Sustainable In-Situ Heavy Oil and Bitumen Recovery: Techniques, Case Studies, and Environmental Considerations [1 ed.] 0323908489, 9780323908481

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SUSTAINABLE IN-SITU HEAVY OIL AND BITUMEN RECOVERY TECHNIQUES, CASE STUDIES, AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS MOHAMMADALI AHMADI Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Calgary, Canada

Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, United Kingdom Copyright Ó 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. ISBN: 978-0-323-90848-1 For information on all Gulf Professional Publishing publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher: Megan R. Ball Acquisitions Editor: Fran Kennedy-Ellis Editorial Project Manager: Helena Beauchamp Production Project Manager: Prem Kumar Kaliamoorthi Cover Designer: Miles Hitchen Typeset by TNQ Technologies

Contents 1. Heavy oil and bitumen characterization 1.1 1.2

Introduction Bitumen classification 1.2.1 SARA analysis 1.2.1.1 Asphaltenes 1.2.1.2 Maltenes 1.2.1.3 Resins 1.2.1.4 Oildsaturates and aromatics 1.2.2 PONA analysis 1.3 Bitumen reserves 1.4 Bitumen properties 1.4.1 Density 1.4.1.1 Density models for bitumenesolvent mixtures 1.4.2 Viscosity 1.4.2.1 Viscosity models for bitumen versus thermodynamic conditions 1.4.2.2 Models for the viscosity of the mixture of solvents and bitumen 1.4.2.3 Models based on mixing rules 1.4.2.4 Direct regression model 1.4.2.5 Expanded fluid viscosity correlation 1.4.2.6 Corresponding states equations 1.4.2.7 Model based on NMR for mixture of bitumen and solvent References

2. Fundamentals of heavy oil and bitumen recovery 2.1 2.2

Introduction Bitumen recovery techniques 2.2.1 Thermal recovery methods 2.2.1.1 Steam flooding 2.2.1.2 Hot water injection 2.2.1.3 Cyclic steam stimulation 2.2.1.4 Steam-assisted gravity drainage 2.2.2 Solvent-based recovery methods 2.2.2.1 Cyclic solvent injection

1 1 3 3 3 3 6 6 6 7 10 10 11 12 13 15 16 16 21 22 24 31 37 37 38 38 39 40 41 42 43 43

v

j

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2.2.3

2.2.4

2.2.2.2 Vapor extraction process 2.2.2.3 N-Solv Solvent-assisted thermal methods 2.2.3.1 Expanded solvent steam-assisted gravity drainage 2.2.3.2 Liquid addition to steam for enhancing recovery 2.2.3.3 Steam alternating solvent Steam-additive coinjection methods 2.2.4.1 Chemical-steam coinjection 2.2.4.2 Noncondensable gas-steam coinjection

References

3. Nonthermal heavy oil recovery 3.1 3.2

Introduction Background 3.2.1 Solvent-based recovery methods 3.2.1.1 Cyclic solvent injection 3.2.1.2 Vapor extraction process (VAPEX) 3.2.1.3 N-Solv 3.3 Phase behavior of bitumenesolvent systems 3.4 Solvent diffusivity in bitumen 3.5 Calculation of solvent diffusion coefficient in bitumen 3.6 Scaling-up criteria of the heavy oil production References

4. In-situ thermal heavy oil recovery 4.1 4.2 4.3

Introduction Background Conventional steam-based recovery processes 4.3.1 Cyclic steam stimulation 4.3.2 Steam flooding 4.3.3 Steam-assisted gravity drainage 4.4 Heat transfer theory 4.5 Mathematical modeling of in-situ thermal recovery methods 4.6 Transient convective heat transfer References

5. In-situ upgrading 5.1 5.2 5.3

Introduction Background Catalysts for in-situ upgrading

44 45 46 46 46 47 47 48 48 48 57 57 58 59 59 62 66 67 67 69 71 75 81 81 83 83 83 88 89 95 96 102 111 121 121 122 124

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5.3.1 Water-soluble catalysts 5.3.2 Oil-soluble catalysts 5.3.3 Amphiphilic catalysts 5.3.4 Minerals, zeolites, and solid superacids 5.3.5 Ionic liquids 5.3.6 Dispersed catalysts 5.3.7 Metallic NPs 5.4 Mechanism 5.5 Technical challenges 5.5.1 Formation damage 5.5.2 Cost 5.5.3 Environmental footprint 5.5.4 Recoverability References

6. Solvent-steam coinjection 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5

Introduction Background Mechanisms involved in solvent-based heavy oil recovery methods Relative permeability Solvent-assisted thermal recovery methods 6.5.1 Solvents in steam flooding 6.5.2 Steam-alternating solvent 6.5.3 Solvents in CSS 6.5.4 Solvent in SAGD 6.6 Mathematical modeling of solvent-steam coinjection 6.7 Steam-bitumen-solvent phase behavior 6.7.1 Gibbs phase rule and phase equilibrium 6.7.2 Steam-bitumen binary system 6.7.3 Water-solvent binary system 6.7.4 Water-bitumen-solvent ternary system 6.8 Field trials of solvent-steam Coinjection technique 6.9 Technical challenges References

7. Noncondensable gas-steam coinjection 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4

Introduction Background Mechanisms of NCG-steam coinjection Mathematical modeling of NCG-steam coinjection

125 130 130 131 132 134 135 137 141 141 142 143 143 143 151 151 151 152 155 156 156 156 158 159 161 174 174 175 176 177 178 180 181 189 189 191 195 203

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7.5 Phase equilibrium of bitumen/water/noncondensable gas 7.6 Field trials of NCG-steam coinjection technique References

8. Chemical-steam coinjection 8.1 8.2 8.3

Introduction Background Surfactant screening 8.3.1 Surfactant types 8.3.2 Critical micelle concentration 8.3.3 Hydrophilicelipophilic balance 8.3.3.1 Empirical models 8.3.3.2 Water dispersibility 8.3.3.3 Experimental estimation 8.3.3.4 Group contribution approach 8.4 Adsorption of chemicals 8.4.1 Adsorption models 8.4.2 Adsorption kinetic 8.4.3 Adsorption thermodynamics 8.5 Thermal stability of chemicals 8.6 IFT reduction and wettability alteration 8.7 Foam generation 8.8 Emulsion generation 8.9 Surfactant applications in thermal recovery methods 8.9.1 Surfactants in hot waterflooding 8.9.2 Surfactants in steam flooding 8.9.3 Surfactants in CSS 8.9.4 Surfactants in SAGD 8.10 Molecular mechanisms of surfactant-assisted bitumen recovery 8.11 Field trials of surfactant-steam coinjection technique 8.12 Technical challenges References

9. Hybrid of in-situ combustion and steam-based heavy oil recovery 9.1 9.2

Introduction Fundamentals of ISC 9.2.1 Dry combustion 9.2.2 Wet combustion 9.2.3 Chemical reactions associated with in-situ combustion

205 213 219 225 225 225 227 227 228 229 229 230 230 231 232 238 238 241 241 244 248 264 278 278 280 283 284 286 299 301 305

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9.2.3.1 LTO reactions 9.2.3.2 Negative temperature gradient region 9.2.3.3 MTO reactions 9.2.3.4 HTO reactions 9.3 Drawbacks of in-situ combustions 9.4 Models for in-situ combustion reactions 9.5 Hybrid ISC and steam-based bitumen recovery 9.6 Field applications References

10. Electromagnetic heating processes for heavy oil and bitumen recovery 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Background 10.3 Electrical heating techniques 10.3.1 Electric heater 10.3.2 Electrical resistance heating 10.3.3 Inductive heating 10.3.4 Electrocarbonization 10.3.5 Laser heating 10.3.6 Electroosmosis 10.3.7 Electromagnetic heating 10.4 Electrothermal dynamic stripping process 10.5 Thermal-assisted gravity drainage 10.6 Low-pressure electrothermally assisted drainage 10.7 High-frequency techniques 10.8 Hybrid of EM and SAGD 10.9 Heating start-up models 10.9.1 SAGD process 10.9.2 Ohmic heating (with electric heaters) 10.9.3 Electrothermal heating with conduction only 10.9.4 Electrothermal heating with convective heating 10.9.5 Inductive heating 10.9.6 RF heating or the ESEIEH process 10.10 Field trials 10.11 Techno-economic modeling of ESEIEH process 10.11.1 Capital cost 10.11.2 Operational cost References

ix 335 335 336 336 337 338 339 346 350

359 359 359 360 361 362 365 366 367 367 368 371 373 373 374 375 377 377 378 379 380 382 383 384 386 388 389 392

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11. Practical challenges in reservoir simulation of in-situ thermal heavy oil recovery 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Mathematical description 11.2.1 Mass conservation 11.2.2 Energy conservation 11.2.3 Simulation constraints 11.3 Thermal simulation 11.4 Critical parameters and mechanisms involving in numerical simulation of thermal bitumen recovery processes 11.4.1 Heterogeneity effect on SAGD and solvent-assisted coinjection process 11.4.2 Effect of operational parameters on solvent and water-assisted electrical heating process 11.4.3 Impact of aqueous phase solubility on noncondensable gas-steam coinjection simulation 11.4.4 Numerical simulation of surfactant-steam coinjection under SAGD configuration 11.4.5 Numerical simulation of undulating shale breaking with SAGD 11.4.6 Numerical modeling of in-situ combustion and SAGD 11.4.7 Effect of operating pressure on the efficiency of toe-to-heel air injection in-situ combustion 11.4.8 THAI in-situ combustion operation in heavy oil reservoirs with bottom aquifer 11.4.9 Steam injection and bitumen production time scales during SAGD operation 11.4.10 Comparison of performance of thermal recovery methods 11.4.11 Numerical simulation of multilateral wells with dynamic gridding in SAGD operation 11.5 Summary References Index

399 399 399 400 401 402 404 405 408 414 417 424 429 432 438 441 453 462 463 470 477 489

CHAPTER ONE

Heavy oil and bitumen characterization 1.1 Introduction Petroleum is a mixture of various hydrocarbon compounds that can contain varying amounts of elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, hydrogen, and trace metals like nickel and vanadium. Table 1-1 reported that crude oils are classed as conventional light to medium crude oil, heavy oil, extra-heavy oil, or bitumen, depending on their viscosity and American Petroleum Institute (API) gravity. Bitumen is a term used to describe an extra-heavy oil immobile under reservoir conditions (Fig. 1-1). The viscosity of extra-heavy and heavy crude oils deviates from that of conventional light oils, with the primary distinction being their ability to flow to a wellbore via natural driving energy of the reservoir. On the other hand, bitumen is too viscous to flow to the wellbore without artificial stimulation at reservoir temperature and pressure. With an API gravity of 10 degrees to 22.3 degrees (1 g/cc to 0.92 g/cc) and a viscosity of 100 cP to 10,000 cP, heavy oil has a specific gravity close to water (See Fig. 1-1). Bitumen, a dense hydrocarbon material, has a viscosity that is similar to that of honey or molasses when it is in its minimum state. Additionally, it has a viscosity greater than 10,000 centipoise (cP) when it is free of gas and an API gravity of 10 degrees. The viscosity of heavy oil and bitumen can be affected by a range of parameters, including the length and composition of the molecular chains, the amount of natural dissolved gas present, and reservoir temperature and pressure; hence, there is no direct relation between oil viscosity and density [2,4e7]. Table 1-1 Properties of liquid petroleum under standard conditions [1]. Density (kg/m3) Viscosity (mPa.s) Type of oil Gravity (oAPI)

Bitumen Extra-heavy oil Heavy oil Medium crude oil Light crude oil

1000 900e1000 855e900 815e855

>105