNCTAD(United Nation Conference on Trade and Development). (2017). Beyond Austrarity: Towards Global New Deal. Geneva: United Nations. UNECA(United Nations Economic Commission for Africa). (2011). Towards a Sustainable Tourism Industry in Eastern Africa. Geneva: United Nations. UNEP(United Nations Environmental Program). (2011). Emerging Issues in Global Environment. Geneva: United Nations. UNWTO(United Nations World Tourism Organization). (2014). International Conference on Managing Seasonality in Tourism. Tirana, Albania:UNWTO. Valle, E., & Yobesia, N. (2009). Economic contribution of tourism in Kenya. Tourism Analysis, 14, 4001–4414. Veena, T. (2019). Seasonality in Tourism: The Case of Oman. Journal of Tourism and Management Research, 4(2), 443–476. DOI: 10.26465/ojtmr.2018339522 Weaver, D., & Lawton, L. (2014). Tourism Management, 5th Edition. Austria: John Wiley and Sons Limited. Weru, J., Siloma, & Murgan. (2007). Making Tourism Work for Local Communities: Empowering Local producers to Supply Tourism Enterprises in Amboseli Region, Kajiado District. Nairobi: SNV Netherland Development Organization – Kenya. Weru, J., Siloma, & Murgan. (2006). Making Tourism Work for Local Communities: Empowering Local producers to Supply Tourism Enterprises in Amboseli Region, Kajiado District. Nairobi: SNV Netherland Development Organization – Kenya. Wickham, P. (2006). Strategic Entrepreneurship, Fourth Edition. England: Pearson Limited Company. World Bank. (2010). Finance and Private Sector Development: African Region. New York. World Bank. World Tourism Organization(UWTO) and European Travel Commission(ETC). (2011). Handbook on Product Development. Madrid-Spain: UNWTO and ETC. WWF(World Wide Fund for Nature). (2001). Guideline for Eco Tourism Develoment. UK: WWF International.

Dennis Karanja, Carolyne Wanza and Fred K. Ngunjiri

16 Measuring Tourism Destination Sustainability: A Landscape Performance Approach Introduction Tourism directly and indirectly provides 10% of available jobs worldwide (UNWTO, 2017; World Travel & Tourism Council, 2019) with 1 in 5 jobs generated in 2017 being in travel and tourism (World Travel & Tourism Council, 2019). Tourism generates more than 10% of total world revenue (Nagarjuna, 2015; Pan et al., 2018), and being among the fastest growing industries, makes significant contribution to the world economy, especially in developing countries. Besides creating jobs, tourism attracts investments, increases foreign exchange earnings, and accelerates development of infrastructure and economic activities, and development of traditional resources and contemporary tourism products among host communities (Chhabra & Phillips, 2009; Nagarjuna, 2015; Pan et al., 2018; Selmanaj, 2018; Shariffuddin & Azinuddin, 2016; Vallabh et al., 2017). International tourists numbers are projected to reach 1.8 billion in 2030 (World Tourism Organization, 2017). In Kenya, tourism has been a major income earner (Akama et al., 2011), with annual income increasing from KES 119.9 billion in 2017 to 163.7 billion in 2019 (Alushula, 2020; Tourism Research Institute, 2018). This income derives from an intertwined triad of dependency among tourism, wildlife and the landscape. It would seem logical to increase the number of consumers for an absolute increase in tourism income. Although growth is desirable, increasing tourist numbers in various destinations raises concerns and provoke debates on sustainability (Oklevik et al., 2019). Tourism destinations, and in particular host landscapes are affected by development and expansion of tourism. Tourism growth and activities impact biodiversity, communities, cultures, the environment, ecosystems, habitats and landscapes while contributing to climate variability (Boluk et al., 2019; Pan et al., 2018; World Tourism Organization, 2017). To sustain and increase tourism incomes, appropriate responses should include building inclusive local economies in the host tourism destinations (World Tourism Organization, 2017), and managing landscape based resources sustainably in face of intensifying local, regional and global competition. To do so, it is not enough to claim sustainability, but there ought to be ways to measure sustainability of tourism destinations. The UNWTO defines tourist destination as the place visited that is central to the decision to take the trip. This chapter has unpacked this definition to include the assemblage of landscapes, buildings and associated infrastructure that host tourism https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110702491-016

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activities in such places. This unpacking helps us address the sustainability of particular elements of the assemblage. More specifically, we treat the greater Maasai Mara as a tourism destination, and investigate a small part of it, namely the Naboisho Eagle View Camp. By doing so, we demonstrate an assessment methodology than can be applied to the wider tourism destination to measure sustainability. This chapter introduces the landscape performance approach (LPA) in measuring sustainability of tourism destinations. This is done by use on an interpretive case study of Mara Naboisho Eagle View Camp in the wider Maasai Mara. Sustainability in general and its application to tourism destinations are discussed. The why and how of assessing sustainability are examined, and the landscape performance approach presented. The LPA is used to assess sustainability of the Eagle View Camp. Study findings are discussed and implications for assessing tourism sustainability of tourism destinations drawn. The chapter is presented in six sections. Section one introduces the subject matter and the aim of the chapter. Section two examines sustainability generally and from the lens of tourism destinations. The role of sustainability in tourism, and the segments of sustainable tourism are reviewed. The why and how of assessing sustainability are discussed. Section three presents the case study approach used in the research, while section four introduces the LPA. Section five is an application of the LPA to the Mara Naboisho Eagle View Camp. Finally, section six discusses the implications for sustainability assessments in tourism destinations.

Sustainable Development and Tourism Sustainability Debates in Tourism Sustainability, sustainable development and sustainable tourism are often used interchangeably in the tourism contexts (Liu, 2003). Broadly, sustainability means “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Brundtland et al., 1987) or development aimed at balancing current and future socio-economic interests with earth’s finite resources (Boluk et al., 2019). Globally the United Nations (UN) has proposed seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to address sustainability challenges and ensure the wellbeing of people, environmental protection, and development of robust economies worldwide (Pradhan et al., 2017). While sustainability assumes and expects static conditions into the future, sustainable development implies those processes that manage change to improve conditions (Liu, 2003). SDG 12, sustainable consumption and production, strives to decouple economic development from environmental degradation, improve efficiency, and promote

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sustainable lifestyles. This couples perfectly to contemporary tourism which according to Ko (2005), prides itself with sustainability as one of its key goals. Applied in tourism context, SDG 12 can play a critical role of accelerating a shift to sustainable consumption and production in tourism destinations. This envisages robust and sustainable environmental and social economic performance (UNWTO, 2017). This might imply questioning how activities in tourism destinations are consumed and how their impacts on host landscapes are addressed. Sustainable tourism are all types of tourism that support or contribute to sustainable development (Liu, 2003). Sustainable tourism aims at reducing the negative impacts of tourism on the environment, culture, and economy (Pan et al., 2018). It seeks to balance the requirements of tourism development with protection of the environment (Hunter, 1995). Owing to diverse perspectives of sustainability, varied interests of players, sustainability in tourism generates vigorous debates (Johnston, 2014). Debates on sustainability of tourist destinations are evolving rapidly (Haaland & Aas, 2010), with sustainability claims attracting applause and critique in equal measure (See for example, Boluk et al., 2019; Hsu et al., 2020; Ko, 2005; Oklevik et al., 2019). Tourism is faced with more discerning clientele who prefer environmentally low impact travel and destinations. Destination operators often appeal to the sustainable tag for competition, differentiation, and marketing (Font & McCabe, 2017; Pomering et al., 2011; Vinzenz et al., 2019), for certification or to meet regulatory standards (Mycoo, 2006). Sustainable tourism is appealed to as a development strategy as well (Carter et al., 2015). Evidently then, tourism destination design and operations are informed by diverse interests, but regardless of the originators, impacts are always felt and are visible on the host landscape. Whether sustainability claims are made with view to marketing or meeting regulatory standards (Font & McCabe, 2017; Mycoo, 2006; Vinzenz et al., 2019), there is need for robust tools and methods to assess sustainability.

Landscape Sustainability and Ecotourism Why should we take a landscape approach to sustainability? Primarily because sustainability is about use and is place (landscape) based. This means that, the landscape as a legible canvas (Wu, 2019) tells stories of the patterns of consumption of natural resources through for example resource and energy footprints. Landscape is central to sustainability, liveability, and resilience. It is notable that carbon neutrality, biodiversity conservation, human wellbeing, and robust economies are unachievable without considering landscape solutions (Landscape Architecture Foundation, 2018). It is on the landscape where sustainability or lack thereof is made visible. Sustainable tourism is based on among others landscape, cultural and wildlife assets, and aims at economically empowering communities for development and poverty reduction (Manyara & Jones, 2007). It is, however, unclear how sustainability can be

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fully appropriated in tourism, assessed and measured robustly, and in replicable ways with specific regard to the landscape. Ecotourism, a segment within tourism focuses on environmental and ecological sustainability (Pan et al., 2018). It focuses on responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, improves/sustains the wellbeing of the local people, and involves interpretation and education including of both guests and locals (Blangy & Mehta, 2006; The International Ecotourism Society, 2016). The travel should involve low negative impact on the environment (Wood, 2002). Increasingly, the businesses and consumers of ecotourism services are becoming more sensitive to the image and practice of ecotourism (Odiara, 2016) in a bid to cut the negative impacts caused by the pursuit of tourism’s hedonistic ends through what is known as responsible tourism (Fennell, 2008). This is a key element of sustainable tourism, and the moral and ethical implications auger well for sustainable development generally (Bramwell et al., 2008). For facility operators, responsible tourism has been shown to improve stakeholder relationships, and key among other things, signal a better market standing (Camilleri, 2016). Providing evidence through landscape performance is, we feel, a significant value proposition for tourism facility operators. It is hoped that such measurements give greater credence to the claims of sustainability, and not just for the sake of badges and certifications, but for broader environmental and social good. Kenya has had a robust ecotourism field with a range of community ecotourism developments (Honey, 2009), with most of them driven by local communities. The success of wildlife conservation, and subsequently profitable tourism in Maasai Mara, depend upon support from local community stakeholders. This means that improving local livelihoods has direct positive impacts on tourism and choice of land uses (Waithaka, 2004). Conservation of socio-cultural and environmental systems are critical in maintenance and improvement of livelihoods and wellbeing (Boluk et al., 2019). Such ideals are the subject of ecotourism and sustainable tourism. There are diverse efforts to integrate sustainability into tourism at policy and in everyday operational levels. While it is generally easy to integrate sustainability into policy, it is harder to implement it in everyday operations at the local scale (Maxim, 2016; Muangasame & McKercher, 2015). To remedy this, Müller (1994) has argued for simple rather than complex interventions if sustainability goals are to be implementable and effective. Responsible tourism and ecotourism have used this simple route by embedding sustainability in tourism destinations and operations through seven principles (Fabricius & Goodwin, 2002; The International Ecotourism Society, 2016) discussed in the following sections.

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Principles of Ecotourism Ecotourism and responsible tourism have attempted to respond to the debate on sustainability in two ways. One, they presuppose that their activities and attendant impacts will in the long-term be amenable to sustainable economic, environmental, and social outcomes in tourism destinations (Butcher, 2008; Fabricius & Goodwin, 2002; Hunter, 1995; The International Ecotourism Society, 2016). They promote environmental integrity, social justice, and local benefits, while requiring visitors to take responsibility over their actions and the impacts of those actions (Fabricius & Goodwin, 2002) on tourism destinations. Two, sustainability in ecotourism is not just to be aspired to, but a critical matrix which informs the operations of ecotourism businesses (Font & McCabe, 2017; Mycoo, 2006; Odiara, 2016). These claims have been buttressed by substantive principles discussed below. Ecotourism and responsible tourism, both espouse several principles around the environment, socio-cultural and economic aspirations of visitors, facility ownership and local host communities. The two have seven broad principles enunciated in several key sources, see for example, the Cape Town Declaration (Fabricius & Goodwin, 2002) and the International Ecotourism Society (2016). One, they seek to minimize negative environmental/physical, socio-economic, and psychological impacts, and two, to build awareness, respect, and understanding of local socio-cultural and environmental issues. Three, provide positive and enjoyable experiences to hosts and visitors through meaningful connections and provide interpretive experiences which raise awareness of socio-cultural, political and environment. Four, generation of financial benefits to the private industry and the local people including employment opportunities, access to the industry, and wellbeing. Five, and closely related is generation of finances for conservation. Six, includes designing, constructing and running low impact facilities, and ensuring accessibility to the physically challenged. Seven, is mutual respect, recognition of the rights, and spiritual beliefs of the host community, working with them in partnerships for decision making and empowerment including building local pride and respect. These principles are very useful for certification, marketing, operations, and building a sense of camaraderie among operators. Several authors, for example Fabricius and Goodwin (2002), Medina (2005) and Thompson et al. (2018), have argued that the generic and normative principles of ecotourism, need to be balanced against local contexts, perspectives, understandings and governance structures. This is not to negate the usefulness of the principles, but to require that they are tested at the local scale for robustness. Assessing, measuring and documenting the application of these principles or other claims to sustainability, can sensibly inform the general debate on sustainability. This way, they are made replicable and can inform policy and decision making around sustainability. In the following section we explain the why and how of assessing sustainability.

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Assessing Sustainability In recognition of the importance of building sustainability into tourism, and concerns over increasing tourism numbers and their impacts on tourism destinations, it is important to measure sustainability of the destination landscapes (Asmelash & Kumar, 2019; Ko, 2005). Assessments help to ascertain risks to tourism and those presented by tourism in destinations (Roe et al., 2014). Sustainability in tourism is value laden and dynamic, and is contestable when diverse interests interact (Johnston, 2014). This makes measurements of claims even more critical. Ko (2005) has argued that since sustainability is not exactly something to achieve, but a goal to aspire to, this renders sustainability measurements disputable. Johnston (2014) attributes contests to assertion of different values by interested parties. Regardless, they highlight the great potential presented by sustainable development (Johnston, 2014). It is important, therefore, to employ robust assessment mechanisms to buttress sustainability claims. Without clear measurement methods, processes and tools, claims to sustainability will be prevalent, and if left unsupported will defeat the initial purpose of sustainability. Furthermore, assessments will make sustainability claims plain and transparent, and counter myths associated with costs of implementing sustainability programs. Without assessments, apathy and ignorance will reign, further exacerbating environmental conditions of tourism destinations and particularly in developing countries. Assessing sustainability is challenging due a multiplicity of aspects and approaches making the processes complex, and ineffective (Andria et al., 2020; Johnston, 2014; Ko, 2005). Research on sustainability in tourism destinations has focused on many facets such as implications on competitiveness (Islam et al., 2020), local economies (Cheng et al., 2020; Parga Dans & Alonso González, 2018) empowerment of locals (MendozaRamos & Prideaux, 2018), social impact and sustainability (Castiglioni et al., 2020; Qiu Zhang et al., 2017), resources (Vila et al., 2018) among other aspects, and often in fragmented ways. These approaches have not looked at the landscape, the host of tourism destination, associated activities and infrastructure. Tourism activities are hosted in an assemblage of landscapes, buildings and associated infrastructure, a bundling earlier defined as a tourism destination. While majority of these infrastructure are products of the design disciplines, they are rarely considered in sustainability measurements, or sometimes examined in cursory ways. However, where buildings have been considered, assessments have focused on singular aspects such as monetary costs, energy, material and water consumption, environmental friendliness (Al-Saggaf et al., 2020; An et al., 2019; Asman et al., 2019; Jalaei et al., 2020) among other things but rarely in context of tourism. Robust assessment processes and tools are needed to address this uncoordinated response to the challenges of sustainability in tourism destinations. It is important to bear in mind that whatever approaches are proposed, the assessors should have clear understanding of

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the complexity of tourism systems and the contexts and particularities of individual tourism destinations (Franzoni, 2015; Johnston, 2014). For a tourism destination to be deemed sustainable, it has to meet the needs of all stakeholders in the particular contexts (Butowski, 2019). Assessment of destinations is not just about place, but the socio-cultural, economic, environmental, psychological and emotional aspects as well (Butowski, 2019). Ecotourism and sustainable tourism cover all these aspects in the broad principles. However, there is a challenge in assessing whether these criteria are met. Although a multi-disciplinary approach to the challenges in sustainable tourism assessments has been proposed, major challenges to such assessments include one, lack of an agreed standard of what ought to be measured, and two, agreement on how to measure it. If such were agreed, they should be practical and theoretically sound (Liu, 2003). In the next section, we present the case study using the landscape performance approach LPA to assess sustainability. In particular, environmental, social and economic aspects espouse in the principles of ecotourism are assessed.

Methods Case Study Approach This section highlights the case study approach use in the study. Increasingly, there is a demand for making transparent the ways in which knowledge is sought, created and validated (Deming & Swaffield, 2011). Over the years, documentation of cases in a variety of media has formed a basis of education, testing and innovation on the one hand, and a record of development and advancement on the other (Francis, 2019). Case studies examine units of human activity (Gillham, 2000) places, events or phenomena to expose themes, trends and issues generally (Francis, 2019). The primary goal is to better understand complex phenomena (Yin, 2017) without removing the case from their real world contexts (Gillham, 2000; Yin, 2017). Case studies are very useful when boundaries between the phenomena and the contexts are not clear (Yin, 2017). The strength of a case study lies in in-depth knowledge of a unit rather than fleeting grasp of broader scope (Gerring, 2006). The purpose of this case study was to document what Gerring (2006) calls a spatially delimited phenomenon. In the study we used a descriptive approach to gain a deeper understanding of landscape sustainability of the Eagle View Camp in the Mara Naboisho Conservancy. This case study applies and tests the metrics of landscape performance approach to assess the various aspects of sustainability. The authors considered tourism destinations as performative landscapes, whether pristine with minimal human interference or cultural landscapes heavily bearing the signature of human interventions. Tourism activities, like a play, are staged on the local landscape, meaning, if we are

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to measure the sustainability of the local landscape, in effect we shall be assessing the tourism activities and their impacts and consequently the sustainability of the tourism destination, and the tourism operations on that particular landscape.

The Landscape Performance Approach (LPA) Application in Tourism The LPA examines projects for performance and benefits post construction and in use (Yang et al., 2016). This section presents the Landscape Performance Approach and its application in measuring sustainability of tourism destinations. LPA has clear and replicable assessment tools applicable at the local landscape context and scale. The LPA measures the effectiveness with which the destination landscape including land use, operations and community relations fulfil their intended purpose and contribute to sustainability. This involves assessment of progress towards environmental, social and economic goals based on measurable outcomes of benefits, and the interpretive experiences of tourists. Critically, however, from among the principles of ecotourism, we examine environmental, social, and economic facets of sustainability. We surmise that LPA is a good start but needs to be developed further not just for assessing tourist destinations but guiding their sustainable development. These aspects are presented in the following sections. Landscape performance is the “measure of the effectiveness with which landscape solutions fulfil their intended purpose and contribute to sustainability, and involves assessment of progress towards environmental, social, and economic goals based on measurable outcomes”(Landscape Architecture Foundation, 2018, p. 1). Measuring and documenting the performance of landscapes provides the following benefits. One, it forms a basis for more effective management or proposing adjustments to management regimes to improve landscape performance. Two it provides precedence lessons to inform future designs and three using evidence to bridge the knowledge gap between landscape design, development and policy realms, which demonstrates value, reduces risk for investors, and strengthens advocacy (Landscape Architecture Foundation, 2018) especially in a world that demands evidence based decision making. Additionally, the performance can be used to explore metrics and methods to quantify environmental, social, and economic benefits. For practitioners in the landscape field, they can help in keeping up to date with the state of the art and trends while the academy can use the generated materials for training purposes (Landscape Architecture Foundation, 2020). Beyond the fields of landscape architecture, these metrics provide similar value to investor and community stakeholders in ecotourism industry. The LPA is applied to an interpretive case study of Naboisho Eagle View Camp, in the Maasai Mara conservancy to assess sustainability. Our goals were not only to document this exemplar case study, but to point out how similar ecotourism destinations

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can objectively measure sustainability from the landscape point of view. The case study involved documentation of environmental, social and economic benefits with the goal of producing a case study brief for the Landscape Foundation’s Landscape Performance Series. The purpose of assessment is to borrow and test several value propositions. These are, one, a basis for more effective management and perhaps re-adjustment of management regimes to improve tourism destination landscapes. Two, the precedent lessons inform future decisions and bridging the gaps around destination design, development and policy. Three is reduction of risk for investors and strengthening advocacy, especially in a world that demands evidence based decision making, and more critically, in buttressing investment (Landscape Architecture Foundation, 2018, 2020) in the tourism sector in Kenya. By employing landscape performance, we explore and demonstrate the metrics and methods to quantify environmental, social and economic benefits to the diverse interests in the tourism industry and the tourism destination assemblage in particular.

Mara Naboisho Eagle View Camp Eagle View Camp in Naiboisho, located approximately 250km from Nairobi and adjacent to the great Mara Game Reserve. Eagle View Camp is a private eco-lodge run by Basecamp Explorer Kenya Limited (Karanja & Nthiwa, 2019). Mara Naboisho Conservancy began in 2010. There are three camps within the conservancy namely Eagle View Camp, Leopard Hill Camp and Wilderness Camp. The model is based on an innovative partnership between Basecamp and the local Maasai Koiyaki community (Basecamp Explorer, 2020). Initially designed conventionally with five guest cabins, Eagle View Camp was redesigned in partnership with HM Design with a focus on promoting wildlife protection and conservation through reduction of interference with the existing landscape and ecology of the site. In the revamped layout, the designers located the new guest cabins on existing footprints and respected the site’s topography, visual corridors, flora and fauna. The intervention allowed all-natural systems to function uninterrupted. The construction did not disturb existing trees and shrubs, with more planted after the redesign. All plants are native to the site and region. Narrow gravelled walkways are carpeted in elephant dung, and renewed as often as necessary. Signage is made from local slate. The rugged stone semi-walls of some of the structures are constructed from locally available materials, require minimal maintenance, and blend perfectly into the site. The is laid out to overlook the plains and natural waterhole, allowing guests to watch animals as they graze and drink. The designers drew on Maasai cultural practices and incorporated traditional knowledge in ensuring an environmentally, socially and economically sustainable relationship between the wild, landscape and community (Karanja & Nthiwa, 2019).

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In the following section, a detailed examination of the different facets of sustainability is presented. The methods used are highlighted, where calculations were done, these are shown and findings highlighted. While some can be quantified in monetary terms, some are reviewed from a qualitative point of view, however, this does not in any way diminish or distract from their importance in the whole sustainability matrix. We have categorized the project’s measurable aspects into three: environmental, social and economic sustainability and benefits.

Environmental Sustainability and Environmental Benefits Land Efficiency and Preservation Methods: Visual cues, site observations and comparisons of before and after development over a period of time were used to assess environmental change over the period 2012–2019. Findings: The project was executed with limited site disturbance in form of tree cutting and earthmoving. In planning, the layout used existing infrastructure including vehicular and human movement on site. To reduce disturbance further, new cottages/tents were constructed on brownfield footprints where previous ones stood. The research team relied on interviews with key informants, including the client, the landscape architects and key personnel who have been on site since inception, because a Master Plan was not available for comparison. We also compared 2012 and 2017 site maps from Google Earth images. While there is significant development on site in the intervening years, what is clear is that an environment sensitive approach was applied in siting the facilities. For the changes between 2012 and 2017, please see Figures 16.1 and 16.2. The second image shows the guest cabins sitting on the footprints of former cabins. Limitations: The original Master Plan before the upgrade of the original campsite was not available for comparisons. Research relied on ground observation and Google Earth images coupled with the recollections of the client and the design office. While this might be considered weak, it does not in any way impact similar comparisons if the required documents are available. Furthermore, the client, landscape architect and employees interviewed during this exercise have had clear recollection of the development over the years, and it was easy as well to observe impacts even in the immediate neighborhood.

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Figure 16.1: Eagle View Camp 2012. Source: Adapted from Karanja and Nthiwa (2019): https://earth.google.com/web/. Used with permission.

Figure 16.2: Eagle View Camp 2017. Source: Adapted from Karanja and Nthiwa (2019): https://earth.google.com/web/. Used with permission.

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Water Conservation Water resource use is implicated in SDG 12, promoting sustainable consumption and production of resources. Naboisho conservancy lies in a water scarce environment, so the need for water conservation cannot be overstated. Methods: The research team compared the zero consumption of water to that of a conventional landscape. Based on the Narok Water and Sanitation Company (NARWASCO) 2013/2014 water tariffs for Narok County (Water Services Regulatory Board, 2019) i.e. KES 170 ($1.7) per cubic metre. Findings: The Eagle View Camp landscape does not require or receive any irrigation. The designers retained the original native vegetation which naturally regenerates with the changing seasons. If there were any irrigation operations, these would negatively impact on already scarce water resources. Compared to a conventional lodge with irrigated lawns, we estimated that the eco-lodge saves approximately US $35,000 annually by not irrigating the 29 acre camp (Karanja & Nthiwa, 2019). The calculations are illustrated in Table 16.1. Table 16.1: Calculation of irrigation costs and savings. Expected usage on  Acres

Item Water consumption in cubic metres

Cost* in US$

per day



per month

,

per month

,

Annual

,

Source: Adapted from Karanja and Nthiwa (2019) Used with permission. *Water rates- US$1.7 per cubic metre

Limitations: Specific rates for irrigating a standard landscape do not exist. We however used an average based on consultation with private irrigation companies and landscape architects. This method assumed that the landscape would be irrigated everyday considering that the eco-lodge context is a dry environment (Karanja & Nthiwa, 2019).

Energy Use Methods: The current overall energy use of the site was compared to that before the upgrade. Calculations are shown in Table 16.2. Findings: Eagle View Camp currently saves 4,144 kWh of electricity monthly since the shift from fossil fuel generation to renewable solar power generation. Due

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to the distances involved conventional transmission lines from the national grid have not been economically viable. Furthermore, the visual intrusion the transmission lines would render to the landscape are not desirable. Before conversion to a sustainable eco-lodge the camp was consuming 5,335kWh of electricity monthly. With the conversion this has been reduced by 78%. Consequently, the eco-lodge saves $11,025 annually by relying on renewable energy sources. Table 16.2: Energy Calculations before and after renewable generation. Item

Before

After

Energy Source

 kva Generator

 kva generator and Solar Power

Consumption of fuel/ diesel in litres per week



*

Cost of fuel** in US$

per week



 x . = $

per month



$ x  = $

Electricity (kWh)*** consumed per month

,k ($. per kWh)

,

Electricity saving per month

, kWh – , kWh = , kWh

Cost saving per annum (US$. per kWh)

US$,

Source: Adapted from Karanja and Nthiwa (2019) Used with permission *Occasional use for backup **A litre of diesel retailed at US$1.1 ***The cost of power in Kenya was US$0.1732 per kWh and US$0.2217) in December 2012 and December 2018 respectively.

The operations still depend on diesel generation especially on the days when the skies are overcast. However, as a work in progress, it is significant to note the drastic reduction of reliance on fossil fuel for energy generation. Limitations: The above calculations are based on average fuel prices, which depend on monetary fluctuation between the United States Dollar and Kenya Shillings. The energy costs were sourced from https://stima.regulusweb.com/ last accessed 9/07/2019.

Habitat Creation, Preservation and Restoration Naboisho conservancy forms a critical habitat for species of interest, both plants and animals. It forms part of the land adjacent to Mara Game reserve which provide grazing lands for wildlife. It is critical to note that more than 70% of wildlife in Kenya exist outside the boundaries of national parks (Basecamp Explorer, 2020). It is important therefore to conserve areas outside formally designated parks.

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Methods: We used Google Earth images, ESRI ArcGIS and Graphisoft ArchiCADTM software for analysis of vegetation cover. Areas of the vegetation cover of before and after were established and a percentage of the increase derived (see Figures 16.3 and 16.4). Increased animal species presence from Basecamp Explorer Foundation estimates from 2014–2017 within the Mara Naboisho Conservancy (Basecamp Explorer, 2020; Karanja & Nthiwa, 2019).

Figure 16.3: Vegetation in form of shrubs and trees in 2012. Source: Adapted from Karanja and Nthiwa (2019): https://earth.google.com/web/. Used with permission.

Large vegetation cover increased from 24,000m2 in 2012 to more than 50,000m2 in 2017, a 108% increase (Karanja & Nthiwa, 2019). Limitations: The estimates of vegetation covered areas were made from Google Earth Pro images taken two years prior to the study (Karanja & Nthiwa, 2019). Such images are not crisp and clear and can only provide rough estimates of areas covered by the vegetation. Moreover, we focused on areas covered by shrubs and trees but we did not estimate ground covers. It is worth noting however, that ground covers are more prone to seasonal weather variations and are not included in the estimates. Findings: In the few years of operation Base Camp explorer managed to establish a tree plantation with more than a hundred thousand indigenous trees. Reforestation along River Talek has not only improved the microclimate, but more than 300 bird species and smaller wildlife have been sighted here. In 2017 alone, 15,000 trees were planted (Basecamp Explorer, 2020).

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Figure 16.4: Vegetation in form of shrubs and trees in 2017. Source: Adapted from Karanja and Nthiwa (2019): https://earth.google.com/web/. Used with permission.

Construction Methods: We compared the cost of purchasing new materials with that of repurposed materials, labor and transportation. Findings: Building stone, sand, and gravel for the walkways were harvested from within site as opposed to importing the same from commercial suppliers. Manual labor was locally sourced. The camp utilized recycled timber as well, eliminating the need to cut trees locally. An estimated $102,000 was saved by using experimental termite proof industrial hardwood timber made from waste by a Norwegian company (Karanja & Nthiwa, 2019). The use of recycled and repurposed materials enhances the sustainability of the eco-lodge by embracing SDG 12, sustainable consumption and production.

Social Sustainability and Benefits Cultural preservation and scenic quality: We surveyed 21 respondents (client and employees) who were familiar with the site before and after redevelopment about the retention of culturally significant features and values. All the 21 survey respondents felt that the sight was well preserved and in congruence with local culture.

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With regard to scenic quality, we surveyed 36 respondents (including visitors on site during the research days). All 36 respondents surveyed about scenic and aesthetic value felt that the eco-lodge was appealing with a greater perception of scenic and aesthetic value (Karanja & Nthiwa, 2019). Methods: We conducted a survey of site users, mainly local community members, familiar with the before and after conditions of the eco-lodge, to determine whether they felt that the site had been significantly altered or preserved. Thirty six respondents were surveyed to determine their perception of the degree to which site interventions changed their perceptions about scenic quality and aesthetic value (Karanja & Nthiwa, 2019).

Economic Sustainability and Benefits Operations and Maintenance Savings Methods: We compared the estimated amount of money spent per visitor for maintenance, labor activities, and fuel costs for before and after scenarios. The cost of maintenance was reduced due to the use of locally sourced natural materials that do not require maintenance These included slate, gravel, elephant dung among others (Karanja & Nthiwa, 2019). Findings: The eco-lodge saves US$7 per day, an estimated US$29,000 annually, on a per-visitor basis in operations and maintenance costs. During construction the eco-lodge saved an estimated US$378,000 in materials, labor, and transport costs during the construction phase (Karanja & Nthiwa, 2019). Table 16.3: Calculations of before and after per visitor maintenance costs. Item

Before ()

After ()

,

,



*

,

,

Daily





Annual



,

Number of visitors Per visitor maintenance cost in US$

Daily Annual

Per visitor maintenance cost savings in US$

Source: Adapted from Karanja and Nthiwa (2019) Used with permission *A US$7 saving per visitor on maintenance costs after refurbishment.

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Visitor Spending and Earned Income Methods: Management were interviewed about the number of visitors and spending. Findings: The facility generates an estimated US$70,000 annually for the local community, US$50,000 from eco-lodge fees and US$20,000 through sale of beads. Additionally, an estimated 600 families are supported through land leases (Basecamp Explorer, 2020; Karanja & Nthiwa, 2019).

Job Creation Methods: Management were interviewed on the particular aspects of job creation in the development of the eco-lodge and the current operations. Findings: During the construction phase, 240 jobs were created. After construction 26 new permanent and 18 temporary jobs were created. Currently, Eagle View Camp supports 150 women through a local beading group, which indirectly supports 600 people (Karanja & Nthiwa, 2019). The wider conservancy supports around 600 landholding households through lease fees and employment of close to 3oo people, effectively supporting close to 10,000 people (Basecamp Explorer, 2020).

Construction Cost Savings Methods: Compared cost of materials, labor and transport needed to construct with estimation of what would be needed if all the eco-lodge materials were conventional and sourced away from the site. Findings: While the construction quantities were not available, several inferences were made drawn from the interviews with the design team and the clients. It was revealed that significant reductions in one-time costs associated with project implementation were attained in the project through use of readily available local material. In kind support with engineered termite proof timber saved the development US$102,000. The use of local labor resulted in a major saving as well (Karanja & Nthiwa, 2019).

Visitor Spending and Earned Income Methods: We determined the annual revenue that goes to local community from fees charged at the eco-lodge and sale of bead products by the community women’s group. Findings: The project donates $50,000 annually, which goes directly into supporting Koiyaki Guiding School as well as the primary schools serving the community

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(Karanja & Nthiwa, 2019). The wider Naboisho Conservancy has increased local community earnings threefold (Basecamp Explorer, 2020). Limitations: We could not access or publish all the financial records of the ecolodge. Whatever we publish here is already in public domain.

Job Creation Methods: The number of permanent or seasonal staff positions created were determined through management records, eco-lodge documents and interviews. Findings: The project provided jobs in different phases. At construction more than 200 jobs were created and in current operations, 26 permanent and eighteen temporary jobs are provided. Besides, the Koiyaki Guiding School trains locals in tourism business. Besides, 150 local women are engaged in the beading operations.

Discussion and Conclusion It has been argued that sustainability is a lofty ideal to aspire to and not achieve. However, from examining ecotourism particularly and tourism in general, and the emerging discourse, sustainability cannot be wished away. While models exist to assess sustainability in diverse field such as engineering, architecture, construction, and so on, often tourism is lagging behind. Whereas such models or frameworks have existed, they have been very generic, useful for general persuasion in sustainability, but not exactly useful at the local landscape or at individual eco-lodge scale. Principles of ecotourism and responsible tourism have also been useful but sometimes not measurable in meaningful and replicable ways. By employing landscape performance, we have explored and demonstrated the metrics and methods to quantify environmental, social and economic benefits to the diverse interests in the tourism industry and the tourism destination assemblage in particular. Barring the limitations highlighted in this study, it is clear that measuring sustainability can be brought from the lofty heights of academia and applied in very simple and demonstrable ways in everyday operations of the landscape. What this does is to afford the tourism destination operators, and other users for that matter, accessible methods to measure their operations without reverting to anecdotal claims or spurious arguments. Landscape performance approach while very useful has its limitations. It can best be applied to projects which lend themselves best to post-occupancy evaluation. This can be achieved by meticulously documenting the various aspects of tourism destination development for example. This is not a big challenge per se since most ecotourism destination in their quest for certification are already keeping clear

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records. Perhaps what is needed is educating designers and destination development planners and practitioners (owners, operators) on the “how-tos” of assessing sustainability in general. The Landscape Performance approach, while borrowed from the wider landscape architecture practice offers a decent start off for assessing sustainability ecotourism destinations, and is overall appropriate to such since they are already embedded in local landscapes.

Declaration of Interests We acknowledge funding from The Landscape Architecture Foundation’s Case Study Investigation Program 2019. The case study was done in collaboration with HM Design, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA. We confirm that there is no conflict of interest and that the views expressed herein are solely those of the authors.

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Ongoma Felix Mark Otieno and Alan Dixon

17 Featured Example: Community-Based Ecotourism in Laikipia, Kenya Introduction Community-based ecotourism (CBE) can be defined as tourism in natural environments, with attractions owned and managed by the community where the benefits are intended to be delivered to community. They are bottom-up activities where decision making and implementation process comes from the community and bring different stakeholders to work for achieving desired goals of conservation, local livelihood improvement and development of tourist facilities (Menbere, Abie, Desta & Gerbu, 2018). The aim of the different stakeholders is to bring great input which will be essential in deciding the direction of the initiatives. Emphasis is usually on local participation and handing over of control to community as it is believed this will often result in more benefits to communities and support livelihoods. CBE is designed to generate benefits for local community that lead to diversification of local economy through revenue generation, job creation, creation of entrepreneurial opportunities for different skill levels in the community, conservation of natural and cultural resources. Kenya Tourism Agenda 2018–2022 identifies opportunities in CBE which include developing products around local wildlife, nature and scenic resources. It also aims at training, mentoring and coaching CBE initiatives as part of human capital resources.

Goals of CBE For CBE to be effective, it is important to balance economic, social and environmental objectives so as to achieve sustainable development. Laikipia Kenya features some award-winning CBEs in Kenya, among them Il Ngwesi Community Lodge.

Economic Goals Tourism in developing countries has been seen as an industry that can provide much-needed economic benefits in rural and remote areas to communities that lack knowledge and financial resources to take part in tourism development without external support (Yanes, Zielinski, Diaz Cano & Kim, 2019). In Africa, tourism is largely dependent on unskilled labor and is dominated by MSMEs. These two elements enable https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110702491-017

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CBE to create economic opportunities in rural areas through creation of jobs and integration of small businesses. In Kenya, tourism is developed around the beach and wildlife. Both the Kenyan coast and wildlife protected areas are around communal lands. Laikipia, a wildlife, adventure, and leisure destination with a large percentage of highend tourism lodges in Kenya, has taken advantage of presence of communities with wildlife on their land to promote CBE. Development of CBE in Laikipia has been boosted by diversity of the attractions within the destination, and enthusiasm of the local people for tourism, and access to and ownership of resources by communities. Other aspects such as infrastructural developments and access to market have been an added value. CBE has created benefits such as employment opportunities which range from low-wage entry level to high-paying professional level jobs that have improved household income and access to education and healthcare. CBEs have also ignited entrepreneurship leading to emergence of diverse micro, small, and medium enterprises. With the tourism income circulating within the destination, economic impact has been demonstrated.

Social goals CBE should be framed within the local cultural and social circumstances that is meant to enhance respect and interest in local natural history and culture and encourage the sharing of expectations and ideas between tourists and locals. The growth of tourism has seen the quality of life of those working improve in local communities. In Laikipia and other rural parts of Kenya, that are tourism destinations, communities have pooled their land to form wildlife conservation areas known as community group conservancies. These conservancies, which are models of CBEs, are dependent on tourism. Tourism income from these conservancies has seen schools and health facilities being built for and by the communities, bursary provided to meet tuition fees for high school and college students, and water and energy poverty addressed. With easy access to clean water, women have time to work in income generating activities such as beading and weaving, whereas the girls have time to attend school regularly. Interactions, both social and official have improved because of infrastructure development which was initially developed to sustain tourism activities. There are renewed efforts to preserve and protect local culture because of tourism, which is a significant consumer of culture. Some cultures and tribes that would have disappeared are being rejuvenated and documented because of CBE in Laikipia. These opportunities are not without challenges. Erosion and commercialization of culture is a concern. There have been instances of hostility towards tourism in times of drought when local pastoralists search for pasture and invade conservation areas and general issues around access, equity in benefit sharing and governance.

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Environmental Goals The conservation and sustainable use of natural resources are requirements for long-term maintenance of nature-based tourism and ecotourism and are the main benefits most frequently mentioned by the communities (Yanes et al., 2019). Tourism in Kenya is principally nature-based. This is true for wildlife and beach tourism, which are the leading products. Because travelers are becoming more aware of invisible and visible impacts of travel, Kenya has been in the forefront in protecting nature, through state owned, private and community conserved areas. This has enabled wildlife in these protected areas to thrive and kept from further ecological decline. Environmental protection in Kenya is backed by several laws to ensure reversal of loss of biodiversity and enhancing of value of natural areas and natural resources. CBEs add credence to the country’s commitment to environmental protection as they demonstrate citizen engagement. Laikipia is one of few counties in Kenya that have a land-use plan in which private and community conserved areas are recognized. Success or failure of the land-use is significantly dependent on CBEs. The CBEs have been impactful in reducing deforestation, poaching, hunting, charcoal burning and protection of savannahs for wildlife and livestock of local communities. It is a model of co-existence.

Laikipia as a CBE Destination Laikipia region is considered a tourist goldmine due to its rich wildlife heritage. It has the highest concentration of endangered species in the country. It stands out as one of only few places without any formal Protected Area status but where wildlife thrives, across vast expanses of private and communal land, due to CBEs and ecotourism (Laikipia Wildlife Forum, 2011). Among acclaimed CBEs in Laikipia are: Il Ngwesi community lodge, Ngare Ndare Forest, a CBE run enterprise, works with different establishments in Lewa Wildlife Conservancy, Borana Conservancy, and others because they are only a day experience product. Tassia Lodge, a private lodge on community land of the Lekerruki Conservancy. Other lodges in Laikipia that work with CBEs are Loisaba and Star Bed CBEs, Ol-Lentille. Some of the stakeholders in CBEs in Laikipia include: The Northern Rangelands Trust which supports community conservancies in the region; Laikipia Wildlife Forum, a membership based conservation and environmental organization serving the communities in the region; Ol Jogi Wildlife Conservancy; ILMAMUSI Mukogodo Forest Association – ILMAMUSI being an acronym derived from the group ranches surrounding the Mukogodo Forest namely Ilngwesi, Makurian, Mukogodo and Sieku, the County Government of Laikipia among others.

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Figure 17.1: Sundowner at Il Ngwesi – Laikipia Region. Source: Photo by Il Ngwesi. Used with permission.

References Laikipia Wildlife Forum. (2011). Laikipia: A Natural History Guide. Nairobi: The Regal Press Kenya Limited. Menbere, I., Abie, K., Desta, H., & Gebru, G. (2018). ResearchGate. In Community Based Ecotourism and Its Role in Local Benefit and Community Perceptions of Resource Conservation: A Case Study in Adaba-Dodola Districts, South Ethiopia. Yanes, A., Zielinski, S., Diaz Cano, M., & Kim, S.-I. (2019). Community-Based Tourism in Developing Countries: A Framework for Policy Evaluation. Sustainability, 11(9).

Part IV: Dialogues on Communities

Judy Kepher-Gona and Lucy Atieno

18 Community-Based Tourism in Africa What is Community-Based Tourism? Community-based tourism (CBT) has diverse interpretations that can be either be viewed on a stand-alone basis or be merged for stronger definition. The three main interpretations are: 1. CBT is tourism that benefits host communities. This was predominantly the earlier understanding of CBT. A development to this view, is the focus of benefits of CBT on community sustainability, where Zang, Xiong, Lee, Ye and Nunkoo (2020) examine social impacts from tourism on social capital. Overall, the ultimate aim of these benefits was to make tourism sustainable by empowering communities (Mtapuri & Giampiccoli, 2016), e.g., through economic benefits from community-based tourism enterprises (CBTEs) (Manyara & Jones, 2007), or to alleviate poverty (Dodds, Ali & Galaski, 2018). 2. CBT means tourism experiences taking place in community areas. Examples in academic literature often present CBT in relation to localities, (see Ndlovu, 2014) for the example of Community-Based Natural Resource Management Programme in Namibia. CBT within community locations could be initiated by communities themselves, or by actors outside the community (Mtapuri & Giampiccoli, 2016). A question to think about is whether communities see the definitions of their initiatives as community-based. 3. CBT is about tourism experiences designed and offered by host communities. Much of this is about community participation in tourism processes (Ndlovu, 2014; Okazaki, 2008), often within their localities. Okazaki (2008) explains that in such participation, there are diverse actors with power relations, social capital creation and interests in cooperation, which may influence inclusion or exclusion in the participatory process. Across the three interpretations, community hosting is a pre-condition for CBT. So, what does it mean to host CBT?

Hosting Community-Based Tourism Hosting CBT implies allowing visitors their right to stay and experience tourism products and services for and by community. The biggest unresolved puzzle in hosting CBT is the question of motivations, or lack of. This is seen when involved stakeholders have strongly opinionated differences on issues central to CBT. For example, https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110702491-018

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the question of locale, ownership and identity remain key in hosting communitybased tourism, as is in the meaning of CBT. Other concerns revolve around source of invested resources, investor association, ownership of built infrastructure and systems that support CBT. At the core of the concerns is whether CBT can be hosted by non-community parties. Is it still CBT when a foreign or external investor develops a tourism initiative within a communal area with community assets as the key attraction? Or is a tourism development in a remote area that depends on community labor and other resources, a CBT by virtue of being in a rural area? Concerns notwithstanding, destinations hosting CBT must have a range of experiences on offer, and local communities have some levels of ownership in these. Products in CBT may include cultural tourism, heritage tourism, wildlife tourism, nature tourism, adventure tourism, philanthropic tourism and “project tourism,” among others. Products like culture, heritage, and nature, are often communally owned by destination hosts. Hosts may be integrated into mainstream tourism through roles in interpretation based on products derived from resources they own, and also by respecting their rights to use, access, own, and manage such resources which are beneficial to tourism. Wildlife tourism in Kenya is an example. It can be categorized as CBT in some areas because of the entry of community conserved areas in the wildlife conservation space, making community landowners an integral part of wildlife tourism. Ownership of resource is therefore key to host community tourism. This is also the situation in southern Africa, where local communities with access to wildlife in Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe, are involved wildlife conservation through the Kavango Zambezi Trans frontier Conservation Area. Such involvement allows communities to access opportunities through wildlife tourism to break through to mainstream tourism as owners and suppliers of experiences. Resource management is an opportunity to host community-based tourism. This approach can be described as project tourism. Project tourism is non-governmental organization (NGO) led community initiative, and can cut across cultural, heritage, wildlife and other forms of tourism in community areas. By initiating projects to manage a resource that they don’t own, and which is attractive for tourism, communities can become hosts. Project tourism fills the gap for community development that would have been occupied by integrative policies, to create opportunities for communities to integrate in tourism effectively. Historically in CBT in Kenya, there has been a lot of NGO engagement through project tourism. Here, project tourism has the highest fatalities in CBTE because of lack of initial ownership by the communities engaged. Lack of community ownership of value proposition in CBT project initiatives is a common problem in emerging destinations and established destinations Africa. Actualizing CBT involves negotiation of aforementioned issues to authenticate readiness for hosting across stakeholder networks, their interests, and institutional influences. These negotiations, whether backed by community motivations to host tourism or not, show that CBT acknowledges the important invitational role that communities play to allow visitors to destinations. CBT therefore brings forth some

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element of defiance to the conventional understanding of tourism as an activity solely involving freedoms to travel.

How has Community-Based Tourism been Actualized in Africa? This section is based on our accounts of field experience over the years working with communities in tourism across multiple destinations in Africa, consulting for business stakeholders on corporate community engagement in tourism, and advisory roles for CBT stakeholders on building responsive partnerships with communities. Enablers of CBT actualization are not only domiciled within tourism. This status has roots in historical development of tourism in many nations in Africa. In most Eastern and Southern African countries, where wildlife tourism dominates, there is a strong link between colonialism and wildlife tourism. These links partially explain inherent exclusion of communities from tourism high table and emergence of activism-like movements and NGOs that lobby for their integration. Other enablers are government departments, tourism trade associations, community-based organizations (CBOs), and tourism private sector businesses. NGOs approach is to support community-led associations with interest on CBT. Examples of associations spearheaded by NGOs that actualize CBT in Africa include Communal Areas Management Programs for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) of Zimbabwe, Namibia Community-Based Tourism Association (NACOBTA) of Namibia, Kenya Community Based Tourism (KECOBAT) of Kenya, Uganda Community Tourism Association (UCOTA) of Uganda, Kenya Wildlife Conservancies Association (KWCA) and Tanzania Association of Cultural Tourism (TACTO) among others. The NGO effect has influenced objectives of CBT, towards community development agenda through emphasis on good governance, resource management, poverty reduction, peaceful coexistence, economic empowerment, community participation, good representation, compensation / restitution for injustices, fair distribution of opportunities and benefits, and less on product development, quality and market access. This explains why success stories of community-based tourism are found in websites of development organizations and NGOs, as opposed to destination tourism statistics, reports, and tourism information websites. Tourism trade associations as enablers in actualization of CBT in Africa, have focused on product development, quality control, and market access through businesses development services. Ecotourism Kenya, Responsible tourism Tanzania and Fair-Trade Tourism South Africa, are examples of trade association with programs to actualize CBT.

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The approach of tourism businesses as enablers of CBT actualization, has been to offer markets for CBT products by promoting them as niche products or authentic experiences. They enable direct consumption of CBT products by taking customers to communities, and indirectly by selling community art and craft away from the production areas. They also locate their investments in community areas or comanage community tourism assets through joint ventures. The role of community-based organizations (CBOs) in actualization of CBT in Africa is advanced in the wildlife sector. In adventure tourism, where risks are high and equipment costly, CBOs cede their roles to tourism businesses voluntarily or through hostile supply chains. CBOs have recorded some success in actualization of culture and heritage tourism. Engagement of governments in actualization of CBT in Africa cuts across the activities of NGOs, tourism trade associations, CBOs and tourism businesses, but is challenged in commitment and consistency. Policy documents for actualization of CBT exist but their actualization is limited to competing needs for funds available for tourism development in government budgets. In East Africa, community-based organizations actualizing CBT are mainly funded by donors and NGOs. CBT mosaic in Africa is defined by community access to natural resources that can be utilized for tourism, ownership of tourism infrastructure mainly built through donor funding e.g., the case Il Ngwesi in Kenya, the first community owned lodge built through donor support, and development of socio-cultural assets owned by communities for tourism e.g., cultural centers, community museums and historic trade or slave routes. Some of these are owned by communities while others are managed through state or agencies external to communities. Other defining attributes are organised festivals and cultural events. In South Africa, the tradition of craft beer festival has led to development of a niche product of beer tourism (Hermann, Boshoff & Ncala, 2020). In many instances cultural events are organized by parties external to communities e.g., the Turkana festival and Rusinga festival in Kenya, or even the growing number of city festivals across Africa. Culture remains dominant be it through festivals, demonstrations, craft made available to tourism as souvenirs, or art used for décor in tourism, or street food, music and dance performance.

Value of Culture in Community-Based Tourism Value in CBT relates to its set of positive characteristics, as compared to what would be a better option, worthy to the related stakeholder network in tourism. It manifests through a series of components, interacting with one another, in both qualitative and quantitative measures. The complexity of multiple interests in stakeholder networks influencing formation of value for CBT, has often resulted to dissenting judgements of qualities of value. Even the economic value of CBT, lacks consensus

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among stakeholders’ proxy to tourism. Where the economic valuation has a strong bias linking CBT to its concept of utility, the worth could be inappropriate for communities hosting tourism. On the other hand, value in intrinsic qualities of a community in CBT, could be in line with the existence of universal value. Culture is perceived as a main pull factor in considerations to travel, and it is a significant dimension for CBT in Africa. This is also true to other destinations worldwide. Throsby (2001) identifies six main components of cultural value, which include: aesthetic value linked to elements of beauty, and can be influenced by fashion or style; spiritual value, in the context of religion; social value in the sense of belonging and connecting to a community; historical value reflecting continuity between the past and present; symbolic value which views components of culture as attached to some meaning; and, authenticity value referring to originality in culture. For the context of CBT in Africa, a set of these components, matched to an economic value, results in cultural tourism product. In Kenya, Maasai culture dominates and is one of the attractions found in the destination marketing material, riding on authenticity and aesthetic value salient in Maasai lifestyles. Wine tasting and jazz festivals are consistent with South African tourism brand, closely relating to historic value in past traditions. The pyramids of Egypt, the bushmen of Namibia and food and art in Morocco are other examples. These examples show that a cultural itinerary presented in CBT, will foreground a select set of values perceived to be worthy to particular stakeholder’s interests. The translation of this value to meaningful income for communities remains elusive for Africa. Communities in tourism and CBT ventures are not among the big earners in tourism. Their records are not isolated in tourism statistics, at destination level, or in global tourism mega data. This is the paradox of community poverty in destinations rich in community assets that are used in and for tourism. In Kenya, for example, a Maasai cultural experience earns the community US$20, the same price of a meal in a high-end tourism facility. Comparatively, wildlife tourism charges US$100 per person per day and more as entry fees to wildlife conservation areas. Additional fees are charged for bush breakfasts or dinners which could cost up to US$300 per person. A community dance or performance and other experiences in a center- owned and managed by community-based organizations (CBOs) are grouped and charged as one, at very low rates. This example is typical of challenges of economic valuation of community assets in tourism, an element that continues to exclude CBT from tourism supply chain. This also explains the add on approach to CBT by frontline tourism operators.

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Community Empowerment as Key Defining Characteristic A cross cutting goal for the aforementioned interpretations of CBT is their ambition to support community development. Despite this noble intent, in destinations across Africa, as well as other parts of the globe, failures of CBT to achieve goals for community empowerment, only warn that the tourism model could be at crossroads, because we have different interpretations for it to inform practice. First, the emphasis on benefits has a connotation of handouts, and when solely used to conceptualize CBT, allows tourism to be developed without communities being part of it, as they only feature in benefits. This school of thought to mean benefits perpetuates systemic exclusion of communities in tourism supply chain and tourism policy. Secondly, CBT, could be created by community for particular opportunities presented in tourism. When this is done as an afterthought, communities may be detached from the performances reducing their authenticity, because they have just been created not to miss out on tourist spend. Thirdly, despite some models allowing for CBT to be designed and offered by communities, few of these exist for communities to offer it the way the way they want to offer it. Thus, there is a growing consciousness on the place of community-led tourism, as a higher level of CBT, because of its evidence of aligning to community interests. Ideally, empowerment through CBT should capture aspects of social sustainability, i.e., economic empowerment, social empowerment, psychological empowerment and political empowerment. Over the years, it was thought that ownership and economic support was ultimate for CBT, and everything else would work for tourism. However, our observations in field experience in multiple destinations across Africa, shows that community will only own and support what they help to create, and that which brings them pride. When money and other benefits overrides other values, communities will revolt, i.e., reject tourism. The underlying cause for rejection is that tourism presents a view of CBT that is contradictory to what communities live by as defining narrative for CBT.

Who Owns the Narrative that Defines CBT? As much as the definition of CBT may remain consistent, its meaning is different for different stakeholders in tourism owing to their different interests and expectations. We mapped interests and expectations of different stakeholders in CBT, and this revealed that stakeholders interested in CBT live by different narratives. NGOs promote the empowerment narrative. As a result, success matrix for this model will include number of community-led organizations established and operating, number of trainings sessions held and attendees, governance models adopted,

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new partnerships developed, level of restoration of natural and cultural assets as well as products developed. Record of revenue generated is kept, but it is the distribution model that is more important than amount generated. The adequacy of revenue generated, and competitiveness are secondary to community cohesion and resource/ asset management. This model is received by communities because it comes with “free” money. Tourism businesses promote the authenticity narrative because they can sell CBT as a niche product. In tourism, niche is synonymous with prime, and prime can be valued higher economically, without interrogation. For promoters of authenticity narrative, success is measured in limited community adaption of modern lifestyles, like improved housing or use of technology. Authentic is interpreted to mean ancient or primitive. In Kenya, some tourism businesses have voiced against Maasai building modern housing or mixing traditional clothing with modern shoes and other adornments like watches. They want their guests to meet the Maasai as portrayed in tourism promotional literature, i.e., showcasing the authenticity value. Trade associations straddle between the empowerment, authenticity and income generation narrative. Their engagement is programmatic and influenced by funding they receive to support CBT. Their engagement is often confusing to CBT and communities. The absence of certification programs for CBT in Africa and the fact that CBT data is often missing from tourism statistics is a sign of failure by trade associations to represent CBT effectively. It should be noted that trade associations are link with government agencies and trade. Each of the aforementioned narratives glorifies communities hosting tourism in order to appropriate successes to stakeholders behind the narratives. The meaning of CBT thus changes depending on where to appropriate some credits.

Limitations to Optimising CBT CBT has had its successes and limitations. Notable challenges that limit optimisation include: 1. The ad hoc engagement or opportunistic engagement of communities by tourism stakeholders derails developmental intent in CBT. Community engagement as an interactional process between communities and tourism/conservation, should have outcomes aligned to community welfare and social license for tourism/conservation to operate/ exist. Nonetheless, some corporate partnerships and NGO project engagements have been very opportunistic, to serve self-pursuits with little regard for community priorities. Thus, not every CBT initiative is sustainable, especially as regards the question of economic stability versus dependency. A number of CBT operate or stay alive because of their 100% economic dependencies on donor funding. Many of the CBTE initiatives in Africa are small

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scale, and find it difficult to scale the growth ladder to transition to larger enterprises. The wrong engagement question is one of the biggest challenges in CBT. Communities will always answer in the affirmative when confronted with a question of need to benefit. The need or desire by community to benefit from cultural, social, and natural assets, is often misconstrued to mean acceptance of tourism. Yet the two are different. This explains why communities describe CBTs different from tourism partners and funders or donors. Tourism operators see CBTs first as products, then as empowerment models for purposes of being politically correct in the sustainable tourism space. Communities perceive CBTs as income generation activities, all other elements are secondary. Funders perceive CBTs as empowerment models, anchored on good governance of cultural, social and natural assets. In some destinations, cosmetic policies and frameworks for CBT are created because it is politically correct to do it at that particular time. For example, Kenya developed a framework for CBT. However, the applicability of this framework in marketing strategy or product reinvention, is not clear as there is scant, if any reference to this. Thus, models that would pass as CBT are yet to fully integrate to mainstream tourism. The disconnect between CBT and mainstream tourism comes out of ownership of the narrative that defines community-based.

While explaining that the COVID-19 pandemic is a wake-up call to reframe tourism for global consciousness in a way that matches closely with the UN SDGs, Rogerson and Baum (2020), are particular on the need for redefining community-based tourism in Africa. In this redefinition, the researchers give agency to host communities in tourism to lead processes to “remodel their tourism offering to comply with changing demands of post-COVID-19 visitors, refocus their offerings to accommodate new markets, or move out of tourism all together” (Baum & Rogers, 2020, p. 735). Where host community lacks motivation for hosting tourism, then the option of moving out of tourism seems best. Also, the options to refocus offerings to comply with changing market demands post pandemic should be informed deliberations from communityled approaches. This means tourism opening up for deliberations with communities, to guide sustainable pathways for CBT development.

Conclusion As the post pandemic era challenges tourism to re envision its future, the concept of CBT can be leveraged to highlight a renewed outlook to understanding the hosting dimension of tourism as complimentary to the dominant mobilities angle. In Africa, CBT pursues goals of community empowerment, but some limitations hinder successful

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outcomes. Notably, the way CBT has been actualized today across destinations in Africa, paves way for opportunistic engagement with communities by tourism stakeholders, when it is politically right to do so. As a consequence, some communities have perennially suffered from systemic exclusion from tourism value chains and exclusion from policy. What continues to bedevil the meaning and definition CBTs, is that when frameworks for CBT are developed in a top-down manner, communities’ revolt. Therefore, tourism policy processes must be inclusive of community voices in order to address these hang ups around CBT.

References Dodds, R., Ali, A., & Galaski, K. (2018). Mobilizing knowledge: Determining key elements for successand pitfalls in developing community based tourism. Current Issues in Tourism, 21(13), 1547–1568. Hermann, U., Boshoff, L., & Ncala, T. T. (2020). Understanding Beer Festival Attendee Motivations to a Craft Beer Festival in South Africa. Journal for New Generation Sciences, 17(2), 18–30. Kalén, C., & Trägårdh, N. (1998). Sustainable Use of Wildlife -A Case Study of the Campfire Programme in Zimbabwe. DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.16582.52809 Manyara, G., & Jones, E. (2007). Community-Based Tourism Entreprises Development in Kenya: An exploration of their potential as avenues of poverty reduction. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 15(6), 628–644. Mtapuri, O., & Giampiccoli, A. (2016). Towards a comprehensive moodel of community based tourism development. South African Geographical Journal, 98(1), 154–168. Ndlovu, J. (2014). Governance, Capacity and Devolution of Community Based Tourism Entreprises in Namibia: Emerging insights for human development. Indian Journal for Human Development, 8 (2), 79–92. Okazaki, E. (2008). A Community-Based Tourism Model: Its Conception and Use. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16(5), 511–529. Rogerson, C. M., & Baum, T. (2020). COVID-19 and African tourism research agendas. Development Southern Africa, 37(5), 727–741. Throsby, D. (2001). Economics and Culture. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Zang, Y., Xiong, Y., Lee, T., Ye, M., & Nunkoo, R. (2020). Sociocultural sustainability and the formation of social capital from community based tourism. Journal of Travel Research. https:// doi.org/10.1177%2F0047287520933673

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19 How COVID-19 Threatened Sustainability of Livelihoods in Tourism Destinations of Tanzania During the Second Quarter of 2020 Introduction Tourism is a heterogeneous industry that provides multiple goods and services in order to meet the needs and interests of non-residents. Such goods and services equate with tourist products or tourist experiences in tourist destinations. In this regard, Leiper (1979) explained that a tourist system constitutes of five interacting categories of elements, namely, tourists (focusing on, for instance, attitudes, perceptions, travel motivators and satisfaction levels with tourist experiences) and generating regions (where tourists come from or markets) (Figure 19.1). Others are transit routes (routes and means of transport available to get tourists from one region to the other) and destination regions (where tourists go to/location of natural and man-made features that attract tourists). Apart from leisure, tourists tend to visit destinations for purposes of business and visiting friends and relatives, and a tourist industry (how attractions can be developed to attract more tourists and enhance tourism products) (Figure 19.1).

Figure 19.1: The system of tourism. Source: Rast (2006, p. 53)

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It is worth pointing out that Europe, Asia and the Pacific, and the Americas constituted the core tourist generating and destination regions while Africa and the Middle East constituted the peripheral tourist generating and destination regions (UNTWO 2019).

Typology of Tourism There are several ways of categorizing tourism. Based on the criterion of origin and destination, tourism is either domestic or international (Rast, 2006). On the one hand, domestic tourism occurs when people take holidays and trips within countries in which they normally reside and work. On the other hand, international tourism occurs when people visit countries other than ones they reside and work. In addition, the latter can be inbound or outbound. Outbound tourism occurs when people leave countries where they reside in order to take holidays and trips abroad while inbound tourism occurs when people enter countries other than ones they reside and work in order to take holidays and trips (Rast, 2006). It is worth noting that some governments may limit movements of international tourists by denying them, for example, visas or travel permits, and by imposing quotas on inbound tourists or by introducing restrictions on the amount of money that can be taken out of the country (Li & Song, 2013, p. 2019). Despite the lack of reliable data particularly for domestic tourism, it was estimated that the total number of domestic tourists constituted slightly less than three-fourths (71.3%) of all tourists in 2019 (WTTC, 2020). Indeed, majority of domestic tourists were found in more economically developed countries (MEDCs) where personal disposable incomes were relatively higher. Besides, the total number of international tourists constituted 28.7% of all tourists in 2019 (WTTC, 2020). In 2018, the number of international tourist arrivals in Europe, Asia and the Pacific, and the Americas, constituted 51%, 25% and 15% of the global share, respectively. To the contrary, the number of international tourist arrivals in Africa and the Middle East constituted a paucity of 5% and 4% of the global share, respectively (UNTWO 2019). It is worth pointing out that the number of international tourists tend to decrease with increasing distances between generating regions and destination regions as explained by the gravity models that are derived from consumer choice theory (Morley, Rossello & Santana-Gallego, 2014). For example, countries in Northwest Africa, the Maghreb, tend to get more international tourists from Europe due to close proximity. To the contrary, countries in the East African region tend to get relatively fewer international tourists from Europe who are willing and able to travel to long-haul destinations.

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Growth of International Tourism According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO, 2020a), the total number of international tourists increased sixtyfold from 25 million in 1950 to 1.5 billion in 2019. This rapid increase of international tourists has been attributed to, inter alia, globalization as driven by technological advancement and multinational/ transnational corporations (MNCs/TNCs) that facilitated traveling (UNTWO, 2020a). The industry of tourism as coupled with travel grew rapidly during the last six decades, hence became an important driver of economic growth and development (WTTC, 2020). In 2019, for instance, the global travel and tourism industry was worth US$ 8.9 trillion, hence contributed 10.3% to the global gross domestic product (GDP). Specifically, Asia and the Pacific, Americas and Europe contributed US$ 3 trillion, US$ 2.5 trillion, and US$ 2 trillion, respectively, while the Middle East and Africa contributed US$ 245.5 billion and US$ 168.5 billion, respectively (WTTC, 2020). With regard to the latter, countries that generated largest shares were Egypt (US$ 29.5 billion), Republic of South Africa (US$ 24.6 billion) and Nigeria (US$ 18.1 billion). Additionally, the global travel and tourism industry supported 330 million jobs, equating to a tenth of global employment and a quarter of jobs created during the last five years. In this respect, the industry provided employment to 24.5 million people in Africa (WTTC, 2020). During a timeframe of 25 years, the number of international tourist arrivals in Tanzania increased fivefold from 285,000 in 1995 (World Bank 2020a) to 1.5 million in 2019 (MNRT, 2020a) (Figure 19.2). Similarly, international tourism receipts, equating to expenditures by international inbound visitors to Tanzania, increased almost fivefold from US$ 500,000 in 1995 (World Bank 2020b) to US$ 2.6 billion in 2019

Figure 19.2: Number of international tourist arrivals in Tanzania, 1995–2019. Source: World Bank (2020a) for 1995–2018 and MNRT (2020a) for 2019 Note: Data from World Bank (2020a) and MNRT slightly differ for a period from 2015 to 2019.

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(MNRT, 2020a). In this regard, the earnings of 2019 equated to 17% and 25% of the gross domestic product and foreign exchange earnings, respectively. In addition, the industry provided 12% of Tanzania’s direct and indirect employment during the same year. This industry had been, however, much more important to Zanzibar than Tanzania mainland. Specifically, it contributed to about one-third of Zanzibar’s gross domestic product, 80% of its earnings, and was the biggest employer in the islands. Therefore, tourism was considered to be an important sector towards the attainment of, inter alia, Tanzania’s Long-Term Perspective Plan (LTPP) 2011/12 – 2025/26 (URT, 2012), second five years national development plan (FYDP) 2016/17 – 2020/21, third FYDP 2021/22 – 2025/26, Tanzania development vision 2025 (URT 1999), Zanzibar development vision 2020 (RGoZ 2000), the 17 Sustainable Development Goals by 2030 and Agenda 2063 of the African Union (URT, 2016).

Disruptors of International Tourism Flows of international tourists could rapidly decrease due to economic, social, environmental and political changes that make destination regions less attractive. Such disruptive changes include the risk of, and damage from, natural and human-induced disasters (including floods, droughts, fires, earthquakes, outbreak of diseases), and global economic downturns, social and political unrest, terrorist attacks, conflicts and pollution. Between 2000 and 2015, international tourism was exposed to major disruptive events, namely, the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001, in the United States as coupled with terrorist attacks of 2002 in both Kenya and Indonesia, the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-1) outbreak of 2003, the global economic crisis in 2008/2009, Marburg virus disease (MVD) in 2008, the swine flu in 2009, the middle east respiratory syndrome (MERS) outbreak in 2012, Ebola virus disease (EVD) outbreak in 2014, Zika virus (ZIKV) outbreak in 2015 and Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) in 2018 (Bloom & Cadarette, 2019; Gössling, Scott & Hall, 2020; Hall, Scott & Gossling, 2020). Specifically, SARS-CoV-1 led to a loss of US$ 100 Billion with respect to the global economy (Gossling et al., 2020). It should be noted, however, that the global tourist system tended to recover from such internal and external shocks within shorter timeframes. In December 2019, a novel coronavirus (COVID-19) was reported to the WHO (World Health Organization) Country Office in China (Allam, 2020). The globalized nature of a capitalist Travel and Tourism quickly spread COVID-19 throughout the world and on March 11, 2020, WHO declared it a global pandemic (Allam 2020). Consequently, several countries adopted stringent measures, including travel restrictions, (partial)lockdowns, quarantines, and social distancing, in order to curtail humanto-human transmission of the pandemic. By July 31, 2020, there were 17 million confirmed cases of COVID-19 and 668,910 people had died from the pandemic

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globally (WHO, 2020). In turn, implementation of stringent measures to curb the spread of COVID-19 ruined international tourism during the relatively lower tourist season (January – May) (Schwab & Malleret, 2020). For example, the number of international tourist arrivals decreased significantly (YTD of -99%) from 120,546,000 in May 2019 to 2,837 in May 2020 (UNTWO, 2020b) (Table 19.1). Additionally, the year to date (YTD) change ranged from -47.4% for a sub-region of South Asia to -65.5% for a sub-region of Southern/Mediterranean Europe (UNTWO 2020b) (Table 19.2). Table 19.1: Worldwide international tourist arrivals (thousands), January – May 2019/ 2020. Month

Current Year ()

Previous Year ()

January

,

,



February

,

,

−

March

,

,

−

April

,

,

−

May

,

,

−

,

,

−.

Total

YTD* change (%)

Note: YTD = Year-to-date Source: Based on data from UNTWO (2020b) Table 19.2: YTD change of international tourist arrivals by sub-region, January – May 2019/2020. Region

YTD Change %

Southern/Medit*. Europe

−.

North-East Asia

−.

South-East Asia

−.

Northern Europe

−.

Central/Eastern Europe

−.

North Africa

−.

Western Europe

−.

Middle East

−.

Oceania

−.

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Table 19.2 (continued) Region

YTD Change %

Caribbean

−.

North America

−.

South Asia

−.

Note: YTD = Year-to-date, Medit* = Mediterranean Source: Based on data from UNTWO (2020b)

Impacts of International Tourism Impacts of tourism in destination areas are either positive or negative. Positive economic impacts include an increase of employment opportunities, income as coupled with its multiplier effect to primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors, contribution to GDP and currency exchange rates while negative economic impacts include seasonality, leakage, over-dependence on tourism industry and higher levels of foreign ownership of facilities and imports for tourism (Forsyth, Dwyer, Seetaram & Kings 2012; Potma & Schmuecker, 2017) (Figure 19.3). According to Page (2019), expenditure-based surveys can be used to quantify economic impacts of tourism in destination areas. Clearly, the global adoption of stringent measures (including travel restrictions, (partial)lockdowns, quarantines and social distancing) in order to curtail human-to-human transmission of the COVID-19 pandemic led to unprecedented negative economic impacts on tourism as one of the main drivers of the global economy. Schwab and Malleret (2020, p. 25) generally explained the unprecedented severity of COVID-19 on global economy: The shock that the pandemic has inflicted on the global economy has been more severe and has occurred much faster than anything else in recorded economic history. Even in the Great Depression in the early 1930s and the Global Financial Crisis in 2008, it took several years for GDP to contract by 10% or more and for unemployment to soar above 10%. With the pandemic, disaster-like macroeconomic outcomes – in particular exploding unemployment levels and plunging GDP growth – happened in March 2020 over the course of just three weeks. COVID-19 inflicted a crisis of both supply and demand that led to the deepest dive on record for the global economy for over 100 years.

Besides, positive sociocultural impacts include conservation of cultural heritage, renewal of cultural pride, and cross-cultural exchanges while negative sociocultural impacts include over-commercialisation, overcrowding, social problems, loss of customs and influx of expatriates. Specifically, Cooper (2016) explained that there was a paucity of methods to quantify social and cultural impacts of tourism on livelihoods on destination areas, partly due to lack of agreement of acceptable change at local level. Moreover, positive environmental impacts include conservation of tourist

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Figure 19.3: The economic impact of tourism. Source: Page (2019, p. 424)

attractions and environmental awareness while negative environmental impacts include pollution, degraded environments, waste disposal and land-use challenges (Page, 2019).

Statement of the Problem In Tanzania, tourist destinations largely encompass natural attractions (including Serengeti National Park, Mount Kilimanjaro, Ngorongoro Conservation Area and beaches of Zanzibar) and to a lesser extent the constructed attractions (including the historical and cultural buildings in the Stone town of Zanzibar and Bagamoyo town) (Anonymous, 2020d; MNRT, 1999). Specifically, outstanding tourist attractions are largely found in the Northern Circuit within Tanzania mainland and islands of Zanzibar (MNRT, 1999). Marketed under a slogan of “Tanzania’s Unforgettable Experience”

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by the Tanzania Tourist Board (TTB), such fascinating tourist attractions offer inbound tourists with a wide range of tourism products, including wilderness walks, balloon safaris, mountain climbing and boat excursions (Melubo, 2020). Consequently, Tanzania was voted Africa’s Best Safari Country for 2017. In 2019, 1.5 million international tourists visited tourist destinations in Tanzania. In the same year, tourist expenditures, amounting to about US$ 2.6 billion, supported livelihoods of 623,000 individuals who were directly employed in Tanzania’s tourist sector particularly in the Northern Circuit and islands of Zanzibar (Anonymous, 2020c; MNRT, 2020a). Following WHO’s declaration of COVID-19 as a global pandemic in March 2020, implementation of bio-security measures, including quarantine at national borders, curtailed Tanzania’s tourist industry during the second quarter (Q2) of 2020. In April 2020, estimates from the Government of Tanzania revealed that, by October 2020, the number of people who were directly employed in tourism industry could have shrank by 75% to 146,000 (Anonymous, 2020c). However, the Government of Tanzania (GoT) declared that there was a decreasing trend of COVID-19 cases in the country and re-opened, on May 18, 2020, inbound international tourism. In order to regain tourist confidence of visiting Tanzania following COVID-19 pandemic, GoT adopted standard operating procedures (SOPs) (MNRT, 2020b). Since it was not clear how COVID-19 had threatened sustainability of livelihoods in tourist destinations of Tanzania during the second quarter of 2020, this chapter was written in order to contribute to initiatives of filling that knowledge gap.

Methodology With respect to Q2 of 2020, there is a dearth of studies pertaining to the impact of COVID-19 on livelihoods of stakeholders, including employees in hotels/resorts and transportation as coupled with suppliers of foods and beverages, in tourist destinations of Tanzania and beyond. In this respect, implementation of travel restrictions, (partial) lockdowns, quarantines, and social distancing in order to curtail human-tohuman transmission of the pandemic limited opportunities for researchers to collect primary data from stakeholders in the tourist industry through face-to-face individual and group interviews in order to establish qualitative findings and surveys with closedended questions in order to establish quantitative findings. Against that backdrop, a decision was made to use a concurrent mixed methods research design in order to collect relevant qualitative and quantitative data from online sources through Google Search engine in order to establish answers to three research questions: 1) How did COVID-19 affect the number of inbound international arrivals in Tanzania? 2) How did COVID-19 affect tourist receipts in Tanzania? and 3) How did COVID-19 impact livelihoods of employees in tourism industry of Tanzania? Sources of quantitative data included monthly and quarterly reports from the

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Bank of Tanzania (BoT), UNTWO, WTTC as coupled with articles in newspapers, including The Citizen and The East African. Furthermore, quantitative data, including international tourist arrivals and international tourism receipts, were analyzed quantitatively by computing, inter alia, univariate descriptive statistics (for instance, mean and range) and linear trends and are largely presented in tables with percentages and line graph. Also, qualitative data were analyzed through iterative thematic content analysis that led to building over-arching themes in the data. Occasionally, some voices of stakeholders are presented in verbatim quotes. It is worth pointing out that the researcher faced the challenge of data gaps, hence, some information presented in this chapter cover different timescales.

Findings and Discussion This section presents findings in order to answer three research questions. These are: 1) How did COVID-19 affect the number of inbound international arrivals in Tanzania, 2) How did COVID-19 affect tourist receipts in Tanzania and 3) How did COVID-19 impact livelihoods of employees in tourism industry of Tanzania?

Effect of COVID-19 on Inbound International Tourist Arrivals in Tanzania The findings revealed a highly skewed pattern of inbound international tourist arrivals in Zanzibar (Figure 19.4). Specifically, the high season extends from July to February (C9 Hotelworks, 2017). In this regard, the seasonality of tourism demand from consumers in the traveler-generating region, including European countries of Italy, Germany, and United Kingdom, is largely shaped by cycles of seasons, namely, Spring, Summer, Winter, and Autumn. For instance, a study that was undertaken by Coshall et al (2015) revealed that 73% of all tourist trips in Scotland occurred during Summer months from June to September. With respect to the low season of Q2 in Zanzibar, the total number of inbound international tourist arrivals decreased from 72,487 during Q2 of 2019 to 757 during Q2 of 2020 (Figure 19.4). This unprecedented decrease of international tourists in Zanzibar by 99% was largely attributed to occurrence of the novel COVID-19 pandemic and enforcement of bio-security measures, including quarantine at national borders during Q2. Furthermore, only 517 inbound international tourists visited 22 national parks, including the renowned Serengeti national park in the northern circuit, that are managed by Tanzania national parks (TANAPA) in Tanzania mainland in April 2020 (Anonymous, 2020a). Also, only 202 inbound international tourists visited Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) in the northern circuit during the same

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month (Anonymous, 2020a). Indeed, NCA, as managed by the Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (NCAA), had been the most popular tourist destination in Tanzania mainland (Qorro, 2017). Similar to findings presented above, UNTWO (2020c) reported that international tourist arrivals decreased globally by 700 million (70%) during a period from January to August 2020 due to COVID-19 when compared to a corresponding period in 2019. It is worth noting that the total number of inbound international tourists who visited national parks for wildlife safari tourism in Tanzania mainland had tremendously increased from 397,184 during the financial year of 2009/2010 to 731,351 during the financial year of 2018/2019 (Figure 19.5). In addition, the total number of domestic tourists who visited the same parks had tremendously increased from 285,034 during the financial year of 2009/2010 to 464,933 during the financial year of 2018/2019 (Figure 19.5). In this regard, previous shocks of diseases, including MERS in 2012, EVD in 2014, ZIKV in 2015, and HPS in 2018 (Bloom & Cadarette, 2019; Hall et al., 2020; Gössling et al., 2020; Djiofack, Dudu & Zeufack, 2020) did not significantly reduce tourist arrivals in Tanzania’s national parks as was the case for COVID-19 in 2020. Besides, the total number of inbound international and domestic tourists who visited NCA during a period of 50 years had generally increased from 54,518 in 1969 to 615,792 in 2019 (Figure 19.6). Before 1991, total number of tourists who visited NCA was less than 130,000 per annum as Tanzania pursued the African-style socialism that was not in harmony with the Western-style tourism. Specifically, the total number of tourist arrivals in NCA was less than 35,000 annually during a period from 1977 to 1983 and above 50,000 annually during the preceding period from 1969 to 1976. This state of affairs is largely explained by political shocks emanating from the collapse of the East African Community and sudden closure of the TanzaniaKenya border in 1977 and as coupled with the war between Tanzania and Uganda from October 1978 to June 1979 (Kilungu et al., 2014). Also, the introduction of the first national tourism policy in 1991, the establishment of Tanzania Tourist Board (TTB) in 1992 and the revision of the national tourism policy in 1999 (URT 2012) encouraged foreign and private companies to invest in tourism sector in Tanzania (Boniface & Cooper 2005). Consequently, there was a sharp increase of tourist arrivals in NCA from 178,885 in 1999 to 647,733 in 2013 (Figure 19.6). It should be noted, however, that a sharp decrease of tourist arrivals in NCA from 477,449 in 2008 to 441,866 in 2009 (Figure 19.6) was largely explained by the global economic crisis in 2008/2009 and diseases of MVD in 2008 and the swine flu in 2009 (Bloom & Cadarette, 2019; Gössling et al., 2020; Hall et al., 2020). Moreover, a sharp decrease of tourists who visited NCA from 647,733 in 2013 to 567,983 in 2015 was partly explained by outbreaks of EVD and ZIKV (Bloom & Cadarette, 2019; Gössling et al., 2020; Hall et al., 2020). Additionally, a decrease of inbound international tourists from 700,710 in 2018 to 615,792 in 2019 was partly linked to the outbreak of HPS in 2018 (Bloom & Cadarette, 2019; Gössling et al., 2020; Hall et al., 2020).

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Figure 19.4: Quarterly international tourist arrivals in Zanzibar, 2018–2020. Source: BoT (2020a)

Figure 19.5: Number of foreign and domestic tourist arrivals in Tanzania National Parks. Source: TANAPA (2020)

Figure 19.6: Total number of foreign and domestic tourist arrivals in NCA, 1969–2016. Source: Melita (2015) for 1969–2014 and MNRT, 2020a for 2015–2016

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Effect of COVID-19 on Tourist Receipts in Tanzania With respect to 2020, the findings revealed tremendous decrease of tourist receipts in Tanzania during Q2. Specifically, travel (tourist) receipts tremendously decreased by 94% from US$236.6 million in March 2020 to US$9.5 million in May 2020 (Figure 19.7). It is worth noting that tourist receipts for April, May and June 2020 were less than US$16.5 million (Figure 19.7). As opposed to 2018 and 2019, tourist receipts tremendously decreased from US$2.7 billion in the year ending February 2020 to US$1.7 billion in the year ending August 2020 (Figure 19.8). In this regard, the unprecedented decrease of tourist receipts in Tanzania was largely attributed to occurrence of the novel COVID-19 pandemic and enforcement of bio-security measures, including quarantine at national borders during Q2. Despite the occurrence of several disruptors (terrorist attacks in United States of America in 2001, Kenya and Indonesia in 2002, as coupled outbreaks of SARS-CoV-1 in 2003, MVD in 2008, the swine flu in 2009, MERS in 2012, EVD in 2014, ZIKV in 2015, HPS in 2018 and the global economic crisis in 2008/2009) (Bloom & Cadarette, 2019; Gössling et al., 2020; Hall et al., 2020), tourist receipts for any month in Tanzania exceeded US$20 million during a period from January 2000 to March 2020 (Figure 19.9). Similarly, UNTWO (2020c) reported that international tourist receipts decreased globally by US$730 billion during a period from January to August 2020 due to COVID-19 when compared to a corresponding period in 2019. That loss of tourist receipts due to COVID-19 was eightfold severe than the loss due to the impact of the global economic crisis in 2008/2009 (UNTWO, 2020c).

Figure 19.7: Travel (Tourism) receipts in Tanzania, January – June 2020. Source: BoT (2020j)

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Figure 19.8: Travel (Tourist) receipts in Tanzania, 2018–2020. Source: BoT (2020b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i)

Impact of COVID-19 on Livelihoods in Tourist Destinations of Tanzania Due to occurrence of the novel COVID-19 pandemic and enforcement of attendant stricter bio-security measures, including quarantine at national borders, significant decreases of inbound international tourist arrivals and tourist receipts impacted livelihoods in tourist destinations of Tanzania. To begin with, significant decline of tourist arrivals impacted different kinds of employment in tourism value chain within the country. While presenting the 2020/2021 budget for the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT), in May 2020, Tanzania’s Minister for the sector, Dr. Hamisi Kigwangallah, cautioned that the number of people who were directly employed in tourism could have shrank, due to the pandemic by about 77% to 146,000 by October 2020 (Anonymous, 2020c; MNRT, 2020a). Besides, Zanzibar’s Minister for Labor, Empowerment, Elders, Youth, Women, and Children, Maudline Castico, reported that about 5,000 people who were directly employed in Zanzibar’s tourism industry became jobless due to COVID-19 towards the end of July 2020 (Anonymous, 2020b). In addition, the Minister provided some reasons for increasing levels of joblessness in the industry: Most of the employees in the tourism sector, including the hospitality industry, lost their jobs following the shutting down of tourist hotels and cancellation of international flights. (Anonymous, 2020b)

According to Spenceley (2010), it was estimated that close to 10,000 Zanzibaris were directly employed in hotels and about 50,000 Zanzibaris were indirectly

Figure 19.9: Travel (Tourist) receipts in Tanzania, January 2000–May 2020. Source: BoT (2020j) Note: Spikes indicate high season with respect to tourism demand

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employed through tourism supply chains. It should be noted that most of the supply of accommodation establishments are currently concentrated on northern and southern beach areas, including Jambiani, Nungwi, Kendwa, Matemwe, Mtoni, Paje and Fumba (C9 Hotelworks, 2019; C9 Hotelworks, 2018; C9 Hotelworks, 2017). However, majority of those Zanzibaris were employed in lowest paying jobs, such as waiters and receptionists, since they had lower standards of education and lacked requisite trainings for managerial positions in tourism industry (Rotarou, 2014). In addition, majority of Zanzibaris are Muslims and their cultural and religious traditions constrained opportunities for Zanzibari women to be directly employed in tourism industry (Rotarou, 2014). Furthermore, there were poor linkages between tourism and micro small and medium enterprises (MSMEs). For instance, about 85% of the large hotels were foreign-owned (including Italian-owned ones) and such establishments preferred to import food, beverages and other products with exception of fresh fish (Spenceley, 2010). It should be noted employees in lowest paying jobs/informal sector and their dependents across and along tourism value chains are likely to be more vulnerable to COVID-19 as they lack different forms of social protection including, unemployment and pension benefits, healthcare and paid sick and maternity leave (Meester & Ooijens, 2020). Drawing on experiences of the global economic crisis in 2008/ 2009 and outbreaks of EVD in 2014/2015, particularly in West Africa, and ZIKV in 2015, COVID-19 pandemic posed disproportionate risks to young people and women in tourism-related supply chains and widened existing inequalities in the labor market. For instance, EVD led to closure of schools in Sierra Leone, which significantly increased cases of child pregnancies/marriages as coupled with higher drop-out rates for female students. Meester and Ooijens (2020, p.8) reported a greater risk of COVID-19 on education globally: With school and university closures affecting nearly 91% of the world’s student population, over 1.5 billion learners have had their education disrupted, including 743 million girls.

Additionally, the outbreak of EVD increased cases of gender-based violence and it was established that men were more likely to return to their previous jobs and income levels than women after the outbreak of EVD. Indeed, COVID-19 posed a greater risk of delaying attainment of targets under SDG 5 on gender equality and empowering women and girls and SDG 8 on sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work (Melaine & Nonvide, 2020). In this regard, the chief executive of Tanzania Association of Tour Operators (TATO), Sirili Akko, explained a decision that was made during a virtual meeting of TATO members to shutdown hotels and resorts for a period of 45 days from April 1, 2020 to the mid of May 2020 in order to contain the spread of COVID-19 pandemic and wait for Government direction thereafter (Magubira, 2020). Specifically, the chief executive provided a justification for the decision.

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Human life comes above everything at this time, when solidarity has intensified globally than ever before

Though 1875 members as licensed by TATO (offering a wide range of services including air charter, car hire (rental), lodges, homestays, mobile/tented camps, mountain climbing/trekking and hot air balloon safaris) (MNRT, 2020c) were requested to retain as many of their employees as possible and provide them, with their families, health insurance cover during the period of closure (Magubira, 2020), it is very likely that the livelihoods of many employees under small-scale TATO members have been ruined due to a prolonged period of COVID-19. For instance, out of 1358 licensed tour operators (Grade A) who were largely based in the northern circuit, majority of them (822) were operating between one and three vehicles and only seven licensed tour operators had more than 51 vehicles (Magubira, 2020). With regard to the latter, Leopard Tours Limited, a Tanzanian company, operated a fleet of 300 vehicles, hence supported livelihoods of many employees (Leopard Tours, n. d). Indeed, ILO (2020) reported unprecedented scale of global disruption of labor market during Q2 largely due to imposition of lockdown measures, including different forms of workplace closures. ILO (2020) estimated a global working-hour loss of 14%, which was equivalent to a loss of 400 million full-time jobs. The working-hour loss for lower/middle income countries was estimated to be 16.1%. Besides, it is worth noting negative socio-cultural effects of tourism in Zanzibar, including increasing cases of child labor, crime, alcoholism and prostitution particularly amongst the youth, and environmental effects, including environmental degradation due to increasing sewage/solid waste from, and overconsumption of water resources, by tourists (Rotarou, 2014) before the occurrence of COVID-19. It is not clear how decreasing demand of tourism due to COVID-19 might have shaped such effects.

Conclusions and Recommendations Drawing on Leiper’s (1979) model that considers tourism as a system encompassing the traveler-generating region, the transit route region, and the tourist destination, this chapter presented findings in order to answer three research questions, respectively, 1) How did COVID-19 affect the number of inbound international arrivals in Tanzania, 2) How did COVID-19 affect tourist receipts in Tanzania and 3) How did COVID-19 impact livelihoods of employees in tourism industry of Tanzania? Pegged on respective findings, it is concluded that COVID-19 pandemic significantly disrupted livelihoods of several employees as directly working under 1875 members that were licensed by TATO to serve tourists in Tanzania than any other previous natural/man-made shock. Consequently, COVID-19 pandemic threatened to derail several achievements towards attainment of several objectives/targets under, among

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other things, overarching national development strategies and SDGs. In view of significant decrease of receipts from inbound international tourists due to COVID-19 pandemic, there is a need for policy and decision-makers to develop and implement innovative interventions that will mitigate negative impacts from COVID-19 and other types of shocks on the livelihoods in tourist destinations and, in turn, achieve sustainable tourism development.

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RGoZ (Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar). (2000). Zanzibar development vision 2020. Zanzibar: OSGS. Retrieved November 9, 2020, from http://www.tzdpg.or.tz/fileadmin/_migrated/con tent_uploads/Zanzibar_Vision_2020.pdf Rotarou, E. (2014). Tourism in Zanzibar: Challenges for Pro-Poor Growth. Caderno Virtual De Turismo, 14(3), 250–264. Retrieved November 9, 2020, from: https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/ 1154/115438829004.pdf Schwab, K., & Malleret, T. (2020). COVID-19: The Great Reset (1st ed.). Geneva: Forum Publishing. Spenceley, A. (2010). Tourism Product Development Interventions and Best Practices in subSaharan Africa: Part 1 – Synthesis (1st ed.). Nelspruit: STAND. TANAPA (Tanzania National Parks). (2020). Number of foreign and domestic tourist arrivals in Tanzania National Parks. Retrieved November 9, 2020, from https://www.tanzaniaparks.go. tz/uploads/publications/en-1568717749-TEN%20YEARS%20ARRIVAL%20TRENDS.pdf. UNTWO (United Nations World Tourism Organization). (2019). International Tourism Highlights, 2019 edition. Madrid: UNWTO. https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284421152 ----------. (2020a). World Tourism Barometer – January 2020. 18 no. 1. Madrid: UNWTO. United https://webunwto.s3.eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/2020-01/UNWTO_Barom20_01_ January_excerpt_0.pdf ----------. (2020b). World Tourism Barometer – July 2020. 18 no. 4. Madrid: UNWTO. Retrieved November 9, 2020, from https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/epdf/10.18111/wtobarometereng. 2020.18.1.4 ----------. (2020c). World Tourism Barometer – October 2020. 18 no. 6. Madrid: UNWTO. Retrieved November 9, 2020, from https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/epdf/10.18111/wtobarometereng. 2020.18.1.6 URT (United Republic of Tanzania). (1999). The Tanzania development vision 2025. Dar es Salaam: Planning Commission. https://www.mof.go.tz/mofdocs/overarch/Vision2025.pdf ----------. (2012). The long-term perspective plan 2011/12-2025/26. Dar es Salaam: President’ Office Planning Commission. ----------. (2016). National five-year development plan 2016/17 – 2020/21. Dar es Salaam: Ministry of Finance and Planning. Retrieved November 9, 2020, from https://mof.go.tz/mofdocs/mse maji/Five%202016_17_2020_21.pdf WHO (World Health Organization). Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): Situation Report–193, 2020. Retrieved November 9, 2020, from https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/ situation-reports/20200731-covid-19-sitrep-193.pdf?sfvrsn=42a0221d_4. World Bank. (2020a). International tourist arrivals in Tanzania, 1995 – 2018. Retrieved November 9, 2020, from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ST.INT.ARVL. ----------. 2020b. International tourist receipts (current US$) in Tanzania, 1995 – 2018. Retrieved November 9, 2020, from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ST.INT.RCPT.CD?locations=TZ. WTTC (World Tourism and Travel). (2020). Travel and Travel: Global Economic Impact and Trends 2020. London: WTTC. https://file:///C:/Users/DR2029~1.BAG/AppData/Local/Temp/Global_ Economic_Impact_&_Trends_2020.pdf

Kamila Krygier and Anna Grodzki

20 Peace Sensitive Tourism – Harnessing Tourism’s Positive Social Impact Travel is fatal to narrow-mindedness, prejudice, and bigotry. – Mark Twain

Introduction Travel can inspire, broaden the mind, create interest, empathy, understanding or admiration for ways of life different from our own. Traveling can contribute to making the world a better place. And yet, many examples come to mind – starting from the early explorers to today’s overcrowded, once pristine places – where traveling has had adverse, even devastating consequences. The wish to harness tourism’s positive potential and to minimize its damaging consequences led to the subsequent development of alternative, responsible and sustainable tourism forms. Though the specific definitions of those terms differ slightly, they share some common principles. In short, all those forms of tourism are rooted in the ethical conviction that neither places nor their inhabitants should suffer as the result of traveling (Wohltmuther & Wintersteiner, 2014). Within this scope of alternative travel approaches one area remains underexplored – the interconnection between tourism and peace. It might be justified to wonder if the proposition that tourism could play a role in peacebuilding is not asking too much of an activity that is supposed to provide leisure and an escape from the sorrows of daily life. Peacebuilding, it could be argued, while highly important, is the domain of politics or civil society organizations and not the business sector. Further, it could be pointed out that conflict is generally not conducive for tourism and, therefore, those fields rarely intersect. This chapter aims to challenge those contentions by firstly presenting a broader definition of the terms peace, violence, and conflict. Secondly, it will be argued that – whether intended or not – tourism always has an impact on the regions and people living in it. The choice to be made by those engaging in this sector is if this impact will be positive or negative. Will the new business contribute to peaceful coexistence, reduce prejudices and inequalities, and support sustainable development, or it will rather exacerbate existing tensions, possibly even creating new conflicts and injustices? The first choice represents the definition of peace-sensitive tourism in a nutshell. The practical implementation can take on many forms. Conscious business choices done in the spirit of peace-sensitive tourism can contribute to a reduction of existing tensions. They can also help to prevent future conflicts by doing their part in https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110702491-020

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establishing socially just systems that reject exploitation or marginalization of certain groups. Focusing on a topic underrepresented in debates about responsible tourism this chapter seeks not only to draw attention to the various, often negative social consequences of touristic enterprises. Rather, the aim is to present a way forward to increase positive outcomes. This is not to say that tourism should become a peacebuilding agent or to suggest a “peace through tourism” approach. The term “peace-sensitive tourism” represents a humbler definition. It views tourism as one among many initiatives, which can contribute to a culture of peace (Wohltmuther & Wintersteiner, 2014). Until recently numbers of tourists have been increasing annually to over 1 billion per year (World Tourism Organization, 2019b) making the tourism sector a huge economic, social, and environmental force. Because of the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic, international traveling came to a drastic halt for the first time in decades (World Tourism Organization, 2020). This has created new challenges with millions of people losing their livelihoods. As social inequalities constitute one of the primary driving forces of conflicts, this situation will almost certainly create new tensions. This might particularly be the case in Africa. While not bearing the brunt of the global disease burden, the African continent is set to suffer economically thus escalating the pre-existing social divides. The danger presented by the simmering ethnic, religious and economic tensions will only become more palpable when hardships increase. At the same time, the current situation offers a chance to rebuild the tourism sector better than it was before – a peace-sensitive tourism that will actively embrace its part in reducing injustices and addressing emerging conflicts in a constructive and transformative way. In the words of Taleb Rifai, the former secretary-general of the UNWTO: “In today’s increasingly diverse and globalized world, the message of peace through tourism has never borne more significance” (Rifai, 2014, p. 11).

Understanding Peace and Conflict Before exploring the interconnection between tourism and peace it is paramount to begin with clear definitions of peace, violence and peacebuilding.

What is Peace? The Western concept of peace deriving from the Latin word pax relates to pacts or settlements to end violent conflicts (Anderson, 2004). Following this definition, peace would merely mean the absence of violent conflict. As the field of peace and conflict studies evolved this definition has come to be perceived as too narrow. Oppressive

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regimes, systematic exploitation and social injustice do not always result in open conflict and people can endure discrimination and inequality for prolonged periods without revolting. But the lack of overt violence should not be equated with an aspired state of peace. Johan Galtung, one of the most influential scholars of this field, thus coined the terms “negative and positive peace” (Galtung, 2011, p.1969). Negative peace – defined as the absence of war and violence – is perceived as a precondition of positive peace, which includes harmonious relations between various groups of people, social justice and equality.

What is Violence? Similar to this broader definition of peace, violence has more forms and shades than open physical assault. Overt violence has been referred to as “direct” to differentiate it from other types, that might be less obvious but no less destructive in the long run. In order to broaden the perspective on what constitutes violence Galtung developed the concepts of structural violence (Galtung, 1985) and cultural violence (Galtung, 1990). Structural violence describes the often unintended yet deeply harmful structures and conditions that exert their destructive power over long periods of time. Institutionalized social and economic injustice, corruption or nepotism fall into this category. Cultural violence refers to the intended or unintended establishment of religious, ideological or other cultural systems that can be applied to condone or legitimize structural or direct violence. Beliefs in the superiority of one group over another and the attempts to ground them in tradition, science, or religion all fall within this spectrum. Ethnic, gender, religious or other forms of widespread discrimination contribute to and create a culture of violence, which marginalizes certain groups preventing the development of positive peace.

Positive Peace and Peace Building Positive peace, therefore, is a state characterized not only by the absence of war but also of structural and cultural violence. The words for peace in some non-Western languages capture this definition much better. The Hebrew or Arabic words shalom or salaam mean whole or undivided (Anderson, 2004). In Chinese peace is a combination of two characters meaning harmony and equality or balance and the Swahili word amani is also understood to encompass more positive notions than merely the absence of violence. This concept is further developed in Lederach’s approach to strategic peacebuilding and defined as “just peace” (Lederach & Appleby, 2010). Peacebuilding according to the authors means a reduction of violence that goes hand in hand with social and economic justice and is based on human rights.

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Following this line of thought, peacebuilding cannot be separated from the process of creating a society based on social justice and human rights. Injustice and discrimination constitute a state of structural violence, a latent conflict, which might escalate into direct violence at any given time. The establishment of socially just systems is, therefore, part of conflict prevention which in turn is a vital element of a peacebuilding process. In accordance with the definition of scholars such as Galtung and Lederach this broad meaning of a “culture of peace,” encompassing human development, democratic systems, respect and valuing of the potential of all members of the society has been adopted by UN organizations, which further underscores the recognition that peace is more than the absence of war (UNESCO, 1996). While the term “violence” in its direct and indirect form does carry a negative meaning, the term “conflict” is perceived more broadly in the peacebuilding field. According to Galtung conflict represents a crisis but also an opportunity for change (Galtung, 1996). Since they represent challenges and problems in the respective societies’ conflicts are not to be simply eliminated or resolved (Lederach, 2015). Rather, they are supposed to be transformed in an ongoing process with the contribution of all levels and groups of society. In particular, after wars and armed struggle a “justice gap” emerges, which needs to be addressed for peacebuilding to become a successful and sustainable process (Lederach, 1999).

Peace Building and Tourism So how is the topic of peacebuilding related to the tourism sector in Africa? This question can be answered from two different perspectives, the perspective of tourism or the perspective of peacebuilding. The tourism perspective is to look at how conflicts impact the sector and if peacebuilding can be a relevant and viable task for stakeholders in this business field. Clearly, direct violence and conflict are negative for tourism, which relies on safety, security, and a positive image of the destinations. Niches such as dark tourism have always existed (Moufakkir & Burns, 2012) and this sector has, in fact, been growing (Craig & Thompson, 2012). Still, the interest of travelers in death and crime is not the same as a willingness to expose themselves to risks. Active armed conflicts are uncommon in the most popular tourist destinations. Yet, the absence of direct violence does not, as outlined above, equal peace. The annual compilation of the positive peace index shows medium to low levels of positive peace across the African continent (Institute for Economics and Peace, 2019). While tourism functions in societies characterized by indirect or structural violence, such conditions of prolonged oppression, discrimination or human rights abuses are often volatile and prone to the eruption of violence or crime. As responsible tourism is gaining more

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attention, reports show that an increasing number of tourists are willing to seek out and even pay more for meaningful and sustainable travel that is not built on the exploitation of people and nature (The Center for Responsible Travel, 2018). Contributing to a culture of peace is, therefore, relevant and beneficial for the tourism sector. A different question is to ask if tourism has the means and tools to play a role in peacebuilding. A debate on this still under researched issue has been ongoing for many years (Alluri, 2009; Wohltmuther & Wintersteiner, 2014). Initially, there was hopeful enthusiasm. The idea that tourism could contribute to peace has been around since the 1920s (Braniff, McDowell & Doak, 2018). It further gained traction since the 1980s, propelled by the seminal paper of D’Amore calling for more involvement of tourism in peacebuilding (D’Amore, 1988). The 1980 Manila Declaration on World Tourism described tourism as crucial for worldwide understanding and peace (HigginsDesbiolles, 2003). Much of the initial enthusiasm was based on the “contact hypothesis” (Allport, 1954). While Allport did stipulate some preconditions for positive outcomes -for example equal status or common goals – the assumption that mere contact between members of different groups will reduce prejudices and stimulate harmony has been disputed as too simplistic. On the contrary, some authors highlighted the negative effects of intergroup contact through touristic activities, which resulted in exacerbating rather than reducing negative stereotypes (Farmaki, 2017; Scott, 2012; Wohltmuther & Wintersteiner, 2014). Dark tourism serves here as an interesting example. Often, visits to places of atrocities include an educational component (Craig & Thompson, 2012). The question of how those historic events is presented, what is included, and what is omitted is vital for the learning experience and opinion-forming of the visitors. As Lennon (2017) points out, the narrative displayed in such places is selective. Some aspects of history are celebrated while others are condemned, some groups are presented as heroes and others as evil. This can easily lead to a less nuanced perspective thus generating or intensifying stereotypes of some people or places. Also, the frequently assumed positive economic effects of tourism in impoverished or post-conflict regions cannot be regarded as automatic. Touristic enterprises can easily turn into the opposite reinforcing and increasing exploitation and socioeconomic injustice (Alluri, 2009; Wohltmuther & Wintersteiner, 2014). Despite this phase of disillusionment, since the 2000s interest in the interconnection between tourism and peace began to gain traction again (Moufakkir & Kelly, 2010).

Tourism is not Neutral It would be beyond the scope of this chapter to review the literature on tourism and peace from the previous decades. The main inference appears to be that tourism is not neutral. Most researchers recognize that there can be negative as well as positive

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consequences and the focus of the discussion moved from whether tourism can contribute to peace to the question of how this goal could be pursued (Moufakkir & Kelly, 2010; Salazar, 2006; Upreti et al., 2013).

Positive Effects The understanding of the importance of the diverse social, economic, or environmental effects of tourism increased considerably in recent years. By creating an inflow of foreign currency into destinations, tourism increases revenue for governments, business turnovers, and household incomes (Archer et al., 2005). Further, tourism has demonstrated to have various implications on society, including demographic, occupational, and cultural impacts, a transformation of norms, modification of consumption patterns, and impact on the environment (Pizam & Milman, 1986). The need for tourism to play a role in global development initiatives has been stressed through the development of the “Compendium on Tourism in the 2030 Agenda,” which highlights the role of tourism to contribute, directly or indirectly, to all of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The academic institutions, NGOs, and other organizations, which developed the compendium, even go as far as to state that “transforming our world is not possible without transforming tourism” (Transforming Tourism, n.d.). When developed in consideration of sustainability principles, in particular when it prioritizes inclusiveness, tourism can benefit local communities by creating decent work opportunities, promoting entrepreneurship and supporting small businesses. By having significantly increased the share of global exports in Least Developed Countries over the last two decades (World Tourism Organization, n.d.), international tourism has provided an opportunity for developing countries to participate in the global economy. Considering that tourism is one of the sectors with the highest percentage of female employees and entrepreneurs (World Bank, 2019), positive outcomes for gender equality can be achieved with targeted interventions like investments in skills training for women and sector-wide gender equality trainings (World Tourism Organization, 2019a). In many destinations, tourism is the driver for infrastructure development including improved roads, waste management systems and water and electricity supply, which ultimately also benefit the resident communities. Cultural and community-based tourism can not only empower host communities economically, but also preserve their cultural identity and values through promoting local arts, cuisine, language and traditional way of life. Similarly, wildlife tourism can support conservation efforts if it is carefully planned and carried out responsibly (Green & Giese, 2004). From the perspective of travelers, tourism provides opportunities for masses of people to learn about the world and other cultures, and to expand their worldviews and horizons. Consequently, it offers huge possibilities of expanding a global mindset,

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helping to understand the interconnections across countries and continents in a global world, and of fostering an attitude of care and empathy for the struggles and challenges of others. As tourism revolves around billions of encounters between people of diverse cultural backgrounds, the sector can promote multicultural and inter-faith tolerance and understanding, laying the foundation for more peaceful societies. Research even suggests that tourism development in post-conflict areas can aid social renewal of the destination and its people through the transformation of conflict issues into a new common heritage (Causevic & Lynch, 2011).

Negative Effects Despite its potential for economic development and a positive impact on both travelers and local communities, tourism can also cause considerable damage and create or exacerbate conflicts. An eminent problem is over tourism, a situation in which a destination is perceived to host too many visitors (Dodds & Butler, 2019). This often results in deteriorating the “quality of life in the area or the quality of the experience.”

(Goodwin, 2017)

The increasing number of tourists results in more pollution, puts pressure on scarce resources, and can lead to higher prices of goods and services, negatively impacting the quality of life of residents and local communities. Certain forms of tourism, e.g., volunteer tourism or slum tourism, can be voyeuristic and are often developed without the inclusion of the communities visited, depriving them of ownership and control over the narrative created (Mowforth & Munt, 2015). Wildlife tourism, despite its potential to positively contribute to conservation efforts, can also result in negative effects, e.g., abnormal changes of animal behavior, reduced breeding success, or increased mortality rate (Green & Giese, 2004). Establishing national parks and wildlife reserves, which are main touristic attractions for destinations in Africa, means making land inaccessible to communities and in some cases might even deprive them of access to their ancestral land, resulting in land disputes between authorities and the local population. Also, human-wildlife conflict often occurs in peripheral areas of national parks, when wild animals pose a direct and recurring threat to the livelihood or safety of communities living at the edge of wildlife reserves. Retaliation against the species blamed often ensues, leading to conflict about what should be done to remedy the situation (HWCTF, n.d). Furthermore, traditions that have been cultivated and lived for generations are often conflicting with laws and regulations intended to conserve wildlife and the natural environment, as is the case with rituals including hunting protected animals.

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Finally, a disregard for existing societal divides, implicit tensions, or histories of conflicts in the respective regions can lead to renewed conflict, which in turn can have a destructive effect on the tourism industry.

The Do No Harm Framework Acknowledging the diverse impacts tourism has on travelers and hosts alike, the need to “do no harm” has been emphasized by those working in the field of responsible tourism (Canada et al., 2017). The central question is how to limit the negative and harness its positive potential? The proposed framework is adapted from the field of humanitarian assistance. Over time aid workers realized that instead of supporting people in need they often ended up unintentionally aggravating conflicts. This realization sparked intensive research based on case studies from all over the world. The purpose was to define elements of humanitarian work that exacerbate conflicts and develop alternatives to avoid those unintended negative effects. This long-term project culminated in the development of the Do No Harm approach (Anderson, 1999; Wallace, 2014), which has since revolutionized the humanitarian field and spilled over to other fields of development work and beyond. The Do No Harm approach rests on a simple premise, namely that actions and behavior have consequences for the context in which they take place. This realization applies not only to humanitarian work but also to other interventions including the tourism business. Especially, in contexts characterized by past or current conflicts and structural violence, those consequences can be serious and long-lasting. In the best-case scenario, tourism can contribute to positive peace. In the worstcase scenario, it can create new or worsen existing conflicts. Consequences of actions and behaviors can be intentional or unforeseen. For the consequences to be intentional and a force for positive peace four steps are necessary: 1. Understanding the context 2. Understanding how actions and behaviors interact with the context 3. Developing options 4. Choosing options that maximize positive and minimize negative outcomes

Understanding the Context The context of a conflict-prone environment is, according to the Do No Harm framework, defined by connectors and dividers. Connectors and dividers are factors that can help bring people together and bridge gaps or, on the contrary, separate them even further and increase tensions. The dividers and connectors can fall into categories such as

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values, attitudes, or past experiences and encompass social, economic or political aspects to name a few. While institutions or actions of individuals or groups can be connectors or dividers – this classification can never be applied to people themselves as every person has the freedom of choice to act differently at any time. Before any business decisions are taken, it is crucial to understand the setting and the people living in it. If conflicts took place in the past – what were the reasons? Have the conflicts ended and if they did – how? Are there any latent tensions, discrimination of particular groups, or challenges pertaining to social injustice? A context analysis focusing on the connecting and dividing elements of the respective setting is ideally conducted in a brainstorming session involving all relevant stakeholders to capture the various points of view.

Understanding the Consequences The observation that actions and behavior always create certain outcomes through their interaction with the environment is not necessarily obvious at first. A touristic enterprise might, at first, appear to be just a business undertaking and not something that deeply impacts the environment and can create or exacerbate conflicts. Therefore, the second step of the Do No Harm method consists of critical self-analysis and a close look at the details of the business venture. In particular, two elements play an important role: resource transfers and implicit ethical messages.

Resource Transfers Any business within the tourism sector (and any other sector for that matter) brings with it certain resources. In a context characterized by tensions between groups, a decision to develop business partnerships with or employ members of only one group can have adverse consequences for the relationship between them adding to mistrust and exacerbating conflicts. Examples of questions to be considered regarding resources include: Who benefits from the business and how? Who are the people employed in the business? Who are the business partners providing the necessary goods and services? Where is the business located and how was it acquired? How does the business affect the local community?

Implicit Messages The way the business is conducted sends out specific implicit messages to the local communities. Those messages are conveyed through three levels of behavior –

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personal, policy and public. An analysis of the implicit messages can be conducted using the RAFT method (Wallace, 2014). RAFT stands for Respect, Accountability, Fairness, and Transparency. Relevant questions to be considered here include: does the behavior of the business owners or managers on a personal level reflect respect, accountability, fairness, and transparency. Are the business policies designed in a way that those values are upheld? Finally, how does the business present itself to the outside world? Regarding the tourism sector, the last question is particularly pertinent in the realm of their advertising strategies. Which aspects of the respective region and culture are highlighted: positive or negative? Do the adverts perpetuate harmful stereotypes of people and countries? Tour operators, hotel owners and employees and tour guides are the main intermediaries between the visitors and the hosts. The way they explain local habits and culture will have a lasting impression on the visitors. If tourists are kept apart from local people and separated from areas surrounding a hotel it might create an impression that the place and the people are dangerous thus resulting in negative stereotypes instead of dispersing them. If tourists are treated like their wishes are above anything else this can solidify the implicit perception that there are different classes of people, some more important than others. Are visitors made aware of the scarcity of certain resources? One such example can be the construction of an expensive hotel with a large swimming pool in an area affected by droughts. A golf course, for instance, uses the same amount of water annually as 60,000 local village inhabitants in Thailand (Tourism Watch, n.d.). Many tourists might not be aware of this. Finally, some cases of wildlife protection – if not implemented carefully. – can create a perception within the local population that animals and the pleasure of tourists enjoying game drives are more important than their livelihoods.

Developing and Choosing Options A final lesson from the Do No Harm approach is that there are always options. Therefore, the third step in the Do No Harm framework is about developing strategies to strengthen the connectors and minimize the effects of dividers. Often, decisions are taken without considering the alternatives. Understanding the adverse effects of certain actions can prompt the aim to adapt the behavior to be more peace-sensitive and inclusive. The first part of this process is a brainstorming session. The goal is to generate as many options as possible without a critical analysis of their practicability. This critical analysis and final choice represent the last step. Out of the many ideas the most realistic and feasible option is chosen, which at the same time fulfils the requirements of the Do No Harm framework. Naturally, the first and foremost goal of a touristic business is to thrive economically and generate revenue for the owners and employees. However, a peaceful

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environment is vital for a successful business. Exacerbating conflicts in a volatile environment characterized by social injustice will not be beneficial for any kind of business undertaking in the long run.

Applying Do No Harm – Case Studies from Uganda Recently an attempt has been made to apply the Do No Harm framework for the tourism sector (The Business Innovation Facility, 2017). Though developed for the Myanmar context, the resulting toolkit does offer a great starting point for tourism businesses, which want to operate in a more peace-sensitive manner. The focus on Myanmar, an attractive tourist destination ravaged by decades of repressive regime and conflicts, permits to draw some comparisons with the African context. Yet, clearly, there are also differences. This section is dedicated to two African case studies from Uganda. They illustrate how tourism interventions can create new and aggravate existing conflicts but also their potential to reduce and mitigate tensions. Both examples are set in the field of nature and wildlife conservation. Since national parks and wildlife represent one of the major tourist attractions in Eastern and Southern Africa, many existing and potential conflicts within the tourism sector in this region are often in one way or another related to this topic. As demonstrated in the first case study, such conflicts can, however, take on many additional facets. The prolonged escalation can result in adding new dimensions, which deal with issues of ethnic identity, heritage, land, history, experiences of marginalization and culture. Further, in the final part of this section, implicit messages are addressed in more detail. They represent the most complex though a particularly relevant element of a Do No Harm analysis in the context of tourism. The facts and details of both case studies were gathered from reports and articles through literature review and based on personal knowledge of the context of the authors.

Apaa Land Conflict or the East Madi Wildlife Reserve The first case study is the longstanding land conflict between the local population and the Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA) in Apaa, a region in Northern Uganda. It provides an example of the potentially damaging outcomes of interventions aimed at nature conservation and the promotion of tourism opportunities (Amnesty International, 2018). In 2002 the area of the so-called East Madi Wildlife Reserve has been gazetted as a nature reserve to promote tourism in Northern Uganda. At the time the brutal

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decade-long civil war between the government of Uganda and the rebel group Lord’s Resistance Army has been still raging on and a great proportion of the inhabitants of Northern Uganda have been forcefully moved to internally displaced people (IDP) camps. A few years later, as the conflict came to an end and people started returning home from the IDP camps, the Apaa residents discovered that their land became a wildlife reserve. Many people refused to acknowledge it and settled on the land nonetheless. A conflict followed by brutal evictions ensued and continues to this day. In the course of the fight over land boundaries, ethnic tensions resurfaced resulting in violent clashes, loss of lives, and properties. The disputed nature reserve lies between two districts occupied by two different ethnic groups, the Acholi and the Madi. The Adjumani district, home of the Madi people, wants to keep the wildlife reserve. For them, it represents a promising revenue opportunity. Reportedly, the Adjumani district authorities together with the UWA granted sport hunting concessions to a South African investor (Taylor, 2019). The Acholi people of Amuru district on the other hand perceive the area as their ancestral homeland. From their point of view, it has been taken away during their absence, and now they have no place to return to. A Do No Harm analysis of the Apaa land conflict can serve to illustrate the major elements of the framework described in the previous section. A context analysis of the situation in Apaa reveals several existing dividers. Firstly, the values and interests of the involved groups differ. Because of the financial opportunities created through tourism and hunting concessions, UWA as well as the district of Adjumani have a vested interest in establishing a wildlife reserve. Facing evictions, the Acholi people anticipated more losses than gains despite compensation plans for some households. Moreover, they perceive the area as their ancestral land. Thus, it carries a traditional value that goes beyond its financial worth. Secondly, past experiences of a recent conflict represent another divider. The LRA war scarred the people in Northern Uganda in various ways and resulted in ethnic animosities. While in most cases those tensions are latent, they can be reinvoked in cases of conflicts. This happened in Apaa, where the dispute began over time to be framed as an ethnic conflict. Finally, UWA, a government structure with considerable power, represents another dividing element in this case. Instead of being a neutral stakeholder, their interests align with those of the Madi creating a bias and power gap, which reinforces the self-perception of the Acholi people as marginalized and discriminated against. Those dividers have further been amplified by the forceful evictions carried out by the UWA. For the Acholi people, this confirms their narrative as victims of government persecution as – in a way – history repeats itself and they are being yet again forced to leave their homes by a government agent. Eventually, it appears as if all sides have lost. The South African investor withdrew his interest in the hunting concession unwilling to be involved in a conflict.

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As of now, the aim to promote tourism disastrously backfired while the conflict is still ongoing.

Beyond Gorillas: Local Economic Development through Tourism The Beyond Gorillas project provides a positive example of an attempt to address challenges and tensions created through or exacerbated by tourism (Twinmasiko et al., 2019). The project took place between 2016 and 2019 in the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, which is home to almost half of the remaining world population of mountain gorillas, Uganda’s major tourist attraction. The establishment of the national park in 1991 was accompanied by evictions in particular of the marginalized minority of the Batwa people as well as subsequent violent clashes between the local people and the UWA. To improve the situation and change the negative attitudes of the local communities toward the park, a revenue-sharing system has been established a few years later. Despite those efforts, the perception of the national park and nature conservation remained largely negative. The organizations implementing the Beyond Gorilla project conducted a study to understand the causes of negative attitudes. They found that the distribution of the benefits generated through the national park and tourism has been seen as unfair by the local communities. It did not reflect the burden, which was greater for some households than for others. Moreover, the job opportunities in tourism, as well as additional economic options to improve livelihoods, were minimal for local people. Income generation through the sale of crafts or locally made products was difficult because of the limited interaction between communities and tourists, and because of the low quality of the local products. The project aimed at enhancing the profit margin for the communities, thus creating a fairer benefit distribution and by doing so improving the attitudes toward the park. Lodges and tour operators were involved in order to promote additional activities in their packages besides the gorilla tracking. Training by Ugandan artists was conducted to help improve the quality of the crafts. The project had a particular focus on the marginalized Batwa people. While it is not clear if and to what extent the project impacted the relationship between the Batwa people and other ethnic groups, there has been a positive shift in the attitudes toward the park thereby reducing tensions between the local communities and the UWA. National parks and nature conservation often function as sources of conflicts and dividers. However, through a fairer and wider distribution of benefits, the effort to protect the environment can be turned into a connector ensuring the livelihoods of different groups. Activities like reformed poachers’ trails can help to reconcile former criminals with the communities giving them an economically viable occupation that makes use of their former experiences.

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Examples of Implicit Messages and How to Change Them Besides contributing to a fairer resource distribution tourism can play a role in forming or changing existing attitudes and perceptions. As illustrated by the Beyond Gorillas example – the interaction between tourists and local communities can lead to different outcomes. A favorable attitude towards the park can translate into a positive perception of the visitors. In the case of the tourists – high quality, ecological products can contribute to the view of local communities as skilled, entrepreneurial and concerned with environmental protection. Reformed poachers’ trails can show exemplary efforts to address the challenges of humans and wildlife co-existence, something at which most Western countries failed. Drawing attention to this unique conservation work done in many African countries could challenge the categorization of the world into “developed” and “developing” regions. Instead, a more nuanced image could be fostered, which highlights the different strengths and weaknesses of countries and encourages attempts to learn from each other. As pointed out by some media outlets, African countries could lead the way and function as role models for European nations in their continued struggle to achieve the fine balance between protecting the livelihoods of people as well as animals’ lives (Barkham, 2018). The heavy penalties for poaching combined with efforts to reform former poachers could be used to spark a debate on how European countries treat their almost eradicated, but recently re-emerging wildlife (Stokstad, 2019). Rather than perpetuating the stereotype of “friendly but incapable” people reinforced through adverts featuring dirty, smiling village children, the tourism sector could spearhead a perspective shift. African countries could present themselves as pioneers of nature conservation instead of serving as a projection screen for escapist dreams of wealthy foreigners. The recognition and subsequent change of such implicit messages constitute the most difficult parts of a Do No Harm analysis. Some activities may appear to tour operators simply as a response to popular demand. Organized visits of slums or schools are a case in point. Tourists might consider them an opportunity to learn about the country and are probably unaware of the negative connotations. And yet, what is it that they learn through such visits? The RAFT technique helps to scrutinize behavior and business patterns by questioning to what extent they convey respect, accountability, fairness and transparency. Is it respectful to organize tours to people’s homes or village schools to accentuate the bad living conditions or poor infrastructure? Is it fair that tourists only have access to the schools and homes of poor people? Why is poverty put on display as a “tourist attraction” and what does this communicate to those living in poverty? Would the tourists perceive it as acceptable if their homes or the schools of their children were turned into tourist attractions?

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The question behind an analysis using the RAFT method is if the habits and patterns of the touristic business are based on a connecting or dividing mindset. Are visitors offered a nuanced view of the respective culture, which contributes to true understanding and empathy, or are they presented with a superficial “poor but happy” caricature? It is important to point out that such stereotypes also exist and are replicated within countries. It is not only foreigners, who harbor biased images or negative attitudes towards places they visit. Often, biases against certain regions or minorities are deeper rooted among citizens of the same nation sometimes resulting in discriminatory policies and contributing to structural violence. Therefore, peace-sensitive domestic tourism can be used as a tool for deconstructing prejudices, the development of positive attitudes, or even reconciliation in ethnically diverse or divided countries (Causevic & Lynch, 2013; Higgins-Desbiolles, 2003). An analysis of the implicit messages is not meant to point fingers and apportion blame. We all transmit and receive implicit messages, harbor prejudices, and contribute to the perpetuation of inequalities. The RAFT method enables tour operators to closely inspect their activities as well as question the wider implications of their business decisions. By changing the implicit messages into explicit and conscious ones, the tourism sector could truly contribute to making the world a better place and traveling an enriching experience for visitors and hosts alike.

Conclusion and Way Forward The purpose of this chapter was to introduce the concept of peace-sensitive tourism and to demonstrate how it can be applied to harness tourism’s positive social impact. After establishing that touristic activities are never neutral, the Do No Harm approach, which originated from the humanitarian sector, was identified as an applicable guideline on how to develop peace-sensitive tourism. Ensuring that tourism fulfils its potential to reduce inequalities and to contribute to a peaceful and just society, requires analysing the context to identify connectors and dividers, understanding how actions and behaviors interact with the context, developing different options, and finally choosing the options most suited to maximize positive and minimize negative outcomes. The need for everyone to do their part to contribute to a better world for all has never been more apparent than now. The rapid spread of the COVID-19 pandemic constitutes not only a global health crisis but has largely brought life as we know it to a halt. Consequently, millions of jobs and livelihoods have been lost, leading to or aggravating social inequalities and potentially causing further tensions or conflicts. The global crisis has demonstrated how interconnected our world has become: we need to acknowledge the fact that we all as a global community bear the consequences

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of irresponsible and reckless actions and behaviors. We now have the opportunity to rethink how we want to shape our future. More than any other industry, tourism fosters billions of interactions between people from different backgrounds, facilitating intercultural dialogue. Now is the time to reimagine tourism as a truly sustainable, inclusive industry, which not only creates significant economic growth but also creates enormous value on a global scale by reducing injustices and addressing emerging conflicts in a transformative way. However, this will only be possible, if stakeholders are equipped with the necessary knowledge and practical guidance on how to achieve the desired outcomes. The Do No Harm instrument provides a set of simple guidelines and constitutes a versatile and effective tool which can be adapted to different settings factoring in local interests and realities: – Tour companies could use the tool to develop responsible tourism products for socially-conscious consumers and to analyse the social impact of their operations in an effort to become more sustainable – Destination Marketing Organizations could use the tool to analyse the implicit messages of their marketing content to ensure they reflect respect, accountability, fairness and transparency and do not unintentionally perpetuate harmful stereotypes of people and countries. – Adopting the Do No Harm approach on policy level would enable decision-makers to co-create relevant policies demonstrating positive social impact – Community groups and local, regional or national stakeholder groups could utilize the tool when developing tourism products to identify connectors and dividers and choose the most suitable agreeable options to guarantee positive results for all – Resource transfers are particularly challenging in regards to their peace-sensitivity: a thorough context analysis must be conducted to understand if the resource transfer will indeed effectively contribute to its intended purpose without causing tensions and exacerbating existing conflicts. This applies notably when international organizations, development agencies, or government programs avail funds for tourism development or as financial relief, as is currently happening due to the COVID–19 pandemic. – Tour guides play a crucial role in sustainable tour operations. Therefore, successfully introducing the concept of peace-sensitive tourism will only be possible when tour guides become allies in developing sustainable tourism. In fact, it is the tour guide who ensures all tour itinerary elements are executed as planned, who briefs the tourists daily about the program, appropriate behavior, code of conduct, or regulations which they will have to comply with. Moreover, the guide is generally responsible for various decisions throughout the journey, e.g., where to stop for lunch on the way and which souvenir shop to visit with his clients. These decisions might seem small: however, each constitutes a resource transfer and represents one option that was chosen out of many and should, therefore, be examined in line with the Do No Harm guideline.

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– Lastly, the actions and attitudes of tourists have both positive and negative impacts on communities and destinations visited and as such, travelers should be made aware of the potential consequences of their behaviors. Tour agents and destination representations could develop briefing and debriefing guidelines and codes of conduct following the Do No Harm tool to educate travelers on how to create a positive social impact during their visit and after they have returned home. The examples shown above illustrate how manifold the possible applications of the Do No Harm tool are. When developed further, it has the potential to provide a simple to use, adaptable and effective solution to integrate aspects of social impact in tourism development, operations, and promotion. In conclusion, the concept of peace-sensitive tourism should, therefore, be considered as an essential principle when we redesign the tourism industry for a sustainable future for ourselves and for generations to come.

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21 Communities in Sustainable Tourism Development – Case Studies Introduction Developing a country means “improving its social and economic conditions and it is manifested through infrastructure improvement, employment creation, poverty reduction and the protection of natural and cultural heritage” (UNCSD, 2012, p. 1). While there are many avenues to developing a country, tourism, is one of the industries with high potential for development. Globally, tourism has become one of the largest economic sectors over the last five decades (UNCSD, 2012). It accounts for approximately 9% of the world’s GDP and has created over 200 million jobs (World Tourism Organization). Despite these impressive statistics, there is a high level of fragmented development within the tourism value chain. The tourism industry has been accused of “disfranchisement, marginalization, exploitation, and cultural degradation of communities associated with tourism landscapes” (Rogerson, 2013, p.15). All these issues are epitomized by “primary beneficiaries in tourism value chains such as government, tour operators, tourism source firms, and hotels that do not recognize the value of engaging community members in their tourism endeavours” (UNCSD, 2012, p. 3). As a result, communities are related to crumbs of the tourism benefits flows. According to the WTO, sustainable tourism is “tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment, and host communities” (UNWTO and UNEP, 2005). The key part of this definition that most players along the tourism value chain fail to take into consideration, are the roles and benefits of the host communities in greening the tourism value chain. Host communities have to co-exist with the natural resource base that sustain tourism products, as such, they are a critical component of achieving sustainable tourism development. Ad hoc and unstructured operations for community involvement lead to minimum impacts. It is essential for key principles, standards and a defined framework to be followed so as to enhance sustainable tourism development through active engagement of host communities. This paper, outlines the theoretical argument for the need for active participation of host communities in sustainable tourism development, and presents a well-defined framework for community engagement in sustainable tourism development.

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Linking Sustainable Tourism Development and Community Participation Sustainable tourism goes far beyond reducing pollution by avoiding the use of plastics, clean-ups, contributing dollar amounts towards conservation, or putting up a perception of conservation and environmentalism through eco-certification and bumper stickers. It is also about ensuring maximization of the contribution of tourism towards the prosperity of local communities in the host destinations. It should involve the distribution of economic and social benefits to the recipient communities. Engagement and empowerment of host destination communities in decision making and planning to ensure proper management and protection of the resources for future prosperity. Finally, maintaining and strengthening the quality of life in local communities including the access they have to resources and social structures, their life support systems and amenities, and avoidance of all forms of exploitation and social degradation. Host communities are the gatekeepers of the natural resource base that supply the tourism industry with tourism products. When it comes to wildlife, some communities have to co-exist with the wild animals: if it is lakes and rivers and associated biodiversity, then it is the local communities that uphold the aesthetics and integrity of the resources. When it comes to cultural tourism, the host communities as a distinct package that makes up the tourism products. Therefore, local communities’ participation in sustainable tourism development should go beyond the tokenism that is the norm within the bigger tourism value chain. Participation should begin from involving the local communities in decision making processes at the highest level to economic involvement and promoting the destination at the lowest level to the benefits of tourism development like getting business and employment opportunities (Tosun, 2000, p. 626). The proactive engagement of communities in sustainable tourism development is at the heart of the transformative tourism development approach. This engagement is beyond tokenism but as co-creators and drivers of sustainable tourism development. Co-creation and active engagement, ensures that the host communities are part and parcel of the process, they feel a sense of ownership which will enhance their sense of responsibility for tourism resources. Understanding the need for a high level of active community engagement needs a critical look into the benefits that accrue form this approach. Highlighted below, are some of the most critical benefits which justify community engagement in sustainable tourism development.

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Benefits of Community Engagement in Sustainable Tourism Improved socio-economic status of host communities. Host communities are used to getting token benefits from the bigger players within the tourism value chain. Having community members engaged from the higher levels ensures that they get relative equality in the benefits they are entitled to, which will significantly improve their socioeconomic status. Minimization of impacts to host destinations. Host communities co-exist with the natural resources which provide tourism products like wildlife, sandy beaches, forests, lakes, rivers, mountains and oceans. Engaging communities in structuring and development of the products will give them a sense of ownership and appreciation of their position within the tourism value chain. If their benefits increase, they will feel the need to ensure that the resources are protected so that they can continue to sustainably gain from them ecologically, economically and aesthetically. Promotes the maintenance of cultural and social heritage of a community. When host communities feel they are essential, included, and are empowered to contribute to greening the tourism value chain, then they will be better inclined to maintain their cultural and social heritage. This will promote better authentic experience and better tourism products, which will attract more tourists while at the same time preserving the culture of the people. Actively builds the economy of the host destination. Engagement of community members past through decision making can help in pushing for more sustainable investments in the local economy, ensuring that tourists buy more locally and are hosted within the local amenities more as opposed to just passing through in the case of some destinations. Building the locals’ capacity in tourism operations will also help secure employment opportunities for the local people, thereby making the economies of the host communities. Ensures sustainable protection of destination sites. Engagement of community members ensures that they can contribute to proper management, security and conservation of destination sites for future prosperity. Engaging local communities can prove to be highly beneficial. However, the tourism value chain has not been keen on ensuring host communities are engaged beyond tokenism. The following barriers outline the reasons for the poor level of engagement thus far.

Barriers to Community Engagement in Sustainable Tourism Development In theory, community engagement in sustainable tourism development is “feasible and possesses a high potential for achieving sustainable tourism goals and greening the tourism value chain” (Giampiccoli & Melville, 2018, p.3). However, this has not been the case in practice. Most of the players along the tourism value chain engage

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communities through tokenism, which does very little in developing the host communities, which leads to significant degradation of the host landscapes, economies, and social and cultural structures. Beech and Shadwick (2006, p.349) provide a comprehensive list of barriers to community participation in tourism development, a collection of research from multiple researchers. Apathy among citizens. Local communities usually feel like they cannot contribute a lot towards making any changes within the tourism industry. This leads to them being reluctant to get involved in any political or community projects and initiatives which could potentially create changes within their tourism cycles. Nature of tourism and perception. In as much as the local communities reside and work in these host destinations, most of them do not have a full grasp of the industry and the impacts that it comes with. They do not fully understand the relationship that exists between the industry and their local economies, environment and societal norms on a collective scale. As such, there lacks an acknowledgment of the need for proactive management changes as opposed to reactive prevention. Decision making being prolonged by community engagement. There is a common belief amongst planners and decision-makers that engaging community members in tourism matters will lead to decisions taking a long time to be made. Therefore, it is easier to anticipate their feelings and ideas and issue rather than actively engaging them. Lack of capacity to understand planning processes and issues. In most local communities in destination sites, people do not fully understand the process involved in making decisions concerning touristic activities within their communities. They do not know how these decisions could potentially affect them and the manner in which they could contribute their thoughts to ensure that their interests are also covered. The lack of capacity is also epitomized by a lack of information sharing on the part of the entities, like government officials, and civil society organizations, who have been entrusted with the responsibility of disseminating the information to the local communities. Community members can only be empowered if the information is availed to them. Ensuring fair opportunities for representation of the whole community. A community is made of a diverse group of people. When a few people have opinions on a particular issue, it does not necessarily mean that they portray the entire community’s interests. The lack of effective systems to ensure all interests, opinions, and problems are covered leads many community members to remain left out. These barriers indicate that there is a big gap when it comes to the process of effectively engaging community members in sustainable tourism development. The barriers stem from top decision-makers and planners in the tourism value chain to ordinary players within the tourism value chain and the community members themselves, their perception, capacity and enthusiasm to be engaged in ensuring sustainable tourism development, especially within their host communities. As such, there is a great need for a defined framework that provides communities’ proactive engagement in sustainable tourism development.

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The Participatory Framework for Effective Community Engagement It has been well established that tourism has both negative and positive impacts on host destinations and the local communities. In some cases, tourism can bring about the overall development of the local host communities. In some instances, it can completely derail the environment, culture and even the community economy. All these factors, negative and positive, necessitate the engagement of communities in sustainable tourism development. In the case of there being positive impacts, “the local communities will be in an excellent position to reap the benefits of tourism development” (Salleh et al., 2016, p. 565). While in the case of negative impacts, it will provide the communities with an opportunity to drive the changes that they need. In both scenarios, it is clear that community engagement is a critical foundation for change and development. According to Novelli and Geghardt (2007, p. 449), “community participation is often suggested as an essential ingredient in improving the quality of tourism contribution to national development.” The participatory community engagement framework for effectively engaging communities in sustainable tourism development is a practical guideline that enables players within the tourism value chain to better manage their tourism endeavours for maximum benefits. It also ensures community-driven tourism development practices that work to enhance the sustainable development of the tourism industry. The Framework’s coverage is broad and systematic on environmental, social, and economic aspects of tourism development from the perspective of inclusivity. It advances non-discrimination, non-exploitation of communities as part of the tourism value chain, transparency, inclusivity, proactive participation, participatory management, and accountability. As a means of setting out the bottom-line requirements for active engagement, ten Sustainable Tourism Engagement Standards (STES), as developed and followed by Ecofinder Kenya are set out to enable meaningful community engagement in sustainable tourism development. These standards are meant to satisfy the objectives of advancing sound economic, social and environmental development within the tourism industry. In devising ways of engaging host communities in sustainable tourism development, it is essential first to understand the characteristics and composition of the host communities. This will enable any player within the tourism value chain to deduce the right efforts to put in for efficient results.

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STES1: Enhanced Community Development – ensuring that all levels of community engagement in tourism are driven towards more development for the host communities STES2: Enhanced Capacity for Host Communities – knowledge and education of host communities to improve their understanding of tourism planning, decision making and operation processes to enable active participation. STES3: Local Economy Development – driving tourists’ spending and tourism expenditure towards building the local economy of host communities to ensure economic prosperity and sustainability. STES4: Sustainable Livelihoods Development – design of strategies and interventions that work towards host communities with sustainable livelihoods, enabling them to better care for tourism resources. STES5: Equitable Benefit Sharing – Ensuring non-exploitation of host communities by instituting mechanisms for equitable sharing STES6: Conservation of Tourism Resources – Building capacity, knowledge, attitudes and practices of host communities towards better conservation efforts for tourism resources hosted within the communities STES7: Establishment of Support and Partnerships – developing strong partnerships with the private sector, local government offices, civil society organizations and site conservation groups towards better engagement of communities for sustainable tourism development. STES8: Information sharing and stakeholder engagement – enabling open and transparent engagements among different stakeholders; and improving stakeholder engagement for the more effective environmental, social and economic sustainability of tourism endeavours within the host communities. STES9: Tourist Satisfaction – Enhancement of community, focused tourism packages towards giving tourists authentic and exceptional experiences within the host communities. STES10: Scaling Sustainable Tourism Development –Instituting measures towards replication and scaling efficient, sustainable tourism practices for better positive impact creation.

Figure 21.1: Operating Standards on Community Engagement in Sustainable Tourism Development, 2019.

Composition of Host Communities Many tourist destinations have great diversity within the communities in terms of ethnicity, businesses engaged in social status, age, residency and income (Hanrahan, 2008, p.29). According to Swarbrooke (1991, p. 125), host communities can be divided in terms of: – The people who are involved in tourism and those who are not – Immigrants and indigenous people – People renting property and property owners – Older and younger people – The elites and the rest of the population

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Self-employed people, the employed and the employers Public transport people and the ones with private cars Well-off and poor or less well-off people. Minority communities and majority communities.

All of these categories illustrate the heterogeneous nature of host communities. Planners and other players in the tourism value chain must understand and embrace this heterogeneity. It places them in a better position to understand the functions and purpose of each community group and the community as a whole, thereby promoting more inclusive and meaningful participation. There is not one right way of engaging community members in sustainable tourism development. There are different ways that this can be achieved as long as there is a clear understanding of the host community’s nature to be engaged, the objectives of the engagement, the needs of the community, the mission, and the resources available to facilitate this engagement. Researchers have developed many different models or frameworks that can be used to decide on the right engagement process and lay down the foundation for executing the method.

Typologies of Community Engagement Every level of engagement has a different degree of local control and external involvement (Tosun, 2006, p. 494). Taking two models into consideration, Tosun (2006) and Pretty (1995), we propose thee 5-level model below (see table 21.1). Engaging communities in tourism development has to be carefully done to maximize benefits on all levels and ultimately achieve sustainability. Upon understanding the ideal standards to be met, assessing the community’s composition at hand, and considering the type of engagement that best suits resources and objectives, it is essential to critically understand and follow a predefined process to engage the communities properly. Table 21.1: Typologies of community engagement. Typology of Participation

Description

Coercive Participation

This engagement takes a top-down approach: it is passive in nature with very minimal prospects of benefit-sharing but a very high degree of manipulation and tokenism. The people are represented officially on the boards and committees, but they have no power to express the interest of the communities. In short, the participation is to check a box and not to drive change.

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Table 21.1 (continued ) Typology of Participation

Description

Passive Participation

Participation is through announcements. Community members are told what to do or given a list of proposed interventions to provide feedback on. There is a degree of tokenism and limited benefit sharing. The responses of the community are not taken into consideration, and it also makes the top-down approach.

Incentivized Participation

The presence of incentives dictates participation. Exchanging labor, opinions, activities for money, food, equipment. The communities or planners have no interest in prolonging practices, a high degree of tokenism, no meaningful benefit-sharing: engagement ends when the incentives end.

Consultative Participation

Takes a bottom-up approach in engaging community members. Participation is through people being consulted; responding to given questions to inform planning and implementation: communities have a stake in decision making. The voices of the communities are heard, respected, and taken into consideration when designing tourism activities.

Proactive/Interactive Participation

It takes a self-planning approach: Participation is through community members taking the initiative independent of the influence of external initiatives; there is no tokenism; communities develop contacts with partners and other stakeholders or foreign institutions for support.

Source: Modified from Tosun (2006).

Process of Community Engagement in Sustainable Tourism Development Research and experience have shown that effective engagement stems from typologies of participation like consultative or proactive. In consultative, in as much as design of interventions and participatory activities are at the hands of the communities. There is total inclusivity in decision making and benefit-sharing that contributes to the sustainable development of the tourism industry. Proactive engagement is ultimately community-led and is the goal. It stems from the second standard. STES2: Enhanced Capacity for Host Communities – knowledge and education of host communities to improve their understanding of tourism planning, decision making, and operation processes to enable effective participation. Host communities become empowered enough to continually become proactively engaged in all tourism activities, ensure their interests are respected, equitable benefit-sharing and community development, which will enable them to conserve and protect tourism resources, thus leading to sustainable tourism development.

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Dialogue – Open Communication with Host Communities Host communities are at the heart of sustainable tourism development. It is imperative to open a dialogue and listen to the host communities’ interests, issues, and opinions. Open communication creates an opportunity for both parties to understand each other better. In cases whereby there are conflicting interests, then dialogue becomes a platform for knowledge creation, conflict resolution, and reaching a favorable consensus. At this level, it is imperative to foster a relationship between the interested entity, existing tourism organizations, stakeholders, and community members. This will create the opportunity to explain your intentions, get community approval, and help develop a tourism product that will benefit you, the community members, and local businesses. Create continuous opportunities to listen to the side of the communities. Discussions and communication with local communities should not be a one-time thing. The tourism industry, the local economy, and communities are dynamic. Where there might not have been an issue today, there might be one tomorrow because of a change in circumstances. Therefore, it is imperative to ensure that you maintain an open-door policy where the local communities can always relay their issues and be open to a meaningful discussion. In this case, an existing forum can be used, and if there isn’t one in place, it can be created with periodic meetups to discuss emerging issues. In these discussions, there are a couple of issues which have to be covered such as: the challenges which the host communities are facing; the goals of the host communities; the prospects of the host communities; the level of knowledge and capacity within the community; gauge the interests level, the attitudes that the community has towards tourism activities and if negative, how this can be changed and if positive, how it can be reinforced. Gauge their ideas on how they can be involved in tourism planning and decision making; if there are little knowledge and capacity, then make a point to educate them to enable a shift of change towards proactive participation. Finally, keep a record of all the issues for monitoring and follow-ups during the periodic participatory monitoring and discussions with the host communities.

Identification and Communication of Sustainable Opportunities Proactive engagement dictates that these opportunities, their planning, and execution should come from the host communities. However, most tourist destinations occur in rural areas where people lack the knowledge and resources to pull off this level of management. Therefore, the starting point can be consultative participation where you will deduce possible opportunities from the challenges the community is facing, their opinions, and ideas on ways of mitigating the problems through the tourism endeavours. Consider the feasibility of the opportunities in terms of available

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resources, the longevity of the opportunities, and whether it meets the sustainable tourism operation standards (see Figure 21.1). Also, consider how the communities can best benefit from the destination as a tourist attraction site and how the potential opportunities may affect the people and their business. Think about how best the visitor experience can be enhanced through the host communities as a significant part of the package as they host the destination and not as extras. Then, present the opportunities to the community members through another forum for consultations and brainstorming. Allow the community members the autonomy to make the decision and then act to actualize the selected opportunities.

Execution of the Sustainable Opportunities There are different ways of getting involved in a community and pulling towards there continuous engagement in tourism endeavours in the host destinations. It can be through advancing local businesses either owned by the locals or having the locals as employees, developing community enterprises that have collecting management and ownership approach, or at a higher level, tourism planning including representation, participation, and consultations. The identification stage takes care of narrowing down on the kind of opportunities that would thrive within the given host destinations. The implementation stage begins with identifying the entry points to take and how to go about establishing said opportunities. If the chosen opportunities are business-related, then have an open discussion about barriers to entry into the local market with the local businesses and participatorily, develop an action plan to break down the barrier, and enter the market. Put in place a sustainability plan for the implemented opportunities like celebration, encouragement, or a reward system for the local businesses which operate responsibly. Businesses that ensure optimal visitor satisfaction adhere to environmental regulations and build the local economy through the provision of sustainable livelihoods to even more host community members. This can be done through instituting an efficient and equitable benefit sharing mechanism where even the host communities recognize the benefits of having tourism traffic for their destination site. Doing this ensures that the local establishment and host community members remain driven towards sustainable tourism development.

Learning, Empowerment and Replication for Optimal Benefits and Sustainability Knowledge creation is one of the best ways of ensuring sustainable socio-economic empowerment of host communities. Sustainable tourism development is a learning process. It is not a one-time occurrence as it takes time to build, master and maintain.

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In subsequent monitoring of the state of the host destinations, identify existing or emerging knowledge gaps, and keep the host communities learned. For example, if there is an emerging trend of women marginalization within the tourism industry and it seems to affect that particular tourism destination, then take steps to educate on this subject, and you can even go further and train more women as tour guides. If there is an emerging trend in the hospitality industry, a new need for authentic experiences, a new package will be developed, and equip the local communities with the right tools and knowledge to ensure maximum visitor satisfaction. If there is an upcoming strategy that can ensure proper management and protection of tourism resources, then it is critical to bring this knowledge to the host communities to enable it’s used within the community, thus ensuring continued sustainable development. As part of the tourism value chain, where you are a local government institution, the national governing body, private sector, hotels, tour operators or agencies, or a non-governmental organization, telling the host communities’ stories is always an advantage. Tell the story, share existing sustainable tourism interventions through numerous platforms, highlight the culture, heritage, hospitality, and amazing experiences to be heard within these communities. Make host communities stars in the tourism packages. They will, in turn, ensure conservation and protection of tourism resources as they also benefit from the publicity and increased visitor numbers, thereby advancing sustainable tourism development for the long term.

The Case Study Kenya, like many developed and developing countries, has a vibrant tourism industry. After Manufacturing and Agriculture, tourism is the third-largest contributor to Kenya’s GDP (Nakaweesi, 2013). In Kenya, tourism generates revenue of up to 75.2 billion Kenya Shillings annually and provides up to 9% formal employment for the country (Okello & Novelli, 2014; KTB, 2020) The Lake Victoria region is part of the Western Kenya tourism circuit endowed with great tourist attractions, including wildlife, sandy beaches, rich culture, historic sites, museums and islands. Even though it attracts a significant number of international and domestic tourists, the host destinations where these attractions are found are very poor, and there is a substantial degradation of tourism resources. There is a degradation of fish and fisheries resources, which is part of Lake Victoria’s heritage, biodiversity loss, poor maintenance of cultural and historic sites, pollution on Lake Victoria, high poverty levels and exploitation of women for livelihood needs, among others. These issues may not all be as a result of tourism practices. Still, they stand a better chance of being mitigated, and the state of the region and host communities improved with the practice of more sustainable tourism.

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As part of the same community, Ecofinder Kenya, with support from the Canadian High Commission, designed a project which was meant to advance the socio-economic development of the local communities and environmental conservation through the practice of community-led sustainability eco-cultural tourism. Ecofinder Kenya developed an effective community engagement strategy to optimize the benefits that host communities get from hosting tourists in their various destinations. The strategy was based on the highlighted sustainable tourism operation standards and the process of tourism engagement to the letter. The project was implemented in the Winam Gulf of Lake Victoria.

Participatory Community Assessment The initial step in the project was the assessment of the host communities within the Winam Gulf. This included a comprehensive analysis of the tourist attractions and destinations in the project areas, evaluation of the tourism value chains including the local and county level governing bodies on tourism operations, tour operating agencies within the regions, and at a county level and national level, which operate in the area. The accommodation facilities, restaurants, curio shops and information centers among other players were also assessed: the scale and amount of benefits which trickle down to the host communities; the level of awareness of community members on tourism planning in the region; the level of interaction of community members with the other players in the tourism value chain; knowledge and attitude towards tourism activities in the destination sites; the level of consultation of tourism packages development by tour operators; the level of interaction with visitors; and the level of participation of the communities in planning and decisionmaking platforms and forums. The assessment yielded a comprehensive report on the state of community engagement in tourism activities in the region. While most community members within the Winam Gulf were well aware of the tourism sites and had seen tourists coming into their communities, there was very minimal engagement. Out of the three communities, there were only two which had a local tourism operation with local guides. The community’s socio-economic status was inferior, and the level of awareness on tourism planning and decision-making processes was also deficient. Due to the weak tourism benefit-sharing mechanism that existed within these host communities, the attitude towards tourism activities was negative. The community members agreed that the tourism resources were not benefiting them as much as they would want. They were an afterthought to tourism operators and planners. In one of the communities, the tourists would spend a little cash in purchasing gifts, souvenirs and taking local boat rides, but that was usually the extent of the benefits they saw. As a result, there was zero interest from the host communities to protect and conserve the tourist attractions and ensure optimal customer satisfaction.

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Community Education of Sustainable Tourism Development The initial community assessment revealed a significant knowledge gap in sustainable tourism development within the community. There was a great need to build knowledge of the host communities and change their attitudes so that they would be better inclined to be engaged in sustainable practices. The objective of this community education intervention was to build the host communities’ capacity to the point of developing a proactive participatory approach within the different host communities. An initial dialogue was held through multiple community forums to conduct a needs assessment. The needs assessment was to inform the development of a community-wide education action plan. These forums revealed a need to educate the community members on what sustainable tourism development means, and potential benefits they could get from being more proactively engaged in the tourism operations within their communities: illustrate their importance within the tourism value chains in their respective communities; explain their roles as host communities and their contribution to customer satisfaction and sustainable tourism development; and how to ensure their engagement and participation in tourism planning at the local and county government level. There was also a need to educate them on how they can enable better engagement with tour operators and become a more significant aspect of the tourism packages developed by the tourism operators. As drivers of sustainable tourism development, they were responsible for planning and developing strategies to ensure that they are well engaged from the highest to the lowest levels of the tourism value chains within their communities. Community education resulted in the establishment of tourism planning and stakeholder committees, representing the interests of all the community members in the development of tourism activities. The community assessments conducted revealed that the Winam Gulf Wetland communities were composed of different working groups including, fishermen, fishmongers, traders, local tour guides, site conservation groups, schools, churches, homeowners and renters, people of all ages. The educational activities yielded community proactive engagement action plans. The communities were to use to continue building their capacity as well as playing their roles as host communities in the best way possible.

Identification of Feasible Opportunities for Effective Community Engagement Further discussions followed with the host communities, which were aimed at identifying the possible opportunities for engagement. Considering all the challenges that were highlighted, and the development needs in the host communities the following opportunities were identified by both Ecofinder Kenya and the host communities:

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– Development of sustainable livelihoods (eco-cultural tourism and craft making were the selected nature-based livelihood options); – Capacity building on business development; – Tourism resources conservation and protection (rehabilitation and subsequent monitoring); – Engagements in natural resources co-management structures within the host communities; – Knowledge creation on sustainability concepts and integration of sustainability in tourism business opportunities; – Resource mobilization, partnership building and stakeholder engagement.

Facilitation of Opportunities for Implementation Selection of Community Members for Active Implementation The basic criterion for selection of the beneficiaries was women and youth who had the interest and passion in eco-cultural tourism and environmental protection while also sustainably utilizing the environment’s resources for development of sustainable livelihoods. Women were to be the main focus of this recruitment, especially widows, orphans, and young girls from under privileged homes who needed an opportunity to better their lives. Those who were at a great disadvantage as a result of marginalization and patriarchy within the host communities. The recruitments were conducted in all the three wetland areas within the Winam Gulf of Lake Victoria which resulted into a total of 60 project beneficiaries. The groups consisted of young men and women who had completed their high school education, fish mongers, prospective tour guides, women involved in small but unsuccessful businesses, stay at home mothers, college level educated but unemployed youth and small-scale traders.

Development of Training Curriculums and Conducting Trainings Capacity-building in terms of knowledge development and skill-building was the main aim of the project. The needs assessment and participatory rural appraisals revealed that the biggest gap in the communities was knowledge and skills. Knowledge and informal education can ensure that rural people develop the power to actually change their lives for the better. The trainings were facilitated through in class sessions using PowerPoint facilitated lectures, group discussions and brainstorming sessions among the project beneficiaries. We also conducted field training sessions and testing of the skills, knowledge, and tools developed. The host communities were taken through Natural Resource Co-Management and Leadership,

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Tourism resources conservation and monitoring through citizen science knowledge and skills, business development, marketing and book keeping, plastics recycling and craft making from aquatic vegetation and tour guiding and tour operations. The trainings were guided using well designed training curriculums and manuals whose development were informed by a comprehensive training needs assessment.

Facilitation of Tourism Enterprises In reference to the fourth standard on sustainable livelihoods development, it was critical for the project to facilitate the development of sustainable livelihoods for the project beneficiaries. These were enterprises which would benefit from the existing tourism resources and create an enabling environment for further engagement in tourism planning, decision making and benefit sharing. These livelihood innovations would also economic empowerment for the host communities, social development and environmental conservation as well as protection of the tourism resources. Crafts Enterprise – The knowledge and crafting skills that the project beneficiaries learned were turned into enterprises by providing them with materials and tools in bulk to each community which they can use as capital resources to set up a group business. We also set up a point of sale, a craft shop, for the women at the Ecofinder Kenya Eco Centre which is located at Dunga Beach, Kisumu. The Craft Shop is used to display all the crafts that they make allowing tourists the opportunity to spend on the crafts and help in building the local economy. To amplify visitor satisfaction, there were on site learning stations for the tourists who wanted to get the experience of handcrafting and help in custom making any items of their choice. Eco-Cultural Tourism Enterprise – The eco-cultural tourism venture included the development of a tourism portfolio, enhance the understanding of the community members on each of the tourism resources and training them as local tour guides. Their value preposition was in offering authentic experiences to host communities: using their traditional and cultural knowledge to leverage for better engagement within the players in the tourism value chain, earn money and contribute to conservation and proper management of the tourism resources. For sustainability purposes, an online platform was created to use as a point of marketing of the great potential of the destination sites driven by the host communities.

The Green Fund and Give Back Initiative The tourism products, the host communities, and destination sites are the key resources that fuel the tourism industry. As such, the host communities developed a set of activities through which the visitors and planners of the destination sites could

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engage in for social development and environmental conservation purposes. The host communities turned their natural resources into money making resources, the tourism industry also exploits these resources for tourism activities, and the host communities provide a cultural experience. To ensure sustainable tourism development, a give back action plan was developed which also included the community members giving back. The give back and sustainable development investments included – Community wide clean-up activities – Cultural and conservation education – Cultural heritage sites maintenance – Landscape rehabilitation – Plastic recycling through construction of educative earth benches – Sustainable tourism advocacy – Lighting up communities through green energy provisions (solar energy, efficient cookstoves, ecological sanitation toilets, biogas) – Replication and scaling of sustainable livelihoods

Conclusion Host communities are the backbone of sustainable tourism. They live and operate where the tourism resources are located. Without their hospitality, then tourists would not have good experiences on their escapades. The tourism industry comes with a number of negative impacts into their communities which sometimes are not counteracted with the good ones because of the exploitation and tokenism. Effective engagement of host communities in tourism planning, decision making, activities and benefit sharing ensures that they remain inclined to enhance visitor experiences, contribute to protection and proper management of tourism resources and ensure their socioeconomic development. Upon completion of the project, the host communities had a strong, knowledgeable and capable tourism representation committees. Their attitudes towards tourism activities were changed, and they understood their roles and importance as host communities. They had a plan for proactive participation in tourism planning and decision making, and additionally had sustainable livelihoods which they could replicate to other community members. Most importantly, they had a detailed roadmap to integration, partnerships and stakeholder engagement in sustainable tourism development. The host communities were in a position where they could leverage external visitors, planners and investors to ensure the tourism activities they were engaging in, could meet all the sustainability standards.

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References Alexander, J. (2008). Participation in sustainable tourism development: Stakeholders & partnership working. Cardiff University. Beech, J. G., Beech, J., & Chadwick, S. (eds). (2006). The business of tourism management. Pearson education. Dangi, T. B., & Jamal, T. (2016). An integrated approach to “sustainable community-based tourism”. Sustainability, 8(5), 475. Giampiccoli, A., & Saayman, M. (2018). Community-based tourism development model and community participation. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 7(4), 1–27. Hanrahan, J., & Boyd, S. (2020) Host communities’ participation in planning for sustainable tourism in Ireland: A local authority perspective. PhD diss., PhD Thesis, Submitted to the Institute of Technology, Sligo, 2008. Kenya Tourism Board. “Tourism industry post corona virus.” Nakaweesi, D. (2013). East Africa not ready for reaping Benefits as a tourism destination. Daily Monitor. East Africa Website. Novelli, M., & Gebhardt, K. (2007). Community based tourism in Namibia:‘Reality show’or ‘window dressing’? Current Issues in Tourism, 10(5), 443–479. Nsabimana, E. The extent of community involvement in tourism development and conservation activities in eastern Rwanda. PhD diss., Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2010. Okello, M. M., & Novelli, M. (2014). Tourism in the East African Community (EAC): Challenges, opportunities, and ways forward. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 14(1–2), 53–66. Pretty, J. (1995). The many interpretations of participation. Focus, 16(4), 4–5. Rasoolimanesh, S. M., & Jaafar, M. (2016). Community participation toward tourism development and conservation program in rural world heritage sites. In Tourism-from empirical research towards practical application. IntechOpen. Rogerson, C. M. (2013). Tourism and local development in South Africa: challenging local governments. African Journal for Physical Health Education, Recreation and Dance, 19 (Supplement 3), 9–23. Salleh, N., Mohd, H., Shukor, M. S., Othman, R., Samsudin, M. & Mohd Idris, S. H. (2016). Factors of local community participation in tourism-related business: Case of Langkawi Island. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 6(8), 565. Stone, C. (2012). Community engagement in sustainable development for local products. In Palermo Business Review. Special (pp. 245–252). Swarbrooke, J. (1999). Sustainable tourism management. Cabi. Tosun, C. (2000). Limits to community participation in the tourism development process in developing countries. Tourism Management, 21(6), 613–633. Tosun, C. (2006). Expected nature of community participation in tourism development. Tourism Management, 27(3), 493–504. Towards Earth Summit. Sustainable tourism: Turning the tide. The economic briefing, No. 4. [Online] Retrieved on 22nd March 2008 from http://www.stakeholderforum.org/fileadmin/ files/SF_Briefing_Papers/bp_tourism.pdf UNCSD. (2012). Sustainable Tourism: A Non-Governmental Organization Perspective. Tourism and Sustainable Development. UNESCO. Sustainable Tourism Outline Toolkit. Engaging local communities and Businesses. http:// whc.unesco.org/en/tourismtoolkit

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UNWTO, UNEP. (2005). Making tourism more sustainable–a guide for policy makers. New York, NY, USA: UNEP UNWTO:. World Tourism Organization. (2011). Sustainable Tourism Development Guide Book; Enhancing capacities for Sustainable Tourism for development in developing countries.

Greg Bakunzi

22 Featured Example: Community-Based Tourism in Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda Introduction Rwanda’s Volcanoes National Park (VNP) in the Virunga mountains, Rwanda, is considered as one of the most important regions for biodiversity conservation in Africa. Red Rocks, a community-based tourism (CBT) enterprise, works with communities around the village of Nyakinama bordering Virunga, to showcase the potential of CBT in the area around VNP. Red Rocks works closely with the cooperatives and shows an eagerness to take their views and wishes for the future into account through participatory planning meetings. The market access that Red Rocks facilitates, enables the cooperatives to reach international tourists with their handicraft products and cultural activities. Environmental programs, linked to tourism products may have some positive biodiversity impacts in the long term, although the extent of which remains to be seen. CBT has potential to support conservation in VNP if sustainability principles are adhered to and embraced wholeheartedly. With some improvements, the private enterprise-cooperative model of Red Rocks helps in diversifying livelihoods and reduce forest resource dependency.

Context of Red Rocks, Rwanda Red Rocks is an intercultural exchange center and guesthouse, offering budget accommodation and cultural activities such as banana beer making and homestays. Red Rocks was awarded as one of the top 100 sustainable destinations by Green Destinations for its efforts towards responsible and green tourism. The center provides a consumption venue for cultural tourism, and markets local activities as a product to tourists. Collectively, Red Rocks works with over 300 vulnerable women across five cooperatives in an area of high rural poverty around the village of Nyakinama, 8km south of Musanze. Most of the women lack basic formal education, are often widowed or single parents, supporting multiple dependents through subsistence farming. As a social enterprise, Red Rocks is committed to working in partnership with local people, environmental protection and sustainable development. Red Rocks mission statement sets out “support training, capacity building, environmental protection, nature conservation, and promotion of good practice.” https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110702491-022

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The center considers cultural tourism to be an opportunity capable of generating considerable benefits for the local community. It works with the definition of cultural tourism as comprising experiences to encounter a destination’s history and heritage, its stories, its people, its landscape, its townscape, its culture. For Red Rocks, this is about discovering what makes a destination distinctive, authentic and memorable. It is about the experience of place. So far, the social enterprise has have identified five areas of local culture, believed to have potential for development of cultural tourism products. These are human heritage, agricultural and industrial heritage, the arts, cuisine and human-natural history.

Community Programs for Red Rocks Women from the cooperatives take responsibility for most aspects of running the cultural activities: they purchase and prepare any materials needed, and share the labor among themselves. Red Rocks handles marketing, provides a work venue and hires local guides to translate for the guests. Activities run exclusively by the women are banana beer making, basket weaving, traditional dancing, agricultural tours, food preparation and homestays; all typically priced on less. The cooperative takes 80% of the revenue for the activities after the local guide has been paid. The cooperative members also produce handicrafts to stock the gift shop. Handicrafts mainly consist of Agaseke baskets woven from grasses and banana fibres gathered locally. Other handicrafts include earthenware pottery, jewellery, greetings cards and paintings. The gift shop at Red Rocks has provided them with a link to the tourist market as previously the women would sell baskets outside the sector office or by the road side to local people. Their handicrafts have also made their way into the international market, as Red Rocks ship large orders of around 50 baskets to customers abroad. The shop costs nothing for Red Rocks to run as it is operated by the reception staff, allowing the cooperatives to receive 100% of the revenue generated. Profits earned by the cooperative members are saved collectively. At the end of each year the funds are used to provide health insurance for everybody in the cooperative and of the funds remaining, 60% is shared out equally among members and 40% is saved for emergencies and future investment. As most of the women in the cooperatives are subsistence farmers, they have very little opportunity to earn cash. Money provided by their activities at Red Rocks enables them to improve the educational opportunities of their children through purchasing school uniforms and paying for school fees beyond primary level. They are also able to buy clothes and other small commodities, such as soap. The benefit of the revenue earned by the cooperative goes beyond addressing immediate needs of the women. The cooperatives hope to use their profits to improve their livelihoods in the long term by purchasing land, better varieties of crops, tools

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and livestock to make their agricultural activities more productive. There is a social element to working within the cooperatives that encourages membership to proliferate. The cooperative model used also encourages empowerment, as the women have to cover their own expenses for the activities and avoid becoming entirely dependent on Red Rocks as they have to learn how to budget and plan their activities in advance. There may also be additional benefits from interacting with tourists taking part in the activities. Red Rocks is cautious that the cooperatives do not become dependent on the business. As it stands, if tourism to the area were to fall or Red Rocks goes out of business, the cooperatives would lose all links to the market and the women would have to revert to solely relying on subsistence agriculture for their livelihoods. To ensure the cooperatives are able to become self-sufficient, we reconsidered how their relationship functions. To ensure that future changes reflect the needs and desires of the women involved, we carry out participatory planning meetings with the cooperatives.

Agricultural Improvement Program We have been working with universities to establish an agricultural program with the local cooperatives. Students teach cooperatives a new method for growing climbing beans using recycled materials. The new method uses eucalyptus sticks from tree plantations with cross wires made from banana fibres which are usually discarded as a waste product This method of growing beans has greater productivity as the space between plants is larger, increasing air access and enabling weeding around the plants. Increasing the productivity of crops in the area is an important objective due to the scarcity of suitable land for agriculture. Traditionally local people harvested bamboo sticks from the park for bean cultivation. While this activity is now illegal, harvesting persists as bamboo only grows in the park where it is cold and wet, making it difficult to cultivate outside the park at lower altitudes. Another fledgling initiative is sheep distribution program which provide the cooperatives with income, and a source of manure to increase agricultural productivity. Cooperative members are each provided with a sheep and given instructions on how to correctly care for the animals, including feeding, how to check for disease and breeding. Medicines are also provided free of charge and the local vet explains how to correctly administer them. All recipients of sheep must sign a contract in which they commit to breeding three offspring from the sheep before they may butcher or sell the animal. To make the program self-sustaining, each cooperative member may keep two of the offspring and give back one to the program as payment. The returned animals will be used to provide sheep to the next group. Our CBT initiatives incentivise communities to protect their local environments by raising the value of natural resources. Advocates of CBT describe a win-win scenario, where community development and conservation are promoted simultaneously.

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The promotion of tourism is recognized as an important activity for development and conservation in Rwanda, and their potential contribution to community development and conservation in the area.

Conclusion Red Rocks works closely with the cooperatives and shows an eagerness to take their views and wishes for the future into account through participatory planning meetings. The market access that Red Rocks facilitates, enables the cooperatives to reach international tourists with their handicraft products and cultural activities. Environmental programs, linked to tourism products may have some positive biodiversity impacts in the long term, although the extent of which remains to be seen.

Author Biographies Lucy Atieno is a tourism researcher with interests in sustainable tourism. Her academic background is in sustainable tourism, tourism management, and communication studies, with qualifications from Moi University in Kenya and the University of Bologna in Italy. Lucy has a decade of combined experience in university teaching, tourism research and sustainable tourism consulting. Abdou Ba runs Setsima, a tour operations business in Senegal. He studied Tourism at Cheikh Anta Diop Dakar University. He is also a graduate in parliamentary procedures and leadership from Dakar Academy School Air and has research interests in emigration and social equity. In 2019, he graduated in Tourism and Sustainable Development at Alma Mater University Bologna, Italy. Francis Rweyemamu Bagambilana obtained a BA (with Education) in 1998, an MA (Geography and Environmental Management) in 2009, and a PhD in Geography (specializing in Climate Change) in 2019 from the University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM), Tanzania. Furthermore, he had a work experience of eight years (1998 – 2006) in teaching IGSCE Geography at Laureate International School in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Additionally, he has a work experience of twelve years (2009 – 2021) in teaching Geography courses (including Tourism and Environment, Climatology and Environmental Assessment) at Mwenge Catholic University (MWECAU). Specifically, he undertook research, published articles in peer-reviewed international journals, reviewed manuscripts for Mwenge Journal of Academic Studies as hosted at MWECAU and Tanzania Journal of Population Studies and Development as hosted at UDSM, wrote books/chapters in edited books and made presentations in international academic conferences within MWECAU and beyond. His ORCID Id is https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2689-9005. Alan Dixon has been in tourism and travel in Kenya since the mid-1970s and has nurtured a great affinity for the beauties of the outside world and the preservation there of them. He started Lets Go Travel in 1979 and has been on various boards and in different forums driving positive change to aspects of ecotourism, sustainable tourism and responsible tourism largely across various parts of Kenya. The growth of modern-day conservancies, community tourism and youth empowerment through being better informed on sustainable tourism have all been close to his heart, and part of the drive nationwide through education. Lets Go Travel has been awarded various prizes for its achievements over the past 10 years in these aspects. Bakunzi Greg is a Rwandan tour operator. In his career that spans two decades, Bakunzi has been a driving force in the Great Lakes Region’s tourism industry. He lives in Musanze, northern Rwanda, and operates two companies that focus on wildlife, community and conservation around the Virunga Massif. Dominic Kinyua Gitau is a Landscape Architect and a Physical Planner by profession. He is a Lecturer at Kenyatta University in the Department of Architecture and Interior Design (DAID), and a private consultant in the built environment. He is currently pursuing Doctor of Philosophy in urban planning and management at Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya. His current areas of interest include conservation, heritage and cultural tourism. Judy Kepher Gona has over two decades of working in sustainable tourism in Africa as a manager, strategist, researcher, lecturer, global speaker, motivator and consultant. Her interests are in community-led models of tourism and integration of communities in tourism supply chain. She https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110702491-023

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Author Biographies

holds a Master’s degree in Community Development & Rural Sociology from the University of Nairobi, Kenya. She is the founder of Sustainable Travel & Tourism Agenda (STTA). Anna Grodzki is Director at Matoke Tours Africa and Founder of Purposeful Incentives, is a tourism professional and consultant with 10 years of work experience in tourism in Uganda with a focus on responsible product development. She is a lawyer (Dipl. Jur.) by profession and has previously worked with UNESCO Uganda on a Human-Wildlife-Conflict program. Her most recent work projects include the development and implementation of innovative skilling programs for women and youth in tourism in collaboration with the private sector and development partners. Eudora Hagan is a Senior Lecturer and Dean, School of Graduate studies, Takoradi Technical University, Ghana. Her research interest includes service quality in tourism and hospitality. Moez Kacem is a Professor at the Institute of Higher Technological Studies of Nabeul (Tunisia) specialized in tourism management. He is also member of the Research Laboratory ENVIE (Faculty of Economics and Management sciences of Nabeul – University of Carthage). He is also member of the Chair of Positive Tourism at the University of Paris Nanterre. Since 2011, Moez KACEM is a member of the executive Board of the World Association for Hospitality and Tourism Education and Training (AMFORHT). Besides, he is a member of the expert committee of the International Mountain Tourism Alliance (IMTA, China). As international consultant in sustainable tourism, Moez KACEM contributed to many official studies focused on ecotourism strategies (Senegal, Tunisia), climate change and tourism development scheme (Tunisia, Morocco) and reinforcing the hospitality skills (Congo Brazzaville). The preferred research fields for Moez KACEM are: sustainable tourism, sustainable blue growth and the climate change impacts and adaptation strategies for tourism industry. Jane M. Kathurima holds MSc in Tourism Management from Kenyatta University in Kenya. She is currently pursuing PhD in Tourism Management, Moi University in Kenya, with special research interest in Tourism Education. Her areas of research interest include Sustainable Tourism and Destination Marketing. She is a member of Tourism Professional Association of Kenya. She has over 15 years of University teaching and supervision of undergraduate tourism students. Currently, she is a Lecturer at the Technical University of Kenya, Department of Hospitality and Leisure Studies. Dennis Karanja is an Architect/ Landscape Architect, and also lectures in the Department of Landscape Architecture, School of Architecture and Building Sciences, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya. His interests are in decision making around sustainable management of landscape change and conservation. Jonathan R. Karkut is a geologist who after an initial career in exploration geology, followed postgraduate studies in anthropology and tourism. He brings a particular contribution to projects that seek to find a balance between development concerns and conservation of physical and cultural landscapes. Over the past two decades he has specialized in applied projects concerning heritage and tourism, with a notable emphasis upon intangible cultural heritage. This combination of experience and skills has allowed him to bring a unique knowledge of both earth and social sciences. Upon completion of his PhD on public policy in the context of the UNESCO global geoparks program, he has further applied this knowledge in different contexts of community engagement. This has led to collaborations with local organizations and researchers in India, Taiwan, Ethiopia and Kenya.

Author Biographies

401

Bonface O. Kihima holds a PhD and Msc. in Tourism from the University of Lyon 2 in France. His areas of research interest include: ecotourism, community-based Tourism, beach tourism and destination management and marketing. He is a member of the eco-rating committee of the Ecotourism Kenya as well as the Tourism Professional Association. He has over 10 years of University teaching and supervision of post graduate students in the area of tourism. Currently, he is an Associate Professor of Tourism and Travel Management, and the Academic Team Leader/Chair of Hospitality and Leisure Studies at the Technical University of Kenya. Kamila Krygier is a psychologist with a Master’s degree in Intercultural Conflict Management and a PhD in Social Sciences. She has more than 10 years work and research experience in peacebuilding, conflict transformation and human rights in various countries with a special focus on Eastern Africa and particularly Uganda. Currently, she is based in Nairobi as the head of Misereor Dialogue and Partnership office. Their not-for-profit organization is dedicated to raising awareness about peace-sensitive tourism and ethical travel through research, training and consultancy services. It explores and makes accessible practical applications of the concept to foster sustainable development, reduce inequalities, ensure inclusion and gender representation and ultimately contribute to more peaceful societies through tourism. Refiloe Julia Lekgau is a Lecturer in the School of Tourism and Hospitality: College of Business and Economics at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. She holds a Master’s degree in Tourism and Hospitality (Cum Laude), a BTech in Tourism Management (Cum Laude) and a National Diploma in Tourism Management, all from the University of Johannesburg. She lectures events management, tourism development and cultural tourism at the School. Refiloe is currently studying towards her PhD in Tourism and Hospitality Management, and takes interest in research areas pertaining to events, tourism development, and policy in the developing pan-African context. Akwany Leonard holds Bachelor of Science in Natural Resources Management from Egerton University, Kenya, and a Joint Master of Science in Environmental Sciences, Policy, and Management from University of Manchester, United Kingdom under prestigious Erasmus Mundus Scholarship Programme of European Commission. He is an environmental scientist and entrepreneur working on environmental management, policy, governance, communication and entrepreneurship domains. Leonard’s specialties and areas of interest include environmental policy & governance, sustainable tourism, natural resources management, water governance, disaster risk reduction, climate change adaptation, community resilience, integrated water resources management, environmental sustainability for water, sanitation and hygiene programs and nature-based entrepreneurship. Agita Livina is Professor in Tourism and Director of the Institute of Social, Economic and Humanities Research, and UNESCO Chair on Biosphere and Man at Vidzeme University of Applied Sciences, Latvia. Her research interests are sustainable tourism management, planning and performance. ORCiD: 0000-0003-2804-9132 Fergus T. Maclaren is President, ICOMOS ICTC and Director, International Relations and Knowledge Management, Economic Innovation Institute for Africa. Mr. Maclaren is a sustainable tourism and cultural heritage management professional with 25 years of experience in Canada and internationally, with much of his current professional focus involving tourism recovery and resiliency at cultural and natural World Heritage sites and the implementation of tourism and cultural heritage-related facets of the 2030 UN Sustainable Development Goals. His background includes a broad range of tourism planning, destination management, community and cultural

402

Author Biographies

heritage development expertise. His professional experience includes: serving as Director of the UN-funded International Year of Ecotourism; teaching sustainable tourism at McGill University and lecturing internationally on the subject; acting as President of the ICOMOS International Cultural Tourism Committee; serving as the ICOMOS representative on the UNESCO Task Force on Sustainable and Resilient Tourism; and working in an Expert capacity for the UNESCO World Heritage Centre, United Nations World Tourism Organization, Organization of World Heritage Cities, Economic Innovation Institute for Africa, and Heritage & Cultural Society of Africa (HACSA). Coleen Lebone Magogodi is a Lecturer for Hospitality Management at Botswana Accountancy College. She was born in Botswana, completing her first degree in Hotel and Hospitality Management at the University of Strathclyde, Scotland, and Masters in Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Botswana. She has a vast experience in the hospitality industry and higher education. Her research interests include cross-cultural management, curriculum development and culinary arts. She is also the program expert validator in Botswana. Amata Mwalo Mathias is a PhD student at Maseno University, Kenya. He has successfully served as a tutorial fellow at Great Lakes University of Kisumu between 2016 and 2019. His research interest covers ecotourism, tourism entrepreneurship and community-based tourism. Joseph Njoroge Muiruri is a lecturer at the School of Hospitality and Tourism Management of Murang’a University. His research interest is in tourism planning, policy, development, climate change and tourism nexus. Fred K. Ngunjiri is an architect and arbiter. Besides practice, he lectures in the Department of Landscape Architecture, School of Architecture and Building Sciences, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya. His research interests are broadly in the areas of sustainability and sustainable development. Wallace Njiiri earned his Bachelor of Architecture and Master of Sustainable Urban Development at the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT). He has been a tutorial fellow at the Department of Architecture, JKUAT since 2016. He has continuously and extensively researched on conservation of historic areas and buildings right from his undergraduate level. This has culminated in the publication of papers to include; Residents’ Attitude Towards the Built Environment in Historic Parklands in Nairobi, Kenya and Residents’ Visual Preference Dimensions of Historic Parklands in Nairobi which is under review. He is a Member of the Architectural Association of Kenya and part of the design team at the design firm Eco Space Architects. Wallace Njiiri is a member of the National Museums of Kenya, African Conservation Centre, Nature Kenya and the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS). Mugwima Bernard Njuguna Mugwima Bernard Njuguna, MAAK (A), M.ICOMOS, an architect and a planner, is based at the Centre for Urban Studies, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT). He is a founder member of the research organization Heritage Conservation and Human Rights. A Registered Architect, he runs the design firm Phi Architecture + Heritage. He has co-authored Nairobi: An Architectural Jubilee 1963–2013 (Vol. 1) and co-edited the book Conservation of Natural and Cultural Heritage in Kenya, A Cross-Disciplinary Approach. He is currently involved in a photograph conservation project titled Building Shared Futures. Other research interests are urban ecology and nature conservation.

Author Biographies

403

Teresa Mwuese Nmadu is a Professor of Human Resource Management, is the immediate past, first, two time, female Deputy Vice Chancellor (Administration) in the history of the University of Jos, Nigeria. She holds a PhD (Management) at the University of Jos, 2006; MPA (Personnel and Labor Relations Management) from the University of Pittsburgh, USA, 1985; and BSc (Business Administration) from Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, 1979. Mrs. Nmadu is a 2015/2016 Fellow of the International Women’s Leadership Forum; a 2019/2020, member of the Longenecker Fellows Mentorship Programme; a member of the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM); a member of the United States Association of Small Business and Entrepreneurship Educators (USASBE), and the Academy of Management of Nigeria (TAMN). She has over 50 publications in refereed journals, 29 Conferences, six PhD graduates, and consults and facilitates globally in the areas of entrepreneurship, human resource management and leadership development. Destaings Nyenyi Nyongesa is a senior lecturer of Economics and Dean of School of Business and Economics at Maseno University, Kenya. He holds a PhD in Economics. His research focuses on Econometric and Macroeconomics with a particular emphasis on policy analysis. He has extensive experience in modeling and policy analysis. He has consulted for the Department of International Development (DFID) and United States of America International Development (USAID). Jacinta Nzioka–Mbithi is an ongoing MSc Responsible Tourism Leeds-Beckett (UK) student with an MBA in Strategic Management and BSc Tourism Management. Jacinta has a long career in destination marketing and management at the Kenya Tourism Board. She has contributed to curriculum development, guest lecturing in University of Addis and University of London SOAS where she specialized in product development and tourism public policy and developed her skills in World Heritage Sites management, listing and their Development for tourism. Tom Olielo is currently a lecturer in the Department of Ecotourism, Hotel and Institutional Management within the School of Business and Economics, Maseno University, Kenya. Olielo holds a PhD in Food, Nutrition and Dietetics of Kenyatta University. He also has a Master’s Degree in Food Science & Food Technology from the University of Nairobi. Vincent O. Oluoch holds a master of science degree in Tourism and Environment from Wageningen University, The Netherlands. His areas of research interest include community-based natural management. He has over 10 years work experience on mainstreaming local communities into the tourism value chains through the development and promotion of community-based tourism enterprises. Currently, he works with Kenya Wildlife Conservancies Association (KWCA) having joined from the Kenya Community Based Tourism Network (KECOBAT). Felix Ongoma graduated four years ago with Bachelor of Science in Tourism Management. Currently he works as a product development officer at Let’s Go Travel Uniglobe, Kenya. He is pursuing a Master of Science in Responsible Tourism Management at Leeds Beckett University, UK. Gavinolla Mahender Reddy is an Assistant Professor at National Institute of Tourism & Hospitality Management, Hyderabad, and PhD candidate at Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, India. Guest Lecturer at Vidzeme University of Applied Sciences, Latvia. His area of research and publications includes on responsible and sustainable tourism. ORCiD: 0000-0002-3476-3132 Adhiambo Roniance holds a Bachelor’s degree in Wildlife Enterprise and Management from Egerton University, Kenya. A postgraduate certificate in Wetlands, Integrated Water Resources Management and Food Security from Wageningen University, The Netherlands and is currently taking a Master’s

404

Author Biographies

degree in Environmental Policy at the University of Nairobi, Kenya. Her research interests are in commodities, voluntary certification standards for wildlife productive landscapes, value chain development, and environmental sustainability and sustainable tourism practices. Emmanuel Musa Samdi is a Lecturer with the university of Jos department of marketing and has a multidisciplinary educational background with degrees in Accounting (B.Sc.) in Business (MBA) in Economics (M.Sc.) and in the final stage for a PhD Management specialising in Sustainable Tourism Management. He has published articles in the field of sustainable tourism and have set up an NGO called Sustainable Tourism Research and Development Foundation to help promote sustainable tourism research and development in Africa with special emphasis on Nigeria ecotourism destination management. Mr Emmanuel has also completed a Postgraduate Certificate in Education and Social Research from University of London. He is a fellow of the institute of Management Consultants of Nigeria (FIMC) and a globally Certified Management Consultant (CMC) with a 34-year working experience. He is also a management consultant and Head Africa with IMCI Group international Gmbh Switzerland. Portia Pearl Siyanda Sifolo is a lecturer at the Tshwane University of Technology. She has wealth of experience and prodigious knowledge in the tourism sector and higher education. She understands the economic impact of the tourism sector not only in South Africa but in the African continent. She believes in the opportunities presented by AfCFTA as one of the possible solutions to recover the tourism sector in Africa. Her research interests are on leadership, entrepreneurship and tourism supply chains as economic development initiatives in the continent. She has co-authored books, published research papers in academic journals and participated in both domestic and international conferences. Tembi Maloney Tichaawa is the Academic Head of the Tourism Department and a Professor in the School of Tourism and Hospitality: College of Business and Economics at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. He holds a PhD in Geography and Environmental Management from the University of KwaZulu-Natal, a Master’s Degree in Tourism and Hospitality Management (Cum Laude) from the Cape Peninsula University of Technology. Tembi has a combined 18 years of industry and academic experience in the domain of tourism, events, and hospitality management. Tembi lectures a number of modules in the tourism discipline and supervises postgraduate research. Tembi conducts research on a range of developmental issues linked to tourism, hospitality and events management, focusing on the developing context. Josepha Uwamahoro completed her BA studies at the University in Kigali, then Master’s degree in Management at the Lodz University of Technology (Analysing the impact of information system on the efficiency and effectiveness of the organization Fujitsu technology solutions, 2010–2016). Currently, she is preparing to take up doctoral studies at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan. Her research interests are focused on sustainable development and competitive tourism in East Africa, especially in Rwanda. Ephraim Wahome is an Associate Professor in the Department of History and Archaeology, University of Nairobi, Kenay. He is currently involved in the Building Shared Futures Project on the conservation and documentation of historic Nairobi funded by Bristol University, UK. His current areas of interest include conservation, heritage and cultural tourism. Carolyne Wanza is a Landscape Architect and Urban Designer. Apart from practice, she lectures in the Department of Landscape Architecture, School of Architecture and Building Sciences, Jomo

Author Biographies

405

Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology in Kenya. Her research interests are around ecologies of urban landscapes. Alina Zajadacz is a geographer, lecturer at the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan, Poland. Her research interests focus on tourist potential of towns and cities as well as on accessible tourism. She defended a doctoral thesis entitled Tourist potential of cities on the example of selected cities of the Western Sudetes in 2001 and obtained the title of habilitated doctor in 2013 on the basis of the dissertation Tourism of the deaf – a geographical approach. She is the author of more than 100 scientific publications. She managed projects aimed at improving the accessibility of the tourism supply for people with disabilities. She cooperates with institutions and associations (elaboration of a tourism development strategy and accessibility analysis). Affiliation: Chair of Tourism and Recreation, Faculty of Geographical and Geological Sciences, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan, Bogumil Krygowski, Poland.

List of Reviewers Dr. Agnes Sirima, Sokoine University of Agriculture Prof. Albert Kimbu, University of Surrey Dr. Anna Spenceley, Chair, IUCN WCPA Tourism and Protected Areas Specialist Group Prof. Bernard Kitheka, Missouri State University Dr. Caren Jerop, Alupe University College Dr. Carmen Nibigira, Rwanda Dr. David Chiawo, Strathmore University Dr. Joseph Njoroge, Murang’a University of Technology Dr. Misiko Juma, Dedan Kimathi University of Technology Prof. Pierluigi Musaro, University of Bologna Dr. Portia Sifolo, Tshwane University of Technology Prof. Swart Nellie, University of South Africa Tom Buncle, Yellow Railroad Ltd Unathi Sonwabile, Tshwane University of Technology

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110702491-024

List of Figures Figure 4.1 Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2 Figure 6.3 Figure 6.4 Figure 6.5 Figure 6.6 Figure 6.7 Figure 6.8 Figure 7.1 Figure 8.1 Figure 8.2 Figure 8.3 Figure 8.4 Figure 8.5 Figure 8.6 Figure 9.1 Figure 9.2 Figure 9.3 Figure 9.4 Figure 9.5 Figure 9.6 Figure 9.7 Figure 9.8 Figure 9.9 Figure 10.1 Figure 10.2 Figure 10.3 Figure 10.4 Figure 10.5 Figure 10.6 Figure 10.7 Figure 10.8 Figure 10.9 Figure 10.10 Figure 10.11 Figure 10.12 Figure 10.13 Figure 10.14 Figure 11.1 Figure 11.2 Figure 11.3 Figure 11.4 Figure 11.5

Systematic Literature Review Process 57 Yearly publication output 84 Most productive journals publishing wildlife tourism research of Africa 85 Most contributing authors of wildlife tourism research of Africa 85 Most contributing institutions by affiliation 86 Most contributing subject areas on wildlife tourism in Africa 87 Most contributing countries on wildlife tourism research in Africa 87 Funding sponsor on wildlife tourism research in Africa 88 Co-occurrence of author provided keywords of wildlife tourism research in Africa 90 Map of Tsabong 103 Map of Ethiopia showing the Sof Omar WHS cave network 124 Tourists at one of the Sof Omar caves entrances 125 Map of Ghana showing the main sites of the Forts and Castles WHS 128 Elmina Castle also known as St. George of the Mine Castle, in Ghana 130 Map of Kenya showing transportation network and position of Thimlich Ohinga WHS 135 Restoration work on the walls of Thimlich Ohinga 137 Location Map of Parklands Area 152 Art Deco Architectural Heritage Buildings in Historic Parklands 154 Art Deco Architecture on First Avenue, Parklands 154 Art Deco Architecture on Second Avenue, Parklands 155 Art Deco Architecture on Third Avenue, Parklands 155 Semi-circular double pillared porch 156 Continuous sunbreaks 156 Ship-like stepped façade 157 Abrasive edifices adjacent erode scale and historic color 159 A Conceptual model of tourism actor’s involvement in rural tourism development 168 Actor – Oriented theoretical framework 169 Rice farms in Mwea 173 Rice processing in a factory 173 Maize farming in Kitale 174 A cultivated farm in Kinangop 175 Sloped landscapes of Kikuyu in Kiambu County 175 The Maasai herd looking for pasture 176 A traditional hut in Kisii county 177 Vernacularly built Maasai huts surrounding a cattle yard 177 Wooden and concrete finished houses at Kinangop 178 Settlements in a tea farm in Karatina 179 Natural Small Lake Ecosystem in Karatina 179 The Karue hill in Embu 180 Nshima preparation process 194 Sevred Nshima 194 Spinach cooked in peanut butter 196 Sadza, Zimbwabwean cuisine 196 Bota, normally consumed for breakfast 197

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Figure 11.6 Figure 11.7 Figure 11.8 Figure 11.9 Figure 11.10 Figure 11.11 Figure 11.12 Figure 11.13 Figure 11.14 Figure 11.15

List of Figures

Topi (melon porridge) 200 Tjimoni, a mix of samp, jugo beans and groundnuts 200 Delele (vegetable leaves) 201 Phane (Mopani worms) 201 Seswaa (Pounded meat) 203 Sour Porridge, in Setswana called bogobe jwa ting served 203 Traditional beer in a clay pot 204 Diphaphatha (flat bread rolls) 204 Drinking traditional beer 205 Ngati: a mix of cow stomach and some parts of the meat from a cow and the cow cervix 206 Figure 11.16 Traditional beer foaming 206 Figure 12.1 Climate change adaptation knowledge domains in tourism literature 212 Figure 12.2 Regional Tourism Adaptation Framework (RTAF) 214 Figure 12.3 Regional Tourism Sustainable Adaptation Framework (RTSAF) 216 Figure 13.1 Arrival insights 2019 223 Figure 13.2 Impacts of climate change on Tunisian beaches 231 Figure 13.3 Concentration of ports and marinas on the Tunisian coast 232 Figure 14.1 The location of the national parks in Rwanda 250 Figure 14.2 Number of reviews from TripAdvisor users about national parks, by rating category 253 Figure 14.3 Opinions of young Rwandans on the main natural tourist attractions in Rwanda [in %] 257 Figure 14.4 Interest of young people in tourism in Rwanda (in %) 258 Figure 14.5 Reasons for Rwandans not being interested in tourism 259 Figure 14.6 Opinions on whether foreign tourism affects the improvement or deterioration of selected aspects of life in Rwanda [in %] 260 Figure 15.1 Moderating Effect of Visitor Length of Stay on Relationship between Size of Tourism Enterprise and Frequency of Weekly Supply 290 Figure 15.2 Moderating Effect of Visitor Length of Stay on the nexus between Weekly Patronage of Tourism Enterprises and Value of Weekly Supply 291 Figure 16.1 Eagle View Camp 2012 307 Figure 16.2 Eagle View Camp 2017 307 Figure 16.3 Vegetation in form of shrubs and trees in 2012 310 Figure 16.4 Vegetation in form of shrubs and trees in 2017 311 Figure 17.1 Sundowner at Il Ngwesi – Laikipia Region 324 Figure 19.1 The system of tourism 337 Figure 19.2 Number of international tourist arrivals in Tanzania, 1995–2019 339 Figure 19.3 The economic impact of tourism 343 Figure 19.4 Quarterly international tourist arrivals in Zanzibar, 2018–2020 347 Figure 19.5 Number of foreign and domestic tourist arrivals in Tanzania National Parks 347 Figure 19.6 Total number of foreign and domestic tourist arrivals in NCA, 1969–2016 347 Figure 19.7 Travel (Tourism) receipts in Tanzania, January – June 2020 348 Figure 19.8 Travel (Tourist) receipts in Tanzania, 2018–2020 349 Figure 19.9 Travel (Tourist) receipts in Tanzania, January 2000–May 2020 350 Figure 21.1 Operating Standards on Community Engagement in Sustainable Tourism Development, 2019 382

List of Tables Table 1.1 Table 2.1 Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 4.1 Table 6.1 Table 13.1 Table 13.2 Table 13.3 Table 13.4 Table 13.5 Table 14.1 Table 14.2 Table 14.3 Table 15.1 Table 15.2 Table 15.3 Table 15.4 Table 15.5 Table 15.6 Table 15.7 Table 15.8 Table 15.9 Table 16.1 Table 16.2 Table 16.3 Table 19.1 Table 19.2 Table 21.1

A window of opportunity for MSME’s in the Africa 11 Participant contextual information for narrative inquiry 19 Requirements for licensing of tourism activities and services (including homestays) 40 Homestay owners’ response on compliance 42 Extraction and Analysis 60 Ten most cited articles on wildlife tourism research in Africa 89 Composition of the expert panel 221 Dispatching of beds by category and by Region. 224 SWOT Analysis 226 Types of Risks 235 Synthesis of the impact of tourism on Biodiversity 236 National Parks Visits in 2017 253 Characteristics of the respondents (in %) 257 Opinions of young Rwandans on the impact of tourism on the sustainable development of Rwanda 260 Factors Measurement Levels and Sizes 276 Association between Income Streams and Local Purchase Ratio 277 Chi-Square Tests 278 Symmetric Measure 278 Multivariate Tests of Tourism Seasonality 279 281 Multivariate Testsa. Tests of Between-Subjects Effects 282 Length of Stay - Size of Tourism Enterprises Interaction Effect 286 Length of Stay – Weekly Patronage Interaction Effect 288 Calculation of irrigation costs and savings 308 Energy Calculations before and after renewable generation 309 Calculations of before and after per visitor maintenance costs 312 Worldwide international tourist arrivals (thousands), January – May 2019/2020 341 YTD change of international tourist arrivals by sub-region, January – May 2019/2020 341 Typologies of community engagement 383

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110702491-026

Index Access 9, 15, 17, 20, 21, 25, 27, 28, 39, 45, 75, 76, 83, 121, 126, 127, 130, 132, 136, 138, 182, 184, 212, 214, 237, 254, 301, 314, 322, 328, 329, 330, 363, 370, 378, 395, 397, 398, 411, 413, 414 – Access needs 15 – Accessible 15, 22, 28, 132, 314, 401, 405 – Accessible tourism 31 – Accessible hosting 15 – Accessibility 15, 33, 45, 132, 136, 172, 254, 301 – Consumer access 17, 28 – Duty-free access 9 – Market access 25, 329, 395, 398 Accommodation 3, 17, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 44, 45, 46, 106, 107, 109, 111, 160, 186, 223, 235, 238, 239, 241, 262, 351, 388 Adaptation 4, 9, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 226, 231, 234, 243 – Adaptation Frameworks 211, 213, 214 – Adaptive capacity 214, 215, 216 African continental free trade agreement (AfCFTA) 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11 Agriculture 10, 35, 60, 73, 108, 145, 165, 185, 229, 234, 263, 387, 397 – Agricultural 36, 87, 92, 108, 121, 123, 166, 169, 172, 182, 185, 225, 230, 234, 396, 397 Arab Maghreb Union (UMA) 5, 76 Aviation 3, 211 Backward linkage 108, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 278, 285, 289, 290, 291 Barriers 9, 26, 127, 379, 380, 386 – Barriers to trade 10 Biodiversity 79, 99, 100, 101, 228, 234, 236, 238, 242, 247, 251, 323, 395 – Biodiversity loss 387 – Biodiversity conservation 82, 93, 236, 299, 395 – Biodiversity protection 99 – Conserving biodiversity 242 Brand 29, 119, 140, 170, 235, 331 – Brand Africa 121 – Brand value 262 – Branding 139,148, 160, 161, 192

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110702491-027

Capacity 8, 9, 37, 39, 44, 92, 109, 115, 117, 127, 130, 137, 139, 140, 167, 181, 185, 222, 239, 254, 261, 262, 269, 272, 285, 292, 380, 382, 385, 389, 390, 395 – Adaptive capacity 214, 215, 216 – Bed capacity 222, 272, 280, 287 – Institutional capacity 214 Certification 226, 239, 299, 301, 314, 333 – Eco-certification 378 Climate change adaptation 211, 212, 213, 215, 226 Climate change mitigation 242 Commitment 4, 10, 12, 53, 247, 255, 323, 330 Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) 5 Community-Based Tourism Enterprise (CBTE) 18, 327, 328, 333 Community protected areas 79 COVID-19 3, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 21, 22, 23, 26, 28, 116, 120, 121, 122, 134, 139, 184, 211, 219, 221, 240, 334, 337, 340, 341, 342, 344, 345, 346, 348, 349, 351, 352, 353, 358, 371, 372 Crisis 29, 74,75, 116, 120,121, 219, 227, 233, 240, 242, 255, 286, 340, 342, 348, 351, 360, 371 Decent work 118, 219, 351, 362 Decision making 16, 38, 225, 237, 267, 271, 301, 304, 305, 331, 378, 379, 380, 382, 384, 386, 391, 392 Deliberative 17 Diaspora 74, 128, 131, 133 – Diaspora tourism 146 Disruptors 9, 340, 348 Diversification 4, 27, 104, 145, 192, 220, 222, 223, 234, 238, 278, 321 Do No Harm Framework 364, 366, 367 Donors 226, 242, 330, 334 – Donor funding 254, 330, 333 Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) 5, 76 Elite capture 26 – Elites 89, 382 – Social elites 147

414

Index

Equality 17, 351, 359, 379 – Gender equality 351, 362 Ethic 11 – Ethical 11, 15, 17, 18, 99, 104, 120, 185, 300, 357, 365 – Ethics 6, 49, 186 Exclusive 17, 18, 26, 28, 30, 153, 186 – Exclusively 153, 396 Expenditure 256, 267, 269, 271, 272, 273, 274, 285, 287, 291, 339, 342, 382 – Expenditures 344 Fish 158, 195, 236, 351, 387 – Fish mongers 389, 390 – Fisheries 117, 387 – Fishermen 389 – Fishing 25, 73, 132, 182, 268 – Spearfishing 236 Foodie 192 – Foodies 191 Gender 92, 205, 255, 257, 351, 359, 362 – Gender equality 351, 362 Gorilla 89 – Gorillas 122, 251, 252, 253, 369 Identity 171, 185, 205, 262, 328 – Cultural identity 362 – Ethnic identity 367 – Local identity 12, 182 – Product identity 74 Immigrants 75, 76, 382 – Immigrant societies 147 Indigenous 22, 119, 120, 121, 136, 138, 146, 147, 158, 168, 193, 248, 256, 310 – Indigenous people 6, 50, 61, 382 Inequalities 16, 52, 351, 357, 358, 371 – Inequality 16, 49, 255, 359, 362 Injustice 360 – Injustices 329, 357, 358 – Social inequalities 358, 371 Justice gap 360 – Social injustice 365, 367 – Social justice 301, 359, 360 Labor 9, 128, 311, 312, 313, 321, 327, 349, 384, 396 – Child labor 352

– Division of labor 9 – Labor force 225 – Labor market 9, 75, 225, 351, 352 Leadership 11, 19, 20, 130, 390 Legitimacy 55 Marine 117, 228, 230, 234, 236 – Marine resources 117 – Marine-based tourism 116 Natural resource 80, 377, 378, 390 – Community-Based Natural Resource Management 101, 327 – Natural resources 56, 101, 102, 106, 107, 166, 170, 180, 181, 197, 226, 228, 236, 299, 323, 330, 379, 390, 392, 397 New normal 10 Niche 25, 27, 28, 34, 41, 99, 192, 240, 330, 333, 360 Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) 133, 212, 221, 328, 329, 330, 332, 333, 362 Online Travel Agencies (OTAs) 18, 240, 241 Optimal 267, 268, 270, 272, 287, 289, 291, 386, 388 Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) 116, 117, 122, 123, 128, 131, 132, 134, 137, 139 Ordinary 74, 161, 230, 380 – Ordinary folk 147 – Ordinary lifestyles 74 – Ordinary past 147 – Ordinary people 146 Partnerships 11, 25, 52, 301, 329, 333, 365, 382, 392 – Public private partnerships 121 – Private and public partnerships 185 Regional Economic Community (REC) 5, 11 Resilience 6, 20, 25, 26, 28, 29, 121, 211, 213, 214, 215, 216, 299 – Long term resilience 214 Respect, Accountability, Fairness, and Transparency (RAFT) 366, 370, 372 Responsible travel 248, 300 – The Centre for Responsible Travel 361 Risk 8, 52, 63, 73, 121, 213, 215, 216, 240, 243, 273, 304, 305, 340, 351

Index

– Risks 29, 52, 212, 213, 214, 216, 225, 227, 228, 230, 233, 243, 269, 302, 330, 351, 360 – Risk management 63 – Risk mitigation 22 – Health risks 220, 228, 235, 243 Safety 39, 45, 229, 252, 360 – Safety measures 139 – Safety of communities 363 – Client safety 40 – Visitor safety 137 – Site safety 132 – Safety regulations 39 – Safety and security 33, 39, 121, 161 Supply chain 6, 9, 10, 22, 332 – Supply chains 330, 351, 404 Technology 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 65, 92, 121, 135, 168, 185, 262, 333 Tour operator 23, 65, 279 – Tour operators 18, 19, 22, 23, 51, 222, 235, 240, 351, 352, 366, 369, 370, 371, 377, 387, 388, 389

415

Transform 55 – Transformation 10, 11, 12, 115, 185, 223, 234, 362, 363 – Transformations 10, 129, 234 – Transformative 4, 8, 15, 358, 372, 378 – Transformed 76, 360 – Transforming 33, 161, 362 Transit 111, 148, 337, 352 – Transit site 100, 102, 111 – Transit status 100, 106, 107, 109, 111 Treaty 6 Ubuntu 11 Women 21, 22, 30, 73, 92, 193, 198, 199, 202, 254, 255, 261, 267, 313, 314, 322, 349, 351, 362, 387, 390, 391, 396, 397 – Businesswomen 50 – Indigenous women 121 Year of Return 16, 131, 133