Surviving the world's extreme regions : desert, arctic, mountains, & jungle 9781422230817, 1422230813, 9781422230923, 1422230929

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Extreme Survival In the Military

SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT

Extreme Survival In the Military Learning Mental Endurance for Survival Ropes & Knots for Survival Survival at Sea Survival Equipment Survival First Aid Survival in the Wilderness Surviving by Trapping, Fishing, & Eating Plants Surviving Captivity Surviving Hostage Rescue Missions Surviving Natural Disasters Surviving the World’s Extreme Regions: Desert, Arctic, Mountains, & Jungle Surviving with Navigation & Signaling

Extreme Survival In the Military

SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT PATRICK WILSON

Introduction by Colonel John T. Carney. Jr., USAF-Ret. President, Special Operations Warrior Foundation

MASON CREST

Mason Crest 450 Parkway Drive, Suite D Broomall, PA 19008 www.masoncrest.com Copyright © 2015 by Mason Crest, an imprint of National Highlights, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the publisher. Printed and bound in the United States of America. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Series ISBN: 978-1-4222-3081-7 ISBN: 978-1-4222-3085-5 ebook ISBN: 978-1-4222-8777-4 Cataloging-in-Publication Data on file with the Library of Congress. Picture Credits Ardea: 58 Corbis: 29, 44, 46, 50, 52, 54, 56, 59; Lars Johansson | Fotolia.com: 47; Military Picture Library: 8, 10, 14, 15, 20, 24, 27, 34. 36, 39, 41, 42, 48; TRH: 6, 11, 16, 18, 22, 25, 30, 31, 38 Illustrations courtesy of Amber Books

ACKNOWLEDGMENT For authenticating this book, the Publishers would like to thank the Public Affairs Offices of the U.S. Special Operations Command, MacDill AFB, FL.; Army Special Operations Command, Fort Bragg, N.C.; Navy Special Warfare Command, Coronado, CA.; and the Air Force Special Operations Command, Hurlbert Field, FL. IMPORTANT NOTICE The survival techniques and information described in this publication are for educational use only. The publisher is not responsible for any direct, indirect, incidental or consequential damages as a result of the uses or misuses of the techniques and information within. DEDICATION This book is dedicated to those who perished in the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and to the Special Forces soldiers who continually serve to defend freedom.

CONTENTS Introduction

7

Clothing

9

Equipment

19

Hostile Terrains

35

Making Their Own Clothes

45

Making Tools

49

Series Glossary of Key Terms

60

Equipment Requirements

61

Useful Websites

62

Further Reading/About the Author

63

Index

64

7

INTRODUCTION Elite forces are the tip of Freedom’s spear. These small, special units are universally the first to engage, whether on reconnaissance missions into denied territory for larger, conventional forces or in direct action, surgical operations, preemptive strikes, retaliatory action, and hostage rescues. They lead the way in today’s war on terrorism, the war on drugs, the war on transnational unrest, and in humanitarian operations as well as nation building. When large scale warfare erupts, they offer theater commanders a wide variety of unique, unconventional options. Most such units are regionally oriented, acclimated to the culture and conversant in the languages of the areas where they operate. Since they deploy to those areas regularly, often for combined training exercises with indigenous forces, these elite units also serve as peacetime “global scouts” and “diplomacy multipliers,” a beacon of hope for the democratic aspirations of oppressed peoples all over the globe. Elite forces are truly “quiet professionals”: their actions speak louder than words. They are self-motivated, self-confident, versatile, seasoned, mature individuals who rely on teamwork more than daring-do. Unfortunately, theirs is dangerous work. Since “Desert One”—the 1980 attempt to rescue hostages from the U.S. embassy in Tehran, for instance—American special operations forces have suffered casualties in real world operations at close to fifteen times the rate of U.S. conventional forces. By the very nature of the challenges which face special operations forces, training for these elite units has proven even more hazardous. Thus it’s with special pride that I join you in saluting the brave men and women who volunteer to serve in and support these magnificent units and who face such difficult challenges ahead. Colonel John T. Carney, Jr., USAF-Ret. President, Special Operations Warrior Foundation Basic survival equipment such as dried food, drinking water, medical supplies, and heating materials can be packed neatly into a backpack.

Words to Understand essential: Necessary; having to do with what is a most basic part of something. insulation: Material that stops the loss of heat. synthetic: Manmade rather than natural. ventilation: Letting in air. compact: Closely and neatly packed together. bergen: Another word for a backpack.

9

CLOTHING Clothing protects troops from hostile weather. It is essential for their well-being. Here are the principles that members of elite units follow when selecting clothing for wild areas. Elite troops use the layer principle. This offers maximum protection and is suitable in all types of climate. The principle is very simple: air is the best form of insulation and the best way of creating it is to trap it between layers of clothing. The more layers soldiers wear, the warmer they will be. If soldiers are too hot, they remove a layer. If they are cold, they add a layer. In a cold climate, it is important that soldiers do not get too hot. This can be as much of a problem as being cold. This is because, if they sweat, the sweat will then cool, drawing away body heat into the air. The first layer a soldier wears is next to the skin. It is called thermal underwear or “long johns.” This is the base layer. The idea is that a thin layer of usually synthetic material will help the soldier remain reasonably dry even if the conditions outside are very wet. A woolen or wool mixture shirt is worn over this. On top of this will be a woolen or good woven fiber sweater or jacket. (Woven fiber tends to be better because it is warmer and more windproof.) The latest and most effective insulating material used by troops is fleece. A soldier’s fleece would be thick and have ventilation zippers. Then the soldier This British Royal Marine is wearing modern Disruptive Pattern Material (DPM) camouflage with scrim netting on his head and chest.

10 SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT

will have a fiber-filled jacket. The final layer must be windproof and waterproof. U.S. Air Force tips—Clothing USAF pilots learn the following for when they are stranded in hostile terrain with only their jumpsuits for protection. C Keep clothing Clean. O Avoid Overheating. L Wear clothing Loose and in layers. D Keep clothing Dry. E Examine clothing for defects in wear. R Keep clothing Repaired.

Elite troops have a standard way of packing their bergen (backpack). Note the plastic bag used to keep this soldier’s clothes dry.

CLOTHING 11 A soldier must take good care of his or her feet. As part of their everyday training Royal Marines are made to march long distances (called “yomping”), which, at the end of a long day, can take a heavy toll on feet. Boots need to be comfortable and well looked after.

Footwear Most elite troops wear a pair of waterproof boots. Running or sports shoes are never worn, because they will not protect soldiers from the cold and wet. A soldier knows how important his or her boots are and will always look after them. A soldier’s boots will always be coated with wax or polish to keep them soft. It is vital that they are checked before using them. Broken seals, worn-out treads, cracked leather, and rotten stitching can all be a problem. Members of the elite forces know that if they look after their boots, their boots will look after them. Socks are another important item of footwear, and most soldiers wear two pairs on their feet for comfort and to prevent blisters. Whether they wear a thin pair and a thick pair, two thin pairs, or two thick pairs does not matter. The main thing is that the soldiers are comfortable with their footwear before undertaking any serious walking.

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As they have to yomp everywhere on foot, often over long distances, Britain’s Royal Marines have tried-and-tested rules for the care of boots. They stuff wet boots with newspapers and dry them in a warm, airy place, though not in direct heat, which will bake and then crack the leather. In winter, they rub silicone or wax over the laces to stop them from freezing when they get wet. They make sure their boots are big enough to let them wear two or three pairs of socks. They are aware that socks which are too tight will restrict the circulation. They always carry a spare pair of socks. Whenever their feet get wet, they should change their socks as quickly as possible. Boots must always be dried as best they can. Note: A member of an elite regiment never forgets to carry spare shoelaces.

Pants

Elite troops wear pants that are compact, light, windproof, and extremely quick to dry, even after being soaked. In addition, these pants usually have around five pockets with zippers, making them excellent for carrying items securely. They also have fully waterproof pants that fit over them. These either have a side zipper or they are wide enough to let them be put on when a soldier is wearing boots.

Jackets A jacket is the most important item of clothing for the elite forces. A good Gore-Tex® jacket that is hard-wearing could be the matter of life and death. This material is used by all the elite troops. It is an excellent material for outdoor clothing. It is “breathable” and lets sweat escape but does not let in water and wind. This clothing is expensive, but it saves lives.

CLOTHING 13

Make Connections: MILITARY UNIFORM A soldier’s uniform has many functions: it must help regulate body heat, provide rapid access to the various tools and supplies of war, and provide protection against dangerous weapons. A large part of a soldier’s ability to function effectively is dictated by the uniform he or she wears. Camouflage is very important. A soldier fighting in the desert will need to wear sandy colored clothing to blend into the background; similarly, jungle-based troops will need to wear dark green.

A jacket is vital for troops because it forms their outer shell, and so it must be windproof and waterproof. A covered zipper prevents the wind and wet from entering. It is also a backup if the zipper fails. The jacket should have a deep hood, large enough to let the soldier wear a helmet or beret. The jacket will come up to the lower part of the face. The sleeves cover the hands and the jacket will have wrist fasteners. It should also be big enough to let the soldier wear a number of layers underneath. (This also promotes the flow of air in warm weather.) The jacket would also have at least two pockets on the outside with waterproof flaps and one inside that can hold a map. Troops wear olive green or camouflage jackets. This makes it difficult for the enemy to see them.

14 SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT

Gore-Tex® jackets are standard issue for the British Army. This soldier poses with a Heckler and Koch MP5 submachine gun.

Gloves

There are many different types of woolen and ski gloves used by the elite forces. In cold weather they are extremely important to the stranded soldier. Mittens are the best at keeping the heat but they make it difficult for troops to use their fingers, which is vital for firing a rifle.

Headgear

A good deal of heat can be lost through the head, especially when the rest of a soldier’s body is appropriately insulated in cold conditions. Troops therefore

CLOTHING 15

By walking through shallow rivers, soldiers leave no footprints for their enemy to trace, but they must be equipped with waterproof boots.

wear something on their heads. Headgear can also provide protection from the heat in hot weather. The most preferable sort of headgear in really cold conditions is either a woolen hat or balaclava, which covers the head and neck. Their only disadvantage is that they are not waterproof, so, if it is raining, troops put their jacket hoods over them.

Spare clothing The spare clothing that troops carry with them in their bergen should be spare socks, underwear, shirts, and “long Johns,” namely those items of clothing that come into contact with the skin, absorb perspiration, and thus get dirty and decay through wear and tear.

16 SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT

Troops can lose a lot of body heat from their head. A balaclava prevents this and protects their faces from the wind and snow.

Research Project The author states that the elite forces pick different clothing for different conditions, depending on where they are located. Use the Internet to find a place where elite forces are currently stationed. Then research what kind of clothing they need to wear for the conditions of this region. List and describe the items of clothing they wear. Include pictures printed from the Internet to illustrate your findings.

CLOTHING 17

Text-Dependent Questions

1. What is the layer principle and why do elite forces use it? 2. What does the word “yomp” mean? 3. How does proper headgear contribute to survival? 4. Why are socks so important to members of the elite forces? 5. Explain why covert (undercover) operations require a different sort of clothing from other assignments?

Outer clothing, including boots, should last for years if you take proper care of them. It is therefore a waste of space and weight to carry spares (though soldiers do carry items such as wax for their boots and waterproofing treatment for their tent and jacket). The type of clothes and equipment soldiers carry depend on where they are. The elite forces need to find out information about the place where they are going, before they decide on what kit to take. No country is the same when it comes to dress codes and customs. This means members of elite forces must alter their clothing and equipment, especially if they are covert (undercover) and do not want to look out of place. Every member of the team is required to know exactly what the situation is in that country.

Words to Understand terrain: Land, with its particular features. deterioration: The process of becoming worse and worse. condensation: When water vapor turns into liquid drops on a colder surface.

19

EQUIPMENT In the fight for survival a few key items can mean the difference between life and death. All members of any elite force therefore need to work out what life-threatening situations they may face and carry equipment that will help them. Their simple rule is: do not carry useless weight. Some tents, for example, are totally unsuitable for the terrain they may be traveling in and would be deadweight on a soldier. Elite troops need to move around terrain fast and would therefore always carry lightweight packages of nutritious meals, rather than heavy, bulky cans of food. They want only things that will aid them, not slow them down.

The survival tin

The survival tin is one of the soldiers’ most useful pieces of equipment. They know that if they have the items listed on the next page, their chances of survival are much greater, regardless of the terrain in which they find themselves. These items of equipment are not difficult to operate, and they can be fitted into an ordinary tobacco tin. Troops get used to carrying the tin around with them at all times. (It can fit easily into most jacket pockets.) They need to check its contents regularly to make sure they are in good condition, especially the matches and tablets. The Soldiers’ survival can depend on their backpacks containing a map and compass, food and water bowl, a plastic or metal water bottle, cutlery, a flashlight, and strong walking boots.

20 SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT

contents are packed with cotton batting—it stops annoying rattling and can be used for making fire. An elite soldier’s survival tin normally includes the following items: • Matches, used only when other fire-making methods fail. • Candle, both a light source and useful for starting a fire. (Also, tallow wax can be eaten in an emergency). • Flint with a saw striker—this combination will carry on working long after all the matches have been used up. • Sewing kit, useful for repairing clothes and other materials. • Water purification tablets, useful when water supplies are suspect and there are no boiling facilities. • Compass. A small liquid-filled button compass is the best (but it must be checked regularly for leaks).

Maneuvers in arctic conditions require equipment such as waterproof and thermal clothing, skis, snow shoes, and ice picks.

EQUIPMENT 21

• Mirrors, used by troops for signaling. • Safety pins, useful for securing items of clothing. • Fish hooks and line. The fishing kit should also include split lead weights; the kit can also be used to catch birds. • Wire saw, used to cut even large trees. (This should be covered with a film of grease to protect against rust.) • Large plastic bag, which can be used to carry water. • Potassium permanganate has many uses. For example, it can make an antiseptic and treat fungal diseases when added to water. • Snare wire. Brass wire is the best. It can be used repeatedly for animal traps.

Survival bag

Troops also make up another, larger survival kit, which will fit into a small-sized bag. As with the survival tin, members of the elite forces such as the Green Berets, get used to always having it with them. They regularly check its contents for any signs of deterioration. The survival tin includes a tin box, matches, candle, compass, and wire saw, as well as other items.

The items they carry in the bag are: sewing kit, pliers with wire cutter, dental floss (for sewing), folding knife, ring

22 SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT

A soldier using a using a waterproof poncho as a shelter. Without shelter, clothing can become wet and uncomfortable to wear.

saw, snow shovel, signal cloth (at least three feet by three feet/90 cm x 90 cm), fishing hooks, flies, weights and line, three large safety pins, 150 feet (45 m) of nylon line, gaff hook, multi-vitamins, protein tablets, large chocolate bar, dried eggs, dried milk, file, cutlery set, three space blankets, compass, signal mirror, four candles, microlite flashlight, extra battery, extra bulb, fire starter, windproof and waterproof matches, butane lighter, flint, insect repellent, 12 snares, spool of snare wire, can opener, plastic cup, water purification tablets, slingshot and ammunition, knife sharpener, whistle, soap, two orange smoke signals, 225 feet (67 m) of nylon twine, 225 feet (67 m) of nylon cord, one pair of work gloves, a mess tin, and a mousetrap.

EQUIPMENT 23

Tents A portable shelter is an essential item in any soldier’s outdoors kit. As with the clothing, there is a vast range to choose from, ranging from ultra-lightweight to mountain and arctic models. It all depends on where the troops are going. A number of their tents have hooks so that mosquito nets can be zipped over the entrances. This is very useful in the summer, especially if the soldiers are camped near a water source. Bivi bags are portable shelters. Elite troops find these very useful because they weigh very little. In reality they are waterproof overalls for sleeping bags. Some have hoops that convert them into low-profile, one-person tunnel tents. It is difficult to cook inside bivi bags, but they are windproof, waterproof, and very lightweight. They are “breathable,” which means that condensation will not collect inside them. A soldier’s sleeping bag will therefore stay dry.

Cooking equipment These are the important cooking equipment rules, as learned by elite troops: • Keep equipment as lightweight as possible. • Do not buy a stove that has a lot of extra parts—they can be easily snapped off and lost when being used in the outdoors. • As with everything, soldiers must choose the stove that fits the needs of the mission. They would normally aim for one that weighs about one pound (500 g). The choice of fuels for the troops’ stoves is also wide: butane/propane, denatured alcohol, paraffin, or gasoline.

24 SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT

Meal time. Gas is stored inside a metal canister, and when the stove is in use, the gas is released through a valve and ignited.

EQUIPMENT 25 Instead of carrying heavy cans of food, elite troops use packages of dry foods. These are not only light but they can be heated in a mess tin using boiling water.

If they intend to cook inside a tight space, troops must be fully aware of the following: • Paraffin cookers should be refueled only when they are cold. (Paraffin is an oily or waxy fuel made from petroleum.) When they are burning, troops ventilate the tent to prevent the buildup of toxic gases. • Gas can freeze in low temperatures. • Leaded gasoline in stoves is a danger to health when burned inside a tent; use lead-free gasoline, called naphtha, or white gasoline. • Hexamine blocks (blocks of fuel used in stoves) are never burned inside a tent. (They have poisonous fumes.) Troops use aluminum mess tins for cooking and eating. One fits inside the other so it is very compact—excellent for saving space.

26 SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT

They would also use plastic mugs, which are attached to their waterbottle. Plastic does not damage easily, is light, and will not rust.

Food

There is not space in this book to discuss general nutritional requirements for the survivor. However, soldiers in an elite regiment, having had time to prepare for their journey, hope not to have to live off of the land and will therefore eat different types of food.

A mess tin includes tea, coffee, milk, sugar, razor, and shaving cream, among other items.

They should carry dehydrated food that is high in carbohydrates, calories, protein, and has a degree of vitamin supplementation. As a general rule, cans are avoided by troops, because they are bulky and awkward to carry. There are many camping foods available that come in sealed packages, and all the soldier needs to do is pour in hot water and stir, then wait for a couple of minutes, and a hot, nutritious meal is ready. When exhausted, a soldier does not want to have to spend hours preparing a meal, so the quicker it can be made, the better.

EQUIPMENT 27

Royal Marine Commando 24-hour arctic ration packs

These packs guarantee a minimum of 4,500 calories a day, enough to sustain a high level of physical activity. Most of these contents need to be mixed with hot water.

Menu A

Breakfast—warm oatmeal, chocolate drink. Snack—beef spread, cookies (fruit and plain), chocolate, chocolate caramels, nuts and raisins, dextrose sweets. Main meal—chicken soup, beef granules, mashed potato powder, peas, apple flakes.

The contents of a 24-hour elite forces ration pack includes: oat cereal, bacon, beans, cheese, beef, stock, chocolate, and cookies.

28 SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT

Menu B

Breakfast—warm oatmeal, drinking chocolate. Snack—chicken spread, cookies (fruit and plain), chocolate, chocolate caramels, nuts and raisins, dextrose sweets. Main meal— vegetable soup, curried beef granules, rice, peas, and apple and apricot flakes.

Menu C

Breakfast—oatmeal, chocolate drink. Snack— chicken and bacon spread, cookies (fruit and plain), chocolate, chocolate caramels, nuts and raisins, dextrose sweets. Main meal—oxtail soup, mutton granules, mashed potato powder, peas, apple flakes.

Menu D

A kettle is essential for boiling water for drinking, hydrating food, and sterilizing medical equipment.

Breakfast—warm oatmeal, chocolate drink. Snack—ham spread, cookies (fruit and plain), chocolate, chocolate caramels, nuts and raisins, dextrose sweets. Main meal—vegetable soup, chicken supreme granules, rice, peas, and apple and apricot flakes.

EQUIPMENT 29

A first-aid kit is also essential because of the threat from enemy soldiers in battle. Here is a list of the first-aid contents in a basic British Special Air Service (SAS) Survival kit. SAS medical kits include treatments for breathing and circulation difficulties, bleeding, breaks and fractures, burns, infections, and pain. They contain the following: scissors, scalpel blades, dressings, suture kit (for stitching up wounds), fracture straps, burn dressings, adhesive bandages, antibiotic tablets, antibiotics in injectible form, painkillers, hypodermic needles, and creams for fungal infections.

Elite forces receive extensive medical training, and a standard first-aid kit must be equipped to treat minor and major injuries.

30 SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT Knives come in various sizes. Elite troops always carry them and are trained how to use them in an appropriate way.

Knives

A knife is extremely important for a soldier in a survival situation. It can be used for many things, such as skinning animals, preparing fruits and vegetables, and cutting trees. Therefore, soldiers always keep their knives clean and sharp and make sure they are securely fastened when they are traveling. There are many knives to choose from, but most elite soldiers have one that has a single blade and a wooden handle.

Backpacks

These differ in size according to the mission. They range from small fivegallon (20-liter) capacity bergens to the large 25-gallon (100-liter) types. Top troops will always want to avoid taking too big a pack. This is because if they have 25-gallon packs when really they need only 10-gallon (40-liter) packs, they will probably end up filling the large packs to the brim and thus carry around a lot of unnecessary weight. An H-frame pack is best if the soldiers will be carrying a heavy load for some time. The main thing to consider is that the pack feels comfortable to

EQUIPMENT 31

wear. Here are a few things that elite soldiers’ backpacks include: side pockets, useful for carrying items that they need ready access to; side compression packs, useful for evenly distributing the load inside the pack and for carrying additional equipment; base compartment, which lets the load in the pack be divided for weight distribution purposes and ease of access; extendible lids, which can vary backpack capacity; double stitching, binding, and bar tacks to increase strength and protection.

Horseshoe pack

At the other end of the backpack scale is the horseshoe pack, which can be used by troops to carry items comfortably over long distances. The procedure is as follows: a square-shaped material five feet by five feet (1.5 m x 1.5 m) is laid on the ground, and all items are placed on one side of the material. The material is then rolled with the items to the opposite edge. Each end is tied,

Troops fit all their kit into a single bergen—no room for luxuries.

32 SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT

Research Project One of the things in a soldier’s survival bag is brass wire, which can be used for creating traps to catch animals for food. Use the Internet or the library to find out exactly how you might build a trap out of wire. Draw a diagram to show the steps involved.

with the soldier making sure there are at least two evenly spaced ties around the roll. Both ends are then brought together and secured. The result is that the soldier has a compact and comfortable pack, which can be changed from shoulder to shoulder if required. Royal Marines avoid back injuries by observing the following rules for load carrying: • Keep the load as light as possible. Maximum load per person should be a quarter of the soldier’s weight. Marines resist the temptation to fill their packs with unnecessary bulk. Only essential equipment should be carried. • Keep the load as high as possible. Marines adjust packs to keep the load close to the back, but they must make sure they do not restrict circulation to the arms. • Inside packs must be arranged to give a balanced loading. Keep corners of tins and hard objects away from the back to ensure it is comfortable to wear. • Put everything in plastic bags. (No pack is 100 percent waterproof.) • Place items needed least often at the bottom of the pack.

EQUIPMENT 33

Text-Dependent Questions

1. Explain why the survival tin is such a necessary item for the elite forces. 2. What does a survival tin usually contain? 3. How is the survival bag different from the survival tin? What does it usually contain? 4. What is a bivi bag and why is it useful? 5. Why do elite forces carry dehydrated food rather than canned foods? 6. Why are knives so useful?

• Always put stove and fuel in the side pockets, along with anything else that will be needed when walking. This will make having to take off the pack unnecessary. During short stops, Marines do not take off their packs. If they do, the packs will be difficult to get back on because of the heavy weight of the contents. Instead, Marines use them as back rests when lying down, or sit up with them supported on a rock or log.

A standard military backpack.

Words to Understand compressed: Flattened, squashed. telescopic: Having sections that are made up of tubes that can slide into each other.

35

HOSTILE TERRAINS Being equipped with suitable clothing and supplies is never more important for elite forces soldiers than when they are stranded in extreme climates, such as desert, arctic, or jungle. The best thing for elite soldiers to remember is to be practical and sensible. They must consider the conditions of the terrain and the weather they are likely to encounter—and prepare accordingly. A woolen hat, for instance, is essential in cold climates but will be of no use in the Sahara Desert during the heat of the day.

Desert

Clothing is extremely important in desert areas. Soldiers must have protection against sunburn, heat, sand, and insects. They are trained to keep their head, legs, and body covered at all times. They do not roll up their sleeves. Instead they keep them rolled down and loose at the cuffs to stay cool. Light-colored flowing robes reduce heat between the body and the clothing. This keeps the soldiers cool and limits perspiration. White clothing is worn by troops from the French Foreign Legion because it reflects sunlight. Light-colored clothing also has the advantage in battle of blending in with the surrounding desert, camouflaging the soldier from their enemy counterparts. A soldier from the Royal Marine Mountain and Arctic Warfare Cadre in white camouflaged snow suit over windproof smock and pants.

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Elite forces operate in a variety of hostile terrains. This soldier’s head is protected from both sun and cold by camouflage netting.

HOSTILE TERRAINS 37

The French Foreign Legion has over 100 years’ experience of desert fighting. Its soldiers have learned the hard way how to dress for the desert. They stay well covered during the day. They wear long pants and longsleeved shirts. They keep their heads covered at all times. They wear cloth neckpieces to protect the back of their necks from the sun. They wear clothing loosely and only open in shaded areas. They take off their boots and socks in the shade. Finally, they shake their boots before putting them back on in case a scorpion or spider has crawled into one of them.

The cloth around the mouth and nose guards from sun, sand, and dust.

Eye protection

Troops wear sunglasses or goggles. In an emergency, soldiers can make eye protectors out of material or bark. Only a narrow slit is left open and they look through this. Smearing soot (from a fire that has cooled down) below the eyes also helps to reduce glare. Elite soldiers never neglect eye protection. Note: Eye protectors are not just to guard against the sun. In the desert, sand and grit can blow into the eyes and cause injury or infection.

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Troops wading through a tropical river are careful to protect their rifles from the water to prevent the firing mechanism being damaged.

Tropical regions

An environment with close, often thorny vegetation and a vast range of insects as well as leeches demands strong clothing. Soldiers in the tropics wear thick pants and strong shirts, as well as plenty of clean changes of socks. Often, because troops are trying to carry as little as possible, they do not take more than two changes of clothing (not including socks), in which case they keep one set of clothes sealed in a waterproof bag. Due to the wet and hot conditions in the tropics, clothes take a very long time to dry, and soldiers are always aware of this. It is bad for morale to

HOSTILE TERRAINS 39

In jungle warfare, clothing should not only be light and not too hot, but camouflaged so troops can hide from the enemy.

put on wet clothes every day, and so they need to try to make sure this does not happen. There is a wide range of strong, specially adapted jungle boots that soldiers wear. As in desert environments, it is very important for soldiers to check footwear and other clothing for insects before putting them on. Soldiers in the tropics powder their body with zinc talcum powder. They also

40 SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT

use insect repellent on their body and socks to keep leeches, mosquitoes, and a host of other undesirable insects away. Movement through the jungle is much easier with equipment recommended by the U.S. Army: • A machete, one of the best aids to survival in the jungle. It can be used to cut through vegetation, collect food, and cut logs to make a raft. When using it, soldiers cut at a down-and-out angle (not flat and level). This is because this action requires less effort. • A compass to maintain direction. • Medicines to treat fever and infection. • Boots or stout shoes to make walking easier and to protect the feet. • A hammock to reduce the time needed to prepare a bed above the jungle floor. • Mosquito netting to provide protection against insects.

Polar regions

Soldiers need to protect the whole body from the cold and wind, especially the head and feet. By staying active, they will keep the blood circulating in their bodies. However, it is important for troops to try to avoid sweating. If they start to overheat, soldiers are taught to loosen or remove some clothing. This is because sweat, although warm at the beginning, can make their clothes damp, and this will become cold later. Troops try to keep clothing clean, because dirt and grease clog up the air spaces in their clothing and reduce insulation (warmth). If their socks and gloves get wet, troops help dry them by wrapping them around their stomachs.

HOSTILE TERRAINS 41

In arctic conditions white is obviously the best color for camouflage. These troops have even disguised their guns.

Drying them over a fire in a shelter is the best option, but soldiers must be sure not to place them too close in case they burn. Another important way to keep warm is to fluff out any clothing or bedding that has become compressed. This is because the air spaces are important to generate insulation. Note: Troops always brush off snow before entering a shelter or other warm place. Soldiers never get into a sleeping bag in wet clothing. They are trained to wear the minimum possible, so that their clothes will have some time to air and dry.

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Text-Dependent Questions

1. Describe the kind of clothing best suited for survival in desert regions. 2. Why do soldiers in desert regions always shake their shoes before putting them on? 3. What equipment does the U.S. Army recommend for jungle regions? 4. Why should clothing be kept clean when you’re in extreme survival conditions? 5. List the equipment needed in polar regions.

No member of the elite forces would go on an arctic expedition without an ice axe and climbing equipment.

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Research Project Find out more about staying warm in cold conditions. Go to your library or use the Internet to create a list of dangers to the human body from extreme cold. Then explain how you could protect yourself from each danger. This chapter mentions that it’s important for troops in polar regions to avoid sweating. Find out why and explain.

Here is a list of some essential clothing worn by troops in the polar regions: • A windproof outer layer that is also waterproof enough to make sure that no melting snow gets in. • A number of inner layers of insulation. • Goggles to prevent snow blindness. • Three layers of socks, which are sized in such a way that they fit over one another. • Waterproof canvas boots known as mukluks. An ice axe is an essential piece of equipment that can be used for support, braking, digging, and probing. It is basically made up of a head (adze and pick), a shaft, and a spike. A ski stick also makes movement through snow easier. Troops have telescopic ski sticks that can be carried easily in a backpack.

Words to Understand improvise: To make or create something using whatever is available.

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MAKING THEIR OWN CLOTHES Members of the elite forces have to be prepared for anything. This can even mean finding clothing from materials around them. It might seem unlikely to happen, but it does occur. If, for example, elite soldiers were involved in an air crash, the chances are that they might have been traveling in light clothing. Of course, the first thing that they would do is attempt to salvage as much as possible from the crash site. Towels, curtains, cushions, and seat covers could all be used to keep them warm. Almost any type of fabric can be used for bedding, clothes, or shelter. If the soldiers do not have ready-made items that they can wear, they must use their survival training to find alternative clothing. Troops have to be imaginative. Here are some clever techniques used by elite troops: For insulation: one pair of socks is worn on top of another. Dry grass or moss is packed between them. Leaves from deciduous trees (those which lose their leaves each fall) make good insulation. The leaves are placed between two layers of material and stuffed in cuffs and waist bands. Paper, feather, and animal hair can also be used to keep warm. For keeping dry: waterproofs can be made by troops from plastic bags or sheets. If they do not have these, they can just cut off sections of birch A Ukrainian soldier repairs his uniform coat. Soldiers may have to fashion clothing from the unlikeliest sources in the wilderness.

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Text-Dependent Questions 1. Explain how grass and moss might be used as insulators. 2. What can waterproof clothing be made from in an emergency? 3. What might be used to make footwear? 4. Why are cattails so useful? bark. (The outer bark is cut off and the soft, flexible inner bark is used for underclothing to protect them from rain.) Another method used by regiments like the Green Berets to stay dry is to rub animal fat into clothing. For footwear: shoe soles can be made from rubber tires. Troops insert holes around the edges for thongs to tie them over wrapped feet or to sew fabric uppers. It is even possible for troops to make a pair of moccasins from a piece of leather! They place their foot on the leather and cut out a piece three inches (8 cm) bigger all around the sole of their foot. They then thong in and out around the edges and gather them over wrapped feet. The gathering thongs are then tied off and another thong is woven back and forth over the feet to make it more secure.

Cattail—the worldwide insulator

Cattail grows everywhere in the world with the exception of the forested regions of the far north. It is a marshland plant found along lakes, ponds, and backwaters of rivers. The fuzz on the top of the stalks forms dead air and makes a downlike insulation when placed between two pieces of material.

MAKING THEIR OWN CLOTHES 47 Cattail—a useful plant for soldiers to use, especially for insulation.

The uniforms of elite soldiers on extended operations can often wear thin. Here is a list of things British SAS soldiers do to improvise items of clothing. • Tie long leaf strips and fibers around a belt or neck band to create a grass skirt or cape. • Cut a head hole in a blanket or carpet to make a poncho. Tie at the waist. It is easier to sew together or thong small pieces of hide. Fur on the inside gives better insulation.

Research Project The chapter states that elite forces may need to create their own clothing if they have been in an air crash. Use the Internet or library to find a time when soldiers were stranded after being shot down or crashing. It could have happened during one of the world wars or in a more recent conflict. Read the accounts of the incident to discover if the soldiers used any of the techniques for improvising clothing that are described in this chapter.

Words to Understand optimism: Sense of hope and confidence in the future. deadfall traps: Traps made from heavy rocks or logs that are tilted on an angle and held up with sticks, with one of the sticks acting as a trigger. When an animal moves the trigger (which may have bait on or near it), the rock or log falls, crushing the animal. stave: A stick or narrow strip of wood. pliable: Able to bend without breaking. suspend: Hang something from.

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MAKING TOOLS From the raw materials around them, elite forces soldiers are able to make tools, weapons, utensils, and even clothing, which will often serve them much better than any commercially made items. It is vital that elite soldiers can cope in any condition. They must, for example, be able to make clothing from the materials around them in a survival situation. Most of what they will make will be simple tools and weapons, such as knives for cutting wood to make shelters, a bow and arrow and spears for hunting animals, and cutlery for eating. These may take a good deal of practice to make, but once mastered they will make the soldiers’ task of staying alive much easier. In addition, being able to make what the soldiers need will be a great moralebooster. If a tool or weapon breaks it can be a tremendous blow to morale, but the soldiers’ optimism will return quickly if they know they can replace it with a handmade article. Elite troops are taught to use their imagination. There are no limits to what can be made using anything available in the local environment. During training, they may be left in a deserted area and told to survive. It is an important lesson that needs to be learned if they are to be accepted as a member of one of the world’s elite regiments, like the French Foreign Legion, the U.S. Marines, or the British SAS. If they do not have a manufactured knife (shown), elite troops are trained to make one by lashing any sharp blade to a piece of wood.

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Club Despite its simplicity, a club is probably one of the most useful tools troops can have in a survival situation. It is easy to make and can be replaced with minimum effort. It is worth its weight in gold. They make a club from a branch two to two and a half inches (5-6 cm) in diameter and around 30 inches (75 cm) long. It can be used for checking snares and deadfall traps, finishing off a trapped animal, and as a weapon for killing slow-moving game.

Wire saws

Troops can make a saw using a green sapling or by making a bucksaw (although this is more difficult). They use the wire saw in their survival tin for the cutting edge.

Elite soldiers make tools similar to native tools—without the carvings.

MAKING TOOLS 51

Stone tools

Flint, obsidian, quartz, chert, and other glassy stones can be used by soldiers. Stones can make good hammers either used on their own or lashed to a handle. Glassy stones can be chipped and flaked to make a sharp edge. When chipping with another stone, the soldier makes sure that each blow is struck at an angle of less than 90 degrees, otherwise the shock will be absorbed within the stone. An elite soldier is trained to make stone tools. It is a skill that takes practice to master.

Bone tools

If soldiers have killed a large animal, they will not leave the bones and other inedible parts of the animal. They are taught to make use of virtually every part of it. Antlers and horns can be used for digging, gouging, and hammering. They can use a knife to carve bone. For example, a shoulder blade can be split in half and then teeth cut along it—and you have a saw. Even the bones from small animals can be useful: ribs can be sharpened into points; other bones can be sharpened at one end and the other end burned through with hot wire to produce an eye—the result is a sturdy needle.

Bow and arrows

In the wild, troops make several bows and change them when the one they are using begins to lose its spring. Yew is best, but a member of the elite forces may have to use other wood, depending on the area they are in. The stave is made to about four feet (120 cm) long. It is shaped so it is two inches (5 cm) wide at the center and gets thinner and thinner to about five-eighths

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of an inch (1.5 cm) at the ends. The ends are then notched a half inch (1.25 cm) in to take the string. The bow is then rubbed all over with oil or animal fat. For the string, rawhide is best, although any string or coil will do. When strung, the string should be under only slight tension: the soldier should provide the rest when he or she pulls to shoot. The string is then secured to the bow by wrapping the string around the bow and knotting it. Arrows are made from straight wood two feet (60 cm) long and a quarter inch (6 mm) wide. They are made to be as smooth and straight as possible. One end is notched a quarter inch (6 mm) deep to fit the bow string. Arrow flights can be made from feathers, paper, light cloth, or leaves trimmed to shape. If soldiers split a feather down the center of the quill, they will leave three-quarters of an inch (2 cm) of quill at each end of the feather to tie to the

A bow and arrow can be useful for elite soldiers to hunt and kill animals for food.

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arrow. It is best to tie three flights equally spaced around the shaft. Arrowheads can be made of tin, flint, bone, or wood burned black. The elite forces soldier never forgets to put a notch in the end of each arrow so that it fits over the bowstring. To shoot a bow, a soldier places an arrow in the bowstring and raises the center of the bow to eye level. The bow is held in the center of the stave with the left hand (if the soldier is right-handed) and the arrow rests on top of the hand. This arm is locked as the soldier pulls back the bowstring with the other hand, keeping the arrow at eye level while doing this. The target is then lined up with the arrow and the string is released. Soldiers are trained not to snatch at the string as they release it. If they are hunting, they will have several arrows with them. They carry them in a homemade quiver and will try to keep them dry.

Cutlery

A soldier always looks for unusual branches with useful shapes. Ladles and spoons can be carved from a large piece of wood with a branch still attached to it, so the branch becomes the handle. A simple fork can be shaped from a stick. Carving the outline of the object along the grain of the wood helps make it more water-resistant. Carving is an art in itself, but all members of elite regiments get the opportunity to learn it. Not only will this skill provide them with useful items to aid survival, wood carving will also provide them with a way of passing idle time and will therefore keep up their morale, especially at night when it is easy to get depressed and lonely. Every wood has its unique carving qualities, and with practice soldiers learn

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Though real woodcarving takes years to master, elite forces often have basic skills that can help them to improvise a variety of tools and weapons.

which will suit their purpose best. Sycamore is soft and can be easily carved; beech is a hard wood that is unsuitable for beginners; hazel is a pliable, stringy wood that is easy to carve but tends to split easily; ash is hard to carve, but should be used for tool handles, bows, and other weapons; birch is a good carving wood but decays easily; yew is very hard and springy and makes fine bows, spoons, and bowls. Soldiers always need to be aware that they could cut themselves. They are taught never to carve toward themselves when they are tired, or with a dull knife. They should never carve in a hurry.

Utensils

Wood and bark can be useful aids in a survival situation. If soldiers do not want to carve, they can still make utensils from trees and branches. They can use the inner layer of birch bark to construct storage containers or even temporary cooking vessels. The bark can be sewn or tied together.

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Bamboo can be fashioned into cups and storage vessels. A section is cut just below a natural joint and then cut below the next joint up. The result is a cup that can be drunk from, though soldiers must remember to smooth the edges to prevent splinters from getting into their lips and mouths. A forked stick can be a major asset to a camp. It is driven into the ground at a 45-degree angle near a fire and a longer stick is rested across it. With one end of the stick over the fire and the other driven into the ground and secured with rocks, the soldier can suspend a pot over the fire.

Knives

Improvised knives can be made from wood, bone, stone, metal, or even glass. To make a knife from glass, a member of an elite force is taught to simply split a stick, insert a piece of glass, and lash securely. To fashion a knife from a piece of bone, the soldier sharpens one end (the leg bone of a deer or similarsized animal is best) and makes a handle from the other end. Even the lids of opened cans of food can be driven into a piece of wood and turned into an improvised knife. A knife is a vital tool to have if soldiers are stranded. They should have one anyway, but if it breaks or gets lost, they can make another by finding a piece of soft iron, the shape of which resembles a knife blade. Placed on a flat, hard surface, the metal can be hammered into the desired shape. The soldier then rubs the metal on a rough-textured rock to get a cutting edge and point, and lashes the knife onto a hardwood handle.

Spears

Spears can help troops catch fish and game. They can be simple—for example, a stick with a sharpened point. However, this can break or blunt easily. Soldiers

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can also improvise spearheads from antler or animal bone, flint, or tin. They can split the end of the spear into three pieces and put in spacer blocks to keep the pieces spread apart—this spear can be used to catch fish. Bone can also be used for this purpose.

Fishhooks and lines

Fishhooks are made from pins, a bunch of thorns, nails, bones, or wood. Fish snares can also be made that can trap large fish, such as pike, which often feed alongside water weeds. A noose line is fixed to the end of a pole or a line is passed down the inside of a length of bamboo. To operate, the noose is passed over the fish from the tail end and pulled up slowly to trap it.

Bamboo can be fashioned into cups and is excellent material for building shelters, as it is both strong and flexible.

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Make Connections: MAKING A BOLA The bola consists of stones attached to string about three feet (90 cm) in length. Soldiers swing the stones above their heads and release in the direction of the prey. The weight of the stones will hold them on line through the air and, if a direct hit is achieved, it will fell most medium-sized animals. However, practice is required if this weapon is not to become more dangerous to the elite soldier than the intended prey.

Rawhide

This is an extremely useful material that can be made from any animal hide. It does take a while to process, but the end result is well worth it. Rawhide has many uses, including making lashings, ropes, and sheaths for knives and tools. The first step a member of the elite forces would take is to remove all the fat and muscle tissue from the hide. (The large pieces are cut off, the rest scraped off with a knife or flint.) A soldier would then remove the hair, which is done by applying a thick layer of wood ashes to the hair side. Some water is sprinkled on the ashes after they have been put on the skin. It is then rolled up and stored in a cool place for a few days. When the hair begins to slip (the soldier must constantly check to see when it is slipping), the hide is unrolled and placed over a log. The hair can then be

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A fish trap such as this can be used by the elite soldier in preference to knives and spears.

Text-Dependent Questions 1. Explain how making their own tools can be a morale booster for elite soldiers. 2. What is one of the simplest and most useful tools a soldier can make? 3. Describe several ways that bones can be used as tools and weapons. 4. List five kinds of wood and describe the qualities of each. 5. What is a bola?

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Research Project The chapter describes some of the common types of wood found in temperate forest regions. Use the Internet or the library to research what kinds of trees can be found in other areas of the world, such as jungles or the mountains of Afghanistan. List these—and then research further to describe the wood of each tree. Is it hard or soft? Easily carved? Flexible? How might soldiers use each wood?

scraped off with a knife or flint. When all the hair has been removed, the soldier must wash the hide and stretch it inside a frame. It is then dried slowly in the shade. Rawhide is very hard when it is dry, but can be softened by soaking it in water.

A bear skin hung to dry—the first step in making rawhide.

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Series GLOSSARY of Key Terms camouflage: Something that makes it hard to distinguish someone or something from the terrain or landscape around them. casualty: A person who is killed or injured in a war or accident. covert: Done in secret. dehydrated: When you don’t have enough water in your body for it to function properly. Alternatively, dehydrated food is food that has had all the water removed so that it won’t go bad. dislocation: When a joint is separated; when a bone comes out of its socket. edible: Able to be eaten. exposure: A health condition that results from bad weather around you. For example, when you get hypothermia or frostbite from cold weather, these are the results of exposure. flares: A device that burns brightly, and can be used to signal for help. They can only be used once. hygiene: The techniques and practices involved with keeping yourself clean and healthy. improvised: Used whatever was available to make or create something. When you don’t have professionally made equipment, you can make improvised equipment from the materials naturally found around you. insulation: Something that keeps you warm and protects you from the cold. kit: All of the clothing and equipment carried by a soldier. layering: A technique of dressing for the wilderness that involves wearing many layers of clothing. If you become too warm or too cold, it is easy to remove or add a layer. marine: Having to do with the ocean. morale: Confidence, enthusiasm, and discipline at any given time. When morale is high, you are emotionally prepared to do something difficult. When morale is low, you might be angry, scared, or anxious. purification: The process of making water clean and safe enough to drink. terrain: The physical features of a stretch of land. Hard or rough terrain might be mountains or thick forests, and easy terrain would be an open field. windbreak: Something that you use to block the wind from hitting you. If you camp somewhere exposed to the wind, it will be very difficult to stay warm.

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EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS Clothing and shelter Thermal underwear Thin layer of synthetic material Woolen or wool mixture shirt Woven fiber sweater or jacket, (normally a fleece) Waterproof and windproof final layer Two pairs of socks (minimum) Compact, light, windproof pants with numerous pockets with zippers, to carry items securely. Waterproof pants Gloves—leather or mittens Balaclava Spare clothing—socks, underwear, shirts, etc. Soft, well-maintained leather boots H-frame bergen with side pockets Portable, lightweight, waterproof shelter Survival tin A knife Matches Flint Sewing kit Water purification tablets Compass Mirror Safety pins Wire Plastic bag

Antiseptic cream Snare wire Survival bag Pliers with wire cutter Dental floss (for sewing) Folding knife Ring saw Snow shovel Signal cloth Fishing hooks and flies Weights and line Multivitamins Protein tablets Large chocolate bar Dried eggs Dried milk File Cutlery set Three space blankets Four candles Microlite flashlight Extra battery and bulb Fire starter Windproof and waterproof matches Butane lighter Insect repellent Snares Plastic cup Slingshot and ammunition Knife sharpener Whistle Soap

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Two orange smoke signals Mess tin

Cloth neckpiece Sunglasses or goggles

Food Warm oatmeal Beef spread Cookies (fruit and plain) Chocolate caramels Nuts and raisins Dextrose sweets Chicken soup Mashed potato powder Peas Rice Apricot and apple flakes

Tropical regions Talcum powder Insect repellent Machete Hammock Mosquito netting Tropical medicines

ESSENTIAL CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT FOR HOSTILE TERRAINS Desert Light-colored clothing (reflects sunlight)

Polar regions Waterproof and windproof outer layers Many inner layers of clothing for insulation Goggles Three layers of socks Waterproof canvas boots Ice axe Ski stick Rope

USEFUL WEBSITES www.adventuresportsonline.com www.equipped.com www.colemans.com/index.php armysurplusstore.com ultimatesurvival.com www.wilderness-survival.net/chp3.php

FURTHER READING 63

FURTHER READING Borgenicht, David and Piven, Joshua. The Complete Worst-Case Scenario Survival Handbook. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2007. Johnson, Rich. The Ultimate Survival Manual: 333 Skills That Will Get You Out Alive. San Francisco, CA: Weldon Owen Inc., 2012. McManners, Hugh. The Complete Wilderness Training Manual. New York: DK Publishing, 2007. Van Tilburg, Christopher. Emergency Survival: A Pocket Guide. Seattle, Wash: Mountaineers Books, 2001. Wiseman, John. SAS Survival Handbook, Revised Edition: For Any Climate, in Any Situation. New York: William Morrow Paperbacks, 2009.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR Patrick Wilson was educated at Marlborough College, Wiltshire and studied history at Manchester University. He was a member of the Officer Training Corps, and for the past seven years he has been heavily involved in training young people in the art of survival on Combined Cadet Force and Duke of Edinburgh Courses. He has taught history at St. Edward’s School, Oxford, Millfield School, and currently at Bradfield College, in England.His main passion is military history. His first book was Dunkirk— From Disaster to Deliverance (Pen & Sword, 2000). Since then he has written The War Behind the Wire (Pen & Sword, 2000), which accompanied a television documentary on prisoners of war. He recently edited the diaries of an Australian teenager in the First World War.

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INDEX Air Force (U.S.) 10 animals for food 32, 52 arms 32, 53 backpack 8, 10, 19, 30–31, 33, 43 balaclava 15–16 bergen 8, 10, 15, 31 Bivi bag 23, 33 blankets 22, 47 bola 57–58 bone tools 51 boots 11–12, 15, 17, 19, 37, 39–40, 43 bow and arrows 49, 51–52 camouflage 9, 13, 36, 41 candles 20–22 clothing 9–10, 12–13, 15–17, 20–23, 35, 37–43, 45–47, 49 clubs 50 compass 19–22, 40 cookers 25 cooking equipment 23 covert operations 17 cutlery 19, 22, 49, 53 deadfall trap 48, 50 desert 13, 35, 37, 39, 42 Disruptive Pattern Material (DPM) 9 dried food 7 eating 25, 49 eye protection 37 fires 20, 22, 37, 41, 55 fishing 21–22 flashlights 19, 22 fleece 9 food 19, 25–26, 28, 32–33, 40, 52, 55

footwear 11, 39, 46 French Foreign Legion 35, 37, 49 gloves 14, 22, 40 goggles 37, 43, 62 Gore–Tex® 12, 14 Green Berets 21, 46 H-frame backpack 30 hammock 40 headgear 14–15, 17 horseshoe backpack 31 ice axe 42–43 insect repellent 22, 40 insulation 8–9, 40–41, 43, 45–47 jackets 9–10, 12–15, 17, 19 knives 21–22, 30, 33, 49, 51, 54–55, 57–59 long johns 9, 15 machete 40 medicine 40 mess tin 22, 25–26 military uniform 13 mirror 21–22 mousetraps 22 pants 12, 35, 37–38 perspiration 15, 35 plants 46–47 plastic mugs 26 pliers 21 polar regions 40, 42–43 potassium 21

permanganate 21 ration packs 27 rawhide 52, 57, 59 rifle 14, 38 Royal Marines (British) 9 SAS (British) 29, 47, 49 saws 20–22, 50–51 sewing kit 20–21 shelter 22–23, 41, 45, 49, 56 shirts 9, 15, 37–38 signaling 21–22 ski sticks 43 smoke signals 22 snow shovel 22 socks 11–12, 15, 17, 37–38, 40, 43, 45 spear 49, 55–56, 58 stone tools 51 stove 23–25, 33 survival bag 21, 32–33 survival tin 19–21, 33, 50 sweating 40, 43 tent 17, 19, 23, 25 thermal underwear 9 tools 13, 49–51, 54–55, 57–58 tropical regions 38 undercover operations 17 U.S. Army 14, 40, 42 walking 11, 15, 19, 33, 40 water 12, 18–23, 25–28, 38, 53, 56–57, 59 weapons 13, 49–50, 54, 57–58 yomping 11