Structure of Texts and Semiotics of Culture 9783110802962, 9789027925145

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SLAVISTIC PRINTINGS AND REPRINTINGS 294

STRUCTURE OF TEXTS AND SEMIOTICS OF CULTURE

edited by JAN VAN DER ENG and MOJMÎR GRYGAR

1973

MOUTON THE HAGUE . PARIS

© Copyright 1973 in The Netherlands Mouton & Co. N.V., Publishers, The Hague No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publishers

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 73-80963

Printed in Belgium by N.I.C.I., Ghent

PREFACE

In this book we have gathered together a series of Czech, Polish, Russian, and Dutch contributions for the Seventh International Congress of Slavists in Warsaw. The basic impetus to this undertaking has been our common interest in semiotics of culture and in the structural analysis of literary texts. Moreover, we think it important that collections of articles should focus upon a common theme (or some connected themes) and that a wide range of specialists from Slavic and Western countries should cooperate on such a subject of general discourse. We strongly intend to promote further collections of the same kind. Jan van der Eng Mojmir Grygar

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface

V

B. A. Uspenskij, V. V. Ivanov, V. N. Toporov, A. M. Pjatigorskij, Ju. M. Lotman Theses on the Semiotic Study of Cultures (as Applied to Slavic Texts)

1

Jan van der Eng ITpneM: ueHTpajibHbrä H0r0 TeKCTa

29

ceMaHranecKoro

nocTpoeHH«

Mojmir Grygar KyÖH3M

H no33Ha

Vjac. Vs. Ivanov KaTeropHH B p e M e H H

pyccKoro

a

nemcKoro

aBaHrap^a....

B ncKyccTBe H KyjibType

XX

BeKa

. . . .

Vjac. Vs. Ivanov KaTeropna "BHAHMOI-O" H "HEBHFLHMORO" B TeiccTe: eme pa3 o BOCTOHHOCJiaBHHCKHx (JtojibKJiopHbix napajiJienHx K r o r o j i e B CKOMy "Brno"

59 103

151

Ju. I. Levin J l H p H K a C KOMMyHHKaTHBHOH TOHKH 3 p e H H H

177

M. R. Mayenowa An Analysis of Some Visual Signs: Suggestions for discussion

197

Jan M. Meijer Literature as Information. Some Notes on Lotman's Book: Struktura xudozestvennogo teksta

209

VIII

V. N. Toporov O CTpyKType p O M a H a

TABLE OF CONTENTS

apxaHHHbiMH cxeMaMH MH(J)OJiorHHecKoro MBiuiJieHHH (npecmynneme u uaFLOCTOEBCKORO

B CBH3H C

Ka3aHue)

225

Stefan ¿àfkiewski Des problèmes de la littérature populaire

303

Jan M. Meijer Verbal Art as Interference between a Cognitive and an Aesthetic Structure

313

Krystyna Pomorska O HJieHeHHH noBecTBOBaTejitHOH n p o 3 H

349

THESES ON THE SEMIOTIC STUDY OF CULTURES (AS APPLIED TO SLAVIC TEXTS)

1.0.0. In the study of culture the initial premise is that all human activity concerned with the processing, exchange, and storage of information possesses a certain unity. Individual sign systems, though they presuppose immanently organized structures, function only in unity, supported by one another. None of the sign systems possesses a mechanism which would enable it to function culturally in isolation. Hence it follows that, together with an approach which permits us to construct a series of relatively autonomous sciences of the semiotic cycle, we shall also admit another approach, according to which all of them examine particular aspects of the semiotics of culture, of the study of the functional correlation of different sign systems. From this point of view particular importance is attached to questions of the hierarchical structure of the languages of culture, of the distribution of spheres among them, of cases in which these spheres intersect or merely border upon each other. 1.1.0. In investigations of a semiotic-typological nature the concept of culture is perceived as fundamental. In doing so we should distinguish between the conception of culture from its own point of view and from the point of view of a scientific metasystem which describes it. According to the first position, culture will have the appearance of a certain delimited sphere which is opposed to the phenomena of human history, experience, or activity lying outside it. Thus the concept of culture is inseparably linked with the opposition of its "non-culture". The principle according to which this is done (the antithesis of true religion and profanity, of enlightenment and ignorance, of belonging to a certain ethnic group or not belonging to it, and the like) pertains to the type of the given culture. Yet the very opposition of inclusion in some closed sphere and exclusion from it constitutes a significant feature of our interpretation of the concept of culture from the "inner" point of view. Herein occurs a

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characteristic absolutization of the opposition: it seems that culture does not need its "outer" counteragent and can be understood immanently. 1.1.1. From this point of view the definition of culture as the sphere of organization (information) in human society and the opposition to it of disorganization (entropy) is one of the many definitions given "from within" the object being described, which is further evidence of the fact that science (in this case, information theory) in the twentieth century is not only a metasystem but is also part of the object described, "modern culture". 1.1.2. The opposition "culture-nature", "done-undone" ("artificialnon-artificial") is likewise merely a particular historically conditioned interpretation of the antithesis of inclusion and exclusion. Let us point out that the antithesis "culture-civilization", which was prevalent in Russian culture at the beginning of the twentieth century (A. Blok), regards culture as a structure which is organized but not by man rather by the "spirit of music" - and is therefore "primeval". As for the feature of doneness ("artificialness") it is ascribed to the antipode of culture - civilization. 1.2.0. To describe them from the outer point of view, culture and nonculture appear as spheres which are mutually conditioned and which need each other. The mechanism of culture is a system which transforms the outer sphere into the inner one: disorganization into organization, ignoramuses into initiates, sinners into holy men, entropy into information. By virtue of the fact that culture lives not only by the opposition of the outer and the inner spheres but also by moving from one sphere to the other, it does not only struggle against the outer "chaos" but has need of it as well; it does not only destroy it but continually creates it. One of the links between culture and civilization (and "chaos") consists in the fact that culture continually estranges, in favor of its antipode, certain "exhausted" elements, which become clichés and function in nonculture. Thus in culture itself entropy increases at the expense of maximum organization. 1.2.1. In this connection it may be said that each type of culture has its corresponding type of "chaos", which is by no means primary, uniform, and always equal to itself, but which represents just as active a creation by man as does the sphere of cultural organization. Each historically given type of culture has its own type of nonculture peculiar to it alone.

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1.2.2. The sphere of extracuitural nonorganization may sometimes be constructed as a mirror reflection of the sphere of culture or else as a space which, from the position of an observer immersed in the given culture, appears as unorganized, but which from an outer position proves to be a sphere of different organization. An example of the former might be the reconstruction of pagan ideas by a monk of twelfthcentury Kiev in PovesV vremmenyx let [Tale of Bygone Years], It makes a sorcerer taking part in a religious debate with Christians answer the questions "Who are your gods? Where do they dwell?" by saying: "They dwell in abysses; as for their appearance, they are black and winged, and have tails ..." When in the sphere of the culturally-mastered world "the heights" are appointed to the gods, then in its outer space they live below. Now, in the system of the given culture, an identification arises of the extra-cultural space with the negative "low" world. ("That God which sits in an abyss is a devil, but a God sits in the skies.") An example of the latter is the assertion of a Poljanin annalist that in old times the Drevljans did not "have marriages", after which a description is given of the family organization, which was, for the annalist, not based on marriage but, naturally, is for the modern investigator. 1.2.3. Although culture, by extending its limits, seeks completely to usurp the whole of extracuitural space, to assimilate it to itself, from the position of an outside description the expansion of the sphere of organization leads to the expansion of the sphere of nonorganization. The narrow world of Hellenic civilization had its correspondingly narrow sphere of encircling "barbarians". The spatial growth of ancient Mediterranean civilization was accompanied by the growth of the extracuitural world. (Of course, if we abstract ourselves from the concepts of the given type of culture, no growth occurred whatsoever; a certain people might live the same way both before and after they became known to the world of Roman civilization. Yet from the point of view of the given culture, its "forefield" steadily expanded.) It is characteristic that the twentieth century, having exhausted the reserves of the spatial expansion of culture (all geographical space has become "cultural"; the "forefield" has disappeared), has addressed itself to the problem of the subconscious, constructing a new type of space opposed to culture. The opposition to the spheres of the subconscious, on the one hand, and of the cosmos, on the other, is just as essential to an understanding of the inner structure of twentieth-century culture as the oppositions of Rus' and the steppe were for the twelfth century, or of the people and

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the intelligentsia for Russian culture in the second half of the nineteenth century. As a fact of culture the problem of the subconscious is not so much a discovery as a creation of the twentieth century. 1.2.4. The opposition "culture-extracultural space" is the minimal unit of the mechanism of culture on any given level. Practically speaking, we are given a paradigm of extracultural spaces ("infantile", "exoticethnic" from the point of view of the given culture, "subconscious", "pathological", and others). The descriptions of various peoples in medieval texts are constructed in an analogous manner: in the center there is situated a certain normal "we", to which other peoples are opposed as a paradigmatic set of anomalies. It should be emphasized that from the "inner" point of view the culture appears as the positive member of the aforementioned opposition, whereas from the "outer" point of view the whole opposition appears as a cultural phenomenon. 1.3.0. The active role of the outer space in the mechanism of culture is particularly revealed in the fact that certain ideological systems may associate a culture-generating source precisely with the outer, unorganized sphere, opposing to it the inner, regulated sphere as culturally dead. Thus in the Slavophile opposition of Russia and the West, the former is identified with the outer sphere, which is not normalized, which is not culturally assimilated, but which constitutes the germ of future culture. As for the West, it is conceived as a closed and regulated world, that is to say, "cultural" and at the same time culturally dead. 1.3.1. Thus, from the position of an outside observer, culture will represent not an immobile, synchronically balanced mechanism, but a dichotomous system, the "work" of which will be realized as the aggression of regularity against the sphere of the unregulated and, in the opposite direction, as the intrusion of the unregulated into the sphere of organization. At different moments of historical development either tendency may prevail. The incorporation into the cultural sphere of texts which have come from outside sometimes proves to be a powerful stimulating factor for cultural development. 1.3.2. The game relationship between culture and its outer sphere must be taken into consideration when studying cultural influences and relations. If during periods of the intensive influence of culture on the outer sphere, culture assimilates what is similar to it, that is to say, what from its position is recognized as a fact of culture, then during moments of extensive development it absorbs the texts which it does not have the means to decipher. The extensive encroachment upon

THE SEMIOTIC STUDY OF CULTURES

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twentieth-century European culture of infantile art, of archaic and medieval art or of the art of Far Eastern or African peoples, is bound up with the fact that these texts are torn out of their characteristic historical (or psychological) context. They are seen through the eyes of the "adult" or European. In order to play an active role, they must be perceived as "strange". 1.3.3. The cultural function of the tension between the inner (closed) and the outer (open) spaces is clearly revealed in the structure of houses (and other buildings). In making a house, man thereby partitions oif a part of space which - in contrast with the outer sphere - is perceived as culturally assimilated and regulated. However, this initial opposition acquires cultural significance only against a background of continual breaches in the opposite direction. Thus, on the one hand, the closed "domestic" space begins to be perceived not as the antipode of the outside world, but as its model and analogue (for example, the temple as an image of the universe). In this case the regularity of the temple space is transferred to the outside world, suppressing the sphere of irregularity (the aggression of the inner space against the outside). On the other hand, some properties of the outside world penetrate into the inner world. Related to this is the attempt to distinguish "the house within the house" (for example, the altar space is an inner sphere within an inner sphere). An extremely interesting example of the "game" between the inner and outer spaces of a building as analogues to the tension between the corresponding cultural spheres is that of baroque architecture. The creation of structures which "overflow" their boundaries (pictures extending out of their frames, statues descending from their pedestals, the system of paired correlation between windows and mirrors, which introduces the exterior landscape into the interior) creates mutual breaches of the cultural sphere into chaos and of chaos into the cultural sphere. 2.0.0. Thus culture is constructed as a hierarchy of semiotic systems, on the one hand, and a multilayered arrangement of the extracultural sphere surrounding it. Yet it is indisputable that it is precisely the inner structure, the composition and correlation of particular semiotic subsystems, which determines the type of culture in the first place. 2.1.0. In accordance with what was said above, several cultures may also form a functional or structural unity from the point of view of broader contexts (genetic, areal, and others). Such an approach proves

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especially fruitful in solving problems of the comparative study of culture, particularly the culture of Slavic peoples. The formation of an inner paradigm of cultures or their distribution in the field of the "inner sphere of culture versus outer sphere of culture" opposition permits us to decide a number of questions, both of the relationship between individual Slavic cultures and of their relation to the cultures of other areas. 3.0.0. The fundamental concept of modern semiotics - the text - may be considered a connecting link between general semiotic and special studies such as Slavistics. The text has integral meaning and integral function (if we distinguish between the position of the investigator of culture and the position of its carrier, then from the point of view of the former the text appears as the carrier of integral function, while from the position of the latter it is the carrier of integral meaning). In this sense it may be regarded as the primary element (basic unit) of culture. The relationship of the text with the whole of culture and with its system of codes is shown by the fact that on different levels the same message may appear as a text, part of a text, or an entire set of texts. Thus Puskin's Povesti Belkina [Tales of Belkin] may be regarded as an integral text, as an entire set of texts, or else as part of a single text "the Russian short story of the 1830's". 3.1.0. The concept "text" is used in a specifically semiotic sense and, on the one hand, is applied not only to messages in a natural language but also to any carrier of integral ("textual") meaning - to a ceremony, a work of the fine arts, or a piece of music. On the other hand, not every message in a natural language is a text from the point of view of culture. Out of the entire totality of messages in a natural language, culture distinguishes and takes into account only those which may be defined as a certain speech genre, for example, "prayer", "law", "novel", and others, that is to say, those which possess a certain integral meaning and fulfill a common function. 3.2.0. The text as an object of study may be examined in the light of the following problems: 3.2.1. Text and sign. The text as an integral sign; the text as a sequence of signs. The second case, as is well known from the experience of the linguistic study of the text, is sometimes regarded as the only possible one. Yet in the overall model of culture another type of text is also

THE SEMIOTIC STUDY OF CULTURES

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essential, one in which the concept of the text appears not as a secondary one derived from a chain of signs, but as a primary one. A text of this type is not discrete and does not break down into signs. It represents a whole and is segmented not into separate signs but into distinctive features. In this sense we can detect a far-reaching similarity between the primacy of the text in such modern audiovisual systems of mass communication as the cinema and television, and the role of the text for systems in which, as in mathematical logic, metamathematics, and the theory of formalized grammars, language is understood as a certain set of texts. The fundamental distinction between these two cases of the primacy of the text consists, however, in the fact that for audiovisual systems of the transmission of information and for such comparatively earlier systems as painting, sculpture, the dance (and pantomime), and ballet, the continuous text may be primary (the whole canvas of a painting, or a fragment of it in the event that separate signs are segmented in the painting), and a sign appears as a secondary notion, definable in terms of the text, whereas in formalized languages the text may always be represented as a chain of discrete symbols assigned as elements of an initial alphabet (of a set or a vocabulary). The orientation toward such discrete models of formalized languages (i.e., toward the discrete case of the transmission of information), which was characteiistic of the linguistics of the first half of our century, is being replaced in contemporary semiotic theorv by a concern with the continuous (indiscrete) text as a primary datum (i.e., with nondiscrete cases of the transmission of information) precisely at a time when in culture itself communication systems using predominantly continuous texts are acquiring increasingly greater significance. For television the basic unit is the elementary life situation, which before the moment of televising (or of filming) is. in an a priori manner, unknown and irresolvable into elements. But for the audiovisual technique of mass communication (the cinema and television, including television films) a combination of both methods is also typical. The cinema by no means relinquishes discrete signs, primarily signs of the oral language and of other everyday languages (particularly what it obtains as "raw" or "precinematographic" material from other, typologically earlier, systems), but rather it includes them in integral texts (the crucifix in the church scene in A. Wajda's Ashes and Diamonds appears by itself as a discrete symbol, but it is reinterpreted in the context of the entire sequence, in which it is correlated with the hero of the film). A similar inclusion of discrete signs, most often adopted from other (archaic) systems, in a continuous text may be shown in

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historically earlier visual systems, particularly in painting, where the human image on the world tree - which is central to a considerable number of mythological and ritual traditions (including those of the most ancient Slavs) - or other images equivalent to it, may be retained as the center of the composition. In all such cases we can see a manifestation of a general law of the evolution of semiotic systems, according to which a certain sign or an entire message (or fragment of a message) may be included in the text of another sign system as a component part of it and may subsequently remain chiefly in that capacity (hence with a shifted function - esthetic and not mythological or ritual, as in the examples given). The latter generalization may also be of interest in the substantiation of those methods of reconstructing the most ancient semiotic systems which are based on the discovery of the signs (and sometimes of texts as well) of an archaic system (of proto-Slavic mythology, for example) on the basis of their latest reflections, included in folklore and other texts preserved in historical tradition. A t the same time, from this point of view the analysis of modern means of mass communication in their relationship with systems historically preceding them is organically included in the comparative study of the languages of culture (such subjects of investigation as, for example, the relationship between Wajda's films and the Polish baroque tradition are found to be in conformity with the law - not only on the level of the emotional atmosphere of the work, but also in the nature of the "precinematographic" material selected). The choice of a discrete metalanguage of distinctive features of the type: upper-lower, left-right, dark-light, black-white, to describe such continuous texts as those of painting or the cinema, may by itself be regarded as a manifestation of archaizing tendencies which impose on the continuous text of the object-language metalinguistic categories more characteristic of archaic systems of binary symbolic classification (of mythological and ritual types). But we must not rule out the fact that features of this kind remain as archetypical features even during the creation and perception of continuous texts. Thus the predominance of texts of the discrete or the nondiscrete type may be associated with a certain stage of development of the culture. Y e t it should be emphasized that both these tendencies may also be represented as synchronically coexisting. The tension between them (for example, the conflict between verbal and visual text) constitutes one of the most permanent mechanisms of culture as a whole. The prevalence of one of them is possible not as a complete suppression of the opposite

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type, but only in the form of an orientation of culture toward certain textual structures as the predominant ones. 3.2.2. Text and the problem of "sender-receiver". In the process of cultural communication, particular significance is attached to the problem of the "grammar of the speaker" (addressor) and the "grammar of the hearer" (addressee). Just as individual texts may be created with an orientation toward the "position of the speaker" or the "position of the hearer", in the same way a similar trend may also be inherent in certain cultures as a whole. An example of a culture oriented toward the hearer would be one in which the axiological hierarchy of texts is arranged in such a way that the concepts "most valuable" and "most intelligible" coincide. In this case the specifics of secondary superlinguistic systems will be expressed to the least possible degree - the texts will strive for mimimal conventionality and will imitate "doneness", consciously orienting themselves toward the type of "bare" message found in a natural language. The chronicle, prose (especially the essay), the newspaper article, the documentary film, and television will occupy the highest value stages. "Authentic", "true", and "simple" will be regarded as the highest axiological characteristics. A culture oriented toward the speaker possesses as its highest value the sphere of closed, inaccessible, or completely unintelligible texts. It is a culture of the esoteric type. Prophetic and priestly texts, glossolalia, and poetry occupy the highest place. The orientation of the culture toward the "speaker" (addressor) or the "hearer" (addressee) will be revealed in the fact that in the first case the audience models itself according to the pattern of the creator of the texts (the reader seeks to approach the poet's ideal); in the second case, the sender constructs himself according to the pattern of the audience (the poet seeks to approach the reader's ideal). The diachronic development of culture may also be regarded as movement within the same communication field. An example of movement from an orientation toward the speaker to an orientation toward the hearer in the individual evolution of a writer might be the work of a poet like Pasternak. At the time of the creation of the first version of "Poverx bar'erov" ["Over the Barriers"], "Sestra moja zizn'" ["My Sister Life"], "Temy i variacii" ["Themes and Variations"], the poet's fundamental style was a monologue utterance which strove for accuracy of expression of his own vision of the world with all the conditioned features of the semantic (and sometimes syntactic as well) structure of poetic language. His later works are dominated by a dialogue orientation toward the interlocutor-as-hearer (toward the

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potential reader, who must understand everything being communicated to him). The contrast between the two styles appears especially clearly in cases where the writer tries to convey the same impression in two ways (the two versions of the poem "Venecija" ["Venice"] and the two prose descriptions of the same first impression of Venice in "Oxrannaja gramota" ["Safeguard"] and in his autobiography "Ljudi i polozenija" ["People and Situations"]; the two versions of the poem: "Improvizacija" ["Improvisation"] of 1915 and "Improvizacija na rojale" ["Improvisation on the Piano"] of 1946). That such a movement may be interpreted not only in the light of individual causes, but also as a certain regularity in the development of the European avant-garde, is attested by the creative movement of Majakovskij, Zabolockij, and the poets of the Czech avant-garde. Generally speaking, development from an orientation toward the speaker to an orientation toward the hearer is not the only possible one; among Pasternak's contemporaries, a reverse development is characteristic of Mandel'stam and particularly of Axmatova ("Poèma bez geroja" ["Poem Without a Hero"] in comparison with earlier works). 3.2.3. We should ascertain to what degree the distinction between two polar types of literary and artistic styles : Renaissance-baroque, baroqueclassicism, classicism-romanticism - which with respect to Slavic literatures of various periods was most clearly outlined by Julian Krzyzanowski - may be correlated with the hearer-oriented type of culture (the early Middle Ages, the baroque, romanticism, the literature of the avant-garde - Mioda Polska [Young Poland] and the like). Within each of such oppositions in turn, possible distinctions can be drawn according to the analogous feature (with which we can associate the existence of such intermediate types as Mannerism). The late chronology of the inclusion in Slavic cultures of styles oriented toward the hearer can be associated in a number of cases with the existence within these styles of features which are closer to styles having an orientation toward the speaker (the baroque within the Slavic late Renaissance, and the like). Certain general features linking styles with the orientation toward the speaker permit us to raise the question of far-reaching stylistic similarities (for example, in individual poems by Norwid from Vademecum and in Cvetaeva's poetry) irrespective of absolute chronology. 3.2.4. Since memory is incorporated into the channel of communication between sender and receiver in cultures possessing the means of externally fixing the message, a distinction is made between the potential receiver ("my distant descendant" in Baratynskij's poetry) and the actual receiver. The aggregate of actual receivers is linked with

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the sender in an inverse relationship. Specifically, by means of such an aggregate a collective selection is made of the entire set of texts, those selected conforming to the esthetic norms of the age, the generation, and the social group. The mechanism of such a selection may be modeled by means of an apparatus similar to the one elaborated in the cybernetic model of evolution. Since from the information-theory point of view the amount of information is defined for a given text in relation to the entire set of texts, it is possible at the present time to describe more clearly the real role of "minor writers" in the collective selection which prepares generation of the text carrying maximum information. The individual selection made by the writer (and reflected in rough drafts, for example) may be regarded as a continuation of the collective selection, a continuation which he sometimes directs but often rejects. From this point of view it may prove useful to investigate the factors hindering the selection. The existence of memory in the channel of communication can also be associated with the reflection, in the structure of genres, of communication features which sometimes can be traced back to the preceding period (the "genre memory", according to M. M. Baxtin). 4.0.0. In defining culture as a certain secondary language, we introduce the concept of a "culture text", a text in this secondary language. So long as some natural language is a part of the language of culture, there arises the question of the relationship between the text in the natural language and the verbal text of culture. The following relationships are possible here: (a) The text in the natural language is not a text of the given culture. Such, for example, for cultures oriented toward writing, are all texts whose social functioning implies the oral form. All utterances to which the given culture does not ascribe value and meaning (and does not preserve, for example), from its point of view, are not texts. NOTE: We should distinguish the nontext from the "antitext" of a given culture: the utterance which the culture does not preserve from the utterance which it destroys. (b) The text in the given secondary language is simultaneously a text in the natural language. Thus a poem by PuSkin is at the same time a text in the Russian language. (c) The verbal text of the culture is not a text in the given natural language. It may at the same time be a text in another natural language (a Latin prayer for a Slav), or else it may be formed by the irregular

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transformation of some level of a natural language (cf. the functioning of such texts in children's culture). NOTE: Rare but possible are cases in which the realization of some message as a text in the given language is determined by the fact that it belongs to a text of the culture. In the poetic texts of Xlebnikov there are fragments which in their phonological structure (bobeobi), morphological or lexical composition (lukaet lukom 'it arches by the arch', smejanstvuet smexami 'he laughingnessifies with laughters', and other neologisms based on a revival of the archaic device of figura etimologica, which has been characteristic of Slavic poetry beginning with the most ancient period) and syntactic constructions (ty stois' cto delaja 'you're standing there doing what?') are not included among the correctly constructed texts, from the point of view of the common language. But each such fragment, owing to its inclusion in a text recognized as grammatical from the point of view of poetry, thereby becomes a fact of the history of the language of Russian poetry. Analogous phenomena at earlier stages of evolution can be noted with respect to those forms of folklore, for example to nebyvaVscina and nelepica (fantastic and absurd texts of Russian folkore), where a breach of the semantic standards accepted in the common language becomes a basic compositional principle. 4.0.1. Also essential is the question about the construction of the typology of cultures in connection with the correlation of text and function. By text we imply only a message which performs within the given culture a textual function. In a more general form this tenet is applicable to any semiotic system. Within another language or another system of languages the same message may not be a text. Here we can see a general semiotic analogue of the linguistic concept of grammaticalness, which is of cardinal importance to the modern theory of formal grammars. Not every linguistic message is a text from the point of view of culture, and conversely, not every text from the point of view of culture is a correct message in a natural language. 4.1.1. The traditional history of culture takes into consideration for each chronological section only "new" texts, texts created by the given age. But in the real existence of culture, texts transmitted by the given cultural tradition or introduced from the outside always function side by side with new texts. This gives each synchronic state of culture the features of cultural polyglotism. Since on different social levels the speed of cultural development may not be identical, a synchronic state of

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culture may include its diachrony and the active reproduction of "old" texts. Cf., for example, the vigorous existence of pre-Petrine culture among the Russian Old-Believers of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and partly also today. 5.0.0. The place of the text in the textual space is defined as the sum total of potential texts. 5.0.1. The connection between the semiotic concept of the text and traditional philological problems is especially clearly evident in the example of Slavistics as a field of knowledge. The object of Slavic studies has invariably been a certain sum of texts. But as scientific thought and the overall movement of culture on which it is based progress, the same works may sometimes gain and sometimes lose the ability to appear as texts. A significant example in this regard is the literature of Old Russia. If the number of sources here is relatively stable, the list of texts varies significantly from one scholarly school to another and from one investigator to another, since it reflects a formulated or an implicit concept of the text which always correlates with the conception of Old Russian culture. The sources which do not satisfy this concept are transferred to the category of "nontexts". An obvious example is the hesitation of literary scholars in designating some works as artistic texts according to the extent to which they satisfy the concept of the "artistic culture of the Middle Ages". 5.1.0. A broad conception of the study of texts would be in accordance with traditional methods of Slavistics, which even previously embraced both synchronically interpreted Slavic texts (for example, those written in Old Church Slavonic) and texts of different periods compared on the diachronic level. It appears important to emphasize at this point that a broad typological approach removes the absoluteness from the opposition of synchrony and diachrony. In this connection it is worth noting the special function of languages which claim the role of the basic instrument of interlingual communication and of the connecting link between different ages at least in certain parts of the Slavic area, and first of all the role of Old Church Slavonic and of the texts written in its various recensions. Therefore together with the relationship between synchrony and diachrony we can also suggest the problem of the panchronic functioning of language (in this specific case Old Church Slavonic served primarily as the language for Orthodox communication). This appears all the more significant because with respect to an absolute

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time scale different Slavic cultural traditions are organized in different ways (cf., on the one hand, the abundance of vestiges of proto-Slavic antiquity in the East Slavic area in the sphere which may be called "lower culture" and, on the other hand, the encroachment of certain areas, particularly West Slavic and parts of South Slavic, upon other cultural zones), which accounts for discreteness in the structure of the diachrony of these Slavic cultures, in contrast to the continuity of other traditions. 5.2.0. For a historical reconstruction as applied to Slavic texts, a synchronic comparison of texts belonging to different Slavic linguistic traditions may in a number of cases yield more than a comparison within the same evolutionary series. In this way it is possible to obtain fruitful results in the solution of the traditional philological problem of the reconstruction of texts unavailable to the investigator. For minimal texts - the combination of morphemes in words or separate morphemes - such an approach is practically realized in Slavic comparativehistorical linguistics. At present it can be extended to the entire field of the reconstruction of Slavic antiquities - from metrics to the genre characteristics of folklore texts, mythology, ritual (understood as text), music, dress, ornaments, life style, and others. The abundance of the various influences of other traditions with respect to the latest periods (for example, of Eastern - and later Western European - forms of dress with respect to the history of the costumes of East Slavic peoples) makes the diachronic development to a great extent discontinuous as a result of far-reaching breaches of traditions). In order to reconstruct initial Common Slavic forms, an analysis of this development may be important chiefly in the aspect of the segmentation of later features. A more effective way of solving the same problem of diachronic stratification and of projection of the most ancient layer on the Common Slavic period may be a comparison of synchronic sections of each of the Slavic traditions. 5.2.1. Practically speaking, the reconstruction of texts is the concern of all philologists - from specialists in Slavic antiquities and folklore to investigators of the literature of modern times (the reconstruction of the author's intention or of a work of art, the restoration of lost texts and parts of them, the reconstruction of the reader's interpretation from the opinions of contemporaries, the reconstruction of oral sources and of their place in the system of a written culture; in studying the history of the theatre and dramatic art the object of investigation is primarily

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reconstruction, etc.). To a certain extent every reading of a poetic manuscript is a reconstruction of the creative process and a successive removal of superimposing layers; cf. the approach to the reading of a manuscript as a reconstruction in the Puskin scholars' textual criticism of the 1920's, 30's, and 40's. The empirical material accumulated in various fields of Slavic philology permits us to raise the question of the creation of a general theory of reconstruction based on a common system of postulates and formalized procedures. In so doing, a deliberate approach to the problem of levels of reconstruction appears essential, i.e. the idea that different levels of reconstruction require different procedures and lead to specific results in each case. Reconstruction may be carried out at the highest level, the purely semantic level, which in the final analysis we transfer to the language of certain universal notions. But in the formulation of a number of problems, there may occur a uniform overlapping of the reconstructed material into other structures of the same national culture. As semantic messages are recoded on the lower levels, more and more specific problems are solved, even including those which directly link the reconstruction of the text with linguistic investigations. The most conspicuous results of reconstruction have been achieved on the extreme levels corresponding to the semiotic categories of the signified (signifié) and the signifier (signifiant), which is perhaps related to the fact that it is precisely these levels which to the greatest degree correspond to textual reality, whereas the intermediate levels are to a greater extent correlated with the metalinguistic system assumed in description. 5.2.2. The representation of a text in a natural language might be described by proceeding from an idealized diagram of the work of an automatic machine which would transform the text, successively developing it from the general intention to the lower levels; in this transformation each of the levels or some combination of different levels might in principle correspond to the recoding of the text by means of an output mechanism (see Fig. 1). If the output mechanism in Fig. 1 corresponds to the phoneme level, this means that the message transmitted by means of this mechanism is a sequence of phonemes, i.e., in the transmitter (understood according to the information-theory model of message transmission) each of the phonemes in the code table is compared with a certain letter-signal ; an example might be a letter script of the Serbian and Croatian type. But if the output mechanism corresponds to the level of the general intention of the text, then this means that the message transmitted by means of this mechanism represents a general idea of

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Fig. 1. General diagram of the recoding of a linguistic text by levels

the text in a still unsegmented form, i.e., in the transmitter this idea is compared with its coding symbol (the possibility cannot be ruled out that this symbol is the only one forming the entire code and is thereby an extrasystemic sign). As an example we can cite such general symbols as, for example, suns, pictures of birds and horses, or combinations of all three of these symbols in a vegetative design forming a single text; with respect to the most ancient period, which coincides with the Proto-Slavic, they represented a single text having a strict relationship of its symbolsas-elements - both with the common semantics for the whole text and the completely defined semantics of each element; as for their subsequent reflections in individual Slavic traditions (for example, in the decorative designs on spinning wheels, sleighs, carriages, various utensils - chests, trunks - embroidery on clothing, carved wooden ornaments - particularly on the roofs of houses - on ritual goods made of pastry - pies, round loaves - on children's toys, etc.) they appear as parts of a secondary text constructed by "intermingling" original component parts, which lose their syntactic function as the fundamental semantics of the text is forgotten. For the earlier period the reconstruction of the text describing the world tree, the luminaries above it, and the birds and animals arranged on and near it, is confirmed by the existence, in all the principal Slavic traditions, of verbal texts of various genres (charms, riddles, songs, tales) which completely coincide with one another. At the same time it turns out that such a reconstruction of the text corresponds, on the one hand, to a common Indo-European reconstruction made without

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regard for Slavic data on the basis of the coincidence of Indo-Iranian texts with Old Icelandic ones, and on the other hand, to typologically similar texts of various Eurasian shamanist traditions. 5.2.3. For such reconstructions, even when it is impossible to find the linguistic elements which embody the text on the lower level, its semantic reconstruction is facilitated by the typological similarity of cultural complexes using, practically speaking, a single set of basic semantic oppositions (of the type reconstructed for Proto-Slavic: fortune-misfortune, life-death, sun-moon, land-sea, etc.). In such cases we can also advance a hypothesis concerning similar possibilities of the social interpretation of such systems; in this connection we should note the possibility of also including in the appropriate cultural complexes (understood in the broad sense for the most ancient periods, given a certain type of social organization) such manifestations of social structures as the shape of settlements and houses, rules, instructions, and prohibitions concerning permissible and especially compulsory types of marriages and the characteristics of the functioning of kinship terms associated with them. Therefore the data obtained in the application of structural methods to the reconstruction of Slavic antiquities prove to be significant not only for the history of culture in the narrow sense, but also for the investigation of the early stages of the social organization of the Slavs (as well as for the interpretation of archeological data). This once again confirms the real unity of Slavistics as the study of Slavic antiquities understood as a single semiotic whole, and of the latest transformation and differentiation of the respective traditions. 6.0.0. From the semiotic point of view culture may be regarded as a hierarchy of particular semiotic systems, as the sum of the texts and the set of functions correlated with them, or as a certain mechanism which generates these texts. If we regard the collective as a more complexly organized individual, culture may be understood by analogy with the individual mechanism of memory as a certain collective mechanism for the storage and processing of information. The semiotic structure of culture and the semiotic structure of memory are functionally uniform phenomena situated on different levels. This proposition does not contradict the dynamism of culture: being in principle the fixation of past experience, it may also appear as a program and as instructions for the creation of new texts. Moreover, it is possible given a fundamental orientation of culture toward future experience to construct a certain conditional point of view from which the future appears as the past.

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For example, texts are being created which will be stored by our descendants; people who perceive themselves as "public figures of the age" seek to perform historic deeds (acts which in the future will become memory). Cf. the aspiration of people of the eighteenth century to choose heroes of antiquity as programs for their own behavior (the image of Cato is the distinctive code which deciphers the entire lifelong behavior of Radiscev, including his suicide). The essence of culture as memory is especially clearly shown in the example of archaic texts, particularly folklore texts. 6.0.1. Not only do the participants in communication create texts, but the texts also contain the memory of the participants in communication. Therefore the assimilation of texts of another culture leads to the transmission through the centuries of certain structures of personality and types of behavior. The text may appear as a condensed program of the whole culture. The assimilation of texts from another culture results in the phenomenon of polyculturality, in the possibility, while remaining within one culture, of choosing conventional behavior in the style of another. This phenomenon occurs only at certain stages of social development, and as an outward sign specifically affords the possibility of choosing a type of clothing (cf. the choice between the "Hungarian", "Polish", or "Russian" dress in the Russian culture of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries). 6.0.2. For the period beginning with the Proto-Slavic and continuing in individual Slavic traditions down to modern times, the collective mechanism for the storage of information ("memory") ensures the transmission from generation to generation of fixed rigid schemes of texts (metric, translinguistic, etc.) and whole fragments of them (loci communi with respect to folklore texts). The most ancient sign systems of this type - in which literature is reduced to the embodiment, by means of ritual formulas, of mythological plots handed down from generation to generation - on the level of social interpretation may be synchronized with rigidly determined systems of relationships in which all possibilities are covered by rules correlated with the mythological past and with cyclical ritual. On the contrary, more advanced systems, in groups whose behavior is regulated by the memory of their real history, correlate directly with the type of literature in which the basic principle becomes the search for devices which are statistically the least frequent (and which therefore carry the greatest amount of information). Similar arguments might also be advanced with respect to other areas of culture in which the very concept of development (i.e., of direction in time) is inseparable from

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the accumulation and processing of information, which is gradually used to introduce appropriate corrections into programs of behavior; this accounts for the regressive role of the artificial mythologization of the past, which creates myth in place of historical reality. In this sense the typology of the attitudes toward the Common Slavic past may prove useful in the investigation of the legacy of the Slavophiles and of its role. We can take into account the possibilities of a diachronic transformation of Indo-European culture such that it does not always assume development in the direction of complexity of organization (complexity is understood here on the purely formal level as a function of the measure of the number of elements, of the characteristics of their order and the relations between them, and of the regularity of the entire culture). Modern investigations of reconstructed Indo-European forms in their relation to Proto-Slavic forms permit us to raise the question of the possibility in certain cases of movement not in the direction of increasing the amount of information but in the direction of increasing the amount of entropy in Common Slavic texts in comparison with Common IndoEuropean texts (and sometimes also in individual Slavic as compared with Common Slavic texts). In particular, dual exogamic structures, which apparently correlate with the binary symbolic classification reconstructed for proto-Slavic, represent a more archaic layer than structures reconstructed for Common Indo-European; but that may be explained not by the greater archaicness of the Slavic world but by certain secondary processes which have resulted in the simplification of structures. In all such cases, in the process of reconstruction there occurs the problem of eliminating the noise superimposed on the text as it is transmitted through the diachronic channel of communication between generations. In this connection, phenomena revealed in secondary modeling systems can be compared with the evident decrease in complexity (and increase in simplicity) of the organization of the text on the morphological level during the transition from the Indo-European to the (late) Proto-Slavic period during which the law of open syllables was operating (by simplicity here we mean a decrease in the number of elements and the rules for their distribution). 6.1.0. For the functioning of culture and accordingly for the substantiation of the necessity of employing comprehensive methods in studying it, this fact is of fundamental significance: that a single isolated semiotic system, however perfectly it may be organized, cannot constitute a culture - for this we need as a minimal mechanism a pair of correlated

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semiotic systems. The text in a natural language and the picture demonstrate the most usual system of two languages constituting the mechanism of culture. The pursuit of heterogeneity of languages is a characteristic feature of culture. 6.1.1. In this connection particular significance is attached to the phenomenon of bilingualism, which is extraordinarily important for the Slavic world and which in many respects determines the specific character of Slavic cultures. Despite the great diversity of the specific conditions of bilingualism in different Slavic spheres, the other language usually appeared as hierarchically higher, serving as the standard model for the formation of texts. The same orientation toward the "foreign" language may be found when there occurs in the culture a movement toward the democratization of linguistic means. Thus Puskin's remark that one ought to study the language of the prosvirnyj women in Moscow who baked a special kind of cakes implies a treatment of the popular language as a different language. This principle is revealed when a socially lower system becomes axiologically higher. The specific functions of the second Slavic language (usually Old Church Slavonic) in such a pair of structurally equivalent languages makes the material of Slavic cultures and languages especially valuable, not only for the investigation of problems of bilingualism but also for explaining a number of processes hypothetically associated with bilingualism and polylingualism (the origin of the novel and the role of bilingualism and polylingualism for that genre, the approximation to the spoken language as one of the social functions of poetry; cf. the idea of the "secularization" of the language of Russian poetry in articles by Mandel'stam). 6.1.2. In view of the indisputable connections established through linguistic means of presenting texts, among the texts studied by the various branches of Slavistics we may include texts which are written in admittedly non-Slavic languages but which are functionally significant in their opposition to the corresponding Slavic languages (the Latin of the scholarly works of Jan Hus as distinct from Old Czech; the French of Tjutcev's articles). In this connection it may be of particular interest to analyze Latin and Italian texts in comparison with Slavic texts during the period of Renaissance bilingualism in the West and Southwest Slavic world (cf. the characteristic Latin-Polish and Italian-Croatian macaronic verse texts of later baroque times), and to analyze French texts in comparison with their Russian equivalents in the Russian literature of the first half of the nineteenth century (the same poem by Baratynskij in French and Russian, Puskin's French notes in comparison

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21

with his Russian works which in part parallel them), as well as FrenchRussian bilingualism represented and used as a literary device in the nineteenth-century Russian novel or in comic verse, for instance by verse, for instance by Mjatlev. 6.1.3. As a system of systems based in the final analysis on a natural language (this is implied in the term "secondary modeling systems", which are contrasted with the "primary system", that is to say, the natural language), culture may be regarded as a hierarchy of semiotic systems correlated in pairs, the correlation between them being to a considerable extent realized through correlation with the system of the natural language. This connection appears especially clearly in the reconstruction of Proto-Slavic antiquities on account of the greater syncretism of archaic cultures (cf. the connection between certain rhythmic and melodic types and metrical ones, which in their turn are conditioned by rules of syntactic prosody; the direct reflection of ritual functions in the linguistic denotations of such elements of ritual texts as the names of ceremonial foods). 6.1.4. The proposition concerning the insufficiency of only one natural language for the construction of culture can be connected with the fact that even a natural language itself is not a strictly logical realization of a single structural principle. 6.1.5. The degree of the awareness of the unity of the entire system of systems within a given culture varies, which by itself may be regarded as one of the criteria of a typological evaluation of a given culture. This degree is very high in the theological structures of the Middle Ages and in those later cultural movements in which, as among the Hussites, we can see a return to the same archaic conception of the unity of culture but charged with a new content. However, from the point of view of the modern investigator, culture, whose representatives conceive of it as uniform, proves to be organized in a more complex manner: within medieval culture we can distinguish the layer of "unofficial carnival phenomena" discovered by M. M. Baxtin's school (which in the Slavic area are continued in such texts as the Old Czech mystery play Unguentarius); Hussite literature reveals a significant opposition of Latin scholarly texts and works of journalistic literature addressed to a different (mass) audience. Certain periods having a characteristic literary orientation toward the sender of the message are at the same time specifically characterized by a maximally extensive set of denotata and concepts within messages originating with the same author (Comenius, Boskovid, Lomonosov), which may serve as an additional argument in favor of the

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unity of culture (including in these cases both the natural sciences and some disciplines of the humanities, etc.). This cultural unity is of exceptional significance for a strict substantiation of the subject of Sla\istics itself as the study of the synchronic and diachronic functioning of cultures related through their correlation with the same Slavic language or else with two Slavic languages, one of them being Old Church Slavonic in a number of cultures. Knowledge of the community of the linguistic traditions used in each of the given cultures serves (not only in theory but also in the practical behavior of the bearers of the respective traditions) as a prerequisite for the realization of their differences. For the Slavic world these differences are connected not so much with the purely linguistic (morphonological) rules of recoding - which given their relative simplicity might not impede mutual understanding - as with cultural and historical (for the early periods primarily denominational) differences. It thereby clearly becomes necessary to study Slavic cultures in such a way that, while continually bearing in mind the connecting role of linguistic community, we go beyond linguistics proper and take into account all the extralinguistic factors which have specifically affected language differentiation. Thus the analysis of Slavic cultures and languages may prove to be a convenient model for investigating the interrelations between natural languages and secondary (superlinguistic) semiotic modeling systems. 6.2.0. In the system of cultuie-generating semiotic oppositions a special role is played by the opposition of discrete and nondiscrete semiotic models (discrete and nondiscrete texts), as a particular manifestation of which the antithesis of verbal and iconic signs may appear. This gives new meaning to the traditional problem of the comparison of the fine arts and the verbal arts: we can speak of their need of each other in order to form the mechanism of culture and of their need to be different according to the principle of semiosis, that is to say, on the one hand equivalent, and on the other hand not entirely mutually convertible. Since different national traditions possess a different logic, rate of evolution, and receptivity to foreign influences within discrete and nondiscrete text-generating systems, the tension between them creates the possibility of a great variety of combinations of what is essential, for example, for the construction of a historical typology of Slavic cultures. It may be of paiticular interest to uncover the same regularities of the construction of a text (of a typical baroque text, for example) using material of predominantly continuous (pictorial) and predominantly

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discrete (verbal) texts. On this level an important problem is that of film making as an experiment in translating a discrete verbal text into a continuous one which is merely accompanied by fragments of the discrete (for example, Iwaszkiewicz's Birch Wood and Wajda's television film of it, in which the role of the verbal text is reduced to a minimum in view of the significance of the music for the film's sound track). 7.0.0. One of the fundamental problems of the study of the semiotics and typology of cultures is the formulation of the question of the equivalence of structures, texts, functions. Within a single culture the problem of the equivalence of texts occupies a prominent place. This problem underlies the possibility of translation within a single tradition. In this process, so long as equivalence is not identity, translation from one system of text to another always includes a certain element of untranslatability. Given a semiotic approach, it is specific texts which are correlatable and identifiable according to the principles of organization, and not the systems, which preserve their autonomy no matter how extensive may be the identity of the texts they generate. Therefore the task of reconstructing texts in different sublanguages sometimes proves to be more attainable than the reconstruction of those sublanguages themselves. The latter problem must often be solved by relying on typological comparisons with other cultural areas. In conformity with the traditional aims of Slavistics, comparativistic problems may be interpreted here as the transmission of texts through different channels. 7.0.1. In so doing it is essential to distinguish three cases: the transmission of a certain text in another Slavic language through a channel from which it issues in another Slavic language (the simplest example is translation from one Slavic language to another: Polish-UkrainianRussian relations in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries); the transmission of a certain text created in a different tradition through two (or more) such channels (the simplest example is the various recensions of Old Church Slavonic translations of the gospel: translations of the same text of Western literature into different Slavic languages); finally, the transmission of a text through channels of which only one is ultimately represented by its realization in a Slavic language (the case in which literary or other cultural contacts within the Slavic area are limited to only one national or linguistic tradition) as, for example, a number of phenomena associated with Turkish-Bulgarian lexical contact; among the latter types of phenomena we can apparently include relations between

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the minnesong and forms of the Old Czech love-lyric texts (vicerny). The relatively lesser significance of the third case in comparison with the first two supports the view according to which the history of Slavic literatures must be constructed primarily as a comparative one. Against the background of the presence of some phenomenon in other Slavic traditions, its absence or the struggle against it (for example, Byronism in Slovak literature) proves especially significant. Transmission on relatively high levels (particularly on the level of the figurative and stylistic organization of the text) is typical of the Slavic documents of the late Middle Ages. This explains, on the one hand, the complexity of their organization (conditioned by the length of their evolution and of the collective selection of texts not in the Slavic world but within the Byzantine tradition) and, on the other hand, their relatively low value (speaking of the higher levels and not of the level of the language vocabulary proper) for Pioto-SIavic reconstructions. The reflection - during transmission - in the Slavic area of a tradition explained by a prolonged preliminary selection of texts appears important both for the history of the literature of sixteenth century Dalmatia and for a number of Slavic literatures of recent centuries. A special case is represented by a transmission in which the character of the upper levels of the text essentially changes, while a number of essential features of the lower levels - particularly of the iconic levels - remain the same, as occurred in the identification (on the lower levels, which for a certain audience are the most significant) of East Slavic pagan gods with Orthodox saints (cf. such pairs as Yolos and Vlasij, Mokos' and Paraskeva Pjatnica; the reflection of the ancient cult of twins in the rites of Flor and Lavra). The problem of Slavic-non-Slavic contacts and of the transmissions associated with them requires a very broad understanding of the entire culture under consideration, including the "sublinguistic systems" of custom, life style, and technology (including trades); non-Slavic influences - frequently more noticeable in these areas (and in the spheres of linguistic terminology directly associated with them) - only in subsequent stages can be detected in the secondary superlinguistic systems, which here clearly reveal how they differ in principle from the "sublinguistic" systems, which are not constructed on the basis of the signs and texts of a natural language and cannot be transposed in them. In contrast with this principle, which was characteristic of the late periods of contact with Western cultural zones, the earlier contacts with Byzantium affected primarily the sphere of secondary modeling systems.

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7.1.0. There is a difference between the transposition of texts within the same cultural tradition and the typologically similar translation of texts belonging to different traditions. For the Slavic cultural world, for strictly linguistic reasons (we have in mind the similarity preserved on different levels and the role of the Old Church Slavonic element) translation often coincides with reconstruction. This applies not only to obvious lexical and phonological correspondences but also, for example, to such phenomena as the anticipation of the reconstruction of Proto-Slavic metrical schemes in the rhythmic system of the "Pesni zapadnyx slavjan" ["Songs of the Western Slavs"] of Puskin, who intuitively compared the same two traditions - East Slavic and Serbo-Croatian - on which modern reconstructions are based. Cf. also J. Tuwim's experiments in the modeling of the phonetic structure of Russian speech within the Polish verse line given his deliberate rejection of an orientation toward lexical correspondences. In the light of this conception it is appropriate to point out the historical merit of Krizanid and - in times closer to our own the analogous approach characteristic of Baudouin de Courtenay, in whose opinion the correspondence between the Slavic languages represents a phonetic translation. 8.0.0. The view according to which cultural functioning does not occur within any semiotic system (let alone within a level of a system) implies that in order to describe the life of a text in a system of culture or the inner working of the structures which compose it, it does not suffice to describe the immanent organization of separate levels. We are faced with the task of studying the relations between the structures of different levels. Such interrelations may be revealed both in the appearance of intermediate levels and in the structural isomorphism sometimes observed on different levels. Thanks to the occurrence of isomorphism we can pass from one level to another. The approach which is summarized in these theses is characterized by primary consideration for recodings when passing from one level to another, in contrast to the immanent descriptions of levels at earlier stages of formalized descriptions. From this point of view, the "Anagrams" of F. de Saussure turn out to be more modern than the purely immanent experiments of the early stages of formal literary criticism. 8.0.1. Switching from one level to another may occur with the help of rewriting rules, in which an element represented on a higher level by one symbol is expanded on a lower level into a whole text (which given a reverse order of passage is understood accordingly as a separate sign

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included in the broader context). Here, as in other such cases discovered in modern linguistics, the order of rules describing the operations of the synchronic synthesis of the text may coincide with the order of diachronic development (cf. the coincidence of the order of the rules for the synchronic synthesis of the word form from its constituent morphemes, with the diachronic phenomenon of deetymologization as described in the history of the Slavic noun). Herein both in synchronic and diachronic description preference is given to context-bound rules, where for each symbol x the context A - B is indicated, in which it is rewritten as text T: x -> T(A - B) 8.0.2. In recent years the interest of specialists in structural poetics has been concentrated on the study of interlevel relations; so onomatopoeia, for example, is studied not without regard for sense but in relation to sense. The process of recoding by level interweaves the result of different stages of the reduction of parts of a synthesized text to a sign, which is really embodied in the auditory or optic signal. The possibility of experimentally dividing the different stages in the process of synthesizing a literary text remains problematical because its surface structure, which is defined by formal limitations, may influence the deep figurative structure. This specifically follows from the ratio discovered on the basis of poetics, P < y, according to which, given an increase in the coefficient P, which indicates the extent of the limitations imposed on the poetic form, there must be an increase in the quantity y, which defines the flexibility of the poetic language, i.e., specifically, of the number of synonymous paraphrases achieved through transferred and figurative word usage, unusual word combinations, and the like. Therefore the discovery of the extent of formal limitations in works on comparative Slavic poetics, the establishment of such information-theory parameters of individual Slavic languages as flexibility (y) and entropy (H), and the specification of the aims and possibilities of translation from one Slavic language to another, turn out to be different aspects of the same problem, which may be investigated only on the basis of preliminary research in each of those fields.

9.0.0. In the union of different levels and subsystems into a single semiotic whole - "culture" - two mutually opposed mechanisms are at work:

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(1) The tendency toward diversity - toward an increase in differently organized semiotic languages, the "polyglotism" of culture. (2) The tendency toward uniformity - the attempt to interpret itself or other cultures as uniform, rigidly organized languages. The first tendency is revealed in the continual creation of new languages of culture and in the irregularity of its internal organization. Different spheres of culture have inherent in them a different extent of internal organization. While creating within itself sources of maximum organization, culture also has need of relatively amorphous formations which only resemble structure. In this sense it is characteristic to distinguish systematically, within the historically given structures of culture, spheres which are to become, as it were, a model of the organization of culture as such. It is especially interesting to study various artificially created sign systems which strive for maximum regularity (such, for example, is the cultural function of the ranks, dress coats, and badges of rank in the "regular" state of Peter the Great and his successors - the very idea of "regularity", in becoming a part of the uniform cultural unity of the age, constitutes an additional quantity in the motley irregularity of the real life of those times). Of great interest from this point of view is the study of metatexts: instructions, "regulations", and directions which represent a systematized myth created by culture about itself. Significant in this respect is the role played at different stages of culture by language grammars as models of organizing, "regulating" texts of various kinds. 9.0.1. The role of artificial languages and of mathematical logic in the development of such branches of knowledge as structural and mathematical linguistics or semiotics can be described as one of the examples of the creation of "sources of regularity". At the same time these sciences themselves in the overall complexity of twentieth-century culture play, on the whole, an analogous role. 9.0.2. The essential mechanism which imparts unity to the various levels and subsystems of culture is its model of itself, the myth of the culture about itself which appears at a certain stage. It is expressed in the creation of autocharacteristics (for example, metatexts of the type of Boileau's Uart poétique, which is especially typical of the age of classicism; cf. the normative treatises of Russian classicism), which actively regulate the construction of culture as a whole. 9.0.3. Another mechanism of unification is the orientation of culture. A certain particular semiotic system becomes significant as the prevailing

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system, and its structural principles penetrate the other structures and the culture as a whole. Thus we may speak of cultures oriented toward writing (text) or toward oral speech, toward the word and toward the picture. There may exist a culture oriented toward a culture or toward the extracultural sphere. The orientation of culture toward mathematics in the Age of Reason or (to a certain extent) at the beginning of the second half of the twentieth century may be compared with the orientation of culture toward poetry during the period of romanticism or symbolism. 9.1.0. Scientific investigation is not only an instrument for the study of culture but is also part of its object. Scientific texts, being metatexts of the culture, may at the same time be regarded as its texts. Therefore any significant scientific idea may be regarded both as an attempt to cognize culture and as a fact of its life through which its generating mechanisms take effect. From this point of view we might raise the question of modern structural-semiotic studies as phenomena of Slavic culture (the role of the Czech, Slovak, Polish, Russian, and other traditions). B. A. Uspenskij V. V. Ivanov V. N. Toporov A. M. Pjatigorskij Ju. M. Lotman

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He BnojiHe

HbiMH, HO yace nacTHHHO npeflBocxHiueHHbiMH. I l p n cjioBbie flH(})(J)epeHUHauHH coxpaHaioTC«. HOBblX no

CMbICJIOBblX

OTHOMEHHIO

K

SJieMeHTOB

He

pa3

Ho

Hepapxna

3aHOBO

paccxa3aH-

S T O M Bce

nepeocMbicjiemno

CTapbix

H

BOCCTaHaBJIHBaeTCa

K TCM ace M o r a B a M H HX KOMnjieKcaM. 3 T O

noBTopaiomeMyca

CMW-

CTapbix

(JiaKTOB,

BeaeT

HOBOMy

OTHOmeHHIO K CTapblM 4>aKTaM, H, Ha OCHOBe 3TOH nepeMeHHHBOCTH, a p y r o M y oxcHflaHHio n o c j i e a y i o m e r o TeKCTa;

eo-emopbix, ace

caMbix

HTO HHAYUNPOBAHHE HOBHX cMbicjioBbix OTTCHKOB B Tex

MoraBax

nacTO

He

aBJiaeTCH

o6a3aTejibHbiM:

HHTaTejib

MoaceT nponycTHTb HX 6e3 Bpe^A fljia jiorHHecKoií npHHHHHO-BpeMeHHOií CBH3H MEACAY MOTEBEMH. H H H M H CJIOBAMH: STH CMMCJiOBbie OTTCHKH O nepeoijeHice paccKa3aHHoro B npouecce HTCHKH He pa3 roBopun B. UlKJioBCKjrft. Cp. HanpHMep: TexuuKa nucameMCKoaopeMecjia (MocKBa-JIeHHHrpafl, 1927), CTp. 35: "CiosKeTHbiií paccKa3 m e r pa3H0CT0p0HHee ocBemeHHe npeflMeTa, 3acTaBJiaeT HecKOJibKO pa3 saHOBO nepeacHTb ero." 1

30

JAN VAN DER ENG

HaxoflflTca aceHHe

HepeflKO

o t t o c t h

BHe

3aBHCHT

o6mhhoh o t

4>a6yjiapHoñ

HHTaTejia,

h

jihhhh,

aBTop

hx

o6Hapy-

paccHHTbiBaeT

Ha

ero

C O T p y a H H i e C T B O , HTOÓbl npOBeCTH HX B >KH3Hb. X O T J I 6 e 3 3TOrO COTpyflHHHecTBa, T. e . n p i i o r p a H H H e H H o i í a n e p i i e n u H H Ha o c H O B e J i o r H H e c K o ñ npHHHHHO-BpeMeHHOH n o c j i e f l O B a r e j i t H O C T H , n o H H T H o e T b , KaK n p a B H j i o , He T e p a e T c a , HecKoií

ho

He

4>aKTypbi

caMoro c y m e c T B e H H o r o

xBaTaeT

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tckctob:

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h

pfln

ceMaHTH-

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ceMaHTHKH He npiiHHMaeTCH b o BHHMaHHe. H a s t o m

ypoBeHb

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« H B a i o T C H 3 a T a e H H b i e cixenjieHHH h y 3 0 p b i , CKOHCTpyHpoBaHHbie CKpbiBaiOmHMCH 3 a CBOHM C 0 3 f l a H H e M a B T O p O M , HeBHflHMblM h B e 3 f l e c y m H M , Kan

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no

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nocTpoeHHax,

B C K p b I B a e T KBHHTSCCeHUHK) TeMaTHKH. BcKpbiTb

ee

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HañTH

Bbicmyio

TOHKy

xyfloaceeTBeHHoeTH

j i H T e p a T y p H o r o n p o H 3 B e f l e H H a . C y m H o c T b x y a o a c e c T B e H H o c T H , KaK H a M KaaceTCH,

coctoht

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b

"xoaax"

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("npHeMax")

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CBeuiHBaeTCH" r j i y 6 o K o n

hm

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h

npn "npo-

oueHKoñ.3 T o , h t o HHoraa BecbMa ycjioacHaeT

(fljiH H e o n b i T H o r o H H T a T e j i a ) c e M a H T H i e c K o e n o c T p o e H H e TeKCTa, C M b i c j i O B a a CBH3B M e a c ^ y 3 J i e M e H T a M H a a H H o r o

h

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a a a c e noao6Horo

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K flpyrHM ÜHCbMeHHblM TeKCTaM HeT. E c T b TOJIbKO CKpbITOe OTHOHieHHe K H3BecTHbiM o 6 p a 3 u a M noBefleHH», 0 6 m e c T B e H H 0 M y n o p a ^ K y ,

moahhm

2

Ü H C b M O o t 1 9 eBpajin, 1 8 5 7 .

3

B h k t o p I ü k j i o b c k h h KaK 6 y f l T O o c T a H a B J i H B a e T c a H a n o J i n y T H : C o / m o f i

ctopohh

o h n o f l n e p K H B a e T ceMaHTHHecKHÜ 3(¡)(J)eKT n p o u e c c a h t c h h h , B W f l B H r a a p a 3 H u e co6bi

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t . e.

" B b i B O f l a B e i n n H3 a B T O M a T H 3 M a

h o c apyroft oh oTpmiaeT ueimocTb ceMaHraiecKoro

Teopun npo3u

pe3yjibTaTa.

cno-

BocnpHJmw",

Cp.

HanpaMep:

( M o c K B a - J I e H H H r p a f l , 1 9 2 5 ) , CTp. 1 2 : " a c K y c c T B O e c n > c n o c o 6 nepeacHTb

A e J i a H b e B e m n , a c ^ e J i a H H o e b n c K y c c T B e He B a a t H o " . OTCKwa

y

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He ajim T o r o , h t o 6 h CTapyio

o p M y ) , B c e » c e y c T a H O B K a H a " f l e n a H b e B e m n " O K a 3 b m a e T C f l He 6 e 3 CMMCJia, e c j m n o a c o f l e p K a H H e M n o f l p a 3 y M e B a e T c a p e 3 i o M e h j i h a ó c T p a r r H a a k b h h t s c c c h i i h h TeMaTHKH (TeMa):

6e3

MHOI"OHHCJieHHHX

pe3K>Me h j i h T e M a

CBH3efi C p a 3 H b I M J l

TeMaTHieCKHMH

pa3BHTHHMH,

h b j w m t c « He 6 o j i e e KaK c n o B a p H b i M c j i o b o m , h j i h KaK

nioóbiM

TeKCTOM, H e CBH3aHHbIM C flaHHblM n p o H 3 B e a e H H e M . 4

O6

OTHomeHHax

K apyrnM

McecmeeHHoeo meKcma

TeKCTaM

CM.

K). M.

( M o c K B a , 1 9 7 0 ) , CTp. 1 2 1 - 1 2 2 .

JIoTMaH,

CmpyKmypa

xydo-

I I P H E M : IJEHTPAJIBHBLH

31

OAKTOP

(j)OpMaM MBiniJieHHH, KO BCHKHM (JieHOMeHaM, TeKCTyajTbHO He 3a(J)HKCHpOBaHHblM HH B HaCTOfllHeM npOH3BefleHHH, HH BHe e r o . EcTb TOJIbKO MHHMOCTb TaKOrO OTHOIUeHHH, ITO BCTpeHaeTCH HepeflKO y KpynHbix nHcaTejieìi. OHH

6 t i BHymaiOT

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HTO CCbTJiaiOTCH Ha THIIHHeCKHe (ftOpMbl fleHCTBHTCJIbHOCTH, HO Ha CaMOM flejie

OHH

CKpbITblX

npHBOAHT HHTaTejra

K

BblBOflOB, KOTOpbie

Pa3yMeeTCH, HTO 3/jecb MyapeHO

peKOHCTpyKUHH " u n i v e r s a l i a " Ha MOÌKHO CfleJiaTb H3 .aaHuoro

flopora

OTKpbiTa pa3HbiM

JIH, HTO JiHTepaTypHoe

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He pa3

npoii3BeAeHne

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npocTop opnrHHajibHbiM a K T 0 p 0 M n p H npeo6jiaAaHHH oflHoro H 3 T e M a THnecKHX ypoBHeñ OTU,enjieHHi>ix mothbob, aBJiaeTCH TeMaTHHecKaa AOMHHaHTa M O T H B a , C K O T O p O r O H a H H H a e T C H CMbICJIOBOe

k

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Bceraa

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mothb b

nocjieflHHH

npomecce

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C

3 T o r o M O M e H T a H a n m a e T C H p e r p e c c H B H o e A B H a c e H H e n o yace p a c -

C K a 3 a H H O M y TeKCTy eme

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h

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n p o r p e c c H B H o e ABiiaceHue n o TeKCTy, K O T O p b i ñ npeaBapHTejibHO

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P e r p e c c M h n p o r p e c c H H Bceryxa c y m e c T B y i o T B M e c r e , h o oflHa H 3 h h x a O M H H H p y e T B 3 a B H C H M O C T H O T nOCJie^HerO M O T H B a TeKCTa, BbI3bIBal o m e r o c 6ojibinoH

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no

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B

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TeKCTa.

b

n p o M e a c y T O H H O M TeKCTe

moahcJjhuh-

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Ho

3Ty o p H e H T a m n o H a

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.qaHHbix: H a o c H O B e

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tckctobmx

aaHHbix,

np0H30iífleT oóparabiñ

npouecc

npOTHBOnOCTaBJieHHH. ByayT

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n o c J i e ^ y i o m H e .nonojmflioiime c o o 6 m e H H a : n p a H e c o B n a a e H H H

CTpyKHHH h AByMfl

h

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TeKCTyajibHO 3 a 4 > H K C H p o B a H H o r o M O M e H T a M H o r o e M e a y i y

MecTaMH

6yaeT

nepeoixeHHBaTbca.

Ho

3,nech

perpeccHBHyio

O p H e H T a U H K ) M O N C H O C H H T a T b B T O p H H H b l M 3MHM

noBecTBOBaTejibHbiH

3JieMeHTOM, CTOHIHHM HaA

3THMH

MeflHyM

TeMaTH-

necKHMH c f l B H r a M H B p a M K a x o A H o r o KOHTeKCTa: o n p e a e j i e H H b i H

pac-

CKa3HHK c onpeaeJieHHOH MacKoii coefliiHaeT coBceM pa3JiHMHbie TeMaTHHecKHe KOMnoHeHTbi B p a M K a x o f l H o r o KOHTeKCTa. C a p y r o H C T o p o H b i

yace n p n JiencHX H3MeHeHH»x B OUCHOHHOM no^xo^e p a c c i c a 3 H H K a nojiyHaeTCH HOBblii KOHTeKCT, XOTH TeMaTHHeCKaH AOMHHaHTa OCTaeTCH Ta ace caMaa H HH B npocTpaHCTBeHHo-BpeMeHHoñ nepcneKTHBe nepcoHaaceii, HH B TOH ace n e p c n e K T H B e p a c c K a 3 H H K a , H H i e r o H e H 3 M e H a e T c a :

TOJibKO TOHKa 3peHHH nocjiejiHeroflejiaeTca,HanpHMep, 6ojiee Bbipa3HTejIbHOH.

8 O ToiKe 3pemra H CBsnaHHoñ c Heii npoÔJieManuce ouemcn, pa3eojiorHiecKHX AHfjxjjepeHUHaiiHH TepMHHOB: TepMHH c o A e p a c a m n ö HCKJiiowrejibHO 3JieMeHTbi BHeuiHeH xapaKTepncTHKH

nepco-

Haaca, KOTOpbie b n p e ^ e j i a x npezuioaceHHa h KOHTeKCTa oiieHHBaioTca Harne onpeaejieHHe npneMa othochtch k BHyTpHTeKCTOBbiM KOHCTpyKuiwM h OTHonieHHaM, ho mm corJiacHbi c Jl0TMaH0M, h t o "BHeTeKCTOBaH HacTb xyaoaceCTBeHHOfi CTpyKTypw cocTaBJineT B n o j m e peajibHbiß (HHoraa oiera» 3HaiHTejibHbiH) KOMnoHeHT xyaoacecTBeHHoro uenoro". OflHaico, Mbi 3flecb He ynaTbiBaeM Bonpoca ^yHKUHOHaJTbHOCTH T. H. MHHyC-npHeMOB: COBnaAaiOT JIM OHH B 3T0M OTHOffleHHH c flpyrHMH (BHyTpHTeKCTOBbiMH) npneMaMH, noKa3HBaioT jih ohh Te »ce B03M03KHOCTH CepHflHOrO 06pa30BaHHH, COOTHOCHTejIbHOCTH CepHH, COCTaBJMIOT JIH OHH oflHH paß, c flpyrHMH (BHyTpHTeKCTOBbiMH) npneMaMH, o6pa3yroT jih ohh cynepCTpyKTypy h t . ä „ Cp.: KD. M . JIoTMaH, op. cit., CTp. 131. 9

n P H E M : LJEHTPAJIBHblH

37

pa3eOJIOrHH TepMHHOB.

KoCBeHHblM nyTeM KOHTeKCTbl Bce »ce CHJIbHO BJIH5HOT Ha TepMHHbl, KOTOpbie, cjiefl0BaTejibH0, MoryT BecbMa oTJiHHaTbca flpyr o t /ipyra b HHTOHauHOHHOH (JiaKType, b ûueHOHHOM noAxofle paccKa3HHKa k KaacflOMy H3 COnOCTaBJieHHblX KyCKOB. -3cHO, HTO 3TH OTJIHHHTCJIbHbie eKTHBHbix

npHHHH

HaCTO

BHyTpeHHero

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Ha^o

HCKaTb B CaMHX n p H H I Í H n a X nOCTpOeHHH H yHKiiHOHHpyioT j i H u i b b n o c T o a H H O M o n p e , n e j i e H H H H yCTaHaBJIH-

60

MOJMÍR GRYGAR

BaHHH c o ö c t b c h h l i x

rpaHnu,

B3aHMocB33eìi, (J)yHKixHH.

CoBpeMeHHaa

ceMHOTHKa p a c c M a T p H B a e T B3anMHbie o t h o i u c h h h M e x c a y , CKaaceM, jiHTep a T y p O H H 5KHBOnHCbK) He KaK HTO-HHÖyÄb, C TOHKH 3peHHH ^EHHtlX oójiacTeñ, cnynaMHoe h n e p H ^ e p n i m o e , h o KaK cHMnTOMbi h x BHyTpeHHHx flBHaceHHH, TeHfleHHHH h nepeMeH. Yace npa>KCKHe CTpyKTypajiHCTbi B CBOHX AOBOeHHblX paGOTaX C(J)OpMyjIHpOBaJlH HeKOTOpbie OCHOBHbie MeTOflOJiornraecKHe npHHUHnbi h 3 a A a r a CTpyKTypajibHoß KOMnapa-raCTHKH. 1

OcOÔeHHO

TejibHOCTH

nOflHepKHBaJICH

OTOejibHbix

oójiacTeñ,

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aBTOHOMHOCTH,

KOTopbie

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bo3-

MoxcHOCTb, CTeneHb h rpaHHUbi H H o p o A H o r o b j i h h h h a . 3aHMCTB0BaHHe b

CTpyKTypajiHCTHHecKOM

nepeHeceHHeM b h c i i i h h x

He

ocBemeHHH

HMnyjibcoB, h o

HBJIHCTCH

MexaHmecKHM

hx cjiojkhoh

TpaHcno3Himeñ

B HMMaHeHTHoe A B H x e H H e A i i H H o r o xyAOyicecTBeHHoro p a ^ a . IlpH

HblHeiHHeM

ypOBHe

pä3BHTM5I

CTpyKTypHO-CeMHOTIlHeCKOrO

HccneaoBaHHfl jiHTepaTypw h HCKyccTB2 mohcho cflejiaTb e m ë o a h h m a r B n e p e A h n o c T a B H T b B o n p o c o BHyTpeHHeñ m o t h b h p o b k c napajiJienbHbix n e p e M e H b pa3Hbix BHAax ncKyccTBa, CBHsaHHbix pa3HWMH B3aHMHbix

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neHHH jiHTepaTypHbix

h

B

paMKax

no/ioÖHoro

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(J)opMaMH

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BaHTHblMH He TOJlbKO (J)aKTbI HeilOCpeACTBeHHOrO BJIH5IHH5I h 3aHMCTBOBaHHH, HO H OTHOIIieHHH

06l>eKTHBH0r0

napaJIJieJIH3Ma

H

pa3HbIX

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Harneñ

CTaTbH

aBjiaeTca

aHajiH3

HeKOTopbix

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B3aHMOCBH3eÍÍ MeXCAy n033HCH H ÄHBOnHCbK), KaK OHM npOHBJIHJIHCb b

Hanajie

HemcKOH

TaK

Ha3biBaeMoro

KyjibType.

OTHOIUeHHH M e » ( A y pejiHHHÌi

MeacAy

aBaHrapAHoro

CpaBHeHHe

KacaeTca

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b

maBHbix

pyccKoñ

h

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)KHBOIIIlCbK> H n033HCH B PoCCHH H B ^ieXHH H

napajiJiejibHbiMn

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b

nHTepaTypax

o 6 e n x CTpaH. H a n a j i o a B a H r a p A H o r o a b h ä c h h h b P o c c h h npeACTaBJiaioT pa3Hbie

JiHTepaTypHbie

rpynnnpoBKn,

B03HiiKiune

h

AeñcTByiomHe

b A e c a T b i x r o A a x ; HecMOTpa Ha h x B3aHMHbie nojieMHHCCKne HanaAKH, OHH

hbahiotch

npoHBJieHHeM

OAHoro

6ojiee

oömero

cTpyKTypHoro

Jan Mukarovsky, "Mezi poezií a vytvarnictvím", B KH.: Kapitoly z ceské poetiky, 1 (Praha, 1948), CTp. 253-274; F. Vodiöka, "Literární historie, její problémy a úkoly", B kh.: Struktura vyvoje (Praha, 1969), CTp. 28-29. CrpyKTypajiHCTHiecKaa KOHuenUHH KOMnapaTHBHoro HccJieflOBamra JiHTepaTypw h ncKyccTBa hcxoaht h3 HexoTopwx MeTOflOJiormecKHX nprnumnoB pyccKoro (JiopMaJibHoro Mero^a, ocoöeHHo H3 paSoT K). TbiHHHOBa, P. ÄKoöcoHa, B. 3ñxeH6ayMa h B. ÄHpMyHCKoro. 2 CpaBHHTCJitHoc HCcneflOBaHHe JiHTepaTypw h HCKyccTB yicjiaflMBaeTCH B paMKH o6mero ceMHoraiecKoro myieniia KyjibTyp. FIoapo6Hoe H3Jio»ceHHe STOM npoÔJieMaTHKH B "Te3Hcax k ceMHOTHiecKOMy HsyneHHio KyjibTyp" (CM. aHrji. nepeBO/i 1

B flaHHOM c 6 . ) .

KYBH3M H n 0 3 3 H Ä

61

ABAHfAPflA

n e p e j i o M a , KOTOpbiH OTJiHiaeT no33Hio ' K J i a c c H i e c K o r o ' rana OT no33HH 'MOAepHofi'. CocpeAOTOHHM Harne BHHMaHHC

'coBpeMeHHoii',

npoKfle

Beerò Ha TeopHH H npaKTHKe Ky6o-4>yTypH3Ma, Tax KaK B STOM JinrepaT y p H O M HanpaBjieHHH HaHÔojiee apKO BbipaacaeTca

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Toro

caMoro

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pa3BHBajiocb

Bbiflaiomeroca

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pyccKofi

X O T H a B a H r a p f l H o e JiMTepaTypHoe

ABHaceHHe

B H e x H H y ace ; j o nepBOH M H p o B o i i BOHHM c o 3 / i a j i o n p o r p a M M y , K O T o p a a B HeKOTOpbix pH3Ma3

acneKTax

(coBpeMeHHaa

c Te3HcaMH HTajibHHCKoro

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HecKoro BAOXHOBEHHFL), HOCHTejieM CTpyKTypHoro n e p e j i o M a B TCLUCKOH no33HH 6biJi nocjieBoeHHbiH 'IIO3TH3M' OCOÔblM

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HanpaBJieHHe,

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nOSTHHeCKHX TeneHHH. 4 ' I I 0 3 T H 3 M ' B TeopHH H npaKTHKe 6bIJI MHOrHM o 6 » 3 a H n p H M e p y eH0MeHbi. Pa3Hbie aBaHrapflHbie TeneHHs opMyjiHpoBajiH n o pa3HOMy oGnacTb HOBHX TCM H coAepscaHHH H n o pa3HOMy onpeflejiajiH BaHHbix

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MOHCHO H H o r ^ a

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J. Mukarovsky, Kapitoly z ceské poetiky, II (Praha, 1948), CTp. 267. J. Jísa, "Chlebnikov a Holán", Ceskoslovenská rusistika, XIII (1968), CTp. 287-293.

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xapaKTep. 23 TeopeTHHecxyio ocHOBy Ky6n3Ma ocBemaeT C6OPHHK AoicyMeHTapHbix TCKCTOB: Edward Fry, Der Kubismus ( K ö l n , 1966). MeTOflOJiornio ceMHOTHwecKoro aHauroa KapTHHbi pa3pa6aTWBaK)T CTaTbH B »ypHane Communication, 15 (1970) ("I.'analyse des images"). Tain ace 6n6jrnorpaHHecKnii 0630p no BonpocaM CCMHOTHKH KapTHHbi. 24 CM. J. Mukarovsky, " U m ë n i j a k o semiologicky fakt", B KH.: Studie z estetiky (Praha, 1966), CTp. 85-88. ( " L ' a r t comme fait sémiologique", Poétique, 3 [1970], CTp. 387-392); M . Cervenka, "Literârni dilo jako znak", Orientace, 1 (1968). ( " L ' œ u v r e littéraire en tant que signe", B: Prague, poésie, Front gauche [= Collection "Change", 10] [Paris, 1972], CTp. 201-214).

KYEH3M H n 0 3 3 I M

73

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B KapTHHax-KOJiJia>Kax; y n o T p e ô i i e H H e T 6ecK0HeiH0e MHoroo6pa3He npHp o / I H M X (JiopM Ha orpaHHHeHHoe KOJIHHCCTBO 3JieMeHTapHbix reoMeTpHnecKHX eflHHHH. TpaAHUHOHHoe eflHHCTBO nepcneKTHBbi 3aMeHeHO nojiHnepcneKTHBHbiM BHfleHHeM; npeflMeT yace BOcnpHHHMaeTca He Ha OCHOBe np0CTpaHCTBeHH0-Kay3ajibHbix oTHomeHHÌi, a B paMKax ocoôoft K0Mn03HUHH, KOTopaa oTAejibHbie lpa3py6jieHHbie' l a c r a o6i»eKTa coeflHHHeT no 3aKOHaM cxo^cTBa H KOHTpacTa O C H O B H H X reoMeTpnnecKHX (JtopMyji, no 3aK0HaM K0Mn03Huii0HH0M cTpyKTypbi. 6. Ky6H3M oTpmjaji TpaflHiiHOHHyro KOHnennHK) npocTopa; OT,nejibHbie npeflMeTbi (Tejia) H HX nacra yace He yKjiaAbiBaioTCS B paMKH npOCTpaHCTBeHHblX OTHOUieHHH (T. e. K0Mn03HHHH npeflMeTHblX 3JieMeHTOB He BHymaeT ôojibine HJIJIIO3HK> peajibHoro npocTopa), TaK KaK OTCyTCTByeT pasHHua Meac/iy npe^MeTaMH H OKpyacaiomeH HX nycTOTOH (np0CTpaHCTB0M). KapraHa n03B0JiaeT coeflHHHTb H pa3flejiHTb ajieMeHTbi npe^MeTHoro MHpa no 3aK0HaM a/iHCTaHunoHHoro npocTopa. OCHOBHblM K0Mn03HIÎH0HHbIM npHëMOM KyÔH3Ma HBJ1HCTCH 'CABHr', T. e. HeoxcHflaHHoe coe/inHeHne, conocTaBjieHHe HJIH nepeceHeHne pa3Hbix HecoBMecTHMbix npe/iMeTOB HJIH H X oxuenbHbix lacTeâ. 3(f)(j)eKT 'cflBHra' HanoMHHaeT pe3KyK) nepeMeHy TOHKH 3peHHH H C O O T B C T C T Byiomeii nepcneKTHBbi. 7. Ky6H3M CTpeMHjica o6oraTHTb nyBCTBHTejibHocTb coBpeMeHHoro nejioBeKa, pacmiipHTb BO3MOXCHOCTH ero BHACHHH. >KHBonHCb ABUHCTCH Jinsi KyÔHCTOB CCftepOH HHCTOH XCHBOnHCHOH BOCnpHHMHHBOCTH H HHTeHCHBHOH 06pa3H0CTH, KOTOpaS He CBH3bIBaeTCH SMnnpHHeCKH 0C03HaHHblMH 4>OpMaMH OTfleJIbHblX npeflMeTOB. Ho Ky6H3M He OTpHUaJI 26

CM. U. ECO, L'œuvre ouverte (Paris, 1965).

K y E H 3 M H n 0 3 3 K f l ABAEUTAPflA

75

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Bcer^a BbipaacaioT KaKHe-TO 3HaieHHa, HMCIOT onpeaejieHHyio ceMaHranecKyio ueHHOCTb.28 Pa3Hbie xyfloxcHHKH MOTHBHpylOT npaKTHKy ôecnpeflMeTHoft JKHBOITHCH n o pa3HOMy (HanpHMep, K y n K a cTpeMjieHHeM Bbipa3HTb

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CM. D. H. Kahnweiler, Juan Gris, sa vie, son œuvre, ses écrits (Paris, 1946); M. LamaC, ynoMUH. C6OPHHK, CTP. 120. 28 CM. J. Mukafovsky "Podstata vytvarnych umèni", Studie z estetiky, CTp. 192-193. 27

76

MOJMÎR GRYGAR

5 I T e p e f l HEMH CTOHT T e n e p t B o n p o c , k s k h m 0 6 p a 3 0 M n e p e M e H b i b h o b o S n o 3 3 H H c o B n a a a j i H c ABH»ceHHeM h H a n p a y K e H H e M , x a p a K T e p H 3 H p y i o m H M 3HaKOByiO CHCTeMy KyÔHCTHHeCKOÎÎ »CHBOnHCH. HHTepecyeT B o n p o c ,

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HCTOHHHKOM HeO»CHflaHHbIX SCTÊTHHeCKHX H B KaKOH-TO M e p e H I I 0 3 H a -

BaTejibHbix ueHHOCTeH. 29

H . XapflHCHeB, "MaHKOBCKHH h acHBOiracb", b c6.: MOHKOSCKUU. MamepuaAbi u ucc/iedoeamn (MocKBa, 1940). Cm. TaKHce: H . Xap/jaciieB h B. Tpeinm, IJoimuiecKa.i KyAbtnypa MaxKoecKoeo (MocKBa, 1970); B. JlHmim, IToAymopoa/iasbiü cmpe/ieif (JleHHHrpafl, 1933); V. Markov, Russian Futurism: A History (Berkeley - Los Angeles, 1968); A. M. Ripellino, Majakovskij e il teatro russo d'avanguardia (Torino, 1959); K . Pomorska, Russian Formalist Theory and its Poetic Ambiance (Den Haag, 1968). Cm. TaKHce eë CTaThio: "TeopenraecKHe B3rjiaflw pyccKHX $yTypHcroB", 'Annali'. Sezione slava, X (Napoli, 1967). HeKOTopwe HccjieaoBaTenH h k p h t h k h CTpeMiurucb co3/iaTb fletJiHHHUHio 'icyÔHCTHMecKOß no33HH' (Hanp. M. Bense, "Theorie kubistischer Texte", b kh.: Die Realität der Literatur, Köln, 1971). H o ansi Hac rjiaBHbiH Bonpoc He c o c t o h t b tom, ecjm cymecTByeT cnoBecHwä Ky6n3M naie ocoôoe jiHTepaTypHoe HanpaBjieHHe, KOTopoe cyMejio nocjieflOBaTejiiHo h, TaK CKa3aTb, 6e3 ocTaTKa rrpiiMeHHTb npuHumiw H3o6pa3HTeJH>HOrO Ky6H3Ma B OÖJiaCTH n033HH, a B TOM, OTKpbITb CyTi o6l.eKTHBHbIX B3aHMOCB«3eii Meatfly KyÔH3MOM h HanajioM aBaHrapflHOii no33HH. Cp. TaK»ce: G. Lemattre, From Cubism to Surrealism in French Literature (Harvard, 1941); M. Guiney, "Cubisme, littéraire et plastic", Revue des sciences humaines, 142 (1971).

KyEH3M H n033HiI ABAHrAP/JA BjiHHHHe K y 6 n 3 M a

Ha p y c c K y i o

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77

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CTp. 53. XiieÒHHKOB B CTHXOTBOpCHHH "EypjIIOK" CJieflyiOIUHM 06pa30M OIIHCblBaeT Ky6HCTHiecKHe KapraHM CBoero

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r o p H nonoTeH MoryHHX CTOHJIH n o CTeHaM K p y r a M H , yrnaMH H KOJituaMH CBETHJMCB OHH; HepHbiìi BOPOH 6jiecTejr CHHHM KJIWBA yrjiOM, TSJKKO H MpaiHO 6arpoBbie H p j m o M 3ENEHWE BHceira XOJICTW, /Ipyrne XOAHJIH 6yrpaMH, KAK nepHbie OBI;H, BOJiHyact CBoeK n0BepxH0CTbK) mepoxoBaToii, HepoBHOH, B HHX 6NECTEJIH KYCONKH 3EPKAN H «EJIE3A. K p a c K y 3aneKmeìiCH KPOBH KHCTB oTJiarana xojiMaMH, o c n o a UBETHOFO. (CoSpaHue npouseedemiù, TOM III, CTp. 290)

78

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B HaCTHOCTH TeHfleHRHH K aHaJIHTHHeCKOMy nOflXOfly K OÖteKTy ( j i h u o KaK cyMMa OTflejibHbix u b c t o b l i x s j i c m c h t o b ) h k Gojiee aÖCTpaKTHOMy nOHHMaHHIO TeMbl ("Ha XOJICTe KaKHX-TO COOTBeTCTBHH / BHe npoTJDKeHHH yKHJio J I h u o " ) . 3 6 '3ByKoo6pa3' pa3pymaeT 3HaKOBHH xapaKTep A3biKa, CTpeMHCb co3/jaTb HenoepeACTBeHHyio CB»3b Meamy 3ByK0M h onpe^ejieHHbiM omymeHHeM. B flaJitHeöiHHx c b o h x n o n c K a x XjieÖHHKOB coxpaHaeT H,neio "ynpaBJiJHomeìi corjiacHoft",

jiaeTCH Ha aHajiH3 HacToamen ceMaHTHKH pyccKHx 34

cjiob. E r o

ho

cch-

yTorra-

CM. Umbro Apollonio, Der Futurismus. Manifeste und Dokumente einer künstlerischen Revolution 1909-1918 (Köln, 1966). 85 CM. P. ÄKOÖCOH, Hoeeüutan pyccnan noo'jun. B. XM6HUKO8 (Ilpara, 1921), CTp. 6-10; Manutfiecmu u npoepaMMbi pyccKUx tfiymypucmoe, CTp. 59, 71, 84. 36 CM. K. Pomorska, Russian Formalist Theory and its Poetic Ambiance, CTp. 97-98.

KYBH3M H n033Hfl

81

ABAHfAPflA

necKaa h f l e a " 3 B e 3 f l H o r o » 3 b i K a " n o c r p o e H a Ha aKCHOMe, HTO c o r j i a c H b i e b onpeAeJieHHofl no3HL(Hn ( a h m c h h o b Hanajie cjiOBa) oSycjiOBJiHBaiOT HanpaBjieHHOCTb

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ycHjiHBaa e r o o m y T H M O C T b h 'npeztMeTHOCTb', t o , c a p y r o f i oh

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oahoh

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cjiOBa,

ctopohh,

h OHeMbi, o c h o b h o t o

iiohhths

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JIHHTBHCTHKH.37 ( C p a B H H , H a n p H M e p , XJie6HHKOBCKyK) TeOpHK) " B H y T p e H Hero

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h

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Ha M a T e p n a j i b H b i H a c n e K T

MaKCHMajibHOH 3HaKOBOCTH, M e a c a y

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p y c c K o r o s3biKa. H x 3HaneHHe He MoxceT 6biTb o n p e A e n e H O c n o M o m b i o paHHOHajibHbix noHHTHii; o h h o 6 p a m a i o T C H HenocpeacTBeHHO IlHOHaJIbHOMy KaKyiO-TO

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CTynHbix »3biKax, CBameHHbix h j i h 3anpemeHHbix c j i o b . H e

XjieSHHKOB H H o r ^ a MOTHBHpyeT noaBJieHHe '3ayMHbix' c j i o b b CTHXaX

KaK

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n p o H H M , o n p e a e J i e H H y i o KOMHHecKyio OKpacKy. ri03THHeCKyi0 (JjyHKUHK) *3ayMHbIX' CJIOB BbinOJIHJHOT B KOHKpeTHblX c j i y n a a x TaKxce 3 K 3 0 t h h c c k h 3 B y n a m n e cjiOBa nyacHx 83HK0B, HanpHMep, 37 38

R . Jakobson, "Retrospect", ynoMHH. npoH3B., CTp. 632-633. Co6pmue npou3eedeHuu, TOM V , CTp. 171-172.

82

MOJMÍR GRYGAR

opHeHTajibHbie BbipaaceHHji, HHocTpaHHwe reorpaopMajibHbix cxoflCTB. HanpHMep, b HaTiopMopTax b ê i u h TepajiH c b o i o HenpoHHixaeMOCTb h MaTepHajibHOCTb: Meacay CTaKaHOM, 6yTbiJiKoM, TpyÔKOH H ßOCKOH CTOJia HJIH ÖJIIOflOM B03HHJCaJIH HenOCpeflCTBeHHbie CB33H h poflCTBa, ocHOBaHHbie Ha napajiJiejiH3Me HHeCKOH (JiopMe HanenaTaHHoro hjih

HanHcaHHoro cjiOBa. Yace xynoacHHKH-

KyÔHCTbi OTKpbiJiH H3o6pa3HTejibHbie B03M0ÄH0CTH pa3Hbix rpaECTOB

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Ha 3ByK0Byi0 peajiH3ai;Hio Haxcwrrca

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rpaMMbi' AnoJuiHHepa. HeGojibniHe jmpHiecKHe Ha6pocKH AnojuiHHepa OCOÖHMTHnOrpacjjHHeCKHM 0(j)0pMJieHHeM BOCnpOH3BOAHTKaKHe-HH6yÄb npeflMeTbi, cBH3aHHbie c TeMoii; TpaAHUHOHHbie

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o6pa3yK>TCfl B acHByio ABHacymyiocji JIHHHK», KOTopaa co3AaeT CyHKH

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c no33Hefi ocymecTBHjiocb T a r n e KpynHbiö T e o p e T H K

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TeneHHa, B CBOHX CTaTbax H MaHHfjjecrax noflHepKHBaji TOT 4>aKT, MTO c BpeMeH "KyÖHCTHHeCKOÖ peBOJHOHHH" XCHBOÜHCb H II033HH pa3BHCm. K. Teige, "Guillaume Apollinaire a jeho doba", B KH.: Svit stavby Studie z dvacätych let (Praha, 1966), CTp. 371-404.

51

a

bäsni.

88

MOJMÌR G R Y G A R

BaiOTCH Ha 0flH0M O 6 M E M 6a3Hce: HCKyccTBO, OTKa3aBiHHCb OT no,apaacaHHH fleHCTBHTejibHOCTH, cTajio "no33Hen onTHiecKHx 4>opM", Meacay TeM KaK n033HH B nOHCKaX HHCTOH n03THHH0CTH OTKpblJia BFLOXHOBjwiomyio

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jinpHHecKoe BnenaxjieHHe (OCO6CHHO nacTO noBTopfljiacb TeMa AajieKHx nyTemecTBHH, 3K30THHCCKHX C T P A H , r o p o / I O B H T . a.)- 5 3 RIOSTHCTBI poHy

CBOHX

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H

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ranorpa m IIBCTOK. r i o c n e »ce OMH oKHa 3a3BeHenH, 3anpbiraB nofl 3Byimoe a r o . >KenTOH CTpoKH o c b i p e B i n a a KHHra. TyHH TCMHeiOT H nocHHejiH. H a o ö n a c T H c j i y x a y n a n o ppa. 3aMKa. 63 64

65

CM. Jak list poezii, CTp. 92. Heu3ÒmHbie npomeeòeuun, CTp. 53. TaM ace, CTp. 167.

nepe-

(UBCTH,

OTHONIEHHII

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93

K Y B H 3 M H I I 0 3 3 H Ä AB A H r A PA A H npoHb y6erajia Morynaa caMxa Tp03a, 3T0 Tbl! HmiHyT UBexti. ^BYX3HAHHOCTBIO

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C

OAHOH c T o p o i i b i , HX M O » H O

OHH

ace

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HHTEPNPETHPOBATB

KaK o6pa3Hoe BbipaaceHHe 3ByKOBoro 3mim, IIojiymopo2/ia3biû cmpejietf, CTp. 49-50.

94

MOJMÍR GRYGAR

MOB. 3 T O T n p o i i e c c MONCHO HAGJIIOJATB H B KYSHCTHHECKOH XCHBOIHÍCH,

ocoóeHHo T. H. aHajiHTHHecKoro nepnofla, Kor^a KapTHHbi yace TepajiH CBH3b CfleHCTBHTeJIbHOCTbIOH nepefl XyflOXCHHKaMH OTKpbIJiaCb B03MOACHOETB 6ecnpeflMeTHOií KOMIIO3HL[HOHHOH Hipw, HE CBasaHHOH H 3 o 6 p a x c a i o m e H (^YHKIMEIÍ. N P H STOM FLEÑCTBYET -

Kaic B JKHBOIIHCH,

TaK H B n033HH - O^HO OCHOBHOe CeMHOTHHeCKOe npaBHJIO: HeM 6oJIbme ocjia6jiHeTCH aeHOTanHfl, TeM 6ojibiue ycHJiHBaeTca pojib KOHHOxaiiHH, T. e. 3HaHeHHH, 3aBHCHMbIX OT KOHTeKCTa. AHajIHTHHeCKHH Ky6H3M CTpeMHJica onHcaTb pa3Hbie npeflMeTbi c noMombio orpaHHHeHHoro penepTyapa reoMeTpHiecKtix H3HKA Ha cjiy»c6e MaTeMaTHKH", CoifuajiucmmecxaH peKOHcmpyKifun u uayKa (1932), B b i n . 4, C T p . 47. 20 21

KATErOPHÜ HH

OflHOrO

HHCTpyMeHTa

HenpecTaHHO

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TO,

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OT H 3 M e p a e M o r o n p o q e c c a .

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aCTpOHOMbl

109

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T. e .

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Ha

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h

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24

I I . A . n o peHCKoro). 25

T a M » e , § 53.

110

VJAÓ. VS. IVANOV

PaccJiaÓJieHHoe ropoflCKoñ cyTOJiOKoií co3HaHHe npHBWKaeT k eme 6ojibnieií naccHBHOCTH h oxBaTMBaeT jimiib He6oJibiime k y c o h k h BpeMeHH o t TOJiHKa flo s p y r o r o . 3 t h o6pe3KH BpeMeHH o 6 h h h o He npocTHpaiOTca «ajKe Ha oflHH «eiib. A /janee, ripn CHJibHOñ ycTajiocTH, npii H3flepraHHOCTH, HeBpacTeHHH h t . n. s t h OTpe3KH eme coKpamaioTca, nona, HaicoHeu, He CBOflHTCH k o BpeMeHH eflHHHHHoro BnenaTJieHHfl. Tor^a C03HaHHe He HMeeT yace o n o p w a n a cpaBHeHHH ero c flpyrHM, t . e. He HMeeT noHBH «jih Mbicjm. TaKoe cocTOHHHe, KaK h 3 b c c t h o , 6 j i h 3 k o k 6ecc03HaTejibH0CTH: s t o OBJiafleHHe MbicjiH oflHHM BnenaTJieHHeM, b k o t o p o m He ycMaTpHBaeTca MHoroo6pa3He, npHBOflHT k rnnHOHflHOMy c o c t o h h h i o , k pony noJiycHa, rae 6e3fleñcTByeT bojih h 3acTMBaeT flBHaceHHe... BpeM» pa3JioacHJiocb, h Ka»flbiü m o m c h t e r o b C03HaHHH Bceqeno HCKJnoiaer Bce npoiHe. BpeMa CTajio « n a co3HaHHa jinmb t o h k o h , h o He t o h k o k ) nonHOTbi, Bo6paBineií b ce6a ece BpeMa, a TOIKOK) OnyCTOHieHHH, H3 KOTOpOH H3BUeHeHO H OT KOTOpOÜ OTOrHaHO BCflKOe MHoroo6pa3ne, «BHHceHHe, (jiopMa. 26 3 T a xapaKTepncTHKa BaacHa h a j i h noHHMaHHfl cTpyKTypw BpeMeHH b

HeKOTopbix

ynoMHHaeMbix

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npoH3Be,aeHHax

coBpeMeHHoñ

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BpeMeHH

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H

b p a 6 o T e o cHOBHaeHHax, r a e nccjieflOBaji B o n p o c TeneHHH BpeMeHH b a p y r o M HanpaBJieHHH. 27 . B 6 o j i e e o 6 m e M BHfle B o n p o c o TeneHHH BpeMeHH " b oópamnoM

cMbicjie" h m 6 w j i H3yneH b c b » 3 h c ocMbicjieHHeM

KOCMOJIOrHH /JaHTe B CBeTe TeOpHH OTHOCHTeJIbHOCTH, r a e OH npHXOflHJI k BbiBoay, h t o 3 t o o 6 p a T H o e TeneHHe BpeMeHH b o 3 m o » h o n p n v > T. e. npH CKOpOCTHX, ÓOJlbUIHX CKOpOCTH CBeTa; "pa3pbIBaa 'BoacecTBeHHaa enepedu

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c,

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He no3aflH,

a

28

ijejioro

bo

BpeMeHH,

opraHH3auHH

BpeMeHH H HHKJIOB pa3BHTH3 OÓCyXCflajIHCb B OCHOBHOM (J)HJIOCO(J)CKOM T p y a e OjiopeHCKoro, 2 9 r a e cooTBeTCTByiomne rjiaBbi cjieaoBajiH HenoepeflCTBeHHO 3a pa3fleJiOM o

30jiotom

ceneHHH, HanoMHHaa TeM

caMbiM 0 6 HHTepnpeTaiiHH n o c j i e ^ H e r o b cb«3H c JiorapHcjiMHHecKOH c n n p a j i b i o KaK oTo6paaceHHeM 3aKOHOB paíBHTHa acHBoro b 26

Tpyaax

TaM ace. n . A. OjTOpeHCKHH, "CHMBOJIHKa CHOBH/jeHHÍt" ("Y BOaOpa3flejIOB MMCJIH", II), apxHB n . A. OjropeHCKoro. 28 IlaBeji ®nopeHCKHH, MnuMocmu e zeoMempuu (MocKBa: "IIoMopbe", 1922), CTp. 53. Cp. 06 OTHOiueHHH flairre KO BpeMeHH: O. MaimeJibmTaM, Pa3zoeop o fíaHme (MocKBa: "HcicyccTBo", 1967), CTp. 32, 35. 29 Cm. TaM ace, CTp. 68; n . A. OnopeHCKHft, "Y B0fl0pa3fleJi0B mmcjih", III, apxHB II. A. jiopeHCKoro. HeaaBHaa ccbiJiKa Ha 3Ty nacTb k h h t h OjiopeHcicoro b c6. CodpyoKecmeo nayK u maumi meopnecmea (MocKBa, 1968), CTp. 445, nyHKT 318, aBJweTca 6H6jmorpaHHecKH HeTOiHoit. 27

111

K A T E r O P H H BPEMEHH

3H3eHUITeHHa, 30 B 3TOM OTHOIIieHHH HBHBUierOCH npeflIIieCTBeHHHKOM Hflea

oflHoro

r . Benjuí.

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KpynHeñiiiHx

MaTeMaTHKOB

coBpeMeHHoeTH

-

31

coBpeMeHHoñ HayKH ocoGbiñ HHTepec npeACTaBJiaeT npoBefleHHoe

/JJIH

MOKAY

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flByMH BimaMH Bpe-

MeHH - HblOTOHOBCKHM, OÓpaTHMblM, H 6eprCOHOBCKHM - OflHOHanpaBjieHHbiM (acHMMeTpHHHbiM) -

BpeMeHeM acH3HeHHoro onbiTa. 3 2

paHtnie pa3rpaHHieHHe pa3Hbix

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xapaKTepa

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H

B. H. BepHaflCKHÍI,

nepBbie 3anncH x o T o p o r o o eziHHCTBe npocTpaHCTBa - BpeMeHH CHTCH

Eme

npo6jieMon

OTHO-

1885 r . 3 3 CTaBH BCJiea 3a coBpeMeHHoíi 4>H3HKOH Bonpoc

o cooTHomeHHH npocTpaHCTBa

H BPEMEHH, B E P H A A C K H I Í

aejiaji

BHBOA,

corjiacHO KOTopoMy BpeMS, Bbipaacaronieecfl B 6HoreoxHMHH CMCHOÍÍ NOKOJIEHHÑ, BXOAHT B CBOñcTBa »CHBoro BemecTBa B Taicoñ creneHH, B KaKoñ OHO He BXOAHT HH B KaKoe flpyroe HBJieHHe Ha Hanieñ nnaHeTe. 34 fl,na acHBoro opraHH3Ma, BCHKoro 6e3 HCKJUOIEHHA, M U HE MoaceM roBopHTb o npocTpaHCTBe, HO Bceraa floiDKHbi roBopHTb o npocTpaHCTBe - BpeMeHH. fljia MH0r0KJieT0HHi.ix

30

C. M. 3íí3eHinTeñH, "PeacHccypa", H36paHHbie npouíeedemiH, T. IV (MocKBa: "HcKyccTBo", 1966), cTp. 662-663; ero xce, "HepaBHOfly urea» npnpofla", TaM »ce, T. III (1964), CTp. 50-51. 31 T. BeñJib, CuMMempuH (MocKBa: "HayKa", 1968). CTp. 96-97. 32 CM. H. Bmep, KuúepuemuKa, ra. I (MocKBa, 1968); CM. 06 STOM yace B C T a T b e : A. IlyaHKapa, "rip0CTpaHCTB0 H BpeMíi", B C6. Hoeue udeu e MameMamuKe, JVS. 2 (CaHKT üeTep6ypr, 1 9 1 3 ) ; A . üyaHKapa, UocAeÓHue MUCAU (neTep6ypr, 1923), CTp. 24.

CM. "H3 pyKonHCHoro HacjieflHH B. H. BepHaflCKoro", Bonpocu $UAOCO$UU, N° 12, 1966, C T p . 112. 34 B 3TO& CBH3H BepHaflCKHñ ccbijiajicfl Ha Te ace paóoTbi Eeprccwa o fljmTejibHocTH, K0T0pbie HMen B Biwy h BnHep B yKa3aHHOit Bbime KHHre. CM. A. EeprcoH, JJAUmeAbHocmb u oÓMoepeMenuocmb (üeTepóypr, 1923). O cooTHeceHHH B3rJiaflo Eeprcoüa c ocBemeHHeM BpeMeHH B npeiimecTByiomeií í>MOCOKHT H nepBaa OTHeTJiHBaa I noflBJiHJicH nepepMB H HTO6M cymecTBOBano BPEMA, Korfla flo6bm>ie STHM npoueccoM CJIOHCHOCTB H cnna ueHTpanbHoii HepBHoii CHCTCMM 6biJiH noTepaHbi H noHBHHJicn reoJiorHHecKHK nepnofl, reonorHHecKaa CHCTeMa c MeHbmHM, neM B npe^MflymeM nepnoae, C0BepineHCTB0M iieHTpanbHOii HepBHOH CHCTCMM.36 3TOT 3SKOH, Ha3BaHHbIH BepiiajICKHM "ITpHHUHnOM A ^ H a " , COrJiaCHO BepHa^cKOMy, oTBenaeT ycTaHOBJieHHbiM HM ÔHoreoxHMHHecKHM 3aicoHOMepHOCTflM; 37

BepOHTHO,

pa3BHTHe

reHeTHHeCKHX

HCCJie^OBaHHH

II03B0JIHT BHeCTH yTOHHeHHJI B 6OH CTeneHH OAAPEHHOCTH), HO H IIENBIH KOJIJICKTHB,

HanpHMep,

yieHbix

-

"(JjyTypojioroß"

(aaxce

npH

HcnojibSOBaHHH

BO BcnoMoraTejibHbix uejiax BbiHHCJiHTejibHbix MauiHH, KOTopbie npn HEÔJIARONPHHTHOM xoAE HCTOPHH MoryT OKa3aTbca eflHHCTBeHHbiMH TaM »ce, CTp. 328. TaM ace, CTp. 362; BnepBbie HanenaTaHO B KH.: B. H. BEPHA^CKHÄ, OnepKu u penu, Bbin. 2 (IleTepöypr, 1922).

38 39

114

VJAÓ. VS. IVANOV

COXpaHHBIIlHMHCH n p e f l C T a B H T e J I H M H H O O C i J j e p t I , n O J I H O C T b K )

OTAeJIHB-

m e f i c a OT 6 H O C ( J ) e p t i ) . 3 a f l a n a 3 K C T p a n o j i a u H H H a 6 y a y m e e B e e r ò H a K o n jieHHoro

onbua

aojiacHa

HEJLOBEHECTBOM o

HOOc noHHMaTb TaKHM

corjiacHO KOTopoMy a n a HH(f)opMaiiHH cTpejia HanpaBJieHa

b

o6paTHyio CTopoHy. H o

sto

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c>6pa30M, HTO HaKonjieHHe HH(J)opMaunH caMO n o c e ö e 03HanaeT " n p e o flOJieHHe 3HTP0IIHH". PeHb MO)KeT H T ™ JlHIIIb 0 nOCTOHHHOM CTpeMJieHHH K 3TOMy, HTO MO>KHO OÖeCneHHTb JIHIHb nyTCM 3(^(J)eKTHBHOH KOJiJieKTHBHOH nepepaGoTKH -

H Bee öojiee m n p o K o r o

HeHHH, t . e. öecnpenHTCTBeHHOH nepeflann -

pacnpocTpa-

HHcjiopMauHH, n03B0jia-

l o m e i i oôecneMHBaTb 3kh3hh

( 4 KacTbi h Jin " c o u n a j i b H b i x p a H r a " ) , 5 5 M H ^ o j i o r H H ( 4 MHpoBbix s n o x H , 4

CTopoHbi

CBeTa

h

cooTBercTByiomHe

6o«ecTBa,

hm

UBeTa,

BpeMeHa

r o f l a h t . n . ) , pHTyajie (r,ae cymecTBeHHa p o j i b neTbipexyrojibHHKa). O c o 6eHHO n 0 K a 3 a T e j i b H 0 t o , h t o b c e M e f e o M KyjibTe npeflKOB nonirraiOTCJi TOJibKO

npeflKH,

OTHocHiiiHeca

4

k

6ojiee

paHHHM

cpaBHeHHio c noKOJiemieM r j i a B b i K y j i b T a ) . 5 6 3 T a C0MHeHH0

bocxoaht k TaKOMy ApeBHeMy

Hfljiacb HeTbipexHjieHHaa c n c T e M a

noKOJieHHHM

(no

n e p T a p H T y a j i a He-

nepnoAy,

Kor^a

ôpanHbix K J i a c c o B .

Ot

eme

coxpa-

TaKHx

noji-

HOCTbK) (xcecTKo) AeTepMHHHpoBaHHbix coiiHajibHbix CTpyKTyp, p e r y j i H pyeMblX nOCpeflCTBOM pHTyajIOB,

COOTHOC5JIIIHX HX C MHtJjOJIOrHHeCKHM

n p o i u j i b i M , npnHii,HnnajibHO O T j i m a e T c a 6 o j i e e pa3BHTbift

ran

conaajib-

npeflCTaBJieHHbiö, b n a c T H O c r a , thfiom oMaxaKpoy. ( K a K H e ^ a B H o n 0 K a 3 a H 0 , k THny O M a x a nepBOHanajibHo npHHaflJie» c a j i a , HanpHMep, phmckeh c o n n a j i b H a a opraHroaijHH, c y a a n o J i a r a H ckoh TcpMHHOJiorHH p o f l C T B a . ) B couHajibHbix CTpyKTypax rana K p o y h OMaxa bboahtch 3 a n p e T H a 6 p a K c aceHiijHHoii, B x o a a m e i i hoh opraHH3auHH,

5 7

b r p y n n y , H3 KOTOpOH KaKofi-JiHÔo n p e ^ o K K o r A a - ; m 6 o 6 p a j i c e 6 e aceHy. 5 8

ri03T0My b

hhcjio ö p a H H b i x K J i a c c o B ( c j j p a T p H H ) (b otjihhhc ot a p x a H H H b i x CTpyKTyp rana a B -

CTpyKTypax 3Toro Tuna

B c e r f l a G o j i b m e , neM 4

CTpaJlHHCKHX). O c H O B H b I M CTaTHCTHHecKHx

54

flaHHbix

T3KHX C T p y K T y p HBJiaeTCfl

öpaKax,

HaKanJIHBaHHe

npH^eM bchkhh p a 3 Bbi6npaeTCH

M . B . KpiOKOB, 0opMbt coifua/ibHoü opeaHU3aifuu dpeeuux Kumaüyee (MocKBa,

1 9 6 7 ) , CTp. 1 4 1 - 1 4 6 . 5 5

flJIH o

M . B . KpiOKOB,

nceHue podoeozo IlpHBOflHMwe

"CouHaJibHaa

CAOH U

HHxce

flHcJujiepeHiiHauHH

b

(fiopMupoeamie KAaccoeoeo

flaHHbie

pHTyana,

apeBHeM KHTae", c 6 .

PaiAo-

oôufecmea

1968).

noflTBep»flaioinHe

Hfleto

(MocKBa, M . B.

KpioKOBa,

b e r o p a ô o T a x He H c n 0 J i i > 3 0 B a H b i . 5 8

M . Granet,

La pensée chinoise

aeJiHji KypcHBOM

mhcjto

4

(Paris, 1934), p. 100. ripoHHuaTejitHwfi TpaHe

b 3TOM M e c T e (h a p y r n x

bm-

noflo6Hbix M e c T a x ) r j i a B H o KaTe-

rOpiiHX BpeMCHH H IipOCTpaHCTBa B ÄpeBHeKHTaftCKOÖ MblCJIH. 57 3Ta rHnoTe3a, BbicKa3aHHaa b c T a T b e : JJ,. A . O u b f l e p o r r e ,

"CHCTeMa

ôaKOHTO

(JleHHHrpafl, 1 9 5 9 ) ,

b X V I I b.", A(ßpuKaHCKUü 3mHozpaißmecKuü côopHUK, I I I HC3aBHCHMo ot H e r o üOKa3aHa b HeflaBHeM flOKJiaae: F . G . Structure of the Latin Kinship

poacTBa

Lounsbury.

System and Its Relation to R o m a n Social

"The Organi-

zation", Tpydbi VII Mexcdyuapodnozo Kouzpecca anmponoAoeuwecKux u smtioipaifiuvecKUx Hayn, t . 4 ( M o c r a a , 1 9 6 7 ) . 58 Cm. x a p a K T e p H C T H K y 3thx C T p y K T y p b C T a T b e : C. L é v i - S t r a u s s , " V i n g t a n s a p r è s " , Les temps modernes, n o . 2 5 6 , 2 3 e a n n é e , s e p t . 1 9 6 7 , p . 4 0 0 ; cm. T a M ace o p o J i H HHCJia 4 b C T p y K T y p a x p o a c T B a h o p a c n e T a x c o o T B e T C T B y i o m H x l e c K H x M O f l e n e i i Ha B i j i H c n H T e n b H o ä

Mainme.

3THonorn-

120

VJAÒ. VS. IVANOV

TaKoìi napTHep ÌUIH 6paKa, KOTopbiìi npHHaaJieacHT K 6panHOMy KJiaccy, HecymeMy -

B TOHHOM

KOJIHIECTBO

HH(})opMauHH,

B

naMHTH

CBEFLEHHÌI

cTaracTHHecKOM CMHCJie cjiOBa - Han6ojibmee T.

06 yxce

e.

OTCYTCTBYIOMHH

HMCBIUHX MCCTO

epe/in XpaHHIUHXCa

6paHHbix

CBJBHX

Meacay

6paHHbiMH KJiaccaMH. BO3M03Khocth 3Aecb OKa3biBaiOTca BecbMa pa3HOo6pa3HbIMH B OTJIHHIie OT SCeCTKO fleTepMHHHpOBaHHblX CHCTeM apxaHHHoro Tana; STO 6HJIO noKa3aHo B He^aBHee BpeMfl C noMombio pacneTOB Ha BbiHHCJiHTejibHoft MauiHHe no nporpaMMe, ocHOBaHHOH Ha Hfleax JleBH-Crpocca. CncTeMbi,

OTHOCAIUHECA

K

TOMy apxaHHHOMy

rany,

KaK aBCTpa-

jinficKne H flpeBHefixiiaH KHTaHCKaa, xapaKTeprayiOTCH HajiH4neM BpeMeHH

TOJibKO

flByx

THnoB:

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(B

H

y

UHKJiHHecKoro

MHOTHX

pHTyajibHoro

BpeMeHH

apyrax HapoaoB, HanpHMep, y nys-

6JIO, peryjiHpyeMoro nepnoflHiecKHM oSbesxcaHHeM leTbipexnjieHHoro uapCTBa-BcejieHHOH PHTYAJIBHBIM uapeM) 59 H MHiJiojiorHiecKoro BpeMeHH npw

OTcyTCTBHH peajibHoro

ncTopHnecKoro

MH(J)OJiorHiecKoe BpeMa MoaceT OKa3aTbca MeCTO

BO

BpeMeHH.

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Bcex MH(J)aX O 6oraX, CBflSaHHblX C Ce30HHbIMH

3aflOJiro ,qo coBpeMeHHoro MaTeMaTHKa, npHxoaamero "ecJiH 6bi 6or

6MJI

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BO

-

B CHMBOJIC

yMHpaiomero

(HJIH

HCHe3aiomero) H B03po>K,n;aiomeroca 6ora njioflopoflHa - B nacTHocTH, B0CT0HH0cpeAH3eMH0M0pcKHx 6oroB, TaKHx, KaK rpenecKHH /JHOHHC HJIH xeTTCKHii TejienHHyc, KyjibT KOTopbix, 6biTb MoxceT, cKa3ajica H Ha xpHCTHaHCKHx npeACTaBJieHHax o BocKpeceHHH. Pa3JiHHHe Meacay acecTKO aeTepMHHHpoBaHHbiMH CHCTeMaMH, rae Bce B03M03KH0CTH HCHepnaHbl npaBUJiaMH, COOTHeeeHHblMH C MH(J»OJIOrHHeCKHM npOIHJIblM

H

C

IIHKJIHTCCKHM

pHTyajIOM, H ÓOJiee pa3BHTbIMH

CHCTeMaMH, noBe/ieHHe K0T0pbix peryjiHpyeTca naMaTbio 06 HX peajibHOH HCTOpHH, MOXCeT 6bITb npOBefleHO He TOJIbKO no OTHOHieHHK) K 6paHHbIM CBH33M (KOTOpbie Ha paHHHX STanaX HCTOpHH oSmeCTBa HciepnbiBaiome xapaKTeproyioT counajibHyK) cTpyKTypy). I l o cymecTBy

M. Granet, La pensée chinoise. HeaaBHO K npo6:ieMe BpeMeHH B .apeBHeM KnTae BepHyjica HiwxeM B paóoTe o BpeMeHH H BOCTOHHOM nenoBeKe: J. Needham, Time 59

and Eastern 60

Man.

E. T. Whittaker, The Beginning and End of the World (London, 1943), p. 40. meopu.i

omHocume/ibHocmu

( M o c K B a , 1963), CTp. 228; A . G r i i n b a u m , Philosophical Problems

of Space and Time

Cp.

o

"BenHOM B03BpameHHH":

(New York, 1963), p. 197.

A®-

CHHI",

OQu/an

121

KATErOPIM BPEMEHH

aHajiorHHHbiM HBJiaeTCH pasjiHMHe Me »cay (f)0JibK.ri0pH0H TpaflHUHeñ, ocHOBaHHOH nepBOHanajibHO Ha BonjiomeHHH nepeaaiomHXCH no HaCJieflCTBy MH(J)OJIOrHHeCKHX CIO»eTOB C nOMOIIIbK) HeH3MeHHLIX TyajibHBix

30BaHHbix h nyTflx pa3BHTH» c nejibio

saKjnoiaeTCíi

b

Ha-

He onpaBAaBiuHxcfl

hx H36e3KaTb. ÜOAMeHa

peajibHoñ

hctophh

BHOBb C03AaBaCM0ÍÍ MHfJlOJIOrHeH B TaKHX oSmeCTBaX MOyKeT CJiy/KHTb jiHuib 3aAane HCKyccTBeHHoñ 0CTaH0BKH pa3BHTHa. IIofloGHbie KyjibTypbi sana/iHoeBponeñcKoro poBaTbCH

nocpeacTBOM

naMHTb h

aBTOMaTa,

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HMeiomero

BCTpoeHHyio

ocymecTBjiaiomero CBoe noBeaeHHe nocpeACTBOM

moacjihb

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3thx KyjibTyp npHHMHOTHC apXaHHHbie, B HaCTHOCTH, BOCTOHHbie TpajjnnHH (xax yace ynoMHHaBmaacH /jpeBHeKHTañcKafl). B hhx npeAnojiaraeTca HajiHHHe iihkjihhcckhx nepeBonjiomeHHií, HCKjiioiaiomHx pa3BHTHe bo BpeMeHH. HanpHMep, b /tpeBHeñ Hhahh KaTeropna hctophnecKoro BpeMeHH He 6biJia cymecTBeHHoñ ajih KyjibTypbi. B Hhahh AOJiroe BpeMa npHHUMnHajibHo 0TCyTCTB0Bajia xpoHoiiorHH h jieToniícaHHe. Be3pa3JiHHHe k pa3BHTHio bo BpeMeHH cKa3biBanocb Ha TaKHx KHBaHHH yace Hcn0Jib30BaHHbix B03M0yKH0CTeií. O t UHnHaJlbHO

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(3KBHBajieHT (J)OHeMbi b

HayKe X X BeKa),

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(b ero hctophh),

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b XIX

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cmchhjich chhxpoh-

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h

Apyrnx ApeBHeHHAHiícKHX yueHbix

ctoht

Ha ypOBHe Harnero

122

VJAÖ. VS. IVANOV

BeKa.

CorjiacHo

mbicjih

TonopoBa,61

B. H .

Taicoe

HKC G e a p a s j i H H i i e

K flBHJKeHHIO BO BpeMeHH CKa3bIBajIOCb He TOJIbKO B ÄpeBHeHHflHHCKOH Hayxe

h

bo

BHeBpeMeHHOM x a p a K T e p e

ocHOBHoro

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KyJlbTypHOH TpaflHUHH - KJiaCCHHeCKOrO CaHCKpHTa, HO H B HHAHHCKOM HCKyccTBe:

b

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"KHHeMaT0rpa4)HiecK0M"

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B Tpa/IHUHH HHAHHCKOrO 6 a J i e T a -

nocTpoeHHH

nepeiviemeHHflMH

nbec

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bo

BpeMeHH,62

COXpaHeHHOH BnJIOTb ÄO HOBOrO

BpeMeHH H, ÖblTb M05KCT, OTpa3HBIHeHCH Ha CHCTeMaX THHUa TaKHX HapoflOB,

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b a p e B H e ö H h ä h h c i c y j i b n T y p a T e c H e n u i H M 0 6 p a 3 0 M CBH3aHa c T a H u e M , h,

HanpHMep,

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b

hhahhckhx

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ÄJIH HHAHHCKOrO TaHija.) B

cbohx

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M05KH0 nOKa3aTb n y T e M aHaJIH3a HCTOpHH COOTBeTCTByiOmHX TepMHHOB, B HaCTHOCTH,

Ha3BaHHH

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npe/iCTaBJieHHH o BpeMeHH, b n a c T H o c T H , 3HTeJIbH0 CXOflHbl C

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y

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naMHTHHKOB. noBecTH,

He O T A e j i b H b i ü n e J i o B e i c , a

BeKa".73

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Te

ace

aBTo6norpa(J)HHecKnx FepoeM

xoTeji

nucbMenax

3 T 0 He HCTopHHecKoe y n e n o e c o n n H e H n e , a H O B a a 4 ) 0 P M A

r a e A e Ä C T B y i o m H M JIHKOM

B

o6pbiBKaM

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uenaa

AKyTaraBa BcnoMHHaeT

AOJT>KeH 6 b i J i

6bm>

HAPOA BO B c e n e p H O f l b i c B o e ñ H c r o p H H OT C y ñ K O AO MSHA3H, a COCTOHTB p o M a H AOJixceH 6 H A H3 TpHAHaTH c JIHIHHHM H O B e j u i , p a c n o j i o a c e H H b i x B xpoHOJiorHHecKOM

nopaAKe."74

" ¡ Q u e viva M e x i c o ! "

(1930-1931)

TOHHO T a x

ace CTponjiCH

SibeHuiTeima,

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A. PeMH30B, JIumepamypHan POCCUH (MocKBa, 1924), CTp. 30. AKyTaraBa, "3y6iaTwe Koneca", Hoee.t.ibi (MocKBa, 1959), CTp. 356 (HaimcaHO B 1927 r.). riocneflOBaTeJitHbiM M o m a » B STOM 3aMMCJie MOJKHO cpaBHim. c napajiJIEJIBHBIM MOHTaacoM B paccfca3e " B name" (TaM » e , CTp. 209-218), no xoTopoMy nocTaBjieH mßecTHbiii (jiHJibM KypocaBa "PacéMOH"; 3arjiaBHe H oöpaMJieroie 3aHMCTBOBaHH H3 flpyroii Benin AKyTaraBbi, TaM ace, CTp. 21-27. 73

74

O CTpoeHHH cueHapn» 3Toro (JiHJibMa n o AaHHbiM apxraa 3 . Cnmcnepa H flpyrHM MaTepHaJiaM CM.: I. Barna, Serghei Eisenstein (Bucurejti, 1966), CTp. 227. 75

K A T E r O P H Ä BPEMEHH

127

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Revue Française,

52, 1939, p p . 1057-1061; 53, pp. 147-151. AHnmflCKH»

nepeBOfl b c6. William Faulkner. Three Decades of Criticism (New York-Burlingame 1963), p p . 225-232.

A. TypeBHH, yK. coi.

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129

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CM. 0C06EHH0 C. Metz, Essais sur la signification au cinéma (Paris, 1968), p. 129 H flanee; Pier Paolo Pasolini, "La paura del naturalismo (Osservazioni sul pianosequenza)". B KHHre K. Merua 3Ta craTbH eme He 6 tuia Hcn0nt30BaHa. 106 Cp. B 3TOH CBH3H 06 AjreHe PeHe: C. Metz, yxas. coi., p. 55; B. Pingaud, "La vertu du montage", Vare, no. 31 (Alain Resnais), 1967, p. 76-77 (cpaBHeHHe PeHe C 303eHIHTeiÎHOM).

138

VJA£. VS. IVANOV

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co6oii. B KHHeMaTorpacJie STO CBH3biBamie npoHcxoflHT Ha noHBe 4>H3H0Ji0rHnecKoii HHepuHH peTHHLi, yaepacHBaiomeli HeKOTopoe BpeM« nojiyieHHoe pa3flpa»eHHe H TCM npHHyflHTentHO CJiHBaiomeii ero, npn H3BecTHbix ycnoBHJIX, c flanbHeiimHM. Il03T0My flBHaceHHe B nepeflave KHHeMaTorpa^a IICHXO-

(J)H3H0Ji0rHHecKH TOHCfleCTBeHHO cflBHaceHHeMnepeflaBaeMbiM, T. e. OHO ecTb He ayxoBHHii o6pa3 ero, a iiJinK)3opHbiii noflMeH, H, cueflOBaTenbHO, HacKB03b

HaTypajIHCTHHHO. B xyaoacecTBe HaTypanH3M nocjieflOBaTentHbifi 6hji 6bi npocTbiM yHHHTOjfcemieM caMoro ncKyccTBa, H6O OHO npeayie Bcero npeflnonaraeT CBo6ofly. Ho KHHeMaTorpa4>HiecKHii npiieM, KOK maKoeou, BOBce He BeaeT HenpeMeHHO K HaTypanHCTHHecKoft HaBH3HHB0CTH HJiJiio3opHoro noflpaacaHHa fleiiCTBHTejibHOCTH H npH H3BeCTHbIX yCJIOBHHX MTOKCT, HanpOTHB, Tpe6oBaTb HaH6ojlbmero flyxoBHoro ycvuma, a CAHHCTBO, HM nepeaaBaeMoe, 6yneT co3epuaTbCH B30P0M yM[CTBeH]HbIM, HO OTHIOflb He HyBCTBeHHblM.107 B KanecTBe npocTeiiinero npHMepa e^HHCTBa, AocTHraeMoro npn 3pHTeJIbHOM BOCnpHHTHH npepblBHblX 06pa30B, OjlOpeHCKHH npHBO/IHT KHHry: " B xyaoscecTBeHHO 0praHH30BaHH0H KHHre oxziejibHbie ee rpaHHecKHe HJIH HjuiiocTpaTiiBHbie 3JIEMEHTBI BbicTynaioT B co3HaHHH nocneAOBaTenbHO, KaK nacTH odnozo uejioro, HMeiomero opraHinaiiHio H n o HETBEPTOFI KOOPFLHHATE,"108 T. e. BO BPEMEHH. BJICCTHIUHM n p n -

MepoM noAoSHoM KHHTH HBJISETCH H3flaHHoe B TE ace roflbi, Koraa OjiopeHCKHH paSoTaji HaA UHTHpoBaHHbiM TpaKTaTOM, ero ace nccjie/soBamie MnuMocmu e eeoMempuu c OGJIOHCKOH B . A. OaBopcKoro, XYFLOACHHKa, Ha KOToporo npHBeaeHHbie MMCJIH «SjiopeHCKoro OKa3ajiH BJIN5MNE H npaKTHHecKoe, B ero fleHTejibHOcra HJiniocTpaTopa KHHNI, H TeopeTHnecKoe. 109 OGjioacKe OaBopcKoro K cBoeii KHHre OjiopeHCKHH IIOCBHTHJI cneunajibHoe nccjieflOBaHHe, npeflcraBJiHiomee HCKJIIOHHTEJIBHBIH HHTepec KaK O^HH H3 nepBbix onbuoB pa3T>HCHeHH5i BO3MO>KHMX onbiTOB "xyao^cecTBa, HacbimeHHoro MaTeMaTHiecicoio MHCJIHIO". 1 1 0 H3 3TOH 3aMeHaTejibHoa 3CTeTHHecKoM pa6oTbi OjiopeHCKoro flocraTOHHO npnBeCTH OflHH JlHUIb npHMep, HJIJIIOCTpHpyiOmHH TO, C KaKOH TOHKOCTbK) 107

IT. A. jiopeHCKHit, "AHanHS np0CTpaHCTBeHH0CTH B xyfl0acecTBeHH0-H306pa3HTem>Hbix npoH3BefleHHHx", § 73. 108

109

TaM ace.

CM. B oco6eHHocTH B. A. i>aBopcKnlt, "BpeMa B ncKyccTBe", JjeKopamueHoe ucKyccmeo CCCP, N°. 2, 1965. C npHBeaeHHMMH HfleflMH OjiopeHCKoro nepeKJiHKaioTca TaKace MBICJIH E. Souriau, "Time in the Plastic Arts", Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, VII (1948-1949), H pa6oTbi M. CKPH6HHOK O BpeMeHH B H3o6pa3HTeJIiHOM HCKyCCTBe, C KOTOpMMH aBTOp HMejI B03M0HCH0CTb IKWHaKOMHTbC« B pyKorracH 6naroflapji jiw6e3HOCTH M. CanapoBa. 110

n . OjiopeHCKHfi, MhuMocmu e zeoMempuu, crp. 58.

KATEROPRA

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139

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El Lisitzky ( B e r l i n , 1 9 6 7 ) . 114 C p . 06 A n o n J i H H e p e B e r o O T H o m e H H H K Ky6n3My: retycy kubizmu w latach 1908-1918 ( W a r s z a w a , 1 9 6 6 ) . 115

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117

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cjiynaax Ha nepBbin njiaH BbiflBHraeTCH AHCKpeTHbiH npHHunn

no-

CTpOeHHH. ripeacTaBHJio 6bi HHTepec BbWBJieHne Toro, b Kaxoii Mepe npiiHiiHnw aTOHajlbHOH My3bIKH H pOJIb ÄHCCOHaHCOB y Tex K0Mn03HT0p0B, KOTOpbie uiJiH no apyrHM nyTAM, moxcho 6biJio 6bi CB5i3aTb c TeM ace no4HepKHyTbiM CTpeMJieHHeM HCKyccTBa X X BeKa K BbiHBJieHHio npepbiBHbix 3JieMeHTOB BpeMeHHÓH OpraHH3aUHH. H3yneHHe TeopHH khho c tohkh 3peHiiH ochobhoíí /uih HayKH X X BeKa npoôJieMbi cooTHomeHHH HenpepbiBHoro h flHCKpeTHoro nonyjiapn30Bajiocb eme b paHHen paöoTe B. B. IIIkjiobckoto, 121 KOTopbift no3flHee (b 1928 r.) TOHKO noziMeTHJi ocHOBHbie nepTbi KHHeMaTorpaOTorpa4>Hio.

Bce n a m e H c n o j i b 3 y e T c a ,

MrHOBeHHe, B

c BpeMeHeM,

npeBpaTHB

OCTaHOBJieHHblH

rpa0T0rpamHH

Hppeajib-

HOCTb 4>HKCHpyeMoro (jjHJibMOM n o T O K a CO6HTHH. T a K o e ace T a r o T e H H e K n o B T o p a i o m e H C H CTaTHHHOii K a p T H H e n a p K a , KaK K n p e j i e j i y , o 6 H a p y a c H B a e T c a H B oTorpa(J)HH) H p a 3 B H T H e M (j)HJibMa BO B p e M e H H MeHaeTCH B c T o p o H y npeoóJiaaaHHH

cTaranecKoro

HHU

AHHaMHnecKHM

TaM,

rae

4>HJibM

n e p e ^ a e T He CT0JibK0 flBHHceHHe, CKOJIbKO o T e y T e T B H e p a 3 B H T H a BO B p e MeHH. KHHO n p e a o c T a B J i a e T 3KcnepHMeHTHpoBaHHa

HaHÓojibiuHe TexHHnecKHe

BO3MO>KHOCTH a j i h

H a p . B p e M e H e M , KaK B (|)HJibMe P .

Kjiepa

"3TO

c j i y H H J i o c b 3 a B T p a " , H a s B a H i i e K O T o p o r o - KaK H e r o c i o a c e T , o c H O B a H Hbift Ha C03HATEJRBH0M BTopaceHHH B H a c T o a m e e 6 y f l y m e r o , OJIHUCTBOp e H H o r o 3 a B T p a n i H e H r a 3 e T o i i - O T B e i a e T o n b i T a M c ^ B H r a BO B p e M e H H , ocymecTBJiaBHiHMca ecjiH

oTBJienbca

oco6eHHocTH

H B CJIOBCCHOM

OT a 3 H K O B

KOTopbix

pa3rpaHHHeHHe

Tpex

ncKyccTBe.

HeeBponeìicKHX

y n o M H H a j i H C b Bbirne -

BpeMeHHbix ruiaHOB,

OGbweHHbm

KyjibTypHbix OGHHHO

a3biK

-

TpaOTimii,

npe^nojiaraeT

oTCHHTbiBaeMbix

OT

Hacro-

a m e r o (MOMeHTa p e r a ) 1 2 3 H a c e c T K y i o BpeMeHHyio nocjie/ioBaTejibHOCTb 122 B . B . IIIKJIOBCKHH, "OIIIH6KH H H3o6peTeHH«", B KH.: 3a copon Jiem (MocKBa, 1965), CTp. 103. C p . o CBe/ieHHH pa3Hwx TeM B "OKT«6pe" B "eflHHOM BpeMeHH": C . M . 3iÌ3eHniTeiÌH, "PeiKHCcypa", H36paHHbie npouieedenun, T. 4 (MocKBa, 1966), CTP. 324. 123 C M . 0 6 3TOM: I O . C . MapTeMwraoB, " O (J>opMe 3anHCH CHTyauHH", Mauiunnuu nepeeod u npuKAaòuan AumeucmuKa, Bbin. 8 (MocKBa, 1964), CTp. 127-128 H 146-149; TaM ace H 06 "AjiHce B CTpaHe Hyaec"; H . H . JleoHTbeBa, "OrmcaHue CJIOB CO 3Ha-

143

KATErOPHfl BPEMEHH

npHHHH h cjieflCTBHH. H o cjioBecHoe HCKyccTBO y ace B TaKHx nnoHepcKHX onbiTax, KaK "AjiHca b cTpaHe ny^ec" ( r a e Ajinca b caMOM Havane 3aflyMbiBaeTca Haa TeM, KaK BbiniiMHT iuiaMfl cbchh nocjie Toro, KaK ero 3aflyioT, a yjibi6Ka neninpcKoro KOTa noHBjiaeTCH paHbine H ocTaeTca ÄOJibiue, HeM oh caM), Bejio k napajOKcaM THna Toro, KOTopwii c(J)opMyjiHpoBaH MaHaeJibixiTaMOM b craxax: BbiTb MoaceT, npe»Ae ryö y»ce poiane» nionoT H b 6e3flpeBecHOCTH KpyjKHJiHC« JIHCTW, M TO, neMy Mbi nocBflmaeM ontiT, i l o onbiTa npaoöpejio lepTbi. H o nonbiTKa nepeaaTb noaoÔHoe cMemeHHe oöbiHHbix

npeflCTaBJieHHH

o

BpeMeHH

BpeMeHHbix

cpeacTBaMH

njiaHOB h ncKyc-

BpeMeHHÓro

B03M05KH0H H e C T O J I b K O B C J I O B e C H O M H C K y C C T B e , C TeM KHHO O K a 3 a J I O C b H a H Ô O J i e e eCTeCTBeHHbIM c n o c o ô o M ¿via npeacTaBJieHHH "nacTHofl" n c H x o j i o r H i e c K o f t nocjieaoBaTejibHOCTH BpeMeHH. K h h o CTajio npeacTaBJiHTbca Moflejibio BHyTpeHHen ncHxojiorHMecKoii jkh3hh nejioBeKa, h t o 6 h j i o cbh33ho h c oTMeneHHbiM Bbiuie Hcn0Jib30BaHHeM k h h o ¿ma BonjiomeHHH BHyTpeHHero M O H O J i o r a . H a c T O b K a n e c T B e o6pa3a s t o cpaBHeHne y n o M H H a e T c a h b xyflOHcecTBeHHOH J i H T e p a T y p e . flocTaTOHHO HanoMHHTb j i e H T y bocnOMHHaHHH r e p O H H H , KaK ( J ï H J I b M , nOBTOpHIOmyiOCH B pOMaHe " f l O M 6e3 xo3HHHa" Gemisi, oaHoro H3 Tex c o B p e M e H H b i x nHcaTejieft, y KOTopbix CTBa

OKa3bIBaeTCH

CKOJIbKO B

KHHO. B M e C T e

H3JiO)KeHHe o ô b i H H O BefleTCH b n c H x o j i o r H H e c K o i i , a He

xpoHOjiorHiecKoii

nocjieaoBaTejibHocTH. C H a n a j i a B e K a H a n H H a e T c a c n o p Meacay T e M H yieHbiMH, k t o B H f l e j i b k h h o M o a e j i b H a m e r o B o c n p H H T H H M H p a , h yneHtiMH, O T p i i u a B i i i H M H 3Ty aHajiorHK). I I p e a c T a B J i e H H e o K H H e M a T 0 r p a < J ) H H e c K 0 H M o a e j i n , r a e B n e n a T J i e H H e HenpepbiBHOCTH a B H H c e H H H B 0 3 H H K a e T 3 a cneT n o c j i e a o BaTeJIbHOCTH A H C K p e T H b l X CHHMKOB, 6 b I J I O npH3HaHO BepTCOHOM x a p a K TepHbiM ajia HHTejiJieKTa, h o He ajih HHCTHHKTa, TaK KaK HacToamee HCHH6M BpeMeHH", TaM ace, CTp. 33-49. XapaKTepHo, hto Bee npHMepw "hhcto ceMaHTHHecKoü Hec006pa3H0CTH", npHBefleHHbie Xomckhm (N. Chomsky, Aspects of the Theory of Syntax [Cambridge, Mass., 1965], CTp. 77), othochtch hmchho KHeco6jiK)fleHHK> BpeMeHHbix npaBHJi, xoth caM Xomckhh stoto h He 3aMeraji; cp. 06 3T0M b CBA3H c 0C06eHH0CTHMH BpeMeHHbix KOHCTpyKUHfi T H n a a grief ago, all the moon, all the sun long b no33HHflHJiaHaToMaca: B. HBaHOB, "O mmkobmx n p H H H H a x TpyjiHOCTeft nepeBo^a xyaoacecTBeHHoro TeiccTa", AKmyaAbHbie npoÔMMu meopuu xydootcecmeemozo nepeeoda, t . II (MocKBa, 1967), CTp. 274-275 h 278, npHM. II. 0 6 H3yneHHH KaTeropmi BpeMeHH b coBpeMeHHoit jmHrBHCTHHecKoft ceMaHTHKe, cm. T. Todorov, pei;. Ha kh. : E. H. Bendix, Componential Analysis of General Vocabulary, Lingua, vol. 20, 1 (1968), CTp. 108 (o "temporalité" h o t "temps sémantique").

VJAÖ. VS. IVANOV

144

H3MeHeHne nepeaaeTca He KHHeMaT0rpamHX

npoöjreMe

BpeMeHH

cnoHTaHHoñ

B HacTHOCTH, H a

cnHHHoro

M03ra,

HecaTejibHbiM petjwieiccoM H petjwieiccoM n i a r a 1 3 0

B >KHBbIX

PHTMHHCCKOH npHMepe

ynpaBJiaiomHx

(H p e n e B b i x

ueHTpoB,

XOTH B NOCJIE^HEM c j i y n a e B03M0>KHM p a 3 H b i e HCTOJiKOBaHHfl

nojiyieH-

Hbix 3KcnepHMeHTajibHbix npepbiBHOH

cpeae

c

ßaHHbix).131

C n o H T a H H a n aKTHBHOCTb B H e -

aBTocHHxpoHH3HpyiomHMHCH

HMnyjibcaMH

H 3 y n e H a B OAHOH H3 H a H Ô o j i e e H 3 B e c T H b i x M o a e j i e f t 6HOJIOI-HH. 1 3 2

fljia

6bijia

Kn6epneTHHecKOH

HsyneHHH " n a c o B " M 0 3 r a B m i e p o c o ô e H H o

BaacHbiM

CHHTaji a a H H b i e , n o K O T o p b i M i ï e H T p a j i b H a a H e p B H a a CHCTeMa CHHTMBaeT H M n y j i b C b i c H H T e p B a j i a M H B 1 0 0 M / c e K . H o BO B c e x y i c a 3 a H H b i x ÔHOJiorHHeCKHX HCCJieflOBaHHHX HMeeTCH B BH/iy He BpeMH B 6 o J i e e

IIIHpOKOM

C M b i c j i e , a B p e M e H H b i e H H T e p B a j i b i H HX n o c j i e f l O B a T e j i b H O C T b . 1 3 3 B ô o j i e e r j i y ô o K O M CMbicjie n p o ß j i e M a B p e M e H H , a He TOJibKo B p e M e H Horo

HHTepBajia,

necKOH

ÔHOjiorHH

B Hanôojiee HOM

134

BXO/IHT

B

ÔJiaroflapa

Kpyr

HHTepecoB

Kn6epneTH-

HBJieHHio " Ô H O J i o r H H e c K o r o

OCHOBHHX

neHTHOTa",

OTHCTJIHBOM B H ^ e c ( J ) 0 p M y j i H p 0 B a H H 0 M

H. A.

BepHuiTeH-

( a BCJiea 3 a HHM H B p s m e c r a T e n H a o K j i a a o B H . M .

TejibtJiaHfla

128 CM. C6. EuoAozuuecKue tacbi (MocKBa, 1964); CM. TaKHce JiHTepaTypy, yica3aHepe Menu. Ee cßuAocotficKoe ucmoAKoeamie Hyio B KH.: il. Í>. ACKHH, IIpoó/ieMa (MocKBa, 1966), CTp. 4 6 - 5 2 . C p . H . BHHep, KuôepnemuKa, rji. 10. 129 M . B. CeprneBCKHÄ H I O . H . ÜBaHOB, "KpaTKHü 0 6 3 0 p HccJieflOBaHHü n o 4>H3H0Ji0rHH flbixaHHH 3a nocJieflHHe 10 JieT", Tpydbi Kyüöbiiueeawzo MeduifmcKozo uHcmumyma, 18 (KyHÖwineB, 1961). 130 P . K p n u , ¿I. fleHHH-BpoyH, H . HKKJIC, E. M n a a e i u i H H. IIIeppHHrroH, PefßjieKtnopHCiR deamejibHocmb cnuwiozo M03za (MocKBa-JleHHHrpaa, 1935). 131 C 6 . Penh, apmuKyMiifUH u eocnpunmue (MocKBa-JIeHHHrpaa, 1965), CTp. 100-109; npH BceK mnoTeTHHHOCTH cnejiaHHbix BWBOÄOB H3Jio»eHHbie B STOM côopHHice 3KcnepHMeHTH JI. A . HHCTOBHH H e e coTpynHHKOB npeflCTaBJiHioT orpoMHWH HHTepec An» Hccjie^OBaHHa BpeMeHHÓü CTpyicTypw peMeo6pa30BaHH». CM. TaM ace o ponH HHTepBajia 100 MceK a n a HccJieflOBaHHH p a ô o T w ueHTpaJibHoK HepBHoii CHCTeMw. 132 H . M . REJN>(J)AHFL H M . JI. LJETJIHH, " O MATEMARANECKOM MOAEJMPOBAHHH MexaHH3MOB ueHTpajibHOH HepBHoii CHCTeMbi", Mode AU cmpyKmypHO-cfiyHKifuoHüAbíiou opzaHMdifuu HeKomopbix ôuoAozmecKux cucmeM (MocKBa, 1966), CTp. 20-21; CM. Tanate CTaTbH, noMemeHHbie B pa3,nejie I Toro »ce côopHiuca. 133 O pa3JiHHHH Meympy "BpeMeHHbiMH HHTepBajiaMH" H "BpeMeHeM" CM. A . C. 3 A AHHrTOH, Teopun omuocumeAbHocmu, CTp. 23-50; cp. A . A . pnflMaH, Mup KOK npocmpaucmeo u epeMH, 2 ma. (MocKBa, 1965), CTp. 55 H cnefl. 134 H . A . EepHiiiTeiiH, Onepuu no $U3UOAOZUU deuMcenuù u cßu3itoAozuu aKmumocmu. C p . npiiBe/ieHHbie Bbirne MMCJIH BepHa^CKORO o p o r a BpeMeHH ana KHBoro. H 3 HHTe-

146

VJAÖ. VS. IVANOV

H M . H . I ^ e T J i H H a ) . P e n h H ^ e T o T e x ORPAHHHEHNAX BO B p e M e H H , K O T o p b i e H a j i o a c e H b i Ha B e e acHBbie o p r a m o M b i . 6yeTca

npHHarae

pemeHHa

3a

H 3 - 3 a 3THX o r p a H H i e H H H

cpaBHHTejibHO

B p e M e H H , HTO HCKjiioHaeT n o c j i e f l O B a i e j i b H b i H HocTeñ. B. JI.

OTpe3KH

nep e6op Bcex

BO3MO>K-

C x o f l H b i e BpeMeHHbie orpaHHHeHHa 0Ka3biBaK>Tc», n o

riacTepHaKa,

rrpHHHHOH

06pa3H0CTH

Tpe-

Heôojibume

MMCJIH

xyaoacecTBeHHoro

TBOp-

necTBa: METAIJ)opH3M

-

ecTecTBeHHoe

cjieacTBHe

HeaonroBenHOCTH

nejiOBeica

H

H a f l o n r o 3aayMaHH0H orpoMHOCTH e r o 3 a a a H . I l p H 3TOM HecooTBeTCTBHH OH BbiHyacfleH CMOTpeTb Ha BeuiH n 0 - 0 p n H H 0 M y 3 0 p K 0 H OÖBHCHHTBC» MrHOBeHHblMH H c p a 3 y nOHHTHHMH 03apeHHflMH. 3 T 0 H eCTb IÏ033HH. MeTa(})OpH3M -

CTeHorpaHH 6 o j i b i i i o f t JIHHHOCTH, C K o p o m i c b e e

flyxa.

KHCTH PEMÔPAHFLTA, M H K e n a H f l K e j i o H T m n i a H a He IIJIOÄ

E y p H a a »HBOCTB HX

oôayMaHHoro

B b i ô o p a . n p H HeHacHTHoñ Hcaawe H a n n c a T b n o i i e j i o Ë BcejieHHOÄ, KOTopaa HX o ô y p e B a J i a , y HHX He 6BIJIO BpeMeHH NNCATB n o - a p y r o M y . 1 3 5 H a COBpeMeHHOM KHÔepHeTHHeCKOM 33bIKe CyTb B03HHKH0BCHHS M e T a 4>OpHHHOCTH

M03KH0

OÖiHCHHTb

HeoGxOflHMOCTbK)

napajiJiejibHoro

( o f l H O B p e M e H H o r o ) B b i B O ^ a T e x c o o 6 i n e H H Ü , KOTopbie n p n OTCYTCTBHH ueìÌTHOTa

MOXCHO

6biJio

6bi

nepeaaBaTb

nocjiejioBaTejibHO.

YNOTPEÔJIEHH» CJIOB, HJIH c o n e T a H H H CJIOB, B nepeHOCHbix 3HANEHHHX 0KA3BIBAETCA

B03M03KHMM

O^HOBPEMEHHOE

IlyTeM

(o6pa3Hbix)

BBICKA3BMAHHE

HeCKOJIbKHX MblCJieH - HTO aHajIOTHIHO flBOHHOH 3KCII03HIIHH B KHHO, 1 3 6 p a 3 B H B a i o m e H n p H H i m n b i KyÔHCTHHecKOH a c H B o n n c H 1 3 7 H paHHHe

aHajiorHHHbie

npaeMbi

nepeaara

flpyrne

flBynjiaHOBOcra138

6ojiee B

HC-

KyccTBe. OrpaHHHeHHe BO BpeMeHH KOTOpyio B p y ô e J i b

H npeacae Beerò orpaHHieHHe

Ha3biBaji K a T e r o p H n e c K H M

HMnepaTHBOM,

CMepTH, -

TBop-

HecTBa K a a c a o r o x y a o x c H H K a He TOJibKo n p e a o n p e f l e j i a e T HeicoTopbie e r o n e p T b i , HO H o6i>flCH5ieT o f l H y H3 r j i a B H b i x T e M H C K y c c T B a : c o o T H o m e H n e BpeMeHH H BeHHOCTH. P e n x e H Ô a x ,

KaK H M H o r n e j j p y n i e

BbiBOflHT 3 T y T e M y H3 C T p a x a C M e p T H .

139

4>HJiocoJIOPEHCKNM, " O ö p a r a a a nepcneicTHBa", Tpydu no 3HQK06biM cucmeMaM, III ( = VteHbie 3anucKU TapmycKOZo ¿ocydapcmeemozo ynueepcumema, Bbin. 198) ( T a p i y , 1967), CTp. 397. 139 p PeiixeHÔax, Hanpaedeuue epeMeuu, c i p . 15.

147

KATErOPHÄ BPEMEHH xoTejiH

BEPUTB

B

cymecTBOBaHHe

BCHHOCTH,

Jieacameö 3a npeflejiaMH

BpeMeHH, KaK MH^onornnecKoe BpeMH HaxoflHTca 3a npe^ejiaMH KajieHflapHoro. Hflea HajiHHHH flßyx KaTeropHH - peajibHoro (ncTopHnecKoro) BpeMeHH rae

B

H BCHHOCTH

-

npoxoflHT nepe3

KOHenHOM cneTe 3TH KaTeropHH

BCIO

rpenecKyK) HCHeHHe TOH pOJIH, KOTOpâfl B COBpeMeHHOH K y j i b T y p e , B nacTHOCTH, B HcicyccTBe OTBeaeHa n p o 6 j i e M e B p e MeHH.

KATErOPHfl "BHflHMOrO" H "HEBHAHMOrO" B TEKCTE: EIItE P A 3

0 BOCTOHHOCJIABJIHCKHX OOJIbKJIOPHLIX nAPAJIJIEJLHX K rorOJIEBCKOMY " B H K ) " BJIH. BC. HBAHOB npeamecTByiomeM cooömeHHH 1 o 6 c y « a a j i o c b CXOACTBO M O T H B E BCK (ßpOBeft H peCHHu), nOAHHMaeMblX 5Kejie3HbIMH BHJiaMH, B pyccKoñ CKa3Ke 0 6 ÜBaHe BtiKOBHHe, RAE MOXCHO BHfleTb n p o o 6 p a 3 r o r o jieBCKoro " B H H " , H B KEJIBTCKOM CJ)OJIBKJIOPE, r ^ e B (J)yHKUnn, cxcumoii c pojibK) BHH, BbicTynaiOT TaKxce H pa3Horjia3bie (HJIH 0AH0nia3bie) r e p o n , noAOÖHbie OCCTHHCKHM oflHorjia3biM BejiHKaHaM-BaioraM. 2 B

K

HHCJiy

CBHFLETEJIBCTB,

noflTBepac^aiomHx

HAJIHHHE

B

BOCTOHHO-

cjiaBHHCKOM CKa30HH0M repoH). 3 E. P. PoMaHOB, EeAopyccKuü cßopnuK, TOM nepBbift: ryöepHUH Mozu.ieecKan, BbinycK TpeTHÄ, "CKa3KH" (BHTeöcK, 1887), CTp. 259.

152

VJAC. VS. 1VAN0V

B CKa3Ke o BacHJiHH-uapeBHHe paccKa3biBaeTca, KaK 6 j i a r o a a p H b i f i jieB,

ocBoSoacAeHHbiH

(BMecTe

co

uapeBHMeM H3 KaMeHHoS 6auiHH,

3MeeM

h

bopohom)

BacHJTHeM-

no3flHee jiacKOBo npiiHAJi

cnacHTejiH. C o r j i a c H o 3aK0H0MepH0CTH, BbiaBJieHHoii B. f l . b CKa3Ke " 6 j i a r o a a p H o e

xchbothoc

ecTb u a p b

cBoero

nponnoM,

3Bepefi", 4 b

flaHHOM

cjiynae, - uapb-jieB. K HeMy b uapcTBO e/ieT BacHJiHii-ixapeBHH: Cen BacHJiHii-iiapeBHH Ha k o h h h noexan 3a TpnjieBaTb 3eMenb, b t p h flecflToe rocyflapcTBo; a o n r o jih, k o p o t k o jih, npne3acaeT o h b uapcTBO jibBHHoe. T o b o p h t qapb-jieB: " 3 0 , moji aeTKH ceMepbi! Eepm-e b h j i u acejie3Hbie, noflCTaBJiflflTe nofl m o h o h h CTapwe, flairre MHe nocMOTpeTb Ha a o S p o r o Mojioflua!" riocMOTpen, y3Han e r o h 06pafl0Banca. 5 3 t o MecTO CKa3KH npeACTaBJineT HHTepec b cjie,nyiomnx oTHomeHHax. CKa3Ka

o

BacHjiHH-uapeBHHe

oSHapyacHBaeT

pa3HTejibHoe

cxoactbo

c o CKa3KOH 0 6 H B a H e EbiKOBHHe, npHHeM b p w e noApoSHOCTefl o 6 e CKa3Kn coBnaaaiOT TaM h m c h h o , r / i e o h h pacxo,qaTca c rorojieBCKoii noBecTbio. B o 6 e H x cKa3Kax roBopHTcn o t o m , h t o b c k h noAHHMaioT ( h j i h , h t o t o ace caMoe, " i i o a rjia3a noACTaBjiHK>T") 5Kejie3Hbie b h j i m , n p n n e M yKa3biBaeTca h h c j i o CKa30HHbix nepcoHaaceS,

noAHHMaiomHX

BeKH BHJiaMH - "xiBeHaAUaTb M o r y n n x 6oraTbipeii" b CKa3Ke 0 6 H B a H e BbiKOBHie, c e M e p o " a c t o r " uapa-jibBa b CKa3Ke o BacmiHH-iiapeBUHe; h h c j i o 7 BbicTynaeT h b BaTCKoii cKa3Ke, r ^ e 6poBH H u o j i y HAOJibiny noAHHMaioT 7 b h j k i m h . B o S e n x cKa3Kax H3 co6paHHa AaHacbeBa b c k h noflHHMaioT CTapHKy; b CKa3Ke o BacHJiHH-uapeBHHe uapb-jieB roBopHT, h t o y Hero " o h h crapbie", o 6 b a c H a a s t h m He06x0AHM0CTb n o M o n b eMy yBHAeTb. KaK a & b h o y»ce SbiJio 3aMeneH0,

Bhh

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cTapHKa c o CTapbiMH r;ia3aMH, HbH b c k h HecKOAbKO GoraTbipeii ( h j i h AeTeH CTapHKa) noflHHMaioT BHJiaMH. H o 3Ta BHyTpeHHaa CBa3b 0 6 p a 3 0 B h npeflHKaTOB ("6biTb cTapuiHM" - "6biTb cTapbiM" - "HMeTb CTapbie rjia3a" - "HyacaaTbca b n o M o m n , h t o 6 w BHAeTb") pacKpbiBaeTca TOJibKO n p n cpaBHeHHH Apyr c ApyroM pa3Hbix cKa30K, a He H3HyTpw r o r o 4 B. 9I. Ilponn, Hcmopuuecxue Kopnu eoAiue6Hou CKO3KU (JleHHHrpaa, 1946), CTp. 140. 5 Hapodubte pyccme CKO3KU AcJiaHacbeBa, n0flr0T0BKa TeKCTa h npHMenaHHH B. X. Ilponna, t . 2 (MocKBa, 1957), CTp. 234. 6 B. II. ITeTpoB, "KoMMeHTapHB k 'Bhio'", b kh.: H. B. Torojib, IIoAnoe coSpanue coiuHeHuu, T. 2, HbflaTeJifaCTBO AKaaeMHH HayK CCCP (MocKBa, 1937), CTp. 739: cp., 0flHaK0, saMenaHHe flpncceHa, cnirraiomero, h t o 3aecb hmchho napa.riJieJiH3M cxa3KH h noBecra Torojifl HapymaeTca: F. C. Driessen, Gogol' as a short-story writer (The Hague, 1965), p. 162; cp. TaM ace, p. 139.

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