Substrate Analysis for Effective Biofuels Production (Clean Energy Production Technologies) 9789813296060, 9789813296077, 9813296062
As a substrate, cellulose plays a crucial role in the biomass-based biofuel production process, and is essential to enzy
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English Pages 284 [282]
Table of contents :
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Contents
About the Editors
1: Algal Biomass: Potential Renewable Feedstock for Biofuel Production
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Algal Biomass: A Unique Reservoir
1.3 Algae-Derived Biofuels
1.3.1 Algal Biomass
1.3.2 Lipids
1.3.3 Biodiesel
1.3.4 Hydrocarbons
1.3.5 Hydrogen
1.3.6 Ethanol
1.3.7 High-Value Products
1.4 Cultivation of Algae for Biofuels
1.4.1 The Open System
1.4.1.1 Raceway Ponds
1.4.1.2 Circular Ponds
1.4.1.3 Unstirred Ponds
1.4.2 The Closed System
1.4.3 Immobilised Culture Systems
1.4.3.1 Enclosure Methods
1.4.3.2 Non-enclosure Methods
1.4.4 The Hybrid System
1.5 Algal Harvesting Techniques
1.5.1 Centrifugation
1.5.2 Gravity Sedimentation
1.5.3 Filtration
1.5.4 Microstrainers
1.5.5 Electrophoresis
1.5.6 Lipid Extraction Techniques
1.6 Understanding the Factors Influencing Algal Growth for Biofuel Production
1.6.1 Light
1.6.2 Temperature
1.6.3 Carbon Dioxide
1.6.4 Nutrients and Other Factors
1.7 Concerns Related to Commercially Available Fossil Fuels
1.7.1 Remedies to Tackle the Issues Related to the Commercially Available Fuels
1.8 Innovative Strategies Towards Enhanced Biofuel Productivity
1.8.1 Algal Biorefinery: A Holistic Approach
1.8.2 Growth Optimisation for Enhanced Productivity
1.8.3 Efficient Design of Cultivation Systems
1.8.4 Altering the Antenna Size
1.8.5 Induced Stress-Triggered Lipid Production
1.8.6 Cost-Effective Biomass Harvesting and Processing
1.9 Bioenergy Policies: India and Beyond
1.10 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
2: Algal Butanol Production
2.1 Energy Demand of the World
2.2 Non-renewable Fuels and Their Efficiency
2.3 Biofuel: An Alternative Source of Energy
2.3.1 Biofuel Efficiency
2.3.2 Butanol as a Biofuel
2.4 Production of Bio-Butanol
2.5 Butanol from Algae
2.5.1 Benefits of Microalgae
2.5.2 Cultivation of Microalgae for Butanol Production
2.5.3 Making of Butanol
2.6 Genetic Manipulation of Algae for Efficient Biofuel Production
2.7 Conclusion
References
3: Suitability of the Lantana Weed as a Substrate for Biogas Production
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Biogas as a Renewable Energy
3.3 Various Substrates for Biogas Production
3.4 Lantana as a Substrate for Biogas Production
3.4.1 Biology of the Lantana Plant
3.4.2 Lantana as a Substrate for Biogas
3.5 Challenges in Lantana for Potential Biogas Production
3.6 Conclusion
References
4: Recent Progress in Emerging Microalgae Technology for Biofuel Production
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Microalgae for Biofuel Production
4.2.1 Criteria for Cultivation System Selection
4.2.2 Strategies for Microalgal Cultivation
4.2.2.1 Integrated Wastewater Treatment and Mitigation of CO2
4.2.2.2 Feeding Modes for Cultivation
4.2.2.3 Continuous Two-Stage Cultivation
4.2.2.4 Stress Cultivation
4.2.2.5 Co-culture
4.2.2.6 Cultivation with Water Recycling
4.2.3 Different Types of Lipids Produced by Microalgae
4.3 Microalgal Bioprocessing
4.3.1 Biomass Production
4.3.1.1 Photoautotrophic Biomass Production
4.3.1.1.1 Open Pond Production Unit
4.3.1.1.2 Closed Photobioreactor Production Unit
4.3.1.1.3 Hybrid Two-Stage Production Unit
4.3.1.2 Heterotrophic Biomass Production
4.3.1.3 Mixotrophic Biomass Production
4.3.2 Biomass Recovery/Harvesting Microalgal Biomass
4.3.2.1 Centrifugal Sedimentation
4.3.2.2 Filtration
4.3.2.3 Flocculation
4.3.2.4 Flotation
4.3.3 Dewatering Process and Biomass Extraction
4.3.4 Biofuel Conversion
4.3.4.1 Biochemical Process
4.3.4.1.1 Anaerobic Digestion
4.3.4.1.2 Alcoholic Fermentation
4.3.4.1.3 Photobiological Hydrogen Production
4.3.4.2 Thermochemical Process
4.3.4.2.1 Gasification
4.3.4.2.2 Liquefaction
4.3.4.2.3 Pyrolysis
4.3.4.3 Direct Combustion
4.3.4.4 Chemical Reaction
4.3.4.4.1 Direct/In Situ Transesterification
4.3.4.4.2 Conventional Transesterification
4.4 Genetic Manipulation of Algae for Enhanced Lipid/TAG Production
4.4.1 General Strategies in Conventional Genetic Engineering Techniques
4.5 TAG/Fatty Acid Biosynthesis
4.5.1 Kennedy Pathway
4.5.1.1 Acyltransferase
4.5.2 Acyl-CoA Independent Pathway
4.6 Fatty Acid and TAG Enhancement by Genetic Manipulations
4.6.1 Genes in Kennedy Pathway and in the Biosynthesis of Fatty Acid
4.6.2 Desaturase Enzymatic Gene and Substrate Specificity
4.6.3 Transcription and Regulatory Genes
4.6.4 Other Regulatory Genes
4.7 Lipid Induction Through Environmental Stress
4.8 Factors Affecting the Biomass Production
4.8.1 Nutrient Supplements
4.8.2 Light Source and Intensity
4.8.3 Temperature Effect
4.9 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
5: Recent Update on Biodiesel Production Using Various Substrates and Practical Execution
5.1 Background: Diesel and Diesel Engines
5.2 What Is/Why Biodiesel?
5.2.1 Benefits of Biodiesel
5.2.2 Challenges for Biodiesel
5.3 Different Substrates for Biodiesel Production
5.4 Biodiesel Production Methods
5.4.1 Blending Vegetable Oils with Diesel or Dilution
5.4.2 Micro-emulsification
5.4.3 Pyrolysis
5.4.4 Transesterification
5.5 Biodiesel Production Standard Processing Steps (Small Scale, Using Alkali-Based Transesterification)
5.6 Analytical Methods to Determine Biodiesel and Its Specifications Based on Standards Followed by Different Countries
5.7 Production Economics for Biodiesel
5.8 Current Status of Practical Execution in Different Countries
5.9 Conclusion and Future Outlook
References
6: Cellulose Nanofibers from Agro-Wastes of Northeast India for Nanocomposite and Bioenergy Applications
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Agro-Wastes of Northeast India for Cellulose Production
6.3 Techniques of Cellulose Production
6.4 Characterization of CNFs
6.4.1 FTIR Characterization
6.4.2 X-Ray Diffraction Study
6.4.3 SEM/TEM/AFM Analysis
6.4.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
6.5 Agro-Waste Based CNFs for Nanocomposite Applications
6.6 CNFs-Based Nanocomposites for Photocatalytic and Biomedical Applications
6.7 CNFs-Based Nanocomposites for Bioenergy Applications
6.8 Conclusion
References
7: Impact of Pretreatment Technologies for Biomass to Biofuel Production
7.1 Introduction
7.2 LCB Composition
7.3 Structure of LCB
7.3.1 Cellulose
7.3.2 Hemicelluloses
7.3.3 Lignin
7.3.4 Minor Chemical Components
7.4 Pretreatment
7.4.1 Objectives
7.4.2 Central Theme
7.4.3 Pretreated LCB and Enzyme Digestibility
7.4.4 Pretreatment Methods
7.4.4.1 Physical (Mechanical) Pretreatment
7.4.4.1.1 Comminution
Milling
Extrusion
7.4.4.1.2 Pressure Shock Mediated
Steam Explosion (Autohydrolysis)
Ammonia Fiber Explosion (AFEX)
CO2 Explosion
7.4.4.2 Physicochemical Pretreatment
7.4.4.2.1 Hydrothermal Method
7.4.4.2.2 Alkali Methods
7.4.4.2.3 Acid Methods
Dilute Acid Method
Concentrated Acid Method
7.4.4.2.4 Microwave-Assisted Method
7.4.4.2.5 Ultrasonication-Mediated Method
7.4.4.3 Chemical Pretreatment
7.4.4.3.1 Cold Alkali Method
7.4.4.3.2 Ozonolysis
7.4.4.3.3 Organosolv Method
7.4.4.3.4 N-Methylmorpholine-N-oxide (NMMO) Method
7.4.4.3.5 Ionic Liquid (IL) Method
7.4.4.3.6 Deep Eutectic Solvent (DES) Method
7.4.4.4 Biological Pretreatment
7.4.4.4.1 Whole Cell Method
7.4.4.4.2 Enzyme Method
7.4.4.5 Nanoscale Pretreatment
7.4.4.5.1 Acid-Functionalized Magnetic Nanoparticle (AFMAN) Method
7.4.4.5.2 Nanoscale Shear Hybrid Alkaline (NSHA) Method
7.5 Biorefinery Approach and Pretreatment
7.6 Conclusions
References
8: Impact of Pretreatment Technology on Cellulosic Availability for Fuel Production
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Cellulosic Biomass for Biofuels Production: Structure and Composition
8.2.1 Biomass for First-Generation Biofuels
8.2.2 Biomass for Second-Generation Biofuels
8.2.3 Biomass for Third-Generation Biofuels
8.3 From Cellulosic Substrates to Biofuels: Pretreatment as Crucial Step
8.4 Different Pretreatment Technologies
8.4.1 Physical Pretreatment
8.4.2 Physicochemical Pretreatment
8.4.2.1 Steam Explosion
8.4.2.2 Instant Controlled Pressure Drop (DIC)
8.4.2.3 Ammonia Fiber Explosion (AFEX) and Ammonia Recycle Percolation (ARP)
8.4.2.4 Microwave-Chemical Pretreatment
8.4.2.5 Liquid Hot Water Pretreatment
8.4.3 Chemical Pretreatment
8.4.3.1 Acid Pretreatment
8.4.3.2 Alkaline Pretreatment
8.4.3.3 Green Solvents (Ionic Liquids)
8.4.3.4 Organosolv
8.4.4 Biological Pretreatment
8.5 Pretreatment Major Challenges
8.6 Conclusion
References
9: Application of Metabolic Engineering for Biofuel Production in Microorganisms
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Biofuels Derived from Fatty Acids
9.3 Higher Alcohols
9.4 Isoprenoid-Derived Biofuel
9.5 Conclusion
References
10: Nanomaterials and Its Application in Biofuel Production
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Rise of Nanotechnology
10.3 Characterization of Nanomaterials
10.4 Properties of Nanomaterials
10.5 Synthesis of Nanomaterials
10.6 Biodiesel as a Biofuel
10.7 Present Status and Scenario of Biofuel in India
10.8 Feasibility Scenario of Biodiesel Production
10.9 Land and Climate for Biofuel
10.10 Significance of Biofuels
10.11 Nanotechnique-Based Process of Making Biofuel
10.12 Nanoparticles and Performance of Biofuel
10.13 Conclusion
References
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Contents
About the Editors
1: Algal Biomass: Potential Renewable Feedstock for Biofuel Production
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Algal Biomass: A Unique Reservoir
1.3 Algae-Derived Biofuels
1.3.1 Algal Biomass
1.3.2 Lipids
1.3.3 Biodiesel
1.3.4 Hydrocarbons
1.3.5 Hydrogen
1.3.6 Ethanol
1.3.7 High-Value Products
1.4 Cultivation of Algae for Biofuels
1.4.1 The Open System
1.4.1.1 Raceway Ponds
1.4.1.2 Circular Ponds
1.4.1.3 Unstirred Ponds
1.4.2 The Closed System
1.4.3 Immobilised Culture Systems
1.4.3.1 Enclosure Methods
1.4.3.2 Non-enclosure Methods
1.4.4 The Hybrid System
1.5 Algal Harvesting Techniques
1.5.1 Centrifugation
1.5.2 Gravity Sedimentation
1.5.3 Filtration
1.5.4 Microstrainers
1.5.5 Electrophoresis
1.5.6 Lipid Extraction Techniques
1.6 Understanding the Factors Influencing Algal Growth for Biofuel Production
1.6.1 Light
1.6.2 Temperature
1.6.3 Carbon Dioxide
1.6.4 Nutrients and Other Factors
1.7 Concerns Related to Commercially Available Fossil Fuels
1.7.1 Remedies to Tackle the Issues Related to the Commercially Available Fuels
1.8 Innovative Strategies Towards Enhanced Biofuel Productivity
1.8.1 Algal Biorefinery: A Holistic Approach
1.8.2 Growth Optimisation for Enhanced Productivity
1.8.3 Efficient Design of Cultivation Systems
1.8.4 Altering the Antenna Size
1.8.5 Induced Stress-Triggered Lipid Production
1.8.6 Cost-Effective Biomass Harvesting and Processing
1.9 Bioenergy Policies: India and Beyond
1.10 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
2: Algal Butanol Production
2.1 Energy Demand of the World
2.2 Non-renewable Fuels and Their Efficiency
2.3 Biofuel: An Alternative Source of Energy
2.3.1 Biofuel Efficiency
2.3.2 Butanol as a Biofuel
2.4 Production of Bio-Butanol
2.5 Butanol from Algae
2.5.1 Benefits of Microalgae
2.5.2 Cultivation of Microalgae for Butanol Production
2.5.3 Making of Butanol
2.6 Genetic Manipulation of Algae for Efficient Biofuel Production
2.7 Conclusion
References
3: Suitability of the Lantana Weed as a Substrate for Biogas Production
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Biogas as a Renewable Energy
3.3 Various Substrates for Biogas Production
3.4 Lantana as a Substrate for Biogas Production
3.4.1 Biology of the Lantana Plant
3.4.2 Lantana as a Substrate for Biogas
3.5 Challenges in Lantana for Potential Biogas Production
3.6 Conclusion
References
4: Recent Progress in Emerging Microalgae Technology for Biofuel Production
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Microalgae for Biofuel Production
4.2.1 Criteria for Cultivation System Selection
4.2.2 Strategies for Microalgal Cultivation
4.2.2.1 Integrated Wastewater Treatment and Mitigation of CO2
4.2.2.2 Feeding Modes for Cultivation
4.2.2.3 Continuous Two-Stage Cultivation
4.2.2.4 Stress Cultivation
4.2.2.5 Co-culture
4.2.2.6 Cultivation with Water Recycling
4.2.3 Different Types of Lipids Produced by Microalgae
4.3 Microalgal Bioprocessing
4.3.1 Biomass Production
4.3.1.1 Photoautotrophic Biomass Production
4.3.1.1.1 Open Pond Production Unit
4.3.1.1.2 Closed Photobioreactor Production Unit
4.3.1.1.3 Hybrid Two-Stage Production Unit
4.3.1.2 Heterotrophic Biomass Production
4.3.1.3 Mixotrophic Biomass Production
4.3.2 Biomass Recovery/Harvesting Microalgal Biomass
4.3.2.1 Centrifugal Sedimentation
4.3.2.2 Filtration
4.3.2.3 Flocculation
4.3.2.4 Flotation
4.3.3 Dewatering Process and Biomass Extraction
4.3.4 Biofuel Conversion
4.3.4.1 Biochemical Process
4.3.4.1.1 Anaerobic Digestion
4.3.4.1.2 Alcoholic Fermentation
4.3.4.1.3 Photobiological Hydrogen Production
4.3.4.2 Thermochemical Process
4.3.4.2.1 Gasification
4.3.4.2.2 Liquefaction
4.3.4.2.3 Pyrolysis
4.3.4.3 Direct Combustion
4.3.4.4 Chemical Reaction
4.3.4.4.1 Direct/In Situ Transesterification
4.3.4.4.2 Conventional Transesterification
4.4 Genetic Manipulation of Algae for Enhanced Lipid/TAG Production
4.4.1 General Strategies in Conventional Genetic Engineering Techniques
4.5 TAG/Fatty Acid Biosynthesis
4.5.1 Kennedy Pathway
4.5.1.1 Acyltransferase
4.5.2 Acyl-CoA Independent Pathway
4.6 Fatty Acid and TAG Enhancement by Genetic Manipulations
4.6.1 Genes in Kennedy Pathway and in the Biosynthesis of Fatty Acid
4.6.2 Desaturase Enzymatic Gene and Substrate Specificity
4.6.3 Transcription and Regulatory Genes
4.6.4 Other Regulatory Genes
4.7 Lipid Induction Through Environmental Stress
4.8 Factors Affecting the Biomass Production
4.8.1 Nutrient Supplements
4.8.2 Light Source and Intensity
4.8.3 Temperature Effect
4.9 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
5: Recent Update on Biodiesel Production Using Various Substrates and Practical Execution
5.1 Background: Diesel and Diesel Engines
5.2 What Is/Why Biodiesel?
5.2.1 Benefits of Biodiesel
5.2.2 Challenges for Biodiesel
5.3 Different Substrates for Biodiesel Production
5.4 Biodiesel Production Methods
5.4.1 Blending Vegetable Oils with Diesel or Dilution
5.4.2 Micro-emulsification
5.4.3 Pyrolysis
5.4.4 Transesterification
5.5 Biodiesel Production Standard Processing Steps (Small Scale, Using Alkali-Based Transesterification)
5.6 Analytical Methods to Determine Biodiesel and Its Specifications Based on Standards Followed by Different Countries
5.7 Production Economics for Biodiesel
5.8 Current Status of Practical Execution in Different Countries
5.9 Conclusion and Future Outlook
References
6: Cellulose Nanofibers from Agro-Wastes of Northeast India for Nanocomposite and Bioenergy Applications
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Agro-Wastes of Northeast India for Cellulose Production
6.3 Techniques of Cellulose Production
6.4 Characterization of CNFs
6.4.1 FTIR Characterization
6.4.2 X-Ray Diffraction Study
6.4.3 SEM/TEM/AFM Analysis
6.4.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
6.5 Agro-Waste Based CNFs for Nanocomposite Applications
6.6 CNFs-Based Nanocomposites for Photocatalytic and Biomedical Applications
6.7 CNFs-Based Nanocomposites for Bioenergy Applications
6.8 Conclusion
References
7: Impact of Pretreatment Technologies for Biomass to Biofuel Production
7.1 Introduction
7.2 LCB Composition
7.3 Structure of LCB
7.3.1 Cellulose
7.3.2 Hemicelluloses
7.3.3 Lignin
7.3.4 Minor Chemical Components
7.4 Pretreatment
7.4.1 Objectives
7.4.2 Central Theme
7.4.3 Pretreated LCB and Enzyme Digestibility
7.4.4 Pretreatment Methods
7.4.4.1 Physical (Mechanical) Pretreatment
7.4.4.1.1 Comminution
Milling
Extrusion
7.4.4.1.2 Pressure Shock Mediated
Steam Explosion (Autohydrolysis)
Ammonia Fiber Explosion (AFEX)
CO2 Explosion
7.4.4.2 Physicochemical Pretreatment
7.4.4.2.1 Hydrothermal Method
7.4.4.2.2 Alkali Methods
7.4.4.2.3 Acid Methods
Dilute Acid Method
Concentrated Acid Method
7.4.4.2.4 Microwave-Assisted Method
7.4.4.2.5 Ultrasonication-Mediated Method
7.4.4.3 Chemical Pretreatment
7.4.4.3.1 Cold Alkali Method
7.4.4.3.2 Ozonolysis
7.4.4.3.3 Organosolv Method
7.4.4.3.4 N-Methylmorpholine-N-oxide (NMMO) Method
7.4.4.3.5 Ionic Liquid (IL) Method
7.4.4.3.6 Deep Eutectic Solvent (DES) Method
7.4.4.4 Biological Pretreatment
7.4.4.4.1 Whole Cell Method
7.4.4.4.2 Enzyme Method
7.4.4.5 Nanoscale Pretreatment
7.4.4.5.1 Acid-Functionalized Magnetic Nanoparticle (AFMAN) Method
7.4.4.5.2 Nanoscale Shear Hybrid Alkaline (NSHA) Method
7.5 Biorefinery Approach and Pretreatment
7.6 Conclusions
References
8: Impact of Pretreatment Technology on Cellulosic Availability for Fuel Production
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Cellulosic Biomass for Biofuels Production: Structure and Composition
8.2.1 Biomass for First-Generation Biofuels
8.2.2 Biomass for Second-Generation Biofuels
8.2.3 Biomass for Third-Generation Biofuels
8.3 From Cellulosic Substrates to Biofuels: Pretreatment as Crucial Step
8.4 Different Pretreatment Technologies
8.4.1 Physical Pretreatment
8.4.2 Physicochemical Pretreatment
8.4.2.1 Steam Explosion
8.4.2.2 Instant Controlled Pressure Drop (DIC)
8.4.2.3 Ammonia Fiber Explosion (AFEX) and Ammonia Recycle Percolation (ARP)
8.4.2.4 Microwave-Chemical Pretreatment
8.4.2.5 Liquid Hot Water Pretreatment
8.4.3 Chemical Pretreatment
8.4.3.1 Acid Pretreatment
8.4.3.2 Alkaline Pretreatment
8.4.3.3 Green Solvents (Ionic Liquids)
8.4.3.4 Organosolv
8.4.4 Biological Pretreatment
8.5 Pretreatment Major Challenges
8.6 Conclusion
References
9: Application of Metabolic Engineering for Biofuel Production in Microorganisms
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Biofuels Derived from Fatty Acids
9.3 Higher Alcohols
9.4 Isoprenoid-Derived Biofuel
9.5 Conclusion
References
10: Nanomaterials and Its Application in Biofuel Production
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Rise of Nanotechnology
10.3 Characterization of Nanomaterials
10.4 Properties of Nanomaterials
10.5 Synthesis of Nanomaterials
10.6 Biodiesel as a Biofuel
10.7 Present Status and Scenario of Biofuel in India
10.8 Feasibility Scenario of Biodiesel Production
10.9 Land and Climate for Biofuel
10.10 Significance of Biofuels
10.11 Nanotechnique-Based Process of Making Biofuel
10.12 Nanoparticles and Performance of Biofuel
10.13 Conclusion
References
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