Sustainability, Energy and City: Proceedings of CSECity’21 (Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems) 3030942619, 9783030942618

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Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 379

Manuel Ignacio Ayala Chauvin Miguel Botto-Tobar Angela Díaz Cadena Sergio Montes León   Editors

Sustainability, Energy and City Proceedings of CSECity’21

Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems Volume 379

Series Editor Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Advisory Editors Fernando Gomide, Department of Computer Engineering and Automation—DCA, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering—FEEC, University of Campinas— UNICAMP, São Paulo, Brazil Okyay Kaynak, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey Derong Liu, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, USA Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Witold Pedrycz, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Marios M. Polycarpou, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, KIOS Research Center for Intelligent Systems and Networks, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus Imre J. Rudas, Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary Jun Wang, Department of Computer Science, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong

The series “Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems” publishes the latest developments in Networks and Systems—quickly, informally and with high quality. Original research reported in proceedings and post-proceedings represents the core of LNNS. Volumes published in LNNS embrace all aspects and subfields of, as well as new challenges in, Networks and Systems. The series contains proceedings and edited volumes in systems and networks, spanning the areas of Cyber-Physical Systems, Autonomous Systems, Sensor Networks, Control Systems, Energy Systems, Automotive Systems, Biological Systems, Vehicular Networking and Connected Vehicles, Aerospace Systems, Automation, Manufacturing, Smart Grids, Nonlinear Systems, Power Systems, Robotics, Social Systems, Economic Systems and other. Of particular value to both the contributors and the readership are the short publication timeframe and the world-wide distribution and exposure which enable both a wide and rapid dissemination of research output. The series covers the theory, applications, and perspectives on the state of the art and future developments relevant to systems and networks, decision making, control, complex processes and related areas, as embedded in the fields of interdisciplinary and applied sciences, engineering, computer science, physics, economics, social, and life sciences, as well as the paradigms and methodologies behind them. Indexed by SCOPUS, INSPEC, WTI Frankfurt eG, zbMATH, SCImago. All books published in the series are submitted for consideration in Web of Science.

More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/15179

Manuel Ignacio Ayala Chauvin Miguel Botto-Tobar Angela Díaz Cadena Sergio Montes León •

•

Editors

Sustainability, Energy and City Proceedings of CSECity’21

123

•

Editors Manuel Ignacio Ayala Chauvin Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica Ambato, Ecuador

Miguel Botto-Tobar Eindhoven University of Technology Eindhoven, Noord-Brabant, The Netherlands

Angela Díaz Cadena Universidad de Guayaquil Guayaquil, Ecuador

Sergio Montes León Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas (ESPE) Quito, Ecuador

ISSN 2367-3370 ISSN 2367-3389 (electronic) Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems ISBN 978-3-030-94261-8 ISBN 978-3-030-94262-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94262-5 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

The 1st Congress in Sustainability, Energy and City (CSECity’21) was held at Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, in Ambato—Ecuador during June 28–29, 2021, and it will be organized and supported by GDEON. CSECity’21 will bring together experts in sustainability, urbanism, energy and industry. This multidisciplinary group of researchers will allow the transfer of knowledge between academic institutions, raise research and analyze how intermediate cities and industries are likely to change and adapt in the coming months and years in a sustainable way. Presenting high-quality, peer-reviewed papers, the book discusses the following topics: • • • • • • •

Energy sustainability Information and knowledge management Information technologies. Innovation, technology and society Software and systems modeling Software systems, architectures, applications and tools Sustainable energy and the city

CSECity’21 received 142 submissions written in English by 710 authors coming from 15 different countries. All these papers were peer-reviewed by the CSECity’21 Program Committee consisting of 107 high-quality researchers. To assure a high-quality and thoughtful review process, we assigned each paper at least three reviewers. Based on the peer reviews, 17 full papers were accepted, resulting in an 12% acceptance rate, which was within our goal of less than 40%. We would like to express our sincere gratitude to the invited speakers for their inspirational talks, to the authors for submitting their work to this conference and the reviewers for sharing their experience during the selection process. June 2021

Ignacio Ayala Chauvin Miguel Botto- Tobar Ángela Díaz Cadena Sergio Montes León v

Organization

General Chairs Ignacio Ayala Chauvin

Universidad Tecnológica Indoamerica, Ambato, Ecuador

Organizing Committee Ignacio Ayala Chauvin Miguel Botto-Tobar

Universidad Tecnológica Indoamerica, Ambato, Ecuador Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands

Publication Chair Miguel Botto-Tobar

Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands

Program Committee Ken Yocom Agustín Llorente Alejandro Egüez

Carlos Medrano Acampa Giovanna Paolo Blecich

Department Chair and Associate Professor in the Department of Landscape Architecture, USA Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering, Spain Visiting Researcher at Umeå School of Business, Economics and Statistics (USBE) Units: Economics, USA Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering, Spain Kore University of Enna, Italy Senior Assistant/Postdoctoral Fellow, Croatia

vii

viii

Antonio Abreu

Azhar Abbas

David Yechiam Aharon

Elzbieta Antczak

Michal Apollo Mohamed Alwaeli

Eduardo Gil

Elena del Val Elena Ibarz Elliot N. Maltz Fernando Brandão Alvez Guillermo Azuara

Hassan Azad Inma Plaza

Jesús Gallardo Jesús Lázaro

Kaveh Khalilpour

Organization

Professor (Associate), Department of Mechanical Engineering, Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, Portugal Assistant Professor (Institute of Agricultural and Resource Economics) University of Agriculture Faisalabad: Faisalabad, PK, Pakistan Senior Lecturer at the Faculty of Business Administration, Ono Academic College in Israel, Israel Assistant Professor at the Department of Spatial Econometrics, Faculty of Economics and Sociology, University of Lodz, Poland Assistant Professor (Department of Tourism and Regional Studies), Poland Department of Technologies and Installations for Waste Management, Silesian University of Technology, Poland Department of Informatics and Systems Engineering, School of Engineering and Arquitecture, Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain Department of Informatics and Systems Engineering, Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain Department of Mechanical Engineering, Escuela Universitaria Politécnica de Teruel, Spain Atkinson Graduate School of Management, Willamette University, USA Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidad de Porto, Portugal Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering, Telematics Engineering Area, Spain School of Architecture, University of Florida, USA Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering, Electronics Engineering Area, Spain Department of Informatics and Systems Engineering, Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain Signal Theory and Communications Area, School of Engineering and Architecture, Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain School of Information, Systems and Modelling, University of Technology Sydney, Australia

Organization

María Abián Maxim Dulebenets Mukaddes Darwish

Pedro Ramos Özgür Akkoyun Stephen M. Wheeler Raquel Lacuesta Raú Igual Mukaddes Darwish

Susan Paulson Deb Niemeier Hassan Azad Juan Pablo Chauvin Irene Casas Ana Cabrera Tobar Elena Blanco Sònia Llorens Carles Riba Romeva

Genís Riba Sanmartí Patricia Borges Oriol Travesset Saravana Prakash Juan Carlos Solano

ix

Aragon University Institute of Engineering Research, Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain Civil & Environmental Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, USA Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, Texas Tech University, USA Signal Theory and Communications Area, Escuela Universitaria Politécnica de Teruel., Spain Mining Engineering, Dicle. University, Turkey Department of Human Ecology at U.C. Davis, USA Department of Informatics and Systems Engineering, Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain Department of Electrical Engineering, Electrical Engineering Area, Spain Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, Texas Tech University, USA Center for Latin American Studies, University of Florida, USA Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maryland, USA University of Florida’ School of Architecture, USA Research Department of the Inter-American Development Bank, USA Department: School of History and Social Science, Louisiana Tech University, USA Universidad Politécnica de Cataluña, Spain Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitat Politecnica de Cataluñna, Spain Tecnocampus Enseñanza superior, Spain Centre of Industrial Equipment Design, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, 08028 Barcelona, Spain Centre de Disseny d’Equips Industrials, Spain Industrial Equipment Design Center of the Universidad Politécnica de Cataluña, Spain Observatori de la Sostenibilitat d’Andorra, Andorra Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Ecuador Universidad Nacional de Loja, Ecuador

x

Miguel Ángel Caraballo Núñez Orlys Ernesto Torres Breffe Holger Benavides Esteban Fuente Jorge Maldonado Correa Carlos Gordon David Yechiam Aharon Xiong (Bill) Yu José A. Aguado Maria Fernanda León Ruxandra Stoean Roger Dargaville Pieter De Wilde Isabel Miño Agnieszka Aliska Luis Gutierrez Yasemin Didem Aktas Victor Andaluz Carlos Naranjo Diego Vaca Richard Watkins Christopher Jensen Yahua Bi Robert Brecha Beatriz Rivela Fernando Andrade Diego Cabezas Francecs Peremiquel Andrea Ordóñez León Gregorio Ridaura Renata Priote Antonio di Campli Sonia Cueva Ortiz Ignacio Ayala Chauvin

Organization

Universidad Nacional de Loja, Ecuador Universidad de la Habana, Cuba Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Ecuador Universidad Técnica de Ambato, Ecuador Universidad Nacional de Loja, Ecuador Universidad Técnica de Ambato, Ecuador Ono Academic College, Israel Case Western Reserve University, USA Universidad de Málaga, Spain Universidad Internacional del Ecuador, Ecuador University of Craiova, Romania Monash University, Australia University of Plymouth, UK Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany Warsaw School of Economics, Poland Universidad Adolfo Ibañez, Chile University College London, UK Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Ecuador School of Mechanical Engineering, Ecuador Georgia Institute of Technology, USA Lecturer, UK Lecturer in Construction Management, Melbourne School of Design, Australia Pusan National University, South Korea https://www.energy-transition-hub.org/, USA inViable, Environmental Services, Madrid, Spain MES, Climate Change Technical Specialist, Ecuador Regional Marketing Director, Russia Universidad Politécnica de Cataluña, Spain Universidad Internacional del Ecuador, Ecuador Universidad Politécnica de Cataluña, Spain Universidad Paulista (UNIP), Brasil Politecnico de Torino, Italy Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Ecuador Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Ecuador

Organization

Organizing Institutions

xi

Contents

Statistical Analysis of Villonaco Wind Farm Annual Energy Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jorge Maldonado-Correa, Juan Solano, Marco Rojas, José Cuenca, and Marcelo Valdiviezo-Condolo Comparison of the Operating Parameters of an Internal Combustion Engine During Cold Start, by Applying Two Ecuadorian Fuels of Different Octane Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jorge Lema, Gerardo Arteaga, and Belén Ruales Hybrid Deep Learning Architecture Approach for Photovoltaic Power Plant Output Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Myriam Cumbajin, Ruxandra Stoean, José Aguado, and Gonzalo Joya Automotive Crankcase Design Using Biodegradable Materials . . . . . . . Juan Cruz, Blanca Topon-Visarrea, and Lorena Caceres Use of Battery Energy Storage Systems to Enhance the Frequency Stability of an Islanded Microgrid Based on Hybrid Photovoltaic-Diesel Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Iván Pazmiño, Danny Ochoa, Edwin Ponce Minaya, and Hugo Pico Mera Guiding Principles of the Contemporary City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sonia Cueva Ortiz and Amadeu Casals Understanding the Relation with Nature in the City: Biodiversity Knowledge and Environmental Awareness in a Periurban Area of Quito, Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Belén Morales-Espín, Flor Ortiz, Enmily Sánchez-Lara, Mónica Páez-Vacas, Kevin Muñoz-Lara, Erick Bravo-Vera, Daniela Franco-Mena, Natasha Baer, Nora H. Oleas, and Ibon Tobes Portable Electromagnetic Energy Harvesting System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Julio Cuji, Luis Mendoza, Geovanni Brito, and Carlos Gordón

1

14

26 38

48 59

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Contents

Design of an Equipment for the Treatment of Domestic Greywater . . . . Pablo Ron-Valenzuela and Esteban Mauricio Fuentes Pérez

92

Study of the Influence of Anthropogenic Sources on the Water Quality of the Ambato River, Tungurahua - Ecuador. A Growing Environmental Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Lander Vinicio Pérez Aldas, Scarlet Nathaly Guachamin Zambrano, Liliana Patricia Acurio Arcos, Dolores Robalino Martínez, and Esteban M. Fuentes Recommendation System Applied to Academic Resources for the Computer Networks Subject of the Software Degree . . . . . . . . . 111 Alfonso A. Guijarro-Rodríguez, Judith E. Flores-Rivera, Steven F. Castillo-Ponce, and Lucrecia E. Sánchez-Holguín Motivation and Job Performance: Human Capital as a Key Factor for Organizational Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Emanuel Bohórquez, William Caiche, Verónica Benavides, and Arturo Benavides Assessing the Needs of an Innovation Resource to Promote the Touristic Sector of a Small Andean City. Riobamba, Ecuador . . . . . . . . 134 Luis Quevedo, Silvia Aldaz, Héctor Pacheco, and Danilo Quintana Effects of Virtual Education on Lateral Mastery, Auditory Sequential Memory and Rhythm During the Literacy Process . . . . . . . . 146 Rocío Duque, Gladys Recalde, Nuria Galárraga, Santiago Ponce, and Alejandra Portilla Interactive Software for the Learning of Mathematics in Elementary School Students in the Province of Tungurahua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Paulina Sánchez, Ligia Jácome, Cinthya Sancho, and Richard Sánchez ICT and Interactive Multimedia in Teaching 3D Sculpting Design . . . . 171 Richard Patricio Sánchez Sánchez, Diana Gabriela Flores Carrillo, María Cristina Paredes Morales, and Paulina Elizabeth Sánchez Sánchez Management Tools for Process Mapping and Modeling in Assembly Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Rodrigo Arcentales-Carrion, Eliezer Colina Morles, Dolores Sucozhanay, Regina Duran, and Lorena Siguenza-Guzman Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Statistical Analysis of Villonaco Wind Farm Annual Energy Production Jorge Maldonado-Correa(&) , Juan Solano , Marco Rojas, José Cuenca, and Marcelo Valdiviezo-Condolo Facultad de Energía, Universidad Nacional de Loja, Av. Pío Jaramillo Alvarado, La Argelia, Loja 110150, Ecuador [email protected]

Abstract. The Villonaco Wind Farm is located between coordinates 693030 E 9558392 N and 693526 E 9556476 N in the province of Loja in southern Ecuador. It is the first wind farm in continental Ecuador, with a capacity of 16.5 MW and a location of roughly 2720 m above sea level in rugged terrain, which is especially relevant compared to others wind farms in the global context. This paper presents a statistical analysis of the Annual Energy Production of the Villonaco Wind Farm in the period from 2014 to 2018. In this analysis, actual wind speed and active power values were used, outliers and missing data were identified, and a new methodology was used to complete the missing data. With the complete dataset, an analysis of variance was performed to compare the means of the annual energy production. The results obtained in this study show an error of ±4% compared to the information available on the website of the Agency for Regulation and Control of Energy and Non-Renewable Natural Resources of Ecuador. Keywords: Statistical analysis Farm


Annual Energy Production
Villonaco Wind

1 Introduction Global warming has prompted scientists to look for new energy sources, and renewable natural resources are being promoted as a viable alternative to traditional energy generation from fossil waste fuels. Among renewable energy sources, wind energy has demonstrated outstanding characteristics that have attracted the attention of the scientific community. With an average annual growth rate of 30% over the last two decades, the wind energy has been dubbed “the world's fastest-growing renewable energy source” [1]. In this context, the wind industry has experienced in recent years a dizzying growth worldwide, as stated by the Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) in its latest annual report published, which shows that the installed wind power in the world at the end of 2017 reached 546.38 GW, and by the end of 2019 it will increase to approximately 651 GW [2]. For wind farm investors and operators, it is of great importance to know precisely what the energy yield of the wind farm is. In this respect, it is important to mention that © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. I. A. Chauvin et al. (Eds.): CSECity 2021, LNNS 379, pp. 1–13, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94262-5_1

2

J. Maldonado-Correa et al.

the Annual Energy Production (AEP) of a wind farm is influenced by a variety of factors, including the availability of wind resources, the number and capacity of wind turbines installed, and the structure and design of the wind farm, among others [3]. This paper presents a statistical analysis of the Annual Energy Production of the Villonaco Wind Farm (VWF) for the period from 2014 to 2018. Descriptive and inferential statistical techniques were used for the data processing, and the MATLAB toolbox Statistics and Machine Learning was used for the analysis of variance. The structure of this document is as follows: the second section of this article is dedicated to the materials and methods used in the research, the methodological procedure to complement the missing data (NaN) is described here, in the third section the results obtained are presented and discussed, and finally, in the fourth section the conclusions are presented.

2 Material and Methods For this study, wind speed and active power data are available from the VWF, which have been provided by the public company (GENSUR-EP) to the authors of this study using a confidentiality agreement. In order to complete the missing values, the authors propose a methodology based on the following criteria: i)

Spatial interpolation

The procedure is based on the method called Inverse distance weighting, which is an approach that uses a linear weighted average of data from known points to approximate a value at an unknown place [4]. The reference anemometric station with the required data should be as close as possible to the study site (wind turbine with missing data). The method applies to a site with similar physical-geographical characteristics and is calculated by the following equation: z ð xÞ ¼

n X ðki
zi Þ

ð1Þ

i¼1

where: zð xÞ is the value of the wind speed at the point to be interpolated zi is the value of the wind speed at the known point i ki is the weight of station i n is the number of stations considered ii) Time interpolation It consists of finding the average wind speed value employing Eq. 2, using the available wind speed data of the immediate next years in the same time window.

Statistical Analysis of Villonaco Wind Farm

3

Pn x¼

i¼1 xi

ð2Þ

n

where: x is the mean wind speed value xi is the value of the wind speed for the known station i Missing wind speed data can be replaced based on the above-mentioned criteria by applying the flowchart of Fig. 1. Missing value

The nearest wind turbine has the missing value?

YES

Replace the missing value

NO

The same wind turbine has the value for that time window in the immediately preceding or following year?

YES

Replace the missing value

NO

Replace the missing value with the average value of the years available for that same time window

Fig. 1. Flow chart for filling in missing data.

2.1

Study Area

Since 2013, nine hydroelectric power plants have been built and commissioned in Ecuador, to change the country's energy matrix and achieve energy sovereignty. The hydroelectric power plants are: Coca Codo Sinclair, Delsitanisagua, Minas San Francisco, Manduriacu, Mazar Dudas, Quijos, Sopladora and Toachi Pilatón, which represent an installed capacity of 2589.5 MW, and the Villonaco Wind Farm [5].

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J. Maldonado-Correa et al.

The VWF started its operations in 2013 and is located in a mountainous area of the province of Loja in the southern region of Ecuador, between UTM coordinates 693030 E and 9556476 N. (Fig. 2). The VWF has an installed capacity of 16.5 MW, is located in the mountainous region of complex orography at 2720 m.a.s.l., in an area with average annual wind speeds of more than 10.5 m/s [6]. The VWF is composed of 11 wind turbines of 1.5 MW nominal unit power, GOLDWIND, type GW70, class “S”, equipped with Direct Drive technology and a permanent magnet synchronous generator [7].

Fig. 2. Panoramic view of Villonaco Wind Farm [8].

The Electric Public Company Corporation of Ecuador (CELEC-EP), is the entity in charge of the operation of the VWF through their business unit called GENSUR-EP [8]. 2.2

Description of the SCADA Data Used

Most modern wind turbines record more than 200 variables in 5 to 10 min intervals using their SCADA system (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition), which generates a wealth of historical data [9]. According to [10], the SCADA system records some monitoring variables related to the parameters: wind, energy conversion and temperature. The data used in this study were obtained from the VWF SCADA system and correspond to the wind speed and active power variables recorded during the years 2014–2018 with a sampling frequency of 10 min. Table 1 shows the structure of the dataset used for wind turbine 1.

Statistical Analysis of Villonaco Wind Farm

5

Table 1. The data format used in the study. Data 01–01-2014 01–01-2014 01–01-2014 … 12–31-2018

2.3

Time 00:00 00:10 00:20 … 23:50

Wind speed (m/s) Power active (kW) 3.78 33.72 3.13 15.59 4.12 51.24 … … 16.38 1562.32

Data Analysis

Since not all speed data were available, the algorithm described in the Materials and Methods section was used to fill in the missing data. Figure 3 (a) shows a colour map indicating the missing wind speed data blocks, both for each wind turbine and for the data collection period. On the other hand, Fig. 3 (b) shows the wind speed colour map with the complete samples of the data set. The missing data represent 9.91% of the total data set.

Fig. 3. Matrix of wind speed data at each wind turbine versus data collection period: (a) unfilled data, (b) filled data.

The most important factor in the power generated by a wind turbine is wind speed [11]. The theoretical wind power that can be extracted is stated by Eq. 3. 1 P ¼
q
A
Cpðk; bÞ
v3 2

ð3Þ

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where: P is theoretical wind power q is air density A is the area of the wind turbine rotor Cpðk; bÞ is the power coefficient, indicates the efficiency of a turbine capturing the wind energy; and v is the wind speed From the valid data and using Eq. 3, the model shown in Fig. 4 was obtained, whose coefficient of determination R2 = 0.9958 indicates that the model to obtain the dependent variable (power of each wind turbine) is mostly explained by the independent variability of wind speed, as shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 4. Wind speed vs. wind power (blue dots). Raw data (10 min data) was obtained from the eleven wind turbines, from 01 January 2014 to 31 December 2018. The model obtained (red line) and the manufacture’s curve (yellow dash and dot line) are compared.

As can be seen in Fig. 4, in the slope of the sigmoid curve, the model does not fully fit the curve guaranteed by the manufacturer, mainly because the curve guaranteed by the manufacturer (GOLDWIND) considers a standard air density of 1.22 kg/m3 and the air density at the project location is 0.89 kg/m3.

Statistical Analysis of Villonaco Wind Farm

7

1500

data modelling (kW)

manufacturer's curve vs. model determination coefficient

1000 R2 = 0.9958

500

0 0

500

1000

1500

manufacturer's data (kW)

Fig. 5. Coefficient of determination when comparing the manufacturer's curve with the model presented in Eq. 3.

After obtaining 100% wind speed data, the model described in Eq. 3 was used to complete the power data and then calculate the annual energy produced by each wind turbine. Figure 6 shows the ordered pairs (wind speed, power) of each wind turbine after completing the data series.

Fig. 6. Ordered pairs plot (wind speed vs. wind power) of each wind turbine.

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2.4

J. Maldonado-Correa et al.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to Compare the Annual Average of Energy Production of the VWF

The statistical method of analysis used was “One-way analysis of variance”. To perform this analysis the Matlab Toolbox called Statistics and Machine Learning was used. The purpose of this analysis is to determine whether the annual averages of energy production of each of the wind turbines of the VWF have a common average. In this case, the independent variable is each of the wind turbines and the response variable is the average annual energy production measured between 2014 and 2018. In this study, ANOVA was used to test the hypothesis that all wind turbines’ annual energy production (E n ) are equal, against the alternative hypothesis that at least one wind turbine has different averages than the others. H 0 : E 1 ¼ E 2 ¼ . . . ¼ E11

ð4Þ

The procedure performed in Matlab® is as follows: i) Entry of the data is shown in Table 2. >>energy = [annual averages of wind turbines];

Table 2. Annual averages of wind turbines in MWh. Year WT1 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Year 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

6390.69 8473.30 6804.02 6334.43 6898.92 WT7 7270.20 8375.47 6491.83 6198.72 6800.16

WT2 7693.93 9108.61 7128.88 6719.87 7402.10 WT8 6976.40 8403.55 6623.28 6018.76 6495.85

WT3 7777.51 9211.99 7395.43 6689.21 7295.40 WT9 7044.45 8513.77 6826.68 6056.70 6548.20

WT4 7778.01 8895.64 7617.10 6677.17 7329.21 WT10 6455.15 7845.52 6303.51 5543.53 5994.21

WT5 7681.31 8744.44 7306.70 6581.42 7231.50 WT11 5980.07 7613.24 5964.94 5214.57 5599.31

WT6 7507.19 8931.09 7100.86 6621.41 7051.66

ii) Obtain the standard ANOVA table and the box plot of data per wind turbine. >> [p,tbl,stats] = anova1(energy);

Statistical Analysis of Villonaco Wind Farm

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Table 3. ANOVA analysis results. Source Columns Error Total

SS df MS F p-value 1.37765e + 07 10 1377654.2 1.77 0.0944 3.41861e + 07 44 776957.4 4.79627e + 07 54

3 Results According to Fig. 7 and the ANOVA (Table 3), the p-value = 0.1033 is obtained, which indicates that the counts of the annual averages of the different wind turbines are approximately equal. Therefore, the null hypothesis that all annual average energy production of the wind turbines are equal is accepted.

9000 8500 8000

MWh

7500 7000 6500 6000 5500 5000 WT1

WT2

WT3

WT4

WT5

WT6

WT7

WT8

WT9

WT10

WT11

Fig. 7. Analysis of variance of the annual averages of each of the wind turbines.

Figure 8 illustrates that no wind turbine has averages significantly different from the rest. The coloured bars show the comparison interval for the average of each of the groups, and as can be seen, no bars overlap with each other. Therefore, all annual averages of energy production are not significantly different from each other.

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WT1 WT2 WT3 WT4 WT5 WT6 WT7 WT8 WT9 WT10 WT11 5000

5500

6000

6500

7000

7500

8000

8500

9000

Annual energy production [MWh]

Fig. 8. Multiple comparison tests of the average annual energy production of each wind turbine.

According to the analysis of variance in Fig. 9 and the results shown in Table 4, to the multiple comparison test in Fig. 8, and being p-value = 3.09  10–12, can be concluded that the annual energy produced by the entire VWF is not equal in all years. In particular, the year 2015 generated about 20% more energy than the average of the other four years analysed, mainly due to a higher average wind speed in that particular year.

9000 8500 8000

MWh

7500 7000 6500 6000 5500 5000 2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Fig. 9. Analysis of variance of the annual energy production of the entire VWF in different years.

Statistical Analysis of Villonaco Wind Farm

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Table 4. ANOVA analysis results. Source Columns Error Total

SS df MS F p-value 3.30981e + 07 4 8274517.8 27.83 3.48783e-12 1.48646e + 07 50 297292 4.79627e + 07 54

The VWF energy production values obtained in this study from the information provided by GENSUR were contrasted with the official energy production records available on the Agency for Regulation and Control of Energy of Ecuador (ARCONEL) website [12]. Figure 10 presents the results for the years 2014–2018 by source (ARCONEL and GENSUR) and determines the percentage error. 100

100

error: 1.27%

GENSUR ARC

error: 4.22%

error: 2.53%

error: 0.15%

80

80

error: 1.58%

60

40

40

20

20

GWh

GWh

60

0

0 2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

year

Fig. 10. Annual energy production of the VWF comparing the information provided by GENSUR with the official records of ARCONEL.

4 Conclusions On the basis of the findings, it can be concluded that the VWF during the study period has maintained an annual energy production higher than that established in the feasibility studies (59.57 GWh/year). Furthermore, it can be noted that there are no statistically significant differences in energy production between wind turbines. On the other hand, according to the analysis of variance, it is concluded that the annual energy produced by the entire VWF is not the same in all years. In particular, the year 2015 generated around 20% more energy than the average of the other four years analysed, mainly due to a higher average wind speed in that specific year.

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The methodology proposed by the authors to complete the missing wind speed values is a method that can be applied when the wind and geographical characteristics of the sites under analysis (known point and point to be interpolated) are remarkably similar. However, it is necessary to point out that, when using wind speed records from the wind turbine nacelle anemometer, these may be affected by turbulence and wake effect caused by the wind turbine itself or by neighbouring wind turbines, which may cause an increase in the measurement uncertainty and induce errors in the estimation. The procedure for filling in the data produced results with an error between ±4% of the data published by the official institutions. These data have been used to complete the original data series provided by CELEC-EP and have been used to calculate the power and energy delivered by each wind turbine. Acknowledgements. The authors acknowledge the support of Universidad Nacional de Loja by means of the research project ‘‘Artificial intelligence system for the short-term prediction of the energy production of the Villonaco Wind Farm. 26-DI-FEIRNNR-2019.’’. The authors also acknowledge the support of Universidad Nacional de Loja by means of the research project ‘‘Caracterización de la potencialidad de la energía solar y eólica en la Región Sur del Ecuador. 28-DI-FEIRNNR-2019.’’. The authors would like to thank the Public Company ‘‘Ecuador Electrical Corporation CELEC EP GENSUR”, for the information on its property provided. The SCADA data used to support the findings of this study have not been made available because of the nondisclosure agreement signed with CELEC EP GENSUR.

References 1. Habibi, H., Howard, I., Simani, S.: Reliability improvement of wind turbine power generation using model-based fault detection and fault tolerant control: a review. Renew. Energy 135, 877–896 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.12.066 2. Global Wind Energy Council GWEC., Global Wind Report 2019, Brussels (2020) 3. WAsP, Wind Atlas Analysis and Application Program., (2015). http://www.wasp.dk/ Software/WAsP 4. Jain, P., Flannigan, M.D.: Comparison of methods for spatial interpolation of fire weather in Alberta, Canada. Can. J. For. Res. 47(12), 1646–1658 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfr2017-0101 5. Cevallos-Sierra, J., Ramos-Martin, J.: Spatial assessment of the potential of renewable energy: the case of Ecuador. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 81, 1154–1165 (2018). https:// doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2017.08.015 6. Jorge Maldonado-Correa, J.C., Solano, M. R.-M.: Wind power forecasting: a systematic literature review. Wind Eng. 45(2), 413–426 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0309524X19891672 7. Ayala, M., Maldonado, J., Paccha, E., Riba, C.: Wind power resource assessment in complex terrain: villonaco case-study using computational fluid dynamics analysis. Energy Procedia 107, 41–48 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYPRO.2016.12.127 8. Maldonado-Correa, J., Valdiviezo-Condolo, M., Viñan-Ludeña, M.S., Samaniego-Ojeda, C., Rojas-Moncayo, M.: Wind power forecasting for the Villonaco wind farm. Wind Eng. 45(5), 1145–1159 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1177/0309524X20968817

Statistical Analysis of Villonaco Wind Farm

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9. Blanco, M.A., Gibert, K., Marti-Puig, P., Cusidó, J., Solé-Casals, J.: Identifying health status of wind turbines by using self organizing maps and interpretation-oriented post-processing tools. Energies 11(4), 723 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3390/en11040723 10. Marugán, A.P., Márquez, F.P.G.: Advanced analytics for detection and diagnosis of false alarms and faults: a real case study. Wind Energy 22(11), 1622–1635 (2019). https://doi.org/ 10.1002/we.2393 11. Kusiak, A., Zheng, H., Song, Z.: On-line monitoring of power curves. Renew. Energy 34(6), 1487–1493 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2008.10.022 12. ARCONEL, Agencia de Regulación y Control de Electricidad (2020). https://www. regulacionelectrica.gob.ec/

Comparison of the Operating Parameters of an Internal Combustion Engine During Cold Start, by Applying Two Ecuadorian Fuels of Different Octane Numbers Jorge Lema(&)

, Gerardo Arteaga

, and Belén Ruales

SISAu Research Group, Facultad de Ingeniería y Tecnologías de la Información y la Comunicación, Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Machala y Sabanilla, Quito, Ecuador {jorgelema,gerardoarteaga, belenruales}@indoamerica.edu.ec

Abstract. The cold start of internal combustion engines is considered a critical stage for the engine operation, due to increased adhesive wear of internal components and high emission of polluting gases. Engine behavior during this stage can be visualized by evolving its operating parameters, such as: RPM, intake manifold pressure, mass air flow (MAF), engine coolant temperature, catalyst temperature and exhaust gas temperature. However, there may be a slight variability between the values of each parameter depending on the type of fuel being used. This study compares the operating parameters of an internal combustion engine during the cold start stage, using Ecuadorian fuels with octane number 87 and 92 (RON87 and RON92). The collection of exhaust gas temperature data was carried out using a DHT22 temperature sensor connected to an ESP32 module and recorded in ThingSpeak. For the acquisition of the data of the remaining parameters, an ELM327 scanner connected to the OBD II port of the vehicle was used. This information was sent via bluetooth to the OBD app on a smartphone. The results showed that the RON87 fuel has greater calorific power, resulting in increased wear on the engine's internal components, but allows it to reach normal operating temperature sooner. Keywords: Cold start


Fuel
Internal combustion engine
Octane number

1 Introduction Wear of internal combustion engines is an unavoidable phenomenon due to the adhesive wear between its fixed and mobile internal elements. Although the engines have a lubrication system, there will always be a slight wear, especially in the cold start stage. At this stage, most of the lubricant is deposited in the crankcase with a high viscosity due to low temperature. Consequently, the dissipated energy is around 72% with respect to hot start, produced by the shearing of viscous oil [1]. Likewise, friction losses during cold start can be up to 2.5 times higher than normal operating conditions [2], which generates a decrease in the thermal efficiency of the engine during this stage. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. I. A. Chauvin et al. (Eds.): CSECity 2021, LNNS 379, pp. 14–25, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94262-5_2

Comparison of the Operating Parameters of an Internal Combustion Engine

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In cold start, the Engine Control Unit (ECU) allows a greater amount of fuel injection for the engine to reach its normal operating temperature (approximately 90° Celsius). However, combustion is incomplete [3] and there is a 13.5% increase in fuel consumption compared to hot start [4], resulting in increased emissions of CO, particulate matter (PM) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC) [5]. Fuel consumption in cold and hot start are around 2.2 kg/h and 1.8 kg/h, respectively [6]. On the other hand, the Research Octane Number (RON) is another aspect that can influence engine wear. This number indicates the anti-detonating capacity of gasoline during compression time, so engines will be more efficient as long as they have a higher compression ratio and fuel has not been detonated prematurely at ignition time. Premature detonations will limit engine performance, thermal efficiency, and longevity [7]. Therefore, the higher the octane rate, the better the antiknock response of the fuel. Globally, there is a variety of fuels with different RON, and many users are unaware of the true implications of the use of any of these types of fuels on the behavior of engines, especially in cold start. The implications can be reflected in the values of the operating parameters, such as revolutions per minute (RPM), engine coolant temperature or levels of pollutant emissions. In Ecuador, there are “extra” and “super” fuels, with RON of 87 and 92 respectively (RON87 and RON92). However, the selection of any of these fuels by users depends largely on the economic aspect and not on the mechanical implications. Currently, there are few studies concerning the impact of the octane number on engine operating parameters. The study in [8] found that using a fuel with a higheroctane number than recommended by the vehicle manufacturer increases exhaust emissions. For this case, a RON95 fuel was applied to a vehicle requiring RON91. Results showed that RON91 generated 5.7% CO and 3.4% HC less than RON95, while brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is 5.6% less at RON91. This shows that the use of a higher-octane fuel is not necessarily better in terms of power and emissions [9]. In the investigation carried out in [10], engine performance, cylinder pressures and emissions for RON95 and RON97 fuels were compared. Results showed that RON95 produced the highest engine performance in all partial load conditions; however, there was a greater difference to higher engine loads and speeds. RON95 produced on average 4.4% more braking torque, braking power and effective average braking pressure. Regarding polluting emissions, RON97 generated 7.7% more NOx emissions, however, emissions for HC, CO and CO2 were lower, an average of 20.3%, 36.9% and 7.9% respectively. RON97 generated 2.3% less BSFC, but RON95 was 2.3% more fuel-efficient. In the research carried out in [11], the performance and emission effects generated by RON91 and RON95 fuels on a direct injection engine. Results showed that RON91 produced more braking power in all loads for both fuel systems, due to increased calorific power. The BSFC with RON91 was higher than RON95. CO emissions were lower with RON95 for the two fuel systems, while NOx emissions with RON91 were higher, except with the direct injection system at high engine speeds. Research conducted on [12] analyzed emissions parameters, compression pressure and heat release rate in a single cylindrical engine using RON95, RON97, and RON100 fuels. This study showed negligible variations between parameter values, with slight upper pressure and heat release for RON95.

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However, in all studies carried out, there is no analysis of engine operating parameters during cold start, the most critical stage of engine operation. Therefore, in this research, a comparison of an engine operating parameters was made during the cold start by applying Ecuadorian production RON87 and RON92 fuels. The parameters analyzed were engine load, RPM, air mass flow (MAF), intake manifold pressure, engine coolant temperature, catalyst temperature and exhaust gas temperature. It is estimated that there is no great variation in the values of the engine operating parameters for each of the two fuels. Comparing these parameters is a simple way to analyze the behavior of the engine, and with this, it will be possible to infer about which fuel tends to generate greater wear, for the engines of the vehicles of the Ecuadorian vehicle fleet. Additionally, in this work the equations of the curves of each parameter were determined as a function of time.

2 Methodology The study was carried out on a vehicle with an Otto cycle internal combustion engine. The characteristics of the study vehicle are shown in Table 1. For the acquisition of data on engine load parameters, RPM, MAF, intake manifold pressure, engine coolant temperature and catalyst temperature, an ELM327 scanner connected to the OBD II port of the vehicle was used. This information was sent via bluetooth to the OBD app proposed in [13] and recorded every 14 s. The connection of the ELM327 scanner in the OBD II port is shown in Fig. 1. Table 1. Vehicle characteristics Parameters Vehicle band Model Version Fuel Maximum speed Displacement Maximum power Average consumption Acceleration

Basic data Mazda Mazda 3 5p Gasoline 202 km/h 2000 cm3 150 hp 7.9 l/100 km 0 to 100 km/h in 9.1 s

Comparison of the Operating Parameters of an Internal Combustion Engine

17

Fig. 1. ELM327 scanner connection to OBD II port

Regarding the acquisition of exhaust gas temperature data, a DHT22 temperature sensor connected to an ESP32 module was used. The data was stored in ThingSpeak every 14 s. The use of these devices today has allowed to be a low-cost tool for research projects and to be a benchmark on the Internet of Things (IoT) [14]. The connection of the DHT22 sensor for measuring the temperature of the exhaust gases from the exhaust pipe is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. DHT22 sensor connection to the exhaust pipe

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Two data samples were obtained from each engine parameter for both RON87 and RON92. For each day, a single sample was collected at 7:30 a.m. in order to ensure that the environmental conditions, to which the vehicle is exposed, are similar. In each sample, 40 data were recorded for each parameter and then a general table was generated with the averages of the data for the same instant. It is important to indicate that prior to obtaining the averages, a synchronization of the data was carried out from the moment it started with the start of the engine until the moment in which the test was terminated. Table 2 shows a short example of this procedure for the engine load parameter, with the first 14 data. The engine load averages columns of RON92 and RON87 were used to generate the overall table. This procedure was performed for the rest of the parameters and with the 40 complete data. Table 2. Example of getting average values from the engine load parameter RON92 Time [s] 0 14 28 42 56 70 84 98 112 126 140 154 168 182

Sample 1 Sample 2 Average 28 28 28 40 40 40 38 40 39 38 38 38 36 37 36.5 34 34 34 33 34 33.5 32 33 32.5 32 32 32 30 32 31 30 31 30.5 31 31 31 30 30 30 30 30 30

RON87 Sample 1 50 40 37 36 34 33 33 32 31 31 30 30 29 30

Sample 2 Average 44 47 38 39 35 36 34 35 33 33.5 31 32 30 31.5 30 31 29 30 29 30 29 29.5 28 29 28 28.5 27 28.5

3 Results Table 3 shows the 40 average values of each engine performance parameter, obtained by the OBD application and the DHT22 sensor for RON92 fuel. Table 4 shows the average values of the same parameters but with the use of RON87 fuel.

Comparison of the Operating Parameters of an Internal Combustion Engine Table 3. Average values of the parameters obtained for RON92. Time Load Engine [s] [%] temp. [°C] 0 28 14 14 40 15.5 28 39 18.5 42 38 21 56 36.5 23.5 70 34 26 84 33.5 28 98 32.5 30 112 32 31.5 126 31 33.5 140 30.5 35 154 31 36.5 168 30 38 182 30 39 196 30 40.5 210 29.5 41 224 29 42.5 238 29 43 252 28 44 266 28 44.5 280 27 46 294 27.5 46.5 308 27.5 48 322 27 48 336 27 49 350 27 49 364 26.5 49.5 378 26.5 51 392 27 51 406 26.5 52 420 26.5 53 434 26.5 53 448 26 53.5 462 26 54 476 26.5 55 490 25.5 56 504 25.5 56 518 25 56 532 25.5 57 546 25.5 58

Intake manifold RPM pressure [kPa] 35.5 36 37 37 36 35 34 33.5 33 32.5 32 32 31.5 31.5 31 30.5 30 30 30 29 29 28.5 28.5 28 28 27.5 28 27.5 27.5 27 27 26.5 26.5 26.5 26 26 26 25.5 25 25.5

1622.5 1404 1277 1241.5 1224.5 1178.5 1154.5 1137.5 1105 1091.5 1069.5 1058 1029 1013 1000 1004.5 1001.5 973.5 974 972 962 958.5 954 945.5 931.5 938 932.5 925 926 918.5 918 901.5 904 899.5 893.5 891.5 890 887 880 874.5

MAF Catalyst [g/s] temp. [°C] 7.37 36.8 6.32 80.5 5.655 126.1 5.395 170.85 5.09 212.25 4.73 249.8 4.515 282.7 4.36 310.45 4.105 334.1 3.805 354.4 3.785 370.65 3.68 383.95 3.535 394.6 3.595 402.95 3.375 409.7 3.28 415 3.26 418.95 3.22 422.2 3.105 424.55 3.125 426.35 3.125 427.65 2.89 428.65 2.91 429.3 2.89 429.75 2.84 430.05 2.79 430.2 2.735 430.3 2.74 430.65 2.7 431.1 2.685 431.55 2.69 432.25 2.655 432.85 2.635 433.55 2.555 434.35 2.605 435.2 2.525 436.1 2.49 437 2.475 437.75 2.365 438.5 2.43 439.3

Exhaust gas temp. [°C]

14.8 14.5 14.15 14.75 16.3 19.4 22.25 25.5 28.5 31.3 34.1 35.95 37.8 39.4 40.95 42.3 42.85 43.75 45.15 45.55 45.65 45.85 46.35 46.5 46.5 46.5 46.2 46.2 46.25 46.2 46.25 46.4 46.55 46.6 46.8 47 47.1 47.25 47.45 47.7

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J. Lema et al. Table 4. Average values of the parameters obtained for RON87

Time Load Engine temp. [°C] Intake Manifold RPM [s] [%] Pressure [kPa]

MAF Catalyst Exhaust Gas temp. [°C] [g/s] temp. [°C]

0 14 28 42 56 70 84 98 112 126 140 154 168 182 196 210 224 238 252 266 280 294 308 322 336 350 364 378 392 406 420 434 448 462 476 490 504 518 532 546

7.56 5.61 4.965 4.785 4.45 4.21 3.975 3.83 3.745 3.535 3.395 3.375 3.225 3.205 3.075 3.055 3.095 3.055 2.965 2.925 2.86 2.845 2.67 2.77 2.705 2.685 2.62 2.59 2.56 2.46 2.43 2.46 2.41 2.365 2.35 2.28 2.335 2.265 2.28 2.265

47 39 36 35 33.5 32 31.5 31 30 30 29.5 29 28.5 28.5 28 28 28 28 27.5 27 27 26.5 27 26 26 26 26 25.5 25.5 25.5 25 24.5 24.5 24.5 24.5 24.5 24.5 24 24 24

16.5 19.5 22.5 25 27.5 29.5 31.5 33 34.5 36.5 38.5 39.5 40.5 41.5 42.5 43.5 44.5 45 46.5 47 48 48.5 49.5 50 50.5 51.5 52 52.5 53.5 53.5 54 55 55.5 56.5 57 57 58 58.5 58.5 59.5

40.5 37.5 36 35.5 34.5 34 33 33 32.5 32 32.5 32 31.5 31 30.5 30.5 30 29.5 30 29 29 28.5 28.5 28 27.5 27.5 27 27.5 27 26.5 26.5 26.5 25.5 26 26 25.5 25.5 25.5 25.5 25.5

1442.5 1284 1231 1194.5 1168 1146.5 1106.5 1104 1077 1042 1024 1018 996 999.5 982.5 975 984.5 966.5 972.5 955 947 947 939.5 941 921 917.5 909.5 913 911.5 902.5 895 889 887.5 883 885 873.5 877.5 868.5 870 861

86.45 130.8 175.4 216.85 254.7 287.75 314.6 337.6 356.95 372.6 385.25 395.45 403.55 409.95 414.9 418.85 421.85 424.15 425.85 427.15 428.05 428.75 429.25 429.7 430.1 430.65 431.25 431.9 432.65 433.45 434.25 435.1 435.9 436.75 437.6 438.45 439,3 440.15 441 441.85

18.4 16.7 16 18.2 20.2 23.85 26.95 29.75 32.35 34.5 36.45 38.2 39.9 41.25 42.55 43.55 44.35 45.05 45.2 45.85 46 46.15 46.1 45.95 45.9 45.85 45.9 45.9 45.6 45.75 45.8 46 46.1 46.25 46.4 46.65 47.15 47.3 47.45 47.8

Based on the results obtained, the parameters can be classified into Increasing and Decreasing. The curves of the Increasing parameters, which correspond to the temperature of the coolant, temperature of the catalyst and temperature of the exhaust gases, are shown in Fig. 3. They are called “Increasing”, because the values of these parameters increase, while the engine operating time elapses. After a certain time, the values stabilize.

Comparison of the Operating Parameters of an Internal Combustion Engine

21

RON92 y = – 6E-07x5 + 5E-05x4 – 0.0004x3 – 0.0688x2 + 2.9801x + 10.425 RON87 y = 3E-07x5 – 6E-05x4 + 0.0041x3 – 0.1523x2 + 3.4994x + 13.166 UNITS y [°C] x [s]

(a) RON92 y = – 8E-06x5 + 0.0002x4 + 0.0463x3 – 2.9359x2 + 62.793x – 31.148 RON87 y = 5E-06x5 – 0.0012x4 + 0.1022x3 – 3.7379x2 + 63.313x + 20.898 UNITS y [°C] x [s]

(b) RON92 y = – 9E-06x5 + 0.0011x4 – 0.043x3 + 0.6913x2 – 2.0996x + 15.619 RON87 y = – 9E-06x5 + 0.001x4 – 0.0384x3 + 0.5779x2 – 1.1828x + 17.169 UNITS y [°C] x [s]

(c) Fig. 3. Increasing temperature parameters. (a) Engine coolant. (b) Catalyst. (c) Exhaust gases

22

J. Lema et al. RON92 y = 6E-06x5 – 0.0006x4 + 0.0249x3 – 0.4225x2 + 2.3502x + 31.943 RON87 y = – 5E-06x5 + 0.0006x4 – 0.0248x3 + 0.5165x2 – 5.1935x + 49,305 UNITS y [%] x [s]

(a) RON92 y = 2E-06x5 – 0.0002x4 + 0.0072x3 – 0.1178x2 + 0.3191x + 36.052 RON87 y = – 2E-06x5 + 0.0002x4 – 0.0107x3 + 0.2147x2 – 2.2706x + 41.773 UNITS y [kPa] x [s] (b) RON92 y = – 6E-07x5 + 7E-05x4 – 0.0031x3 + 0.0713x2 – 0.8652x + 7.9345 RON87 y = – 1E-06x5 + 0.0001x4 – 0.0051x3 + 0.1087x2 – 1.1316x + 7.9644 UNITS y [g/s] x [s] (c)

Fig. 4. Decreasing parameters. (a) Engine Load. (b) Intake manifold pressure. (c) MAF. (d) RPM

Comparison of the Operating Parameters of an Internal Combustion Engine

23

RON92 y = – 0.0001x5 + 0.0143x4 – 0.6341x3 + 13.449x2 – 145.24x + 1679.9 RON87 y = – 6E-05x5 + 0.0072x4 – 0.341x3 + 7.8595x2 – 95.284x + 1484.5 UNITS y [RPM] x [s]

(d) Fig. 4. (continued)

The decreasing parameters are shown in Fig. 4, which correspond to engine load, intake manifold pressure, MAF and RPM. They are called “Decreasing”, because the values of these parameters decrease, while the engine operating time elapses. After a certain time, the values stabilize. Additionally, Fig. 4 and 5 show the mathematical models of the different curves of the engine parameters, approximate to a fifth-degree polynomial. In this way, the different values of the parameters can be predicted as a function of time for this type of engine.

4 Discussion The findings of this study show that during cold start, the increasing and decreasing parameters have an opposite behavior between both. This is because as the values of the temperature parameters increase, the fuel injection decreases, that is, the rich mixture decreases. This decrease in the rich mixture is evidenced by the reduction of the MAF values and the intake manifold pressure, which directly affects the engine load and RPM. As for the curves of the parameters between RON92 and RON87, there is little variation. However, during the first few minutes of engine operation, RON87 is shown to have a higher calorific value, because the curves of the RON87 Increasing parameters are slightly above the curves of RON92. This statement is corroborated by the study of [11] and [12], which indicate that the fuel with a lower octane index has a higher calorific value. On the other hand, during the same period of time, the curves of the decreasing parameters of RON87 are slightly below the curves of RON92, precisely due to the higher calorific value of RON87.

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5 Conclusions Based on the study carried out, it is shown that the RON87 fuel reaches the normal operating temperature of the engine more quickly, but this would lead to a more significant wear on the internal elements of the engine. Although the greatest wear is evident only in the first few minutes of engine operation, the significant deterioration of the engine is a consequence of the accumulation of cold start stages over time, and even more so if vehicle owners constantly use RON87 fuel. This study is complemented by the fact that the price of Ecuadorian RON87 fuel is lower than RON92. The opposite behavior between the Increasing and Decreasing parameters reflect the programming of the ECU. As in cold start the engine coolant is at low temperature, it is necessary to increase the amount of fuel injection so that the engine reaches the normal operating temperature as soon as possible. For this reason, a rapid growth of the temperature curves is visualized in the first minutes. On the other hand, the curves of the Decreasing parameters start with high values due to the high load to which the engine is subjected, produced by the increase in fuel injection. As the engine coolant temperature increases, fuel injection and engine load decreases. As mentioned above, using a fuel with a lower RON can represent an advantage in terms of calorific value, but it can also represent a greater affectation to the internal elements of the engine, so it is essential in future research, to carry out studies on a more precise quantification on the wear of the engines according to RON. Likewise, to say that a fuel with a higher-octane number is better through the studies currently carried out, it would not be prudent, because there are pros and cons regarding emissions and thermal efficiency. Therefore, more study variables should be considered to be able to affirm the advantages of each type of fuel.

References 1. Fang, C., Meng, X., Kong, X., Zhao, B., Huang, H.: Transient tribo-dynamics analysis and friction loss evaluation of piston during cold- and warm-start of a SI engine. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 133(800), 767–787 (2017) 2. Will, F., Boretti, A.: A new method to warm up lubricating oil to improve the fuel efficiency during cold start. SAE Int. J. Engines 4(1), 175–187 (2011) 3. Van Fan, Y., Perry, S., Klemeš, J.J., Lee, C.T.: A review on air emissions assessment: transportation. J. Clean. Prod. 194, 673–684 (2018) 4. Zare, A., et al.: Diesel engine emissions with oxygenated fuels: a comparative study into cold-start and hot-start operation. J. Clean. Prod. 162, 997–1008 (2017) 5. Bielaczyc, P., Merkisz, J., Pielecha, J.: Investigation of exhaust emissions from di diesel engine during cold and warm start, in SAE Technical Papers (2001) 6. Roberts, A., Brooks, R., Shipway, P.: Internal combustion engine cold-start efficiency: a review of the problem, causes and potential solutions. Energy Convers. Manage. 82, 327– 350 (2014) 7. Ghanaati, A., Muhamad Said, M.F., Mat Darus, I.Z.: A comparative study on knock occurrence for different fuel octane number, SAE Technical Paper, vol. 2018, pp. 1–11 (2018)

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8. Sayin, C., Kilicaslan, I., Canakci, M., Ozsezen, N.: An experimental study of the effect of octane number higher than engine requirement on the engine performance and emissions. Appl. Therm. Eng. 25(8–9), 1315–1324 (2005) 9. Alahmer, A., Aladayleh, W.: Effect two grades of octane numbers on the performance, exhaust and acoustic emissions of spark ignition engine. Fuel 180, 80–89 (2016) 10. Mohamad, T.I., Geok, H.H.: Part-load performance and emissions of a spark ignition engine fueled with RON95 and RON97 gasoline: technical viewpoint on Malaysia’s fuel price debate. Energy Convers. Manage. 88, 928–935 (2014) 11. Binjuwair, S., Mohamad, T.I., Almaleki, A., Alkudsi, A., Alshunaifi, I.: The effects of research octane number and fuel systems on the performance and emissions of a spark ignition engine: a study on Saudi Arabian RON91 and RON95 with port injection and direct injection systems. Fuel 158(10), 351–360 (2015) 12. Teoh, Y.H., How, H.G., Yu, K.H., Chuah, H.G., Yin, W.L.: Influence of octane number rating on performance, emission and combustion characteristics in spark ignition engine. J. Adv. Res. Fluid Mech. Therm. Sci. 45(1), 22–34 (2018) 13. Ceron, M., Urdiales, C., Sandoval, F.: A smartphone based platform for personalized estimation of GHG in everyday driving using On Board Diagnostics (2020) 14. Shaw, S., Hou, Y., Zhong, W., Sun, Q., Guan, T., Su, L.: Instantaneous fuel consumption estimation using smartphones (2019)

Hybrid Deep Learning Architecture Approach for Photovoltaic Power Plant Output Prediction Myriam Cumbajin1(B) , Ruxandra Stoean2 , Jos´e Aguado3 , and Gonzalo Joya3 1

SISAu Research Center, Facultad de Ingenieria y Tecnologias de la Informaci´ on y la Comunicaci´ on, Universidad Tecnologica Indoamerica, UTI, Ambato 180103, Ecuador [email protected] 2 University of Craiova, Str. Alexandru Ioan Cuza 13, 200585 Craiova, Romania [email protected] 3 Universidad de M´ alaga, Departamento de Ingenier´ıa El´ectrica y Departamento de Tecnolog´ıa Electr´ onica, Av. de Cervantes, 2, 29016 M´ alaga, Spain {jaguado,gjoya}@uma.es

Abstract. Photovoltaic Power is an interesting type of renewable energy, but the intermittency of solar energy resources makes its prediction an challenging task. This article presents the performance of a Hybrid Convolutional - Long short term memory network (CNN-LSTM) architecture in the prediction of photovoltaic generation. The combination was deemed important, as it can integrate the advantages of both deep learning methodologies: the spatial feature extraction and speed of CNN and the temporal analysis of the LSTM. The developed 4 layer Hybrid CNN-LSTM (HCL) model was applied on a real-world data collection for Photovoltaic Power prediction on which Group Least Square Support Vector Machines (GLSSVM) reported the lowest error in the current state of the art. Alongside the PV output, 4 other predictors are included in the models. The main result obtained from the evaluation metrics reveals that the proposed HCL provides better prediction than the GLSSVM model since the MSE and MAE errors of HCL are significantly lower than the same errors of the GLSSVM. So, the proposed Hybrid CNN-LSTM architecture is a promising approach for increasing the accuracy in Photovoltaic Power Prediction.

Keywords: Deep learning

1

· Photovoltaic · Prediction · CNN · LSTM

Introduction

As modern as the term may seem, when talking about Deep Learning, it is recommendable to go back to the year 1950, when this technology based on artificial neural networks began and was built as an approach which functions like the human brain [1] The different types of artificial neural networks have evolved c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022  M. I. A. Chauvin et al. (Eds.): CSECity 2021, LNNS 379, pp. 26–37, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94262-5_3

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over the years, among the most popular and frequent models being: Multilayer Perceptron with Backpropagation [2], Recurrent Networks (Hopfield and Elman with Backpropagation on Time) [3,4], Convolutional neural networks (CNN) [5], Recurrent neural networks (RNN) [6], Long short term memory (LSTM) [7], Deep Belief Networks [8], Restricted Boltzmann Machine [9], Auto-encoder [10], Generative Adversarial Networks [11], and so on. Most of the mentioned models are used in a wide variety of scenarios, which can be Prediction, Classification, Association, Conceptualization, Filtering and Optimization applications. Also, it should be said that the mentioned models are not exhaustive and do not cover all the models created since the 1950s, but they are considered the most important networks and technologies developed to reach the point where the science is today, which is Deep Learning [12]. Deep Learning uses artificial neural networks to perform more advanced calculations with big data. Thus, Deep Learning is one of the most preferable methods for solving complex tasks, such as, time series prediction, image classification or segmentation, facial recognition, object detection, chatbots, and much more [13]. Currently, the largest amount of data available are sequences, mainly time series, which are present in a great variety of phenomena. They can be found from stock market analysis, economics, weather forecasting, renewable energy generation, and so on [14]. The increasing size of such data, as well as its characteristics of variability, high dimensionality, correlations and temporal dependence, challenge and drive the development and improvement of data mining methods for the Deep Learning approach [15]. When talking about the advantage of Deep Learning and Neural Networks, it is well known that each of these models are trained and developed for a specific assignment, since some deep learning models are more appropriate than others to execute certain applications. Thus, the proper selection of a Deep Learning and Neural Network models in relation to the characteristics of the problem to be solved becomes a science and technological marvel. [16]. Therefore, there is a need for the hybridization of different deep learning algorithms to overcome the shortcomings of a single algorithm and to achieve greater precision effect in prediction. Among the most popular hybrid models, it is reported the combination of CNN and LSTM for different applications with various types of data [17]. A wide range of applications for the Hybrid CNN-LSTM architecture have been reported. In the Psychology area, the model has been used for Sentiment Analysis in which a 3 layer architecture is presented, and it is capable of outperforming previous studies like regression-based, lexicon-based, and Neuronal Neurons based methods [18]. In the Art and culture area, the CNN-LSTM model is utilized in Music generation, in which a 4 layer structure was presented and was able to perform better than a single LSTM, with more pronounced undulations and clearer melody [19]. In the Language area, the hybrid model was applied for Speech emotion recognition [20], Neural Metaphor Detecting [21], and Recognition of Handwritten Words [22], in which 6 layers, 3 layers, and 9 layers were used in their architecture, respectively. And all of them outperformed the solution of traditional single deep learning approaches. In the Health area, CNN-LSTM models

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have many employments. For air quality prediction by the Particulate Matter (PM2.5) Forecasting, the 4 layer developed architecture could overcome the performance of traditional forecasting methods [23]. For the automated detection of diabetes, the complex 15 combined layer architecture was able to increase the accuracy of the single CNN from 90.0% to 95.1% thanks to the hybridization of deep learning algorithms [24]. Also, for the recognition of the resent coronavirus (SARS-COV2), a 20 layer hybrid architecture was used for X-ray images to diagnose SARS-COV2 automatically [25]. In the Industry area, the evaluation of the level of charge in batteries of lithium-ion was carried out by using a straightforward 2 layer hybrid CNN-LSTM structure, which was able to obtain better tracking accuracy in all test cases than traditional approaches [26]. Hybrid structures were also applied in the Economy field, such as, in the quantitative strategy analysis in stock markets [27] and gold price forecasting [28], in which 3 layers and 5 layers were used in the architecture, respectively. Also, hybrid models have been used in the Energy generation, management, and consumption. For the Prediction energy structure, a hybrid model composed of 4 layers demonstrated that it was superior in performance than previous models by using information between 1965 and 2018 [29]. For Predicting residential energy consumption, a 5 layer hybrid model achieved better evaluations metrics in the prediction of electrical power consumption which was a challenging work for a single model [30]. And specifically for photovoltaic power prediction, a hybrid CNN-LSTM was capable to provide good performance in Photovoltaic Systems [31,32]. In [31], a linear combination between the estimates of CNN and LSTM, taking into consideration only the time series of PV output, was done for hybridization. In [32], 9 predictors were considered together with the PV output and a large architecture - 5 CNN layers followed by 5 LSTM components - was employed. In comparison to this last literature entry, which is closest to the problem we aim to model, our approach uses a simpler CNN-LSM layer structure, which was reached after manual tuning with different options. An architecture that is too complex for the available data may lead to overfitting. The objective of this article is to develop a Hybrid CNN-LSTM (HCL) architecture for the prediction of photovoltaic generation. The evaluation of the HCL is required with the intention of providing model validity. In this sense, it was necessary to carry out the comparison between two Hybrid models with similar parameterization. On the one hand, we have the proposed HCL architecture. On the other hand, we have the Group Least Square Support Vector Machine (GLSSVM) architecture which is a hybridization of Least Square Support Vector Machines and Group Method of Data Handling models [36]. The developed HCL architecture consists of 4 stacked layers architecture implemented thanks to the hybrid Deep Learning platform (HDLP) by using Scikit-Learn, Keras, and TensorFlow working on Python. The main result obtained from the evaluation metrics reveals that the proposed HCL architecture provides better prediction than the GLSSVM architecture, since the Mean Squared Error (MSE) and Mean Absolute Error (MAE) errors of HCL are significantly lower than the same errors of GLSSVM.

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Methodology

For the development of the HCL architecture, the following methodology is considered. At the beginning, the feature learning mechanism is analyzed, not only the spatial feature component provided by CNN, but also, the temporal feature part offered by LSTM. Next, the proposed HCL architecture is presented. Then, Evaluation metrics and Hyperparameter Analysis are discussed, which allow to assess the precise prediction of the HCL architecture. In the end, the experimental results and conclusions obtained from the HCL architecture are stated. 2.1

Spatial Feature Learning

The CNN provides Spatial feature learning. The technique was developed by Yann LeCun and introduced for the first time in 1988 and named LeNet [38]. In the beginning, it was applied for detecting characters in compressed digits and codes. The architecture consists of several layers that train the models to obtain features from the information and it is usually used for image processing and object recognizing applications in which the input information is two dimensional (2D). CNN is a very flexible model that can be applied also for time series prediction in which the input data is one dimensional (1D); for that purpose, conversions 2D - 1D are required. It is important to mention that the flexibility allows to perform a 1D convolution which is the time series format data. The advantage of CNN is the powerful feature extraction. The Spatial feature is acquired thanks to the convolutional architecture which provides features hierarchically from low to high level. The general architecture of CNN composed of different layers is sketched in Fig. 1. The convolutional layer has several filters to perform the convolution operation. The Rectified Linear Unit (ReLU) executes calculations on elements and the results is a feature map with rectification which is fed into a pooling layer for the down sampling procedure. At the end, a single, continuous, linear vector is reached and a fully connected layer allows the identification task. 2.2

Temporal Feature Learning

The LSTM offers the option of a temporal feature learning. Hochreiter and Schmidhuber developed and introduced this model for the first time in 1997 [39]. LSTM is an advanced Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) that can learn and memorize long term dependencies. The disadvantage of RNN is the vanishing gradient because of they cannot remember long term dependencies. LSTM overcomes the RNN deficiency by avoiding the long-term dependency problems. LSTM allows information to persist due to this is a sequential network, that. It works by providing information located in the memory. As an example, while you are watching a football game you know the score and the things that happened in at an earlier time or while watching a video you remember the previous

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Fig. 1. CNN architecture.

scene. So, LSTM has the capability to remember the previous information and use it for processing the current input. The work process of the LSTM is the following. First, forget obsolete section of the past state. Second, update the cell state values. And finally, some sections of the cell state are sent to the output. The general architecture of the LSTM is sketched in Fig. 2. Three main sections are in each cell, they are input, output and forget gates.

Fig. 2. LSTM architecture.

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Proposed Architecture

The development of the hybrid deep learning architecture was made by considering the feature learning of each single architecture. The LSTM architecture provides the temporal features, while the CNN includes the spatial features to the hybrid deep learning architecture. Then, we perform the parameter selection and tuning to meet the suitable number of filters and units of the network to achieve a competitive accuracy. The hybrid deep learning platform (HDLP) was implemented by using ScikitLearn, Keras, and TensorFlow working on Python, as depicted in Fig. 3. ScikitLearn is a free software library for Python software which is used for machine learning purposes. Scikit-Learn was mainly developed to work with NumPy and SciPy which are numerical and scientific libraries for Python software [33]. Next, Keras is an application programming interface. It is a free software library that acts as a link with the TensorFlow library, so it allows the functional connection when working with artificial neural networks [34]. And Python is a high level language for general purposes. It is based on several advanced models, including structured, functional and objects programming [35]. The proposed architecture of the hybrid Deep Learning approach considers the use of multiple predictors from a neural solution perspective employed in the tasks of an electrical energy management system, with hourly data from March 2012 to December of 2013 [36]. In this case, 5 predictors are used. They are, ambient temperature (Ta), medium temperature (Tm), Irradiance of station 3 (I3), irradiance of station 15 (I15) and photovoltaic power generated (PV). The architecture consists of 4 stacked layers. First, layer 1 implements the CNN network. Second, layer 2 applies the LSTM 1 network. Third, layer 3 relates to the LSTM 2 network. And fourth, layer 4 connects a dense layer to the sequence. The proposed HCL architecture is shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 3. Hybrid deep learning platform.

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Fig. 4. HCL architecture.

The selected HDLP provides the following capabilities. On the one hand, it includes metrics, scoring, and preprocessing offered by the Sklearn library, which allows quantifying the quality of predictions. On the other hand, it gives models and layers delivered by the Keras library, which allows the building of the CNN and LSTM networks for the Hybrid Deep learning Network. To construct the architecture of the CNN layer, the following parameters are taken into consideration. In the convolutional layer, a convolution of one dimension (1D) is applied, in which is strong important to establish the kernel size, number of filters and the activation function [37]. In the pooling layer, the pool size and strides are required. Then, a dropout layer is intertwined. In the same way, to construct the architecture of the LSTM layers, it is necessary to stipulate the units. Next, dropout is again referred, and then the fully connected layer is implemented, where its corresponding units are expressed. After that, the compilation is performed by setting an appropriate optimizer and loss. Then, when fitting the training data, the epochs and batch size are stated. The proposed architecture of the hybrid Deep Learning approach is summarized in Table 1. Table 1. HCL architecture structure. Model

Configuration

HCL architecture Layer 1: CNN sequential

Hyper - Parameters

Convolution 1D: kernel size, filters, the activation function MaxPooling1D: pool size, strides Dropout Layer 2: LSTM Units, Return sequences Dropout Layer 3: LSTM Units Dropout Layer 4: DENSE Units, activation function

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Evaluation Metrics

This work considers two evaluation metrics to provide an assessment of the proposed hybrid deep learning architecture. They are: Mean Squared Error (MSE) and Mean Absolute Error (MAE) which are showed in Eq. 1 and Eq. 2, respectively. On the one hand, MSE computes the mean of the squares of the errors betwixt the real value and predicted output. On the other hand, MAE calculates the average of these errors. n

M SE =

1 2 (yt − yˆt ) n t=1

(1)

n

M AE =

1 |yt − yˆt | n t=1

(2)

where: n: the number of samples. yˆt : the prediction of the network. yt : the actual value. 2.5

The Dataset

The main purpose of the present research is to evaluate the proposed HCL architecture. So, it is necessary to perform a comparison between two hybrid approaches. In this respect, the GLSSVM architecture was chosen, and the data set was taken from the report in which the GLSSVM architecture was evaluated. The dataset is the PV power information of a 960 kW system located in Italy in the south region [36]. It consists of 5 predictors, they are: ambient temperature, medium temperature, Irradiance of station 3, irradiance of station 15, and photovoltaic power generated. All data are recorded each hour from March 2012 to December 2013. The task then becomes to predict the PV power for the next hour, on the base of the past values. 2.6

Hyperparameter Analysis

In this work, we have used partly the literature review and to another extent our own experimentation because we have employed the experience acquired from the study of the state of the art and tuning, respectively. At the beginning, the HCL architecture was trained with parameter values commonly used in previous reports. Then, a manual tuning was used to achieve a good accuracy of prediction but to also control overfitting. In the end, we obtained the hyperparameter values for the HCL architecture summarized in Table 2. In the future, we will use an advanced Hyperparameter tuning algorithm with the intention to efficiently increase the accuracy of the HCL architecture.

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M. Cumbajin et al. Table 2. Hyperparameter values of HCL architecture.

Model

Configuration

Hyper - Parameters values

HCL architecture Layer 1: CNN Sequential

Convolution 1D: kernel size = 5, filters = 128, activation function = ReLu MaxPooling1D: pool size = 2, strides = 2 Dropout = 0.3 Layer 2: LSTM Units = 50, Return sequences = true Dropout= 0.2 Layer 3: LSTM Units = 50 Dropout = 0.2 Layer 4: DENSE Units = 1, activation function = sigmoid

3

Experimental Results

The experimental results were obtained by the application of the model on data acquired from the previous cited article and the base point to evaluate the HCL approach. The training of the HCL was carried out by setting the optimizer to Adam, the loss to MSE, the epochs at 20 and batch size at 32. To perform the comparison, it is considered similar parameterization. The same data setting used in the GLSSVM report, with the percent of the training data equal to 65.405%. The number of time steps is 24 which is the hours back and the prediction is one-step. Figure 5 depicts the result of prediction on the test set. The blue curve depicts the actual Photovoltaic value. The red curve illustrates the HCL architecture prediction, and the green curve reveals the prediction of the GLSSVM Architecture.

Fig. 5. Photovoltaic generated and predicted.

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A similar qualitative behaviour of photovoltaic generation and prediction can be seen, due to the fact that in the three cases the curve profile is close. Considering the stochastic nature of deep learning, it was necessary to obtain the evaluation metrics from 10 runs of the algorithm in order to perform the comparison between the HCL architecture with the GLSSVM architecture [36], which is presented in Table 3. From the comparison, it is seen that the proposed HCL architecture provides better prediction than the GLSSVM architecture, since the MSE and MAE errors of HCL architecture are highly reduced compared to the same error of GLSSVM architecture. The difference in the prediction error between the deep learning approach and the traditional SVM method demonstrates that several layers that are in charge both of spatial and temporal feature learning bring a more in-depth exploration and exploitation of the data than the classical statistical learning. Also, taking into account run time, the deep learning solution still pays off. The architecture was chosen to be minimal in the number of layers, contrary to [32], exactly for computational time effectiveness and overfitting prevention. Table 3. Metrics of hybrid architectures. Evaluation metrics HCL GLSSVM

4

MSE

3197 4902

MAE

26.49 44.03

Conclusions

This article presented the results of the HCL architecture in the prediction of photovoltaic generation. The main result obtained from the evaluation metrics reveals that the proposed HCL architecture provides a smaller error in MSE and MAE than the GLSSVM architecture. Hence, the proposed HCL architecture is a promising approach for Photovoltaic Power Prediction. For future work, we will consider other hybrid deep learning architectures, multi-step prediction, and automated hyperparameter tuning algorithm to reduce the prediction error to the minimum possible. Acknowledgements. The authors thank the invaluable contribution of the Technological University Indoamerica, University of Malaga and University of Craiova, for their support in carrying out this research, in the execution of the project “ESTU´ DIO DE ALGORITMOS DE MACHINE LEARNING PARA LA INTEGRACION ´ INTELIGENTE DE ENERGIAS RENOVABLES”, Project Code: 219.168.2021.

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Automotive Crankcase Design Using Biodegradable Materials Juan Cruz(&)

, Blanca Topon-Visarrea

, and Lorena Caceres

SISAu Research Group, Facultad de Ingeniería y Tecnologías de la Información y la Comunicación, Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Manuelita Sáenz y Agramonte, Ambato, Ecuador [email protected]

Abstract. The automotive industry is innovating new materials to replace environmentally harmful products with new technologies. An alternative is the use of polymeric compounds derived from biological sources from natural fibers, which generate a low carbon footprint, limiting environmental pollution and waste management problems. The components forming part of a vehicle must meet strict requirements, and the appropriate selection of materials that withstand extreme conditions is therefore necessary. An important element within a vehicle is the crankcase of a motor, which is located at the bottom and aims to provide protection and rigidity to the engine, in addition to housing the oil and the mechanical components thereof. That is why this research proposes the design of an automotive crankcase based on biodegradable materials made of polyester and cabuya fiber. In order to verify the functionalities, a simulation was carried out in SolidWorks, identifying that it complies with similar characteristics to those of a commercial crankcase in terms of efforts and workloads. The engineered crankcase weighs 3.26 kg, is low-corrosion, has 45.42 psi of maximum effort and a strain of 2,024 e-3 in., plus 44% less cost than a commercial crankcase. Keywords: Crankcase
Biodegradable
New materials
Automotive industry

1 Introduction The automotive industry is constantly innovating, generating new products, and making them safer and more ecological. It seeks that the parts and pieces of vehicles at the end of their useful life can be easily reused and recycled. In the United Kingdom, through the “end-of-life vehicles directive” as of 2015, it is required that 95% of the vehicle by weight be reused, recycled, or recovered [1]. Hence the importance of using ecofriendly materials as an alternative for industrial applications [2]. From the appearance of vehicles to the present, steel has been traditionally utilized due to its strength, toughness, and abundance; however, this trend has decreased. Currently, it is sought that the materials allow designs, geometric shapes, protection against corrosion, recycling, environmental impact, and a predominant factor among manufacturers, weight decrease. Reducing the vehicle’s weight implies increasing the efficiency in fuel consumption, giving rise to the need for lighter and resistant materials [3, 4]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. I. A. Chauvin et al. (Eds.): CSECity 2021, LNNS 379, pp. 38–47, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94262-5_4

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Natural fibers have been utilized for years, in 1930 they were used as reinforcement for defense of Ford vehicles. Both natural and artificial fibers have been very useful in different industries by replacing metal parts [5]. Natural fibers allow the composites to be lighter compared to synthetic fibers. The density of natural fibers (1–2–1,6 g/cm3) is less than fiberglass (2,4 g/cm3) which leads to the manufacture of lightweight composites [6]. In addition, the use of composite materials derived from natural fibers has registered an annual growth rate of 11.6% until 2020 [7]. In Ecuador, the use of natural fibers and composite materials is limited. The fibers have been utilized in not very innovative products. Although it is important to mention that in the country, 5800 tons of cabuya were produced in 2008, 1000 tons of abaca per year, 51000 tons of coconut in 2006. With these data, it can be said that there exists a large amount of raw material for the development of composite materials, but it has not been entirely exploited [8]. The advantages of using natural fibers as reinforcement in the elaboration of composite materials are, among others, their low cost, good mechanical properties, biodegradability, sustainability, low energy consumption, and low CO2 consumption [9, 10]. For the manufacture of the composite material, the matrix, the reinforcement, and the process will be selected due to the manufacturing cost that will represent 50% and 60% of the total cost of the product [11, 12]. This work proposes selecting a natural fiber to use it in a composite material for the design of an automotive crankcase [13]. Additionally, a simulation software will be used to compare the traction, deformation, and strength characteristics of the engineered crankcase with a conventional steel crankcase. Finally, the construction method is selected, and the environmental impact generated by the use of biodegradable materials in the automotive industry is discussed [14, 15].

2 Analysis and Design 2.1

Analysis

For the design process of the automobile Carter, the principles of mechanical design and concurrent engineering were applied, in which the design of the product with all its requirements is transversalized considering the Product Life Cycle (CVP), from the conceptual design to its availability, including quality and cost. The phases of the method are: (1) definition of the variables or loads acting on the product, (2) material properties, (3) CAD design of the product architecture (4) simulation of the mechanical strength of the product based on finite element theory. Figure 1 shows the conceptual flowchart of this method.

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Fig. 1. Flow chart for crankcase design

2.2

Definitions of Variables and Requirements

To ensure the development of a good product (biodegradable carriage), we must properly choose the material as well as the dosage between the amount of fibers and the volume of polymer material to form a resistant composite with biodegradable properties. The most common characteristics identified in similar studies include the following: • The proposed design must have biodegradable properties. • The proposed crankcase must be able to withstand the minimum loads required for a vehicle. • The size must not exceed the maximum overall height of the vehicle. • The weight of the product must be less than or equal to that of a conventional product. • The product architecture shall be sufficient to cover the required oil volume. The life cycle of a product extends from definition, design and development, manufacturing, packaging and transport to sale (or handover to the user) and then goes through further post-sale (or post-handover) phases corresponding to the user (or users) and finally to the community [16]. In order to obtain a quality product, we first analyze the conditions to which the product is exposed, noting that the crankcase is exposed to wind loads since it is in direct contact. The force and strength acting on the product depend on the size, location of the crankcase, shape of the vehicle, air density, and wind direction and strength (see Eq. 1). FA ¼ Being: FA - Applied force (kg.m/s2)

C x
A
q
v2 2

ð1Þ

Automotive Crankcase Design Using Biodegradable Materials

41

Cx - Coefficient of air resistance A - Frontal area of direct impact with air (m2) P - Air density (kg/m3) v - Vehicle velocity (m/s2) This can be observed in a large majority of vehicles of different brands. The engines and especially the crankcase are located in a place where the air does not act directly. The different models of the crankcase in shape and size serve as a reference for the proposed design so that the weight absorbed in its structure, in this case it would be the weight caused by the oil, can be identified (see Eq. 2). P¼m
g

ð2Þ

Being: P - weight of the oil (N) m - mass of the oil (kg) g - gravity of the oil (m/s2) 2.3

Minimum Height for the Construction of the Crankcase

The minimum height between the base of the engine block and the roadway depends on the type and size of the vehicle, for our study a height between 20 and 30 cm maximum is assumed so that the product does not suffer any shocks during the travel of the vehicle. For the design of the crankcase, a polymer base material is selected and its mechanical properties must be determined. A CAD design is then created using SolidWorks software, followed by an analysis of the mechanical stresses based on finite element theory. 2.4

Finite Element Theory

The SolidWorks program is used to simulate the mechanical forces in the proposed design, using the finite element method (FEM), which can be understood as a method for numerically solving problems posed by differential equations using the data after the fact. The program uses these built-in tools to determine whether or not a product will withstand the proposed loads [17]. 2.5

Design

Material Selection. Polymeric material reinforced with natural fibers will be used for the construction of the crankcase. Natural fibers will provide high strength and stiffness to the mixture [18]. In [19] it is shown that the use of natural fibers as reinforcement in polymeric matrices allows to increase the tensile, flexural, and impact properties. Different types of fibers that exist in nature can be used for the development of biodegradable material, such as fique, hemp, or cabuya, which act as reinforcement in different applications. Information on tensile strength, elasticity module, and elongation at fracture of various materials has been collected for the study presented. Table 1

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shows an analysis of several fibers to be used as polymeric blends. It is observed that the fiber that has the greatest firmness is cabuya, which means that it has a high mechanical resistance, has a light structure and achieves greater tensile strength and ductility, and has the highest young module. Therefore, a mixture of cabuya and polyester resin is used as the main raw material for the crankcase construction. It should be noted that in Ecuador cabuya is a plant that grows in abundance and is widely used for its resistance and durability properties in different applications in the textile sector and now in the automotive sector.

Table 1. Fiber comparative analysis. [2] Fiber Cabuya Coconut Glass-S Glass-E

Endurance to traction [MPa] 305,15 175–220 2000 2570

Modulus of elasticity [GPa] 7,5 4–6 70 86

Elongation at fracture [%] 4,96 15–30 2,5 2,8

CAD Design. For the crankcase design, parameters such as oil volume, bolt distribution, drain hole for evacuation, guide channels to place the expansive gaskets that will allow sealing between the oil chamber and the combustion engine mechanisms must be considered. The design of the proposal was carried out in SolidWorks software and a commercial crankcase was used as a reference. In addition, in order to analyze the mechanical forces, it is necessary to know the physical properties of the polymers, so Table 2 shows the properties of the polyester resin.

Table 2. Mechanical properties – polyester resin [20] Properties Density [gr/cm3] Viscosity [25 °C/cd] Barcol hardness Tensile strength [MPa] Flexural strength Blending modulus [MPa]

Range 1,1–1,2 150–750 30–55 50–75 80–150 3500–4500

There are other coefficients that must be analyzed to determine the characteristics and tensile strength values of the resin mixture with cabuya to be used in the design; these properties are presented in Table 3.

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Table 3. Tensile strength of the resin mixture - cabuya. [21] Properties Elastic module [psi] Poisson's ratio [N/D] Bulk density [lb./inch3] Traction limit [psi] Tensile strength [MPa] Thermal conductivity [BTU/inch*s*°F]

Value 382 754.6 0.35 0.0368498274 5 008.15 5 421.7 2.51445e-06

The crankcase design is based on a commercial model built in A-36 steel, which supports a maximum effort of 1272 psi with a safety factor of 28, resulting in an actual effort of 45.42 psi, clearly identifying an oversizing of the metal casing. To determine the pressure or distributed load value to be used in the mechanical stress simulator, oil weight is identified first, as a starting point, the volume occupied by the original A-36 steel model is taken, which is 0.007182 m3, the maximum density of the oil is 950 kg/m3, finally, with these data a load of 6.8229 kg, this value equals 11.06 lb. The original crankcase has an area of 61.78 in2. The load is directly related to the crankcase area to obtain a distributed load of 0.182 lbs/in2. For safety reasons, an elevation setting of 2 is proposed. Finally, having a distributed load value of 0.364 psi. the Fig. 2 shows the model designed in SolidWorks software with the materials presented in Tables 2 and 3. .

Fig. 2. Engine crankcase designed

Simulation. Using SolidWorks software, a simulation of the maximum tensile strength of the designed crankcase will be carried out. The maximum effort supported by the biodegradable crankcase is 45.4 psi with a constant load of 0.364 lb/in2, which represents the oil weight, considering a safety factor of 3. Figure 3 also shows a deformation of 2.024 e−3 in, concluding that the proposed design meets the same loading conditions as a commercial crankcase.

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Fig. 3. Effort and strain simulation of the biodegradable crankcase

Prototype Construction. The prototype construction process involves 4 stages, which are shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. Prototype development process

a. 3D printing of main mold. With the help of SolidWorks software, the 3D modeling file of the main mold is made, it is printed in a resistant material such as ABS. This main mold will be used to make a plaster mold. b. Construction of plaster mold. Using the 3D mold, the plaster mold is made, which will serve as the basis for the crankcase construction. c. Elaboration of the prototype. The cabuya fibers and the first layer of resin with titanium dioxide are added in the plaster mold. This procedure is repeated at least 4 times until a thickness of 8 mm is achieved. This mixture should be left to set for 1 h to harden and 24 h to reach the ideal mechanical resistance. When the mixture is dry, the plaster mold must be fractured to obtain the final product. d. Cleaning and final details. Once all the plaster has been removed, it should be cleaned and proceed with the resistance tests.

3 Environmental Impact Nowadays, the depletion of oil resources and increased pollution in the world have forced the automotive industry to look for renewable, biodegradable materials, whose use generates sustainable development [22]. An alternative has been found in the use of polymeric compounds since they generate a low carbon footprint, limiting environmental

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pollution and waste management problems [23], these compounds are abundant, light, inexpensive and are ideal for high volume applications such as packaging, auto parts, buildings, among others [24]. Polymeric compounds derived from biological sources from natural fibers such as coconut shells, palm fruits, bagasse, banana fibers, cabuya, bamboo among others, whose use can be applied in the automotive industry to generate sustainable technology and optimal processes with low environmental impact is a difficult challenge to achieve [25]. The use of these fibers allows the use of biological waste, which leads to attractive characteristics such as: reduced manufacturing costs, renewability, permanent availability, biodegradability [26], so biological waste have a high potential in the development of components generating significant improvements in the chemical and mechanical properties of the materials used [27].

4 Expected Results To check the reliability of the designed crankcase, a comparison is made with a commercial crankcase with similar characteristics, which are detailed in Table 4.

Table 4. Comparison between commercial crankcase and designed crankcase. [11] Assessment Weight Corrosion Material Maximum effort of product Strain Average cost/unit

Engineered crankcase 3.26 kg Low Polyester and cabuya fiber 45.4 psi

Commercial crankcase 3.74 kg High Steel A-36 45 psi

2.024 e−3 in 35 $

1.63e−3 in 78 $

Table 4 shows that the maximum stress and strain parameters are similar between the crankcases compared. It is highlighted that the material used in the new product is biodegradable and inexpensive since the polyester and cabuya fiber materials used are abundant and readily available. As a result, the parameters obtained in the designed crankcase are considered adequate.

5 Conclusions and Work Future This research shows a comparative analysis of the different natural fibers that can be used as reinforcement in polymeric compounds to create new materials. The analysis concluded that cabuya is the most suitable material for crankcase manufacture due to its mechanical strength, lightweight, greater tensile strength, and rigidity. Once the main raw material was determined, the CAD design was carried out in SolidWorks, and the

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values corresponding to the mixture of resin and cabuya were entered in this software to identify the properties of this material in simulation. Once the design was simulated, the biodegradable automotive crankcase prototype was built. The crankcase is made of polyester and 8 mm thick cabuya fiber. Compared to a stamped steel product, it meets the same efforts at the same load conditions and has a deformation of 0.002024 in, which means that it is a totally rigid product that can be incorporated into a mobilization system. The use of biodegradable materials is an alternative for the sustainable development of the automotive industry, as these materials are abundant, renewable, lightweight, and low cost compared to traditional materials such as steel or aluminum. There is still a wide range of materials and compound mixtures that can be used in the automotive industry, as an alternative to reduce the environmental impact produced by the creation of a car and its spare parts. The creation of parts and pieces for automobiles requires deep and continuous analysis, leaving open the study of the useful lifetime and testing in different vehicle models under different environmental conditions.

References 1. Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders (SMMT). https://www.smmt.co.uk/ 2. Salvador, M., Amigo, V.: Caracterización de fibras vegetales utilizadas como refuerzo en matrices termoplásticos, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia (2007) 3. Ramos, V. Evolution of the use of plastic materials in the automotive industry. INNOVA Res. J. (2018) 4. Cordova-Cisneros, K.C.: Polymer Composite Eco-materials With Applications in the Automotive Área, Revista Científica de la Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila (2019) 5. Majewski, T., Błędzki, A.: Plásticos reforzados con fibras naturales en el sector automotriz. Revista Ideas en Ciencia 40, 23–33 (2013) 6. Yashas, T., Sanjay, R.: Natural fibers as sustainable and renewable resource for development of eco-friendly composites: a comprehensive review. Front. Mater. 6, 226 (2019) 7. Salinas, J., Salinas, C.: Analysis of the mechanical properties of the composite of polyester matrix reinforced with glass fiber 375 and cabuya applied to the automotive industry. Enfoque UTE 8(3), (2017) 8. Magino, E.: The future use of structural composite materials in the automotive industry. Int. J. Veh. Des. 44(3–4), 211–232 (2007) 9. Baillie, C. (ed.). Green Composites: Polymer Composites and the Environment. Wood Head Publishing Limited, Cambridge (2004) 10. Restrepo, S.: Uso de fibras vegetales en materiales compuestos de matriz polimérica, una revisión con miras a su aplicación en el diseño de nuevos productos (2016) 11. Levy, F.: Compósitos estruturais: Ciência e tecnologia, 1ra. ed. Edgard Blücher, São Paulo (2006) 12. Salvador, M.: Caracterización de fibras vegetales utilizadas como refuerzo en matrices termoplásticas, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia (2007) 13. Palmer, G., Valera, R.: Tendencias actuales de los plásticos en la industria automovilística. Ingeniería Mecánica 1, 49–55 (1998) 14. Ramos, V.: Evolución del uso de los materiales plásticos en la industria automotriz. INNOVA Res. J. 11 (2018) 15. Guerrero, V., Dávila, J.: Nuevos materiales. Aplicaciones estructurales e industriales. 1era Ed, (2011)

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16. Beltrán, F.: Teoría General del Método de elementos finitos. Madrid (1999) 17. Romeva, C.R.: Ingeniería Concurrente. Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya (2002) 18. Tapia, C., Paredes, C., Simbaña, A., Bermúdez, J.: Aplicación de las Fibras Naturales en el Desarrollo de Materiales Compuestos y como Biomasa. Revista Tecnológica - ESPOL 19(1) (2013). Recuperado a partir de http://rte.espol.edu.ec/index.php/tecnologica/article/view/210 19. Guerrero, V., Pontón, P.: Materiales compuestos de matriz poliéster reforzados con fibras naturales y sintéticas. Espe. (2013) 20. Gazechim Composites Iberica. https://www.gazechim.es/. Access 21 Jan 2021 21. Duque, N.: Obtención y Caracterización de Materiales Compuestos de Matriz Poliéster Reforzados con Fibra de Cabuya Mediante Estratificación. Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito Ecuador (2012) 22. Ravi Kumar, B., Hariharan, S. S.: Experimental investigation on thermal behavior, sound absorption, and flammability of natural fibre polymer composites. Struct. Eng. Mech. 76(5), 613–618 (2020). https://doi.org/10.12989/sem.2020.76.5.613 23. Coppola, G., Gaudio, M.T., Lopresto, C.G., Calabro, V., Curcio, S., Chakraborty, S.: Bioplastic from renewable biomass: a facile solution for a greener environment. Earth Syst. Environ. 5(2), 231–251 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41748-021-00208-7 24. Wang, L., et al.: Towards industrial-scale production of cellulose nanocomposites using melt processing: a critical review on structure-processing-property relationships. Compos. Part B 201, 108297 (2020) 25. Lohar, D.V., Damle, P.G., Nikalje, A.M.: A Review of Hybrid polymer Biocomposites. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 810(1) (2020). https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/810/1/012001 26. Meenakshi, C.M., Krishnamoorthy, A.: Mechanical characterization and comparative study on polyester composite laminates reinforced with different bio waste materials. J. Mech. Eng. Res. Dev. 41(2), 103–105 (2018) 27. Fayomi, O.S.I., Babaremu, K.O., Akande, I.G., Agboola, O., Anyanwu, B.U.: Potential of bio-wastes in the development of composites for manufacturing application. Mater. Today Proc. 38, 2353–2357 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.06.539

Use of Battery Energy Storage Systems to Enhance the Frequency Stability of an Islanded Microgrid Based on Hybrid Photovoltaic-Diesel Generation Iván Pazmiño1(&)

, Danny Ochoa2 , Edwin Ponce Minaya1 and Hugo Pico Mera3

,

1 Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí, Manta, Ecuador {ivan.pazmino,bernardo.ponce}@uleam.edu.ec 2 Universidad de Cuenca, Cuenca, Ecuador [email protected] 3 Corporación Nacional de Electricidad, Manta, Ecuador [email protected]

Abstract. Primary frequency control in power systems is becoming more difficult as levels of non-synchronous generation grow. This paper explores how implementing a control strategy based on the concept of virtual inertia, supported by the use of battery energy storage systems (BESS), might positively impact frequency stability of the grid. Particularly, this work centers its effort on islanded microgrids based on hybrid generation: photovoltaic and diesel. This paper presents a methodology for representing an islanded-power system equipped with photovoltaic (PV), diesel generators, and BESS, the latter with a virtual frequency control feature devised to improve the resilience of the system in terms of frequency after a contingency occurs. The proposed methodology is designed as an analysis tool to help in the survey and decision making in the planning and operation of systems with these characteristics. This methodology and its implementation are used to test an electrical power system facing a continuous power imbalance caused by the PV-power intermittence to assess how the frequency varies when the virtual inertia control system based on BESS is enabled or not. Matlab-Simulink is used as a simulation environment. The numerical results achieved with the model show the benefits of implementing the virtual inertia control characteristics in the BESS in terms of both reducing frequency fluctuations and reducing the time-derivative of frequency under normal operating conditions. Keywords: Microgrid
Synchronous generation
Primary frequency control
Photovoltaic generation
Battery energy storage system

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. I. A. Chauvin et al. (Eds.): CSECity 2021, LNNS 379, pp. 48–58, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94262-5_5

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1 Introduction Since the beginning of AC-electricity industry, large-scale synchronous generators have been dedicated for ensuring frequency stability [1]. Nevertheless, due to an increasing participation of non-conventional renewable electricity generation in power systems, there is an important degradation of their inertial characteristics [2]. This is caused because those non-conventional renewable generators use electronic power converters to inject their energy production to the grid, decoupling the inertia of their primary source (if it would exist) to the power system, leading to reduce the inertial characteristics of the grid. A poor inertial response might be a risk for frequency stability when the power system is operating normally or when a contingency event takes place [3]. The issue described above has a particular interest in microgrids, which are characterized by small-scale electrical components and distributed resources: wind generators, photovoltaic generation, low-power fuel generators and occasionally with energy storage devices [4–6]. There, the typical imbalance between generated and consumed power introduces pronounced frequency deviations whose effects on the continuity of the electricity supply may constitute a latent risk, when compared to a bulk and interconnected power system. Nevertheless, a microgrid offers a wide possibility of technical advantages, such as the flexibility in the operation mode (on-grid and islanded modes) [7], the diversification and dispersion of the generation agents (promoting renewable energy), the reduction of transmission losses, among others. This paper is focused on islanded microgrids with intermittent renewable generation, where if it is produced imbalances between generated and demanded power, the synchronous generators might not have enough capacity to provide a fast response to disturbances to maintain the small-power system stable in terms of frequency [6]. To address this issue, additional control schemes implemented in the power controllers of the renewable generation and energy storage systems, which provide complementary frequency regulation capabilities, have been presented in previous works [8–10]. The control schemes proposed there lead to regulate the active power injection to the grid as a function of the frequency variation, similar to the expected synchronous generators’ performance. Since it is a non-natural and controlled response, based on the available energy resources, the term ‘virtual inertia’ (VI) is usually coined. This paper proposes a methodology designed for the modeling of a small and islanded power system characterized by photovoltaic (PV), diesel generators and BESS, the latter with a virtual frequency control feature, devised for the improvement of the resilience of the system in terms of frequency after a contingency occurs. The proposed methodology is designed as an analysis tool to assist in the survey and decision-making in the planning and operation of systems with these characteristics. This methodology and its implementation are used to test a power system facing a continuous power imbalance caused by the PV-power intermittence to assess how the frequency varies when the VI-control system based on BESS is enabled or not. This work is organized as follows: in Sect. 2 the overall power system description is presented and the base case to be studied is illustrated; Sect. 3 describes the methodology presented, where the scenarios to be considered for the analysis are

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presented in detail. In Sect. 4 the results achieved by time-domain simulation are presented for each case of study. These results are analyzed and discussed in Sect. 5. Finally, the conclusions are established in Sect. 6.

2 System Description For this analysis, in the base case the system will supply its electricity demand with a Diesel generator (DG), a PV-power plant and a BESS-system. The simplified singleline diagram of the system to be analyzed is illustrated in Fig. 1. According to the goal of this research, the modelling efforts are focused on representing the dynamics of certain variables of interest within the time frame corresponding to the primary frequency control tasks. Therefore, a Load Frequency Control (LFC) scheme will be developed for this purpose, and it is described in the next section. 813kVA Diesel power plant

Photovoltaic power plant 0.5 MWp

Battery 1 MW

DC AC

Load

DC AC

Fig. 1. Power system under study

3 Methodology In this section, an LFC-scheme approach for representing the short-term operation of the power system represented in Fig. 1 is developed. A survey of the literature has made it possible to identify the models that allow us to better represent the dynamics of the main components of the studied system: photovoltaic generation, diesel power plant and the BESS. A brief description of the overall configuration of each element and the models to be used are provided below: 3.1

Diesel Power Plant

Figure 2(a) shows a typical schematical representation of a standalone diesel power plant [9]. There, the diesel engine model has been taken from [11]. Since this study is focused on the primary frequency response, it will be neglected the dynamic of synchronous generator (which it is assumed as instantaneous) and it only consider the dynamic of the primary drive. Figure 2(b) shows the schematic representation of the proposal, whose main parameter values are provided in Appendixes A and B. Where:

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– – – –

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xr, represents the DG rotor-shaft speed. DPm, is the mechanical power deviation from a steady-state value, Pm0. Tm, denotes the diesel-turbine mechanical torque. Tmax and Tmin, are the maximum and minimum bound values of Tm.

ωr [pu] Speed governor

Stator terminals

Δω [pu]

ωr Sync. generator

Pm

(a)

Pd Active power (output)

Tmin[pu]

KI + KP s s (1 + T3 s ) Tmax[pu]

1 1 + T2 s

Tm [pu]

e

Actuator

Pm[pu]

Π

−T1s

+

Σ

ΔPm[pu]

− Pm0 [pu]

Diesel engine

(b)

Fig. 2. Thermal generation under study (a) Schematic representation, (b) Speed governor model

3.2

Photovoltaic System

A photovoltaic system is designed to supply electric energy using solar power by means of photovoltaic panels [12]. Seen in a simplistic but valid way, the PV system consists of three main elements: photovoltaic cell, the electronic power converter, and the power controller. A typical general diagram of a PV system is illustrated in Fig. 3 (a). By default, PV systems lack inertial response since they don’t have rotating mass to generate the electric energy and instead these use power electronic converters. However, recently published works explore the possibility of providing a somewhat range of power reserve by forcing to PV-converters to operate under suboptimal conditions (MPPT-deloading) [13, 14]. It is an interesting topic, but that is outside of the scope of this paper. Where the PV energy share level increases in a small and isolated power system, the frequency support capability has to be higher than the expected one in a large power system, like for instance if it represents a fifty per cent of the synchronous generation (as the case considered in this study) or higher. In these situations, the spinning reserve of synchronous generators needs to be increased in order to mitigate the issues related to the power intermittence of PVsystems, resulting in high operation costs (capital and fuel) and even more stress on DG generation units. Another option to achieve this goal is the use of BESS, which for frequency-support provision it can be charged or discharged in order to provide active power compensation to the grid for facing the frequency excursions [15]. For this case study, it has been considered a 0.5 MWp photovoltaic system.

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Battery Energy Storage System

As it commented before, for studies of frequency regulation, BESS can play a significant role, since the injected/absorbed active power could be controlled in order to provide a power compensation in case of a frequency event [16]. Although the complete model of a BESS is relatively complex [17], overall this system is made up of the following elements: the electrochemical battery, the electronic power converter, and the active power controller. A typical diagram for representing a BESS is illustrated in Fig. 3(b).

Active power controller

P*PV

P PV

Grid conection point

Active power controller * PBESS

PBESS

DC AC

DC AC

Grid conection point

Battery

PV Panel

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3. Basic components of (a) a photovoltaic system and (b) a BESS

The model proposed by [18] is used to represent the dynamics of the energy storage unit for this frequency control study (Fig. 4). Here, the VI-control is achieved by implementing two control characteristics: one dependent on the deviations of the nominal grid-frequency, Δf, like the droop frequency control, and the other, dependent on its time-derivative, df/dt, or RoCoF. The values assigned to the model can be consulted in Appendix C.

Δf

K1 +

Σ df/dt

K2

+

−

1 R

1 TBESS s + 1

ΔPBESS

Fig. 4. Basic scheme of VI-controller incorporated in the BESS model.

So, this scheme will respond with a change in the active power setpoint DPBESS to emulate an inertial response when the system experiences a variation in frequency. To be consistent with our case study, the BESS has been sized to 1 MW.

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3.4

53

Load Frequency Control Scheme for Representing the Power System’s Dynamics

A synchronous machine is able to store a kinetic energy defined by [19]: Ekinetic ¼ ð1=2ÞJ½kg
m2  x2½rad=s

ð1Þ

Where: J, is the equivalent inertia of the DG. x, is the rotor-shaft speed. Additionally, an AC-power system is governed by the swing-equation: Tm  Te ¼

Pm Pe dx  ¼J dt x x

ð2Þ

Where: Tm and Te, represent the electrical and the mechanical torque, Pm and Pe, denote the mechanical and the electrical power. From previous equation, the RoCoF can be derived as: dx xðPm  Pe Þ ¼ dt 2H
S

ð3Þ

Where: H is the equivalent inertia constant, and S is the generator capacity. Finally, it is useful for this kind of study to express the swing equation in terms of incremental magnitudes in per-unit values [10], as follows: 2HT

dDx½pu þ DDx½pu ¼ DPm½pu  DPe½pu dt

ð4Þ

Where: HT and D, are the equivalent inertia constant of the system and the load damping constant, respectively. Now, considering as a reference the proposal reported in [20], the frequency control scheme becomes as it is illustrated in Fig. 5. Where: DPL is the per unit load variation non sensitive to frequency. DPDG represents the per-unit power compensation generated by the Diesel generator to contribute to frequency recovery.

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DPB represents the per-unit power compensation generated by the BESS to contribute to frequency recovery. DPPV represents the per-unit power compensation generated by the photovoltaic panels. wi is the participation weight of each generation unit, both in frequency support and in demand coverage. This factor is defined as the ratio of the installed capacity and the power base chosen for the study (in per unit), in this case, the installed power of DG has been taken as the base power (Sbase = 3  0.813 MVA). So, the participation weightfactors are: w1 = 3  0.833/Sbase = 1 [pu], w2 = 0.5  103/ Sbase = 0.2 [pu], and w3 = 1  103/Sbase = 0.41. Additionally, it has been considered a value equal to 0.5 p.u. as pre-disturbance power operation of the thermal synchronous unit, DG. 3.5

Scenarios Considered for the Analysis

To evaluate the performance of virtual inertia characteristics provided by the BESS in mitigating the grid-frequency fluctuations caused by a variable PV power injection, the test system is subjected to a variable solar irradiance and no changes of load. For this purpose, the following two scenarios are considered: 1) Diesel + PV + BESS (without virtual inertia characteristic) under a real PV generation profile ! base case. 2) Diesel + PV + BESS (with virtual inertia) under a real PV generation profile ! virtual inertia. In all these cases the continuous power imbalances are caused only by the PV intermittence, therefore, load variations are neglected (ΔPL = 0 pu).

w1 DG +

PB

+

w2 +

BESS

Σ

Σ -

PPV

Δf

1 2HT s D BESS operating mode: Base case With virtual inertia

w3

ΔPL PV

Fig. 5. Microgrid’s frequency control scheme implemented in the simulator.

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4 Results The simulation results corresponding to the predefined scenarios (base case and virtual inertia) are presented in Figs. 6 and 7. These results will be discussed in Sect. 5.

PDG [kW]

PPV [kW]

600 400 200 0 0

20

40

60

80

100

Base case

400

Virtual inertia

200 0 0

120

20

40

Time [s]

60

(a) PBESS [kW]

80

100

120

Time [s]

(b) Batt. discharge

100 0

Batt. charge

-100

Base case

0

20

Virtual inertia

40

60

80

100

120

Time [s]

(c)

Fig. 6. Power system dynamics: a) real PV power profile, b) DG supplied power, c) BESS active power injection/absorption.

0.4 |ROCOF| [Hz/s]

f [Hz]

61

60 Base case

59 0

20

40

Virtual inertia

60

80

100

120

Base case

Virtual inertia

0.2

0 0

Time [s]

(a)

20

40

60

80

100

120

Time [s]

(b)

Fig. 7. Grid-frequency dynamics: a) frequency, b) absolute value of ROCOF.

5 Analysis and Discussion of Results Figure 6 presents the simulation results of the dynamics of some variables of interest of the test-power system. The two predefined scenarios are characterized by the fluctuating power injection from the PV-system (Fig. 6a). This profile corresponds to an actual PV-active power production, whose data samples were recorded with high resolution (1 s). The power dispatched by the thermal power plant is illustrated in Fig. 6b. Here, the DG varies the injected power to compensate the power imbalance introduced by the PV-system. Note that, in the second scenario (virtual inertia) the response of DG in terms of power is less abrupt than in the base case. This is due to the participation of BESS in frequency control: when enabling virtual inertia in BESS

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(Fig. 6c), the battery is charged and discharged to help the DG to mitigate the continuous power mismatch. The bidirectional power flow of BESS (in the base case) is decided by the system operator (SO) under criterion of energy reserve, only. Hence, as it can be seen in the subplot, this power will be constant (or null) until an order to change the power setpoint is received from the SO. Finally, the benefits achieved to the cooperative participation of DG and BESS for controlling the grid frequency can be verified in Fig. 7. Note that, in Fig. 7a, the fluctuating frequency caused by an intermittent PV power injection is effectively reduced when the BESS is able to provide frequency-support to the grid. This positive effect over the system inertia is not only over the frequency amplitude but also over the RoCoF, where the peak absolute values are noticeably reduced (Fig. 7b).

6 Conclusions This paper presents a methodology for the assessment of virtual inertia control as an aid for the frequency regulation in a small and isolated power system. The simulation results show that adding a BESS leads to enhance the frequency response parameters. This analysis has been done in the time frame of primary frequency control. The proposed model has been designed with a modular structure that allows the easy incorporation of other generation/consumption agents and more detailed models; therefore, increasing the number and nature of simulated scenarios and obtains more general results in future works. Enabling the contribution of the BESS in the grid-frequency regulation through virtual inertia leads to important improvements in the system performance for facing disturbing events in terms of frequency and RoCoF. Acknowledgements. The authors Iván Pazmiño Ordóñez, Danny Ochoa Correa and Hugo Pico Mera thanks the Secretaría de Educación Superior, Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación (SENESCYT) of the Republic of Ecuador (Scholarship contracts Nº: CZ02–000683-2018, 2015AR6C5141, and CZ04–000673-2018, respectively). With the funding received by SENESCYT, the authors have been able to carry out their postgraduate studies and partially fund the research reported in this work.

Appendix Appendix A Technical data of the Diesel generator [9]: Power capacity = 813 kVA; frequency = 60 Hz; Motor-generator inertia constant = 0.4208 s. Appendix B DG prime-mover parameters [11]: xr0 = 1 pu, Tm0 = 0.5 pu, T1 = 0.024 s, T2 = 0.1 s, T3 = 0.01 s, KP = 2.294, KI = 1.458, Tmax = 1.1 p.u., Tmin = 0 p.u.

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Appendix C BESS and VI-controller scheme parameters [18]: P = 1 MW, K1 = 0.01, K2 = 0.04, R = 2%, TBESS = 0.1 s. Appendix D The complete time-series of the results plotted in Figs. 6 and 7 are available in the following GitHub link: https://github.com/ivanepn/Use-of-battery-energy-storagesystems-to-enhance-the-frequency-stability-of-an-islanded-microgrid-ba, as well as a short-duration video that shows implementation and simulation of the proposal in Matlab-Simulink.

References 1. Weedy, B.M., Cory, B.J., Jenkins, N., Ekanayake, J.B., Strbac, G.: Electric Power Systems, 5th Ed. (2015) 2. Fernández-Guillamón, A., Gómez-Lázaro, E., Muljadi, E., Molina-García, Á.: Power systems with high renewable energy sources: a review of inertia and frequency control strategies over time. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 115, 109369 (2019). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.rser.2019.109369 3. Tamrakar, U., Shrestha, D., Maharjan, M., Bhattarai, B., Hansen, T., Tonkoski, R.: Virtual inertia: current trends and future directions. Appl. Sci. 7, 654 (2017). https://doi.org/10.3390/ app7070654 4. Yap, K.Y., Sarimuthu, C.R., Lim, J.M.Y.: Virtual inertia-based inverters for mitigating frequency instability in grid-connected renewable energy system: a review. Appl. Sci. 9 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/app9245300 5. Hirsch, A., Parag, Y., Guerrero, J.: Microgrids: a review of technologies, key drivers, and outstanding issues. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 90, 402–411 (2018). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.rser.2018.03.040 6. Singh, R., Kirar, M.: Transient stability analysis and improvement in microgrid. In: International Conference on Electrical Power Energy System, ICEPES 2016, 239–245 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICEPES.2016.7915937 7. Pazmiño Ordóñez, I., Ponce Minaya, E., Pico Mera, H.: Study of transient angle stability in microgrids with synchronous generation through comparative analysis of operating scenarios. In: Botto Tobar, M., Cruz, H., Díaz Cadena, A. (eds.) CIT 2020. LNEE, vol. 762, pp. 106–122. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72208-1_9 8. Zhu, X., Wang, Y., Xu, L., Zhang, X., Li, H.: Virtual inertia control of DFIG- based wind turbines for dynamic grid frequency support. In: Conference on IET. Renewable Power Generation (2011) 9. Ochoa, D., Martinez, S.: Proposals for enhancing frequency control in weak and isolated power systems: application to the wind-diesel power system of San Cristobal IslandEcuador. Energies. 11 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3390/en11040910 10. Ochoa, D., Martinez, S.: Frequency control issues in power systems: the effect of high share of wind energy. IEEE Lat. Am. Trans. 16, 1934–1944 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1109/TLA. 2018.8447360 11. Willis, J.R.: Modeling of emergency diesel generators in an 800 megawatt nuclear power plant. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 8, 433–441 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1109/60.257056 12. Kasap, Safa, Capper, Peter (eds.): Springer Handbook of Electronic and Photonic Materials. SH, Springer, Cham (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-48933-9

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13. Chen, Z., Lasseter, R.H., Jahns, T.M.: Active power reserve control for grid-forming PV sources in microgrids using model-based maximum power point estimation. In: 2019 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), pp. 41–48 (2019). https://doi.org/10. 1109/ECCE.2019.8913174 14. Zaina, P.P., Mishra, S.: Cost benefit of using deloaded PV instead of battery. In: 2016 IEEE International Conference on Power Electronics, Drives and Energy Systems (PEDES), pp. 1–4 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1109/PEDES.2016.7914468 15. Bangash, K.N., Farrag, M.E.A., Osman, A.H.: investigation of energy storage batteries in stability enforcement of low inertia active distribution network. Technol. Econ. Smart Grids Sustain. Energy 4(1), 1–12 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40866-018-0059-4 16. Sun, Z.B.: Control of BESS using frequency-linked pricing with high wind penetration. Appl. Mech. Mater. 511–512, 1099–1102 (2014). https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific. net/AMM.511-512.1099 17. Pico, H., Pazmiño, I., Ponce, B.: Análisis de los factores que intervienen en el envejecimiento prematuro de las baterías de ion-litio mediante modelo teórico validado en laboratorio. Rev. Técnica “energía.” 17, 83–91 (2021). https://doi.org/10.37116/ revistaenergia.v17.n2.2021.432 18. Toma, L., et al.: On the virtual inertia provision by BESS in low inertia power systems. 2018 IEEE Int. Energy Confernce ENERGYCON 2018, pp. 1–6 (2018). https://doi.org/10. 1109/ENERGYCON.2018.8398755 19. Kundur, P., Balu, N., Lauby, M.: Power System Stability and Control. McGraw-Hill, New York (1994) 20. Pazmiño, I., Martinez, S., Ochoa, D.: Analysis of control strategies based on virtual inertia for the improvement of frequency stability in an islanded grid with wind generators and battery energy storage systems. Energies 14, 698 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/ en14030698

Guiding Principles of the Contemporary City Sonia Cueva Ortiz1,2(&) 1

and Amadeu Casals1,2

Facultad de Arquitectura, Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Quito, Ecuador {soniacueva,acasals}@uti.edu.ec 2 Centro de Estudios en Arquitectura Artes y Diseño CEAAD, Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Quito, Ecuador

Abstract. The rapid development of information and communication technologies (ICT), awareness of climate change, the widening of economic and socio-spatial gaps and globalization, have triggered the development of new theories and principles of the city. Thus appear the city of information, knowledge, the smart city, the sustainable city, and theories of the current city which is not framed of any of the above. These theories are cause and effect of cities that are built under these names, supported by global agreements and networks that follow their development. This study aims to identify the principles that from the various theories contribute to the construction of the contemporary city, the objective being to identify and define the principles that sustain the contemporary city, separating them from the actors and interests that could be taking over one or another concept and aligning itself with the valuation of the city as a product at the service of the Society as a whole. A review of the state of the art is made, with a bibliometric exploratory phase supported by the Vosviewer software and another qualitative phase reviewing (29) articles published in the journals with the greatest impact according to Scimago rank. The results show that many principles overlap, while some components less treated at a general level should be strengthened, revealing the possibility of channeling and joining forces. This work makes it possible to advance in the analysis of a city that responds to current challenges, and channels the advances developed from the various areas. Keywords: City definition
City components
Smart city
Sustainable city
Knowledge-based development

1 Introduction Accelerated technological development, with a vertiginous deployment of ICTs, has been impacting urban areas since approximately the 70s, years in which areas such as Silicon Valley, Cambridge UK emerged and continue to influence and sustain the theory of the city of knowledge (KC) [1] in cities like Barcelona in 2000, or the so called knowledge based urban development (KBUD) in Austrian, eastern and European cities [2] supported by a general conception of transformation explained as a knowledge society, to which countries from all continents seek to align themselves. Although the KC addresses ICTs, focusing on the content they provide and their transformation into knowledge, conceived as the value product of the new economy © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. I. A. Chauvin et al. (Eds.): CSECity 2021, LNNS 379, pp. 59–69, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94262-5_6

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[3], there is another way of approaching technological development, this is from the possibilities of applying said technology in the city. Thus, the concept of Smart city (SC) is raised, which originates close to the technological use and application of the internet of things (IoT) in the various areas of the city [4]. Parallel to the technological phenomenon, there is growing concern about the environmental impact of cities, seeking to raise awareness of climate change and the urgent need to change the culture of consumption, the unsustainable production of waste, and the efficient use of resources, guaranteeing sustainability over time [5] spatial segregation, socio-economic imbalance, service provision, which has led in recent decades to countries around the world to make targeted agreements to sustainability, under the 2030 Agenda and its derivative New Urban Agenda aimed at seeking social, economic and environmental sustainability, among other objectives, through the construction of sustainable cities (SoC). Many concepts of the city emerge, these being the ones that have achieved the most relevance in the international academic and political sphere. But beyond the denominations it has been found that these cities feed on notions developed outside of them such as: compactness, equity, right to the city, governance, etc. Likewise, these types of cities begin to feed on each other, thus the SC feeds on SoC, a relationship that also occurs in reverse. Likewise, the SC addresses the concepts of the KC, linking itself to the knowledge economy, or the KC welcomes sustainability as part of its principles [6]. As a complement to the theoretical development, it is found that in practice countless cities around the world aim at the same time to be sustainable, smart, of knowledge and more, being the principles of these notions of city, under which the contemporary city is built. There are various studies that develop each of these concepts, but studies are needed that within this infinity of city typologies, help to understand and synthesize the principles that govern the contemporary city. This being the objective of the present work: to contribute to the identification of the principles that govern the contemporary city, to identify them, value them and define them, taking into account their variants according to the type of city that contributes them. For this, it uses the review, comparison and evaluation of the urban principles that are developed in the notions SC, KC, SoC and of articles that refer to the current city (CC), without being framed in any of the previous concepts. A qualitative methodology is used, based on articles from the magazines with the greatest impact in the area, according to SCIMAGO. The results will serve both the scholars and the stakeholders of the city, so that, taking as a reference the principles that govern the contemporary city, they contribute to the construction, understanding and direction of each of them. The paper seeks to contribute to the guidelines of the city, considering the various sectors that encompasses, but focusing only on urban issues that lead to physical or materializable solutions.

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2 Methodology After an approach to the state of the art, which has been previously worked on by one of the authors, a first list of principles was proposed, which would later be corrected and/or completed, according to the review of articles. For the selection of articles, a qualitative methodology was used, with a review of secondary sources from the last 5 years. The Science Direct database was used on march 19th, defining as advanced search guidelines from 2017 to 2021; and topic, keywords or abstract, in which the topics: “knowledge city OR knowlege-based urban”, “sustainable city”, “smart city” and “contemporary urbanism” were introduced one by one. The 10 most cited urban science journals were located as additional filters in the three searches, according to Scimago rank. Furthermore, given the overwhelming number of articles in SC and that the vast majority of articles came from technological sciences, in this case only articles corresponding to social sciences and review articles were selected. A total of 122 articles were obtained. A first filter was passed, eliminating in each type of city, the articles that refer to another type of city that did not correspond to the search, that is, in the section of principles of the sustainable city, the articles that deal with smart sustainable city, or vice versa, those that according to the title focus on topics not relevant were also eliminated, leaving 49 articles. Likewise, during the reading, 20 more were eliminated, leaving as results: 8 articles from SC, 5 from KC, 6 from SoC and 10 from CC. From the review of a total of 29 articles, those that we call guiding principles in this work were extracted, preparing a matrix for each type of city and making a new review each time a principle is added. Of these, the principles that were becoming the common denominator of the four revised typologies were identified. When filling out the matrices, a weighting from 1 to 3 was used to differentiate between the principles that have less to greater relevance respectively. Once the results were obtained, a bibliometric analysis was made, using the software Vosviewer [7], graphing the content of the keywords of large numbers of articles. Thus, a search of articles of 10 years (2012 to 2021) was made on May 28th with the following search for the entry of “Title, abstract, keywords”, four in total: “smart city” AND (“principles” OR “components” OR “definition” OR “indicators”). “sustainable city” AND (“principles” OR “components” OR “definition” OR “indicators”). (“knowledge city” OR “knowledge-based city” OR “knowledge-based urban”) AND (“principles” OR “components” OR “definition” OR” indicators”). (“contemporary city” OR “current city”) AND (“principles” OR “components” OR “definition” OR “indicators”) NOT (“smart city” OR “knowledge-based city” OR “sustainable city”). Obtaining: 394, 178, 11 and 15 articles respectively, the same that were exported in RIS format were processed in Vosviewer. This gave us several bibliometric maps, such as the one attached (see Fig. 1), which served to make an explorative validation of the

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principles used by the different cities. These results correspond with the result of the matrix filled previously. The difference in the number of items was kept as such, since trying to match them would have given a false measure of the weight of the components. Thus, a graph will be constructed (see Fig. 2) that adds the evaluation obtained for each component according to the articles read. For its part, the graph in Fig. 3 shows us the differences in weighting of each principle in each type of city. In this case, the number of articles was omitted, matching them with the corresponding mathematical operation, in order to see how the various components reach a different level of importance, in each type of city.

Fig. 1. Map of smart city bibliographic from last ten years from Science direct database proceed by Vosviewer. It served to make an explorative validation of the principles used by smart cities.

3 Results According to the previously explained methodology, the components that are given the highest priority, in the sum of all the topics analyzed, are: quality of life (i), knowledge production (ii), use of ICTs (iii), governance (iv), ecology or sustainability (v), social network (vi) efficiency, efficient mobility (vii) and compactness and densification (viii) (see Fig. 2), all these principles are above average and as can be seen in Fig. 3 In this case, regardless of the number of articles produced, these principles are promoted

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respectively by: the knowledge and current city (i), knowledge city (ii), smart and knowledge city (iii), smart and current city (iv), sustainable city (v), knowledge city (vi), sustainable and smart city (vii), sustainable city (viii). These results obtained from the assessment of the two authors clearly correspond to the reading made of them, which shows that certain concepts such as social network are mainly influenced by the notion of the city of knowledge or efficiency as a sustainable city and smart city. As principles below although very close to the average are: public and green spaces (ix), social equity (x), regional development (xi), while the rest of the principles, although they could be valid for some of the cities, they have been dismissed when speaking of a contemporary city, since they are well below the average (see Fig. 2). These are the principles of: scalability and cost reduction, which were suggested by an article from SC, were finally eliminated because they did not obtain representation or the bibliometric review, nor in the reading of articles. Other components that are not represented either are: physical interconnectivity and economic development, the first one is only representative within the concept of the city of knowledge. The component of economic development was replaced by knowledge production, supported by most of results. After these general results, the definition of each principle is presented, according to the bibliography with the greatest impact. 3.1

Living Quality

Nop links this principle with that of governance, “the importance of community participation (CP) in building urban sustainability and resilience is now well recognized” [8, p. 1], although in its study focused on a community in Camboja recognizes that people end up being more concerned about basic supplies than about citizen participation. Quality of life is between the KC and CC principles and is valued as a means of attracting and retaining the creative class [3, 9]. Musterd & Gritsai [10]defined three dimensions of this component: (i) personal networks such as personal ties, professional and social relationships (ii) ‘soft’ conditions such as climate, availability of housing, safety for children, cultural diversity, openness, comforts and tolerance and (iii) ‘hard’ factors such as job availability, good transport connections, presence of good universities and others. Other authors focus on defining the quality of life in the city from an analysis of sustainable city indicators [11]. 3.2

Knowledge Society and Economy

The companies and cities that have achieved the most economic and political growth are aimed at creating knowledge, innovating products and services, discovering new ways of operating, within which ICTs have much to contribute [2, 3]. This production of knowledge is associated with the knowledge society, which refers to the transformation that ICTs have brought to all areas of action in society and how society makes the most of the technology provided. Some authors also develop the concept of the knowledge economy. These conceptions are also addressed by smart cities [12].

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CO

M PA CT

NE PU SS A BL ND IC M OR I GR XT IC EC ITY EE OL EF OG FIC N S IC IEN PA AL C ES T LY OR MO BI SU LI TY ST AI RE GI GO NA B ON LE VE AL RN DE AN VE PH C E LO YS SO PM IC CI AL AL EN IN NE T TE TW RC ON O NE RK CT IV IT EF FIC Y SO IEN CI CY AL KN EQ OW QU UI A L L T I EC E DG TY O Y ON E FL OM PRO IFE DU IC C DE VE TI ON LO SC PM AL EN AB T ILI CO TY AN ST R IT Cs ED D TR UC AN TIO SF N ER AB ILI TY

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SUSTAINABLE CITY

SMART CITY

CURRENT CITY

KNOWLEDGE CITY

Fig. 2. Summary of urban principles. Twelve are validated because they are around the media. Efficiency and efficient mobility are united as one. From this figure the principles: physical interconnectivity, economic development, cost reduction and scalability and transferability were eliminated because there are well below average. COMPACTNESS AND MIXTICITY 30 REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT

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EFFICIENT MOBILITY

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GOVERNANCE

SOCIAL EQUITY

SOCIAL NETWORK EFFICIENCY

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Fig. 3. Validated principles of the contemporary city. Difference in the valuation of principles, according to the type of city. This figure shows how much apport each type of city contributes regardless of the number of articles produced.

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Use of ICT

Various SC studies seek to apply ICT to the needs of the city [13], but at the same time there are countless applications that are obsolete or utopian [14]. Certainly, ICT can be a great ally, but for a third world city to embrace and invest in them, not only must these technologies exceed their cost/benefit, but they must first and significantly contribute to their needs. This study reveals that the four types of city assign it a significant value, placing it, in short, as the second, most highly valued principle (see Fig. 2). Yanliu Lin [15] explains how online commerce TaoBao.com has greatly energized small populations, transforming the urban form, land use and socio-spatial reorganization. ICTs have changed the use that citizens make of the city. 3.4

Governance

Ashtari [16] proposes that we improve the knowledge and participation that citizens have in the development of the city through a game, basing the information on games such as the Redesir game that has already been successfully experienced in the Netherlands. This allows citizens to gain knowledge about the complex functioning of cities and motivate themselves for their direct participation in real life. Gomez, et al. [17] added to top-down and bottom-up governance approaches, the “middle ground” approach. Governance in SC, SoC, KC is also discussed [18, 19]. 3.5

Ecologically or Environmentally Sustainable

Parris speaks of the need to carry out interdisciplinary planning that considers at all times the reinforcement of the biodiversity of cities, value not only the human, but the whole, and offers some practical tools for good planning summarized in their study. Parris proposes practical actions, as well as the regulation of interventions [20]. This topic is significantly expanded in the SoC, referring to environmental, social and economic sustainability [6], plus the rest of the notions refer above all to environmental sustainability, or to issues related to ecology or urban metabolism. 3.6

Social Network

This issue is addressed by the different types of city analyzed. The concept described is closer to CC studies, while the KC has found the key to innovation in social interaction [10, 21]. The KC highlights that the formation of trust relationships, face-to-face interactions [22] facilitate the exchange of knowledge and innovation. The interaction between people who come from different areas and from different levels of the production chain is valued, relationships that include personal, professional and social ties that also improve the quality of life [10, 22]. 3.7

Efficiency. Efficient Mobility

Efficiency is important especially in SoC and SC. Mobility is currently closely linked to the conception of a compact city with multiple centralities [22, 23]. From all

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conceptions, the aim is to promote pedestrian mobility with comfortable, safe and universally accessible spaces. The use of bicycles and public transport have become the common denominator, and it is also experimented with alternative mobility and with the of means and modes of transport efficiency. In this area there is a great contribution from ICTs, as well as from new transport technologies. The city of knowledge highlights the high level of mobility required by the creative class and the need to attract this group to cities [9]. Efficient mobility favors the use of public transport over private and promotes pedestrian and alternative mobility. 3.8

Compactness and Densification

The compactness and density can favor the good use of the land within the city if it is known to diversify and mix housing and work in the same area and the uses are not zoned exclusively [24]. “Density must be accompanied by diversity” [24, p. 1]. Transport congestion begins in the areas of 220/250 inhab./ha., unified to a single land use and especially affects the lower-income population that spends a large amount of time a day traveling. 3.9

Public and Green Spaces

The need to create public spaces and green spaces as a principle, appears below average, however other principles such as mobility, quality of life, social interaction, equity feed on this. The need for accessible spaces for all, for cultural and intergenerational integration, active spaces supported by multiple land uses, which generate activity on the ground floors, are among its main demands. Including nature in these spaces contributes to their comfort improves the microclimate, attracts biodiversity and increases the aesthetic and calm sensation, so necessary in the built environment [9]. 3.10

Social Equity

It is not strange that the studies of the current city lead in their assessment of equity. It is precisely the awareness of seeing so many social problems in the socio-economic gaps, which forms their apathy to invest in something that is not intended to reduce these gaps [13]. Another issue which is also important to see is that, although the 2030 agenda and the new urban agenda insist on the search for equity and reduction of these gaps, the results of this study show limited interest in the sustainable city in the subject. The vast majority of Latin American cities suffer from a marked socio-spatial segregation; neighborhoods devoid of the most basic services such as water, city centers ceded to the highest bidder, where free access to the poorest population is denied. 3.11

Regional Development

An interesting study in this regard is the one offered by Song et al. on the growth analysis in the 2006–16 decade of 331 cities in China as a whole, where it is found that “the urban population which pays close attention to the living-environment function will migrate to those cities adopting the diversified urban-function model” [25, p. 3].

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Many studies refer to the importance of the regional scale in which cities are inserted. Thus, the regional context is defined as the key to understanding the prospects for economic development [10], as well as regional service networks [25] or regional clustering of firms are formed [1].

4 Conclusions There are several principles that share the four notions of city, but there are strong imbalances in the valuation given to each component, so while for SoC the most important thing is sustainability, for SC it is efficiency through the use of ICT and for KC the production of knowledge and quality of life. This hierarchical disparity, but at the same time superposition of principles, demonstrates the need to continue working on studies aimed at understanding the direction of the contemporary city, integrated by the benefits that each notion offers, but focused on the needs and potentialities of each region. Some principles almost exclusive to some city typologies appear, for example the SoC handles principles such as energy efficiency, water security, sustainable buildings or circular economy, they are almost overlooked in most notions. Similarly, issues such as social equity focused on reducing socio-economic gaps and spatial segregation, urgent in less developed cities, is overlooked in most definitions. Hence the need to continue studying and evaluating the principles of the city, from a broad and neutral vision of the urban side, seeking to separate the interests or partial specializations of each notion, but at the same time taking advantage of the development potential of each one. The assessment of the principles obtained by this work is based on secondary information, which in many cases refers to the assessment that they have obtained within the case studies analyzed. This work allows us to see the urban principles which lead to contemporary city based on a literature review of the scientific journals with the highest impact according to the Scimago ranking. It would be convenient to make a regional review.

References 1. Stephens, B., Butler, J.S., Garg, R., Gibson, D.V.: Austin, Boston, Silicon Valley, and New York: case studies in the location choices of entrepreneurs in maintaining the Technopolis. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change 146(March 2018), 267–280 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.techfore.2019.05.030 2. Yigitcanlar, T., Velibeyoglu, K.: Knowledge-based Urban development: the local economic development path of Brisbane, Australia. Local Econ. (2008). https://doi.org/10.1080/ 02690940802197358 3. Cueva-Ortiz, S., Cruz-Cárdenas, J.: Knowledge cities: ICT and urban components. In: Markopoulos, E., Goonetilleke, R.S., Ho, A.G., Luximon, Y. (eds.) AHFE 2021. LNNS, vol. 276, pp. 181–188. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80094-9_22 4. Camero, A., Alba, E.: Smart city and information technology: a review. Cities 93(March), 84–94 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2019.04.014

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5. Fu, Y., Zhang, X.: Trajectory of urban sustainability concepts: a 35-year bibliometric analysis. Cities 60, 113–123 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2016.08.003 6. Navarro, J., Ruiz, V., Peña, D.: The effect of ICT use and capability on knowledge-based cities. Cities 60, 272–280 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2016.09.010 7. Jan van Eck, N., Waltman, L.: Software survey : VOSviewer , a computer program for bibliometric mapping. Scientometrics 84, 523–538 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192009-0146-3 8. Nop, S., Thornton, A.: Community participation in contemporary urban planning in Cambodia: the examples of Khmuonh and Kouk Roka neighbourhoods in Phnom Penh. Cities 103, 102770 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2020.102770 9. You, H., Bie, C.: Creative class agglomeration across time and space in knowledge city: determinants and their relative importance. Habitat Int. 60, 91–100 (2017). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/J.HABITATINT.2016.12.010 10. Musterd, S., Gritsai, O.: The creative knowledge city in Europe: structural conditions and urban policy strategies for competitive cities. Eur. Urban Reg. Stud. 20(3), 343–359 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1177/0969776412439199 11. Kaklauskas, A., et al.: Quality of city life multiple criteria analysis. Cities 72, 82–93 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2017.08.002 12. Csukás, Máté. S., Szabó, R.: The many faces of the smart city: differing value propositions in the activity portfolios of nine cities. Cities 112, 103116 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. cities.2021.103116 13. Kummitha, R.K.R., Crutzen, N.: How do we understand smart cities? an evolutionary perspective. Cities 67(May), 43–52 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2017.04.010 14. Anthopoulos, L.: Smart utopia VS smart reality: learning by experience from 10 smart city cases. Cities 63, 128–148 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2016.10.005 15. von Schönfeld, K.C., Bertolini, L.: Urban streets: epitomes of planning challenges and opportunities at the interface of public space and mobility. Cities 68, 48–55 (2017). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2017.04.012 16. Ashtari, D., de Lange, M.: Playful civic skills: a transdisciplinary approach to analyse participatory civic games. Cities 89, 70–79 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2019.01. 022 17. Gómez, S., Carreño, A., Lloret, J.: Cultural heritage and environmental ethical values in governance models: conflicts between recreational fisheries and other maritime activities in Mediterranean marine protected areas. Mar. Policy 129, 104529 (2021). https://doi.org/10. 1016/J.MARPOL.2021.104529 18. Abdel-Razek, S.A.: Governance and SDGs in smart cities context. In: Smart Cities un SDGs, pp. 61–70 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85151-0.00005-1 19. Laurini, R., Las Casas, G., Murgante, B.: Smart city as the city of knowledge. In: Smart Cities un SDGs, pp. 211–232 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85151-0.00014-2 20. Parris, K.M., et al.: The seven lamps of planning for biodiversity in the city. Cities 83, 44–53 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2018.06.007 21. Cueva-Ortiz, S., Guevara, C.: People interaction as the driving force of the knowledge city. Manuscript submitted for publication (2021) 22. Esmaeilpoorarabi, N., Tan Yigitcanlar, M., Kamruzzaman, M.: How can an enhanced community engagement with innovation districts be established? evidence from Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane. Cities 96, 102430 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2019. 102430 23. Futcher, J., Mills, G., Emmanuel, R., Korolija, I.: Creating sustainable cities one building at a time: towards an integrated urban design framework. Cities 66, 63–71 (2017). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.cities.2017.03.009

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Understanding the Relation with Nature in the City: Biodiversity Knowledge and Environmental Awareness in a Periurban Area of Quito, Ecuador Belén Morales-Espín1 , Flor Ortiz1 , Enmily Sánchez-Lara1 , Mónica Páez-Vacas1 , Kevin Muñoz-Lara1 , Erick Bravo-Vera1 , Daniela Franco-Mena1,2 , Natasha Baer1 , Nora H. Oleas1 , and Ibon Tobes1(&) 1

Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Facultad de Ciencias de Medio Ambiente, Ingeniería en Biodiversidad y Recursos Genéticos, and Centro de Investigación de la Biodiversidad y Cambio Climático (BioCamb), Quito 170301, Ecuador [email protected] 2 Laboratorio de Biología Evolutiva, Instituto Biósfera, Colegio de Ciencias Biológicas y Ambientales, Universidad San Francisco de Quito USFQ, Quito, Ecuador

Abstract. The development of ecological sustainability within cities requires raising awareness among citizens of the importance of biodiversity for their daily lives. We evaluated the biodiversity awareness of high school students and their families, working with two schools in Guayllabamba, part of the Metropolitan District of Quito, Ecuador. A total of 405 people answered a survey to evaluate their knowledge about basic biological concepts, urban biodiversity and environmental awareness. People in Guayllabamba have some biodiversity knowledge, mainly for domestic or human-related species, with emphasis on those with direct human uses (food and medicine). The surveyed citizens showed a positive environmental awareness attitude, they consider biodiversity important and use it in their lives. However, we identified gaps in which environmental education should focus for clarifying concepts like “endemic”, “native” or “wild”. Ecosystem contribution of biodiversity is neither well understood. Our results point out AN utilitarian knowledge of nature that can be related to a periurban area where agriculture and farmland still have important presence, and where the daily contact with biodiversity remains. The reinforcement of biological awareness driven by environmental education may be a key component to promote environmentally friendly urban development in the area. Keywords: Urban biodiversity
Guayllabamba
Citizen science
Traditional ecological knowledge
Tropical Andes

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. I. A. Chauvin et al. (Eds.): CSECity 2021, LNNS 379, pp. 70–80, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94262-5_7

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1 Introduction Despite the growing evidence that green spaces are essential for urban biodiversity, the relationship between nature, health and ecosystem services has not received the necessary attention [1, 2]. The rural and semi-rural areas of a region host a good part of the representative biodiversity, and they are important spaces for the activation of economic sectors, mainly in the food industry [3]. However, human migration from rural to urban areas has caused rapid population growth and accelerated urban expansion [4, 5]. This increase in the urban population demands a greater territorial extension, construction of buildings and greater exploitation of natural resources [6]. As the urban area pushes its limits further, the population is experiencing a progressive extinction of the experience with nature and this aggravates the alienation from it. Those urban citizens that lose connection with their natural environment are no longer aware of their ecodependence and, therefore, they lack interest in taking care of nature [7]. When people do not know the species they live with, when biodiversity remains overlooked, little value is placed on its existence and nature conservation won’t be considered as something important to promote or to get engaged with [8, 9]. Furthermore, the development of ecological sustainability within cities also requires raising awareness among citizens of the importance of biodiversity for their daily lives. For the development of a sustainable city, conservation-oriented planning, innovative management and promotion of urban green spaces are urgent, focusing the efforts on periurban areas, remaining patches of native vegetation, urban vacant spaces, parks, gardens, courtyards and green infrastructure [10]. Today, parks, botanical gardens, rural areas, trails or roads that connect different towns, represent important factors to promote education, environmental awareness and recreation in urban areas [3]. Thus, we can define environmental awareness as the set of pro-environmental factors, beliefs, values, knowledge, attitudes and behaviors of individuals in favor of the environment [11]. Studies show that environmental awareness, environmental knowledge and social conduct of people, are important factors that generate a positive impact on the environmental attitude of the society and to endorse sustainable habits [12, 13]. Environmental education is considered a synergistic conservation strategy between scientists, decision makers, members of the public and other parties, as it serves as a space to promote the common good [14]. It represents an opportunity for the active participation of diverse groups to engage in research, emphasizing knowledge, local practices, experience and values [15]. Conferences, seminars and dynamic activities that arouse interest and environmental awareness have shown to influence the approaches that society has with nature [16]. Nature-based environmental education combines the transmission of environmental knowledge and the promotion of connection with nature, fostering the responsible ecological behavior of society [13, 17]. Therefore, it is necessary to develop an environmental education model that combines knowledge with a motivational component, which in this case is the connectedness to nature [18, 19]. Urban biodiversity encompasses the set of species, genes, habitats and ecosystems of an urban area, in relation with the social, ethical and socioeconomic components of the city [20]. With the accelerated process of urbanization and population increase urban biodiversity retreats, and the bond between humans and nature fades out, even in

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cities where some native biodiversity resists [21]. Nowadays, there are many successful initiatives that engage people in studying and getting to know the biodiversity around them. One example is the identification of urban biodiversity thanks to tools like iNaturalist which facilitates the development of citizen science [6, 22]. This kind of projects foster the gathering and sharing of local biodiversity knowledge and create the context for connecting with nature. They can have a key role increasing environmental awareness and involving society in sustainable development [23]. In the light of the described context, we designed this research to study the biodiversity knowledge and the connection with nature among high school students, their families and acquaintances in Guayllabamba, in the Metropolitan District of Quito, Ecuador, to raise awareness of local fauna and flora and encourage its care.

2 Materials and Methods 2.1

Study Area

The project was carried out at Unidad Educativa San Francisco de Quito and Colegio Nacional Guayllabamba, the two main schools in Guayllabamba, about 20 km from Quito city center (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Location map of the study area in Guayllabamba

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Guayllabamba is a rural-periurban parish located in the north-east of the Metropolitan District of Quito (DMQ) (−0º3’S, 78º19’W), with an altitude ranging from 1620 to 2171 masl and a surface area of 53.58 km2. Temperatures range between 3–22 °C [24]. According to the last census of 2010, the parish has approximately 16,213 inhabitants, with an expected annual increase of 10% [25]. The predominant type of vegetation is a semi-deciduous forest and shrubland of the northern valleys (48.01%) [26], followed by 23.62% of orchards (lemon, mandarin, lime, cherimoya and avocado). The main economic activities within the parish are agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishing [24]. It is common among the inhabitants of Guayllabamba to raise domestic animals, generally for household consumption, and to sell them informally to traditional food restaurants or street food stalls. There is also an increasing demand of land for floriculture (roses and summer flowers for export) [25]. 2.2

Participants

This research is a result of a project conducted by undergraduate students and professors of the Ingeniería en Biodiversidad y Recursos Genéticos of Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica. It was carried out between April and August 2019, with the participation of students between 13 to 14 years old from the Unidad Educativa San Francisco de Quito (128 students) and Colegio Nacional Guayllabamba (69 students). All participants gave their consent to collaborate in the study. 2.3

Survey and Data Coding

During a workshop at both schools, the authors explained the objectives of the research to the students. Afterwards, the students answered the survey and then they were trained to become surveyors. Two surveys were given to each student to be filled out by their family members or friends. The survey form included a general introduction presenting the project and the objectives, without giving specific or detailed information so that the answers would not be biased. The survey was structured with open-ended and closed-ended questions about local biodiversity (flora and fauna), productive activities in the area, uses of plants and animals, environmental awareness, among others. Coding of responses are shown in Table 1. To measure environmental awareness, we used six questions in a Likert scale of 1 to 5 adapted from [27]. The responses were added and transformed to up to a maximum number of 5. We calculated Cronbach's alpha to validate the robustness of the Likert scale [28]. Answers of the two schools were pooled to facilitate the analysis. Empty answers were eliminated.

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Table 1. Questions used in the survey to evaluate biodiversity and environmental awareness in Guayllabamba. Demographic data: Age, Gender, Occupation, Locality, Education level, School Environmental Education 1. What do you understand by “biodiversity”? Coding: Knowledge of the concept: good, approximate, no knowledge 2. What do you understand by "endemic"? Coding: Knowledge of the concept: good, approximate, no knowledge 3. Do you think it is important that schools teach people about biodiversity? Coding: ¨Yes, to learn and have a better understanding¨; ¨Yes, to raise awareness and conserve¨; ¨Yes, to communicate¨; ¨No, it is not important to teach about biodiversity¨ Urban Biodiversity Knowledge 4. Which wild animals have you seen in your parish? Coding: wild, domestic, zoo 5. Which is the most abundant wild animal in your parish? Coding: wild, domestic, zoo 6. Which is the most abundant wild plant in your parish? Coding: wild, domestic, zoo 7. Identify two plants and two animals that you consider to be most useful in your sector Categories: food, medicinal, other human benefits, ecosystem, and unspecified use 8. In your opinion, which are the most important productive activities in your parish? Environmental awareness 9. How important is it for you to conserve nature? 10. How important is it for you to use daily life products (food, cleaning, clothing) that do not harm the environment? 11. How much do you consider the potential environmental impact of your actions? 12. How much does your concern for the environment influence your consumer choices? 13. How concerned are you about the waste that society and individuals make of the planet's resources? 14. If you were to describe yourself in terms of how environmentally responsible you are, what would your answer be? Coding for environmental awareness questions: 1) Not at all important; 2) Slightly important; 3) Moderately important; 4) Very important; 5) Extremely important

3 Results We had a total of 405 respondents, 280 from Unidad Educativa San Francisco de Quito and 125 from Colegio Nacional Guayllabamba (Table 2).

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Table 2. General demographic information of the respondents.

Variable

%

Gender

Variable

%

%

Occupation

%

Male

46.63%

Student

Female

53.37%

Housewife

7.00%

Driver

2.00%

Laborer

2.00%

Age

%

66.00%

11 - 17

55.72%

18 - 25

9.70%

26 - 35

11.19%

Guayllabamba

36 - 50 51 - up

20.15% 3.23%

Ascazubi Quito

2.62% 2,62%

Cusubamba

2,09%

El Quinche

2,09%

Education level Elementary school

% 8.24%

Middle school

42.86%

High school

41.48%

University

Locality

% 78.80%

7.42%

A total of 72.84% of the respondents have a good knowledge of the concept of biodiversity. Regarding endemism, 49% have a good knowledge of the concept, while 51% do not know the concept well. When asked about the importance of teaching biodiversity in schools, half of the respondents (51.67%) agreed that it was important to have more knowledge, 37.28% to raise awareness and conserve, 12% to teach others, and only 0.77% said that it is not important without explaining why. Environmental awareness was 3.6 out at scale of 5 (SD = 0.7), which means there is a positive attitude towards environmental awareness. Cronbach’s alpha of 0.72 indicates that the internal consistency of the questionnaire is acceptable.

Table 3. Most mentioned organisms when people were asked to list the most abundant wild plant and animal in their locality. Class Aves Mammals Aves Reptiles Aves Mammals

Animal Pigeons1 Rats Birds Lizards Hummingbirds Foxes 2

Count 71 58 39 36 32 26

% 15.20% 12.42% 8.35% 7.71% 6.85% 5.57%

Category Domestic Domestic Wild Wild Wild Wild

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B. Morales-Espín et al. Type Plant Count % Category 12.28% Wild Tree Carob tree3 55 Herbaceous Nettle4 49 10.94% Wild Shrub Prickly pear5 44 9.82% Wild Tree Avocado6 37 8.26% Cultivated Herbaceous Chamomile 37 8.26% Cultivated Shrub Aloe 30 6.70% Wild 1 Zenaida auriculata or Columba livia, 2Andean fox (Lycalopex culpaeus), 3Vachellia macracantha, 4Urtica dioica, 5Opuntia soederostromiana, 6Persea americana

When people were asked to enumerate all the wild animals they have seen in the area they live, snakes were the most mentioned ones representing 7.70% (85 of 1104) of the answers. The second and third most mentioned animals were rats (7.43%) and pigeons (6.97%). In general, of the named animals 78.13% were wild, 12.50% were domestic and 9.38% were zoo animals. In the question where respondents were asked to write the most abundant wild animal in their parish, the 66.67% of the animals mentioned were wild, but also domestic (22.22%) and zoo animals (11.11%) were listed. On the other hand, when asked about wild plants, respondents listed more cultivated plants (59.32%) than wild ones. Most mentioned plants and animals can be seen in Table 3. Regarding the uses, we collected a total of 798 answers naming plants, where respondents indicated that they use them mainly for medicinal purposes (41.48%), and for food (24.19%; Fig. 2). In contrast, there were 635 animal-related answers and respondents indicated that animals are used for food by 53.23%, followed by the human benefit category (e.g., housekeeping, to plow the land, wool) with 19.84% (Fig. 2). Finally, the most important productive activities listed were: agriculture (18.27%), avocado and custard apple orchards (12.46%), cattle raising (11.09%), cookie factory (8.24%), flower industry (6.55%) and tourism (4.65%).

Fig. 2. Categories of use for plants and animals listed by percentage of responses. Most mentioned organisms in each category are specified on the right.

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4 Discussion People in Guayllabamba know their local biodiversity and have a positive environmental awareness. Biodiversity is important for them; it is present and used in their daily lives (Fig. 2) and they are still conscious of their ecodependence [9]. These kind of relation with nature is probably related to the periurban character of the area, where rural and urban realities melt, influenced by the presence of farmlands [29]. However, the Likert value was equivalent to the results reported for garden owners in Quito [30]. This indicates the potential of green areas, even small house gardens, to keep people connected to nature even inside the city [3]. However, we identified that basic biological concepts like “wild” are not well understood. The confusion with this term seems to lie in the strong presence of agricultural and animal husbandry activities in the parish. Also, respondents mentioned six animals (lion, crocodile, spectacled bear, tiger, squirrel and boa) found in the Quito Zoo, located in Guayllabamba, which indicates the influence of the establishment. Even though snakes are the most frequently mentioned observed animals in the area, they are barely named among the most abundant. This seems to indicate that respondents recognize that snakes are not numerous vertebrates in an ecosystem, but due to the risk and fear associated to them, they are the first animals to come to mind. This is a common attitude towards potentially harmful wildlife like snakes, reported by other authors [31]. Regarding biodiversity uses, our results point out AN utilitarian knowledge of nature that can be related to a periurban area where agriculture still is an important activity. Nevertheless, respondents mentioned more plants with medicinal uses than species used for food. This is an unanticipated result considering the strong agriculture activity on the parish and highlights the importance of plant-based health remedies. Some of the featured medicinal uses for rue herb (Ruta graveolens) are for menstrual cramps, linden for cough, and oregano and lemon verbena for stomachache. On the other hand, the ecosystem use category had the lowest recognition and only had two plants with uses specified: eucalyptus for afforestation and trees to purify the air. Instead, the human benefit category gives some insight into the strong influence of traditional local cultures. For instance, nettle (Urtica dioica) is used to encourage “good behavior in children” [32]. Regarding the human benefit category in animals, it was mostly related to pets such as dogs and cats. Dogs were identified as housekeepers because they help to protect from potential thieves, and cats are useful as mouse catchers. However, the third most mentioned animals in this category were spiders and their uses were “to clean the house” and “to eat insects”. Even though more than a half (53.23%) of the animals listed are used for food, the small percent of them that had medicinal uses represent some interesting information: blood of squab pigeons as a cure for respiratory diseases such as pneumonia; possums to heal anemia and lung problems; guinea pigs to treat “mal aire” (a health condition caused by bad spirits that can affect any body part). This medicinal knowledge may be related to indigenous ancestral medicine and demonstrates a deep ecodependence that has remained through generations [32].

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Our results point out that, although Guayllabamba is part of the Metropolitan District of Quito, the capital city of Ecuador, people in Guayllabamba are not yet alienated from nature, they still have bonds and care for the environment [7]. They have the knowledge and are in contact with nature [18], nevertheless the transmission of this knowledge should be fostered creating the adequate contexts like nature-based environmental education programs [14] or promoting citizen science activities [24]. We also identified specific areas where environmental education should focus to clarify concepts like “endemic”, “native” or “wild”. These misunderstandings may be related to a gradual detachment from wildlife and increasing familiarity with tamed nature [8] and represent an issue that environmental education should address to promote effective conservation strategies [6]. Ecosystem contribution of biodiversity is neither well understood. This knowledge gap regarding ecosystem services may be a key turning point towards a more integral ecological awareness for a sustainable development of the city [1, 2]. Finally, considering that urban expansion models anticipate the growth of the city of Quito towards Guayllabamba [31], the reinforcement of biological awareness driven by environmental education may be a key component to promote an environmentally friendly urban development in the area. Acknowledgments. To the students, their family and friends, and teachers at Unidad Educativa San Francisco de Quito and Colegio Nacional Guayllabamba. To Universidad Tecnológica Indomérica for funding. To Juan Guzmán for his help with paperwork. Special thanks to Andres Izurieta for his help with the bureaucracy at both schools, and to Yolanda Martínez for her invaluable support all along the project in Guayllabamba.

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Portable Electromagnetic Energy Harvesting System Julio Cuji

, Luis Mendoza, Geovanni Brito and Carlos Gordón(&)

,

GITED Research Group, Facultad de Ingeniería en Sistemas, Electrónica e Industrial, Universidad Técnica de Ambato, UTA, 180150 Ambato, Ecuador {Julioecuji,jmendoza7018,geovannidbrito, cd.gordon}@uta.edu.ec

Abstract. The present article exposes the results of the implementation of a portable electronic system for the electrical recharge of mobile devices, by capturing the Electromagnetic Energy available in the environment. The system consists of an array of flat antennas, which capture the electromagnetic waves of Wi-Fi, Mobile Telephony, and International Mobile Communications, transforming them to high frequency electric power, and then using a Villard voltage multiplier, the voltage is amplified and rectified, to be stored in rechargeable batteries and finally its application in the electric recharge of mobile devices. It was performed tests in different environments: park, urban street, shopping center, rural area and inside the home, without the use of a storage component. It had as results output voltage values ranging from 4.2 mV to 177.6 mV. In addition, the system had tests with two different storages: the first, was a capacitor, and the second, was two rechargeable batteries, during 30 and 60 min of charging time, respectively. The results showed that the capacitor stored energy properly at all cases, while the batteries presented load drawbacks in environments where the concentration of Electromagnetic Energy is low. Finally, the system continuously supplied electrical power to a mobile phone for a maximum of 1 h and 24 min time. So, the present work is a promise approach to provide Clean Energy with the intention of offering support in the Smart Cities construction. Keywords: Energy harvesting
Electromagnetic fields
Flat antennas
Villard multipliers
Schottky diode
Mobile devices

1 Introduction Mobile devices, as well as any other device that can be considered autonomous, have limitations in their continuous operation due to the short duration of charging their batteries [1]. In smartphones, the battery can last up to 48 h with a charge when the device is inactive, but in use of multiple applications this time is reduced to approximately four hours or less. Thus, the user tends to recharge the device more frequently and this translates into an energy expense and at the same time economical requirement [2]. However, if a device is used in areas where the possibilities of recharging are limited like © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. I. A. Chauvin et al. (Eds.): CSECity 2021, LNNS 379, pp. 81–91, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94262-5_8

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rural regions, parks, streets, transport, and so on. It is a great problem in case of emergencies in which the equipment is required to be in available at any time [3]. Currently, the energy propagated in the form of radio frequency waves is emitted by billions of radio transmitters around the world, including mobile phones, television stations, portable radios, and so on. The idea of capturing the energy emitted in the form of Radio Frequency (RF) is to be able to take full advantage of it to wirelessly charge low-power devices, therefore these would be free of connectors, cables, and batteries, thus allowing them mobility during charging and operation [4]. A wide range of reports have been presented for Energy Harvesting purposes. Among them, we can mention the following. The scientific article titled: Radio Frequency Energy Capture Laboratory Practice of L. Boquete, R. Barea, J. Rodríguez, J. Cantos, and J. Miguel, published in 2012 and executed in the University of Alcala in Spain. In this article, the construction of a basic patch antenna is carried out by using Sonnet Lite antenna simulator, which is tuned to different RF signals and thanks to a receiver, the electrical energy is obtained at its output. The system was tested at different distances from an RF signal source at 2 m, 1.5 m, 50 cm, and 20 cm having at its output power values between −6 dBm and −30 dBm [5]. Then, in the project titled: Power harvesting systems for autonomous electronic systems of M. Casanova, made at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Spain during 2013, through an analysis of the Energy harvesting system, a prototype is designed and built taking advantage of the movement of vibratory waves, using a coil and a magnet to capture the energy with a field programmable gate array board as a complementary circuit, and a small RF wave capping system. Then, the vibratory wave harvesting system after several tests obtained a power of 832 lW at its output, while the RF wave pickup obtained 2.32 V near an RF wave source [6]. Next, the article of the Antenna design for energy harvesting applications in the Ultra High Frequency (UHF) band made by Alonso Martinez Castillo, carried out in 2014 at the Polytechnic University of Valencia in Spain, allowed the report of the design of patch-type antennas. In this work, the antenna physical characteristics are modified until obtaining the most effective result, and using a voltage multiplier with signal rectifier, allowed the improvement of the energy obtained. It used FEKO software for the design and simulation of the different antennas. As demonstrated in the work, this form of energy supply for devices is not very efficient, due to the electronic components that are not suitable for this type of application [7]. Also, the article titled: Radio Frequency Energy Harvesting System published by R. Torrealba, V. Crispín, R. Ambrosio, L. Gómez y E. Tamariz, made during 2015 in the Autonomous University of Puebla in Mexico, it contemplates the design and characterization of an RF energy harvesting circuit using a Villard-type voltage multiplier and being coupled to the antenna by means of an impedance coupler. They carried out a study of the power obtained at the end of the multiplier with different resistances to find the load resistance that provides the maximum power [8]. At last, C. Jinez developed the work titled: Electronic system for electric recharging of smart cell phones in closed spaces using wireless technology, made in 2016 at the Technical University of Ambato in Ecuador. In that work, a fast-charging system with its own electromagnetic wave generator and receiver components was presented. This work applies the principle of magnetic induction or near field induction and using a program made in Android Studio, the system can display the battery power level. The efficiency achieved by the

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prototype is around 70%, with an air separation distance of 5 cm between the transmitter and the reception of the source and load resonators [9]. The aim of the present work is to present the results of the implementation of a portable electronic system for the electrical recharge of mobile devices, by capturing the Electromagnetic Energy available in the environment. It was performed tests in different environments: park, urban street, shopping center, rural area and inside the home, without use of a storage component, it had as results output voltage values ranging from 4.2 mV to 177.6 mV. Then, the system continuously supplied electrical power to a mobile phone for a maximum of 1 h and 24 min time. So, the present work is a promise approach to provide Clean Energy with the intention of providing support in the Smart Cities construction. In this section, we have described the context of the research and the current knowledge on the paper topic. Also, we have introduced the purpose and the contribution of the paper. In Sect. 2, we present the materials and methods applied in the development of the present work. In Sect. 3, the experimental results and the analysis is stated and in Sect. 4, the main conclusions of the development of Portable Electromagnetic Energy Harvesting System are presented.

2 Materials and Methods 2.1

Fundamental Definitions

Energy Harvesting. It can be defined as the process through which the energy produced by external sources like solar, thermal, wind energy, etc. is captured and used to power small devices and thus have a certain autonomy [10, 11]. Energy Harvesting based in Radio Frequency. Radio frequency wave emissions are very abundant throughout the entire radio spectrum [12]. It is a type of energy emitted in all directions in the form of waves, this energy that can be used or stored. Due to this, it is a type of energy with high availability and cheap cost [13]. But, it is somewhat more complex when it comes to capturing this type of energy and being able to use it [14]. Architecture of an Energy Harvesting System. Energy Harvesting technology is based above all on the utility for autonomous devices. Considering that, in these devices, the power will provide the limiting factor, the combination of energy absorption methods, together with an intelligent management of the networks, would expand the market for these applications [15]. The Energy Harvesting Systems have four fundamental stages which are shown in Fig. 1 [16].

Fig. 1. Energy harvesting architecture

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System Requirements

The electronic system contemplated for this project consists mainly of 4 stages: Electromagnetic energy capture, amplification and rectification, output control and storage. Figure 2 depicts a general block diagram of the stages that make up the system.

Fig. 2. General block diagram of the system

The system uses patch antennas to capture electromagnetic waves that travel at high frequencies and transform them into electrical energy. This energy is amplified and rectified using a Villard voltage multiplier, this to have a continuous voltage at the output and to be stored in the rechargeable batteries. To reduce the gradual wear generated in the storage, a control that depends on the voltage level is carried out, through an arrangement of diodes, so that the energy is stored or using for fed any device. 2.3

Electromagnetic Energy Density Analysis

For the development of the project, a preliminary analysis of electromagnetic energy was carried out at different cases by using a Gm3120 electromagnetic radiation meter/detector. The environments selected for the measurements are a park, an urban street, a shopping center, a rural area, and the interior of the home. The averaged results of the measurements carried out for one month are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Results of electromagnetic field measurements Ambient Park Urban street C. Commercial Rural Zone Residence

Electric field (V/m) 1 1 1 1 1

Magnetic field (A/m) 0,231735085 1,732456437 0,757906815 0,181381754 0,380462636

Electromagnetic power density (W/m2) 0,115867543 0,866228218 0,378953408 0,090690877 0,190231318

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Flat Antennas for Capturing Electromagnetic Energy

These antennas have a desired characteristic impedance but have low efficiency in terms of bandwidth and coupling, since they become resonant only for their design frequency, rejecting power in the adjacent bands. Therefore, it is decided to design antennas for 3 different frequency channels which are shown in Table 2 [7]. Table 2. Frequency channels for antenna design Channels Wi-Fi Mobile telephony International Mobile Telecommunications (IMT)

Frequency (MHZ) 2400–2483 1710–1990 1427–1518

Central frequency (MHZ) 2442 1850 1472.5

The power line for each antenna was determined using the TX LINE software and the gain with the FEKO software version 5.5. Figure 3 depicts the design of antenna for WIFI. Next, Fig. 4 shows the design of antenna for Mobile Telephony and Fig. 5 sketches the design of antenna for International Mobile Communications (IMT). All dimensions are in millimeters.

Fig. 3. Patch antenna for energy capture in Wi-Fi

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Fig. 4. Patch antenna for energy capture in Mobile Telephony

Fig. 5. Patch antenna for energy capture in IMT

Next, Fig. 6 depicts the three antennas made of copper plates separated by a fiberglass dielectric and located in the same design order.

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Fig. 6. Patch antennas for Wi-Fi, Mobile Telephony and IMT, respectively

2.5

Energy Storage System

Currently, rechargeable batteries are the most widely used systems for direct current energy storage, as they have excellent energy release and acceptable storage capacity. Within the rechargeable batteries there were different options that were analyzed to determine the best method to store the energy obtained from the system. Table 3, sketches the analysis carried out on three options available in the country, which are: conventional 9 V batteries, rechargeable 12 V lithium batteries and 1.2 V rechargeable batteries.

Table 3. Comparison of rechargeable batteries Characteristics Current Dimensions Charge cycles

Conventional 9 V batteries 170 mAh 60  70  75 mm 1000

Useful life Cost

6 years $4.00

12 V lithium batteries 4800 mAh 33  85  25 mm between 300 and 1000 3 years $12.00

1.2 V rechargeable batteries 650 mAh 10  44, 5 mm About 300 6 years $2.45

Since the average energy to power a mobile device is around 500 mA and 3.7 V, rechargeable batteries were selected as the best option to store the collected energy provided that two or more batteries are used to reach the necessary voltage of feeding.

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Assembly of All Elements

The complete system includes: the antenna array, the implemented circuit, the rechargeable batteries, and any other accessories that must be added. Therefore, the case has dimensions of 17.2  15  3 cm, due to the position and size of all the elements. The manufacturing material is 3 mm thick acrylic, this due to its resistance, transparency and especially because it does not affect the reception of electromagnetic waves. In addition to the circuit, we must install rechargeable batteries and a type A female Universal Serial Bus (USB) connector for the output. Figure 7 shows the complete system implemented.

Fig. 7. Complete energy harvesting system

3 Results In the development of the portable electronic system for the electrical recharging of mobile devices by capturing electromagnetic energy, functional tests were necessary to perform, to verify if there is any type of breakdown or problem. In addition, the reliability of the device can be determined.

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System Testing with a Capacitor as Storage

The device was functionally tested with a test storage, this being a 100 µF electrolytic capacitor. In each test, a charging time of 30 min was used, obtaining different amounts of stored energy for each environment, as shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Prototype results in different environments with a capacitor Ambient Park Urban street Mall Rural zone Home

3.2

Charging time Stored voltage (mv) 30 min 44 30 min 1040 30 min 1226 30 min 32 30 min 1286

System Tests with Rechargeable Batteries as Storage

For each test, the voltage of the batteries of 1.2 V rechargeable was determined before and after the recharging process. The experiments in each environment were carried out, then the following results were obtained and summarized in Table 5. Table 5. Prototype results in different environments with rechargeable batteries Ambient Park Urban street Mall Rural zone Home

Charging time Initial voltage (mv) Final voltage (mv) 60 min 1521 1518 60 min 1515 1588 60 min 1586 1602 60 min 1600 1596 60 min 1593 1608

As can be seen in Table 5, there are two environments where it was not possible to recharge the batteries (The Park and the Rural zone) this is because in these places there is not a large amount of electromagnetic energy, therefore the system will consume the energy available in storage and therefore reducing the voltage of the batteries. 3.3

System Testing Powering a Mobile Device

An important aspect that was considered in the research project is the continuous period of electrical recharge provided by the system to the mobile device. In the functional tests of the complete system, including the batteries at their maximum capacity (2.55 V and 650 mA), a NOKIA brand mobile phone model C2-01 was used to recharge. As a result, the mobile device was recharged for 1 h and 24 min continuously, before reaching the minimum voltage necessary to power it.

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This cell phone model must be powered with an average power of 3.7 V and a current of 700 mA, lower values compared to last generation smartphones that can require up to 5 V and 2000 mA, so the recharge time varies depending on the use of Mobile Device.

4 Conclusions The electric field measured in the five different test environments is around 1 V/m, while the magnetic field varies between 0.231 and 1.732 A/m depending on the point at which the measurements were made, these values show that there is enough energy electromagnetic that can be used and stored by the system for its future application. The electromagnetic energy harvesting system used an arrangement of three Microstrip antennas designed to capture waves from Wi-Fi, Mobile Telephony and IMT, which connected in series as an independent source that adds its voltage to the battery. The energy captured by the antennas is usually very small, that is why it must be amplified by a two-stage Villard voltage multiplier, which also rectifies and filters the output signal, for its application and/or storage. There are areas with low electromagnetic energy density where the battery charge was not as desired, but this is irrelevant compared to the environments where excellent results were obtained. Finally, the system charged a mobile phone for a maximum of 1 h and 24 min when the storage is at its maximum capacity. Charge time varies depending on factors such as: the storage capacity, the mobility of the user with the system and other limitations that may exist. The work proposes a solution to the high energy consumption produced by the excessive use of traditional chargers for mobile devices, making use of a portable recharging system that takes advantage of the electromagnetic waves that are dispersed in the air, and contributing greatly to the development of Energy Harvesting Technology and the Clean Energy generation with the intention of offering support in the Smart Cities construction. Finally, for future research, there is the possibility of designing antennas that adapt to bands used only for the emission of energy, with the intention of providing remote wireless recharging. Acknowledgements. The authors thank the Technical University of Ambato and the “Dirección de Investigación y Desarrollo” (DIDE) for their support in carrying out this research, in the execution of the project “Sistema de Captación de Energía Electromagnética para Abastecimiento de Energía en Terminales de Internet de las Cosas (IoT) en entornos de Quinta Generación (5G).”, project code: SFFISEI 04.

References 1. Cañas, R.: Transferencia inalámbrica de energía, España. Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid (2015) 2. Olivares, J., Gonzales, J.: Ahorro de energía visualizando páginas Web en dispositivos móviles heterogéneos. In: Conference 2006, ROC&C – CP-65, México, Acapulco (2006) 3. Rocabado, S., Díaz, J., Cadena, C.: Uso de dispositivos móviles en zonas rurales aisladas abastecidas con energía solar fotovoltaica. CACIC, pp. 1–10, Sedici (2015)

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4. Moreno, C., Ortiz, E., Rojas, R., López, J., Gomez, E., Magaña, P.: Cosecha de energía por medio de señales de radiofrecuencia. Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México, Ciudad de México (2016) 5. Boquete, L., Barea, R., Rodríguez-Ascariz, J., Cantos, J., Miguel, J.: Práctica de Laboratorio de Captura de Energía de Radiofrecuencia. TAEE 1, 319–324 (2012) 6. Casanova, M.: Sistemas de cosecha de energía para sistemas electrónicos autónomos, España, Madrid: Universidad Rey Juan Carlos (2013) 7. Martínez, A.: Antenas para aplicaciones de captación de energía en la banda UHF, España, Valencia: Universidad Politécnica de Valencia (2014) 8. Torrealba, R., Crispín, V., Ambrosio, R., Gómez, L., Tamariz, E.: Sistema de Cosechamiento de Energía con Radio Frecuencia. SOMI XXXI Congreso de Instrumentación, pp. 1–6 (2015) 9. Jinez, C.: Sistema electrónico para recarga eléctrica en teléfonos celulares inteligentes en espacios cerrados, con tecnología inalámbrica. Universidad Técnica de Ambato, Ecuador, Ambato (2016) 10. Maxim Integrated, Energy Harvesting Systems Power the Powerless. Estados Unidos (2012). https://www.maximintegrated.com/en/app-notes/index.mvp/id/5259. Accessed 09 May 2021 11. ARCOTEL, Agencia de Regulación y Control de las Telecomunicaciones: Plan Nacional de Frecuencias. http://www.arcotel.gob.ec/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/ANEXO-1_ DOCUMENTO-PNF.pdf. Accessed 20 Jan 2021 12. Palomino, K.: Prototipo generador de energía eléctrica por el uso de una bicicleta elíptica para la iluminación de un ambiente de deporte. Universidad Tecnológica del Perú, Perú, Lima (2016) 13. GP Batteries, Baterías Recargables. https://www.gpbatteries.com/int_en/. Accessed 20 Jan 2021 14. Secura me, Baterias de Li-Ion: Ventajas, desventajas, y mantenimiento. https://www. securamente.com/baterias-de-li-ion-ventajas-desventajas-y-mantenimiento/. Accessed 20 Jan 2021 15. Tomasi, W.: Sistemas de Comunicaciones Electrónicas, 4th edn. Pearson Educación, México, Juárez (2003) 16. Orbaiceta, A., Iriarte, J.: Diseño y caracterización de un array de antenas en tecnología plana en la banda de 8 GHz con polarización circular. Universidad Pública de Navarra, España, Pamplona (2017)

Design of an Equipment for the Treatment of Domestic Greywater Pablo Ron-Valenzuela1(&) and Esteban Mauricio Fuentes Pérez1,2 1

SISAu Research Group, Facultad de Ingeniería y Tecnologías de la Información y Comunicación, Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Quito, Ecuador [email protected] 2 Facultad de Ciencia e Ingeniería en Alimentos y Biotecnología, Universidad Técnica de Ambato, Ambato, Ecuador [email protected]

Abstract. Water is an indispensable resource for human life, its availability is decreasing every time due to pollution, excessive consumption and deforestation, so it must be cared, by saving it and reusing it when possible. The objective of this research is to design an equipment for biological filtration based in the use of sand, which reduces the levels of contamination and allows the reuse of gray water produced in homes; such as: showers, bathrooms, sinks, utensil sinks, among others. Method: For the design of the equipment, it was considered as a specification to comply with the permissible limits for water, permissible parameters of water quality, conceptual design, detail design, materialization design. Results: As a result, the gray water treatment equipment allowed the reduction of contamination, maintaining values below what is requested by the water quality parameters, being able to be reused in toilets and home gardens irrigation. The equipment developed allowed saving of 30 to 40% of the water used inside the house and made possible to reuse between 60 to 70% of the treated gray water. Keywords: Gray waters treatment device


Reutilization of water
Water treatment
Water

1 Introduction 1.1

Contextualization

Since the beginning of humanity, water has been the most important and essential natural resource in the survival of everything alive around the earth; for many decades the wastewater produced in homes has been discharged into the effluents without prior treatment and even worse still has been reused in processes where purification is not required [1]. The management of water is increasingly taking a preponderant role in many countries and its reuse in agricultural and industrial activities. Currently the world population experiences a shortage of water, this is evidenced in the report on human development in 2006 where it was estimated that for the year 2025 more than 3 © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. I. A. Chauvin et al. (Eds.): CSECity 2021, LNNS 379, pp. 92–100, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94262-5_9

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billion people would not have enough of this daily natural resource, and the most alarming thing is that this figure would increase to more than 5 billion in 2050 [2]. In this sense, the concern about the efficient use of water in homes is increasing throughout the world, which is why policies of change and demand management are being promoted, however, water consumption is conditioned by the lifestyle of the users, by the state of the network and the points of consumption [3]. According to the WHO, gray water has the ideal characteristics for recycling, since it is: still water, it constitutes the majority of the volume of the domestic waste stream, it has a nutrient content that, although it is low, can be used beneficially for irrigation of crops. Furthermore, it has a low content of pathogens and can be used to reduce the demand for primary water use [4]. The World Health Organization, WHO, indicates that 100 L of water are enough to satisfy the basic daily needs of a person, however, in Quito, a city with 2.7 million inhabitants, the consumption of water per inhabitant day it is located at 200 L, that is, 100 more liters than that recommended by the WHO [5]. According to data from the Public Metropolitan Water and Sanitation Company (EPMAPS of Quito), currently 98.58% of the city's inhabitants have access to drinking water, with a certified quality of 99.98%. The gray water (GW) from the sink, shower and bidet has been reused for flushing toilets, garden irrigation [6, 7] home cleaning, laundry and vehicle washing [8, 9]. However, in these studies the preference of users for the sanitary devices involved in the system has not been consulted. The consumption of each sanitary appliance involved in the reuse options was calculated from bibliographic references, the following percentages of the total consumption were obtained: 1) shower/bathtub: 33%, 2) sink: 9%, 3) toilet: 31%. Likewise, the following provisions were taken into account: 1) bidet: 2.5 L/(inhabitant  day), 2) irrigation: 0.2 m3/(m2  month) in the 5 months with the lowest rainfall (May to September) [8]. 1.2

Related Works to the Topic of Study

The objective of this research is to design a gray water treatment equipment for homes in the city of Quito; This equipment consists of decontaminating gray water from personal hygiene such as showers, tubs and sinks to reuse them in toilets, irrigation of home gardens, among others. Household laundry wastewater was treated using a mixed cellulose ester (MCE) micro filtration membrane with a pore size of 0.22 µm. The highest removal efficiency of BOD, COD, TSS and turbidity was obtained as 93.9; 90.8 and 98.7 percent, respectively, which was obtained at a TMP of 1 bar and a feed flow of 44 L/h. Furthermore, the results of this study showed that micro filtration is a reliable and simple operation for recycling and reusing household laundry wastewater mixed with fresh water for use in washing machines, bathrooms and irrigation [10–12]. In the research on the topic Removal of synthetic dyes from multicomponent industrial wastewaters by this article, he delves into gray areas of adsorption of an inadequately researched mixture of dyes that require the development of modified adsorption methods that serve to intensify the process for a degradation/complete mineralization [13].

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The reuse of gray water (AG) contributes to the preservation of water and to reduce the demand for drinking water. In order to promote this alternative in Portugal, a hydrosanitary system with AG reuse was designed and financially evaluated, in a multifamily building, considering the acceptance of users and the AG treatment systems to meet the quality standards for reuse. Potential users accepted the reuse of AG from the shower, sink and bidet, in flushing toilets and watering gardens. The proposed system includes the treatment of GA with membrane biological reactors (MBR) [8].

2 Methods 2.1

Analysis

This research was carried out in the city of Quito, the capital of Ecuador in South America, a sample of 220 L of gray water were taken in several homes, as a result of the use of this resource on domestic activities, and looking to provide a proper graywater treatment which later provides water capable to be reused, under allowable parameters which must be me measured such as: chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), hydrogen potential (pH), turbidity and total suspended solids [14]. For the design of the equipment for treatment of domestic graywater and its later reuse mainly in toilets and irrigation of home gardens, a conceptual design was considered, based on the use of biological filters with sands of different granulometry to separate unwanted pollutants specially of bigger sizes, leaving the water with acceptable physicochemical characteristics; that is to say, below the permissible limits contemplated in the regulations of the Ministry of Environment and Water use [15], also a detailed design with the determination of the treatment capacity of the equipment, flow, losses in pipes and accessories, the design of the structure and a design of the materialization of the equipment was conceived. The tests of the samples of raw water and treated water were carried out in a certified laboratory that meets the requirements to determine the values and concentrations of the parameters determined in the Official Ecuadorian Standard, for which the methods established in the manual “Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste-water” were applied. 2.2

Design of the Equipment for the Treatment of Domestic Greywater and Its Reuse in Toilets and Irrigation of Home Gardens and Grows

Determination of Design Parameters. For the design of the equipment, the initial parameters were taken as the average daily water consumption of a home made up of 4 people, the water discharged from the use of showers, the amount of water for the use of sinks and the water for consumption for washing clothes; It was decided to exclude the water from washing kitchen utensils in order to avoid solid waste and grease so this would not affect the deterioration of the equipment and the pipes for recirculating the treated water. Values per person are shown in Table 1.

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Table 1. Design parameters Consumption Item Shower water Sink water Washing clothes water Total

Measurement units Value per person Total value Liters/habitant per day 120 480 Liters/habitant per day 5 20 Liters/habitant per day 55 220 Liters/habitant per day 180 720

For the design of the containers, a rectangular weir with two lateral contractions is considered; therefore, applying the Francis Eq. (1) the following results are obtained.
 nH 3 Q ¼ 1; 84 L  H2 10 Q = water flow

ð1Þ

 3 m s

L = weir length n = contractions number (0, 1, 2) H = Water load (m).

APLYING FRANCIS EQUATION 0.09

0.08

WATER LOAD H (M)

0.08

0.071 0.064

0.07

0.056

0.06

0.049

0.05

0.042 0.035

0.04

0.028

0.03

0.021 0.013

0.02 0.01 0 0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

WATER FLOW Q (L/S)

Fig. 1. Francis equation application

Depending on the calculation, selected materials and the dimensions of the different elements that make up the water treatment equipment, the results of the hydraulic calculations are presented in the following table (Table 2).

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2 120,0000 Pipeline diameter ½ Tube length 2000 Water temperature water 15 Material PVC Absolute roughness 0,0015 Internal diameter 15,8 Area 1,96 Volume 3921,35 Speed 17,00 Gravity 9,81 Specific weight 9,798 Density 9,99E+002 Absolut viscosity 1,1390E–003 Kinetic viscosity 1,7100E–006 Dynamic viscosity 1,1390E-003 Dynamic Relative roughness (E) 9,4937E–005 Specific viscosity 1,1400E-006 Reynolds (Re) 2356,22 Colebrook coefficient −9,0915E–005 Coefficient of friction (f) 0,046923

Units l/min l/h in mm °C mm mm cm2 cm3 cm/s m/s2 KN/m3 kg/m3 N.s/m2 m2/s m2/s mm m2/s Flow with uncertainty

Calculation of Primary and Secondary Losses in the Treatment Equipment. Within the path of the water through the treatment equipment, it is very necessary to take into account the energy losses due to the friction that occurs between the walls of the pipes and the different accessories, since this translates into additional costs. Applying the Darcy-Weisback Eq. (2) to determine the primary losses, we obtain (Table 3):

2  L v H rp ¼ k D 2g H rp = Primary load loss k = Primary load loss coefficient L = pipe length D = Pipe diameter v = Average fluid speed.

ð2Þ

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Table 3. Result of total loss in pipes and accessories

Biologic sand filters (3 weir 29 x 29 cm)

Time (s)

Water flow (l/min)

68 24 41 27

7,42 10,3 6,03 9,16

Loss in pipes and accessories (m) 0,027

Selection of Sand Granulometry for Biological Filters. The flow generated in each sector varies depending on the filtering material contained in each of the containers, therefore, depending on the geometries and dimensions of the containers, it is determined that the average flow rate of the equipment is 9.16l/min. In the gray water treatment process, sand with different granulometry was used in each of the containers in order to gradually separate suspended solids and improve the initial conditions of the gray water; so they would act as biological filters (Fig. 2). FINE SAND A1

FINE SAND A2

GROSS SAND A3

GROSS SAND A4

Fig. 2. Sand granulometry samples

3 Results and Discussion 3.1

Results of Treated Water, Raw Water and Comparison with the Permissible Limits for Reuse

Once the equipment for domestic gray water treatment had been designed and built, laboratory tests were carried out in order to evaluate the physical-chemical parameters considered and guarantee the optimal operation of the proposed design.

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Table 4. Results of water tests performed in a certified laboratory and the comparison with the permissible limits by TULSMA Ecuador. Analyzed parameters Hydrogen potential (U pH) Turbidity (NTU) Total suspended solids (mg/l) Biological oxygen demand (mg/l) Chemical oxygen demand (mg/l)

Permissible limits Raw water 5–9 7 0–50 79,5 100 168 100 190,89 250 496,4

Treated water 6,54 6,7 9 12,66 36,8

Table 4 show that the domestic greywater treatment equipment allows the pH values to be reduced until 6.54, being in the medium compared to the permissible values showed between 5 and 9 according to TULSMA, the turbidity shows an improvement of 91.57% compared from the original 79.5 shower at the raw water and compared to the by 6.57% showed at the end of the treatment, total suspended solids decreased 94.64% going from 169 to 9; the biochemical oxygen demand is reduced by 93.36% and the chemical oxygen demand was decreased by 92.59%, which allows to guarantee the operation of the equipment obtained in the improvement of the water in the proposed. An outline of the proposed design is showed next (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Proposed design scheme: A) side view; B) upper view

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The domestic gray water treatment equipment proposed will be externally connected to the residence through gate valves and pipes that lead the fluid to the treatment equipment that consists of a raw water storage tank and an electro submersible pump is located inside, same pump which sends the water flow to a first container in which a grease trap is installed; then by gravity the fluid is directed to other rectangular thinwalled weirs that are biologically filtered by sands of different granulometry (Fig. 1) and whose mission is to separate suspended solids; then it goes to another container that has finer sands and finally a landfill containing activated carbon is placed to improve the physical-chemical characteristics of the water and decontaminate it until it is below the permissible levels, to finally be stored again in another tank to later be managed by pumps, pipes and hydraulic accessories to an individual supply for toilets in the residence and watering of gardens or family gardens as show the next figure (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Proposed design scheme: A) side view; B) upper view

4 Conclusions The equipment can be built and replicated in the context of Ecuador at the residential level, because the results corresponding to the values of pH, turbidity, total suspended solids, chemical oxygen demand and biochemical oxygen demand are found even below the permissible limits given by the TULSMA of the Ministry of the Environment of Ecuador; evidencing that the gray water treatment equipment works adequately allowing the reuse of these waters in toilets and in the irrigation of home gardens mainly.

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The main gray water reuses considered in the different studies referred to agree that 30 to 40% of the water used inside the house could be reused and contribute to the reduction of this natural resource; In addition, treated water can be used in orchards or residential irrigation even in a percentage between 60 to 70% of the wastewater generated, these sort of proposals should be taken in count as a possible solution to mitigate the use of water and to take advantage of this resource as much as possible solution to mitigate the use of water and to take advantage of this resource, as much as possible through this way of reutilization.

References 1. Cantillo, S.P., Corpus, W.: Diseño e implementación de un filtro para tratamiento de aguas grises en la aplicación de un sistema de riego para una huerta casera en San Andrés Islas, Colombia. LOGINN Investigación Científica y Tecnológica 2(1), 15–24 (2018). https://doi. org/10.23850/25907441.1662 2. Sun, J., Hu, S., Sharma, K.R., et al.: Impact of reduced water consumption on sulfide and methane production in rising main sewers. J. Environ. Manage. 154, 307–315 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.02.041 3. Vieira, P., Jorge, C., Covas, D.: Novel performance assessment indices for domestic water use. Procedia Eng. 119, 813–819 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2015.08.943 4. Santasmasas, C., Rovira, M., Clarens, F., Valderrama, C.: Grey water reclamation by decentralized MBR prototype. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 72, 102–107 (2013). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.01.004 5. de Quito, M.: Agua de Quito le pide tener un consumo responsable del agua (2019) 6. Friedler, E., Hadari, M.: Economic feasibility of on-site greywater reuse in multi-storey buildings. Desalination 190, 221–234 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2005.10.007 7. Atanasova, N., Dalmau, M., Comas, J., et al.: Optimized MBR for greywater reuse systems in hotel facilities. J. Environ. Manage. 193, 503–511 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jenvman.2017.02.041 8. Meléndez-Pérez, J.A., María, M.C., Lemos-Lima, I.D., Oviedo-Ocaña, E.R.: Reutilización de aguas grises domésticas para el uso eficiente del recurso hídrico: aceptación social y análisis financiero. Un caso en Portugal. Revista UIS Ingenierías 18(1), 223–236 (2019). https://doi.org/10.18273/revuin.v18n1-2019020 9. Ardila, M.: Viabilidad técnica y económica del aprovechamiento de aguas grises domésticas, pp. 1–119 (2013) 10. Vel, A.: Evaluacion De La Factibilidad Tecnica , Ambiental Y Economica Del Reuso De Agua En El Proceso (2012) 11. Espinoza, M.: Caracterización de aguas residuales de lavandería y de la Planta de Poscosecha de Zamorano para el riego de áreas verdes (2016) 12. Rodríguez, E., Martínez, N.: Estudio de las aguas grises domésticas en tres niveles socioeconómicos de la ciudad de Bogotá, p. 177 (2013) 13. Sistema Integrado de Legislación Ecuatoriana: Ley De Prevención Y Control De La Contaminación. Regist. Supl. 418, 10–13 (2004) 14. Tulsma: Libro VI - Anexo 1. Tulsma, pp. 8–9 (2011) 15. Singh, K., Arora, S.: Removal of synthetic textile dyes from wastewaters: a critical review on present treatment technologies. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41, 807–878 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1080/10643380903218376

Study of the Influence of Anthropogenic Sources on the Water Quality of the Ambato River, Tungurahua - Ecuador. A Growing Environmental Problem Lander Vinicio Pérez Aldas1,2(&) , Scarlet Nathaly Guachamin Zambrano2 , Liliana Patricia Acurio Arcos1,2 , Dolores Robalino Martínez1,2 and Esteban M. Fuentes2,3

,

1

2

G+ BioFood & Engineering Group, Department of Food Science and Engineering, Technical University of Ambato, Av. Los Chasquis & Río Payamino, Z.C., 180150 Ambato, Ecuador {lv.perez,lp.acurio}@uta.edu.ec Facultad de Ciencia e Ingeniería en Alimentos y Biotecnología (FCIAB), Universidad Técnica de Ambato (UTA), Ambato, Ecuador [email protected] 3 SISAu Research Group, Facultad de Ingeniería y Tecnologías de la Información y la Comunicación, Universidad Indoamérica, 180103 Ambato, Ecuador

Abstract. The objective of this research was to establish the effect of anthropogenic sources on the degree of contamination in five points of the middle and lower basin of the Ambato River, in the province of Tungurahua (Ecuador), by determining ten physicochemical parameters following the Manual of Standard Methods for Water and Wastewater Analysis and Determination of Water Quality Index (WQI) from the National Sanitation Foundation NSF. The tests were structured in a replicated double division design, taking a sample for each sampling point, dividing them into two subsamples, which later are going to be four times replicated, 20 water samples were collected along the middle and lower basin of the river in two sampling campaigns. Of all the parameters tested, at least four parameters are within the permissible limit, temperature, turbidity, biological oxygen demand, and dissolved solids; while dissolved oxygen, suspended and total solids, hydrogen potential, chemical oxygen demand, and surfactants surpassed the permissible limits under the Ecuadorian law present at the “Environmental Quality and Water Resource Discharge Standard Book VI Annex 1” (TULSMA), according to the WQI, it was fair and foul along the river regarding the water quality. The results showed that untreated industrial wastewater and domestic waste discharged into the river are the main causes of environmental risk. Also, they affect the populations near the river since they use this water as a source for irrigation of their crops, becoming a health risk for consumers of the grown products irrigated with this water along the riverside. Keywords: Environmental risk limit
Wastewater


Sampling
Rivers
Pollution
Permissible

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. I. A. Chauvin et al. (Eds.): CSECity 2021, LNNS 379, pp. 101–110, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94262-5_10

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1 Introduction Determining environmental quality parameters allows an estimation of water sources’ degree of contamination; these are a vital and irreplaceable resource which makes possible and promotes life on earth [1]. For this reason, the constant and growing pollution has become a serious problem that reduces and makes the supply of drinking water more expensive for the population. Some activities have become threats throughout the Andean and Amazon region, such as contamination from various sources, mainly mining, road construction, agriculture and deforestation [2]. In the Tungurahua province, a growing problem is related to the contamination of water sources due to the lack of purification systems and its extensive use, also, a large quantity of chemical substances from industrial effluents is discharged directly into receiving bodies (rivers and streams) and into the sanitary sewers. Being a very remarkable topic of study in the last years according to the huge relationship with the production of fruits and vegetables throughout the province [3]. With an approximate extension of 59.8 km, the Ambato River originates in the Western Mountain range of the union of the Colorado and Blanco rivers. Its micro-basin closes near Ambato city. It joins with the Cutuchi river, of Cotopaxi, to form the Patate river and receives discharges on its way from the industrial and domestic sectors [4]. Concerning the data and characteristics of the Secretariat of Water, in 2015, the sampling points of the middle and lower basin considered for the analysis are those located from the area of the Aguaján-Pasa sector, followed by El Sueño park, the Socavón complex, Paso Lateral, and the Viñas sector [5]. The carried out strategy was a double division replicated design; according to Gron (2007) [6], it has the principle of applying the same sampling procedure two or more times to the objective to estimate the random measurement error. However, replication can be carried out at a different step from sampling, as are other critical steps where information on uncertainty, such as analysis or sample preparation. The main objective of this study was to establish the influence of anthropogenic activities on the environmental quality of the water in five points of the middle and lower basin of the Ambato River based on their physicochemical characteristics. First of all, the prospecting of the specific monitoring points on the area of influence was proposed, followed by characterizing the water quality of the middle and lower basin of the Ambato River, from ten physicochemical parameters selected based on the National Environmental Regulations. Finally, the degree of the environmental impact was determined, of the middle and lower basin of the Ambato River, using quality indices for two marked times of the year.

2 Methodology 2.1

Sample Origin

Analysis samples were taken in two stages, between the end of 2019 and mid-2020, focusing on five specific points of the middle and lower basin of the Ambato River, indicated from Aguaján - Pasa to the lower area of the Viñas sector. For each point, five

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representative samples were taken that were used for the measurements of physicochemical parameters. 2.2

Experimental Design and Sampling

The experimental design carried out was nested, known as a double division replicated design. This alternative allowed the project to anticipate and reduce errors in the stages of either sampling or previous treatments. It consisted of taking a sample according to the protocol exposed by the National Technical Standard [7] for each sampling point (five samples). Each sample was homogenized separately and divided into two subsamples (ten samples), which received a prior conditioning treatment. Finally, these subsamples were carried out by duplicate to determine the ten physicochemical parameters, obtaining four replicates for each analysis parameter and each sampling point. 2.3

Determination of Physicochemical Parameters

Ten physicochemical parameters were performed for each sampling point, which is the following: hydrogen potential (pH), temperature, turbidity, dissolved oxygen (DO), Chemical Oxygen Demand, Biological Oxygen Demand, total solids (suspended solids and dissolved solids), and surfactants [7–11]. The methods established in the manual “Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater” and the Ecuadorian Institute of Standardization (INEN) [8, 11, 12] standards were applied to carry out these physicochemical parameters. All the procedures are standard, in addition, for the analysis of results, the Environmental Quality and Water Resource Discharge Standard and the VI Annex 1 of the Sole Text of Secondary Environmental Legislation (TULSMA) were used, applied to admissible Quality Criteria for the preservation of flora and fauna in fresh cold water. 2.4

Determination of Active Substances to Methylene Blue

The determination was made through the MBAS method (Methylene Blue Active Substances), which is based on using the methylene blue indicator (cationic dye) to show the depletion of available oxygen. It comprises three successive extractions in a separation funnel. An aqueous medium (river sample, aliquot of 100 mL) is placed with 25 mL methylene blue an excess and 10 mL organic chloroform, and the mix is stirred for 30 s. The chloroform phase is collected in a beaker, followed by reading the blue color of said organic phase by spectrophotometry at 652 nm. Finally, these readings are entered into the detergent standard curve that must be performed previously. The process occurs when methylene blue is transferred from an aqueous solution to an immiscible liquid in equilibrium; that is, during forming an ionic pair between the anion (MBAS) and the methylene blue cation. The resulting color intensity is a measure of the methylene blue active substances. Anionic surfactants are among many of the natural and synthetic substances active in methylene blue [13].

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Determination of the NSF General Water Quality Index

The technique used was the Water Quality Index (WQI) developed by the United States National Sanitation Foundation, which considers around nine water characterization parameters, the parameters to be used are selected, the subscript value of each parameter is applied depending on the NSF quality function curve and the weighting factor [14]. 2.6

Statistical Analysis

The research data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation, with analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA with the F statistic), analysis of variance by ranges (Kruskal Wallis H test with the Chi-square statistic), and analysis of rank-sum (Mann Whitney test with U statistic) at a significance level of a = 0.05. The IBM SPSS Statistics 21 statistical software was used, the expanded uncertainty (U) was estimated from the analysis of the sampling of a matrix, considering the use of these samples as representative of the total sampled mass (standard deviation of the measurement) and the analysis of the analytical processes (standard deviation of the analysis) [6]. For this calculation, it was necessary to use a replicated design of double sample division, making duplicates in the sampling process or in critical steps where information on uncertainty is required, for example, in the analyzes.

3 Results 3.1

Temperature, pH, and Turbidity Values of the Samples from the Ambato River

The temperature parameter of the water samples from both phases is within the maximum permissible limit of the Environmental Quality Standard (TULSMA) applied to admissible Quality Criteria for the preservation of flora and fauna in fresh cold waters, being below from 20 °C, as seen in Table 1 and Table 2, some of the variations are attributed to the influence of environmental conditions [2]. pH values as seen in Table 1, in phase 1, only point 1 Aguaján is within the permissible pH limit of 6.5 to 9 while the others are below the limit. In phase 2 (Table 2), all the points are within the allowable limit of pH (6.5 to 9), according to the presence of synthetic waste [15]. Comparing the pH results, in the five sampling points in campaign 1 were obtained throughout all the points, with lower values in points 3 Socavón sector and point 4 Paso Lateral. While in sampling campaign 2, the pH values oscillate between neutral and basic values, with point 5 the Viñas being the most unbiased and from point 1 Aguajan Pasa and the other points with basic values. Regarding the turbidity values of the samples of phase 1 and phase 2, all the values are kept within the maximum allowable limit of 100 NTU, being acceptable even then these may be affected by erosion, seasonal weather or possible storms, excessive nutrient loading, and algal growth.

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Point 1 in Aguaján presented the lowest turbidity value, while as progress was made towards the lower basin of the river, the turbidity values increased progressively, except for point 2 in the Sueño park sector, which is one of the points with the highest turbidity value as observed in Table 1 and 2. For the dissolved oxygen determination, the results of phase 1 showed that all points, except point 5 (Viñas sector), are within the maximum permissible limit of the TULSMA Standard, which establishes the maximum limit at values not less than 6 mg/L. On the other hand, the results of all the points of phase 2 reflected values below the permissible limit in the areas of the Viñas (point 5), Paso Lateral (point 4), and Socavón sector (point 3) as seen in Table 2. At the chemical oxygen demand, the results of both sampling phases show a high degree of contamination by organic matter. The measured values are above the maximum permissible limit, except for point 1 in phase 2, which presents a value below the limit. About the biological oxygen demand (BOD), the results obtained in both phases of sampling of concentrations in mg O2/L do not represent high levels of contamination by biodegradable organic matter. Table 1 and Table 2 show that the more biodegradable organic matter has the higher BOD [16]. These values do not exceed the maximum permissible limit of 100 mg/L, the lowest values being in points 3 (Socavón sector) and point 2 (Sueño park sector). The values of total solids, obtained from the measurements of suspended solids and dissolved solids, are above the maximum allowable limit of the Environmental Quality and Water Resource Effluent Discharge Standard (TULSMA) [17]. Comparing both sampling campaigns, it is observed that the concentration of suspended solids exceeds the maximum permissible limit (100 mg/L); in addition, the values are lower in phase 1 except for point 3, which has the highest concentration value even more than the phase 2 values. However, similar behavior in concentration can be seen across the points during both sampling periods. When analyzing dissolved solids with suspended solids, the first are found in a lower proportion related with the second between 1:3 until 1:18 in the worst case; as shown in Table 1, they do not exceed the maximum permissible limit; as shown in Table 1, they do not exceed the maximum permissible limit. These concentrations are associated with the climatic conditions of the days prior to the sampling and during the sampling in which there was the presence of continuous rainfall. On the Determination of Active Substances to Methylene Blue, to determine surfactants, a calibration curve was performed by preparing five concentrations of the detergent standard. The extraction process was applied to each standard, using 100 mL of the standard sample, 25 mL of methylene blue, and 30 mL of chloroform. The readings of the standards at 652 nm in a spectrophotometer allowing to obtain the calibration curve which later was necessary to obtain surfactant data of the two sampling campaigns. In phase 1 of sampling, the values of active substances in methylene blue are above the maximum permissible limit of 0.5 mg/L, being the Sueño park sector and Socavón sector the highest detergent concentration values, followed by Aguaján sector, the

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Viñas sector, and finally Paso Lateral sectors, in phase 2, values above the maximum permissible limit were also obtained, with the difference of mainly presenting higher values compared to phase 1. For example, point 1 showed an increase of 30%, point 3 an increase of 517.24%, point 4 a rise of 220.54%, and point 5 an increase of 1346.03%, in the concentration of surfactants with respect to phase 1. While point 2 decreased by 15.07% compared to phase 1, as can be seen in Table 2. To estimate the NSF quality index, the subscripts Ii obtained from the dimensionless transformation of each study parameter were determined using curves or mathematical equations. Next, the relative weight (Wi) was assigned, taking into account that the sum of the weights must be equal to 1, which establishes the importance of each parameter within the evaluated ICA and will depend on the use to be evaluated. Finally, each parameter’s Wi and Ii values were multiplied, and the sum corresponding to the WQI. For the NSF index, it was considered that the weighting of each parameter is related to the interest of the use and the influence of each variable in the index. Thus, establishing the highest weighting to dissolved oxygen (DO), followed by BOD5, pH, temperature, and to a lesser degree, turbidity, and total dissolved solids. The values of the general water quality index with respect to the physicochemical quality (Table 3), in most of the five points of the middle and lower basin of the Ambato River, denoted a poor quality of the water, conditioning its use by direct contact as well as reflecting the possibility of not finding aquatic life. Except for points 1 and 2, the Aguaján Pasa sector and the Sueño Park sector showed a regular type in the waters during December, when the first sampling campaign was carried out. The expanded uncertainty (U) was estimated from the analysis of the sampling of a matrix considering the use of these samples as representative of the total sampled mass (standard deviation of the measurement) and the analysis of the analytical processes (standard deviation of the analyzes), in both sampling campaigns, uncertainties were obtained below the unit as indicated in Table 4, reflecting an interval not very far around the estimated values within which the measuring is found. As shown in Table 4 by the method of calculating the expanded uncertainty was possible to analyze which factor involved in sampling contributes more to the variation in the end result, whether due to the measurement process consisting purely of sampling and heterogeneity of the samples, or due to the process analytical that consists of the purely analytical variation and by repeatability, obtaining that in the parameters of surfactants and hydrogen potential, the factor that most influenced the variability was the measurement, associated with the sampling process in which the heterogeneity of the medium and the dynamics of the water body intervene. While in the other physicochemical parameters, the factor that marked the difference in variability was that of analysis, despite the fact that the values of the factors were not very far from each other.

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Table 1. Average results of the Physicochemical Parameters, corresponding to Sampling Campaign 1 from four replicates taken at the study points Physicochemical parameters pH Temperature Turbidity Dissolved oxygen Surfactants Total suspended solids Total dissolved solids

Sampling points Point 1

TULSMA standard Point 2

Point 3

Point 5

MPL 6,5–9

6,885 ± 0,013

5,905 ± 0,017

4,82 ± 0,025

4,93 ± 0,118

5,055 ± 0,016

12,0 ± 0,082

11,0 ± 0,163

12,0 ± 0,216

13,0 ± 0,163

12,5 ± 0,245

18 ± 0,082

28 ± 0,082

20,0 ± 0,141

23 ± 0,082

26 ± 0,082

17,548 ± 0,006

13,94 ± 0,022

6,921 ± 0,001

13,022 ± 0,009

5,051 ± 0,009

Conditions Natural + 3 Maximum 20 100 No < 6

0,686 ± 0,223

1,088 ± 0,097

0,818 ± 0,009

0,56 ± 0,022

0,643 ± 0,098

0,5

1320,5 ± 1,291

1417 ± 1,414

7364 ± 1,414

1231 ± 0,816

2207 ± 0,816

100

440 ± 5,774

495 ± 2,828

409,5 ± 1,291

412 ± 0,816

401 ± 0,816

1000

7773,5 ± 2,082

1760,5 ± 6,557

1912 ± 3,742

COD

520,4 ± 1,867

1071,4 ± 3,801

BOD5

21,5 ± 0,577

37,0 ± 0,816

Total solids

Point 4

1643 ± 0

2608 ± 0

544,4 ± 0,2708

831,4 ± 0,082

880,4 ± 1,155

250

16,0 ± 0,816

26,0 ± 0,816

23,5 ± 0,577

100

1600

Note: The results are the averages ± the standard deviation; the units of the physicochemical parameters are degrees Celsius (°C), Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU), dissolved oxygen, Surfactants, suspended solids, dissolved solids, total solids, Chemical Oxygen Demand and Biological Oxygen Demand in (mg/L). Maximum Permissible Limit (MPL).

Table 2. Average results of the Physicochemical Parameters, corresponding to Sampling Campaign 2 from four replicates taken at the study points Physicochemical parameters pH Temperature Turbidity Dissolved oxygen

Sampling points Point 1

TULSMA standard Point 2

Point 3

Point 4

Point 5

MPL

8,15 ± 0,071

8,3 ± 0,142

8,5 ± 0,216

8,65 ± 0,122

7,5 ± 0,141

18,05 ± 0,057

17,3 ± 0,163

15,7 ± 0,141

15,4 ± 0,082

14,75 ± 0,058

15,605 ± 0,005

33,65 ± 0,008

23,45 ± 0, 022

28,65 ± 0,008

36,6 ± 0,082

1,62 ± 0,008

1,102 ± 0,003

0,227 ± 0,004

0,842 ± 0,001

0,681 ± 0,001

6,5–9 Conditions natural + 3 Maximum 20 100 No < 6

Surfactants

0,892 ± 0,014

0,924 ± 0, 008

5,049 ± 0,025

1,795 ± 0,068

9,298 ± 0,386

0,5

Total suspended solids

2000 ± 0,816

3700 ± 0

4700 ± 1,414

2500 ± 0,816

5100 ± 0,816

100

Total dissolved solids

152 ± 0,816

200 ± 0,816

184 ± 0,816

300 ± 0,816

435 ± 2,160

1000 1600

2152 ± 0

3900 ± 0,816

4884 ± 2,160

2800 ± 0,816

5535 ± 2,160

COD

53,4 ± 0,860

641,4 ± 0,979

251,4 ± 1,845

626,4 ± 0

1112,4 ± 0,141

250

BOD5

15,5 ± 0,577

26,0 ± 1,414

10,0 ± 0,816

23,0 ± 0,816

17,5 ± 0,082

100

Total solids

Note: The results are the averages ± the standard deviation; the units of the physicochemical parameters are degrees Celsius (°C), Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU), dissolved oxygen, Surfactants, suspended solids, dissolved solids, total solids, Chemical Oxygen Demand and Biological Oxygen Demand in (mg/L). Maximum Permissible Limit (MPL)

Table 3. Values of the Ambato River Water Quality Index

Points sampling

WQI 2019

2020

Value

Quality

1

61,308

2

57,114

3

Color

Value

Quality

regular

50,788

bad

regular

38,877

bad

44,378

bad

45,706

bad

4

43,726

bad

38,303

bad

5

31,352

bad

42,516

bad

Color

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Table 4. Expanded uncertainty of the outcome of the determination of physicochemical parameters in Ambato River waters Analysis parameters Chemical oxygen demand

Sampling

SAnalysis

SMeasurement

SSampling

Sampling uncertainty 1 1,44 1,06 0,32 0,63 2 0,64 0,57 0,34 0,69 Surfactants 1 0,06 0,08 0,06 0,13 2 0,11 0,1 0,07 0,13 Dissolved Solids 1 2,48 1,77 0,25 0,50 2 1,24 0,89 0,13 0,25 Suspended Solids 1 1,06 0,89 0,47 0,94 2 0,89 0,71 0,33 0,66 Hydrogen Potential 1 0,01 0,06 0,05 0,11 2 0,14 0,12 0,07 0,14 Note: S: standard deviations; 1: Sampling campaign 2019; 2: Sampling campaign, 2020.

4 Conclusions The effect of anthropogenic activities near areas of the middle and lower basins of the Ambato River is harmful to the quality of the water resource. The results denote that the untreated water and waste, from mainly domestic and industrial activities, are one of the major causes of risk of the river water quality, which is reflected in the regular and poor quality obtained and non-compliance with the maximum permissible limits of physicochemical parameters established by law whom were analyzed and compared, these data indicates an accumulation of toxic substances, sediments, synthetic materials, organic matter, and surfactants reflexed on the obtained results of the physical chemical analysis, related mainly to the constant discharge which does not allow the river current to neutralize the effects of these pollutants naturally. The water quality of the middle and lower basins of the Ambato River was characterized as regular and not acceptable caused by the measured values of the ten physicochemical parameters. Only four parameters are within the permissible limits (temperature, turbidity, biological oxygen demand, and dissolved solids); these reflect that there is a small amount of nutrient load, as biodegradable organic matter is recognized to alter those mentioned values. Taking in count these consideration, the presence of large amounts of agricultural waste, sediments, synthetic material, organic matter, remaining surfactants, household waste, poultry, tanneries, and pesticides along the middle and lower river basin was estimated; A degree of severe affectation of the middle and lower basins of the Ambato River was determined from the NSF quality index at the end of 2019 mid-2020, resulting from poor quality in most of the sampling points regardless of the date. In fact, the value with the lowest quality was point 5 of Las Viñas sector with an ICA 31,352 belonging to the lower basin of the river. The problem of river contamination would imply that it is necessary to treat the water resource for its use. In addition, its service should be

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suspended temporarily until the conditions approach the natural or desirable levels do not affect crops or the people health who are beneficiaries of this resource. As a future research topics related to this study the goal is set on the Design of biofilters for water treatment and use of it through the Aquaponics technique, but before this is imperative to develop a Study of the influence of anthropogenic sources on the physicochemical characteristics of the Ambato river micro-basin - Phase II to have better knowledge of the variables behavior along the river and the season of the year.

References 1. Rubio Arias, H., Ortiz Delgado, R., Quintana Martínez, R., Saucedo Terán, R., Ochoa Rivero, J., Rey Burciaga, N.: Índice de calidad de agua (ICA) en la presa la boquilla en Chihuahua, México. Ecosistemas y Recur. Agropecu. 1, 139–150 (2014). https://doi.org/10. 19136/era.a1n2.162 2. Alexiades, A.V., Encalada, A.C., Lessmann, J., Guayasamin, J.M.: Spatial prediction of stream physicochemical parameters for the Napo River Basin, Ecuador. J. Freshw. Ecol. 34, 249–263 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/02705060.2018.1542353 3. Herrmann, P.: Management conflicts in the Ambato River watershed, Tungurahua Province, Ecuador. Mt. Res. Dev. 22, 338–340 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1659/0276-4741(2002)022 [0338:MCITAR]2.0.CO;2 4. Carvajal, E.X.: Análisis integral de la calidad de agua del Río Ambato, mediante la utilización de indicadores biológicos, complementadas con variables físico-químicas, para la generacion de propuestas de gestión (2017) 5. Pérez de Mora, S.: Gestión Actual de los Recursos Hídricos en la Subcuenca del río Ambato desde los Actores, Ambato (2015) 6. Gron, C., et al.: Uncertainty from sampling – a Nordtest handbook for sampling planners on sampling quality assurance and uncertainty estimation. Based upon the Eurachem International Guide Estimation of measurement uncertainty arising from sampling (2007) 7. Instituto Ecuatoriano de Normalización: Norma Técnica Ecuatoriana NTE INEN 266 : 2013 Primera revisión (2013) 8. Álvarez, M., Osorio, B.: Calidad de agua destinada al consumo humano en un cantón de Ecuador. CIENC UNEMI 9, 109–117 (2016). https://doi.org/10.29076/issn.25287737vol9iss20.2016pp109-117p 9. Rios-mera, J.D., et al.: Impact of the content and size of NaCl on dynamic sensory profile and instrumental texture of beef burgers. Meat Sci. 161, 107992 (2020). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.meatsci.2019.107992 10. Bila, T.A., Lyashenko, E.V., Okhrimenko, O.V.: Potentiometric method of natural environmental waters pH determination. Water Bioresour. Aquac. 1, 228–234 (2021). https://doi.org/10.32851/wba.2021.1.17 11. Baird, R.B., Eaton, A.D., Federation, W.E.: Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 23rd edn. (2017) 12. Instituto Ecuatoriano de Normalización: Norma Técnica Ecuatoriana NTE INEN 1108 (2014) 13. Wyrwas, B., Zgoła-Grześkowiak, A.: Continuous flow methylene blue active substances method for the determination of anionic surfactants in river water and biodegradation test samples. J. Surf. Deterg. 17(1), 191–198 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11743-013-1469-x

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14. Caho-Rodríguez, C.A., López-Barrera, E.A.: Determinación del Índice de Calidad de Agua para el sector occidental del humedal Torca-Guaymaral empleando las metodologías UWQI y CWQI. Producción + Limpia 12(2), 35–49 (2017). https://doi.org/10.22507/pml.v12n2a3 15. García, S.L., Arguello, A., Parra, R., Pilay, M.P.: Factores que influyen en el pH del agua mediante la aplicación de modelos de regresión lineal. INNOVA Res. J. 4(2), 59–71 (2019). https://doi.org/10.33890/innova.v4.n2.2019.909 16. Viteri, M.: Combinación Biológica De Dos Especies En Humedales Vegetales Sucesivos Como Biofiltros Para La Descontaminación De Aguas Residuales En La Planta De Tratamiento El Peral Ep-Emapa Ambato (2014) 17. Tulsma: Libro VI - Anexo 1. Tulsma. 8–9 (2011)

Recommendation System Applied to Academic Resources for the Computer Networks Subject of the Software Degree Alfonso A. Guijarro-Rodríguez1(&), Judith E. Flores-Rivera2, Steven F. Castillo-Ponce1, and Lucrecia E. Sánchez-Holguín1 1

Faculty of Mathematical and Physical Sciences, University of Guayaquil, Guayaquil, Ecuador [email protected] 2 Faculty of Chemical Engineering, University of Guayaquil, Guayaquil, Ecuador

Abstract. This work has the objective to present a preliminary result of a recommendation system, which allows teachers to accelerate the search and selection of academic resources that directly contribute to the preparation of classes, that is, to provide teachers with a tool that contributes to the effective search for applications, resources, videos, and links, among others, so that they use it in their pedagogical practices, managing to smooth the table work that the teacher has been doing and avoiding the selection of subjective information. To fulfill this purpose, an application was developed in a web environment using the Python programming language, whose implementation includes the use of the recommendation algorithm based on collaborative filtering. This application has a rating system based on the Likert scale for the resources reviewed by the teachers, which will feed the algorithm to generate individual recommendations. The work resulted in a web interface that can make queries, obtain recommendations, generate a search history and provide a favorites section where the user can add resources of most frequent use that can be useful for the preparation of the lectures. Keywords: Python
Academic resources
Computer networks neural networks
Recommendation system


Artificial

1 Introduction The University of Guayaquil has eighteen faculties, out of which, the Faculty of Mathematical and Physical Sciences, houses five degrees, two related to software development, such as the Computer Systems Engineering degree and the Software degree, which seek to contribute with applications that streamline, optimize and facilitate conventional teaching processes. [1] explains that: “with the progress in cutting-edge technologies and the increase in management and process control systems, decision-making assistance tools have been developed, based on previously recorded information”. Taking into account the foregoing, it can be argued that the University of Guayaquil, despite having administrative © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. I. A. Chauvin et al. (Eds.): CSECity 2021, LNNS 379, pp. 111–122, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94262-5_11

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and academic management tools, does not have a system that supports the search processes carried out by teachers in the preparation of academic material. Some assistance tools that are currently on the rise are Recommendation Systems, which offer suggestions based on opinions and preferences of different users, regarding a specific topic [2]. The recommendation systems work with several algorithms, among which Collaborative Filtering is generally the most used, because it offers suggestions based on the evaluations and interactions of all users. That is, the results generated are not based on the product, but rather in user ratings [3]. The purpose of this research is to prepare a functional prototype of a recommendation system based on the use of collaborative filtering, for the search of academic resources (images, videos and documents in their different digital formats) that serve as support for teachers at the time to select material relevant to their subject eliminating subjective results. In the field of machine learning, the studies carried out with the intention of providing technology in the various professional areas are interesting. As reflected by [4] in their research, Analysis of systems of recommendations based on fuzzy rules for asthma, aimed to bring technology to the health area. At the end of the research, the authors state that the best system found, according to the analysis metrics, was based on the implementation of collaborative filtering and fuzzy logic. However, the study is only based on existing resources and does not provide any major novelty that positively impacts the health area, either through the proposal of a prototype, or suggestions for the use of new systems. [5] propose the development of a recommendation system for academic management at the State University of Milagro, whose purpose is to automate the process of assigning teachers through recommendation algorithms. The proposed system receives as input data the academic profiles, job profiles and the grades of the students. This way a list of teachers suitable for each subject is generated, reducing the time spent in reviewing profiles. Despite being focused on the educational field, this proposal does not cover all the needs that arise in this area, as is the lack of systems that allow optimizing the search process for academic resources. [1] proposes as thesis work a system of recommendation of subjects through fuzzy cognitive maps based on the academic record of the university student in order to contribute to the management of student counseling. In this way, it is possible to predict the impact it will have on the student’s achievement, in the event of making the decision to take a certain subject. However, as in the work analyzed above and although in this case it provides a study guide for the student, it does not offer the possibility of exploring the best tools that allow them to deepen and put into practice the knowledge acquired. [6] present a career recommendation system applying learning analytics and artificial intelligence techniques for high school students of the Ecomundo Bilingual Private Education Unit, aiming to optimize the professional guidance process of the institution’s Student Counseling Department, based on the Pearson and CIPSA psychological tests for the realization of the model that will analyze the personality and professional interests of the students. However, it does not apply any type of recommendation algorithms that allow it to improve the focus of the system, in such a way that it generates better suggestions to students.

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2 Materials and Methods 2.1

Machine Learning

Automatic learning or machine learning is a scientific discipline related to artificial intelligence that makes use of algorithms that are fed by data, which serve as a reference to imitate behaviors [6]. One of its main characteristics is that the systems are kept in a process of continuous evaluation and improvement, without the intervention of a human being. The use of this discipline in areas such as the business sector is of vital importance due to the growth of the data they handle, which offers a clear competitive advantage since it is possible to retrieve and extract relevant information. 2.2

Recommendation Systems

Recommendation Systems are tools that store a large number of elements, which are compared with each other to later generate a list of suggestions, whether based on the content of the pages, search histories or on the evaluations made by users. Despite having been initially used in electronic commerce for online purchases, today its implementation has been extended to a wide variety of web portals such as: social networks, entertainment pages, informational sites, and others, with the purpose of optimizing search processes. The main component of this type of system is the knowledge base whose purpose is to feed information to the algorithm implemented in it for the generation of suggestions. The results provided can be very useful due to the advantages it has, among which we can mention: saving time, obtaining relevant data, and even obtaining information options that would not have been considered using the conventional search method [1]. 2.3

Recommendation Algorithms

The operation of the recommendation systems is influenced by the type of algorithm that has been implemented. That is, the suggestions generated by this tool will depend on the approach that is given. Due to the great technological advance, lately have emerged a series of recommendation algorithms that are useful to solve different problems. Some of the existing algorithms are: • Collaborative Filtering: It the one in which the users determine the importance of the items, either through interaction or the evaluation given to the application. • Content-based filtering: It consists of analyzing the content of the different resources that have been used by the user in the past, whether they are videos, images, web portals or documents in their various extensions, based on the results generated to make the list of recommendations. • Demographic Filtering: This type of algorithm feeds on the personal data that appears in the user’s profile, in such a way that it makes recommendations based on demographic factors such as: sex, country, age, etc.

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• Hybrid Filtering: Due to the deficiencies that other types of algorithms could present, this data classification technique arises, which consists of the combination of two algorithms applicable to Recommendation Systems. 2.4

Recommendation Algorithm Based on Collaborative Filtering

The recommendation algorithm based on collaborative filtering makes use of the information of the users of a system, as well as their evaluations of certain products that can be found in there. This type of algorithm is the most used today due to its novel way of relating the masses to identify the profiles of similar users, and in this way to make product recommendations individually.

Fig. 1. Collaborative filtering-based recommendation algorithm process diagram

In Fig. 1, it is possible to observe in detail which are the processes that the algorithm performs in order to generate the recommendations that will be shown individually to the users, once they are within a system. For the correct operation of this algorithm, it must be fed with the data, both of the users, and of the products and their respective evaluations.

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Information Feedback Techniques

Information feedback techniques consist of measures or standards considered to capture relevant data in relation to users, which are useful to feed the recommendation algorithm used and thus determine what their possible preferences would be. One of the existing techniques is the implicit one in which the items are evaluated without considering the direct evaluation given by the users. This technique considers other factors that allow you to determine whether the analyzed content is relevant or not. Some of the points considered are: the time, behavior or interaction that the user has with the application. The explicit feedback technique is one that allows the user to directly express the degree of interest and satisfaction obtained with the resource used. There are some web portals in which there is an evaluation module, generally presented graphically through the use of images in the form of stars. Users who visit the services offered by these pages can rate it by assigning them the number of stars that they consider pertinent according to their perspective. [7] mention other alternatives that could be used within this classification for the valuation of a website, which are detailed below: • Interviews: It is an exploratory technique widely used to know the opinions of the users of a website, and that allows to know the degree of satisfaction of the users and their evaluations about the content that is presented in it. • Questionnaire: It consists of asking a series of questions to the user, which should allow them to express their opinion about the material provided on the website, and in turn it is possible to know the preferences about content, interests, among other aspects, that in the future they would like to explore. 2.6

Positioning of a Website According to SEO

Search Engine Optimization (SEO), is the discipline composed of a set of measures whose purpose is to determine the positioning of a website within the ranking of the different search engines. Positioning is very important, because it is what improves the visibility of the content hosted on the web, and turns it into useful material for both users and search engines. [8], exposes three important aspects that considerably influence SEO, which are described below: • Technical aspects. This aspect is related to the way in which a website has been developed, that is, it considers the design and the way in which the modules that the portal has have been distributed. • Contents: As the term indicates, it is based on the analysis of the content of the website, be it: titles, descriptions, images, videos and everything that can be considered relevant to the user. • External links: They are the different URLs that take the user from one website to another, that is, it counts how many external links lead to a specific site. The greater the number of links, the portal will have more possibilities to improve its positioning in search engines.

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2.7

Learning Management Systems

[9] mention that a Learning Management System (LMS) is a software that through its use allows the automation of the administration of training events and the registration of users to training programs that contribute to the educational field. In other words, with the use of the LMS it is possible to plan, assign, manage and control the activities that the users registered in it will be able to carry out, in such a way that they promote and contribute to learning. 2.7.1 LMS Features [10] mentions a series of characteristics that Learning Management Systems possess, which are strongly linked and interconnected with each other, in such a way that they manage to mark a clear distinction between the LMS and any other type of system. These characteristics are listed and detailed in Table 1: Table 1. LMS features Characteristic Flexibility Interactivity Standardization Scalability Functionality Usability Ubiquity Integration Gamification

Description Adaptability of platforms to study programs User learning is self-reliant and can be done independently or through program guidance Common format for all programs, facilitating their use It allows the diversity of the groups, according to the needs that arise at a given time They easily adapt to the activities and needs of students The use of the platform is simple for the user Security regarding the use of the platform due to the availability of the necessary resources for learning It is possible to integrate these platforms with other applications, and use them in different areas It integrates learning with recreation through games, in such a way that the user feels motivated to continue acquiring knowledge and in turn is rewarded through the delivery of bonuses or recognition

3 Methodology This project is based on a research work with a quantitative approach, through which it was possible to analyze the possible causes of the degree of complexity that can occur when making queries in search engines. Taking into consideration this premise, the development of a prototype recommendation system is proposed, through which is made the use of search operators that are not commonly used by users, due to their little or no knowledge about them, facilitating and optimizing the conventional process used when making queries.

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Investigation Modality

Most of this project focuses on a bibliographic research modality, where it is of vital importance to carry out an exhaustive data collection, which allows to substantiate the reason for the proposal, such as the benefits offered by recommendation systems at the level of users through a rating system, which together with the application of algorithms based on collaborative filtering, allow users to offer content suggestions that may be of interest to them, based on their previous ratings, along with those of other users. 3.1.1 Kind of Investigation The type of research used is exploratory and descriptive in accordance with the methodology proposed for the development of the project. Exploratory research is one that occurs when there is no research related to the object of study or when there is vague and imprecise knowledge that prevents drawing relevant conclusions on the topic addressed [11]. That is, through this type of research it is possible to obtain a better perspective on topics that are not fully known, such is the case of the definitions related to the search operators addressed in the project and, the systems and algorithms of recommendation. Descriptive research is one that seeks to clarify the properties and features of what is being investigated, collecting information from variables or reference concepts, allowing each of them to be measured independently, in order to describe the research [12]. 3.1.2 Methodological Design of the Research The project proposes the development of a prototype of a recommendation system through the use of the algorithm based on collaborative filtering, which favors the search process for academic resources carried out by the professors of the Software degree of the University of Guayaquil. This required the collection of data by consulting information sources that allow documenting the topics addressed in the research and obtaining a better vision of the aspects to be covered by developing the proposal. After gathering information, it is essential to analyze and filter it, in order to be able to determine the tools to be used in the development of the prototype and the steps to follow for its elaboration. During the development stage, it is important to test the system, so that the results after developing each module be in accordance with the objectives of the investigation. 3.2

Prototype Development Methodology

The methodology used for the development of the prototype is Scrum, because it is a framework that allows the use of various processes and techniques, so that the product, the team and the work environment can be continuously improved. While Scrum is not a definitive process or method, it consists of the work of teams and their associated roles, events, artifacts, and rules that serve a specific purpose and are essential to its success [13].

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3.2.1 Backlog Planning The Scrum methodology indicates that there must be 3 roles defined in the project, which will allow the correct development and application of the methodology, as detailed below: o Product Owner: is the person who will be responsible for managing the Product Backlog, in such a way that the value of the development team’s work is optimized, ensuring that they understand each element of the Product Backlog. The person in charge of this role will be: Ing. Alfonso Aníbal Guijarro Rodríguez, Mgs. o Scrum Master: will be responsible for guiding and ensuring that the Scrum methodology is understood and adapted efficiently in the development of the project. The person in charge of this role will be: Steven Fabricio Castillo Ponce. o Development Team: are those who will develop the product according to the indications of the Product Backlog. Those in charge of this role will be: Steven Fabricio Castillo Ponce and Lucrecia Elizabeth Sánchez Holguín. 3.2.2 Product Backlog The Product Backlog is an ordered list of all the necessary requirements for the correct operation of the product, this will be the only source of requirements to use for any change that be necessary to make. This list is never complete, because the earliest development of the product will only reflect the known and best-served requirements at the beginning of the creation of the list. Once the definition of the Product Backlog is understood, the requirements established by the Product Owner are detailed below in Table 2: Table 2. Requirements Requirements R1 Teacher and administrative accounts registration with the administrator role R2 Search for academic resources R3 Adding keywords and a date range to queries R4 Presentation of options for consulting academic resources R5 Management of the ratings on the academic resources consulted R6 Management of academic resource recommendations R7 Visualization of the most visited academic resources R8 Visualization of the topics most consulted by users-teachers

3.2.3 Sprint Backlog The time for the development of the prototype was 2 months, which are represented in the form of sprints that have been evaluated at the time and are summarized below Table 3.

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Table 3. History of sprint 1

Persons in charge: Sprint Name: Description: Start date: Observations:

History of Sprint 1 Steven Castillo / Lucrecia Sánchez Status: Finished Gathering of information Research on search operators and recommendation systems and algorithms. 12/09/2020 End date: 12/15/2020 It was possible to obtain the necessary information about the search operators and the recommendation systems and algorithms, thus allowing to socialize with the Product Owner and define the requirements of the prototype.

During the development time, the Product Backlog planning was carried out through meetings with the Product Owner. Later, Python was established as the environment in which the prototype was developed, along with the use of the SerpApi API, which is designed to extract and analyze the results in real time from search engines such as Bing, Google, among others [14]. The web interface was developed in the PyCharm program which, in addition to being a useful program for managing the syntax of the Python programming language, also turns out to be compatible with other languages such as JavaScript, TypeScript, SQL, HTML/CSS, among others [15], thus helping to reduce the difficulty of coding, of the authentication modules, user management, queries and recommendations, which will be handled by the administrator and teacher roles respectively. Finally, it culminated with its publication on the GoDaddy hosting, and with the creation of a technical and user manual Table 4.

Table 4. Sprint 9 history

Persons in charge: Sprint Name: Description: Start date: Observations:

Sprint 9 history Steven Castillo/Lucrecia Sánchez Condition: Finished Preparation of technical and user manual. We proceed with the creation of the technical and user manual of the system 01/26/2021 End date: 02/02/2021 It was possible to detail the functionality of the system in the user manual, as well as the necessary requirements for its correct operation in the technical manual.

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3.2.4 Burndown Chart For the development of the Burndown chart, an assessment was made for the sprint history points based on a 4-point pivot, obtaining a total of 393 points for the entire project, which are developed over the course of 8 weeks. A graphical representation of the Burndown chart was made as shown and detailed in Fig. 2:

Fig. 2. Sprint Burndown chart

4 Expert Judgment To validate the system proposed as a solution, an evaluation by expert judgment was carried out on the following professionals in the area: • Systems Engineer, Carmen Margarita Loor Pozo. • Computer Science Engineer, Edgar Leonardo Holguín Figueroa. • Computer Systems Engineer, Guillermo José Lino Quijije. In the evaluation, a series of criteria that are listed in Table 5 were taken into account, which obtained a positive approval after the review and analysis carried out by each expert, thus allowing to confirm that the proposed solution is feasible and works correctly.

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Table 5. Validation criteria Criteria to validate The system has the respective validations for user registration and login The system presents the different options for consulting academic resources available to the user-teacher The system allows adding keywords and a date range to the queries The system allows the user-teacher to make evaluations of the academic resources found The system offers academic resource recommendations to the user-teacher on topics that may be of interest to them The system allows the user-teacher to view the most visited academic resources The system allows viewing the topics most sought after by all user-teachers as a table and graph The system allows modification and creation of users with the administrator role

5 Results Based on the information obtained when conducting the research on the recommendation systems and the algorithms most frequently used in them, the result was the development of a web application prototype, which allows teachers to consult academic resources regarding their subjects of interest, divided into sections, such as general search, images, videos, documents in .pdf, .doc and .ppt format. In turn, teachers will be able to rate the reviewed resources, so that this way and thanks to the use of the recommendation algorithm based on collaborative filtering, the system can provide them with resources that may be of interest to them. Thus, complying with the general objective and the specific objectives set at the beginning of the research process.

6 Conclusions A bibliographic study was carried out on the recommendation systems applied to academic resources to filter the content of the didactic material, through which it was possible to demonstrate that currently there are no systems that offer recommendations oriented to the academic field at the educational institution level. It was possible to characterize how the recommendation systems work and how collaborative filtering algorithms are used in them, thus allowing us to propose the architecture with which the prototype of the recommendation system suggested as a solution to the research carried out. The flow of interfaces with which the prototype of the academic resource recommendation system works was designed, dividing it into two sections, the first for teachers with the search interfaces, recommendations, history query and visualization of the most searched topics. The second for the administrator, with the user management and user search history management interfaces. It was possible to develop a web interface prototype that, by implementing the collaborative filtering algorithm, allows users to provide recommendations on the

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academic resources that may be of interest to them, based on a rating system that allows users to rate the resources found on a Likert scale where 1 is bad and 5 is excellent. Through the evaluation by expert criteria, it was possible to verify the functionality of the prototype proposed as a solution, in terms of the selection of academic resources, the way of evaluating them, and how the recommendations are presented individually for each user of the system.

References 1. Maridueña, M.: Subject recommendation system using fuzzy cognitive maps based on the academic record of the university student. Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral (2019) 2. Bustos, M., Hernández, A., Vásquez, R., Hernández, G., Zatarain, R., Barrón, M.: EmoRemSys: educational resource recommendation system based on emotion detection. Iberian J. Inform. Syst. Technol. 80–95 (2016) 3. Martínez, M.: Recommendation systems based on link prediction techniques for online judges. Complutense University of Madrid (2017) 4. Soto, N., Valdez, Y.: Research and analysis of rule-based and fuzzy recommendation systems for asthma on scientific papers and existing systems. University of Guayaquil (2019) 5. Pazmiño, B., Zapata, W.: Development of a recommendation system for academic management at the State University of Milagro. Milagro State University (2020) 6. Aguirre, A., Cheverría, J.: Professional career recommendation system applying learning analytics and artificial intelligence techniques for high school students at the Unidad Educativa Particular Bilingüe Ecomundo. University of Guayaquil (2020) 7. Chamba, L., Coronel, E., Labanda, M.: Web usability: current situation of the Web portals of the Universities of Ecuador. Private Technical University of Loja (2016) 8. Cayo, B.: Techniques of organic positioning on the website of the Technical University of Ambato. Technical University of Ambato (2017) 9. Herrera, J., Gelvez, N., López, D.: LMS SaaS: an alternative for virtual training. Revista Chilena de Ingeniería 27, 164–179 (2019) 10. Bendezú, M.: LMS. Enrique Guzmán y Valle National University of Education (2018) 11. Guadalupe, S., Castillo, R., Fernández, M., Herrera, J., Morales, J., Gavilanes, V.: Investigative Nursing. Technical University of Ambato (2017) 12. Lindao Hermenejildo, B.A., Pilco Arriaga, K.R.: Development of a security model for Wordpress based on OWASP. University of Guayaquil (2020) 13. Payano Muñoz, D.J.: Implementation of the SCRUM methodology to streamline the process of attending to the requirements of the information technology department of Caja Huancayo. National University of Central Peru (2019) 14. SerpApi: Google Search API: SerpApi (2020). https://serpapi.com/ 15. PyCharm: The Python IDE for Professional Developers: PyCharm (2020). https://www. jetbrains.com/es-es/pycharm/

Motivation and Job Performance: Human Capital as a Key Factor for Organizational Success Emanuel Bohórquez(&), William Caiche, Verónica Benavides, and Arturo Benavides University Península of Santa Elena – UPSE, Avenue Principal La Libertad, Santa Elena, Ecuador

Abstract. In today’s world, organizations must prioritize keeping the human talent motivated, considered to be the most important capital due to its invaluable contribution in providing development and productivity; In this way, the main problem in this research is to analyze the motivation and its influence on the work performance of the employees of the Government of the province of Santa Elena. For the study, a qualitative and quantitative approach was used with a descriptive research scope, supported by a bibliographic research method, which involved both managers and collaborators, whose main results obtained show that 80% of collaborators have a high level of satisfaction with the remuneration received with which they manage to cover their physiological needs; 60% satisfied that they have the power to direct, influence and control their own activities and/or a certain group within the institution; on the other hand, it can be seen that 42% are dissatisfied with organizational equity. Finally, establish as a recommendation the implementation of a plan of motivational strategies as a factor in the construction of human capital and that will improve work performance in the institution. Keywords: Motivation


Job performance
Human capital

1 Introduction At the global level, organizations are adopting changes according to market trends, however, few are those that implement new systems exclusively for human talent that make them feel motivated to carry out the assigned activities, because their work is not valued or compensated adequately, creating a job dissatisfaction that minimizes the productivity of the organization. In order for employees to feel motivated, there must also be an adequate work environment that generates confidence when carrying out their work, that is, it has the appropriate conditions to do a good job, for this it must be focused on the well-being and safety of the same. A large part of the organizations chooses to implement strategies in the product or service, leaving aside the human talent that plays a fundamental role for it to achieve success, because they express that it causes them expenses when carrying out performance evaluations, training, even that the worker has the necessary resources to achieve their job. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. I. A. Chauvin et al. (Eds.): CSECity 2021, LNNS 379, pp. 123–133, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94262-5_12

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Thus, motivation becomes a relevant factor in the performance of organizations’ collaborators [1] in 2015 conducted a study by Global Engagement Index (GEI) worldwide to measure the level of motivation, took as a reference 13 countries: United States, China, India, Brazil, Italy, Australia, Great Britain, Germany, France, Canada, Mexico, Argentina, Spain; by means of an evaluation reaching the conclusion that very few employees are really committed to the company and their position. The countries with the highest percentage of fully motivated people are: The United States and China with 19%. [2] mentions that companies or organizations that suffer from low labor productivity is because they do not give the necessary importance to the causes that produce it, although it is easily observed from outside the organization that there is no other reason greater than the motivation of the workers. collaborators. Worldwide, all organizations need to maintain a good relationship between bosses and subordinates to achieve the goals of this, because human capital is considered the most valuable asset of the same, since with a satisfied staff we can maintain or improve the productivity, due to behavior, commitment that the employee has with the organization, therefore it is essential that the boss assumes the role of leader, maintaining certain guidelines with his collaborators that strengthen motivational aspects such as: respect among themselves, adequate communication, recognizing the work of the employees, this will help them to assume their work with responsibility, approaching the mission and vision of the organization, on the other hand, if we have an unsatisfied staff it will lower their performance and quality of work will suffer. This research is structured as follows: the second section presents the principles and theories regarding motivation and job performance; the third section describes the methodology used and the results obtained from the study. Finally, in the fourth section, the discussion with the conclusions and recommendations is presented.

2 Motivation and Job Performance 2.1

Motivation

To begin with, the study of [3] is valued where they indicate that human motives consist of needs, conscious and unconscious, some are primary, such as the physiological ones of water, food, sleep and shelter, others can be called secondary, such as self-esteem, status, such as affiliation with other affections, achievement, and selfassertion. Motivation is a factor used to satisfy needs and desires. On the other hand, [4] defines motivation as “an internal impulse that activates the predisposition of an individual to carry out any activity or behavior oriented towards a goal, in the direction of achieving a specific objective. People’s motivations can be identified within the framework of any area of action. In the work environment, the reason for the actions of the collaborators who perform specific functions can promote or slow down the performance that each one may have in their work. This implies that it is necessary to know what each subordinate needs and try to satisfy his demands to obtain better results of productivity, quality and service.

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In conclusion, the motivation must be considered in the institutions and companies to obtain positive results in their subordinates so that all the activities that are carried out are carried out through the objects of this, that is, in relation with work. Motivation is often linked to incentives due to the enthusiasm that is noticeable in the workers, positively influencing the behavior of the individual, thus having intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, both constituting as impulses to achieve their objectives in the workplace. organization, in addition to achieving their personal goals because it improves the level of satisfaction in the activities carried out. 2.1.1 Motivation Theories The findings of [5] indicate that it is essential to describe the approaches of each of the motivation theories established, which are mentioned below. Need: within the organization, individuals have different needs, the leaders are in charge of motivating the workers, satisfying those desires. For this approach, the following theories are specified: • Maslow’s theory of needs • lderfer’s ERG theory Individual Difference: individuals can be differentiated by various aspects are these: personal traits, key values and the work they perform. Likewise, this approach contains the following theories: • McClelland’s theory • Herzberg theory Cognitive: people feel motivated when they have the objectives set, because they feel capable of achieving them taking into account that with their effort they will receive rewards and incentives. It is necessary to detail the following theories: • Goal setting theory • Expectations theory • Equity theory 2.1.1.1 Maslow’s Theory of Needs The contributions of [6] on this theory show that Maslow’s pyramid of motivation is based on the so-called pyramid of needs, that is, needs can be ranked or classified in order of importance and influence on behavior human. Abraham Maslow stated the following needs: • • • • •

Physiological needs Security needs Social needs Esteem needs Self-realisation needs

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2.1.1.2 Alderfer’s ERG Theory In the research work carried out by [7], it is stated that the ERC theory is established considering Maslow’s pyramid, where it is summarized in three needs that are summarized below: • Existence needs • Relationship needs • Growth needs 2.1.1.3 McClelland’s Theory In their article [8] they included the contribution of (McClelland and Burnham 1976) pointing out that achievement, power and affiliation are the three important needs that help to explain the motivation of people like this: • Achievement needs • Power needs • Membership needs 2.1.1.4 Herzberg Theory Regarding this theory [9] he added the contributions of (Herzberg 1968) that summarizes his theory as follows: “The components that contribute to job satisfaction (and motivation) are different and independent of the factors that tend to incite dissatisfaction”, and which are described below: • Motivational factors (satisfaction) • Hygienic factors (dissatisfaction) 2.1.1.5 Goal Setting Theory In the report carried out by [10] he details that the goal setting theory put forward by Locke determines: “The motivation of the worker arises from his actions and that the level of his performance is directed at the level of difficulty that it has to achieve an established goal. In which objectives are established that are granted to workers and convince them to concentrate their efforts”

In the same way [11] he emphasizes this theory, where he emphasizes that it is of great importance that organizations and institutions establish goals, since they help to have a better direction in the employees. 2.1.1.6 Equity Theory [2] states “The role that equity plays in motivation, employees compare what they contribute to their jobs with what they get from them in relation to those of other people. We perceive what we get from a job in relation to what we contribute, then we compare our input-output ratio with that of others that don’t even matter”. We can summarize that there is a variety of motivation theories that play an important role in collaborators within the organization, because different types of intrinsic and extrinsic incentives are applied considering their personal and professional needs.

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Job Performance

To begin with, [12] sustains that “Job performance is a tool that measures the perception that both suppliers and internal customers have of a collaborator. This tool proposes information on their performance and their individual competencies in order to identify areas for continuous improvement that increase their collaboration in achieving the organization’s objectives”. In addition, [13] indicates that “Work performance measures the performance exhibited by workers to the organization, the same that allows identifying areas with positive and negative effects, the intention of measuring performance is to improve them to achieve compliance with the proposed objectives”. Work performance refers to the performance that each worker has at the time of carrying out the assigned activities, the development with which he acts, that is why a large part of the organizations evaluate performance to measure the degree of effectiveness and efficiency with which carry out their activities. 2.2.1 Competences For [14] in their article they add the definition of (Urbina 2007) who conceptualizes competences as the integration of knowledge, skills, behaviors, attitudes, aptitudes and motivations leading to adequate and timely performance in various contexts. In addition, [15] include the contribution of (Tobón 2010) which indicates that the competencies are integral actions in the face of activities and context problems with suitability and ethical commitment. Knowledge: [16] mentions that “the knowledge possessed by individuals is considered an asset of the company, it is also emphasized that the knowledge of the areas and levels allows them to have a greater commitment and obtain a better result from according to their level of performance shown in the work area”. Skills: [17] considering the contributions made by Vicente Caballo, the skills comprise a set of behaviors that the individual expresses within a context where they relate to other people, showing attitudes, feelings and opinions to provide alternatives that contribute to problem solving. The competences are immersed in each individual and they are developed through the attitudes, capacities, abilities with which they develop in the different situations that arise and that allow them to achieve an appropriate performance. 2.2.2 Behavior We highlight what was stated by [18] that defines behavior as the attitude of the employee that has a fundamental contribution to job performance. Indeed, [6] establishes that behavior in an organization is classified into three groups: Individual Behavior: within the organization, it is due to the preparation, values, desires and desires, indicating that each person has different characteristics, for them the individual must be directed to the interests of the institution [19]. Group Behavior: the authors [20] consider it as acts and the capacity that individuals present in the work team, promoting the participation of all those involved and focusing personal interests to achieve the objectives of the organization.

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Organizational Behavior: understands the attitudes of employees since success rests with them. Behavior is immersed in different changes, but nevertheless adequate behavior is a tool that benefits the institution and reflects the extent to which motivation and productivity are promoted [21]. In conclusion, through good organizational management, an adequate organizational behavior can be achieved and therefore take advantage of the effort of human talent in order to achieve the strategic goals. 2.2.3 Performance Evaluation Regarding this issue [12] defines performance evaluation as “a systematic and periodic process that serves to quantitatively and qualitatively estimate the degree of effectiveness and efficiency of people. Its main objective is to determine if employees are doing their job correctly. This can provide information on the need to improve the collaborator in terms of knowledge and skills”. For [3] the performance evaluation is a system that allows defining the objectives of the company with all its subordinates so that progress can be verified until reaching the goal. But this control and measurement scheme is not the fundamental component to efficiently manage the development of the institution’s human talent. Performance evaluation is an instrument used to verify the degree of fulfillment of the objectives proposed at the individual level. This system allows a systematic, objective and comprehensive measurement of professional conduct and performance or achievement of results.

3 Methodology The main objective of this research is to analyze the motivation and work performance of the personnel in the Government of the province of Santa Elena, being a nonexperimental study of a non-probabilistic nature carried out between 2018 and 2019. Thus, for the present research a qualitative and quantitative approach was used with a descriptive research scope, relying on a bibliographic research method related to motivation and job performance, as well as field research that in the present project was applied to collect primary information in situ provided by the appointing authority, departmental heads, administrative personnel and workers belonging to the Government of the province of Santa Elena, applying information collection tools such as interviews and surveys that allowed identifying the qualities and characteristics of the problem posed, as well as for its analysis, understanding and measurement of results. For the development of this project, 11 people made up of the appointing authority and departmental heads were considered as the population for the interview. While for the survey there was a population of 66 people made up of departmental heads, administrative staff and workers; in this case, the sample corresponds to the total population as it is finite and achievable, which will contribute with their opinion about the degree of motivation and job performance in the Government of the province of Santa Elena. The main research instrument were the surveys, which were applied to the 66 collaborators; It is made up of 17 closed questions, structured in three parts: the first

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with sociodemographic data, a second section with questions related to motivation and a third section with questions oriented to job performance, the last two sections with options for scale of evaluation. Likert.

4 Results and Discussion

Fig. 1. Satisfaction of physiological needs (Maslow’s theory of human needs)

In Fig. 1, referring to the satisfaction of physiological needs, it can be highlighted that 52% of the collaborators are totally satisfied, 30% satisfied and only 3% dissatisfied. Concluding that most of the collaborators feel satisfied with the remuneration received, which allows them to meet their own physiological needs and those of their family environment, constituting a motivating factor for the development of tasks.

Fig. 2. Satisfaction of power needs (McClelland’s theory of needs)

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Figure 2, related to the satisfaction of power needs, shows that 40% of employees are satisfied, 21% are fully satisfied and 9% are completely dissatisfied. Therefore, it can be concluded that for 60% of collaborators they have the power to direct, influence and control their own activities and / or a certain group within the institution; being a way of intrinsic satisfaction for them.

Fig. 3. Satisfaction for equity between contribution/reward (equity theory)

In Fig. 3, concerning the level of satisfaction with the equity between contribution/reward, it can be seen that 42% are dissatisfied, 22% satisfied and 9% totally satisfied. With this, it can be deduced that the relationship of equal result achieved equal recognition in comparison with other co-workers is not emphasized, recommending that the work be recognized equitably, to motivate staff and strengthen performance work and thus be more productive.

Fig. 4. Work competencies

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In Fig. 4, referring to the degree of contribution of the competences, knowledge and skills for the job, it shows that 78% of the collaborators consider that their labor competences do need a lot for their work and 22% sufficient. The aforementioned characteristics are a very important role in them, ensuring that the activities are achieved in the best way, positively favoring the work performance of each one.

Fig. 5. Work efficiency

In Fig. 5, regarding the level of work efficiency, it can be seen that the majority with 66% always indicates and 27% almost always. Being able to argue that more than 90% of employees carry out their activities within the scheduled time, which benefits good individual performance.

Fig. 6. Motivation and job performance

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In Fig. 6, about the implementation of motivational strategies to improve job performance, 67% of employees indicate that they fully agree, also 21% agree and 12% are neutral. Consequently, the proposal of motivation strategies would allow collaborators to feel valued, identify with the institution, feel part of a good work environment and as a result an effective work performance.

5 Conclusions and Recommendations In today’s world, staff motivation has become a key element for adequate work performance to exist, allowing organizations to fulfill that mission and vision outlined for the benefit of society. In this research, the motivation and work performance of the personnel in the Government of the province of Santa Elena has been analyzed. Being able to conclude regarding the motivation of the staff at work, on the one hand, that more than 80% of the collaborators have a high level of satisfaction with the remuneration received with which they manage to cover their own physiological needs and that of his family nucleus; very closely with 60% of collaborators they would be satisfied of being able to have the power to direct, influence and control their own activities and/or a certain group within the institution. On the other hand, it can be seen that 42% are dissatisfied in the relationship of the same result achieved the same recognition compared to other co-workers. Consequently, concluding about job performance that 100% of employees consider that their skills, knowledge and abilities do contribute significantly to their daily work; Furthermore, 90% of employees always mention carrying out their activities within the scheduled time. In this way, 88% of employees mention that they fully agree that the implementation of a plan of motivational strategies would allow improving job performance. Finally, it is possible to establish that in a general way that there is an adequate level of work motivation in most of the collaborators in relation to remuneration and the need for power, however, it would be necessary to look for alternatives that allow to reduce the perception of lack of equity between contributions and rewards obtained for work performed compared to other co-workers. And that in relation to job performance in general, employees would be fulfilling their obligations efficiently and effectively. In short, there is an adequate degree of motivation, which would positively influence the work performance of the employees of the Government of the province of Santa Elena. It can be recommended according to the results obtained that the authorities of the Government of the province of Santa Elena, through their human resources department, can implement a plan of motivational strategies that allows maintaining job satisfaction in some and improving job satisfaction in others, emphasizing that it becomes a key factor in the construction of human capital, all with the purpose of positively influencing the commitment and work performance of all members of the institution. The present investigation was limited in some cases by the limited availability of time on the part of the collaborators of the Government of the province of Santa Elena. Future research could compare and contribute to the discussion of results in different contexts regarding the level of motivation and its influence on job performance.

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In addition, the recommendations are expected to make viable and improve work motivation in all members of the institution.

References 1. Expok: https://www.expoknews.com [En línea]. https://www.expoknews.com/que-motiva-alos-trabajadores-en-cada-pais/. Último acceso 10 June 2019 2. Ochoa, K.: Motivación y productividad laboral. Universidad Rafael Landívar, Quetzaltenango (2014) 3. Harold, K., Weirich y M. Canicce, H.: Administración una perspectiva global, empresarial y de innovación. McGraw Hill, México (2017) 4. Rubió, T.: Recursos Humanos, Dirección y gestión de personas en las organizaciones. Octaedro, Barcelona (2016) 5. Hughes, R., Ginnett y G. Curphy, R.: Liderazgo: Cómo aprovechas las lecciones de la experiencia. McGrawHill, México (2007) 6. Chiavenato, I.: Comportamiento Organizacional. McGraw Hillç, México (2017) 7. León, G.: La motivación y el desempeño laboral de los trabajadores en la municipalidad distrital de Cajay - Huari, año 2017. Universidad Nacional José Faustino Sánchez Carrión, Huacho (2017) 8. Lozano y J. Barragán, D.: La necesidad de apreciar historias dentro de las teorias sobre las necesidades humanas. In: Innovaciones de negocios, pp. 295–326 (2015) 9. Palomo, T.: Liderazgo y motivación en equipos de trabajo. ESIC, Colombia (2017) 10. Lagos, V.: La motivación laboral y su incidencia en el desempeño organizacional en empresas COPELEC. Universidad del Blo-Blo, Chillán (2015) 11. Santacruz, J.: La influencia de la motivación en el desempeño laboral de los funcionarios del Municipio del Distrito Metropolitano de Quito, Administración Zonal Eloy Alfaro en el año 2016. Universidad Central del Ecuador Sede Sur, Quito (2017) 12. Asch, J.: La evaluación de desempeño en las empresas y la resilencia. Fidélitas 5, 4–14 (2015) 13. Mejillón, A.: Análisis del clima organizacional y su influencia en el desempeño del talento humano del Instituto de Seguridad Social. Universidad Península de Santa Elena, La Libertad (2017) 14. Véliz, P., Jorna y E. Berra, A.: Consideraciones sobre los enfoques, definiciones y tendencias de las competencias profesionales. Educación Médica Superior 30(2) (2016) 15. Ortiz, M., Caicedo, A., González y U. Recino, S.: Las múltiples definiciones del término “competencia” y la aplicabilidad de su enfoque en ciencias médicas. Edumecentro 7(3), 20– 31 (2015) 16. Villar, M.: Movilizando a las personas y sus recursos humanos para el logro de los resultados empresariales. Universidad Santos Tomás, Chile (2018) 17. Ontoria, M.: Habilidades sociales. Eeditex, España (2018) 18. Ríos, I.: Equipos motivados, equipos productivos: Manual práctico para directivos. Tébar Flores, Madrid (2018) 19. Juárez, G.: La administración y el comportamiento organizacional. In: Revista Caribeña de Ciencias Sociales, pp. 9–12 (2016) 20. Hidrugo y D. Pucce, J.: El rendimiento y su relación con el desempeño laboral del talento humano en la clínica San Juan de Dios-Pimentel. Universidad Señor de Sipán, Pinimentel (2016) 21. Molina, L., Briones y H. Arteaga, Í.: El comportamiento organizacional y su importancia para la administración de empresas. In: Revista Científica Dominio de las Ciencias, p. 13 (2016)

Assessing the Needs of an Innovation Resource to Promote the Touristic Sector of a Small Andean City. Riobamba, Ecuador Luis Quevedo(&) , Silvia Aldaz , Héctor Pacheco and Danilo Quintana

,

Universidad Nacional de Chimborazo UNACH, Riobamba 060150, Ecuador [email protected]

Abstract. To address the challenge of sustainable development, the use of technology and innovation tools is imperative for tourism stakeholders. This paper examines the needs of an innovation resource to promote the touristic sector of Riobamba (Ecuador), through an approach to the global trends of technologic innovation globally used in tourism, the identification of the perception about the needs of an innovation resource to promote the touristic sector, and based in those results, describes the profile and preferences of touristic cycling users, the main natural sites of tourist interest near to Riobamba as well as the offer of MTB (mountain bike) routes provided by the Tourism Ministry of Ecuador. Our findings support the statement that cooperation between touristic destinations is a key factor to implement innovation resources in touristic regions, evidencing that in Riobamba is pertinent the implementation of a resource of innovation to promote tourism based on a sustainability paradigm. Keywords: Technology


Tourism
Riobamba
Ecuador
Innovation

1 Introduction The integration between information and communication technologies (ICTs) and tourism is known as smart tourism. I that sense, organizations, and people involved in touristic activities use to work together to build social ecosystems that allow information exchange via internet [1]. Nowadays, the increasing development of emerging ICTs is contributing to restructuring processes and systems, altering the way in which products and services are offering and operating in the touristic market [2–4]. Thus, technology has become a main aspect of the touristic industry, and it is integrated into daily operations related with the provision of services and products of organizations that pursue to satisfy customer expectations. In this context, destinations are implementing actions to consolidate a smart tourism system which is associated to the use of technologies to collect data and to provide support to the stakeholders [1, 5, 6]. There are several technologic trends associated with tourism like robots, artificial intelligence, chat-bots, internet of things, recognition technology, virtual reality (VR),

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. I. A. Chauvin et al. (Eds.): CSECity 2021, LNNS 379, pp. 134–145, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94262-5_13

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and augmented reality (AR) [7], being mobile technologies, especially the use of smartphones one of the most relevant for the development of smart tourism [5]. Globally, it is evident that to face the challenge that implies a development based on a sustainability paradigm, the use of technology and innovation is a key factor, and the touristic sector is no exception. Therefore, dynamic changes are being implemented by businesses and localities that aim to satisfy the needs of tourists. This study aims to assess the needs of an innovation resource to promote the touristic sector of Riobamba, through an approach to the global trends of technologic innovation used in tourism, the identification of the perception about the needs of an innovation resource to promote the touristic sector, the description of the user’s profile, the identification of sites of interest and presenting the offer provided by the tourism official agency of Ecuador.

2 Methodology 2.1

Study Area

Riobamba is an inter-Andean small city of Ecuador located in the center of the country (Fig. 1); its coordinates are 1°40′00″S−78°39′00″O. There are several large mountains and volcanoes (Chimborazo, Carihuayrazo, Altar, Igualata, Tungurahua, Sangay) surrounding Riobamba. Administratively, Riobamba has 5 urban parishes (Velasco, Veloz, Maldonado, Lizarzaburu, and Yaruquíes) and 11 rural parishes (Licto, San Juan Cubijíes, Punín, Cacha, Licán, Calpi, Flores, Pungalá, Químiag, and San Luis). Riobamba has an altitudinal average of 2750 m.a.s.l. and an annual temperature average of 12 °C. The main natural touristic attraction around Riobamba is the Chimborazo volcano, which is the highest mountain in Ecuador with 6.263 m.a.s.l.

Fig. 1. Location of the study area

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Methods

To assess the needs of an innovation resource to promote the touristic sector of Riobamba, we structured our work in three sections: the first part comprises an approach to the global trends of technologic innovation used in tourism; a second section that identifies the perception about the needs of an innovation resource to promote the touristic sector of Riobamba and, a third part that based on the previous results obtained, describes the profile and preferences of touristic cycling users, the main natural sites of tourist interest near to Riobamba as well as the offer of MTB (mountain bike) routes provided by the Tourism Ministry of Ecuador. The data were collected between July and December 2020, throughout structured questionnaires, that provided elements that contributed to understanding the topics under study. The process entailed sending the questions and receiving the responses by mail, to respect the healthy protocols applied during the Covid-19 pandemic. The research was based on two questionaries: The first questionary was directed to non-governmental organizations (NGOs), regional and local governmental organizations, and universities located in the region to identify their perception about the needs of an innovation resource to promote the touristic sector of Riobamba. A total of 85 questionnaires were applied. While the second questionary was directed to touristic cycling users to identify their profile and preferences. A total of 143 questionaries were applied.

3 Results 3.1

Global Trends of Technologic Innovation Used in Tourism

The first part of the study is an approach to the global trends of technologic innovation used in tourism and are listed in Table 1, which includes the resource, a brief description, and its uses in the tourism industry. The main resources identified include: voice search & voice control, robots, contactless payments, virtual reality, chatbots, internet of things, recognition technology, augmented reality, artificial intelligence, and mobile apps. Voice search and voice control are based on technology with spoken conversational systems allowing users to obtain the information they request with a spoken query [8], and for tourism sector, voice search is becoming a useful tool with a growing impact on tourist experience through several options like simplify the booking process and providing a quick response to tourist request of information [9]. Studies reporting their application in the tourism sector e.g. [7, 9] demonstrate that voice search has nowadays a significant role in tourism. Robots play an increasing role in tourism and hospitality services, and their participation includes the use of robots in reception assistants, security robots, and robots that serve food and drinks to visitors. Their use is well documented in cases as the Henn-na Hotel located in Nagasaki (Japan), which has been recognized as the first hotel with robots in the world and uses robots at reception [10, 11]; Hilton, which have implemented a robot called Connie [12, 13]; and HMSHost, which have launched a robot that welcomes tourists to restaurants, providing menu details, and even is able to offer recommendations [7].

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Table 1. Trends of technologic innovation associated with tourism. Resource Voice search & voice control Robots

Contactless payments

Virtual reality (VR) Chatbots

Internet of Things (IoT)

Recognition technology

Augmented reality (AR) Artificial intelligence (AI)

Mobile app

Description Application used in smart speakers, smartphones, and AI assistants to pay actions or duties based on voice commands Automatically operated machines that replace human effort

Technology associated to process that includes the reduction or elimination of contact during payments Devices that allow experimenting situations similar or completely different from the real world Software application used to conduct an online chat conversation instead of providing direct contact with a live human agent Network of objects embedded with software, sensors, and other technologies to connect and exchange data with other systems and devices Technology employed to authenticate users through ID verification services (includes fingerprint recognition, retina scanning, facial recognition, and other biometric identifiers) Interactive experience where the objects are enhanced by computergenerated perceptual information Machines programmed to simulate the human intelligence

Applications with software designed to mobile devices

Uses in tourism Booking airline tickets Obtaining tourist information Controlling hotel devices Providing information Cleaning Luggage handling Food preparation Booking systems Payment process

Experiencing far away locations VR tours 360 tours Swift answers to questions on a 24/7 basis, regardless of staff availability

Connecting several devices in touristic locations Data analytic platforms

Safety and easy purchasing Accessing defined spaces by tourists Automatic payment systems Providing quick and complete information of tourist and passengers Enhancing the customer experience, providing valuable information of touristic locations Accurately and continuously sorting and processing data to decisions making in aspects that include business trends and customer satisfaction Integrating several utilities to assist and satisfy the needs of tourists

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Contactless Payments includes technology that contributes to touristic services through the reduction of transaction costs and adapting process that increase the confidence of the parties involved. Contactless technology enables travel without physical documents, making a mobile phone all that a visitor needs at a touristic destination [14]. In fact, studies like the presented by Basily et al. [15] describe a wide range of services integrated into an app, demonstrating a wide range of opportunities in the future for mobile technology associated with contactless payment. Virtual Reality (VR) includes technology offering several opportunities to the tourism business. VR allows to tourists have experiences associated with extreme activities as kayak, rafting, or snowboard [7]. It also makes it possible to visit virtually inaccessible destinations like caves, waterfalls, or archeological sites. Advances in this technology will generate new opportunities and several possibilities of application for the tourism industry [3]. Chatbots make it possible to obtain quick responses to customer inquiries being available 24/7 (24 h/7 days of the week), regardless of human staff availability. Chatbots have gained importance with several applications including Amazon’s Alexa or Apple’s Siri [16]. Nowadays many tourists make their bookings through internet chatbots, and trends point out that the potential of chatbots in diverse areas of the tourism industry is vast [17]. Internet of Things (IoT) aims to maintain a connectivity system that allows them to be controlled by interned [18], and devices equipped with IoT are able to share their information online making it possible that any physical object can have a virtual reflection in the service space. This provides a huge space for developing and applying new business models and will have a major impact on the development of e-Tourism services [19]. Nowadays is common to find users integrating sensors for heating and cooling systems, devices for room service, and car rental. Recognition Technology has already begun to be implemented in an experimental way in some hotel companies (e.g. Bluebay Group) and, in Spain, the Campanile hotel chain use sensors that allow to recognize facial expressions of emotions to evaluate and improve the protocols used in customer services [20]. Augmented Reality (AR) could be explained as the technology that augments the real world with virtual components. Instead of replace the reality, this technology superimposes virtual objects onto the physical world though the integration of object recognition technology with computer programs [21]. AR is a technology that provides useful information to visitors about the destinations they selected. Museums, galleries, and touristic attractions are using it to view historical exhibitions in their original form through the use of virtual overlaying and maps. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a growing trend in touristic business and can be used to design a personalized and adapted proposal for customers and to help in the analysis of business data. The potential of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies in the tourism sector is huge and some travel business are already using elements of artificial intelligence to analyze large volumes of data learning from their own and from the experience of other people to fulfilling customer needs [22]. Mobile Apps are able to integrate several of the resources mentioned above and have been designed for a wide gamma of touristic services as accommodation (Airbnb, Homeaway, 9Flat), transport (Uber, Grab), dining (VizEat, EatWith), and travel

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experiences (ToursByLocal, Contexttravel). The use of internet is increasing and there are uncountable possibilities to enable online platforms day by day. Therefore, the popularity of mobile technologies and applications is growing day by day and undoubtedly changing the behavior of consumers and providers [5]. Even when the use of technology and innovation resources is highly recommended and valuated, some voices consider it as a risk for the maintenance of employees. So, there are authors e.g. [23] that conclude that is better to implement these technologies in activities that will make easier the work of employees instead of replacing them completely. 3.2

Perception About the Needs of an Innovation Resource to Promote the Touristic Sector of Riobamba

In the second part of our study, we identified the perception about the needs of an innovation resource to promote the touristic sector of Riobamba. The statements with the highest percentages obtained when we applied the questionaries are available in Table 2.

Table 2. Perception about the needs of an innovation resource to promote the touristic sector of Riobamba. ID Q1

Q2

Q3 Q4

Q5

Q6

Q7

Q8

Question At which level the tourism sector has been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic? How important do you consider the implementation of an innovation resource in Riobamba for the reactivation of tourism? Would an innovation resource benefit the tourism in Riobamba? In which tourism category do you consider priority the implementation of an innovation resource? Which innovation resource, you consider appropriate for its application in Riobamba? Do you consider that the use of the innovation resource should be free or paid? Which organization should manage the innovation resource? In which activities could be an innovation resource applicable?

Statement with the highest percentage Tourism has been highly affected by COVID-19 (82%) The implementation of an innovation resource is very important for the reactivation of tourism (56%) An innovation resource would highly benefit tourism in Riobamba (79%) It is a priority the implementation of an innovation resource in tourism of nature (52%) Smartphone App is a resource appropriate for its application in Riobamba (48%) The use of the innovation resource should be free (83%) The innovation resource should be managed by the University Nacional de Chimborazo (46%) An innovation resource could be applicable in cycling routes (37%)

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An 82% of interviewed consider that the tourism industry has been highly affected by COVID-19; 56% consider very important the implementation of an innovation resource to reactivate tourism, and 79% point out that an innovation resource would highly benefit tourism in Riobamba. When we ask about the category that is considered a priority for the implementation of an innovation resource, most of the interviewed (52%) select tourism of nature, and considering that a mobile application (48%) will be the resource appropriate to its implementation in Riobamba. Additionally, the interviewed mentioned that the use of the resource should be free of pay (83%), managed by the Universidad Nacional de Chimborazo (46%), and applied to cycling routes (37%). 3.3

Profile and Preferences of Touristic Cycling Users, Natural Sites of Interest and, the Official Offer of Bike Routes

Based on the results obtained in the analysis of the perception about the needs of an innovation resource to promote the touristic sector of Riobamba, we identified: the profile and preferences of touristic cycling users (Table 3), the main natural sites of tourist interest near to Riobamba (Table 4) and the offer of MTB routes provided by the Tourism Ministry of Ecuador (Table 5).

Table 3. Profile and preferences of users of touristic activities (cycling). ID Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q 10 Q 11 Q 12

Feature Age Preferred schedule Days of the week preferred to practice Time spending on cycling or trekking activities Preferred routes Preferred places Preferred surface of the road Key elements in a Mobile App Preferred characteristics of the App Relevant element to choose the routes Preferred operative system for an App Availability to use an App in a demo phase

Statement with the highest percentage 21−40 years old (40%) Morning (68%) Weekends (79%) 2−3 h (74%) Second-order pathways (54%) Natural areas (47%) Paved road (42%) Altitude, distance, and difficulty level (87%) Touristic information, hydration points, type of route, informative audio and image (91%) Type of road (34%) Both IOS and Android (81%) Yes (89%)

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Table 4. Natural sites of tourist interest near to Riobamba. Chimborazo Fauna Production Reserve Interest point Short description Chimborazo The highest volcano in Ecuador (6268 m.a.s.l.) Volcano Carihuairazo Three peaked volcanic boiler (5018 m.a.s.l.) Volcano Last Ice Merchant Millenary route where the Ice Merchant extract ice from the old glaciers Route Whymper’s A rock formation named in honor of Edward Whymper Needles Machay Temple Sacred cave of volcanic material, used by indigenous people as a ceremonial center Solitary Tree Large bush (5 m high and 6 m in diameter) located in the middle of the moor, surrounded by dunes Polylepis Forest Remnant of Polylepis forest Chorrera Canyon Rocky formation with a waterfall of approximately 25 m high Inca Fortress Archeological site considered a ceremonial center Cunuyaku Thermal water spring: considered as a healing center Sangay National Park Sangay volcano One of the highest active volcanoes in the world (5230 m.a.s.l.). It has a cone shape and the top is covered by glacier Altar volcano An extinct stratovolcano (5321 m.a.s.l.). It was active about 2 million years ago and contains a caldera open to the west, where there is a lake Tungurahua An active volcano (5023 m.a.s.l.) its activity has been characterized by volcano frequent powerful explosions and ash emanation Ozogoche Complex of 45 lakes that are deep, cold, and have a striking dark blue color

The highest range of age in users is 21–40 years old, presenting a preference to develop biking activities in the morning (68%) during the weekends (79%) for a period ranging between 2 and 3 h (74%). The preferred routes are second-order pathways (54%), located in natural areas (47%) with a paved road (42%). The elements considered key in a mobile application were: altitude, distance, and difficulty level (87%); while as preferred characteristics of the applications were mentioned: touristic information, hydration points, type of route, informative audio, and image (91%). The main element when users select a route was the type of road (34%), and use both operative systems (IOS and Android). Finally, most of the users (89%), mention to be able to use the application in a demo phase. There are two main natural sites classified as protected areas that influencing the tourism activities around Riobamba: The Chimborazo Fauna Production Reserve which was created in 1986, has a length of 58560 hectares and, an altitudinal range from 3200 to 6268 m.a.s.l., this reserve is home to a large population of vicuñas, llamas, and alpacas; and the Sangay National Park which was created in 1975, has a length of

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517765 hectares and, an altitudinal range from 1000 to 5230 m.a.s.l., in 1983 UNESCO declared it a World Heritage Site due to this unique geography and extraordinary biodiversity. Both sites have several interest points and the main have been identified in Table 4.

Table 5. MTB routes of Chimborazo No.

Route

Distance (km)

Average time (hours)

1

Urbina Guano Riobamba Riobamba Tunshi Riobamba Riobamba Licto Chambo Riobamba Riobamba Chambo Quimiag Riobamba Laguna de Colta Riobamba Guano Riobamba Riobamba Batzacón Guano Penipe Palitahua Tzalaron Laguna de Colta Guamote Riobamba Chimborazo - San Juan Chimborazo Tambohuasha Chimborazo - Urbina

37,8

4

Max 3.618

Min 2.750

Level (high-medium-low) Physical Technical Medium Medium

36,7

3

2.839

2.657

Medium

Medium

50

3,5

3.214

2.657

Medium

Low

36

2,5

2.904

2.545

Medium

Low

37

4,5

3.574

2.763

Low

21,2

2

2.862

2.650

Medium High Low

Low

26,2

2,5

3.071

2.748

Low

Low

28,6

2

2.503

2.401

Low

Low

27,7

2

3.591

2.948

Low

Low

38,6

35

3.228

2.702

Medium

Low

32

1,5

4.800

3.200

Low

Low

36,8

3

4.840

3.290

Medium

Low

40

3,5

4.800

3.335

Medium

Medium

2

3

4

5 6

7

8 9

10 11 12 13

Height (m)

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Finally, it is presented a list of MTB routes in the province of Chimborazo (Table 1), which were considered by the Tourism Ministry of Ecuador in a published document [24] with the aim of increase competitiveness, attractiveness, profitability, and benefits for the stakeholders involved in touristic activities related with cycle routes.

4 Conclusions New technologies have been developed and it has led to transformations in the tourism industry and it is imperative to face global challenges and opportunities. Moreover, in the global context of the COVID-19 pandemic, technological innovation associated with tourism has become highly appreciated for the potential to reduce human-human contact and for the possibility to reactivate and dynamize the economic sector. This study supports the statement that tourism destinations should cooperate between them to implement innovative resources in touristic regions. When we analyze the perception about the needs of an innovation resource to promote the touristic sector of Riobamba, it was evidenced that the stakeholders consider that the implementation of a free use mobile application that allows the integration of nature tourism and cycle routes could benefit and dynamize the touristic activities in Riobamba. Then, we identified the profile of the cycle routes users and found a clear tendency pointing to well-informed young people that enjoy developing this activity in natural places and willing to integrate a mobile application that should have included data like altitude, distance and, difficulty level to support their performance. Therefore, 14 points of interest that belong to the two main natural sites influencing tourism activities in Riobamba were briefly detailed and were consistent with the structure of MTB (mountain bike) routes provided by the Tourism Ministry of Ecuador. The information presented in this study evidence that in Riobamba it is pertinent the implementation of a resource of innovation to promote tourism based on a sustainability paradigm. Therefore, our work plans include as the next step, the technical design of a mobile application including the parameters here identified.

References 1. Hunter, W.C., Chung, N., Gretzel, U., Koo, C.: Constructivist research in smart tourism. Asia Pacific J. Inform. Syst. 25, 103–118 (2015) 2. Antti Pesonen, J.: Information and communications technology and market segmentation in tourism: a review. Tourism Rev. 68, 14–30 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-02-20130006 3. Beck, J., Rainoldi, M., Egger, R.: Virtual reality in tourism: a state-of-the-art review. Tourism Rev. 74, 586–612 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-03-2017-0049 4. Rincon, F.O., Tommasini, E., Rainoldi, M., Egger, R.: The future of wearable devices onsite: a scenario technique approach. In: Schegg, R., Stangl, B. (eds.) Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2017, pp. 285–299. Springer, Cham (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51168-9_21

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5. Dorcic, J., Komsic, J., Markovic, S.: Mobile technologies and applications towards smart tourism – state of the art. Tourism Rev. 74, 82–103 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-072017-0121 6. Gretzel, U., Werthner, H., Koo, C., Lamsfus, C.: Conceptual foundations for understanding smart tourism ecosystems. Comput. Hum. Behav. 50, 558–563 (2015). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.chb.2015.03.043 7. Konstantinova, S.: Digital transformation in tourism. Knowl. Int. J. 35(1), 188–193 (2019) 8. Wang, Y.-Y., Yu, D., Ju, Y.-C., Acero, A.: An introduction to voice search. IEEE Signal Process. Mag. 25, 28–38 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1109/MSP.2008.918411 9. Rozumowski, A., Kotowski, W., Klaas, M.: Resistance to customer-driven business model innovations: an explorative customer experience study on voice assistant services of a Swiss tourism destination. AJT 7(4), 191–208 (2020) 10. Lawlor, J.: Are you being served? The rise of robots in the services sector. Contributions from TU Dublin (2019). https://doi.org/10.21427/168n-c530 11. Osawa, H., et al.: Analysis of robot hotel: Reconstruction of works with robots. In: 2017 26th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (ROMAN), pp. 219–223 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1109/ROMAN.2017.8172305 12. Bowen, J., Whalen, E.: Trends that are changing travel and tourism. Worldwide Hospitality Tourism Themes 9, 592–602 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1108/WHATT-09-2017-0045 13. Ivkov, M., Blešić, I., Dudić, B., Pajtinková Bartáková, G., Dudić, Z.: Are future professionals willing to implement service robots? attitudes of hospitality and tourism students towards service robotization. Electronics 9, 1442 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/ electronics9091442 14. Dragović, N., Stankov, U., Vasiljević, Đ: Contactless technology as a factor of tourism industry development - a review of current practices and future directions. Econ. Themes 56, 179–202 (2018). https://doi.org/10.2478/ethemes-2018-0011 15. Basili, A., Liguori, W., Palumbo, F.: NFC smart tourist card: combining mobile and contactless technologies towards a smart tourist experience. In: 2014 IEEE 23rd International WETICE Conference, pp. 249–254 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1109/WETICE. 2014.61 16. Nica, I., Tazl, O.A., Wotawa, F.: Chatbot-based tourist recommendations using model-based reasoning. In: ConfWS, pp. 25–30 (2018) 17. Ukpabi, D.C., Aslam, B., Karjaluoto, H.: Chatbot adoption in tourism services: a conceptual exploration. In: Ivanov, S., Webster, C. (eds.) Robots, Artificial Intelligence, and Service Automation in Travel, Tourism and Hospitality, pp. 105–121. Emerald Publishing Limited (2019). https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-78756-687-320191006 18. Wise, N., Heidari, H.: Developing smart tourism destinations with the Internet of Things. In: Sigala, M., Rahimi, R., Thelwall, M. (eds.) Big Data and Innovation in Tourism, Travel, and Hospitality, pp. 21–29. Springer, Singapore (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-136339-9_2 19. Balandina, E., Balandin, S., Koucheryavy, Y., Mouromtsev, D.: IoT use cases in healthcare and tourism. In: 2015 IEEE 17th Conference on Business Informatics, pp. 37–44 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1109/CBI.2015.16 20. González-Rodríguez, M.R., Díaz-Fernández, M.C., Pacheco Gómez, C.: Facial-expression recognition: an emergent approach to the measurement of tourist satisfaction through emotions. Telematics Inform. 51, 101404 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2020.101404 21. Chiu, C.-C., Wei, W.-J., Lee, L.-C., Lu, J.-C.: Augmented reality system for tourism using image-based recognition. Microsyst. Technol. 27(4), 1811–1826 (2019). https://doi.org/10. 1007/s00542-019-04600-2

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Effects of Virtual Education on Lateral Mastery, Auditory Sequential Memory and Rhythm During the Literacy Process Rocío Duque(&) , Gladys Recalde , Nuria Galárraga Santiago Ponce , and Alejandra Portilla

,

Instituto Superior Tecnológico José Chiriboga Grijalva, El Oro y 13 de Abril, 100103 Ibarra, Ecuador [email protected]

Abstract. In the initial education stages, children are still in the development phase of basic functions or neurofunctions that represent the door to first contact with reality and the acquisition of first knowledge about their environment and the world. The discovery of one's own body, the exploration of the possibilities of action and distinct bodily functions constitute necessary experiences with which these children's thought process is built. Three of the seventeen basic functions that are essential requirements for the beginning of the literacy and numeracy learning processes were analysed. An experimental type design was used; data was collected in a sample before and after the onset of the global pandemic. For the evaluation, an aspect of the basic functions’ measurement test was applied, Adaptation UC.IE.DI.2000 in five-year-old children in the city of Ibarra, was applied. The children, who made up the sample population belong to a particular educational unit in the same city. The neurofunctions analysed were: lateral dominance, auditory sequential memory and rhythm. The data collection conditions were similar and with those, a comparison of means of maturity of the three neurofunctions was carried out in children who attend formal initial schooling in person and in children of the same age characteristics, who also attend initial and formal schooling, however, virtually. The results obtained showed that the children, during the pandemic, showed a higher level of maturity in lateral dominance and auditory sequential memory. Keywords: Neurofunctions
Basic functions
Maturity
Lateral dominance
Auditory sequential memory
Rhythm

1 Introduction For researchers of child development, such as Piaget and Vigotsky, the first years of life mark an important milestone in human development; in such a way, that what is done at this stage becomes the basis of the child's motor development, future learning and the construction of mental schemes [5]. This process of mental schema formation becomes more complex as the development of brain structures progresses from birth to school and depends largely on the events presented throughout childhood history, from pregnancy and the weeks of fetal maturity, up to the time of birth and the puerperium © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. I. A. Chauvin et al. (Eds.): CSECity 2021, LNNS 379, pp. 146–155, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94262-5_14

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[13]. In addition to the maturity of structures of the nervous system, infant development depends to a great extent, on the infant's experiences in relation to the environment; through which the social transmission of information and knowledge is carried out [8]. Since the literacy acquisition process is predetermined by psychomotor skills development prerequisites, therefore before an infant learns to read, he must discover concepts such as that “p” is down and “b” is up, and therefore both must know what is below and above. Then since this is learned, based on the development of the body schema, before any child can have a real appreciation of the directionality of letters, numbers and words, they must be clear about their own body structure, the possibilities of movement, laterality, spatio-temporal orientation, dynamic coordination, auditory and visual receptivity, visual memory, visual-motor coordination, amongst others [5] [2]. In this context, the importance of initial education takes on great value, as does the development of neurofunctions, which at this stage are of special attention since they are necessary for the educational process of such age and could be directly related to the appearance of learning problems, especially in the area of literacy, which is a means of learning for life and thus being able to have a quality education [2, 3]. Seventeen developmental factors are considered basic functions or neurofunctions that are essential requirements for entry into the basic school system since they are the basis for the acquisition of the literacy and calculation process [6] and these are: “… body scheme, lateral dominance, temporal and spatial orientation, dynamic coordination, auditory receptivity, visual receptivity, auditory association, manual expressiveness, vocal auditory closure, pronunciation, auditory sequential memory, visualauditory-motor coordination (rhythm), visual memory, auditory discrimination, visualmotor coordination, manual development and, attention and fatigue” [7]. The adequate development of basic functions, being at par with the sufficient maturation of the nervous system allows the acquisition of future learning, as its influence is decisive in knowledge acquisition and are considered as key factors of academic success or failure [11]. In essence, each unstructured neurofunction becomes a causative factor of difficulties to a correct educational development [11]. In this research, the neurofunctions analyzed were: lateral dominance, auditory sequence memory and visual-auditory-motor coordination or rhythm. Lateral dominance is considered to be the preference in the use of one of the symmetrical parts of the human body (right or left) in all its segments [12]. Auditory sequential memory is: “… The ability to acquire, retain and present facts that have stimulated the auditory organ. And, visual-auditory-motor coordination (rhythm) is the harmonic motor response to a visual or auditory pattern (sounds separated by intervals), which are manifested through pulsations (claps, blows, metronome)” [7]. In times of pandemic, formal education has adapted to the use of ICT as an educational model, so much so that in a study carried out in the United States in April 2020, once the first confinement caused by the coronavirus pandemic began, most parents polled (77.1%) reported that online tools for homeschooling were used for their children’s education, including educational applications, social networks and electronic resources provided by the school [9].

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The current data related to the long and short term ICT adaptation at home and with parental support is in process; However, one of the first investigations in this regard, carried out in the socio-affective area [9] in the United States, cites that more than a third (34.7%) of the parents interviewed said that their children’s behavior had changed since the pandemic. These changes include sadness, depression and loneliness. They also indicated that the school closings were a significant disruption, followed by lack of physical activity and social isolation. Regarding the development of neurofunctions, the studies found that they are oriented towards the conditions of face-to-face education and direct teacher-student interaction. From an academic point of view, the knowledge that could be generated in the future in pursuit of possible literacy and numeracy problems and other prompt challenges that must also be addressed early, is of transcendental importance. It is also important to point out that the design of strategies that favor learning, cognitive development, its causal mechanisms and variables that affect it from cognitive psychology and neuropsychology becomes prevalent in today's world since both focus on investigating and understanding how the brain learns and therefore, can contribute in a great way to provide a practical way of applying the various pedagogies that lead to equitable and quality training [1] which would also be key to help solve the neurofunctional problems that affect students at all stages of the educational system. The objective of the present investigation was to compare the maturity of the neurofunctions lateral dominance, auditory sequential memory and visual-auditorymotor coordination, in 5-year-old children who attend formal in person schooling and in children of the same age characteristics who, however attend virtual formal schooling.

2 Methodology The type of research was experimental. Here, a case study was used, analyzing the data obtained from the study of neurofunctions, through the application of the Basic Functions Test adaptation UC IE DI 2000, in a sampling carried out at different times that helped facilitate a study of different conditions of formal schooling (in the first instance, in person and in the second, virtual). It was also a descriptive research, applied to descriptive statistical results, which allowed a comparison of learning sources of the groups analyzed. The basic functions test used assesses lateral dominance by asking the child to fulfill a series of requirements with different parts of his body, while the examiner observes the dominance of one of the two sides of the body, determining the lateral dominance in eye, ear, hand and foot, children score positively as long as dominance is fully defined on either the right side or left of the body. Auditory sequential memory is evaluated by the repetition of a numerical series by the evaluated starting with three digits until ending with a series of eight digits and it is credited as a positive as long as the children repeated the eight-digit number series considered as the basic memory for literacy; and finally the visual-auditory-motor coordination was evaluated, by means of the exact repetition of a visual auditory motor pattern by clapping, which is credited as

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a positive score when all the series of claps and spaces of silence sequences have been correctly repeated, as proposed by the test [7]. The data obtained were recorded in tables and figures and analyzed by applying descriptive statistics. The first sampling consisted of forty-eight, five-year-old children in formal in person schooling; while the second group was made up of fifty, five-yearold children who regularly attend formal but virtual schooling. Children enrolled in initial education, from five years and one month to five years and eleven months of age, from a private educational center in the city of Ibarra, were included in the sample. As exclusion criteria, children younger or older than the indicated ages, who do not attend regular formal schooling, children with disabilities and children who attend public educational centers in the city of Ibarra, were taken into account.

3 Results and Discussion The results obtained were analysed, discussed and contrasted using descriptive statistics and group comparisons.

Fig. 1. Five-year-old children who attend face-to-face and virtual education

The total number of children participants in this research was ninety-eight. Figure 1 shows that 48% were enrolled in classroom education and 52%, in virtual education. The evaluation of the maturity of the lateral dominance neurofunctions, auditory sequential memory and rhythm, through the use of a fragment of the UC IE DI 2000 neurofunction test can be observed in Fig. 2.

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Fig. 2. Children in classroom education with structured lateral dominance (A), weakened (B) and children in virtual education with structured lateral dominance (C), weakened (D).

Regarding the lateral dominance neurofunction, it can be observed that 51% of the children presented structured neurofunction in face-to-face education (A), while 76% of the children in virtual education (C) have reached said condition of maturity, which infers that, for the group of children who have achieved maturity, have attained a great advancement in terms of the acquisition of one of the essential prerequisites for literacy and numeracy that will facilitate the effectiveness of their formal learning in the future. In an investigation carried out in 2013 in Quito, Ecuador with 45 children of preschool age, in face-to-face formal education, it was reported that the structuring of the lateral dominance neurofunction was 100% in the analysed sample [10]. In another research carried out in Esmeraldas City in Ecuador, it was concluded that 87.5% of the preschool children evaluated had this neurofunction structured [14]. From the variations found by these various authors, it can be inferred that the maturity of lateral dominance is directly related to the type and quality of stimulation received and as such be accorded special attention, given the importance of one’s body structure in motor development and the integral development of infantile learning [5]. Figure 3 shows the results obtained for the auditory sequential memory neurofunction.

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Fig. 3. Children in classroom education with structured auditory sequential memory (A), weakened (B) and children in virtual education with structured auditory sequential memory (C), weakened (D)

The 5-year-old children who attend formal in person schooling have this aspect weakened in its entirety (B), while 12% (C) of the children who attend virtual schooling have it structured; consequently, a higher percentage of children will have the prerequisite auditory sequential memory acquired at the commencement point of the literacy process, thus facilitating learning. According to Romero and Hernández, the memory, as a skill, plays a very important role during the reading process since it seeks to maintain and redistribute mental activation, putting into play the threads related to the lexical store, the phonological repertoire and articulatory fluency because these allow the correct decoding and understanding of the visual (reading) and auditory (reading aloud) stimuli to be carried out [15]. It can be inferred that stimulation through appropriate techniques, personalized tutoring and dedication of exclusive times for auditory sequential memory stimulation, represents the future ability of being a good reader. Although children's performance has improved by a significant percentage, this is not enough as only 12% of the children evaluated have this neurofunction correctly structured. This, in turn means that, 88% of these sample could still have disadvantages in the literacy acquisition in the future.

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Fig. 4. Children in classroom education with structured rhythm (A), weakened (B) and children in virtual education with structured rhythm (C), weakened (D)

Figure 4 presents the results of the evaluation of the coordination-visual-auditorymotor neurofunction. Figure 4 shows the results obtained when analysing the rhythm, being able to observe a decrease of 16% in its development under virtual class conditions at the initial level of education; This condition could cause problems in a higher percentage of children at the time of literacy skills acquisition and perfection. In a study carried out by Andrea Carretero-Martínez, Francisco Javier RomeroNaranjo, Jessica María Pons-Terrés, Natalia Crespo-Colomino in 2014 [4], the importance of learning children's rhythmic skills is emphasized since in the future, these will secure the literacy skills and learning processes of continuous patterns in general. These authors also propose the development of rhythm through listening activities, the use of rhythmic patterns and body percussion. As in the neurofunctions discussed above, rhythm and its development depend on adequate, effective, and relevant stimulation. With this new format, it can then be inferred that teaching skills are essential for its enhancement, as well as the skills that parents may have when complying with the teaching instructions. During the COVID-19 global pandemic, education was modified to allow teaching/learning activities be carried out in virtual environments. In this regard, UNESCO since 1998, argued that virtual learning environments constitute a new form of Educational Technology, offering a series of opportunities and demands for extra input from educational institutions around the world and furthermore, defines the virtual learning environment as a computer software directed to such educational pedagogical study which is made up of new learning and communication technologies [16].

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In the case of Ecuador, the local reality was not substantially different from the global one in terms of the virtualization of educational activities. However, in the case of initial education in general and the ones analysed in particular, there’s an additional requirement to a teacher responsible for any group of students - a personalized accompaniment by a caregiver or tutor for each infant; this, creating a much closer social support network fulfilling a series of functions and also helps to determine the discovery or not of learning problems plus the degree of well-being of infants; The stimulation of the neurofunctions analysed has therefore been carried out by this personal tutor, with the accompaniment of the group teacher, which has facilitated the development of lateral dominance and auditory sequential memory in a higher percentage of children.

4 Conclusions An important relationship exists between the maturity of the lateral dominance neurofunctions, auditory sequence memory and rhythm, and the formal beginning of literacy; These results show that these skills are essential requirements for effective literacy. Hence, the need to facilitate the acquisition and maturity of the auditory sequential memory, lateral dominance and rhythm neurofunctions at the beginning of the educational process. The results on the maturity of the auditory sequential memory neurofunctions and lateral dominance of the children who receive virtual education with personalized accompaniment are found to be of a higher percentage in this research, due to the teaching strategies used and the personalized accompaniments, one to one attention, received by the infants in their homes at all times. The methods and techniques used by the teaching staff for the learning of prerequisites in the acquisition of the literacy process, together with the personalized adult accompaniment provided to the children who formed the sample under study, justify the results obtained. This was evidenced by obtaining correct answers in accordance with the infant's level of development and age. The results indicate that it is necessary to create teaching and learning strategies that facilitate and stimulate the maturity of these neurofunctions of auditory sequential memory and lateral dominance, taking into account individual differences and to carry out research that provides alternatives to methods and strategies that contribute to the maturity of students’ neurofunctions, facilitating the literacy process and, therefore, educational quality. In this dissertation, the development of the children who received their classes with the virtual model seemed really notable; As could be seen when applying stimulation strategies in lateral dominance neurofunction, those children who received virtual stimulation achieved a development of said neurofunctions, 25% times higher than the face-to-face group. It is very important to carry out studies on the maturity of the neurofunctions, lateral dominance and auditory sequential memory because knowing the characteristics of the development of each child, facilitates the creation of strategies to lead the stimulation of neurofunctions; since these are influenced by cognitive and environmental conditions that can and should be taken into account.

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In addition to generating appropriate methods and techniques for the development of neurofunctions in the field of virtual education, the design of strategies for the development of socio-emotional skills and values to live in a society should not be neglected. Another important aspect that must be taken into account is the generation of motivating experiences towards learning, which maintain child care and develop metacognition. This, in turn, creating bonds that help dissuade school desertion and dropout by creating human contact between teachers and students, and among groups of students; peers that provide follow-up, accompaniment and reinforcement, thereby again, discouraging school desertion and dropout. In this research, surrounded by a pandemic with unforeseen methodological changes and a pressing socio-economic situation, it was possible to confirm the importance of the active participation of parents in child development. The results obtained show how, despite the negative circumstances presented, it was possible to detect how the new stimulation and accompaniment strategies applied in virtual instruction generated a greater influence on child development. These strategies must remain even after the situation that created these circumstance is resolved. It is believed that only unpleasant consequences can be obtained from negative circumstances. However, they allow us to think about the options that should not be taken and offer alternatives and opportunities that are real challenges in the search for a better existence. From the negative aspects we must also draw positives, as that allows us the knowledge of what ought to, and ought not be done and how things can be improved.

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9. Lee, S.J., Ward, K.P., Chang, O.D., Downing, K.: Actividades de crianza y transición a la educación en el hogar durante la pandemia de COVID-19. Revisión de servicios para niños y jóvenes. 122, 105–585 (2021) 10. Martínez Sevilla, S.: Desarrollo de las neurofunciones y su incidencia en la pre-lecto escritura en niños y niñas del primer año de básica del Jardín de Infantes José Luis Román en la ciudad de Quito en el año 2011 con la propuesta de una guía de ejercicios para desarrollar las neurofunciones en la pre lecto-escritura dirigida a las docentes parvularias de la institución (2013) 11. Mateo, V.: El fracaso escolar en educación primaria. Temas para la educación (8), 1–12 (2010). https://www.feandalucia.ccoo.es/docu/p5sd7200.pdf 12. Mera, C., Gómez, B.: Neurofunciones en la enseñanza preescolar: importancia en el proceso de enseñanza aprendizaje y la atención de salud. Correo Científico Médico 24(1), 400–421 (2020) 13. Pereira-Cerro, A., Lanzarote-Fernández, M., Barbancho-Morant, M., Padilla-Munoz, E.: Evolución del desarrollo psicomotor en preescolares con antecedentes de prematuridad. Anales de Pediatría 93(4), 228–235 (2020) 14. Pérez, M.: Análisis de los patrones motores y lateralidad en los niños y niñas de inicial 2 de la Unidad Educativa Particular “Francés” (Doctoral dissertation, Ecuador PUCESE-Escuela Ciencias de la Educación–Educación Inicial) (2020) 15. Romero, E., Hernandez, N.: El papel de la memoria en el proceso lector. Umbral científico 19, 24–31 (2011) 16. Soria, R., Carolina, D., Silva, M.: Entornos de aprendizaje virtuales y su incidencia en el ámbito de descubrimiento del medio natural en preparatoria del Colegio Militar “Eloy Alfaro”, en el periodo lectivo 2020–2021 semester (2021)

Interactive Software for the Learning of Mathematics in Elementary School Students in the Province of Tungurahua Paulina Sánchez1(&), Ligia Jácome2, Cinthya Sancho3, and Richard Sánchez4 1

Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Av. Manuelita Sáenz y Agramonte, 180103 Ambato, Ecuador [email protected] 2 180207 Píllaro, Ecuador 3 Ideanautas Lam, La Península, 180104 Ambato, Ecuador 4 Universidad Tecnológica Israel, 170516 Quito, Ecuador

Abstract. This article shows a study on the impact of the development of a video game for the teaching of mathematics in elementary school students, developed mainly to strengthen knowledge as a new educational resource for teachers to give interactive classes changing the usual way in which they teach, which would cause the student's interest in learning. The methodology used was based on three phases: first, an exploratory research was carried out in the Gabriela Mistral institution in San Pedro de Pelileo (Ecuador), second, the video game was developed with an agile methodology, applying an adaptive algorithm in its architecture that helps the children's knowledge to be modified through the game, expanding the knowledge information they have. Finally, a determined group of students was evaluated to know whether or not the game contributed to their education and it was found that an increase of 27.78% was achieved in their knowledge, in relation to the levels they had with the conventional learning method. Keywords: Learning


Mathematics
Interactive program
Video games

1 Introduction Education is extremely important in Ecuador, which is why there are articles in the Constitution that prioritize this issue: Art. 26.- Education is a right of people throughout their lives and an inescapable and inexcusable duty of the State. It constitutes a priority area of public policy and state investment, a guarantee of equality and social inclusion, and an indispensable condition for a good life. Individuals, families and society have the right and the responsibility to participate in the educational process [1]. Education is the formation of individuals in the evolution of intelligence, knowledge, thought and conscience that provide significant advances for their survival, i.e., education in human beings is the process by which they acquire knowledge and this allows them to integrate into society in a given professional environment [2]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. I. A. Chauvin et al. (Eds.): CSECity 2021, LNNS 379, pp. 156–170, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94262-5_15

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Nowadays new teaching methods have been increasing for education that humans did not have before, since technology had not advanced so much, but today technology and learning go hand in hand, since we live in a network society, in which education is essential to have knowledge and for the future development of individuals both in the economic and social sphere and the systems that most attribute to this knowledge is the information found by browsing the network as: interactive applications that allow the student to learn in a broader and less monotonous way [3]. Interactive applications are multimedia systems that can be accessed through a computer. These systems present and combine text, graphics, audio and video, allowing direct contact with the user, since they can navigate, interact, create and communicate through these platforms, which are currently very necessary to capture the attention of students [4]. Applications are video games, which are programs designed to amuse and entertain. They can be found in various media such as computers, cell phones and consoles that provide users with playful experiences through the audiovisual languages they transmit [5]. The creator must offer the user applications that are easy to manipulate, for the target group to which this proposal is being dedicated and must have two key concepts in its undertaking: usability and accessibility, which will result in the student's interest in the educational content and contextualize their lectures on their own, facilitating their own learning [6]. These can play an important role in children's learning, since nowadays the perception of a video game is no longer the same. Now they can be a pastime with pedagogical values that serve to motivate and stimulate learning, resulting in the concentration of students [7]. Mathematical learning for elementary school students through video games allows the development of content where, while having fun, the child acquires substantial information, which facilitates the way in which he/she captures and retains information. These are characterized by awakening the students’ interest in learning, facilitating the teacher's work [8]. In these games, students learn by trial and error, the error does not cause any frustration in them, but rather motivates them to reach the goal with the rules of the game, but without the pressure of winning or losing [9]. The methodology was developed through exploratory research that evidences the contribution of an interactive video game in education, the development of the video game was through a planning process and finally a determined group of students was evaluated to know if the game contributed or not in education. The results show that with the use of the video game the levels of knowledge in mathematics increased in relation to the levels of achievement with the conventional method.

2 Related Projects and Articles Here are some applications that used this type of technology and have contributed significantly to the learning of mathematics. Hearthstone is a game for children that teaches them mental arithmetic operations using cards during the game [10].

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The Number Race is a videogame which was created with the purpose of teaching kindergarten children about topics such as numerical comparison of numbers and words [11]. Video games such as Pokemon Go, Angry Birds and Tetris occupy a fundamental place in the leisure time of children, they learn without realizing mathematical and physical concepts that are given to them only in school environments [10]. These investigations have contributed in some way to cognitive development in the area of mathematics in children in regular education in different countries. However, in Ecuador, few studies have been conducted in this area. And those that have been analyzed by the research team are limited, boring and unchallenging. Many have game possibilities; others do not show degrees of complexity or different levels of difficulty. There are few tools that provide a dynamic adaptation in the games and an adaptive workflow, which makes these tools unsustainable. This fact has provided the opportunity to create a video game, evaluating its usefulness in a quasi-experimental study in a real context.

3 Method The method used was based on the following phases: first, an exploratory research was conducted to find out how an interactive video game would contribute to education, which was applied to students, teachers who teach classes and parents who have direct contact with the target group; second, the video game was developed through a planning process; and finally, a specific group of students was evaluated to find out whether or not the game contributed to education. The phases are detailed below. 3.1

Exploratory Research

The analysis was carried out with thirty-eight people, including parents, boys and girls of 8 and 9 years of age, plus interviews with 7 teachers of the Gabriela Mistral school in San Pedro de Pelileo (Ecuador), which is the staff of this school in the area of teaching at the basic levels. First, an observation sheet of a class was given to sixth grade students to visualize the strengths and weaknesses that exist in that classroom and it was noted that the teacher shows mastery in the topics he teaches in class, but does not use any technology to make the class more dynamic and interactive. On the other hand, in the interviews conducted with the teachers, it was found that the classes they teach are still the same as years ago, due to the limited technological resources to teach their classes. However, when the possibility of creating a technological solution to support their work in the classroom was mentioned to them, they were very interested and agreed with the implementation of interactive teaching, since it would help them to reinforce the topics developed in class. The surveys concluded that children in their homes do have access to electronic devices for entertainment, but parents did not know that they can also use these elements as teaching tools, which seemed to them a very interesting and positive idea for the education of their children. For all these reasons, it was timely and relevant to create a video game for teaching.

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Development of the Video Game

The methodology applied in the development of the video game is shown in Fig. 1 below.

Fig. 1. Production process of an adapted video game: The production process of a video game: production phases.

3.2.1 Pre-Production Phase The pre-production phase consisted of the planning process that served to define the game and the aspects that would have to be carried out for its materialization. The genre of the video game is educational action with a 2d realistic aesthetics for the teaching of mathematics in elementary school students, the plot that will be discussed is that children as they grow up are learning with the guidance of a teacher who will help them in their evolution. In its architecture it will be characterized for being a realistic game with a linear story, that is to say, as the student evolves in his knowledge, the character with whom he will play will also evolve, so there will be levels with certain degrees of difficulty. This is why it is a game with an adaptive mechanism and will always be entertaining, provocative and sustainable for the student [12]. The script includes some parts such as: the type of game, the idea and the premise. The type of game is a video game in which there are two characters Ana and Pepe who must go through three different levels of difficulty, with certain enemies and a teacher who will ask them questions so they can continue playing, the idea is that while they go through difficulties with their enemies they solve the questions to reach the goal and finally the premise has the purpose that the video game serves as audiovisual material to increase knowledge on the subject of the multiplication tables. The plot covers some topics such as: the implication, which is based on the fact that any of the two characters chosen by the user must fulfill the mission to reach the goal and move to the next level through the questions that the teacher asks, if they are incorrect the question will be different preventing the player from reaching the goal, the

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events are about the help that the teacher gives to the children to see the interest they have to learn and the series of levels to pass, The surprise is that in each level the difficulty of the game is increasing and has different scenarios that helps to not be something routine, in the denouement to reach the final goal of the three levels there will be a scene in which you can see the children go home after meeting their goal and finally the gameplay in which the person-je's mission is to collect numbers to go adding and the teacher can make him the questions that must be answered correctly. The sketches were made by hand in order to visualize the features, clothing and characteristics that the characters of the game have before making them digitally (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Sketches

It was also observed that the game is dramatic, since the character must interact with the objects in his environment through certain actions that will lead him to a clear objective, which are the questions he must answer. As the player goes through levels, the scenery, objects and some characters will change in order to make the game complex and interesting for the user. The Game Design Document is the part that allows to synthesize in depth everything related to the game, which includes the following parts: the genre, as previously mentioned is purely educational action with a multiplatform, players will have a single player mode, the story is based on two children who while going through the game learn to multiply, the look and feel refers to the characters formed in 2d with chibi-realistic style, In the user interface the game was made for the student to play using the up, down, right and left keys, the space key to jump and the mouse to interact with the objects in the game, in the objectives we talk about each level. Level 1, 2 and 3 consisted of the character having to collect number balls and correctly answer the questions asked by the teacher in order to pass to the next level, but in level 3 what will change is that the character will reach a sign that will say exit and the game will end. The rules of the game were based on that the characters must collect all the balls so they can answer the teacher's questions, the characteristics in the children is that they jump, run and answer questions, the chalk dust walks and the balls are distributed on the game map, in the design of levels, the first one is based on the implementation of platforms made of chalk, in the level design, the first one is based on the implementation of platforms made of chalk, blackboard erasers and rulers, in which the character

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cannot be touched by the enemy that is a chalk dust and if he touches him he cannot reach the goal, in level two the platforms are made of tables, books and rulers and has an eraser as enemy and finally in level three the platforms are made of blocks and backpacks with an enemy of papel ball. 3.2.2 Production Phase In this phase the game was elaborated digitally. Here you can find the artistic design of the game or also known as the art bible of the game, which has to do with the appearance and physique that will have this interactive platform, here are four elements such as: the story, sound, interface and graphics, these artistic aspects made it different from other games that exist in the market [13]. The story of the game 9K multiplication tables is about two cousins (Ana and Pepe) who studied in downtown, they have to deal with is multiplication tables in a math class, the teacher is good and teaches in a fun way. Ana is a 7-year-old Ecuadorian girl who was born on October 29, 2012, with cinnamon skin, long brown hair and a round face. She is cheerful and sporty, she is dressed in a white short-sleeved shirt with blue parts, a blue skirt, black shoes with white, white socks and a headband (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Girl-Ana

Pepe is a 7-year-old Ecuadorian boy who was born on September 1, 2012, with cinnamon skin, short brown hair and a round face. He is a cheerful and sporty person; he is dressed in a white short-sleeved shirt with blue parts, blue pants and black shoes with white (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Boy-Pepe

Professor Yoli is 33 years old, Ecuadorian born on July 25, 1986, her physical appearance is cinnamon skin, has short brown hair and an oval face. Her special characteristics are that she is a happy and confident person; she is dressed in a gray uniform with blue parts, a white shirt and black shoes (Fig. 5).

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Fig. 5. Teacher

The sound is the sound elements that the game will have. The music that was used in the start menu, controls scene, scene to choose the characters and the description scene of each level is called Rock Me- Jan Boyle, the music of level 1,2 and 3 is by Kevin MacLeod- B-Roll Ska version, the music of the failed level scene is under a starry sky- Axess and the final sound of the victory scene is a happy children's scream. The interface refers to how the GUI (Graphical User Inter-face) and HUD (HeadUp Display) elements will be visualized, which in the game are in charge of informing the player the amount of balls he has collected and how many lives he has, being an important element of the game (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Interface

The graphics of the game were designed in 2D, which was made using sprites (bitmap) and tiles (backgrounds or scenarios) elaborated with Adobe Illustrator CS6 (Fig. 7).

Interactive Software for the Learning of Mathematics in Elementary School

Ana – Immobile

Ana – Walking

Ana – Jumping

Ana – Losing a life

Ana – turning around

Pepe – Immobile

Pepe – Walking

Fig. 7. Character animation (Sprites)

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Pepe – Jumping

Pepe – Losing a life

Pepe – Turning around

Teacher – Immobile

Enemy (Chalk dust) - walking

Enemy (Draft) - walking

Enemy (paper ball) – walking

Fig. 7. (continued)

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Likewise, the mechanical design contextualized the interaction guidelines with the game, the internal rules and the type of communication that the game will have. The student could interact with the game through his computer, using the keys to perform the actions of the character and would use the mouse to answer the questions, the rules that this platform has is that you must collect all the balls without touching the enemies, but if you do so you would be deducted a life and have to start the level again, to prevent this from happening you should jump over the enemies to reach the goal and the teacher will ask the question. The game was distributed for its use by means of a cd that had the application to be installed in the computer. Finally, the engine with which the game was made is called Unity, which is a tool that allows making video games through an editor and a scripting that are easy to use, supported by Visual Basic, which is responsible for the programming language. Unity as mentioned above is an engine that is used for the creation of interactive games with architectural designs in real time, as its main feature is that their results are of the highest quality and are made with minimal effort, as it is a very easy to use system [14]. The video game architecture is shown in Fig. 8 below.

Fig. 8. Architecture of 9K multiplicative tables

In its architecture, the videogame had a dynamic game difficulty adaptation algorithm and adaptive workflow, which allowed the tool to be always challenging and sustainable for the child. The first, which is based on the child's performance in the game, causes the game to change difficulty without the child noticing it; and consisted of increasing or decreasing the degree of difficulty between two related levels according to the mastery achieved in the current level. If at the end of a level, his performance has not been completely achieved, the next challenge would be easier to overcome; but, on

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the contrary, if at the end of a certain level, he has completely overcome the challenge, the next level would be a little more difficult to achieve, all this accompanied by the flexibility in the child's work flow, as he makes his own decisions through the game, since he can decide on which challenge, he wants to face. Figure 9 shows the development and coding block.

Fig. 9. Unity and visual basic - game engines

The unified model is a language that allows to describe the game map, in which you can see the interaction that will take place in each scene. In the alpha-ha tests of the video game, first it was tested with a small group and thanks to this it was possible to know some errors such as: the player or avatar that when walking did not flow correctly, some balls with numbering were not valid to be counted with the counter and some interactions with the teacher did not allow the player to follow his path because she obstructed the passage. The beta tests were carried out after having corrected the previous faults of the game; these tests were performed on 12 children of basic education who were in the fourth grade. Finally, the gold master could not be executed since this process is for more commercial video games and the purpose for which this project was developed was experimental in the area of education. 3.2.3 Post-Production Phase The objective of this phase was to commercialize the product, but the purpose of the project was as an experimental program for the area of education. After the development of the game, a test was carried out with the participation of students from the Gabriela Mistral Institution in San Pedro de Pelileo, in which the prototype of the game was evaluated, seeing positive processes in the children, since it kept them motivated and very focused on the action they were performing, the following evaluation will be described below. Experimentation in a Real Context Participants A total of 12 elementary school children in the fourth grade participated in this study (Table 1).

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Table 1. Participants’ demographic data Type Boys and girls Chronological age Level of education Regular 12 8y9 Fourth grade Total 12

Experimental Instrument A laptop and the school's computer room were used as experimental instruments, and the program was installed on the desktop computers using a flash memory (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10. Children using the Video Game 9K Multiplication Tables

Note. Adapted from Aplicaciones interactivas para el aprendizaje de contenidos educativos a nivel básico medio en el cantón Ambato (p. 90), Sancho Cinthya, 2019, Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica. Procedure With the authorization of the authorities and parents, we approached the children to validate the function of the video game. First of all, tests were carried out to see if the equipment worked in order to evaluate the tool. Then, with the equipment turned on and the game installed in each machine, the children were told how to play, the purpose of this proposal and some questions were asked to the students to find out their degree of mathematical knowledge. Finally, they were told that they could start playing the game activities and high levels of motivation and concentration could be noticed in them. Statistic Analysis For the quantitative statistical analysis, the achievement level data obtained by the students in this new learning strategy were calculated; a quantitative analysis of the data was applied, and it was verified, in the first instance, that the achievement level data, with the two moments of the study (T1/T2), behaved normally; for this purpose and due to the size of the sample, the Shapiro Wilks test was applied (p > 0.05). Subsequently, the parametric Student's t-test (p < 0.05) with a confidence level of 95% was applied to determine whether or not there were significant statistical differences between the levels of achievement at these two moments.

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4 Results The means, standard deviation and statistics of the achievement levels obtained by the group of students at these two points in time T1 and T2 are shown in the following table (Table 2 and Fig. 11). Table 2. Means, standard deviations and percentages of achievement level results according to students’ knowledge before and after the video game. Moment N M SD Achievement level Before the videogame (T1) 6 8.33 3.771236 69.44 After the videogame (T2) 6 11.67 0.745356 97.22

Result of achievement levels in T1 and T2 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Before the videogame

After the videogame

Fig. 11. Statistics of average achievement levels for the methods used.

These results show that with the use of the video game, the levels of knowledge in mathematics increased by 27.78%, in relation to the levels of achievement with the conventional method. However, to determine if there were significant statistical differences between the achievement levels using the video game and the achievement levels using the traditional method, first, the Shapiro-Wilks test was applied, showing the following results: The data of the achievement levels, with the conventional method (p = 0.500), and using the video game (p = 0.172); which indicates that the data of the achievement levels with the two methods did come from normalized samples. Subsequently, with the results of normality of the data; the parametric Student's t-test was applied to analyze the statistical differences when comparing the achievement levels of the experimentation; showing as a result: (t = −6.75, gl = 12, p = 0.000). Therefore, it could be concluded that, with the use of the 9K in the classroom, the performance measured by the levels of achievement in the children were superior, compared to the use of the conventional method, since there were significant statistical differences, with a 95% confidence level and a significance level of 0.

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5 Conclusions This research, carried out jointly with teachers, parents and students, was fundamental for the execution of this study. The first interviews gave indications of the importance of creating an interactive software to strengthen the teaching of mathematics in elementary school children. For the realization of the video game, agile methodological principles were applied, resulting in an interface that meets the needs of the target group to which the proposal is being offered, which, when realized, provided the students with all the expected characteristics such as: interest in the subject, concentration, motivation and entertainment at the time of learning. When the game was shown to the fourth grade students of the Gabriela Mistral school in San Pedro de Pelileo, through an analysis of statistical data, it was noted that the game was positive, since an increase of 27.78% was achieved in their knowledge, in relation to the levels they had with the conventional method of learning. The statistical model applied showed that in this study there were significant statistical differences in learning with the use of the video game versus the traditional method; with a significance level of (p = 0.000).

6 Future Work In this study an intervention was made in the area of mathematics learning through the evaluation of a video game in third grade children. As a future work, it would be interesting to evaluate the tool with children with some type of disability, since in the province of Tungurahua there is a great need for technological tools to help in special education centers. It would also be advisable to address other areas such as learning a second language by implementing tools of this type.

References 1. Constitución de la República del Ecuador (2008) 2. Rodríguez, J.M.: Temas relevantes en teoría de la educación, Ediciones Universidad Salamanca (2011) 3. Mominó, J., Sigalés, C., Meneses, J.: La escuela en la sociedad red. In: UOC (2007) 4. Melero, M.Á.A., et al.: Aplicaciones de las nuevas Tecnologías en el aprendizaje de la lengua castellana. Sociedad Anónima de Fotocomposición (2002) 5. Juárez, A.G., Mombiela, T.V.: Los videojuegos. In: UOC (2007) 6. i Saltiveri, T.G., Vidal, J.L., Delgado, J.J.C.: Diseño de sistemas interactivos centrados en el usuario. In: UOC (2005) 7. Gutiérrez, G.C., Zambrano, P.R.: G. D. d. l. UCP, Ed. (2014) 8. Armas, A.G.: Las habilidades sociales en el aula (2009) 9. Bruner, J.: El proceso de educación. Ediciones Uteha (1972) 10. Masip, N.C., Fernández, J.T., Bosco, A.: Los videojuegos como medio de aprendizaje: un estudio de caso en matemáticas en Educación Primaria, pp. 133–150 (2017)

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11. Wilson, A., Dehaene, S., Dubois, O., Fayol, M.: Effects of an adaptive game intervention on accessing number sense in low-socioeconomic-status kindergarten children. Mind Brain Educ. Soc. 3, 224–234 (2009) 12. Stanitsas, M., Kirytopoulos, K.: Facilitating sustainability transition through serious games: a systematic literature review. J. Cleaner Prod. 208, 924–936 (2019) 13. Manrubia, A.M.: El proceso productivo del videojuego: fases de producción. Historia y comunicación social 19 (2014) 14. Ouazzani, I.: Ingeniería en Informática, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid. Departamento de Informática (2012)

ICT and Interactive Multimedia in Teaching 3D Sculpting Design Richard Patricio Sánchez Sánchez1(&), Diana Gabriela Flores Carrillo2, María Cristina Paredes Morales3, and Paulina Elizabeth Sánchez Sánchez4 1

4

Universidad Tecnológica Israel, Quito 170516, Ecuador [email protected] 2 Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador Sede Ambato, Ambato 180207, Ecuador 3 Instituto Superior Tecnológico Pelileo, MFG6+CW, Pelileo, Ecuador Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Av. Manuelita Sáenz y Agramonte, 180103 Ambato, Ecuador

Abstract. This research has focused on how information and communication technologies and interactive multimedia have transformed the field of education through the application of interactive multimedia resources oriented to learning three-dimensional design and sculpting through the use of Z Brush. The methodology is based on three phases: Analytical, Creative, and Executive. A quantitative and qualitative approach is presented with the use of surveys and interviews as research techniques. The surveyed group were the students of the Graphic Design School at the Technological University Israel in Quito, Ecuador. The survey´s main goal was to determine the student´s knowledge of handling Z Brush to create an interactive educational product that could help students learn this software. Experts in 3D design and sculpting were interviewed in order to know the feasibility of this project. In addition, with the prototype of the product, a focus group was held with the students. Finally, it is concluded that student learning involves improving their learning pace by incorporating ICTs in the classroom, thereby developing new skills and competencies in the construction of knowledge, managing high results, educational quality and opening new possibilities in 3D sculpting learning and teaching. Keywords: ICT


Interactive multimedia
3D sculpting
Z Brush

1 Introduction The Israel Technological University (Quito, Ecuador) has always been up-to-date as regards the incorporation of technological resources, in order to be faithful to the fulfillment of its objectives as a university institution. That is why, under the fact of continuing to contribute to the construction of knowledge of the students of the School of Design, this project consists of carrying out the development of a didactic tool to contribute to the learning and teaching of the student body. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. I. A. Chauvin et al. (Eds.): CSECity 2021, LNNS 379, pp. 171–184, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94262-5_16

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To achieve and reinforce the construction of knowledge, one of the highly efficient resources is the creation of an interactive multimedia product that will facilitate the teacher’s task in terms of teaching Z Brush since the interactive content will include video tutorials that will facilitate the student learning the software in question. The design student will have the possibility to review the product in the university library. Also, you will find didactic videos recorded by the teacher who will gradually explain the management of the software from its basic mode to a medium level of learning. The key to the universe of information is now available to any individual or entity due to the innovation and evolution of information and communication technologies (ICT), which have allowed the transformation of access to the most precious and treasured in the digital era: Information and communication. “By new technologies, we mean the set of support tools and channels for the treatment and access to information. ICTs are systems or products capable of taking information, storing it, processing it, and transmitting it. Facilitating decision-making and making the senses intelligible” [1]. ICTs have transformed and revolutionized the daily lives of individuals around the world, as well as different fields, including education inside and outside the classroom. Thus, ICTs play a relevant role in current education, since, by taking advantage of them, it can contribute to academic institutions developing ways of integration and academic training processes in students, thus enabling the introduction of new forms of collaborative teaching and learning. “ICTs can enhance the quality of education in several ways: by increasing learner motivation and engagement, by facilitating the acquisition of basic skills and by enhancing teacher training” [2]. A new panorama in the pedagogical model may arise when the teacher makes use of educational technology as a support alternative that contributes to learning and teaching, as well as to better construction of knowledge from an emotional and sensory perspective. ``Educational technology is a dynamic, progressive and important mechanism in the field of education which modifies teaching and learning process'' [3]. Integrating ICT by the teacher within their chair contributes to the pedagogical model used by the teacher, increasing student learning effectively. Likewise, the teacher, at the time of imparting knowledge of a certain topic, optimizes time, since, with the implementation of a virtual educational tool, he will not see the need to repeat topics already covered. To the extent that knowledge regarding 3D Design is built and formed, remembering and/or reinforcing topics already covered in class through the creation of a hypermedia learning system can be of great help to the teacher as well as the student. This also implies that the teacher does not find himself in the task of repeating fundamental topics already covered in the classroom. “Within the framework of the increasingly demanding use of ICT, organizational and management forms must be provided for teaching practices in virtuality” [4]. Daily tasks - be they simple or complex - have been adapted to new working methods, reconfiguring and modifying organizations in any field. That said, since the appearance of the computer and its evolution by leaps and bounds, it has allowed the birth of a society immersed in the ever-changing and innovative universe of technology, as well as information. Because the internet has become the primary means of accessing information and communication, a sequence of events has occurred that have enabled the processing of data to be deployed, whether sent or stored.

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The ICT are immersed in several areas of a social sphere, as a human fact, “The use of technology marks transformative practices that have consequences not only in our ways of doing and in the fields of the social, economic or political, but in our interactions, in the way of understanding the collective or community” [5]. From a sociological point of view, ICT are the nucleus of the information society and are agents of socialization that promote a specific culture. Also, they are cognitive mediators in human activity. They are part of a political and economic project. And, from didactics, they are part of teaching resources.

2 Background 2.1

Multimedia

The term multimedia is not new, since it has gradually been incorporated into the language of the public, making it a familiar term. It emerged in parallel with ICT, which offer the user the experience of obtaining, processing and storing information. Its etymological definition comes from the Latin Multi (many, multiple) and Medium (medium). So, it involves the combination of multiple media. Piñeira defines multimedia as “all that integrated narration, devoid of fissures, of different types of data – text, images, sound, audiovisual – in a single digital information environment’’ [6]. 2.2

ICT and Multimedia in the Classroom

Teachers have taken on a new challenge by incorporating ICT, developing skills and competencies to provide relevant learning as a necessary complement and a much more effective method than traditional teaching, and improving learning styles and rhythms by using ICT to manage educational results or quality in a context that operates the information and communication society.“ Multimedia learning, as a media and digital technology-based learning experience, enables the learner to engage with instructional content and solve problems by means of self-exploration, collaboration and active participation” [7]. ICTs are a support for the teacher as a complementary parallel activity oriented to their chair, respecting the pedagogical discourse in the training process, where the teacher embraces various technological resources with the purpose that students can self-control their tasks, as well as having greater access to various alternatives and learning resources, thus complementing the construction of knowledge with the use of educational tools that recall, clarify and deepen a specific topic covered by the teacher, doing activities through the online application/offline of ICT, thus contributing to the teaching process and taking advantage of the instantaneous nature of ICT, which facilitates rapid access and exchange of information. The role of the teacher is not only limited to following the guidelines of a text and transferring their knowledge to students but currently, it is the teacher who recognizes the need to develop in students a digital culture that contributes to the learning process

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and teaching through the application of multimedia resources which have virtual environments and spaces related to the subject in their content, so the student can interact and associate topics taught in class using an easy-to-understand, intuitive and friendly graphical interface. ICTs do not have the absolute capacity to comply with the student’s educational process, the role of the teacher in the educational process is not limited to informing or communicating through ICT, but the teacher, in addition to teaching the class, relies on multimedia products to direct students to carry out specific activities related to the class. 2.3

Advantages of the Use of ICTs in Education

According to the current constitution of Ecuador in the third section of Information and Communication Article 16 it is established that: All people, individually or collectively, have the right to universal access to information and communication technologies [8]. The use of ICT by the teacher in the training and process of higher education leads to produce important transformations within the field of education, providing multiple advantages in the teaching of the chair such as: “The application of Technologies to Education has become a new feature of professional teaching. This forces the teacher to understand the pedagogical potential of this tool, to be trained and to be able to integrate it efficiently into the teaching-learning process’’ [5]. The space-time barriers to which teaching-learning has been conditioned are eliminated, thereby achieving the construction of a non-real physical space (cyberspace), in which communicative media interactions tend to develop at any place and time. Although the teacher is addressing a group of students, ICTs act as a personal teacher for each student, thus achieving personalized, objective and effective teaching. It gives the student as well as the instructor the ease and easy access to information, obtaining current and not obsolete information, and not only textual but also tone, visual and dynamic information. Using ICT in the classroom means having a subject that is difficult for the student to assimilate into a subject that can be easily understood through a digital program that helps in the student develop awareness. ICTs visually bring the user to the environments he knows, because they must be identical in the actual and physical settings in which the user lives so that the user feels satisfied with the interface interaction. ICTs have an impact on the student to catch their attention and interest, inspiring them to dig further into a subject covered by courses, and therefore to learn more. With greater training and instructional performance, ICT will help to enhance the production of new teaching technologies. ICTs serve as encouragement to the teacher inside and outside the classroom, so that he can organize and spend his time in other tasks directed at his chair.

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3 Method This research work is built on the basis of 3 phases established by Bruce Archer’s systematic model: Analytical, Creative and Executive. 3.1

Analytical Phase

The research approach of this work is compound of a hybrid type since it is qualitative and quantitative. The field research was carried out with the technique of a structured survey, the same one that was oriented to the students of the School of Design of the Israel Technological University in Quito, Ecuador. The sample was 123 senior and sophomore students at senior students at the Technological University Israel, indistinct gender, from 23 to 25 years of age. Through the survey, it was identified that the student´s level of knowledge of Z Brush is zero due to this software does not appear within the curriculum of the School of Design of the university in question. That is why the survey determined the interest of the students in learning this software. Thus, the results of the survey were that 90% of the students did not know about the use of Z Brush. Only 11% can differentiate between 3D modeling and sculpting. 86% only use Cinema 4D. 10% have ever heard of Z Brush. 100% of the students would be willing to learn how to use the Z Brush through a multimedia product. Also, two structured interviews were conducted with Santiago Campaña (Professor at the Israel University in charge of the Chair of Multimedia Design III) and Esteban Durán, Art Director of Norlop Thompson in the city of Quito, Ecuador. Campaña, stated that “The creation of interactive multimedia whose content is the incorporation of video tutorials, it seems to me that it is a very useful tool can be used to reinforce what is explained to them in class, so we do not explain class again to class. Such a project would be quite feasible for students to have a reference and a memory of classes because sometimes writing in a notebook does not make things easier”. technologies. Durán, referring to the use of 3D design and sculpting in his advertising agency, claims that: “There are several factors in which the budget and execution time turn out to be highly determining factors. There are situations where the only solution that can be given to a graphic product is through 3D design. Here, the creative team can have the most spectacular ideas, which could not materialize without the use of this technology”. 3.2

Creative Phase

To propose a product name that is easy to associate for the target group, the creative Brainstorming technique was used, in such a way that ideas relevant to 3D sculpting were emitted. This can be seen in Table 1.

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R. P. Sánchez Sánchez et al. Table 1. Product name brainstorming Ideas regarding 3D sculpting Ideas regarding to 3D education Clay Beginners Pixels New software Brushes Video classes Chiselling Video tutorials Chisel 3D sculpted Z Brushing Teaching and learning

The ideas thrown up by the brainstorming were outlined using the Tony Buzan’s Mind Maps technique to find a name for the interactive product. In the mind map, 5 different optics were established (language, Z Brush, Design, Target and Visual), the same ones that are considered as the mother roots. Above each root there is a word related to the problem as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Mind map naming

An analogy to a sculpting tool was established: the chisel. This tool turns out to be the protagonist of the product identifier. With the guiding idea of taking a chisel into account, the first identifier sketches were made as shown in Fig. 2.

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Fig. 2. Logo sketches (Cinxel)

To turn the thought towards the evolutionary and technological, it was taken into account that the pixel is the smallest unit within the digital design, as well as the interface, the aforementioned being the basis for combining the term chisel (cincel in spanish) with a pixel, in such a way that its amalgamation resulted in the product name: CINXEL Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Logo

The character’s sketch to be sculpted in 3D in Zbrush is shown in Fig. 4.

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Fig. 4. Character’s sketch

GraphicUser Interface Design. The constitution of the virtual environment of the product was built based on the affective and cognitive of the principle of multiple entries of Guillem Bou Bouza, hence the graphic and interactive concept is faithfully represented by the content offered to the user: Learning Z Brush as shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Cinxel graphic user interface

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Buttons Design. The buttons on the interface are distributed and organized according to the degree of hierarchy they have and are classified in the following order: Main content buttons, incidental buttons, and recurring buttons Table 2. Table 2. Buttons classification.

Main content Buttons

Incidental Buttons

Recurring Buttons

Interactivity Design. Three-dimensional objects remain static in their UP state, unleashing an animation and sound in their OVER state at the moment the user hovers the mouse over said buttons. Once the user clicks an animation is displayed. Similarly, if the user decides to remove the mouse from the button, a regressive animation or ROLLOUT state of the button occurs Table 3. The design of the interaction was oriented to reinforce the message that was wanted to emit, thus achieving an active participation on the part of the user, that is, we wanted to give security to the user to interact with the interface, mainly with the main content buttons (Navigation, sculpting and application). These buttons have a hierarchical location and scale in relation to the other graphic elements of the composition. ``Multimedia content, associated with human perception, including acoustic and visual effects, such as animation and graphics, as well as feedback forces, have become very attractive to learners because of the human computer interactions'' [12]. Regarding the content of the multimedia product, the video tutorials are grouped hierarchically and numerically, in such a way that the student makes use of the information in a systematic and organized way. The main content sections of the product offer 5 video tutorials as follows: Navigation: 1) Moving the Interface, 2) Using the Tool and LightBox tool, 3) Applying Color and Material, 4) Symmetry Mode, 5) Handling Brushes. Sculpting: 6) Types of Brushes, 7) Creation of Masks, 8) Handling Stroke, 9) Alpha, 10) Z-Spheres. Application: 11) Creation of the Body Part I, 12) Creation of the Body Part II, 13) Creation of the Body Part III, 14) Sculpting of the Body I, 15) Sculpting of the Body II, 16) Preparation for Retopology, 17) Retopology I, 18) Retopology II, 19) Retopology III, 20) Reconstruction, 21) 3D export.

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R. P. Sánchez Sánchez et al. Table 3. States of three-dimensional main content buttons Inactive State (UP)

The letters x and z refer to the 3 threedimensional axes.

Actiive State (RollOver)

Movement in the x axis.

Animation

The letters x and z are positioned one after the other when the mouse is positioned over them. Color change from red to black.

Sound

Letters friction with the ground

Animated Deflate indentation sound reminiscent of ZBrush sculpting a 3D object. Color change from red to black. Three-dimensional sphere Symmetrical sculpting on the x axis Character turns his head and wags his tail. Color change from red to black.

Character to sculpt

Sound of movement

Character reacts to mouse

Each button of the main content of the interface leads to subsections where explanatory video tutorials are found at different levels. Thus, the most basic level of Z Brush learning corresponds to the ‘‘Navigation’’ section, the intermediate level to ‘‘Sculpted‘ and the advanced level to ‘‘Application’’. In Fig. 6 the UI (User Interface) path to navigate from the Home section to the Aplication series of videotutorials is shown.

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Fig. 6. UI navigation path

3.3

Executive Phase

Experimentation in a Real Context 12 students participated in a focus group which was held with fourth-year students from the Israel Technological University School of Graphic Design in order to execute a heuristic test of the product interface. Statistic Analysis First, the level of understanding data obtained by the students when using the multimedia product was calculated. In this way, a quantitative analysis of the data was applied and it was verified that the data of the levels pointed to the two moments of the study (T1/T2). Second, due to the size of the sample, the Shapiro Wilks test (p > 0.05) was applied. Finally, the parametric Student’s t test (p < 0.05) was applied with a confidence level of 95%, to determine whether or not there were significant statistical differences between the levels of achievement, at these two moments. During this evaluation, it was observed that the accessibility and language used was understandable, the coherence between the navigation elements allowed familiarization with the student, thus offering a pleasant interactive experience and showed interest in doing the Z Brush video tutorials from its most basic to advance level Fig. 7.

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Fig. 7. School of graphic design students focus group

4 Results Table 4 shows the average, standard deviation, and statistics of the levels of achievement achieved by the group of students in these two moments T1 and T2. Table 4. Percentages of the results of achievement levels according to the knowledge that the students had before and after the use of the multimedia product Interaction N M SD Achievement level Before using the multimedia product (T1) 6 8.33 3.771236 69.44 After using the multimedia product (T2) 6 11.67 0.745356 97.22

After conducting the Focus Group, it was identified that: 85% of the students rated the Cinxel interface as user-friendly to navigate due to its understandable and direct content. 100% to the distribution of the interface elements as excellent. 75% said that interactivity lent itself to correct navigation. 100% indicated that they would be interested in learning Z Brush with the help of the featured product. Finally, video tutorials regularly are recorded in English or Spanish with an accent from Mexico or Spain, the students’ empathy with the product was to take into account the Ecuadorian Spanish accent in the instructor’s voice. 4.1

Critical Appraisal

Changes were made to improve usability, navigation and functionality detected in the Focus Group. It was observed that the background of the audio that the interface had was uncomfortable for users, in such a way that it was removed. The duration time of the button arming and disarming animation has been improved. Intro animation time for video tutorials has been reduced. Following

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Bouza’s feedback principle, a closing section was implemented where the user has an active participation until the moment, he decides to leave the virtual environment, that is why said section was added where the user is asked if you really want to exit Cinxel, having 2 options to choose from: YES (to leave the interactive), and NO (to return to Home) Fig. 8.

Fig. 8. Asking the user to return to the Home section

5 Conclusions After completing and researching this project, the following conclusions were reached: The inclusion of ICT and Multimedia within the classroom supposes to be a pedagogical tool of great use for both the student and the teacher in the context of the educational process. This multimedia product for the learning and application of Z Brush implies applying the knowledge obtained in the professional and work environment in advertising agencies and creative studios. The interactive product is valid since the students corresponding to the graphic design faculty of the Israel Technological University have little knowledge of digital sculpting in 3 dimensions. Also, the great demand for professionals with knowledge of three-dimensional sculpting makes this project viable in its development and interest on the part of the student. The teacher in charge of the three-dimensional design subject will have at their disposal a didactic multimedia material that allows the student to combine the threedimensional modeling with the digital sculpting. Finally, it is concluded that the multimedia product presented to the Technological University Israel is unique in its own right and its content corresponds to the first version of several that can be further developed.

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References 1. Simon, J.: Experiències multimèdia en la docència de la Facultat de Farmàcia (UB). I Jornades Multimèdia Educatiu, Barcelona (1999) 2. Marcelino, M.J., Mendes, A.J., Gomes, M.C.A. (eds.): ICT in Education. Springer, Cham (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22900-3 3. Tripathi, H.: Educational Technology and ICT In Education. Redshine, USA (2019) 4. Tenaglia, P.R.: Las TICs en el aula: narrativas de práctica docente y gestión directiva. Editorial Brujas, Córdoba (2016) 5. Caballero, F.S., Benítez-Eyzaguirre, L.: TIC y comunicación para el desarrollo. Editorial UOC, Barcelona (2020) 6. Otero, T.P., Sánchez, C.C.: Multimedia communication strategies. Editorial UOC, Barcelona (2014) 7. Jenlik, P.: Multimedia Learning Theory. Rowman & Littlefield, London (2019) 8. Ministerio de Educación: Constitución del Ecuador. Accessed 18 Aug 2021, https:// educacion.gob.ec/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2012/08/Constitucion.pdf

Management Tools for Process Mapping and Modeling in Assembly Industry Rodrigo Arcentales-Carrion1(&) , Eliezer Colina Morles2 Dolores Sucozhanay3 , Regina Duran4 , and Lorena Siguenza-Guzman5

,

1

Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences, University of Cuenca, Cuenca, Ecuador [email protected] 2 Research Direction, University of Cuenca, Cuenca, Ecuador 3 Interdisciplinary Department of Space and Population, University of Cuenca, Cuenca, Ecuador 4 Southwestern Provincial University, Bahía Blanca, Argentina 5 Department of Computer Sciences, Faculty of Engineering, University of Cuenca, Cuenca, Ecuador

Abstract. In a highly globalized world affected by economic policies and a latent COVID-19 pandemic, companies need to organize or reorganize to achieve efficient operations. The correct management of organizations has led their administrators to adopt resourceful management models that guide their activities towards fulfilling their objectives. Thus, management tools have been presented as an effective alternative to control processes and activities. According to a previous study, the main tools that allow process mapping and modeling are Business Process Management (BPM), Business Process Reengineering (BPR), and Event Process Chain (EPC). This article analyzes their characteristics based on compatibility and affinity with four case studies dedicated to the assembly industry using this previous study. In addition, the advantages and disadvantages of the three tools related to the possible adaptability in the four companies are studied. This work uses qualitative qualification matrices, which answer specific questions, determine the potential improvement of organizational management, and create a methodology for mapping and modeling processes. Keywords: Business Process Management (BPM)
Business Process Reengineering (BPR)
Event Process Chain (EPC)
Management tools Process




1 Introduction Today, assembly industries face increasingly complex challenges generated, on the one hand, by external factors such as globalization, the development of new technologies, regulations, and government policies, and, on the other hand, by internal factors such as the limitation of resources, slow response to change and low productivity. These factors have altered the management of companies, directly impacting their operating costs © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. I. A. Chauvin et al. (Eds.): CSECity 2021, LNNS 379, pp. 185–197, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94262-5_17

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and, therefore, their results. Consequently, achieving its objectives is undoubtedly affected and can directly affect the fulfillment of activities and processes. In the Ecuadorian economy, the assembly sector has become one of the fundamental pillars of its development and growth. However, this sector has been dramatically affected by government decisions such as the opening of borders to imported products, increased tariffs, new tax burdens in addition to the global pandemic generated by COVID-19. Thus, among the most affected companies are those dedicated to the assembly of motorized vehicles and televisions [1]. In 2020, around 700,000 televisions were marketed, with a reduction in sales of about 10% compared to 2019. Of these, 86% were assembled in the country, which marks a direct relationship with companies that manufacture electronic components to produce these devices. Furthermore, according to the data presented by [2], the motorcycle assembly sector sold around 130,000 motorcycles in 2020, showing a drop of approximately 10% compared to the previous year. Finally, unlike the earlier sectors, the bicycle assembly sector, which assembled around 350,000 units in recent years, increased its production by 30% and its sales by approximately 300% in 2020. However, as described above, significant losses have been recorded. They have even forced its temporary or permanent closure [3, 4]. Therefore, adopting management models and tools would allow companies to face the complications and economic losses described in the search for efficiency in their management. In [5], three tools immersed in the management tools were prioritized, Business Process Management (BPM), Business Process Reengineering (BPR), and Event Process Chain (EPC). Based on its characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages, the study analyzed the connection between the international standard ISO 9001 and Time-Driven Activity-Based Costing (TDABC). Using this preliminary analysis, the purpose of the present study is twofold. First, perform a compatibility analysis of the main characteristics of the tools prioritized by four case studies that assemble televisions, printed circuit boards (PCBs), motorcycles, and bicycles). Second, perform an affinity analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of these tools in the same companies. These two objectives intend to establish a methodology for mapping and modeling processes that improve organizational management and optimize processes, times, and costs. The structure of the remainder of this paper is as follows. Section 2 presents a theoretical background that addresses management, processes, and those tools that enable the mapping and modeling process. Section 3 builds the methodology through which this study was carried out. Section 4 covers the results obtained along with their analysis and discussion. Finally, Sect. 5 determines the main findings, conclusions, and future research.

2 Theoretical Background According to [6], the verb to manage comes from the Italian maggiore, which derives from the Latin manus (hand). The French word “mesnagement” influenced the English word “management” in the 17th and 18th centuries. The evolution of this concept over time from the earliest civilizations denotes the ability to organize large-scale activities that were efficient and effective. Nowadays, the modern use of management stems from the rapid development of North American industries in business and entrepreneurial

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skills [7]. For its part, [8] indicates that management must clearly understand that business processes are a fundamental part of business success and defines how things are done. Thus, the different processes depending on the people who execute them, their contribution to management, and their degree of contribution to achieving the proposed objectives. Consequently, these procedures are classified into macroprocesses, sub-processes, and sub-process activities. Macro-processes contribute to the fulfillment of the mission; the sub-processes are the disaggregation of processes, facilitating their management; and the activities are tasks that help generate products or services [9]. The classification of the types of processes depends, among other factors, on the function they fulfill, the people operating them, and their impact on the company’s performance. Thus, the processes are classified into strategic, support, and operational processes. Strategic processes, carried out by senior management, are often long-term. In general, operational processes are related to the production of goods and directly impact customer satisfaction. Finally, the support processes aim to help operational processes [10]. Authors such as [8] indicate that process management should be a fundamental part of the business, where executive commitment is essential. However, many companies use standards or different reference models to establish documents and maintain management systems, which allows them to promote and control their organizations. Therefore, defining process mapping stages is essential for companies to function regardless of the model used. According to [5], process mapping is a manner of representing processes, sub-processes, and activities as accurately as possible in search of achieving a particular result or product. According to [11–13], there is a series of tools for the mapping and modeling process; being the most common in the literature, BPM, EPC, BPR, Definition of Integration for Modeling Functions (IDEF), Unified Modeling Language (UML), Data Flow Diagram (DFD), Structured Analysis and Flow Model of Design Techniques (SADT), and Business Activity Monitoring (BAM). However, [5] prioritize the first three by analyzing their characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages. In addition, the authors indicate that the tools have a high degree of compatibility with the ISO 9001 standard [14] and their affinity with the TDABC costing system [15]. BPM seeks to develop a process-oriented organization, eliminating activities that do not add value and improving its flow within the organization’s limits [16]. According to [12], BPM is implemented in many organizations through a series of steps and activities called the BPM life cycle. Authors such as [17–19] present this tool as a form of organizational change characterized by the strategic transformation of interrelated organizational subsystems that produce different levels of impact. BPR is recognized as an organizational change characterized by strategic shifts and interrelated organizational subsystems with other effects levels [19]. This tool is process-oriented; simultaneously, it pursues breakthrough improvements in quality, speed, and cost. BPR is holistic, leverages technology, empowers people, and begins with a willingness to abandon current practices [20]. Finally, EPC is one of the best-known Business Process Modeling Languages (BPML) [21]. This tool is commonly chosen because it was developed using the concepts of stochastic networks and Petri nets within the framework of the Architecture of Integrated Information System (ARlS) [22]. In the EPC model, a process consists of sequences of events that trigger business functions, resulting from other

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parts, and the initial events that initiate the entire process [23]. EPC modeling originates from the idea of an event transaction diagram, a graphical formalism to model the dynamic part of the global informal schema of an organization. It is compatible with BPR in the identification and redesign of critical business processes [24].

3 Materials and Methods The present work arises from work [5], through which a theoretical analysis of management models and tools for the mapping and modeling process was carried out. The authors analyzed their features, advantages, and disadvantages based on prioritized devices and ISO and TDABC compatibility. Based on this, the current article validates the prioritized tools in four case studies. The first case is related to a company dedicated to assembling televisions, which partially automates its processes. The second is an organization devoted to PCB assembly, which features automation in its operations. The third, a company dedicated to motorcycles, carries out its manual processes in work cells. Finally, the fourth case corresponds to an entity devoted to the assembly of bicycles, which also executes its strategies manually. For the corresponding analysis, this work first performed a study related to the characteristics of each prioritized tool, in contrast to each case study. The following questions were raised: 1) Is the function compatible to be considered in the company? 2) Is the characteristic suitable to be considered in the company? Based on this, Table 1 presents the analysis of the BPM, BPR, and EPC tools, the main characteristics, and the degree of compatibility with the television case study. In Table A2, the same process is presented for the case study of PCBs, Table A3 for the analysis of the case study of motorcycles, and Table A4, for the analysis of the case study of bicycles. It should be clarified that in each table, the symbol (o) refers to characteristics that comply with the answer to the questions based on the organization’s compatibility and/or convenience analysis. At the same time, (x) symbolizes not being fulfilled. (Complete Table 1 and summary of the list of features examined based on each case study can be found online at: https://imagineresearch.org/pmm_appxa/). Table 1. Main features analysis based on the case study of televisions Features Use new or existing processes Risk Change Time required for implementation Collaboration Separately work/Simultaneously work Financial impact Cultural impact Cost of implementation

BPM – x/o BPR – x/o EPC – x/o o x o o x o o x o o o o o o o x x x o x o o x o o x o

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A second analysis was carried out based on the main advantages and disadvantages of the BPM, BPR, and EPC. For this, each tool was verified according to its affinity with each case study. In conducting the review, the following question was asked: 1) Is the one described as an advantage/disadvantage for the company? Table 2 compares the advantages and disadvantages of BPM, BPR, and EPC, with the case study of TVs. In turn, Table B2 presents an analysis for the PCBs case study. Finally, Tables B3 and B4 also perform a similar review with the motorcycle and bicycle case studies, respectively. As in the previous analysis, the symbol (o) refers to whether the advantage or disadvantage is presented, complying with the affinity analysis of the organization, while (x) symbolizes not fulfilled. Finally, it is worth mentioning that, to guarantee the quality of the research, an expert on the subject verified the findings and compatibility of each feature of the tools and their affinity analysis of advantages and disadvantages of BPM, BPR, and EPC with each company. (Complete Table 2 and summary of advantages and disadvantages analyzed based on each case study can be found online at: https://imagineresearch.org/pmm_appxb/). Table 2. Analysis of advantages and disadvantages based on the case study of televisions Advantages BPM - Applicable to any project - Design and modeling of the process are prioritized - Follow up can be performed by any user, not only technical - Processes are modeled through BPMN - Techniques applied are commonly used - Improves understanding and visualization of processes - Allows improvements in time and costs - Provides a continuous process improvement approach - Provides robust tools to increase the development and automation of processes

x/o Disadvantages o - Starts without being prepared o - Does not contemplate an initial analysis phase o - Thinking is based only on functions

x/o x x

o

- Does not consider the end-users

o

o

- Approach is based on the short term x

o

- Decision making becomes empirical o

o

- Sometimes, it applies techniques or o steps - Must be complemented with other o methods - Requires a multidisciplinary team o for its implementation

o x

BPR - Effort concentrated in areas of the organization and specific procedures - Get improvements in a short time

x

- Generates a reduction of defective products

o

o

- Requires time to verify results obtained - Resistant to change

x

o o

- Implies a high risk since changes o that arise are radical - Initially, it only took into account x the operational section and neglected the redesign of the Administration (continued)

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- Increases productivity and directs the organization towards competitiveness - Contributes to the adaptation of the processes to the constant technological advances - Allows eliminating repetitive processes EPC - Powerful and easy to understand for end-users - Used to capture and discuss business processes - Models can be refined and used for the definition of requirements of an information system - Connections to traditional modeling methods have been very useful

x/o Disadvantages

x/o

o

- Reengineering has served as a perfect excuse for the dismissal of staff and elimination of jobs

x

- Presents an unclear link between activities and objects

o

- Occasionally, far from being complemented, EPC has been gradually replaced by BPMN

x

o

o o o o

o

4 Results and Discussion In this section, the results and the discussion of the compatibility and affinity analysis of the BPM, BPR, and EPC management tools are detailed in the four case studies of companies that assemble televisions, PCBs, bicycles, and motorcycles. 4.1

Compatibility Analysis

The characteristics present in each tool prioritized by [5] were fundamental for developing this work since it allowed knowing the degree of affinity of each tool in terms of the ISO 9001 standard and the TDABC system. The questions described above were applied to determine the compatibility of these characteristics with each case study analyzed. Therefore, the responses decided whether their compatibility would allow proposing a possible mapping and process modeling methodology. TV Assembly Case Study. Based on the results presented in Table 1, corresponding to the televisions case study, it has been determined that this organization is dedicated to the assembly of its products through the semi-automation of production lines. Therefore, the answers to the questions based on the BPM characteristics included that the automation or reuse of existing processes is crucial. It is agreed that the implicit risk in its application is low and that the change processes are continuous since it will always migrate to new television models that come with new technologies. Furthermore, the time of BPM implementation is indifferent since, in this organization, it has partially worked based on a process management system. In addition, the collaboration of people and information technologies is essential for its adoption. It is also positively

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associated that its implementation leads to the optimization of assets, that it does not affect the organizational culture and that the cost of its performance is not high. When working by processes, it already has specific inputs that would minimize the time required. However, it is also found incompatibility when referring to the fact that one or more processes can be taken and work simultaneously because assembling the products is contemplated step by step, later for the conception of the final product. Subsequently, the television assembly company was subjected to questions based on the characteristics presented by BPR. The answers determined the compatibility with only two characteristics; in the first place, considering the time it takes to implement it and the optional collaboration of information technologies indifferent because it already has partially adopted processes. In addition, it could not work with processes simultaneously, since as previously indicated, the entity works sequentially step by step. The characteristics with which it disagrees are those in which the organization does not consider an applicable characteristic to reuse existing processes and even less start operations from scratch. This would lead to delays in production. Similarly, as the impact risk of its implementation is high, this organization may not be able to use this alternative. Also, it will consider leaving the most significant changes until the end, when the practice of its walk is already marked in its assembly processes. Finally, unlike BPM, the possible implementation of BPR has high economic impacts; since recreating processes can cause massive layoffs of personnel, the cultural influence can be substantial. Consequently, the cost of starting from scratch in many cases is very high, depending on the time it takes to implement it. For these reasons, these characteristics would not be supported by the organization. A third analysis corresponds to the same case study based on the characteristics of the EPC tool. In this sense, the responses show that EPC is dedicated to processing modeling. It can become a primary or complementary tool to other similar tools that allow compatibility. Therefore, the organization supports most of the functions, and it is accepted to work with the process map of another tool to develop flowcharts. The administrative risk of being implemented is low, which is accepted by the company. When mentioning that the change is continuous, it is agreed that it favors the adaptability of new models (very common in this entity). In addition, the implementation time is not representative, and the collaboration of information technologies is attractive because, being a technological tool, it is essential for its implementation. Also, it is not culturally impactful and inexpensive since it is only dedicated to developing flowcharts. Finally, the only character it disagrees with is that it is considered to work simultaneously with several processes since, as indicated, this entity develops a sequential assembly (step by step). PCBs Assembly Case Study. A similar analysis, in which the exact characteristics of the BPM, BPR, and EPC tools were considered, is presented in Table A2 through the PCBs assembly case study. According to what has been described, to achieve its final products, this entity performs an automated assembly due to the technical degree it must have. Thus, the analyses carried out from the three tools were similar in compatibility and incompatibility characteristics to assembling televisions, presenting practically the same responses related to the shift of their activity and assembly modality.

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Motorcycle Assembly Case Study. The following analysis is presented in Table A3 for the case study of motorcycle assembly. This organization is dedicated to the manual assembly through work cells of its products; therefore, labor is considered a critical factor in its processes. The review agrees that the administrative risk in case of implementation is low, which would be beneficial since it would not involve problems in its adoption. In addition, the entity considers the time it takes to be able to adopt it with indifference. Besides, there must be collaboration since it is a crucial issue to be done. Considering that, regarding the characteristic that it is possible to work with different processes simultaneously, it is deemed to be compatible with this company due to its manual operation. The assembly is carried out even in parts. Continuing with the review, like any organization, it agrees on the importance that there can be an optimization of assets and that it is not culturally and monetarily affected. However, it finds incompatibility in two characteristics: the automation or reuse of existing processes, since it has not considered for the moment to change its manner of operating and, the fact that the change process is continuous due to its manual form to perform. The analysis of the characteristics related to the BPR determines the compatibility with the creation of processes from scratch because its assembly is manual. This organization does not previously have a management system that has previously managed the mapping of its operations. In the same manner, it is considered indifferent that significant changes and the implementation time are left until last since, as there is currently no system, this would be viewed as an improvement. In addition, despite being optional, it appreciates the collaboration for its adoption. Moreover, it could work with different processes simultaneously; in fact, the assembly of these products is carried out in parts from start to finish. Therefore, it is appropriate as indifferent and compatible to opt for the technification or the change in its assembly form since it would take a considerable time to continue maintaining their jobs in the medium term. It would also support that the company could be technologized or switched to production on a semi-automated or automated line, despite the high cost of implementation. Therefore, the compatibility analysis is almost complete, except for the characteristic related to the administrative risk in a possible implementation that could be managed with a good project analysis if considered. Finally, in the case of EPC, the compatibility is almost total, only showing incompatibility in the fact that the change process is continuous due to the manner it operates (for now, the company does not plan to change it but sees with good eyes that half term may happen). Although the compatibility with the rest of the characteristics is explained in that, as EPC is a tool dedicated to processing modeling, it could become a primary or complementary tool to other similar that allow compatibility. Thus, it is feasible to carry out the process maps based on the elaboration of flowcharts. Therefore, the administrative risk of a possible implementation is considered low, and that the time is practically insignificant. However, it deems fundamental the point of the participation of information technologies (because it is a technological modeling tool), as well as, it could work with several processes at the same time and, considering that it does not affect the cultural impact and that make only flowcharts, the cost of adoption is not considered high.

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Bicycles Assembly Case Study. Regarding the characteristics presented in Table A4, the final analysis corresponds to the case study of the bicycle assembly company. Thus, an analysis similar to those described above was carried out. However, it is worth mentioning that this company also operates similarly to the motorcycle assembly case study dedicated to manual assembly. Therefore, the analyses carried out using the three tools were practically identical in terms of compatibility characteristics with the motorcycle case study, related to the shift of their activity and assembly method. At the same time, it considers incompatibility concerning the same as in the case of motorcycles, for the same reasons already described. 4.2

Analysis of Advantages and Disadvantages of BPM, BPR, and EPC

This analysis arises from the advantages and disadvantages found at the literature level of each of the prioritized tools in terms of integration with the ISO 9001 standard and the TDABC system [5]. Thus, the question posed for the analysis was: is the referenced advantage/disadvantage an advantage/disadvantage for the company? For example, when describing that BPM applies to any project, regardless of the Business Process Management Suite (BPMS), the answers consider an advantage marked with the sign “o” for the case study. Those who believe that it is not advantageous were represented by the symbol “x”. A similar analysis occurred with the disadvantages of each tool. TV and PCBs Assembly Case Studies. Table 2 And B2 present the main advantages and disadvantages of the prioritized tools for their analysis with the assembly of TVs and PCBs case study. These organizations carry out their assembly activities semiautomated in the case of televisions and automated in electronic components. In this sense, when completing the question, it can be mentioned that the answers to the advantages and disadvantages of each tool respond similarly. Depending on the analysis, all those described by the BPM tool were recognized as advantages, among other things, since the two entities had partially adopted ISO process certification [14] some time ago. Thus, they agree benefits such as that BPM applies to any project involved in these organizations. Likewise, prioritization in the design and modeling processes is essential because the entities had already recognized adopting a process management system based on the ISO standard. Next, the fact that anyone can implement it is crucial, although it is considered that it should be guided by someone who knows the subject. In addition, working with BPMN (Business Process Model and Notation) for modeling is a great advantage since it is an easy language to understand through commonly applied techniques. Likewise, collaborating in the visualization and understanding of processes and allowing improvements in time and costs is crucial for any company, permanently improving processes. However, the only advantage they disagree with is how their tools increase method development and automation. As mentioned, these organizations already assemble through automation and/or semiautomation process. Although, regarding the disadvantages of BPM, it is indifferent not to start without being prepared, nor to contemplate an initial analysis phase, since, as mentioned, they already have a partial management system, adopted previously; therefore, it is not considered a real disadvantage. Likewise, not considering the end-users is a

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disadvantage for these entities since the feedback will be constant in all the company’s controls. But, on the contrary, they agree that the rest of the characteristics, such as thinking is based solely on functions, are a real disadvantage since they expect integral work by processes. In addition, the fact that decision-making becomes empirical without using fundamental reasoning and without adopting specific steps could delay its implementation, being real disadvantages. Furthermore, as it is not a comprehensive system, it would be necessary to integrate it with other methods (to cover time, costs, among others). Likewise, anyone could implement it without requiring someone specialized to guide the team. Finally, verifying the results obtained can take a significant time; thus, it is effectively considered a disadvantage. In terms of advantages, the analysis of the BPR tool suggests coinciding with all those mentioned, mainly achieving visible improvements in a short time and a significant reduction in products with defects. In addition, it increases productivity, keeping up with the technological advances that may exist. However, it disagrees with concentrating efforts only on specific areas since it is considered in these companies that the analysis must be comprehensive. Furthermore, in studying the BPR disadvantages, organizations agree on resistance to change. If required, they should tend towards it, assuming that it would be expected to imply an immediate improvement despite the risk it would entail. At the same time, they do not consider it a disadvantage because it is applied only to redesign the operative section since this work is fundamentally based on that section. Finally, the possible application of this tool does not see the elimination of jobs as a disadvantage, since, being semi-automated in televisions and automated in PCBs, the people who work are few, and their jobs would be guaranteed. A final analysis considers the contrast of the advantages and disadvantages of EPC in comparison with the two assembly companies. This tool is considered for process diagramming. Its application benefits are many, that is why the two companies are under the advantages it presents in terms of its ease of application and uses, that no previous knowledge is needed for its application, and its ability to be combined with other tools to improve the results. For its part, a disadvantage is that it is not very clear and specific in the link between activities and objects, but that it is replaced or, failing that, combined with BPMN. Motorcycles and Bicycles Assembly Case Studies. The analyses corresponding to the advantages and disadvantages of the prioritized tools in the motorcycle and bicycle case studies are presented in Tables B3 and B4. The quality that identifies and familiarizes these two organizations is that their form of assembly is manual. For this reason, in analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of each tool, the answers of agreement or not, both advantages and disadvantages, are practically the same. In this sense, in the analysis of the benefits of the BPM tool, the two case studies show agreement with all those described. For this reason, they consider it essential that the tool be applied to any project and applied in any case study. For their part, these companies do not currently have the adoption of a process management system. Therefore, they consider it essential to move towards it and be certified through the ISO 9001: 2015 standard (in the medium term). Those advantages such as prioritization in the design and modeling of processes, the use of diagramming through BPMN, and the

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establishment of visualization and understanding improvements from the mapping of processes are considered of utmost importance. Therefore, they would collaborate in a possible adoption of the tool. Likewise, improving the time of completion of the processes would mean a considerable advance in product assembly efficiency. They coincide in pointing out that it is not essential to provide tools for process automation since they are assembled manually. As for the disadvantages, begin without prior preparation, or an initial analysis phase is indifferent or fails. Furthermore, it does not consider the end-users since it is assumed that all collaborators would be reached, which would allow feedback to all interested parties. However, they agree that it is based on features only and is seen as real downsides, that its focus is short-term only. This decision-making reaches a point where it becomes empirical because if these organizations decide to make a radical change in their manner of assembly, it must be established in the long term and promote informed decision-making and not only based on empiricism. For its part, the advantages presented by the BPR tool coincide with the structure and administration conditions offered by the case studies. For example, its improvements are reflected in the short term as a consequence of its application. It collaborates in reducing the production of defective products. It increases productivity and competitiveness, is open to the insertion of technological advances, and allows restructuring and eliminating those repetitive processes that do not contribute to the organization’s growth. At the same time, they only do not coincide in their appreciation with the case studies. This advantage indicates that efforts are concentrated only in certain areas since it has been determined that these organizations require application in their entire infrastructure by themselves. Internal organization with which they operate. In terms of disadvantages, they agree to resist change since they hope to maintain their manner of performing at least in the medium term; since these changes can be radical, affect their operation, and involve significant risks. Likewise, they disagree that working in operational areas is a disadvantage since, in these organizations, the administrative section is correctly delimited. It does not determine the issue of reengineering as a risk in the medium term. Therefore, its workers would have their jobs secured and contemplate massive layoffs in the face of significant structural changes. Finally, regarding the EPC tool, its advantages and disadvantages are presented, of which, when considered, it is known as a valuable tool for process diagramming. The two companies coincide in their application benefits and the advantages presented, such as ease of application and use. Furthermore, no prior knowledge is required for its application and its ability to be combined with other tools to improve results. Regarding its disadvantages, they agree that the link between activities and objects is not very clear and specific, but shows their dissatisfaction with what has been expressed as to whether it is complemented or replaced by BPMN since it would be considered that this would enrich its application and use. From the results presented in Tables 1, A2, A3, and A4, it can be determined that there is high compatibility between the characteristics of the tools and the case studies when answering the questions posed. Thus, companies assembling televisions and PCBs have greater compatibility with BPM and EPC than with BPR because the latter suggests more remarkable and more profound changes in internal processes. Although the case studies of motorcycles and bicycles also show compatibility with all three

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tools, profound changes should be adopted internally due to the lack of automated or semi-automated processes. The results presented in Tables 2, B2, B3, and B4 indicate a strong affinity between the advantages of the tools and the case studies. Therefore, the benefits determined in the four case studies are strongly related. At the same time, the disadvantages almost go unnoticed, regardless of the products or their manner of production and in the search for an improvement in management.

5 Conclusions and Future Research Management is a subject in continuous evolution that provides industries with precise control of their operations and the resources consumed in their execution. Thus, management has become a fundamental piece in the daily work of organizations. Immersed in it, some tools collaborate in the mapping and modeling of processes. In this study, three have been specifically considered: BPM, BPR, and EPC, based on their characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages, which connect with the ISO 9001 and TDABC standards. To do this, first, the characteristics of each tool were analyzed according to their compatibility in four assembly companies: televisions, PCBs, motorcycles, and bicycles. The answers to the two questions posed about the tool’s compatibility with the case studies allowed, through the qualitative tables, Table 1, A1, A2, and A3, to determine those characteristics that presented compatibility in adopting the analyzed characteristics. Thus, most of them have a very high degree of receptivity to each tool and, at the same time, a lower degree of incompatibility. Therefore, it would be acceptable due to the characteristics of a possible application of the tools in the organizations studied. Next, a second analysis was carried out through the advantages and disadvantages of each tool and its affinity with the case studies. The answers obtained allowed determining the degree of association or not of each benefit and/or burden based on BPM, BPR, and EPC and the entities dedicated to assembling televisions, PCBs, motorcycles, and bicycles. The final tables have made it possible to determine that most of the benefits are well received by organizations. In turn, few disadvantages would lead to a decline in its application. Therefore, it would be interesting to think about the possible compatibility of tools, which allow the mapping and modeling of processes in assembly companies as essential inputs to adopt an ISO 9001 standard and a TDABC costing system that improves their management and results. Future research is underway to design a new methodology that integrates the tools analyzed for process mapping and modeling and a more in-depth analysis to define the phases, stages, and steps required in its implementation. Acknowledgments. This study is part of the research project “Modelo de gestión para la optimización de procesos y costos en la Industria de Ensamblaje,” supported by the Research Department of the University of Cuenca (DIUC). The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions and feedback provided by the IMAGINE Project team.

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Author Index

A Acurio Arcos, Liliana Patricia, 101 Aguado, José, 26 Aldaz, Silvia, 134 Arcentales-Carrion, Rodrigo, 185 Arteaga, Gerardo, 14

B Baer, Natasha, 70 Benavides, Arturo, 123 Benavides, Verónica, 123 Bohórquez, Emanuel, 123 Bravo-Vera, Erick, 70 Brito, Geovanni, 81

C Caceres, Lorena, 38 Caiche, William, 123 Casals, Amadeu, 59 Castillo-Ponce, Steven F., 111 Cruz, Juan, 38 Cuenca, José, 1 Cueva Ortiz, Sonia, 59 Cuji, Julio, 81 Cumbajin, Myriam, 26

D Duque, Rocío, 146 Duran, Regina, 185

F Flores-Rivera, Judith E., 111 Flores Carrillo, Diana Gabriela, 171 Franco-Mena, Daniela, 70 Fuentes, Esteban M., 101 Fuentes Pérez, Esteban Mauricio, 92 G Galárraga, Nuria, 146 Gordón, Carlos, 81 Guachamin Zambrano, Scarlet Nathaly, 101 Guijarro-Rodríguez, Alfonso A., 111 J Jácome, Ligia, 156 Joya, Gonzalo, 26 L Lema, Jorge, 14 M Maldonado-Correa, Jorge, 1 Mendoza, Luis, 81 Mera, Hugo Pico, 48 Minaya, Edwin Ponce, 48 Morales-Espín, Belén, 70 Morles, Eliezer Colina, 185 Muñoz-Lara, Kevin, 70 O Ochoa, Danny, 48 Oleas, Nora H., 70 Ortiz, Flor, 70

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. I. A. Chauvin et al. (Eds.): CSECity 2021, LNNS 379, pp. 199–200, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94262-5

200 P Pacheco, Héctor, 134 Páez-Vacas, Mónica, 70 Paredes Morales, María Cristina, 171 Pazmiño, Iván, 48 Pérez Aldas, Lander Vinicio, 101 Ponce, Santiago, 146 Portilla, Alejandra, 146 Q Quevedo, Luis, 134 Quintana, Danilo, 134 R Recalde, Gladys, 146 Robalino Martínez, Dolores, 101 Rojas, Marco, 1 Ron-Valenzuela, Pablo, 92 Ruales, Belén, 14

Author Index S Sánchez, Paulina Elizabeth Sánchez, 171 Sánchez, Paulina, 156 Sánchez, Richard, 156 Sánchez-Holguín, Lucrecia E., 111 Sánchez-Lara, Enmily, 70 Sánchez Sánchez, Richard Patricio, 171 Sancho, Cinthya, 156 Siguenza-Guzman, Lorena, 185 Solano, Juan, 1 Stoean, Ruxandra, 26 Sucozhanay, Dolores, 185 T Tobes, Ibon, 70 Topon-Visarrea, Blanca, 38 V Valdiviezo-Condolo, Marcelo, 1