Spacecraft power technologies 1860941176, 9781860941177

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Space Technology— Volume 1

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A.K. Hyder

University of Notre Dame R.L. Wiley

Booz, Alien & Hamilton Inc. G* Halpert

Jet Propulsion Laboratory DJ. Flood NASA Glenn Research Center S. Sabripour

Lockheed Martin CPC

Imperial College Press

Published by Imperial College Press 57 Shelton Street Covent Garden London WC2H 9HE Distributed by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. 5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224 USA office: Suite 202, 1060 Main Street, River Edge, NJ 07661 UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

First published 2000 Reprinted 2003

SPACECRAFT POWER TECHNOLOGIES Copyright © 2000 by Imperial College Press All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Publisher.

For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from the publisher.

ISBN

1-86094-117-6

Printed in Singapore by World Scientific Printers (S) Pte Ltd

PREFACE

It is always an interesting exercise, after a book is written, to justify the need for the just-completed manuscript. The situation with this text is no different. The genesis for this book began well over a decade ago when one of us (AKH) began thinking about a book on spacecraft electrical power, with a focus on electrical power systems. The immediate need for such a book was made clear when, as a principal in an emerging academically-based research institute focusing on space power, I searched for a generic reference text for use by undergraduate and graduate students entering this interdisciplinary research arena. It was apparent then that the information was available, but dispersed among a large number of industrial technical memoranda, NASA and ESA technical reports, and proceedings of conferences. Although there were texts (liberally referenced in this work) that included space power systems as a topic, there was no comprehensive text treating the subject in a global sense. The need for such a book, beyond its use in an academic setting, was evident for a number of other reasons: the uniqueness of space as an operating medium, the increasing demand for electrical power aboard newer spacecraft, the emergence of new power technologies that made higher power systems more feasible, the realization that power system design was a pacing factor in future space operations, and, as mentioned earlier, the absence of such a reference text on the subject. In the Fall of 1997, Imperial College Press presented an opportunity to further develop my thoughts on just how such a text might be organized. The first step was to seek the advice of several colleagues more knowledgeable than I in the subject of space power- colleagues who appear as coauthors of this book. In the initial attempt to outline the book, the title chosen was Spacecraft Power Systems. That title was short-lived, however. After struggling for quite some time, it finally appeared to us that, while such a text could prove to be a useful addition to the technical literature on spacecraft design, any approach based on a systems concept would necessarily exclude a full discussion of the breadth and richness of the technologies upon which those systems are built. The distinction between 'systems' and 'technologies' is not unique to spacecraft electrical power. It does, however, present an interesting challenge in the context of this particular subject of power. Spacecraft electrical power systems are designed to address specific mission needs. The mission requirements would, for example, dictate a variety of design parameters such as operating lifetime, constraints imposed by launch vehicle and orbit choices,

average and peak power levels required by the payloads, the degree of reliability and redundancy appropriate for the mission, the operating temperature limits, the total project cost, etc. And since there is an almost limitless number of missions that can be performed in space, the number of spacecraft systems that are possible can quickly grow to a very large number also. A book based on power systems would necessarily lead to redundancies or gaps in the presentation. Consider, for example, a photovoltaic system coupled to a battery reserve to serve as the power source during eclipse, the most commonly found power system in space. Even within this relatively simple system, the options for various photovoltaic cell materials, concentrator designs, and battery couples are numerous. Similarly, the description of a nuclear reactor power system would include a full discussion of a specific conversion process but could overlook the fact that the source of heat could equally well be a chemical or solar source, or that the conversion process could be one of several other static or dynamic conversion options. We were thus drawn to the present organization of the book, with, as the title reflects, an emphasis on the technologies enabling the power systems rather than systems themselves. While we recognize that this, too, falls short of optimum in that it does not allow a full discussion of the integration of the various technologies into operating systems, it does provide a comprehensive basis on which that integration can proceed. Under the premise that the three energy sources possible for space application are solar, chemical, and nuclear, the book attempts to explore each from several aspects. The two larger chapters are devoted to solar conversion and chemical storage/conversion, appropriately since those, by far, constitute the most mature space electrical power systems. Accomplishments in the Russian and U.S. nuclear power programs are presented in a series of chapters devoted to nuclear reactors and radioisotopes as heat sources interfaced to either static or dynamic conversion methods. A detailed discussion is also offered on the techniques and technologies of power management and distribution aboard spacecraft. Finally, two other chapters discuss topics which, while not directly related to power technologies, are critical in the design of spacecraft electrical power systems: the space environment within which the spacecraft operates and the thermal environment within the spacecraft. We do hope that, in spite of all of its shortcomings, the present effort may prove to be of some value to those designers, engineers, scientists, and students for whom space is not just a place, but a profession. A. K. Hyder Notre Dame, Indiana U.S.A

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people, other than the authors, contributed significantly to the preparation of this book. It is our pleasure to acknowledge their efforts. There are a number of space power experts whose kindness and willingness to contribute to the work we gratefully acknowledge: Ned Rasor (consultant), James Dudenhoefer and Richard Shaltens (NAS A Lewis Research Center), Mark Morgan (Edtek, Inc.), Subbarao Surampudi (Jet Propulsion Laboratory), Joseph Sholtis (consultant), Robert Sievers and Thomas Hunt (Advanced Modular Power Systems, Inc.), and Richard Hemler and C. Edward Kelly (Lockheed Martin). Once the words are finally on paper, the real work begins! There are a number of people who assisted in the editing of the text and without whose contributions this effort would not have been completed. First and foremost, our thanks to Nancy Hanson, the principal editor to whom we went with a thousand questions and who responded a thousand times with patience and guidance. Thank you, Nancy, for all that you did to make this a reality. Our thanks go also to Andy Deliyannides who was responsible for the conversion of the text into Adobe™ Pagemaker ™ format, and for the countless hours he spent in formatting the manuscript. Again, Andy, thank you. We also acknowledge the many contributions of Jaime Raba in the final stages of the manuscript preparation, especially in the generation of the book's index. Our thanks to John Navas, commissioning editor for Imperial College Press, for the opportunity to bring this book to press and for his patience and support during its preparation, and to Caroline Ching and K. N. Hong of World Scientific Publishing for all of their assistance . And, finally, we thank our families for their support during what may have seemed for them an eternity.

Contents

Preface .......................................................................................

xi

Acknowledgements ....................................................................

xiii

1. Introduction .........................................................................

1

1.1

The Beginnings .................................................................... 1.1.1

1

The Increasing Demand for Spacecraft Electrical Power .......................................................................

3

The Architecture of a Spacecraft .............................

5

The Electrical Power System ...............................................

7

1.2.1

An Overview of Electrical Power Systems ...............

7

1.2.2

Electrical Power System Designs ............................

10

1.2.3

Examples of Missions and Their Electrical Power Systems ...................................................................

12

1.2.4

Spacecraft Electrical Power Technologies ...............

17

1.2.5

An Overview of the Book .........................................

18

References ..........................................................................

20

2. Environmental Factors .......................................................

23

1.1.2 1.2

1.3

2.1

Introduction ..........................................................................

23

2.2

Orbital Considerations .........................................................

25

2.2.1

Orbital Elements ......................................................

27

2.2.2

Eclipse Times ...........................................................

29

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v

vi

Contents 2.3

The Near-earth Space Environment ....................................

33

2.3.1

The Neutral Environment .........................................

33

2.3.2

The Plasma Environment .........................................

41

2.3.3

The Radiation Environment .....................................

46

2.3.4

The Particulate Environment ....................................

62

References ..........................................................................

66

3. Solar Energy Conversion ...................................................

71

2.4

3.1

Introduction ..........................................................................

71

3.1.1

Space Photovoltaic Power Systems ........................

72

3.1.2

Space Power System Applications and Requirements ..........................................................

73

Space Solar Cell and Array Technology Drivers ......

74

Solar Cell Fundamentals .....................................................

75

3.2.1

Introduction ..............................................................

75

3.2.2

Basic Theory ............................................................

77

Space Solar Cell Calibration and Performance Measurements .....................................................................

80

3.3.1

Calibration Techniques ............................................

81

3.3.2

Laboratory Measurement Techniques .....................

84

Silicon Space Solar Cells ....................................................

88

3.4.1

Advanced Silicon Solar Cells ...................................

89

3.4.2

Radiation Damage in Silicon Solar Cells .................

90

III-V Compound Semiconductor Solar Cells ........................

95

3.5.1

Single Junction Cells ...............................................

96

3.5.2

Multiple Junction Cells ............................................. 108

3.1.3 3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6

Thin Film Solar Cells ........................................................... 117

3.7

Space Solar Cell Arrays ...................................................... 119 3.7.1

Space Solar Array Evolution .................................... 120

3.7.2

Rigid Panel Planar Solar Arrays .............................. 120

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Contents

3.8

3.9

vii

3.7.3

Flexible, Flat Panel Arrays ....................................... 122

3.7.4

Concentrator Arrays ................................................. 126

3.7.5

Array Environmental Interactions ............................. 129

3.7.6

Power System Design and Array Sizing .................. 136

Space Thermophotovoltaic Power Systems ........................ 140 3.8.1

TPV System Efficiency ............................................. 141

3.8.2

Solar Thermophotovoltaic Space Power Systems ... 144

Conclusion ........................................................................... 147

3.10 References .......................................................................... 149

4. Chemical Storage and Generation Systems ..................... 157 4.1

Introduction .......................................................................... 157

4.2

Inventions ............................................................................ 158

4.3

Evolution of Batteries in Space ............................................ 159

4.4

Fundamentals of Electrochemistry ...................................... 163

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.4.1

Standard Electrode Potential and Free Energy ....... 164

4.4.2

The Nernst Equation ................................................ 165

4.4.3

Capacity and the Faraday Relationship ................... 166

Cell and Battery Mechanical Design .................................... 166 4.5.1

Cell Design .............................................................. 166

4.5.2

Battery Design ......................................................... 170

Performance Metrics ........................................................... 171 4.6.1

Voltage ..................................................................... 172

4.6.2

Capacity and Energy ............................................... 174

4.6.3

Specific Energy and Energy Density ........................ 175

4.6.4

Life and Performance Limitations ............................ 176

4.6.5

Charge Control ........................................................ 180

4.6.6

Efficiency and Thermal Properties ........................... 181

Electrochemical Cell Types ................................................. 185 4.7.1

Primary Cells ........................................................... 185

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viii

Contents 4.7.2 4.8

4.9

Rechargeable Cells and Batteries ........................... 203

Fuel Cell Systems ................................................................ 223 4.8.1

History ...................................................................... 224

4.8.2

Fuel Cell System Basics .......................................... 226

4.8.3

Alkaline Fuel Cells ................................................... 229

4.8.4

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells .................. 230

4.8.5

Regenerative Fuel Cells .......................................... 231

4.8.6

Direct Methanol Liquid-feed Fuel Cell/PEM ............. 232

Definitions and Terminology ................................................ 235

4.10 References .......................................................................... 239

5. Nuclear Systems ................................................................. 241 5.1

Introduction .......................................................................... 241

5.2

History of the U.S. Space Nuclear Program ........................ 242 5.2.1

Radioisotope Space Power Development ............... 244

5.2.2

Space Reactor Power Development ........................ 250

5.2.3

The Future ............................................................... 253

5.3

History of the Russian Space Nuclear Program .................. 255

5.4

Radioisotope Systems ......................................................... 258

5.5

Reactors .............................................................................. 264

5.6

Safety .................................................................................. 273

5.7

5.6.1

U.S. Safety ............................................................... 274

5.6.2

Russian Space Nuclear Safety Experience ............. 280

5.6.3

International Developments in Space Nuclear Safety ....................................................................... 282

References .......................................................................... 282

6. Static Energy Conversion .................................................. 287 6.1

Introduction .......................................................................... 287

6.2

Thermoelectrics ................................................................... 288

6.3

Thermionics ......................................................................... 294 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

Contents

ix

6.4

AMTEC ................................................................................ 307

6.5

Thermophotovoltaics ........................................................... 311

6.6

References .......................................................................... 318

7. Dynamic Energy Conversion ............................................. 323 7.1

Introduction .......................................................................... 323

7.2

Stirling Cycle ........................................................................ 324

7.3

Closed Brayton Cycle .......................................................... 332

7.4

Rankine Cycle ..................................................................... 340

7.5

References .......................................................................... 349

8. Power Management and Distribution ................................ 353 8.1

8.2

8.3

8.4

8.5

Introduction .......................................................................... 353 8.1.1

The Ideal Power System .......................................... 353

8.1.2

Power Subsystem Overview .................................... 357

8.1.3

Electrical Power System Options ............................. 361

Functions of PMAD .............................................................. 363 8.2.1

Power Management and Control ............................. 363

8.2.2

Power Distribution .................................................... 372

8.2.3

Fault Management and Telemetry ........................... 374

8.2.4

Point-of-load DC-DC Converters ............................. 375

Components and Packaging ............................................... 397 8.3.1

High-reliability Space-grade Parts ........................... 398

8.3.2

Packaging Technologies .......................................... 404

System Examples ................................................................ 404 8.4.1

The Lockheed Martin A2100 .................................... 405

8.4.2

Global Positioning System Block IIR ........................ 407

8.4.3

The International Space Station .............................. 407

8.4.4

The Modular Power System ..................................... 409

References .......................................................................... 412 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

x

Contents

9. Thermal Management ......................................................... 415 9.1

9.2

9.3

Introduction .......................................................................... 415 9.1.1

Definition and Purpose of a TCS ............................. 416

9.1.2

Characterization and Design of the Thermal Control Process ....................................................... 417

The Thermal Environment ................................................... 421 9.2.1

Solar Radiation ........................................................ 422

9.2.2

Planetary Radiation ................................................. 424

9.2.3

Spacecraft-generated Heat ...................................... 426

Heat Transfer Mechanisms ................................................. 429 9.3.1

Heat Transfer by Conduction ................................... 429

9.3.2

Heat Transfer by Radiation ...................................... 430

9.3.3

Absorptivity and Emissivity ...................................... 432

9.4

The Basics of Thermal Analysis .......................................... 435

9.5

Thermal Management Techniques ...................................... 437

9.6

9.5.1

Passive Thermal Management ................................ 438

9.5.2

Active Thermal Management ................................... 445

References .......................................................................... 449

Appendix: Magnetic Materials in Power Management .......... 453 Index .......................................................................................... 467

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1. The beginnings The first artificial satellite, the 184-pound Sputnik I (Figure 1.1), was launched on October 4, 1957, and carried a silver-zinc primary battery as its only power source. The battery provided one watt to power the two transmitters which ceased broadcasting three weeks later. The satellite reentered the atmosphere in January, 1958, but not before marking the dawn of the space age (Walls, 1995). The primary battery (i.e., not a rechargeable one) effectively defined the useful life of the spacecraft since the spacecraft itself did not re-enter the Earth's atmosphere until some weeks after the batteries were spent. This initial satellite was followed soon thereafter by the launch of Vanguard I, the first satellite to carry solar cells coupled to secondary (i.e., rechargeable) batteries. The batteries were included to provide electrical power during periods of eclipse. Since then, the sophistication of artificial satellites and the attendant demands for electrical power to make them functional have increased by many orders of magnitude. What was once a scientific curiosity has become an indispensable tool of modern communications, meteorology, observation, navigation, geodesy, national defense, and entertainment, as well as scientific discovery.

Figure 1.1 Sputnik I, the Earth's First Artificial Satellite

Satellites Launched

Since those early days, the frequency of satellite launches has made the event commonplace. Figure 1.2 shows this growth in the number of spacecraft launched worldwide over the past 40 years (Curtis, 1994; Thompson, 1994). This growth has occurred not only in the number of satellites launched, but in their size also. While the first Sputnik was only a few kilograms, the size of present-day satellites can be judged by the capabilities of several current launch vehicles shown in Table 1.1.

Year of Launch Figure 1.2 The Satellite Launch Rate, Worldwide, Since 1957

Table 1.1 Representative Capabilities of Current Launch Vehicles Launch Vehicle Delta II-7925 Titan IV Ariane 5 Proton K Shuttle

Payload to LEO (kg) 5,000 17,700 20,100 24,400

Payload to GEO(kg) GTO (kg) 1,800 4,450 6,800 2,100 4,615 5,900

Although enormous payloads can be placed in orbit with relative ease using these and other modern launch systems, the cost of launch still remains very high (typically several thousands of dollars (U.S.) per kilogram into low Earth orbit). This cost places a premium on minimum mass and high system reliability, especially for the bus systems

Power (Watts)

Space Station Shuttle Skylab Milstar Apollo Landsat-1 ATS-I

S-putnik Year Figure 1.3 The Growth in Requirements for Spacecraft Electrical Power

because their design assumes certain elements that simply are not available in space. These have been identified, with some humor, as Earth, air, fire, and water. The Earth provides a convenient grounding mechanism (grounding to the space plasma is problematic), air offers efficient convective cooling (radiative cooling from the spacecraft is the only realistic option), fire is an inexpensive heat source for conversion to electricity (not a space option), and water is used universally in thermal management (the control of waste heat, especially in conjunction with power generation, is a serious design constraint). On a less whimsical basis, Walls (1995) points to several differences between space-based and Earth-based power systems that seriously limit technology interchange. These differences are contrasted in Table 1.2. It is not surprising, therefore, that early-on aircraft engineering practices were adapted for spacecraft. But even that was insufficient to accommodate the more stringent constraints imposed on operations in the space environment. While mass, reliability, and cost are considerations in aircraft power systems, those systems have the advantages of very large prime power sources, the aircraft engines that develop many times more power than any electrical power that might be drawn as an incidental load. Further, flight times are measured in hours rather than years. No constraint is more demanding on space operations, however, than reliability. Table 1.2 Comparison of Terrestrial and Space-Based Power Systems Attribute

Terrestrial System

Space-Based System

Scale

Tens to hundreds of megawatts

One to ten kilowatts, typically

Sources

Many options: hydro, coal, nuclear, large rotating machines, etc. or chemical

Few options with premium on mass: solar, nuclear,

Transmission

High voltage operations, AC is standard, switching and voltage conversion are simplified

High voltage not compatible with space plasmas, DC is standard, DC-DC inverters are needed

Costs

Addressed through scale

Includes cost of delivery to orbit, premium paid for high reliability and mass and volume reduction

Energy management

Providers adjust to customers' need

Operations

Large, interconnected grids to provide redundancy

Energy budget is fixed by the power system and all power management is load management Autonomous operation, no interconnectedness for redundancy

While reliability is taken seriously in the design of terrestrial and airborne power systems, the appearance of a problem in either of these applications can be addressed with relative ease. In the case of space-based systems, maintainability is a prohibitively expensive option, if it is available at all. It takes only ten minutes to get into space, but at $50 million a minute, everything must be totally reliable (Kinesix, 1998). Reliability must be engineered from the beginning since failure in a non-redundant electrical power system can mean the end of the mission.

1.2 The architecture of a spacecraft The complexity and cost of building and launching satellites have also increased during this same period. In this evolution, spacecraft operators have worked with innovation and great engineering skill to improve the lifetime, efficiency, reliability, and compactness of each of the subsystems aboard the spacecraft. What began as a simple design centered on a power source and a transmitter has become a complicated interrelationship among a number of subsystems, each requiring electrical power. The general architecture of a spacecraft is shown in Figure 1.4. The satellite can be viewed as being comprised of two major parts: the mission payloads and the support subsystems. The payloads, specific to each satellite, are the reasons for the mission and to a large extent will define the overall satellite design. As Stark et al (1995) point out, however, the

Spacecraft

Support Systems

Mission Payloads Science

Propulsion

Communications Surveillance Structures

Weather

Attitude Determination & Control

Navigation Geodesy Industrialization

Communications

Environment Thermal Management

Command & Data Handling

Electrical Power

Figure 1.4 Spacecraft Systems

final design goes beyond the nature of the payloads and is often a reflection of the design philosophy of the contractor or the nation responsible for the satellite. Support systems, sometimes referred to as bus systems, are generic and tend to be the same, functionally, from satellite-to-satellite. In an effort to reduce costs, much effort has been devoted in recent years to the modular design of these bus systems. Virtually every system onboard a satellite, payload or bus, will require electrical power, usually at differing peak and average power levels, voltages, and duty cycles. To illustrate the complexity of this load, consider the attitude control system (ACS) which is designed to maintain the satellite pointing in the proper direction. It was the failure of the ACS on Galaxy IV in May, 1998, which caused the loss of that communications satellite carrying 90% of the electronic-pager traffic in the United States. Figure 1.5, adapted from Barter (1992), shows the many parts of a modular attitude-control system (ACS), and it is clear that each component will require electrical power. Several of the ACS subsystems such as the accelerometers, sensors, and computers for data manipulation require low voltages and currents, while the drives and electromagnetic actuators for solar arrays require high peak powers. This situation is repeated in each of the mission and bus systems shown in Figure 1.4. In the overall satellite design, a power budget for each of these systems is an important part of the process of sizing the power system. A more complete discussion of the architecture of spacecraft and the functions and power requirements of the bus systems can be found in several recent books in the

Propulsion Earth sensors

Array drives

Electronics Modules

Star trackers

Accelerometers Sensor interface

Control processor

Magnetic torquers Data transfer

Actuator drives Momentum wheels

Sun sensors Command and Telemetp

Gimbal

Gyros

Conirom gyros

Magnetometers

Figure 1.5 A Modular Attitude-Control System

field, among them Fortescue and Stark (1995), Griffin and French (1991), Larson and Wertz (1992), Pisacane and Moore (1994), and DeWitt, Duston, and Hyder (1993).

2. The electrical power system 2.1 An overview of electrical power systems The enabling system aboard any satellite is the electrical power system (EPS). In its simplest form, a satellite electrical power system consists of four major components as shown in Figure 1.6. The prime power source will provide energy for conversion into electricity. As an intermediate step, in certain cases (e.g., thermophotovoltaic), all or part of that prime energy may be stored before conversion takes place. Conversion into electricity then occurs through a variety of methods, depending on the nature of the prime source and the spacecraft electrical loads. The electricity that is generated will need to be managed, regulated, monitored, and conditioned to match the electrical needs of the spacecraft systems. The conversion of one form of energy into another involves technologies that are both old and new. Table 1.3 lists several forms of energy that can be considered as potential input energy for conversion to another form, electricity in the case of spacecraft power. While the technologies listed do not form an exhaustive list of options, their great number reflects the richness of possibilities. For example, nuclear sources, primarily viewed as sources of heat, are not included but are certainly important sources of energy for space operations. Entries on the diagonal of Table 1.3 may be viewed as storage options rather than conversion mechanisms. The choices available as prime power sources in space are limited to three: nuclear, chemical, or solar. As shown in Figure 1.7, the duration of the mission is a key factor in the selection of the prime power source. For short-duration missions, or to supply the

Prime Power Source

Power Conversion

Power Management and Distribution

Energy Storage

Figure 1.6 Elements of the Electrical Power System

Use by the Spacecraft Systems

Table 1.3 Energy Conversion and Storage Options

^

Output Energy

Input Energy Electricity

Electricity

Heat

Chemical

Photons

Kinetic

Batteries Fuel cells

Ohmic heaters Heat pumps

Electrolysis Ionization and recombination

LEDs

Flywheels JxB thrusters Motors

****-•

Superconducting magnets Inductors

Discharges Light bulbs Lasers & transistors Microwaves

Heat

Thermoelectrics

Phase-change materials

Thermochemical

Thermionics

Chemical reactions

electrolysis

Generators

High Cp materials

Radiators

All thermodynamic cycles

Chemical lasers

Rocket exhaust

Fuel cells Chemical

Fuel cells

Combustors

Propellants

Gas turbines

Explosives

Capacitors Batteries Photons Kinetic

Photovoltaic cells MHD Generators Homopolar devices Compulsators

Resonant cavities

Thermal absorbers

Photolysis electrolysis

Friction

Impact ionization Triboluminescence

Thermal concentrators

Radiometers

Metastable atoms Flywheels

Nuclei r Reactor Dynamic

Solar Array

Fuel Cells Power (Watts)

Chemical Dypamic

Nuclear Reactor St itic

RTG

Primary Batteries

minutes

hours

days

months

years

decades

Mission Duration Figure 1.7 Options For Various Mission Power Needs and Durations

power for activities that will be completed relatively quickly within the framework of a longer mission, chemical systems such as primary batteries, fuel cells, or chemical dynamic conversion, may be the appropriate choice, depending on the total power required. Often, primary batteries are used in meeting the high power and high energy demands of the launch vehicle itself as well as in the activation of pyrotechnic devices related to explosive stage separation. For longer duration missions, the choices are restricted to solar arrays in conjunction with secondary batteries or regenerative fuel cells, or to nuclear systems, either reactors or radioisotope thermoelectric generators. Other operational issues may certainly influence the choice of prime power sources. For example, the survivability of solar arrays in certain orbits could exclude their choice in spite of their ability to provide the necessary power within limitations of mass, cost, etc. The restricted maneuverability of large solar arrays, an unacceptable level of the infrared signature of nuclear systems, or compatibility with mission-related sensors can also eliminate certain prime power options which otherwise would have been logical choices. In some applications, the demand can be for a very large peak power, but for a short enough duration that the total energy can be surprisingly small. In other cases, such as housekeeping power requirements aboard an operational satellite, the average power requirements can again be modest but the extended time over which the power is needed can create the need for large amounts of total energy. As an example, a military mission that requires 100 MW for ten minutes will demand about the same total energy as ten kW missions that must remain on orbit for 10

years. In this example, while solar cells can be sized to provide 100 MW, since the duration is so short, an expendable fuel option makes more sense from a total mass argument. A space-based radar which requires one MW of power in a one ms burst needs only 103J per pulse, an application that could be met with the use of capacitors and a few kW baseload power system. Figure 1.7, therefore, presents options based on total energy that is required for the mission as well as the rate at which that energy can be delivered.

2.2 Electrical power system designs The electrical power system (EPS) is designed and configured to perform several key functions: it must be a continuous and reliable source of peak and average electrical power for the life of the mission; it must control, distribute, regulate, and condition the power provided to the various loads; it must be capable of providing data regarding the health and status of its operation; and it must protect itself and its loads from electrical faults anywhere within the spacecraft (McDermott, 1992). Many factors contribute to the final design and the choice of technologies that must be integrated. This process (shown schematically in Figure 1.8) starts with the mission and its requirements. The mission payloads will define the peak and average power needed, together with the lifetime of the satellite, the orbit, and the overall configuration of the spacecraft. Each of these constraints will carry implications for the design of the EPS, such as the end-oflife power needs, the degree of redundancy needed for an acceptable level of reliability, the environmental factors against which the system must be protected, and options for the thermal management (TM) system.

Spacecraft mission

Peak power requirements

Average power requiremenis

Lifetime of the satellite

End of life parameters

Degree of redundancy

Orbit

Configuration

Size and depth of discharge in (solar/battery)

Figure 1.8 The EPS Selection Process

Environmental factors

Mass, volume

Thermal management options

The selection process will focus not only on the prime power source but each of the other subsystems in the EPS (Figure 1.9) as well. In many cases, the prime power source serves only as a source of heat to be converted into electrical power. All three sources- nuclear, solar, and chemical- are capable of producing heat for conversion into electricity through either static or dynamic processes. As the name suggests, the static processes- thermoelectric, thermionic, AMTEC, and others- do the conversion without benefit of moving parts. This is often demanded by the pointing-and-tracking requirements of the payload. Dynamic conversions involve the thermodynamic-cycle processes such as Rankine, Stirling, and Brayton. The most common EPS in use is the photovoltaic array, involving solar energy and a static conversion process, the photovoltaic cell. In these cases, the energy must be stored, usually through a chemical process (mostly batteries, but sometimes regenerative fuel cells), so that the spacecraft can be powered during the eclipse periods or when load demands exceed solar array output. Regardless of the prime power source, energy storage is an option using thermal, chemical, or mechanical means. Mechanical storage mechanisms (e.g., high-rpm flywheels) are not in use but offer very large storage potential, again addressing the possible need for large peak powers simultaneous with modest average power. Following the conversion process, the unregulated electrical power is delivered to the Power Management and Distribution (PMAD) subsystem. The PMAD links the generation process to the storage elements and the spacecraft loads. Although PMAD is indicated as a subsystem interfacing with the spacecraft loads, in reality it is distributed throughout the EPS, and functional elements can be found virtually everywhere in the electrical system.

Energy Storage

Prime Power Source Chemical Solar Nuclear

Thermal Chemical Mechanical

Conversion Static Photocells, TI, TE, Chemical,... Dynamic Rankine, Stirling, Brayton,...

Power Management and Distribution Charge control Transmission Regulation Protection Conditioning Fault detection Fault isolation Load switching Load management Health reporting

Figure 1.9 Functional Breakdown of the EPS

Loads

2.3 Examples of missions and their electrical power systems To provide examples of the impact of mission requirements on EPS design, we conclude this introduction with a brief discussion of several satellites recently launched or in the late planning stages.

Spartan The Spartan (Figure 1.10a), a free-flying platform for scientific experiments, is released and recovered from the Shuttle. It uses a common service module containing the ACS, electronics, batteries, the TM system, data handling electronics, and a cold plate. In a throwback to Sputnik I, since the unit has an operational lifetime of only 40 to 50 hours, silver-zinc primary batteries supply the electrical power. The batteries have a capacity of 30 kWh and deliver power at 28 VDC. Since it will remain in a relatively benign low-Earth orbit, there are no special constraints imposed by the orbital environment.

Cassini At the other extreme, the mission of spacecraft Cassini (Figure 1.10b) is to explore the Saturnian system. It is designed to carry 12 instruments on the 2,100-kg orbiter (remaining in orbit around Saturn for four years) and six on the 350-kg probe (which will explore the moon Titan in situ). The satellite was launched in October, 1997, and is due to arrive at Saturn in June, 2004. Several requirements distinguish Cassini from other interplanetary missions: the distances to the Earth and the Sun, the extended length of the mission, the number and complexity of the scientific experiments, and the four gravity-assists enroute to Saturn. It has a design life of 13 years, much of which will be at such great distances from the Sun that solar arrays are impractical. These factors, even with relatively low power requirements (about 750 W at beginning-of-life and 628 W at end-of-mission), make a nuclear prime power system mandatory. In the case of Cassini, three radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) are employed. Lithium sulfur-dioxide (LiSO2) primary batteries provide power for the Huygens probe.

Magellan Magellan (Figure 1.11) was designed to study the geological structure of Venus. The primary pay loads included a synthetic aperture radar that imaged 98 percent of the Venetian surface with a resolution of 100 m and an S-band radio-tracking package to measure the planet's gravitational field. The satellite was lost in October, 1994. Because of

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.10 Schematic Representations of the (a) Spartan and (b) Cassini Spacecraft

the relatively short mission duration and the proximity to the Sun, power for the fouryear mission was provided by a 12.5 m2 solar array used in conjunction with two 30-Ah nickel-cadmium batteries. The system provided 1029 W of power at the end-of-life.

The International Space Station The basic element of the ISS power system is the photovoltaic power module PVPM (Baraona, 1990). It consists of five major components: (1) two solar array assemblies and associated sequential shunt units; (2) the beta gimbals; (3) the integrated equipment assembly (IEA); (4) the thermal control system and radiator; and (5) the truss structural elements that enable the PVPM to be attached to the main ISS structure. The IEA holds several different types of boxes called orbital replacement units, or ORUs. Each ORU is dedicated to a specific subsystem of the full power system. There is an ORU for the batteries, battery charge/discharge units, direct current switching units, dc-dc converters, power distribution and control units, junction boxes for fluid and electrical services, and thermal control system pump units. There are to be 4 PVPMs with a total of eight solar array wings, each of which will produce 32 kilowatts at the beginning of full ISS operation. The net power delivered to

FORWARD STAR EQUP IMENT MODULE SCANNER

PROPULSO I N MODULE ROCKET ENGN IE MODULE

HG I H-GAN I ANTENNA THERMAL CONTROL LOUVERS SOLAR PANEL DRV IE AND CABLE WRAP BUS LOW-GAN I ANTENNA

ALTM I ETER ANTENNA SOLAR PANEL Figure 1.11 The Magellan Spacecraft

the ISS will be about 75 kilowatts of the 250 kilowatts available at the arrays. The remaining power is used to charge the batteries and to account for various system inefficiencies. The array operating voltage is 160V dc, and the distribution system voltage is 120V dc. The solar array power is regulated to the primary distribution voltage by the sequential shunt units in the PVPM and transmitted through the beta gimbals by roll rings to dc switching units. The power management and distribution (PMAD) system is designed so that any combination of two power system failures will not cause a loss of all electrical power to the ISS. This is accomplished by the use of redundant switching and controlling units and multiple independent cables to each critical user, such as the pressurized modules and the experimental pallets on the station trusses. Power management and distribution control will be through the use of semiautonomous local controllers linked to a central controller. The control system is designed to monitor and detect faults, isolate malfunctioning circuits, and reconfigure and recover system performance. The same semiautonomous controllers will schedule power use to a certain extent to help prevent overloads and to assure full battery charge at the start of each eclipse period. The batteries are 81 amp-hr nickel-hydrogen cells arranged to provide 120V dc output over a 35% depth of discharge. Power system thermal control is accomplished via a pumped loop cooling system which regulates the temperature of the batteries and other critical electrical control system hardware. A radiator assembly completes the system. Battery design life is five years, and array design life is 15 years.

FGB Tug

Russian Power Modules

Serves Modue l Solar Amy -

Russian Reeaeich Modue ls (2 total}

ZITiuee

Canadian Ramota Manipulator System ESA CoJumbus Orbital FacMy Centrfu08 Module U.S. Laboratory Modue l U.S. Habitation Moduto l Jftpmass ExpertrwnUI Modi* (JEM) Pressurteed Modue

Radiator Direction of travel

Direction to Earth's surface

Figure 1.12 The International Space Station

Galileo Galileo (Figure 1.13) was designed to study Jupiter's atmosphere, moons, and surrounding magnetosphere. The spacecraft also deployed a probe into Jupiter's atmosphere in December, 1995. In spite of a failure in the spacecraft's high-gain antenna, most of the scientific objectives were accomplished. Its eight-year design life and it distance from the Sun favored the choice Of238Pu RTGs as the power source. Two were used, and each provided 570 W at the beginning-of-life decreasing to 485 W at the end-of-life. Had solar arrays been used for the power source, over 150 m2 of solar panels would have been needed. Eighteen-Ahr primary lithium-sulfur batteries powered the probe, which was released into the planet's atmosphere. Galileo was deployed in October, 1989, and entered orbit around Jupiter in July, 1995. The long shelf life of the primary batteries was a factor in their selection.

Pa l sma-Wave Antenna High-Gain Antenna {Communications and Radio Science)

Low-Gan i Antenna

Sun Shields-

Magnetometer Sensors

Star Scanner

Energetic Particles Detector Pa l sma Science Dust Detector Retropropulsion Modue l Above: SDun Section Below: Despun Section

Thrusters LovJnGan i Antenna Probe Relay Antenna RaatotsoTope Thermoelectric Generators

Jupiter Atmosphere Probe

Scan Platform, Containing: Photopolarimeter Rado i meter Near-Infrared Mappn i g Spectrometer Solid-State Imaging Camera Ultraviolet Spectrometer

Figure 1.13 The Galileo Spacecraft

TOPEXJPoseidon The TOPEX/Poseidon mission, launched in August, 1992, is a remote-sensing scientific program undertaken jointly by the Centre National d'Estudes Spatiales (CNES) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The TOPEX (Ocean Topography Experiment) satellite monitors the Earth's oceans from an altitude of about 1300 km to better understand the ocean climate, weather, and surface features, as well as to enhance coastal storm warnings and safety at sea. TOPEX is one of a series of satellites to use the multimission modular spacecraft bus (MMS) to support the essential subsystems such as attitude control, power, command and data handling, and propulsion. The payloads for TOPEX include radar altimeters, a Doppler-tracking receiver, a microwave radiometer, and a laser retro-reflector array. During its first three years in orbit, the spacecraft has measured sea heights to within 4 cm. Figure 1.14 shows the fully deployed TOPEX/Poseidon satellite. The spacecraft electrical system is powered by a solar array, providing about 3400 W at the beginningof-life and designed for maximum energy transfer using a non-dissipative, unregulated main power bus. The modest power requirement and the relatively benign LEO orbit naturally lead to a photovoltaic power option. The MMS and its Modular Power Subsystem (MPS) was also used on the Solar Max Mission, Landsat 4 and 5, the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS), and the Gamma-Ray Observatory, among others. (See Chapter 8 for an extended discussion of the TOPEX power system.)

Global Positioning System Antenna High Gain Antenna Satellite Bus Attitude Control Module Solar Array Propulsior Module Power Module Doris Antenns Laser Retroreflector Assembly

Microwave Radiometer Instrument Module Altimeter Antenna

Figure 1.14 The Fully-Deployed TOPEX Satellite

Envisat The Envisat system, scheduled to deploy in late 1999, is in some ways similar to the TOPEX/Poseidon program. The purpose is to observe the Earth's oceans and ice fields and their interactions with the atmosphere and specific aspects of atmospheric chemistry. The spacecraft will operate in a sun-synchronous orbit (see Chapter 2) at an altitude of about 800 km. The complex mission payloads include radars, laser reflectors, spectrometers, radiometers, altimeters, interferometers, and occultation optics. The low-Earth orbit, four-year lifetime, and large electrical power budget led to a design using a 6.5 kW (end-of-life) solar array with eight 40Ahr NiCd batteries. The power will be distributed on a voltage bus at 23 to 37 volts. Much of the EPS design is driven by the demands of the synthetic aperture radar which will draw a peak power of 1.2 kW and an average power of 750 W.

2.4 Spacecraft electrical power technologies The improvements that have taken place in the technologies which enable spacecraft power systems have been achieved in spite of two serious constraints on power system development. The first is the issue of ownership of power technology development. Often the payload mission office is reluctant to endorse a spacecraft design that demands more power than is readily available from the existing technology. This is under-

standable since to do otherwise would impose a development burden on the mission that might be considered tangential to the primary purpose of the flight. This recurring theme limits the resources to promote dramatic technological breakthroughs in power system design. As a result, the improvements in spacecraft electrical power systems that have come about over the past three decades are more properly characterized as evolutionary rather than revolutionary. The second constraint, as we have seen, is related to the limited options available for generating electrical power in space. In the case of chemical or nuclear systems, the source of the power must be transported into orbit at great expense in cost and mass. In the case of solar-battery systems, the total power available is limited by both nature (the solar constant at one A.U. is 1.4 kW/m2) and technology (still relatively low conversion efficiencies). There have been improvements, however, and they will continue. Table 1.4 offers a comparison of the state-ofthe-art in several key technology areas from the mid-1980s to the end of this decade. Progress will continue and with it expanded options for powering satellites and their pay loads.

2,5 An overview of the book This book attempts to present, in a systematic way, a discussion of the evolving technologies that make today's spacecraft power systems the reliable energy systems they have proven to be. The focus is intentionally on the technologies rather than systems because of the large number of candidate systems that can be designed by mixing-andmatching the subsystems as shown in Figure 1.9. The solar array-battery system is the most common and will be emphasized throughout the book. Unfortunately, a full discussion of all possible system configurations is not feasible. To demonstrate this point, consider the system shown in Figure 1.15, a solar-thermal dynamic Brayton-cycle conversion system. Here, solar energy is concentrated and collected into a storage element and is then used to heat a gas in a closed-Brayton-cycle turbine connected to an alternator. This represents one of many combinations that can be considered as candidate systems for large power level electrical systems in space. Hopefully, with the discussions of the underlying technologies presented in this book, the reader will be better prepared to address spacecraft electrical power issues at the systems level. The book begins with a discussion of the near-Earth environment (Chapter 2) and the limitations that operations in that arena will impose on the EPS. Solar energy is the most common method of generating electricity on satellites, and Chapter 3 presents the theory and practical implications of that form of prime power. Coupled closely with solar power is the use of batteries, and Chapter 4 discusses, from basic chemistry to space-qualified components, the array of chemical storage technologies including both batteries and fuel cells. Although nuclear power, other than RTGs, has been scarcely used in space, it already has a rich heritage, and the evolution of that technology is

Table 1.4 The Evolution of Selected Power Technologies System or Component

Solar-Battery Systems

Solar Cells and Arrays

Parameter

Circa 1985

Estimated 2000

Power Output Specific Power Solar Array-Battery Costs

5kW lOW/kg $3000AV

100 kW 50W/kg SlOOOAV

Cell Power Output Cell Efficiency (in space) Array Specific Power Array Design Life (LEO/GEO) Array Specific Cost

5kW 14% 35W/kg 5yr/7yr $1500/W

100 kW 25% 150W/kg 10yr/15yr $500/W

Energy Density Design Life Energy Density Design Life

150W-hr/kg 2yr 200W-hr/kg 3yr

700 W-hr/kg 5yr

Energy Density Energy Density Design Life Energy Density Energy Density Design Life

lOW-hr/kg 15W-hr/kg 5yr/10yr 25 W-hr/kg 30W-hr/kg 2yr/3yr

Power Load Specific Power Specific Cost Design Life

7kW lOOW/kg $40AV -2000 hrs

5OkW 150W/kg $25/W 4000 hrs

Power Level Specific Power Efficiency Power Level Specific Power Efficiency

1OkW lOW/kg 10% 2kW 6W/kg 8%

1OkW lOW/kg 10% 2kW lOW/kg 12%

Power Voltage Frequency Cost -on-Orbit Radiator Specific Mass

12 kW 28 V DC ~$1000/kW-hr 20kg/kW

25kW 50V DC/AC

Batteries Primary AgZn LiSOCl2 Secondary NiCd(LEO) NiCd(GEO) NiCd (LEO/GEO) NiH2(LEO) NiH2 (GEO) NiH2 (LEO/GEO) Primary Fuel Cells

Nuclear Power Reactors

RTG

Typical Overall System Parameters

compressor

heat receiver turbine

alternator

heat in and storage

radiator heat out recuperator

Figure 1.15 A Solar-Thermal Dynamic System

presented in Chapter 5. Chapters 6 and 7 discuss a number of static and dynamic conversion processes that have been used or are being proposed for use in space. While these conversion technologies are presented within the context of a nuclear-powered heat source, any heat source, including solar energy, can be applied. The PMAD subsystem is the subject of Chapter 8, which also presents descriptions of components and techniques for achieving the various PMAD functions and examples of several PMAD configurations. The generation and use of electrical energy on satellites present a difficult design problem in thermal management (TM) and the interactions between power production and thermal management is discussed in the final chapter. Also presented in Chapter 9 are the theory and practical engineering aspects of maintaining the proper thermal environment onboard satellites.

3, References Agrawal, B. N., Design of Geosynchronous Spacecraft, (Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1986), 1-53. Baraona, C. R., Photovoltaic Power for Space Station Freedom, Proceedings of the 21 st Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, New York, (1990), 28-30. Barter, N. J. (ed.), TRW Space Data Book, (The TRW Company, Redondo Beach, California, 1992). Curtis, A. R. (ed.), Space Satellite Handbook (Third Edition), (Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Texas, 1994), 190-331.

DeWitt, R. N., Duston, D., and Hyder, A. K. (eds.), The Behavior of Systems in the Space Environment, (Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 1993). Fortescue, R and Stark, J., Spacecraft Systems Engineering, (Wiley and Sons, Chichester, 1995). Griffin, Michael D. and French, James R., Space Vehicle Design, (AIAA Education Series, Prezemieniecki, J. R., ed., 1991). Kinesix Corporation, Houston, Texas, (personal communication, 1998). Larson, W. J. and Wertz, J. R. (eds.), Space Mission Analysis and Design, (Microcosm, Inc., Torrance, California, and Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 1992). McDermott, J. K., Power, in Space Mission Analysis and Design (Second Edition), Larson, W. J. and Wertz, J. R. (eds.), (Microcosm, Inc., Torrance, California, and Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 1992), 391-409. Pisacane, V. L. and Moore, R. C , (eds.), Fundamentals of Space Systems, (Oxford University Press, New York, 1994). Reeves, E., Spacecraft Design and Sizing, in Space Mission Analysis and Design (Second Edition), Larson, W. J. and Wertz, J. R. (eds.), (Microcosm, Inc., Torrance, California, and Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 1992), 285-337. Stark, J. P. W., Fortescue, P. W., and Tatnall, A. R. L., Introduction, in Spacecraft Systems Engineering (Second Edition), Fortescue, P. and Stark, J. (eds.), (Wiley and Sons, Chichester, 1995), 2-9. Thompson, T., D. (ed.), Space Log 1994, (TRW, Redondo Beach, California, 1994). Walls, B., Utility Aspects of Space Power: Load Management versus Source Management (NASA Technical Memorandum 108496, 1995).

CHAPTER 2 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

1. Introduction The near-Earth space environment is complex and dynamic and its interaction with spacecraft has provided satellite designers with challenging design problems from the beginning of the space age. In his study of environmentally-induced spacecraft anomalies, Vampola (1994) points out that, because of our inability to simulate the full range of space environmental conditions, spacecraft designed and tested on the ground cannot be expected to operate in the same manner when placed in orbit. Even in a dormant mode, a spacecraft in orbit will experience degradation from its environment. Virtually all elements of the environment will affect the design and operation of spacecraft power systems. In this discussion, the environmental factors will be divided into four groups: the neutral environment, radiation, plasma, and micrometeoroids. These categories are somewhat arbitrary but are chosen to reflect the primary effects influencing power system design that can be expected at various orbital altitudes. For example, as Tribble (1995) suggests, at altitudes of 300 km or less, the interactions with the neutral environment will dominate. As the altitude increases to geosynchronous orbit, the primary environmental interactions become those with the high-energy plasma and the outer radiation belts. In between is an array of environments and interactions between the spacecraft and its environment that is the subject of this chapter. Figure 2.1 depicts the structure of the space environment. As implied by the figure, not all of the effects are present at all altitudes, but neither is there a sharp delineation of the various effects with altitude. As we shall see later in this chapter, the near-Earth environment is dominated by the Sun and the interactions between the Sun's various forms of radiation and the Earth's magnetic field. The sun's influence is enormous: it radiates about 1027 watts and emits about 106 kilograms per second of protons and electrons. The solar electromagnetic radiation extends from wavelengths of 0.2 \xm to about 4 \im with varying degrees of intensity and variability, with the region of the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) potentially doing the most damage to materials. In addition, cosmic rays, very energetic particles from outside the solar system, will interact with all spacecraft at all altitudes, with the most serious effects occurring in electronics components of satellites at the higher altitudes, in polar orbits, or in the region of the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA). The micrometeoroid environment can be either natural or man-made, with the more serious interactions being the result of collisions with man-made debris.

cosmic rays solar protons

auroral particles

solar flares

micrometeoroids

Bunosphere

energetic electrons

highenergy protons

Earth

debris

EUV

SAA

AO

EUV micrometeoroids

cosmic rays

solar protons

Figure 2.1 The Near-Earth Environment (after Vampola, 1994)

The concern from man-made debris becomes less serious at altitudes above about 2000 km. Each of these environmental conditions will produce interactions with spacecraft systems, often with deleterious effects. As shown in Figure 2.2, these interactions often combine to produce synergetic effects that must be anticipated in the design. For example, chemical interactions of materials with atomic species will change the surface properties of most materials. If that surface is part of a radiator, the overall thermal balance of the spacecraft will be modified and will continue to change throughout its operational life. This, in turn, will force the thermal engineer to overdesign radiator surfaces at the beginning-of-life (BOL), thereby decreasing the operating temperatures within the satellite at BOL, and increasing the need for electrical power to provide heat to sensitive components during the early years of operation. Figure 2.3 provides a more detailed example of the types of interactions that might influence one aspect of power systems, in this case regions of high electric fields, and several of the effects that those interactions could produce. These high fields can be found on high-voltage power-system components such as ion thrusters or the plasma contactors used to ground the spacecraft to the external plasma. In this example, several elements of the environment, such as atomic oxygen, the plasma, or micrometeoroids, will affect both the bulk and surface properties dielectrics and conductors, increasing the likelihood of an electrical breakdown in the bulk dielectric, surface flashover of the insulator, or arcing at the triple junction of the dielectric-conductor-vacuum. The environment and the effects it produces on the operation of the overall spacecraft and specifically on the electrical power system are dynamic. They are functions of

chemical interactions

mechanical interactions

thermal management electrical materials

Figure 2.2 Synergetic Interactions with the Environment

many variables: the season, diurnal variations, solar activity, and the satellite orbit, to suggest just a few. In this next section, several of the orbital aspects of spacecraftenvironment interactions are presented, followed by a description of the four components of the environment itself.

2. Orbital considerations The orbit of the satellite is an important factor in determining the parameters of the electrical power system and the thermal management system. This is true principally because the type of orbit will determine the frequency and duration of eclipse periods, and these periods will place special demands on the power system, especially photovoltaic systems, In this section, we explore a few basic concepts necessary to define the

Conducting

Dielectric

High E Field (Emitters)

High E Field (Insulation)

High Permittivity (energy storage, power conditioning)

Space Environment Bulk properties

Surface properties

Vacuum insulated systems Broad area electron sources

UV, AO.radiation, temperature etc

Degradation

Change in surface characteristics Triple junction effects

Space plasma

Particles

Bulk damage

Embedded charges

Bulk dielectric breakdown

Surface charging or charge neutralization

Surface damage

Surface flashover

Physical damage enhanced emission and the creation of metal vapor plumes

Vacuum breakdown

Figure 2.3 Interactions of the Environment with High-Electric-Field Components

characteristics of several common near-Earth orbits and the impact of orbit selection on the design of the spacecraft power system.

2,1 Orbital elements Orbits are characterized by several parameters which uniquely define the satellite motion. Rather than attempt any comprehensive survey of orbital mechanics, we present a brief review of a number of the key parameters which will be useful in the discussions that follow. The motion of a spacecraft in near-Earth orbit can be defined by the use of six orbital elements that refer the spacecraft to a frame of reference fixed with respect to the stars (Fortescue and Stark, 1995). The frame of reference often used is Cartesian with the x-y plane coincident with the equatorial plane of the Earth. The x-axis direction is in the direction of the Sun at the vernal equinox (March 21). This direction is often referred to as the first point of Aries because at the time of vernal equinox several centuries ago the Sun was in the direction of the constellation Aries. The z-axis is aligned Z North celestial pole

Spacecraft motion

Sun motion Y

X

Figure 2.4 Orbital Elements (Fortescue and Stark, 1995, used with permission)

along the spin axis of the Earth in the northerly direction. Within this frame of reference, the six orbital elements can be defined. i, the inclination, is the angle between the orbital plane and the equatorial plane. Q. is the angle between the intersection of the x-axis and line defined by the intersection of the orbital and equatorial planes. CO, the argument of perigee, is the angle between the line of nodes (the x-axis) and the perigee of the orbit. Together, the first two elements define the plane of the orbit and the third defines the orientation of the orbit within the plane (Figure 2.4). To these three are added three additional elements to define the trajectory of the spacecraft. These can be the semimajor axis, a, which defines the size of the orbit, the eccentricity, e, which defines the shape of the orbit, and a sixth which defines the position of the satellite in the orbit. This last element is often the time of last passage through perigee (the point of highest altitude of the satellite), or equivalently, the true anomaly, or the mean anomaly. These six elements can be, and often are, replaced by an alternate set of elements chosen to reflect the idiosyncrasies of a particular orbit such as a very small eccentricity or an ill-defined perigee. For our purposes, the inclination and apogee/perigee will be seen to have the most impact on defining the environment. Orbits whose planes are coincident with the equatorial plane have a zero degree inclination while those in polar orbits have a 90 degree inclination. Circular orbits are those with zero eccentricity, or equivalently, whose apogee and perigee are equal. There are five easily definable orbits that are common to near-Earth space operations: LEO, the low-Earth orbits, occur at altitudes below about 1000 km. At this altitude the spacecraft is below the radiation belts but does have to contend with several atmospheric effects, especially those related to reactions with atomic oxygen and atmospheric drag. A special case of the LEO is the polar orbit (-90 degree inclination) which places the satellite in the high-radiation environment of the auroral zones around the north and south poles. MEO, the mid-Earth orbits, occur at altitudes between 1000 km and 10,000 km. This is one of the least-used regions of space, in large part because of the severe radiation environments of the Van Allen belts. The extended Earth coverage afforded by these orbits, at lower power levels than geosynchronous satellites require, has sparked renewed interest for communications satellites at these altitudes. GEO, the geosynchronous orbit, occurs at an altitude of about 36,000 km and is one of the most-populated regions of near-Earth space, principally by communications satellites. This altitude places the satellite above the intense radiation belts. In geosynchronous orbit a satellite is near the equatorial plane of the Earth and has an orbital period of 24 hours. With this period the spacecraft appears to remain fixed over a single point on the Earth.

SSO, the Sun-synchronous orbit, has the satellite orbital plane fixed with respect to the Sun. In these orbits, the satellite's inclination is greater than 90 degrees (i.e., the rotation is retrograde) and is chosen for a given altitude to insure that the plane precedes at the same rate as the Earth orbits the Sun. In an SSO, a satellite passes over a fixed point of the Earth at approximately the same time each day. Molniya, the highly eccentric orbits, have apogees of several tens of thousands of kilometers and perigees of several hundreds of kilometers, and inclinations correlated with the altitude to eliminate changes in perigee. Satellites in these orbits provide extended (-11 hours per orbit) coverage of the higher latitudes, something that GEO orbits fail to do well. The periods of these orbits will vary but are generally about 12 hours during which time they will traverse the full range of the Van Allen belts and may extend as well into the regions where atmospheric effects are important. A preferred inclination is 63 degrees, the angle at which, to first order, there is no precession of the major axis of the orbital ellipse. Each of these near-Earth orbits carry different implications for the power system design, as well as for other systems of the spacecraft. In LEO, the satellite will interact with the decreasing density of the neutral atmosphere, orbital debris, the ionospheric plasma, atomic oxygen corrosion, increased exposure to charged particles around the South Atlantic Anomaly, and solar electromagnetic radiation (ultraviolet). In MEO, the primary concern will be with solar ultraviolet radiation and the belts of trapped protons and electrons. In GEO, the environmental factors of most concern are the outer electron belts, the solar ultraviolet radiation, cosmic rays, and solar particulate radiation. These environmental effects will cause degradation of solar arrays and may induce arc discharges which can be energetic enough to adversely affect not just the power system but structural components as well. Satellites in all orbits are subject to the effects of cosmic rays and solar flares.

22 Eclipse times Eclipses present several problems for both the spacecraft power system and the thermal management system. Depending on the design, during eclipse the overall equilibrium temperature of the spacecraft will drop, perhaps significantly, and solar cells will cease to function. Upon entering eclipse, batteries will be brought on-line, heaters started, and some energy-intensive operations interrupted. The Earth's ER emission and albedo, generally small compared to the direct solar radiation (see Chapter 9), become the dominant external heat sources at eclipse. Unfortunately, it is not possible to offer a closed-form solution to the problem of calculating eclipse times for a general orbit. The reasons are detailed by Wolverton (1961) who demonstrates that the eclipse profile will depend on such variables as the time and date of launch, the orbit eccentricity, the longitude of nodes and argument of

perigee (which vary constantly due to the Earth's oblateness), the semimajor axis of the orbit (which will change with atmospheric drag), and the variations in orbital parameters introduced by lunar and solar perturbations. There are, however, several points regarding eclipse seasons, frequencies, and duration that can be made for specialized orbits. In general, LEO satellites will undergo an eclipse during each orbit with a duration somewhat less than about one-half of the period. This contrasts with spacecraft in GEO which will enter eclipse season only twice during the year, around autumnal and vernal equinox. Each geosynchronous eclipse season lasts about 46 days and the maximum duration of the eclipse in each season is about 72 minutes. At winter and summer solstice, the Earth's equatorial plane never intersects the shadow of the Earth so there can be no eclipse (Figure 2.5). As the equinox seasons approach, the shadow of the Earth intersects the geosynchronous orbits for increasingly longer duration, beginning about February 26 and again about August 31. When the inclination of the orbit is not zero, the time of the season and the length of the season will change, but the maximum duration will remain unchanged (Soop, 1994). Not all eclipse times are as easily visualized as that for the geosynchronous orbit.

Vernal Equinox

Spring Summer Solstice

Winter

45 day eclipse season

no eclipse season

no eclipse season

Summer

45 day eclipse season

Winter Solstice Fall

Autumnal Equinox

Figure 2.5 GEO Eclipse Seasons

The reader is referred to more comprehensive texts (for example, Wolverton, 1961) on orbital operations for a more complete discussion of the calculations of eclipse periods for general orbits. Wise (1993) offers a compact expression for the maximum fractional suntime that a satellite sees in a circular orbit as a function of the orbit radius :

where f is the maximum fraction of the orbit in sunlight, R is the radius of the Earth, h is the altitude of the circular orbit measured from the surface of the Earth, and 0 is the angle between the normal to the orbit and the direction of the Sun. These variables are shown in Figure 2.6.

normal to the orbit direction of the Sun

orbital plane

Figure 2.6 Fractional Sunlight Calculation Model

This fraction of the orbit in sunlight can easily be converted to actual time in sunlight by recalling that the period (in minutes) of a satellite in Earth orbit is given by the expression

The maximum fraction of the period in eclipse, together with the maximum eclipse time and the orbital period, are plotted against the altitude and shown in Figure 2.7 for circular orbits. Note also that the maximum eclipse time begins to increase sharply for altitudes greater than about 3,000 nmi.

Max eclipse time

Max eclipse Period

Orbit period

Lg scale Sm scale

Geosynchronous

Altitude (nmi) Figure 2.7 Altitude Effects on Eclipses (Barter, 1992 , used with permission)

The direct effect of the eclipse period on the performance of a solar array power system is easily understood with respect to parameters such as the sizing and depth of discharge of the battery subsystem and the sophistication needed in the power management and distribution system. The eclipses also introduce thermal cycling which may be as often as every 45 minutes or as infrequent as every several months, and these cycles can introduce mechanical strains in electrical conductors as well as structural members and so must be accommodated in the appropriate system design.

3. The near-Earth space environment Far from being a simple void, the space environment is a hostile and dynamic environment within which the satellite must be prepared to operate. Our understanding of nearEarth space has undergone significant revision since the Explorer I first detected the trapped charged particles that became known as the Van Allen belts, and even now this characterization of the environment is being modified as more data on the nature of space and the interactions that occur between the environment and the spacecraft become known. There are several excellent comprehensive texts on the space environment (Hastings and Garrett, 1996; Tribble, 1995; DeWitt, Duston, and Hyder, 1993) which provide many details not discussed here. In this chapter, we intend only to provide an overview of the near-Earth space environment with emphasis on those elements which may affect the performance of the spacecraft's electrical power system. The environment consists of many interacting parts, some of which dominate in one region or another. There arises then the somewhat arbitrary decision of how to present the discussion of the environment and its interactions with the spacecraft. For our purposes, we shall consider four categories of the space environment: the neutral atmosphere, radiation, plasmas, and micrometeoroids.

3.1 The neutral environment The neutral environment includes features which can lead to interactions harmful to the operation of the electrical power system. Virtually every aspect of this part of the environment occurs at low altitudes and generally is no longer a factor above several hundred kilometers. This part of the near-Earth environment is characterized by a very small gravitational acceleration, a tenuous atmosphere whose composition is very different from that found at sea level, and eventually, a hard vacuum. Because of aerodynamic drag, altitudes below about 225 km are too low to permit a satellite to continuously orbit the Earth.

AtmospherezyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA The density, pressure, temperature, and composition of the Earth's neutral atmosphere all change dramatically with increasing altitude. As seen in Table 2.1, the primary components  of  the sea- level  atmosphere have  decreased  significantly  at 200  km  and  have disappeared  at 800 km.  In their place appears atomic oxygen  which comprises  80% of the neutral atmosphere at 300 km.  N ote that while atomic oxygen  has appeared, there is no corresponding atomic nitrogen because the dissociation energy for nitrogen is higher than that of  oxygen  and is  above  the highest  energy  of photons from  the sun. N ote from  Figure 2.8  that the total atmospheric density  above  sea  level  decreases approximately  exponentially.  While  atomic oxygen  constitutes 80% of the atmosphere Table 2.1  Percent Composition of the Atmosphere at Various  Altitudes Species  N 2  O 2  O  Ar  H e  H 

Sea Level  79  20  nil  1  nil  nil 

200 km 

300 km 

30  14  36  30000

-10000

N/A

~ 1000 (> 80% DOD)

80% DOD)

13.8

13.1

9.6

1.6

15

13.6

11.4

8.6

1.0

12.6

25.0 x 17.6 x 3.5

18.0x14.5x4.5

21.0x5.0 dia.

N/A

12.0x8.0x8.0

LEO/GEO

MARS GLOBAL SURVEYOR

MARS '98

NEW MILLENIUM

MARS PATHFINDER

IPV Ni-H2

Li-ION

Ag-Zn 18

28.8

27 40

Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) In the Ni-Cd cell, cadmium hydroxide, Cd(OH) 2 , is the active material of the negative electrode. The Cd(OH)2 negative electrode active material like the Ni(OH)2 material is contained within an 80 percent porous nickel plaque containing a perforated sheet or nickel screen which serves as the current collector. The active material is deposited into the pores by a series of steps filling approximately 40 percent of the remaining space in the plaque. A 31 percent aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide is used as the electrolyte, and the separator is a nonwoven nylon or polypropylene material. The cell is hermetically sealed with two ceramic/metal terminal seals. The electrode and net cell reaction shown as a charge reaction is: Charge (4.28) (4.29) (4.30) In order to replace the energy removed from the cell during discharge, the cell must be recharged to the full state of charge and then must receive an overcharge which offsets the charge inefficiency. The inefficiency is a function of rate and temperature and is a result of the production of oxygen gas at the nickel hydroxide electrode produced primarily near the end of the discharge. The reaction resulting in the inefficiency at the positive electrode is: (4.31) In the hermetically sealed (semi-dry or starved) type, the electrolyte is immobilized in the separator and plates, allowing the gas to distribute itself around and within the cell pack. The evolution of the oxygen gas is offset by its recombination at the negative electrode which contains a significant quantity of cadmium metal (Cd) because it is being charged. The oxygen recombines chemically according to the following reaction: (4.32) Thus, when the charging process has converted most of the active materials to NiOOH and Cd as given in Eqs. (4.28-4.30) and oxygen evolution occurs, the oxygen reacts with the charged Cd via Eq. (4.32) to discharge the cadmium electrode by the same amount resulting in no net change of reactants and products thus preserving the electrode balance.

NEGATIVE POSITIVE OVERCHARGE PROTECTION {UNCHARGED NEGATIVE)

CHARGE

USABLE NEGATIVE CAPACITY

POSITIVE CAPACITY

DISCHARGE

"metal

' PRECHARGE (CHARGED . NEGATIVE)

Figure 4.16 Active Material Balance in a Ni-Cd Cell

The aerospace cell is referred to as positive-limited on charge (and discharge). If it were to be negative-limited on charge, as in electrolysis, the negative electrode would evolve hydrogen gas which is not recombined in this cell. A high internal pressure and potential safety problem would result. The discharge is positive-limited because of more rapid degradation of the negative electrode. There is always excess negative capacity and therefore the cell capacity is limited by the positive electrode. The balance between the active materials in the Ni-Cd cell is given in Figure 4.16. The most efficient charge scheme is to use a high current (>C/4) at the start of charge and convert to constant voltage (current taper) at a prescribed voltage limit until the current drops to a C/15 rate. The cells can generally be constantly charged at the C/ 10 rate without producing excessive pressure. However, this charge rate results in a temperature increase based on FR heating. The discharge process results in a thermal inefficiency of 16 to 18 percent which must be provided for in a system design. Because there is a rapid decrease of cell cycle life with high depth of discharge (DOD), operation has been limited in aerospace applications to 25 percent DOD for LEO applications and

Figure 4.17 The NASA Standard 20 Ah Battery used on the Solar Max Spacecraft

65 percent for GEO applications. The NASA Standard 28 V battery, developed by McDonnell-Douglas and containing the NASA Standard 25 Ah G.E. prismatic hermetically sealed cells, was used on the Solar Max Mission. That mission lasted more than 8 years in LEO orbit (See Figure 4.17). The advantages of this design are: 1) maintenance-free sealed cells, 2) long cycle life, 3) rugged/sealed, 4) high rate/power capability, 5) flat discharge, 6) long storage life and 7) a large operational data base. The disadvantages include: 1) a relatively high cost, 2) a memory effect/double plateau (may need reconditioning), 3) the need for charge control methods , 4) poor charge acceptance at high temperature or low charge rate, 5) poor capacity retention on storage, and 6) prismatic sealed cells require end-plates to prevent expansion due to internal pressure. There are several potential hazards: 1) pressure buildup in sealed case on charge (adequate temperature, rate, and charge controls required because of an undesirable ratio, balance, and stability of active materials), 2) leakage of alkaline (white encrustation on seal or case is an indication of leak (inspection and welder certification, qualification, and calibration is necessary as is the use of nylon/cotton gloves in handling electrolyte), 3) leakage of oxygen can cause imbalance problems resulting in dangerous H buildup (use reliable ceramic/metal seals, perform helium leak test on each cell), 4) internal shorting can result in hot spots, arcs, etc. leading to potential explosion (X-ray cell, use "clean" methods in cell assembly, inspect plates for sharp edges, burns, etc.), 5) cell reversal results in gas evolution and irreversible electrode imbalance, making it necessary to monitor each cell during operation (either the undervoltage cutout can be utilized, or one can use a 1/2 battery voltage to monitor changes in individual cell, and 6) external shorts can cause very high-rate, high temperature excursions which can lead to a violent venting (use tools and equipment that are insulated to prevent bridging, coat cell terminals to prevent inadvertent metal contact; use fuses and protective circuitry). Please note that although the potential hazards are concerns to be considered, the Ni-Cd cell and battery has been the battery most often used in space from the 1960s to 1990s.

Nickel-Hvdrogen (Ni-H2) The Ni-H2 battery has been selected for GEO and some planetary missions. The Hubble Space Telescope mission also uses these batteries. Three types OfNiOOH-H2 cells have been demonstrated for space missions. These include the Individual Pressure Vessel (IPV), the Common Pressure Vessel (CPV), and the Single Pressure Vessel (SPV). The Ni-H2 battery has a higher specific energy, greater depth of discharge capability, and longer life than the Ni-Cd battery because the cadmium electrode, which degrades with life and depth of discharge, is replaced by the H2 electrode. However, its energy density is generally less than the Ni-Cd battery because the Ni-H2 cylindrical cell configuration has a significantly lower packing density.

The single IPV Ni-H2 cell was the first configuration used in space in a GEO application. Eagle-Picher, one of the manufacturers of CPV Ni-H2, found that they could install two cells in the same pressure cylinder thus increasing the specific energy and energy density. The SPV involved containment of all 22 cells in a single pressure cylinder thus enhancing the specific energy and energy density. Since its first use by the Naval Research Laboratory, the IPV has been used for commercial purposes as well. This cell, like the Ni-Cd cell, is quite reversible. The positive NI(OH)2 plates are also similar in construction to those described above. The hydrogen electrode comprises a Teflon bonded platinum back on a nickel mesh screen to allow the reduction and oxidation of hydrogen. A gas diffusion screen is used to facilitate hydrogen diffusion. A plasma sprayed zirconia oxide is sometimes used to coat the inside of the cylindrical pressure vessel to enhance electrolyte distribution. It has the potential for greater depth of discharge and higher rate capability than the nickel-cadmium. The electrolyte is 30 to 35 percent aqueous potassium hydroxide by weight. An asbestos fuel cell bidirectional separator is used. The IPV, CPV, and SPV cell configurations use a pressure cylinder to contain 600 to 1000 psi ofH 2 at full charge. The cell discharge reaction at the NiOOH electrode is the same as that in the Ni-Cd cell. The H2 recombination reaction with NiOOH at the negative during discharge is given in Eq. (4.34). The net reaction is given in Eq. (4.35). The reaction on discharge shows that the H2 built up on charge decreases during the discharge. Discharge (4.33) (4.34) (4.35) During charge, H2Pressure during charge builds to the design level of 600 - 800 psi. During the overcharge period O2 is also evolved as shown in reaction at the positive Nickel electrode Eq. (4.35). The O2 produced reacts with the water to produce OH" according to Eq. (4.36) resulting in no net reaction (Hydrogen evolution reaction is suppressed) and thus the cell pressure remains constant once full charge is reached.

Equilibrium maintained

(4.36) (4.37) (4.38)

The two gases are combined at the fuel cell electrode at the same rate as they are being produced and thus electrode balance is maintained. The pressure remains at the maximum until the start of discharge when the O2 reaction subsides. The H2 then reacts until the end of discharge when pressure is at the minimum as shown in Eq. (4.34), The

cell can be charged at a relatively high rate constant current (~ C/2) similar to the Ni-Cd cell. This type of cell has had one major application, that of replacing the Ni-Cd in GEO spacecraft. The enhanced specific energy (Wh/kg) over Ni-Cd cells offers a greater opportunity for increasing the spacecraft capability while reducing total mass. GEO orbit (22,000 miles above the Earth) is one in which there are only two eclipse periods per year, thus requiring -100 cycles/year. The Ni-H2 cells are projected to reach 85 percent DOD during the longest eclipse period (about 75 minutes) which occurs twice each Earth year. There is also interest in using this cell in LEO where its capability for greater DOD would provide a distinct advantage. While the specific energy of Ni-H2 cells is greater than Ni-Cd cells, the volume energy density is less because of the cylindrical gas canister design. Two types OfNi-H2 cells were developed initially: the Comsat 35 Ah design (Figure 4.18) used in the U.S. Navy NTS-2 spacecraft and the U.S. Air Force 50 Ah baseline design developed by Hughes Aircraft. The second generation design combined the best of both designs. Eagle-Picher produced an 80 Ah design and Gates Energy Products 3 Ah cell used for Intelsat. Figure 4.19 is a photo of the Intelsat Ni-H2 battery containing IPV cells produced by Ford Aerospace. Figure 4.20 shows the concept of the two-cell common pressure vessel cell used for the Mars Global Surveyor Mission and the 22-cell single pressure cell used in the Clementine Mission. The SPV design has been used on more than 40 Iridium™ communications spacecraft developed by Motorola. This cell offers several advantages, including: 1) state of charge directly related to pressure, 2) longer cycle life at higher DOD than Ni-Cd, 3) specific energy/specific power greater than Ni-Cd, 4) higher depth of discharge capability than Ni-Cd, and 5) the ability to tolerate overcharge and reversal at controlled rates. The disadvantages include: 1) high cost, 2) self-discharge proportional to decrease H2 pressure, 3) higher cost than Ni-Cd, and 4) volume energy density and power density less than Ni-Cd. The potential hazards are: 1) high rate charging and heat buildup (use charge control and thermostatic devices), 2) high pressure buildup (use strain gage to monitor pressure), 3) leakage of strong alkaline electrolyte, 4) gas (H2 or O2) leakage creates cell imbalance leading to excessive pressure (perform helium leak testing on each cell and use high reliability well tested seals), and 5) external shorting can result in very high-rate, high temperature excursion leading to a violent venting (use fuse and other protective circuitry).

Silver oxide cells/batteries Three types comprise this group: silver-cadmium (Ag-Cd), silver-zinc (Ag-Zn), and silver-hydrogen (Ag-H2). The first two have found applications in space for limited

CONTAN I ER TOP HEMS I PHERE

FILLtNG TUBE

TERMNAL WELWNG RN IG PRESSURE PLATE NEGATV I E ELECTRODE SEPARATOR POSITIVE ELECTRODE

POSITIVE ELECTRODE SEPARATOR GAS DF I FUS)ON XREEN ELECTROOE STACK CONTAN I ER CYLNDRC i AL SECTO IN WELDNG RWG

CONTAN I ERBOTTOM HEMS I PHERE

Figure 4.18 Comsat IPV Ni-H2 Cell Design

mission life. The latter has not been developed for space. The Ag-Cd cell is nonmagnetic and, although not extensively used, was favored in applications in which magnetometers are among the spacecraft instruments. Ag-Zn (also known as silver oxide-zinc and zinc-silver oxide) cells have been used in mid-altitude orbits with relatively short-life spacecraft where the high specific energy plays a part in helping to reduce spacecraft weight. Ag-Zn batteries have been used in launch vehicles for communication and control until the spacecraft is placed in orbit (i.e., during the insertion phase). The cell is similar to that described above under zinc anode primary cells except that it can be

Ford Aerpsp^b? & Co nfimu nica tj 6ns,. por pbratipn

Figure 4.19 Intelsat-V Battery with 30 Ah IPV Cells

TYPICAL EPI MANTECH DUAL STACK CELL DESIGN "RABBIT EAR" TERMINALS Figure 4.20 CPV Design Concept

recharged. However, because of the inefficiencies caused by gaseous reactions at the electrodes pressure relief vents are used in these cells. As described earlier, the silver oxide electrode is the cathode on discharge and anode on charge (polarity + on both charge and discharge). The zinc, cadmium, and hydrogen are the anodes on discharge and cathode on charge (polarity - on both charge and discharge). See Table 4.10 for the cell characteristics.

Silver-Cadmium (AgO-Cd) The silver electrode is prepared by sintering silver powder on a silver grid after molding or continuous rolling. Pasted or pressed plates have also been used. The cadmium electrodes are produced by the same process using cadmium oxide or hydroxide on a silver or nickel grid. The electrolyte is 40 percent KOH. The plates are wrapped with multiple layers of separators to prevent silver migration, which is a life-limiting process. The discharge reaction is given as: Discharge (4.39)

A second discharge plateau noted in silver cells is due to the discharge OfAg2O according to: Discharge (4.40)

The charging of AgO-Cd cells occurs at two voltage levels. Conversion of Ag to Ag2O and AgO charge is best performed at constant current at the C/20 - C/10 rate to 1.6V/ceIl. Thereafter, O2 is generated at the silver electrode (anode on charge) as with the nickel hydroxide electrode (anode on charge). H2 is also generated on the Cd electrode via electrolysis of water during the overcharge if not prevented by cutoff voltage. There is little or no gas recombination so that the overcharge capability of the silver-cadmium is not possible. H2 evolution appears to be less of a problem with these cells than the Ag-Zn cells. The cells are usually available in polymeric cases in the prismatic configuration and their use has been primarily on magnetic spacecraft and in military applications. The advantages of this cell are: 1) higher specific energy than Ni-Cd, 2) higher volume energy density than Ni-Cd and Ni-H2, 3) nonmagnetic, and 4) less sensitive to overcharge than silver-zinc, while the disadvantages include: 1) short cycle life (better than Ag-Zn), 2) operation strongly dependent on temperature, and 3) lower voltage than Ag-Zn. The potential hazards and suggested cautions are: 1) high rate charging and heat buildup (use charge control and thermostat devices), 2) high-pressure buildup (some cell pressure relieved, use strain gage to monitor pressure), 3) leakage of strong alkaline electrolyte (prevented by performing seal and cell testing; white encrustation on seal or case is an indicator of a leak), 4) inspection and welder qualification and calibration are necessary (use rubber gloves in handling electrolyte), and 5) gas (H2 or O2) leakage creates cell imbalance leading to excessive pressure (perform helium leak testing on each cell; use high reliability, well-tested seals; external shorting can result in very high-rate, high temperature excursion, leading to a violent venting; use fuse and other protective circuitry).

Silver-Zinc (Ag-Zn) The cell is a modified version of the primary Ag-Zn cell. The silver electrode is the same type as previously described. The zinc electrode is prepared by pressing a paste or slurry of zinc oxide binder, or by electrodeposition in plating tanks onto metallic grids. As in the Ag-Cd cell, the plates are also wrapped with layers of separator to prevent silver migration. Zinc dendrite formation is the major cause of life limitation. The inner

separator serves as an electrolyte reservoir and barrier to minimize AgO oxidation of the separator. The outer separator stabilizes the zinc electrode and retards zinc penetration. The outer separator is cellophane but is being replaced by radiation-grafted polyethylene in some applications. The electrolyte is 40 percent KOH. The two-step discharge reaction is given by: Discharge (4.41) Discharge (4.42) The charge and discharge are similar to that of the Ag-Cd cell. In this case charge is terminated at 2.0 V to avoid the generation of gas which cannot be recombined and to prevent the formation of zinc dendrites. The high rate capability is due to the electrical conductivity of the silver grid and the conductivity of the positive electrode. These cells are generally prismatic in configurations. The capacities available range from very low to thousands of ampere hours as in military equipment. High rate (HR) and low rate (LR) versions exist. These cells are usually specially ordered to meet the requirements. HR cells were used in the tools and MMU on the SMM repair mission in April 1984. The Ag-Zn battery is also available in reserve configuration for very long storage periods prior to use. Cells with active electrolyte will lose capacity and therefore storing the electrolyte outside the cell will prevent the high self-discharge rate. Several planetary missions have used batteries of this type to meet long term inactive cruise requirements. Figure 4.11 is a photo of the Mars Pathfinder Lander Ag-Zn battery that landed on Mars, July 4, 1997. Again, the advantages are: 1) highest specific energy and power of presently available secondary batteries, and 2) highest energy density and power of presently available secondary batteries. The disadvantages: 1) high cost, 2) limited cycle life, 3) poor low-temperature performance, and 4) a two-step voltage plateau. The potential hazards and mitigating actions are: 1) high rate charging and heat buildup (use charge control and thermostat devices), 2) high pressure buildup possible (cells may be pressure relieved, use strain gauge to monitor pressure), 3) leakage of strong alkaline electrolyte (prevent by performing seal and cell testing; in vented designs, absorb electrolyte before it escapes from the battery; search for white encrustation leak, which requires inspection and cell assembler qualification and calibration; use rubber gloves in handling electrolyte), and 4) external shorting can result in very high rate, high temperature excursion leading to a violent venting (use fuse or other protective circuitry).

Lithium ion cells/batteries Initially, rechargeable lithium cells were comprised of lithium foil as the anode material. A number of cathode materials were also investigated. Limited cycle life cells were demonstrated with Li-TiS2 and Li-V6O13, however, concern for the safety of the lithium foil as a rechargeable electrode led to the conclusion that further development for space was not advisable. An increase in power requirements for space missions has necessitated the development of high energy density rechargeable batteries. Among the various electrochemical systems, batteries utilizing lithium have received widespread attention because of the high electropositive nature of lithium and its low equivalent weight. A number of soluble and insoluble materials have been examined as candidates for cathode materials. Even though soluble cathode materials offer a number of advantages (such as rate capability, low sensitivity to overcharge, etc.), these cells exhibit high rates of self-discharge. The development of a lithium ion cell, absent of lithium metal, offers an opportunity to significantly increase the specific energy and energy density, thus reducing battery mass and volume. The three types presently under development are the LithiumCobalt Oxide (Li-CoO2), Lithium-Manganese Oxide (Li-Mn2O4), and Lithium-Nickel Oxide (Li-NiO2). Of the three, only the first has demonstrated the potential for cycle life required for space. A major advantage of this system is the cell voltage of near 4 V per cell, a specific energy of 100 Wh/kg, and energy density in excess of 250 Wh/1. The cell potential is based on the difference in potential between a cathode material containing lithium ion, such as Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LiCoO2) and a carbon electrode that can intercalate lithium ion. When the lithium ions are in the carbon anode the cell is charged, and when the lithium ions return to the cathode matrix the cell is discharged. The most familiar of these is the Lithium-Cobalt Oxide (Li-CoO2) cell. Although the lithium -ion cell has not been used in space to date, it has been added to the manifest of upcoming planetary missions, e.g., the Mars missions. The basis for the Lithium-Ion cell concept appears in Figure 4.21. The cell is assembled with the Li+ intercalated in the cathode material, e.g., LiCoO2, and a layered carbon or graphite anode. The cell is activated by charging, i.e., forcing the Li+ to flow into the anode structure. When the charging step is completed the potential difference is approximately 4.0 V. During discharge the Li+ flows back into the cathode during which time the cell voltage decreases. During the initial charge process there is some loss of the Li+in the structure of the anode. Discharge (4.43) and

Figure 4.21 Examples of Li-Ion Cells

Cell voltage (V)

Charge at 4.3 A to 4.1 V to C/50 Discharge at 4.6 A (C/5)

Discharge capacity (Ah) Figure 4.22 Charge and Discharge Curves of the Blue Star Li-CoO2 Cell at the C/5 Rate

The electrolyte is generally a solvent mixture of Ethylene Carbonate (EC), Diethyl Carbonate (DE), and Dimethyl Carbonate (DMC), with a salt such as LiPF6 or LiBF6. Examples of flat plate, cylindrical, and prismatic design Li-Ion cells appear in Figure 4.21. The prismatic cells are from Yardney Technical Products and the cylindrical cell from Blue Star Batteries. The charge and discharge curves for the Blue Star LiCoO2 battery at a C/5 rate are shown in Figure 4.22. The advantages include: 1) cell voltage of 4.0 V, 2) high specific energy and energy density (4 x Ni-Cd and 2 x Ni-H2), 3) 99% charge efficiency, 4) available for commercial products, 5) operation demonstrated at -200C, and 6) no lithium metal in the cell. The disadvantages include: 1) relatively short cycle life (compared to Ni-Cd), 2) only small size cells available for commercial products, and 3) individual cell control to maintain cell balance. There are two noteworthy potential hazards: 1) excessive overcharge and overdischarge can result in undesirable products, and 2) cell balance must be maintained to avoid cell imbalance, resulting in undesirable reactions.

Sodium cells and batteries The sodium cell is a high-temperature technology that has generated significant interest in recent years. The Sodium-Sulfur (Na-S) system (350°C) continues to be tested by the U.S. Air Force for a potential space application. Lengthy cycle life has been demonstrated. However, the closest to space use is in an Air Force flight experiment launched in November 1996. Significant resources were allocated for this work for both electric vehicles and load leveling, and thus transfer of the technology for flight use appeared worthwhile for large spacecraft. However, the effect on materials of the high temperature, together with the change in NASA direction to 'smaller, better, cheaper' spacecraft, resulted in reduced interest in this technology. The Sodium-Nickel Chloride (NaNiCl2) system with lower operating temperature (2500C) and absent of molten sulfur appeared to be worthwhile. However, with the advent of the new NASA approach, this too was dropped from consideration for space use. The Na-S system is discussed below in view of the continued, albeit low, interest. The system requires a high temperature (3500C) to maintain its anodic material, sodium, and cathodic material, sulfur, in the molten state. Solid beta alumina or glass acts as both the separator and the electrolyte in which the sodium ions produced on discharge diffuse through the ion selective material to produce the product sodium sulfide according to: Discharge (4.44) The depth of discharge and operation determines the value of x which ranges from five to two. The projected operation appears to be rather straightforward. The cell is designed to operate at 90 percent energy efficiency. However, the impedance, and therefore open circuit voltage, varies with state of charge/discharge. Charging is terminated once the cell resistance equals twice the discharge endpoint resistance. Interest in this projected high specific energy system makes it a candidate for several applications, including electric vehicles and space. The major difficulty is the weight penalty that is associated with the thermal management of the system at 3500C and as such it is geared for large systems. The materials problems associated with this temperature have not been solved and the impact on safety also represents an unresolved issue. The advantages of sodium cells include: 1) adaptibility to large energy systems, 2) high peak power, 3) high level of support for development is available, and 4) large specific energy and energy density ideal for a secondary system. There are several disadvantages: 1) operation at 3500C, 2) materials and safety problems associated with high temperatures, 3) beta alumina technology refinement, 4) heat management, 5) high cost, and 6) the weight penalty for thermal management.

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The potential hazard includes operation at a high temperature where molten sulfur and sodium are present separated only by a ceramic separator.

8.

Fuel cell systems

A fuel cell system consists of a group of cells connected in series (fuel cell stack), the fuel and oxidant stored external to the stack, and ancillaries including pumps, plumbing, sensors, and controls to process the products and reactant product. The fuel cell system differs from a battery in that the reactants are stored outside the cell in cylinders. This arrangement infers that the more fuel and oxidant available the larger the energy storage capacity and the longer the fuel cell system will operate. Battery storage capacity, however, is limited by the quantity of active material contained within the case. Fuel cell stack power is the sum of the voltages of each cell times the current. The fuel cell system uses some of the stack power for operation of the ancillaries and thus will be less than the stack power. The capacity of a fuel cell system is determined by the quantity of fuel and oxidant stored. This is a convenient system for manned flight because the fuel cell system can be supplied with enough fuel and oxidant to meet the relatively short mission length and provide water and heat for life support. For longer missions, such as LEO and GEO, rechargeable batteries are used. The applicability of a fuel cell power plant for space use has, besides the attractive features of being a pollution-free power source based on direct conversion with immovable parts, the primary advantage of its ability to be incorporated into the ecological cycle of the space crew. Further, liquid oxygen and hydrogen are also available for propulsion on board space vehicles because of their high specific impulse. These characteristics have extended the utility of fuel cell power sources for space use in the Gemini, Apollo, Shuttle, and Spacelab programs. The H2-O2 alkaline fuel cell has emerged as the most attractive candidate for space use. While making a choice among suitable alternatives to meet the requirements of a spacecraft, the factors to be considered are: 1) reliability, 2) efficiency, 3) life, 4) environmental compatibility, 5) endurance to environmental conditions in space (zero gravity, vibration, shock, acceleration, acoustic noise, etc.), 6) energy densities, 7) storage, 8) heritage, and 9) cost. The reliability of the hardware, once a choice is made, will have to consider proper choice of materials, chemicals, and components of space grade and incorporate a detailed and stringent qualification test plan. Fuel cells have been known from the time of Grove in 1839. Since then several types of fuel cells have been developed for various stationary, vehicular, and other applications. The types of fuel cells that have been or are being considered for space use include: Alkaline Electrolyte H2-O2 fuel cells (AFC) which operate at 40 - 6O0C, Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolyte H2-O2 Fuel Cells (PEMFC) which operate at 60-800C,zyxwv

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The potential hazard includes operation at a high temperature where molten sulfur and sodium are present separated only by a ceramic separator.

8.

Fuel cell systems

A fuel cell system consists of a group of cells connected in series (fuel cell stack), the fuel and oxidant stored external to the stack, and ancillaries including pumps, plumbing, sensors, and controls to process the products and reactant product. The fuel cell system differs from a battery in that the reactants are stored outside the cell in cylinders. This arrangement infers that the more fuel and oxidant available the larger the energy storage capacity and the longer the fuel cell system will operate. Battery storage capacity, however, is limited by the quantity of active material contained within the case. Fuel cell stack power is the sum of the voltages of each cell times the current. The fuel cell system uses some of the stack power for operation of the ancillaries and thus will be less than the stack power. The capacity of a fuel cell system is determined by the quantity of fuel and oxidant stored. This is a convenient system for manned flight because the fuel cell system can be supplied with enough fuel and oxidant to meet the relatively short mission length and provide water and heat for life support. For longer missions, such as LEO and GEO, rechargeable batteries are used. The applicability of a fuel cell power plant for space use has, besides the attractive features of being a pollution-free power source based on direct conversion with immovable parts, the primary advantage of its ability to be incorporated into the ecological cycle of the space crew. Further, liquid oxygen and hydrogen are also available for propulsion on board space vehicles because of their high specific impulse. These characteristics have extended the utility of fuel cell power sources for space use in the Gemini, Apollo, Shuttle, and Spacelab programs. The H2-O2 alkaline fuel cell has emerged as the most attractive candidate for space use. While making a choice among suitable alternatives to meet the requirements of a spacecraft, the factors to be considered are: 1) reliability, 2) efficiency, 3) life, 4) environmental compatibility, 5) endurance to environmental conditions in space (zero gravity, vibration, shock, acceleration, acoustic noise, etc.), 6) energy densities, 7) storage, 8) heritage, and 9) cost. The reliability of the hardware, once a choice is made, will have to consider proper choice of materials, chemicals, and components of space grade and incorporate a detailed and stringent qualification test plan. Fuel cells have been known from the time of Grove in 1839. Since then several types of fuel cells have been developed for various stationary, vehicular, and other applications. The types of fuel cells that have been or are being considered for space use include: Alkaline Electrolyte H2-O2 fuel cells (AFC) which operate at 40 - 6O0C, Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolyte H2-O2 Fuel Cells (PEMFC) which operate at 60-800C,zyxwv

and Direct Methanol/O 2 , Liquid-Feed Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (DMLFFC/PEM) operating between 2O0C and 900C. Regenerative fuel cells using the PAFC, AFC, or PEMFC, together with an electrolyzer, are being considered for applications where charge and discharge operations are required. The electrolyzer, powered by solar cells, produces the fuel and oxidant to the fuel cell when solar energy is not available. This system has yet to prove feasible for space applications. The most common fuel cell system used in terrestrial applications is the Phosphoric Acid fuel cell (PAFC) that operates at 2500C. Higher temperature fuel cells include the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) which operate at 6500C, and Solid Oxide fuel cells (SOFC) which operate near 10000C. These have not been used in a space application. Molecular oxygen is the oxidant in these six types of systems, and molecular hydrogen is the fuel used in the AFC and PEMFC designs. In the latest innovation, DMLFFC/PEM, aqueous methanol in the form of a liquid is the fuel. The higher temperatures of the MCFC and SOFC allow a greater variety of fuels including hydrocarbons and diesel fuel. Except for the Biosatellite missions, only the alkaline and PEMFC have been used in space, specifically for manned space applications, i.e., Gemini, Apollo, and Shuttle spacecraft.

8.1 History The first use of a fuel cell system in space was in the Gemini program, August 21,1962. This was the first of the seven Gemini Earth-oriented manned missions from 19621965. A Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolyte Fuel Cell (PEMFC), known at that time as the Solid Polymer Electrolyte Ion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell, was used. The solid ion exchange membrane (sulfonated polystyrene resin) served as an alternative to the aqueous liquid electrolyte providing a path for the H+ to move from anode to cathode. Providing a mechanism for the H2 and O2 required the use of a platinum catalyst. The system produced by General Electric provided 350 W for each fuel cell module. Three stacks of 32 cells were used in parallel to provide a total 1 kW for the spacecraft fuel cell system. Cryogenic H2 and O2 were used. The Platinum (Pt) catalyst loading was 28 mg/cm2. The H2 supply pressure was 1.6 psi above water pressure and O2 was 0.5 psi above H2. The efficiency was reported as 50-60%. Although the mass of the system was lower than the others, limitations of this fuel cell technology were the voltage losses due to ohmic drops in the solid electrolyte and sensitivity to water content. The Biosatellite 2 launched September 7,1967, utilized a similar PEMFC system, with an important change. The PEM was Nafion (perfluorosulfonic acid), a registered

trademark of the Dupont Company. Since then, Nafion has been the membrane of choice for all PEM fuel cells, including the DMLFFC/PEM. To overcome the limitations of the Gemini PEMFC, Apollo manned flights (1968 72) utilized the alkaline electrolyte fuel cell (AFC). The electrolyte was potassium hydroxide (KOH) . The fuel and oxidant were H2 and O2. These fuel cells used an asbestos separator. The reactions for the alkaline fuel cell system are addressed in Section 8.3. The Apollo fuel cell plant developed air and particulate contamination problems. These were trapped in the coolant system and resulted in pump cavitation. This was solved by improving servicing procedures. Another problem observed onboard was temperature oscillations due to low gravity and flow instability under certain operating conditions. This was solved by valve schedule changes. Problems in two-phase fluid handling (caused by the microgravity environment) were avoided by the use of a supercritical stage. Problems faced with insulation, heaters, pressure vessels, fans etc., were all solved by improved system design, quality control, and manufacturing/ maintenance procedures, although these failures were observed in Apollo 13. The 1.5 kW, 26 V power plant was developed by Pratt and Whitney, a Division of United Aircraft Technologies. The total fuel cell utilized three fuel cell modules connected in parallel. The fuel cell operated at 2600C increased from the original temperature of 2050C to improve performance. A platinum catalyst was not needed. The pressure of the fuel and reactant were 60 psia. The system operated at 150 mA/cm2 and the voltage was 0.72 V/cell. The peak power was 2.3 kW at 20.5 V, and the fuel cell weighed 100 kg. It operated for 690 hours without failure. The Shuttle orbiter, developed by United Technologies Corporation and in use today, contains three H2-O2 alkaline fuel cell power plants supplying 12 kW at peak and 6 W average power in performance. Asbestos is also used as the separator. The operating temperature is 83-1050C. The current density is 66 - 450 mA/cm2. The system is capable of 2000 hours of operation. The Shuttle orbiter fuel cell power plant was 23 kg lighter and delivered eight times the power of the Apollo fuel cell system. For additional details see Table 4.12. In the Shuttle fuel cell plant there was a H2 pump seizure problem which was solved by appropriate design changes followed by a 2000 hour qualification test. The magnesium separator plates in contact with water corroded, and this was solved by plating them with nickel. Cell-to-cell voltage variations resulted in a significant drop in the total voltage. These were solved by coating the electrode surfaces with special materials and leaching the asbestos matrix to remove cadmium impurities. In STS-2, water contamination resulted in non-nominal operation of the H2 pump. By incorporating suitable filters and making changes in the recirculatory system, the problems were solved. NASA is considering upgrades in the fuel cell system. Among these is the use of the Proton Exchange Membrane technology. Significant improvements have been made since their use in the Gemini mission. The PEMFC and the DMLFFC/PEM are also

being considered for use in lunar, Mars colony, and Rover applications. Another development under consideration is a rechargeable fuel cell system known as a Regenerative Fuel Cell System. It combines an electrolyzer that can produce the H2 and O2 during the sunlight portion of a mission using solar cells and a fuel cell stack that can provide the energy during the eclipse period. To date, the system has not met the performance requirements required for a mission.

8.2 Fuel cell system basics In the common acid electrolyte fuel cell, fuel (H2) reacts electrochemically at a catalyzed anode electrode/electrolyte surface to produce protons (H+) and electrons which flow through the load to the cathode. The protons diffuse through the electrolyte and react with O2 to produce water at the negatively charged cathode electrode/electrolyte interface. The fuel cell useful in space applications can generally be described as consisting of two electrodes separated by and in direct contact with an electrolyte. The electrolyte can be acidic, either liquid (phosphoric acid) or solid (Nafion), or alkaline. Conductive biplates are in contact with the anode of one cell and the cathode of the adjacent cell. Thus, they separate the cells and conduct the electrons through the stack resulting in a positive terminal at one end of the stack and a negative terminal at the other end. On both sides of the biplate are flowfields that allow the fuel and oxidant to come in contact with the anode on one side and cathode on the other maximizing the contact area. The fuel and oxidant flow to the cells is provided by an internal or external manifold so that they flow into the flowfield of all cells at the same time. The fuel cell concept is given in Figure 4.23. The reactions for the PAFC are: Anode: Cathode: Overall:

(4.45) (4.46) (4.47)

The electrochemistry fundamentals and thermodynamics of this system are the same as those discussed in Section 4.4. However, there are important differences between the fuel cell parameters and those of a battery. While capacity is the parameter that best characterizes the battery cell capability, power best describes the fuel cell capability. The capacity is increased or decreased by the volume of stored fuel and oxidant. The fuel cell polarization curve is given in Figure 4.24.

Table 4.12 Comparison of Gemini, Apollo, Shuttle Fuel Cell Characteristics Gemini

Apollo

Shuttle

No. Flights Manufacturer

7 (#5-12) General Electric

All P&W

All United Tech. United Aircraft

Type PEMFC Power Module continuous 1 kW Peak Cell temperature Voltage No. of sections per s/c No. stacks/section No. cells/stack Stack Size, cm

AFC 500-620 W s 3 -350 W modules Peak 2.3 kW at 20.5 V 40 to 60"C 23.3 - 26.5V 2 3 32 66 x 33 diam

AFC 1.5 kW 3 modules 36 kW peak 200-250 "C 26-31 V 3 2 31 110 x 56 diam

Battery weight, Kg H2 / O2 Oper Pressure H2 Storage pressure: O2 Storage pressure Current density (ma/cm2) Electrolyte

31 22 /23 psia 210to250psi 800-psi 15

110 60 / 60 psia 245 psi 900 psi 92

Sulfonated polystyrene 50 - 60% 400 - 800 Hrs @ 0.5kW 0.41 kg/kWh Composition Rate 840 Hrs

85% KOH 60% 400-1500 Hrs @ IkW 0.36 kg / kWh 0.55 kg / Hr 1995 Hrs

Efficiency Service life Reactant used / 3 day Mission Time in Space

14 kW 3 modules 83- 10511C 26.5 -32.5V 3 32 35 (h)x 30(w)x01cm(l) 91 60 /60 psia 290-290 psi 850-950 psi 67 - 450 30 - 40 % KOH 61.8% @6kW 2000 Hrs @ 4.5 kW 450 kg / 600 L Serviced 2000Hrs

Power Power, the product of current and voltage, describes the capability of the fuel cell to convert the fuel and oxidant into the product water. The larger the electrode surface and the more active the surface, the greater is the current capability. In addition, the voltage is affected by ohmic, activation, and concentration polarization, as well as temperature. Therefore, power as a function of temperature and rate is used to describe the capability of a fuel cell or fuel cell stack.

LOAD

CO 2

H2O, AlR (UNUSED O2)

UNUSED MEOH/WATER

OXIDANT

FUEL

AtR (O2)

3% ME O H / W A T E R

ELECTRODE ELECTRODE PROTON EXCHANGE MEMBRANE (PEM) Figure 4.23 Fuel Cell Concept

Efficiency The theoretical thermal efficiency, Ј° at 250C is 0.95 as determined by: (4.48) where AG298, the change in free energy, is -54,63 and AH298, the change in enthalpy, is -57.80. This equation can also be shown to be: (4.49) and thus, the actual thermal efficiency of a fuel cell can be calculated from: (4.50) where n is the number of electrons, F is the Faraday constant, E is defined as kinetic losses minus resistive losses, and AH298 is the change in enthalpy at 25°C. The voltage efficiency can be shown as: (4-51)

CELL POTENTIAL1 VoItS

THERMODYNAMC I REVERSIBLE CELL POTENTIAL(E,) CELL-POTENTIAL LOSSES DUE TO ACTIVATION OVERPOTENTIAL (LACK OF ELECTROCATALYSIS) LINEAR DROP IN CELL t P ' OTENTIAL DUE TO OHMC LOSSES IN SOLUTO I N BETWEEN ELECTRODES MASS TRANSPORT LOSSES. CAUSE OF DECREASE OF CELL POTENTIAL TO ZERO

Figure 4.24 Fuel Cell Polarization Curve

The electrochemical efficiency, e^, can be shown to be the product of the thermal, voltage, and current efficiencies.

83 Alkaline fuel cells The reactions of the alkaline fuel cells are somewhat different from that of the acid fuel cells because of the pH. However, the E0 is the same for both. The reactions are: Anode: Cathode: Overall:

(4.52) (4.53) (4.54)

The fuel cell system (power plant) is comprised of several elements consisting of the fuel cell stack, H2 and O2 storage tanks, condenser, gas flow control system, power conversion equipment, and thermal control equipment. The most important element of this complete system is the fuel cell stack in which the power-producing electrochemi-

cal reactions take place. The stack is comprised of a group of thin bipolar plates with electrodes on either side and a layer of electrolyte between each. The plates are machined with holes on their outer edges along with grooves on their surfaces so as to form a manifold and gas distribution system when assembled into the stack. Hydrogen is fed to one side and oxygen to the other side of each plate through this manifold system. Upon entering their respective compartments, the gases come in contact with the catalyzed electrode/electrolyte interfaces where the electrochemical reactions take place. In both the acid and alkaline types the catalyst employed within both anodes and cathodes is a finely divided form of platinum black. Different amounts are incorporated within each electrode of each type. Other materials of construction for the acid type consist of carbon black and Teflon for the electrodes and a solid polymeric electrolyte (an acid type ion exchange membrane material). Other materials of construction for the alkaline type consist of carbon and nickel for the electrodes and a porous asbestos layer containing aqueous KOH solution as the electrolyte. Operating temperatures of both types of fuel cells are near 10O0C. The advantages include: 1) very high energy density, 2) few moving parts, 3) moderate operating temperature, 4) dual use for oxygen (can be used for life support), and 5) high thermal efficiency. The disadvantages include: 1) high cost, 2) complex assembly (numerous interconnecting parts), and 3) complex operation (many controls are required). There are a number of potential hazards accompanying the use of fuel cells: 1) external H2 leaks can produce explosive conditions, 2) internal H2 and O2 leaks cause local hot spots and also explosive conditions, 3) external O2 leaks can cause fires, 4) shunt currents can cause internal generation and mixing of gases with resultant heating, 5) age of manifolds can cause cell reversal and subsequent generation and mixing of gases with resultant heating, 6) inadequate cooling can cause thermal runaway (thin bipolar cell stacks can be readily shorted without proper insulation and handling), and 7) the alkaline electrolyte is corrosive and toxic.

SA Proton exchange membrane fuel cells The simplest of the fuel cell systems is the proton exchange membrane type. The electrolyte is a polymer film, Nafion (perfluorosulfonic acid), and thus the complexity of requirement for a liquid electrolyte is eliminated. The reactions are the same as in the phosphoric acid fuel cell system as is the theoretical E0 for the reaction. This system operates at a temperature to 8O0C, a significantly lower temperature than the alkaline system. It was first used in the Gemini and Biosatellite spacecraft. However, it lacked the power of the higher temperature alkaline system. The operating temperature of the PEMFC is limited because of the 12O0C melting point of the polymer membrane. In addition, the fuel and oxidant had to be humidified before entering the

fuel cell stack to avoid dryout and degradation of the Nafion membrane. The Gemini system also had a water control problem. For these reasons, the alkaline system was selected for the Apollo and Shuttle orbiter applications. Because of the advantage of system simplicity, due to the solid electrolyte, this system is receiving attention as an upgrade to the orbiter and additional NASA applications. The Gemini fuel cell stack assembly consisted of the ion exchange membrane and platinum catalyst. Each side of the membrane was covered by a titanium screen which was coated with platinum. One side of the membrane was bonded at its edges to a titanium sheet to form the cavity for the hydrogen gas. Hydrogen was introduced into the cavity through a tube connected to the edge seal. Two loops of coolant tubing were placed against the other face of the titanium sheet and wicks were placed between each pass of the tubing to remove the water produced at the cathode. These were necessary to prevent accumulation of water at undesirable places in a zero gravity environment. A total of 32 such assemblies were bolted together between end plates to form the stack assembly. Each stack contained its own hydrogen and coolant manifolding and water-oxygen separator. These stacks were installed in a cylindrical container to form the fuel cell section. Two such sections were used onboard each Gemini spacecraft.

8.5 Regenerative fuel cells Regenerative fuel cells are comprised of the primary fuel cell power plant in conjunction with a water electrolysis unit. These two elements are integrated into a completely rechargeable type system. The fuel cell portions of these are essentially the same as described above. The only major difference is that the gases are stored under pressure in steel containers. The electrolyzers are in both cases very similar in configuration to the fuel cells. These are comprised of bipolar stacks of cells with gas manifolds. Product water from the fuel cells (collected in a reservoir tank) is fed to the electrolyzer where it is decomposed into H2 and O2 gases which, in turn, are stored in the high-pressure tanks. In the primary fuel cells, the H2 and O2 gases from the storage reservoirs are fed via manifolds to the anodes and cathodes of the cell stacks. Here the gases react electrochemically to produce electrical energy. The specific electrochemical reactions that take place within the cells depend on whether they are of the acid or alkaline type. The product water formed within the cells is removed by a gas recirculation scheme wherein water vapor is transferred to the hydrogen stream and then removed externally in a condenser. Thermal management is provided by circulating a coolant around the cell stack to absorb heat and then removing the heat in a radiator. Small heaters are incorporated to heat the stack up to operating temperature during startup. Fans and pumps are used to circulate the gases and coolants. Hydrogen and oxygen are stored as cryogenic liquids in metal storage tanks (titanium, Inconel, or aluminum).

In the regenerative fuel cells, the product water from the fuel cell stack is fed to an electrolysis unit where it undergoes electrochemical decomposition into H2 and O2 gases. The specific reactions that take place within the electrolyzer again depend upon whether it is of the acid or alkaline type. In the acid electrolyzer: Anode: Cathode: Overall:

(4.55) (4.56) (4-57)

In the alkaline electrolyzer: Anode: Cathode: Overall:

(4.58) (4.59) (4.60)

The gases from the electrolyzers are first passed through a condenser to remove water and then transferred to their respective storage tanks. The water is transferred to the water reservoir tank. Both the fuel cell and electrolyzer portions generate heat during operation and must be cooled. This cooling is provided by circulating a coolant through the outer shells of each to a heat exchanger and then to a radiator. During some conditions it is necessary to supply heat to one unity or the other to maintain operating temperatures. This is provided by circulating the hot coolant from one to the other via the heat exchanger. The regenerative fuel cells are intended for use on long term orbital missions requiring very high power levels up to 500 kW. These missions include a wide range, from low Earth orbit to geosynchronous orbits. In these applications, the cells serve the same function as rechargeable batteries, i.e., to provide power during eclipse periods to all spacecraft loads. The cells are recharged during the light period. The advantages include: 1) high energy density (mass), 2) projected high cycle life, and 3) built-in state of charge indicator. The disadvantages include: 1) low volumetric energy density, 2) high cost, 3) relatively low energy efficiency, 4) complex assembly (numerous interconnecting parts, and 5) complex operation (many controls required). The potential hazards are: 1) all of the same hazards of primary fuel cells above, and 2) external leakage problems are enhanced by high pressure storage and numerous gas plumbing connections.

8.6 Direct methanol liquid-feed fuel cell/PEM In 1991, a breakthrough in fuel cell technology was demonstrated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the University of Southern California on a U.S. DARPA-sponsored pro-

gram. This fuel cell is similar to the PEM cell described above that uses H2 as the fuel. This technology utilizes an aqueous liquid methanol solution (presently only 3%) directly without reformer as the fuel. Methanol has a theoretical capacity of 5 kW/liter. The Direct Methanol, Liquid-Feed, Fuel Cell with Proton Exchange Membrane (DMLFFC/ PEM) uses either compressed air or oxygen as the oxidant. The only products of reaction are water and carbon dioxide. The system is being considered for use on Mars where the concentration of CO2 is high and the product would not have an effect. The reactions of the DMLFFC/PEM are: (4.61) (4.62) (4.63) Laboratory versions of the fuel cell operating directly on a 3% methanol/water solution at a temperature of 9O0C have delivered a continuous output of 50 A on a 4" x 6" electrode (300 mA/cm2) at 0.55 V with oxygen. The peak power of >320 mW/cm2 occurs at 100 A. The size of a 5 kW stack is projected to be an 8-inch cube with a weight of less than 1 kg. A 50 W DMLFFC/PEM full system has been demonstrated using a recently developed methanol sensor that controls the flow of methanol to the aqueous mixing tank. Two twelve-cell DMLFFC/PEM stacks (eleven cells per inch) in parallel were integrated into a complete system and continuous operation was demonstrated. The DMLFFC/PEM concept is shown in Figure 4.25. The heart of the technology is the central section that comprises the .020-inch thick membrane electrode assembly (MEA). The MEA consists of the proton exchange membrane sealed between two carbon electrodes containing the catalyst. The 3% aqueous methanol enters the anode chamber and is converted at the electrode interface to six protons (H+), six electrons (e~), and carbon dioxide (CO2). The protons diffuse through the membrane and react at the Cathode interface with air and the returning electrons to produce water. The theoretical energy density of methanol is five kWh/liter compared with cryogenic hydrogen of 2.7 kWh/liter. An efficiency of 34% or 1.7 kWh/liter has been achieved in a five cell stack. The Nafion, in addition to serving as a good proton conductor, also allows methanol to diffuse from anode to cathode. The reaction at the cathode is equivalent to oxidizing methanol, with CO2 and water as the same products as the electrochemical reaction. However, the result is a loss in efficiency of approximately 20%. A new membrane, with the same conductivity as Nafion and reduced methanol crossover to 90%) uranium fuels. Table 5.9 lists thermophysical properties and other characteristics for a few of the fuels considered for space reactors in the U.S. Uranium dioxide and uranium nitride are relatively well developed fuel forms. A variety of carbide fuels are candidates, and the Russians have undertaken the most recent R&D work on carbides. For power reactors, the nuclear fuel system must meet some very stringent requirements, including: • Operation at high temperatures • Stability at moderate burnup for many years

Table 5.9 Characteristics of Space Reactor Fuels (after Matthews et al, 1994) Property Theoretical density (gm/cc) Theoretical U density (gm/cc) Melting point (K) Thermal conductivity @1273K(W/m-K) Heat capacity @ 1500 K (J/mol-K) Thermal expansion coeff to 1273 K (nm/m-K) U vapor pressure @ 2000 K(Pa) Relative stability Relative swelling Relative fission gas release Relative fabricability

UO2 10.96 9.66 3100 3.5

UN 14.32 13.52 3035* 25

UC 13.63 12.97 2775 23

UC2 11.68 10.60 2710 18

(U02Zr08)C099 8.01 2.88 3350** 30

71.1

65.3

66.5

98.8

57.8

10.1

8.9

11.2

12

7.6

4xlO"3

2xl0"2

IxIO"5

2xl0"5

SxIO-6

Moderate Low High Easy * Dissociation temperature

Low High High Mid Low Mid Low Low Mid Difficult Moderate Easy **Solidus temperature

High High Mid Difficult

• Long-term compatibility with cladding materials • Acceptable volumetric swelling and release of gaseous fission products • Manufacturable in the desired form, enrichment, grain size, and stoichiometry To varying degrees, the Russians have developed four space reactor power systems: Bouk, Romashka, TOPAZ, and Enisy. Figure 5.8 illustrates Bouk that powered 32 RORSAT ocean surveillance satellites, as listed in Table 5.5. The reactor is a fast spectrum design with uranium fuel rods containing a few percent molybdenum (Rasor, 1997). Bouk system mass is 900 kg. The RORSAT power requirement was 2.3-2.5 kWe for 2.5-3 months (IPPE, 1992), and although the longest RORSAT flight was less than 6 months, reactor life from ground testing is reported to be in excess of one year. After 6 months, however, power output was less than half of the initial 3 kWe (Rasor, 1997). Bouk and Romashka are fast-spectrum reactors with beryllium reflector control. Both use SiGe thermoelectrics for energy conversion. However, the Bouk fuel is an enriched uranium-molybdenum alloy, while Romashka uses enriched uranium dicarbide. The Bouk reactor is cooled by a NaK loop similar to SNAP-10A, while the Romashka is designed for direct thermal radiation from the outer diameter of the reactor vessel to the thermoelectrics, somewhat similar to an RTG configuration. Six complete Bouk units are reported to exist in Russia (Rasor, 1997). It is unclear how many, if any, Romashka units Russia built or tested, but life tests of 15,000 hours are reported for the fuel and fuel elements (Kurcharkin et aL, 1990). The two Russian in-core thermionic reactor systems, TOPAZ and Enisy, are de-

Thermal power

80-100 kWth

Electrical power

3 kWe net

Design life

~3 months

Power conversion

SiGe thermoelectrics

Reactor Coo Ian i

Fast spectrum U-Mo alloy fuel NaK

Coolant temperature (Reactor outlet)

950K

Radiator temperature

55OK

System mass

900 kg

Figure 5.8 Russian Bouk Reactor Power System

picted in Figures 5.9 and 5.10, respectively. Both are moderated cores with highlyenriched UO2 fuel. Both produce about 5 kWe plus an additional 1 kWe to operate the electromagnetic pumps. Both weigh 1000-1200 kg. The primary difference is that TOPAZ employs a multicell TFTE design, while the Enisy TFE is a single cell. The difference is illustrated is Figure 5.11. The TOPAZ multicell TFE is analogous to battery cells in a flashlight wherein individual fueled thermionic diodes are stacked in series within a cylinder. As a result, each TFE generates a voltage equal to the number of diodes in the stack times the voltage per diode. This advantage becomes more important for systems designed to produce many tens or hundreds of kilowatts. On the other hand, the Enisy single cell produces only the voltage of one diode, but the central fuel cavity enables testing and checkout of each TFE and the complete system with electric heaters substituted for the nuclear fuel. Fuel can be inserted anytime prior to launch, including on the launch pad, so logistics are simplified. Also, subsystem designs for the cesium supply and fission gas venting are somewhat simpler with the single-cell TFEs. Most of the in-core thermionic work in the U.S. has been with multicell TFEs. Table 5.10 shows the design characteristics and performance after 90 and 180 days of operation for the two TOPAZ prototypes and two flight systems (Andreev et al.t 1993). Russian analysis of these data attributes the observed degradation of all four units to reactivity changes due to hydrogen loss from the ZrH moderator and to small

Thermal power

130-150 kWth

Electrical power

5 kWe net

Output voltage

32 volts

Design life

1 year+

Power conversion

Multicell TFEs (79 total, 5-6 cells/TFE)

Emitter temperature Radiator temperature

1725 K 825-875 K

Radiator area

7 m2

Reactor

UO2 fuel ZrH moderated

System mass

1200 kg

Figure 5.9 Russian TOPAZ Reactor Power System

amounts of this hydrogen entering the interelectrode gap in the thermionic fuel elements. The flight prototypes operated for 143 days and 342 days, respectively, until the flow-through cesium system exhausted its on-board supply. Enisy is an alternative in-core thermionic design developed in parallel with TOPAZ. The power section of the Enisy core consists of 34 single-cell TFEs connected in series. Three additional TFEs provide power to the NaK loop pump. Figure 5.12 shows the Enisy single-cell TFE. Over its 20-year development period, Russia fabricated approximately 28 Enisy systems (Voss and Rodriguez, 1994). These systems are designated as either V, Ya, Eh or SM. The V units were either thermophysical or mechanical systems. Ya units were nearly prototypic and could be used for all types of ground tests, including nuclear ones. Systems developed as intended flight units carried the Eh designation. SM indicates static mockups used to check structural integrity. Ya-81 was the most successful nuclear test, accumulating a total of 12,500 hours of operation. Power output was 4.5 kWe with a core thermal level of 105 kWt and a reactor coolant outlet of about 800 K (Voss and Rodriguez, 1994). From 1992 through 1995, U.S. researchers conducted non-nuclear performance tests of two Enisy units, V71 and Ya-21u, at the University of New Mexico Engineering Research Institute in

Thermal power

150 kWth

Electrical power

5 kWe net

Output voltage

29 volts

Design life

1 year+

Power conversion

Single-cell TFEs (34 + 3 for EM pump)

Emitter temperature

1900K

Radiator temperature

850-900 K

Radiator area

7-10 m*

Reactor

UO1 fuel ZrH moderated

System mass

1000-1200 kg

Figure 5.10 Russian Enisy Reactor Power System

Albuquerque, NM (Thome et al9 1995; Luchau et a/., 1996). Ya-21u tests also included shock and vibration. Unfortunately, the heat input to the reactors was limited because of concerns about overheating the insulators and bellows at the ends of the TFEs (due to the flat heating profile of the electric heaters). Hence, the output power was only about 3 kWe.

6. Safety No discussion of space nuclear power is complete without addressing the accompanying safety issues. In fact, safety has a major impact on the design of the power system, particularly the radioisotope heat source or nuclear reactor. This section focuses on the safety criteria and formal launch safety review process used in the U.S. In addition, some information is included on the Russian safety experience and on international developments on the subject.

Emitter

Emitter

Collector

Collector Fuel

Fuel Pellet Gap Gap

Centra! Void

TOPAZ Multicell  TFE

Enisy Single Cell  TFE

Figure 5.11 Multicell and Single Cell Thermionic Fuel Element

6.1 U.S. safety In the U.S., the top-level safety objective is to minimize the interaction of the human population and the biosphere with the nuclear material in the system. The associated safety analysis and test program applies the principles of probabilistic risk assessment in conjunction with international guidelines for allowable radiation exposure levels. The U.S. safety record on space nuclear power has been excellent. As listed in Table 5.1, accidents have occurred on missions involving nuclear power, specifically the Transit 5BN-3 failure in 1964, the Nimbus-B 1 launch abort in 1968, and the damaged Apollo13 reentry in 1970. In all cases, the safety systems performed as designed. However, each new mission raises specific issues, either from new accident scenarios and environments or from additional information on materials and systems. Consequently, the full safety evaluation process is invoked for each mission utilizing nuclear power. Overall safety is ultimately the responsibility of the user agency, either NASA or DoD to date. As the designer and producer of space nuclear power systems, DOE has a statutory responsibility for nuclear safety. DOE works closely with the user agencies to assure that safety requirements are met in the design of the power system, spacecraft, and mission. Although the focus of the safety program is the nuclear fuel, all hazardous materials that are part of the power system are included in the safety assessment program. Since all but one of the nuclear power systems used on U.S. missions have been

Table 5.10 Flight and Ground Test Results for Russian TOPAZ Space Reactor (after Andreev, et. aL, 1993; Bogush, et. al, 1992)

Working section2 power, kWe Thermal power, kWt

NaK temperature at reactor outlet, K Change in reactivity, percent Output voltage (positive current tap), volts Cesium vapor generator temperature setting, K

Design 90 days 180 days Design 90 days 180 days Design 90 days 180 days 90 days 180 days Design 90 days 180 days Design 53 days 100 hours 97 days

1st Prototype1 Flight3 5.7 5.57 4.8 150 173 177 840 868 876 -0.26 -0.46 14.8 8.5 8.5 597

Ground 5.7 5.6 5.57 150 167 178 835 855 873 -0.17 -0.57 14.0 14.0 13.5 597 609

Flight 5.6 5.6 5.0 144 164 176 819 848 873 -0.13 -O.50 14.5 12.4 12.0 585

2nd Prototype1 Ground 5.75 5.75 5.6 147 161 173 823 840 865 -0.04 -0.25 14.0 14.0 14.0 585

575 575

1

The thermionic emitter in both prototypes is monocrystalline molybdenum, but the second prototype adds a monocrystalline tungsten coating. The working section is comprised of 62 multicell thermionic fuel elements. An additional 17TFEs provide power to operate the NaK loop pump. 3 Data listed as 180 days are actually for 142 days just prior to shut-down. 2

RTGs, the current safety programs, criteria, and processes are directed toward the issues related to containment of the 238PuO2 fuel. Safety philosophy is to prevent release and minimize interaction of the fuel with the environment. One of the reasons for using the oxide form of the fuel is its stability and resistance to environmental interaction, e.g., it is non-pyrophoric and generally insoluble both in water and the human body. Allowable dose levels and health effects are based primarily on the work of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP, 1986). The basic objective in design of the radioisotope heat source is containment of the fuel during normal operating modes and under all credible accident conditions during every phase of the mission. Although all risk situations are addressed quantitatively in the safety assessment, the primary issue related to 238PuO2 is pulverization/atomization and airborne dispersion of any portion of the fuel at respirable particle sizes, i.e., generally smaller than about 10 microns aerodynamic diameter. Particles of this size have the potential of retention in the lungs if inhaled. Although the radiation levels are low in that event, an individual who is exposed for a long period of time has a greater potential for developing cancer.

Monocrystal

SS Bellows

Insulator Seal Nb Nb Collar Collar

Polycrystal a°3 Al Insulator Seal Nb Collar

Nb Collar

Sc2 O Spacer3 Polycrystal Mo Coifector

Plasma Sprayed Alumina Cs Gap Insulator

Top

of Core

UO2 Fuel Region

Monocrystal Mo Emitter

Figure 5.12 Enisy Single Cell Thermionic Fuel Element

Polycrystal

Monocrystal

Insulator Sea) Nb Nb Collar Collar

Insulator Seal Nb Nb Collar Collar

Bottom of Core

Typically, some combination of events can be postulated for which total containment of the radioisotope cannot be assured. Probabilistic risk assessment must account for the sequential likelihood of the following: 1) the incidence of a credible accident, 2) resulting amounts of fuel release, if any, 3) particle sizes contained in that release, 4) local and worldwide distribution mechanisms (including meteorological data), 5) all potential pathways to population exposure, 6) individual and collective radiation dose projections, and 7) the dose conversion factors for fatal cancer induction. The steps in the safety assessment are (NUS, 1990): Identification of potential accident scenarios and probabilities For each accident, determination of the physical environments to which the RTG will be subjected Evaluation of the RTG response to these environments Analysis of the frequency, severity, and characteristics of potential fuel releases Calculation of the consequences (individual and collective doses, latent cancer fatality projections, and land contamination) of any release Assessment of mission radiological risk (consequence and probability). For each space mission utilizing nuclear power, a formal Safety Analysis Report is required that assesses the potential radiological risk to the world population. The space mission portion begins at the launch pad with pre-launch activities, like spacecraft integration, and extends through the entire operational phase of the system. Fuel and power system fabrication, handling, and transportation are covered by separate regulations of the DOE, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), and Department of Transportation (DOT). The Safety Analysis Report typically evolves through two or three versions. At the preliminary stage of mission planning, a Preliminary Safety Analysis Report (PSAR) is prepared that contains all relevant information that can be assembled at that early stage. For most missions, an Updated Safety Analysis Report (USAR) is also developed as detailed results become available. The key document is the Final Safety Analysis Report (FSAR) which contains the final results of the risk assessment. The FSAR must define and address all credible accidents through all phases of the mission. In addition, the probabilistic risk assessment assigns probabilities to each event and to the potential release and distribution of radioisotope fuel that may result. The accident events considered include the following (Bennett, 1981): Pre-launch, launch and ascent phases: Explosion overpressure Projectile impact Land or water impact Liquid and solid propellant fires Sequential combinations of above events

Orbit and flight trajectory phases: • Reentry • Land or water impact • Post-impact environment for either land or water Although the safety assessment draws heavily on information (particularly test data) from previous work, the unique characteristics of each mission must be taken into account. For example, each version of each launch vehicle that might be used by the U.S. will have different overpressure, projectile, and propellant fire environments. Similarly, spacecraft design and RTG integration affect the launch pad abort impact conditions and post-launch reentry breakup analysis that defines the velocity, trajectory angle, and atmospheric conditions encountered by the heat source when it separates from the RTG. An issue of particular concern for the Galileo and Cassini missions is possible high-velocity reentry during an Earth flyby (used to add to the spacecraft velocity required to reach Jupiter and Saturn, respectively). Independent safety assessment is a key element in the U.S. safety process. Although the DOE Office of Nuclear Energy typically has primary responsibility for both development of the RTG and the safety assessment for the mission, this safety assessment is subject to internal review by a separate DOE safety office. In addition, a formal independent review is conducted by the Interagency Nuclear Safety Review Panel (INSRP) by virtue of Presidential Directive NSC/25 (White House, 1996) and various agency guidelines. The panel was established specifically to assure the safe use of nuclear power in space, and its membership consists of coordinators assigned by the heads of DOE, DoD, NASA and EPA. In addition, a representative from the NRC serves as an official advisor. The White House must approve the launch of any spacecraft with reactors or radioactive sources containing more than specified amounts based on International Atomic Energy Agency transportation regulations for radioactive material (IAEA, 1990). In the case Of238Pu, that amount is approximately 5 Curies. Figure 5.13 depicts the sequence in the overall safety review process, including the INSRP role. INSRP involvement begins informally at a very early stage of mission planning, and the formal INSRP review begins when the PSAR is issued. In addition to review of the safety work done by the program, INSRP generates separate safety assessments in several areas as independent checks. INSRP subpanels perform detailed investigations in the areas of launch aborts, reentry, power systems, meteorology, and biomedical and environmental effects (Sholtis et al, 1994; Sholtis et al, 1991). The end product of the INSRP review is an independent Safety Evaluation Report (SER) for the mission wherein the coordinators' findings are reported to the project and to the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) at the White House (INSRP, 1990, for example). In conjunction with other executive entities, such as the National Security Council, the White House makes the final judgment on the benefits of the mission, justifying the risk involved.

INSRP independent review Conceptual design & analysis

PSAR

Final design

INSRP independent review FSAR

USAR Final tests data& analysis

Interim tests data& analysis

National Security Council

DoD

INSRP review &SER

Government furnished data

DOE

EPA

NASA

NRC

Office of the President

Other agencies Office of Science & Technology Policy

Independent tests & analysis Operational analysis Figure 5.13 U.S. Flight Safety Review Process for Space Nuclear Power Sources

The safety approach and process for reactors are similar to RTGs, but the specific issues and requirements differ somewhat. The key safety objective for reactors is to maintain subcriticality during all pre-orbit periods and under all credible accident conditions. This objective differs from the key safety concern for terrestrial reactors for which preventing the release of irradiated fuel during and after operation is paramount. Since the U.S. has not launched a space reactor since 1965, the full safety process has not been implemented. However, specific criteria were re-established in the 1980s under the SP-100 program. These safety design criteria are: Remain subcritical (except for very short zero-power or low-power verification testing) through all pre-launch and launch phases until stable initial orbit is achieved Remain subcritical under all credible accident and post-accident conditions including: • On-pad explosions • Launch aborts • Reentry and Earth impact • Submersion and flooding in water, wet sand, or rocket propellant For Earth orbital missions, the operational (or final disposal) orbit shall be high enough so that the orbital lifetime is sufficient (typically about 400 years) to allow the core fission products to decay to the levels of the actinides prior to reentry Assure shutdown at end of operation through independent and redundant mechanisms, and post-shutdown removal of decay product heat In the event of inadvertent reentry, the fuel shall be either dispersed at high altitude or the core shall survive reentry and Earth impact essentially intact (to facilitate recovery) In order to be compact and lightweight, highly-enriched uranium (HEU) is the preferred fuel for space reactors. Because of the potential use of HEU for nuclear weapons, appropriate safeguard measures must be implemented for space reactor missions. Hence, both safety and safeguards become part of the review process.

6.2 Russian space nuclear safety experience Very little has been published on the safety process used by the Former Soviet Union. In recent years, Russia has reorganized various agencies involved in its space nuclear safety process, notably the Russian Space Agency, GosAtomNadzor RF, and the Federal Commission for Bio-Medical Issues and Emergencies. For RTGs and radioisotope heaters on the Mars 94/96 mission, Russia developed a temporary regulation while a permanent process was being established (Cook et al, 1994).

Much of the information released in the past has been in response to mishaps, notably the Cosmos 954 reentry over Canada in 1978. In recent years, however, several technical papers on the design of Russian space nuclear systems have been published, including information on safety criteria and experience. Since Russia routinely used reactors in the 1970s and 1980s to operate the low-orbit RORSAT ocean surveillance satellites, that experience can provide valuable insight into the adequacy of criteria and policies for future flights. Table 5.5 includes the Russian accidents involving space nuclear systems, the latest one being the RTGs on Mars 96. However, the incidents involving reactor flights have been of greater concern since, in the event of a malfunction, the short orbit lifetimes of the RORSATs can lead to the reentry of a radiologically hot reactor. In addition to Cosmos 954, the Bouk reactor on Cosmos 1402 reentered in 1982, and the one on Cosmos 1900 nearly reentered in 1988. In broad terms, the Russian safety policy for space reactors is similar to that outlined above for the U.S., but some design criteria differ. For example, in its launch configuration, the Enisy reactor goes critical in water (Marshall et ai, 1992). For the low-orbiting RORSATs, the safety approach was to separate the power system from the spacecraft at the end of mission, boost it to a high disposal orbit of > 700 km, and, for systems after Cosmos 954, separate the fuel elements from the reactor in that high orbit. If the core separation and reboost system failed, the intention was for the reactor to completely burn up in the atmosphere so that criticality after impact is precluded, and the maximum fallout would not exceed a dose of 0.5 mrem during the first year after the incident (Bennett, 1990). Unfortunately, several large pieces from the Cosmos 954 reactor and approximately 20 percent of the fuel were strewn over a large area in the vicinity of Canada's Great Slave Lake. Although it was subsequently determined that actual surface radiation levels and other impacts on the biosphere were relatively low (Bennett, 1990), the incident caused worldwide concern. Obviously, had the debris landed in a densely populated area, dealing with the problem would have been much more difficult. Although Russia continued to fly the Bouk-powered RORSATs after Cosmos 954, some safety design changes were introduced to assure high altitude burnup and dispersion in the event of reentry. In particular, the fuel elements were extracted from the core after transfer to high orbit, or, if the transfer failed, at the low orbit or early stages of reentry. The Cosmos 1402 core apparently burned up completely during its reentry. The near reentry of Cosmos 1900 illustrated the successful operation of reactor reboost triggered by passive activation. The first line of defense on reactor reentry was ground control commands to shut down the reactor, separate it from the spacecraft, reboost it to its disposal orbit, and eject the fuel elements from the reactor vessel. Ground command was precluded when communication with the spacecraft was lost in April 1988. However, the separation and reboost of the reactor were activated passively by deviation from the stabilization angle of the spacecraft (Gryaznov et ah, 1992).

63 International developments in space nuclear safety The Cosmos 954 reentry prompted much international concern over the use of space nuclear power. The primary forum for these discussions was the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS). In November 1978, the COPUOS Scientific and Technical Subcommittee (STSC) established a Working Group on the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space (WGNPS) to consider the relevant technical and safety issues (Bennett, 1987). The COPUOS Legal Subcommittee (LSC) participated, also. In 1981, the WGNPS issued a consensus report that described general safety procedures and reaffirmed that nuclear power systems can be used safely (U.N., 1981). The term "consensus" means that all members were in agreement. However, that consensus was subsequently broken, and several years of negotiations within the WGNPS and STSC ensued (Bennett, 1995). The eventual result of the discussions was a set of nonbinding principles adopted by the U.N. General Assembly in 1993 (U.N., 1993). In all, eleven principles were adopted, but the key one is "Principle 3. Guidelines and criteria for safe use." Although this principle reconfirms the general safety criteria employed by the U.S., it contains several controversial details. For example, it establishes a principal dose limit of 1 mSv/year to a limited geographical region and to individuals, but allows a subsidiary limit of 5 mSv/year for some years. Consequently, the U.S. is continuing to use its current safety criteria and assessment process (Bennett, 1995). The WGNPS noted several issues related to the principles prior to their adoption by the General Assembly, and the Preamble called for reopening the WGNPS discussions in 1995.

7. References Allied-Signal Aerospace Company brochure, Dynamic Space Power Systems, (AlliedSignal, Phoenix, AZ, 1988). Andreev, P. V. et aL, The Effect of Cosmic Space on the Basic Characteristics of the 'TOPAZ I" NPS and the EJES During their Joint Flight Tests, Ref: JV-15/183, (Russian Science Center "Kurchatov Institute," Moscow, 1993). Angelo, J. A. Jr. and Buden, D., Space Nuclear Power, (Orbit Book Company, Inc., Malabar, FL, 1985). Baksht, F. G., et al., Thermionic Converters and Low-Temperature Plasma, Academy of Sciences of the USSR A.F Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute, (U.S. Department of Energy DOE-TR-I, 1978). Bennett, G. L., Overview of the U.S. Flight Safety Process for Space Nuclear Power, Nuclear Safety Technical Progress Review, Vol. 2 2 ^ , July-August 1981.

Bennett, G. L., Flight Safety Review Process for Space Nuclear Power Sources, Proceedings of the 22nd Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference (IECEC 87), Paper #879046, (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, New York, 1987), 383-391. Bennett, G. L. and Lombardo, J. J., Technology Development of Dynamic Isotope Power Systems for Space Applications, Proceedings of the 22nd Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference (IECEC 87), Paper #879094, (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, New York, 1987), 366-372. Bennett, G. L., A Look at the Soviet Space Nuclear Power Program, Proceedings of the 24th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference (IECEC 89), Paper #899009, (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 1989), 1187-1194. Bennett, G. L., Historical Overview of the U.S. Use of Space Nuclear Power, Space Power, Vol. 8, No. 3, 1989, 259-284. Bennett, G L., Soviet Space Nuclear Power Reactor Incidents: Perception Versus Reality, Proceedings of the Seventh Symposium on Space Nuclear Power Systems, ElGenk, M. S. and Hoover, M. D., (eds.), CONF-900109, (University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, 1990), 168-174. Bennett, G. L., A Technical Review of the U.N. Principles on the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space, Proceedings of the 46th International Astronautical Congress, October 2-6,1995, Oslo, Norway, IAF-95-R.1.04, (International Astronautical Federation, 1995). Bennett, G. L., Hemler, R. J., and Schock, A., Space Nuclear Power: An Overview, AIAA Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 12, No. 5, September-October, 1996. Bhattacharyya, S. IL., An Assessment of the Soviet TOPAZ Reactors, (Argonne National Laboratory, February 15, 1991). Bogush, I. P., et al., The Main Principles of Design, Ground and Flight Tests of SNPS within "TOPAZ" Program, Transactions of the Anniversary Specialists Conference on Nuclear Power Engineering in Space, Obninsk, May 15-19, (Ministry of Atomic Power Engineering and Industry of the USSR, 1990). Bogush, L R, et al, The Main Purposes and Results of Flight Tests of SNPSs within the "TOPAZ" Program, Space Nuclear Power Systems 1989, El-Genk, M. S. and Hoover, M. D., (eds.), (Orbit Book Company, Inc., Malabar, FL, 1992), 457^60. Booz-Allen & Hamilton, Inc., The TOPAZ International Program: Lessons Learned in Technology Cooperation with Russia, 1995. Buden, D., Summary of Space Nuclear Reactor Power Systems (1983-1992), A Critical Review of Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion 1984-1993, El-Genk, M. S., (ed.), (American Institute of Physics Press, New York, 1994), 21-86. Buksaet al., SP-WO Technical Summary Report, JPLD-11818, Mondt, J. F., (ed.), (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, September, 1994).

Cook, B. A., Lange, R. G., and Pustovalov, A. A., A Comparison of the Launch Approval Processes Used in the U.S. and Russia for Nuclear Power Space Exploration Missions, Proceedings of the Eleventh Symposium on Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion, AIP Conference Proceedings 301, (American Institute of Physics Press, New York, 1994), 875-878. Corliss, W. R., SNAP Nuclear Space Reactors, AEC booklet, (U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, September, 1966). Dix, G. P. and Voss, S. S., The Pied Piper —A Historical Overview of the U.S. Space Power Reactor Program, Space Nuclear Power Systems 1984, El-Genk, M. S. and Hoover, M. D . , (eds.), (Orbit Book Company, Inc., Malabar, FL, 1985), 23-30. Gryaznov, G. M. and Pupko, V. Y., TOPAZ-I, Nature (Russian magazine), No. 10, October, 1991. Gryaznov, G. M., Nikolaev, V. S., Serbin, V. L, and Tyugin, V. M., Radiation Safety of the Space Nuclear Power Systems and Its Realization on the Satellite Cosmos1900, Space Nuclear Power Systems 1989, El-Genk, M. S. and Hoover, M. D., (eds.), (Orbit Book Company, Inc., Malabar, FL, 1992), 453-456. IAEA, Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material, 1985 Edition (as amended 1990), Safety Series No. 6, IAEASafety Standards, (International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 1990). ICRP Publication 48, The Metabolism of Plutonium and Related Elements, (International Commission on Radiological Protection, 1986). INSRP, Safety Evaluation Report for Ulysses, Report INSRP 90-01, VoIs I, II, and III, July 1990 (predecisional), (Interagency Nuclear Safety Review Panel September, 1990). IPPE Bulletin, Safety, Ecology, Radiation, Issue 2, (Institute of Physics and Power Engineering, Obninsk, Russia, 1992). Kelly, C. E. and Klee, P, M., Results of High Performance Conductively Coupled Thermoelectric Cell Life Tests, Proceedings of the Space Technology and Applications International Forum, Thirteenth Symposium on Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion, AIP Conference Proceedings 361, (American Institute of Physics Press, New York, 1996), 1227-1232. Kurcharkin, N. E., Ponomarev-Stepnoi, N. N., and Usov, V. A., Reactor-converter l Romashka' and the Perspectives of its Development, Proceedings of the Seventh Symposium on Space Nuclear Power Systems, El-Genk, M. S. and Hoover, M. D., (eds.), CONF-900109, (University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, 1990). Lange, R. G. and Mastal, E. F., A Tutorial Review of Radioisotope Power Systems, A Critical Review of Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion 1984-1993, El-Genk, M. S., (ed.), (American Institute of Physics Press, New York, 1994), 1-20. Luchau, D. M., Sinkevich, V. G., Wernsman, B., and Mulder, D. M., Final Report on Testing of TOPAZ II Unit Ya-Hu: Output Power Characteristics and System Capabilities, Proceedings of the Space Technology and Applications International

Forum, Thirteenth Symposium on Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion, AIP Conference Proceedings 361, (American Institute of Physics Press, New York, 1996), 1389-1394. Makhorin, O. I. et ah, Some Questions Concerning Safety on Emergency Landing in Dense Layers of the Atmosphere of Radionuclide Energy Sources Based on Plutonium-238 for Autonomous Station "Mars 94/96", Proceedings of the Space Technology and Applications International Forum, Thirteenth Symposium on Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion, AIP Conference Proceedings 361, (American Institute of Physics Press, New York, 1996), 975-979. Marshall, A. C , Voss, S. S., Haskin, E., and Standley, V., NEP Space Test Program Preliminary Nuclear Safety Assessment, Second Draft, U.S. Topaz II Flight Safety Team, October, 1992. Matthews, R. B., et al, Fuels for Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion: 1983-1993, A Critical Review of Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion 1984-1993, El-Genk, M. S., (ed.), (American Institute of Physics Press, New York, 1994), 179-220. NUS Corporation, Final Safety Analysis Report for the Ulysses Mission, Executive Summary, ULS-FSAR-OOl, (NUS Corporation, March 1990). Purdum, T. S., Russian Mars Craft Falls Short and Crashes Back to Earth, (New York Times, November 18, 1996). Rasor, N., personal communication, 1997. Schmidt, G. L., SNAP WA Test Program, (Rockwell International, Canoga Park, CA, September, 1988). Sholtis, J. A., Jr., et al., Technical Note: The lnteragency Nuclear Safety Review Panel's Evaluation of the Ulysses Space Mission, Nuclear Safety Technical Progress Journal, Vol. 32-4, October-December, 1991. Sholtis, J. A., Jr., et al, U. S. Space Nuclear Safety: Past, Present, and Future, A Critical Review of Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion 1984-1993, El-Genk, M. S., (ed.), (American Institute of Physics Press, New York, 1994), 269-304. Thome, F. V., Wyant, F. J., McCarson, T. D., Mulder, D., and Ponomarev-Stepnoi, N. N., A TOPAZ International Program Overview Design, Proceedings of the Twelfth Symposium on Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion, AIP Conference Proceedings 324, (American Institute of Physics Press, New York, 1995), 877-882. Truscello, V. C. and Rutger, L. L., The SP-100 Power System, Proceedings of the Ninth Symposium on Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion, AIP Conference Proceedings 246, (American Institute of Physics Press, New York, 1992), 1-23. U.N., Report of the Working Group on the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space on the Work of its Third Session, Annex II of Report of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee on the Work of its Eighteenth Session, U.N. Document A/ AC.105/287, (United Nations, February 13, 1981).

U.N., Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space, General Assembly Resolution A/RES/47/68, (United Nations, February 23, 1993). U.S. DOE, Atomic Power in Space, A History, DOE/NE/32117-H1, (U.S. Department of Energy, March, 1987). Voss, S. S., SNAP Reactor Overview, AFWL-TN-84-14, (Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, 1984). Voss, S. S., TOPAZ II Design Evolution, Proceedings of the Eleventh Symposium on Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion, AIP Conference Proceedings 301, (American Institute of Physics Press, New York, 1994), 791-802. Voss, S. S. and Rodriguez, E. A., Russian TOPAZ II System Test Program (1970-1989), Proceedings of the Eleventh Symposium on Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion, AIP Conference Proceedings 301, (American Institute of Physics Press, New York, 1994), 803-812. Ward, William, MIT Lincoln Laboratory, personal communication, 1994. White House, Scientific or Technological Experiments with Possible Large-Scale Adverse Environmental Effects and Launch of Nuclear Systems into Space, Presidential Directive/National Security Memorandum 25, PD/NSC-25, issued December 14, 1977; revised May 17, 1995; revised May 8, 1996.

CHAPTER 6 STATIC ENERGY CONVERSION

1. Introduction This chapter discusses the leading static energy conversion options for spacecraft power other than photovoltaics. Because photovoltaics are the mainstay of space power, Chapter 3 of this text has been devoted entirely to that topic. Four other static converter technologies are of primary interest: thermoelectric, thermionic, alkali metal thermal-toelectric conversion (AMTEC), and thermophotovoltaic (TPV, also briefly discussed in Chapter 3). For each of these converter options, this chapter explains the basic operating principles, provides a few pertinent equations, and describes the major system design features and trade-offs. As discussed earlier in Chapter 5, thermoelectric energy conversion is the principal technology for radioisotope power sources commonly used for outer planet exploration. In addition, the Russians used thermoelectrics for the 33 Bouk nuclear reactors that powered the RORSAT satellites, as did the only reactor launched by the U.S., SNAP1OA, in 1965. The last major U.S. space nuclear reactor development program for power generation, SP-IOO, baselined thermoelectrics of a different configuration. Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs) have played a role since the beginning of the U.S. space program, first as auxiliary power for Earth satellites, then as power for experiments deployed on the lunar surface, and since the early 1970s, as power for unmanned planetary exploration. RTGs have proven to be highly reliable and have far exceeded their design lifetimes in all missions. Systems launched in the 1970s are still operating. To varying degrees, the U.S. has investigated space power systems that use thermionic converters based on either solar, radioisotope decay, or nuclear reactors as heat sources. The bulk of the technical development occurred in the 1960s with renewed efforts in the 1980s and early 1990s. In contrast, Russia has maintained major programs in thermionic development since the 1960s; the two major system developments are the TOPAZ and Enisy space nuclear reactors using in-core thermionic fuel elements. Russia conducted two flight tests of the TOPAZ system in 1987. No power system has flown in space using either AMTEC or TPV. Although not as well developed as thermoelectrics and thermionics, the main advantage of these two technologies is relatively high efficiency. Short-term laboratory tests on both AMTEC and TPV have shown conversion efficiencies in excess of 20%. Thermoelectric and

thermionic converter efficiencies are typically less than 10%, and system efficiencies are 5% or less. U.S. interest in these technologies was renewed in the 1990s as options for the next generation of radioisotope systems for solar system exploration. In 1997, NASA and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) tentatively selected AMTEC as the leading candidate, and DOE initiated a system development program. However, they are continuing to work on other candidates as well.

2. Thermoelectrics The fundamental physical process involved in thermoelectrics is the Seebeck effect, named for Thomas Seebeck who first observed the phenomenon in 1821, although he misinterpreted the effect (Angrist, 1965). The Seebeck effect is the generation of an electromotive force within two dissimilar metals when their junctions are maintained at different temperatures. A common application of this principle is the use of thermocouples to measure temperature. Two wires of different metals are joined at two points: a hot junction typically at the temperature to be measured, and a cold junction, often an ice bath, against which the thermocouple has been calibrated. The electromotive force generated by the thermocouple is counteracted by an applied voltage so that no current flows. This applied voltage is converted to a temperature measurement by comparing it with a voltage-temperature correlation for the particular type of thermocouple. The two primary differences between thermocouple temperature measurement and thermoelectric power generation are that semiconductor materials are used instead of metals, and current flows in the generator in order to produce power. Semiconductor materials have significantly higher Seebeck coefficients than metals and are thus more suited to power generation. hot shoe

cold shoe

load

Figure 6.1 Principles of Thermoelectric Cell Operation

Figure 6.1 shows a schematic representation of a thermoelectric cell. It consists of individual legs of an n-type and a p-type semiconductor material. The hot junction between the n and p legs is formed by bonding of a hot shoe. Cold shoes are bonded to each leg, and an external load completes the circuit. In an actual converter consisting of many cells connected in series, the cold junction is formed by a current-conducting strap connecting cold shoes of adjacent cells. The Seebeck effect in the n-type material creates a flow of excess electrons from the hot junction to the cold junction. In the p-type material, holes (missing electrons) migrate toward the cold shoe creating a net current flow from the cold junction to the hot junction. Therefore, the electromotive force in both legs is such that current flow is augmented in the same direction through the circuit. The Seebeck coefficient, a, is defined as the change in voltage per degree of temperature gradient:

volts/K (or often uvolts/K)

(6.1)

To generate sufficient voltage for practical use, many thermoelectric cells are connected in series, and the cell voltages are additive. Alpha typically varies significantly with temperature, so the total open-circuit voltage generated by a thermoelectric converter is given by;

(6.2)

where Voc is the open circuit voltage of the converter in volts, NSeries is the number of cells connected in series, Tc is the cold junction temperature in K, TH is the hot junction temperature in K, \an\ is the absolute value of the Seebeck coefficient for the n leg in volts/K, and \ap\ is the absolute value of the Seebeck coefficient for the p leg in volts/K. Absolute values are indicated because Seebeck coefficients for n-type materials are often expressed as negative values, depending on convention. Eq. (6.2) assumes that the hot and cold junction temperatures are the same for all cells. Temperature variations exist in an actual converter so a more accurate analysis would be a summation of the integrals for each cell. When the load is connected to the circuit, current will flow as a result of the voltage generated by the thermoelectric cells. The total current flow depends on two factors: the total resistance in the circuit and the number of parallel strings of series-connected cells in the converter. Parallel connections are made to improve reliability. If a cell breaks, a bond fails, or some other connection is broken in one string, power will still be

generated by the other strings. The total electrical resistance (in ohms) for the circuit is the sum of the following: resistance of the load powered by the converter resistance of the n thermoelectric legs resistance of the p thermoelectric legs contact resistance at the hot and cold shoe bonds and connections resistance of the leads between the thermoelectric converter and the load. The contact resistance is usually determined empirically and a typical value is about 10-20% of the leg resistances. The lead resistance is also on the order of 10% or less, depending on the total current output of the generator. A thermoelectric converter is designed so that each parallel string will as nearly as possible produce the same voltage. Therefore, the current in each string will be nearly equal, and the total output current is the sum of these or the number of strings times the current in each string. Unlike a thermocouple used to measure temperature, the current flow through a thermoelectric converter introduces additional physical phenomena that must be included in the analysis. The one having the most influence on the converter is the Peltier effect. Jean Peltier observed this phenomenon in 1834, but like Seebeck he failed to interpret it correctly (Angrist, 1965). Simply stated, the Peltier effect is the heating or cooling that occurs at the junction of two dissimilar conductors due to a current flowing through it. This thermal energy is in addition to the effects of Joule heating in the conductors. In a thermoelectric cell, Peltier heat is removed from the hot junction and released at the cold junction. The Peltier coefficient is defined as the Peltier heat generated at the junction divided by the current flowing through it. The effective value of the coefficient is the difference between the values for the p and n semiconductor materials. The Peltier heat can be calculated by: (6.3) where Qn is the Peltier heat in watts, /is the current through the junction in amps (equal to the current in each string), nnp is the Peltier coefficient at the junction in volts, np is the Peltier coefficient of the p-type material in volts, and Kn is the Peltier coefficient of the n-type material in volts. Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) derived a theoretical relationship between the Peltier and Seebeck coefficients known as Kelvin's second relation: (6.4) The second thermodynamic effect resulting from current flow is known as the Thomson effect. In 1855, Thomson deduced that heating or cooling is induced by cur-

rent flowing along a temperature gradient (Angrist, 1965). As with the Peltier heat, the Thomson thermal energy is in addition to the Joule heating in a conductor. This thermal energy is calculated by:

(6.5)

where Q1 is the Thomson heat in watts, T is Thomson coefficient in volts/K, and / is the current through the thermoelectric leg in amps (again, equal to the current in each string). The Thomson coefficient can be positive or negative depending on whether the effect heats or cools the leg. The magnitude of Thomson heating is relatively small, and its effect is often ignored in the analysis (Kelly, 1997). The energy balance at the hot junction is of most interest because, along with heat losses that bypass the thermoelectrics, it defines the heat input required to operate the converter at its design conditions. Heat is removed from the hot junction by thermal conduction through both legs of the cell and by Peltier cooling. In addition, the Joule heating in each leg is dissipated at the junctions, and the usual assumption is that half goes to each. A small amount of Joule heating in the hot shoe can be neglected. The heat that must be input to each thermoelectric cell is given by: (6.6) where

(6.7)

where Xpt Xn are the thermal conductivities in watts/cm-K for the p and n legs, and Qn is Peltier heat in watts from Eq. 6.3. Joule heat in watts :

(6.8)

where / is the current through the thermoelectric leg in amps, and Rp and Rn are the resistances in ohms of the n and p legs. The total heat required is the sum of the heat into all of the cells plus any bypass losses. In an RTG, the bypass losses are the heat flow through the thermal insulation

between the cells and at the ends of the converter, and the conduction loss through the heat source supports at each end. The preferred material properties are high Seebeck, low electrical resistivity, and low thermal conductivity. High Seebeck increases the voltage per cell. Low electrical resistivity reduces internal resistance losses, thus increasing output current. Low thermal conductivity reduces the heat losses through the thermoelectric legs. The standard measure of thermoelectric performance combines these three properties and is known as the Figure of Merit, Z, of the material. (The dimensionless product ZT is sometimes used for Figure of Merit as well.) It has units of K"1 and is defined as: (6.9) Figure 6.2 shows the Figure of Merit for several thermoelectric materials. Although

TEMPERATURE [0F)

X01 ID') 3 KFIGUREOF-MERIT (

X1 10-3) FIGURE-OF-MERLTK-(0

TEMPERATURE [0Fl

TEMPERATURE IK)

n-type

TEMPERATURE (K) p-type

Figure 6.2 Figure of Merit for Thermoelectric Materials (after Anderson et al, 1983)

the telluride compounds have much higher values of Z than SiGe, it is important to note that the temperature range of operation is significantly lower. Hot junction temperature capabilities of tellurides in increasing order are bismuth telluride (BiTe), lead telluride (PbTe), TAGS (tellurium, antimony, germanium, and silver in a solid solution of silver antimony telluride in germanium telluride), and lead tin telluride (PbSnTe). All have been used in space (except BiTe which has been used for terrestrial applications), and all SNAP RTGs used various telluride compounds for the thermoelectrics. The main

advantage that led to the introduction of silicon germanium (SiGe) is its ability to operate at higher hot side temperatures in a vacuum. Although the telluride compounds have a higher Figure of Merit than SiGe, they are limited in hot junction temperature, the maximum being around 800 K. Since both the n and p legs operate at essentially the same hot junction temperature, the design limit is set by the leg with the lowest capability. The SiGe cells used in today's RTGs typically operate at 1273 K at the hot junction and 573 K at the cold junction. Because cold side temperature has a strong influence on radiator size, optimum RTG designs with tellurides operate with a hot-to-cold temperature gradient of less than 500 K. The 100-200 K larger gradient possible with SiGe results in higher system specific powers. The upper limit is due to the sublimation rate of SiGe in a vacuum. Another significant disadvantage of the tellurides is the need for an inert cover gas to both prevent chemical reactions with oxygen and suppress sublimation. Since SiGe can operate in a vacuum, long-term sealing to retain the cover gas is not an issue. Also, heat losses are reduced because vacuum multifoil insulation can be used which has a lower effective thermal conductivity than the fibrous-type insulation (usually a form of Min-K developed by Johns Manville) used in the SNAP RTGs, Figure 6.3 depicts the details of an individual SiGe unicouple developed for the Multi-Hundred Watt RTG (MHW-RTG) and used in today's General Purpose Heat Source RTG (GPHS-RTG). The n and p legs are the same size, 2.74 mm x 6.50 mm x 31.1 mm long. Both are segmented for higher performance and improved bonding, particularly at the cold shoe. Most of each leg is 78 atomic percent Si, with 63.5 atomic percent Si at the cold end. Boron is used as a dopant to achieve p-type semiconductor properties, and phosphorous dopant is used to create the n leg. Each leg is bonded to a SiMo hot shoe that creates the hot junction and collects the heat radiated from the GPHS. Hot

HEATSHUNT {0.06 cm) WCOMPENSATOR (0.05) Cu PEDESTAL (0.05 cm) WCOLDSHOE (0.05 cm) ASTROQUARTZ YARN WRAP 85 wt% SrMo PSHOE

CONNECTOR (0.05 cm) Ti NUTPLATE AI2O3 N I SULATOR {0.05 cm) 63.5% AT% SG i eSEGMENTS MC I ROQUARTZ INSULATION 78%AT% SG i e LEGS 85 w% t SM io N-SHOE ALUMINA

Figure 6.3 SiGe Unicouple used in U.S. RTGs (Courtesy of U.S. Department of Energy)

shoe dimensions are 22.9 mm square x 1.9 mm thick. A thin alumina insulator prevents the hot shoe from shorting to the multifoil insulation. To prevent excessive sublimation, the hot shoes and the 78 atomic percent segments of the legs are coated with silicon nitride. Microquartz thermal insulation is inserted between the legs, and astroquartz yarn is wrapped around the outside of the legs to reduce heat loss and prevent leakage currents to the molybdenum foils. On the cold side, a stack of materials allows for bonding, compensates for thermal expansion differences, and makes the electric circuit connections. A tungsten cold shoe bonded to each SiGe leg is in turn bonded to a copper pedestal. The pedestal is attached to the copper intercell by connecting straps that are initially folded inward so the unicouple can be inserted into the multifoil stack from the hot side. Once inserted, the straps are bent out to allow a riveted connection between adjacent unicouples. To prevent electrical shorting, an alumina insulator is bonded under the straps and is thin enough so as not to add a large temperature drop between the SiGe legs and the radiator. A copper shunt is used to conduct this heat around the titanium nut that accepts the mounting screw inserted though the outer shell. The key properties of SiGe change with time of operation due to precipitation of the phosphorus and boron dopants at the grain boundaries in the SiGe material. Although the Seebeck coefficient increases and the thermal conductivity decreases, the increase in electrical resistivity is enough to cause a net reduction in the Figure of Merit. Hence, converter performance degrades with time. Figure 6.4 shows the data for the flight RTGs on the Galileo spacecraft (Kelly and Klee, 1997). The power loss includes the loss of input heat due to radioactive decay of the 238PuO2 radioisotope in the heat source (87.8 year half life). These loss mechanisms have been well defined and modeled, and as can be seen, RTG power exceeded predictions and requirements. During the SP-IOO program, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory achieved modest improvements in SiGe performance, but the manufacturing processes for these advanced materials have not been fully developed (Vinning and Fleurial, 1994).

3. Thermionics As discussed in Chapter 5, thermionic conversion has been a technology of major interest for space nuclear reactor systems. Russia in particular has done a great deal of development, including two flight tests of the TOPAZ system, known as TOPAZ I in the U.S. The U.S. undertook considerable work in the 1960s and again in the 1980s and early 1990s, but only a few small efforts continue. Thermionic converters were developed and tested for nuclear reactor, radioisotope, and solar systems; however, the U.S. has conducted no flight tests. Figure 6.5 depicts a recent U.S. thermionic converter which can be used with either a solar concentrator or an out-of-core nuclear reactor. Similar converters were built and tested in the 1960s. In addition to space systems,

BUS POWER- WATTS

MEASURED POWER

Earth #1

Earth #2

PREDICTED POWER

Asteroid Probe

Jupiter Venus

REQUIRED POWER

Calender Year Figure 6.4 Flight Data for RTGs on the Galileo Spacecraft (Courtesy of Lockheed Martin Corporation)

thermionic technology has been a candidate for Naval propulsion and as topping systems for commercial power plants. This R&D work covered many types of thermionic systems designed for several operating regimes. This section will identify those regimes and briefly review the ideal thermionic converter. However, virtually all of the practical designs for power production fall into the broad category of vapor thermionic converters, i.e., those that incorporate ionized gas between the electrodes. Cesium is by far the gas most commonly used for this purpose. For these reasons, the discussion will focus on cesium vapor thermionic processes in operating regimes commonly used in space power system design. More specifically, emphasis is on high-pressure diodes meaning that conditions in the interelectrode gap are dominated by collisional processes among the electrons, ions, and atoms. A diode is treated as high pressure when the product of the cesium pressure and the electron mean free path exceeds 2.5 mil-torr (Rasor, 1997). The reader is cautioned that the following discussion is a top-level, primarily qualitative, summary of thermionic diode processes and characteristics within a somewhat limited set of operating parameters and conditions. Complex local thermodynamic processes occur in the

Emitter lead

Collector lead

Rhenium collector

Insulator

Niobium heat pipe

Cesium reservoir tube

Rhenium emitter

Figure 6.5 Planar 30-Watt Thermionic Converter (Courtesy of U.S. Air Force)

plasma space and electrode sheaths that are beyond the scope of this discussion. For further details and other conditions, consult the reference list, particularly Rasor, 1991; McVey and Rasor, 1992; Baksht, et al9 1978; and Hatsopoulos and Gyftopoulis, 1973. Figure 6.6 depicts the basic operating principles of a cesium vapor thermionic diode. In theory, the process is fairly simple, but reducing it to practical devices has proven challenging. The process is simply to heat an emitter material (cathode) to a hot emitter

electron flow

Load Figure 6.6 Thermionic Operating Principles

cold collector

high temperature to drive electrons off the surface. These electrons then traverse a small gap between the emitter and a cooler collector (anode). An external load closes the circuit, and the electromotive potential created by the temperature difference between the electrodes drives the current. For space power systems, emitter temperatures in the range of 1700-2100 K and collector temperatures in the range of 700-1000 K are typical. Interelectrode gap widths usually fall in the range of 0.1 to 0.5 mm. In reality, many processes occur simultaneously in the plasma space and near the electrodes. To quote Baksht, et al, 1978, the plasma processes include "elastic scattering, excitation and de-excitation of the energy levels in the atoms, ionization and recombination, excitation of vibrational and rotational energy levels in molecules, charge exchange, formation of chemical compounds and radicals, etc." Viewed more simply, four fundamental processes occur simultaneously and interact to establish a thermodynamic balance for equilibrium operation in a cesium vapor diode. The processes are: Electron emission from the hot emitter Creation and maintenance of positive cesium ions in the interelectrode gap Particle kinetics in the interelectrode space Electron absorption at the collector surface Emission of electrons from the emitter is the key consideration in the design of a thermionic converter. Electrons near the surface of the material can escape from the surface if their energy level is raised to the point that it will overcome the inter-atomic forces holding it in place. This barrier is known as the work function, 0, of the material and is expressed in electron-volts (eV). The emission process can be viewed as boiling or evaporation of electrons, and the work function is analogous to the heat of vaporization. Thermionic performance is very sensitive to (j), and determining the effects of other system parameters on emitter arid collector work functions is fundamental to the design and comprehension of thermionic devices. In the absence of plasma effects, electric fields, and other processes (of which there are many in a thermionic converter), the maximum electron current leaving the emitter is known as the saturation current. Ideally, it is approximated by the RichardsonDushman equation: (6.10) where JES is the emitter saturation current density in amps/cm2, A is a constant equal to 120 amps/cm2-K2, TE is the emitter temperature in K, (f>E is the emitter work function in eV, k is Boltzmann's constant = 8.62 x 10~*5 eV/K. The value of the coefficient A is aerially dependent on the material. However, for the refractory metals typically used for thermionic electrodes, Eq. (6.10) is generally accepted. Furthermore, the experimental determination of 18% Efficiency High- Strength Substitution •   >86%  Linear Alternator Efficiency Superalloys

•   11.4  k№   Output

S S P C  T e c h n o l o g y  P r o g r a m  -  P r e s e n t  C o n t r a c t MTl 12.5  kWe 650K/325K MTI 25kWe 650K/325K

SPRE

MTI 12.5   kWe 525K/525K CTPC COLD

Wn/ LeRC 12.5  kWe 1050K/ 525K

CTPC

Mn 12.5  kWe 1O5OK/525K SSPC

SPDE LeRC 12.5  kWe 750K/325K

SPREzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONM

Figure 7.2 Evolution of the N ASA Space Free Piston Stirling Engine (Courtesy of N ASA)

molten salt (trade name H ITEC) supplied heat, and a water- glycol  loop cooled the engine (Dhar, zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA et al,  1987). Parametric tests  were  conducted with  the SPDE for  temperature ratios of  1.6- 2.0, mean  pressures  of  75- 150  bar,  and piston  strokes  of  10- 20  mm.  By  the  end  of  the program, all  of the design  point goals  were nearly  met, the major  deficiency  being that high eddy current losses in the linear alternators reduced measured electrical power to 17 kWe.  Indicated power and efficiency  from engine measurements were 25 kWe  (vs. a goal of 28.8 kWe)  and 22% (vs.  a goal  of 28%)  (Dhar, et al,  1987). Following  completion  of  the  SPDE  tests,  LeRC  conducted further  development using  the SPRE,  formed  by  taking  one- half  of  the SPDE  and mating  it  to a dynamic vibration  absorber.  The SPRE served  as a test bed for  developments  in hydrodynamic gas  bearings,  high  efficiency  linear  alternators, centering port optimization, displacer clearance seals, and cooler design  (Dudenhoefer, et al,  1994).  Several  design  improvements incorporated into the SPRE resulted in alternator output of  11.2 kWe  and system efficiency  of  about  19% (Dudenhoefer and Winter,  1991).  Pressure- volume  indicated efficiencies  of 23- 27%  were demonstrated over a wide range of power levels and operating pressures  (Dudenhoefer, et ah,  1994). The  SSPC incorporated major  advances  in space FPSE development  through improvements  in heater head  and cooler  design  and  fabrication,  regenerator  design,  re-

SYMMETRY TEST HEATER HEAT PIPE EVAPORATOR DS IPLACER GAS SPRN I GS

ALTERNATOR COOUNG BEARN IG PLENUM

PRESSURE VESSEL POWER PS I TON

OPPOSN IG DS I PUCERS

COOLER JOINING REGENERATOR RN IG MAGNETS "STARFISH" ALTERNATOR COL IS DS I PUCER HEATER STATORS POST AND FUNGE

PISTON. GAS SPRN IG PLUNGER

Figure 7.3 Configuration of the Stirling Space Power Converter (SSPC) (Courtesy of NASA)

duced bearing losses, and control (Dochat and Dhar, 1991). Most importantly, hot side temperature increased to 1050 K, considered the limit for superalloys, and the cold side operated at 525 K. Like the SPDE/SPRE, the opposed-piston configuration was used, and tests were conducted on one-half of the engine. Heat was supplied by a single, large annular sodium heat pipe that feeds multiple fins. This "Starfish" heater head is illustrated in Figure 7.4. To achieve the design lifetime of 60,000 hours, the SSPC would use Udimet 720 for its creep strength. However, the CTPC heater head was fabricated from Inconel 718, a superalloy that is much better characterized and more readily fabricated. The CTPC design and results constitute the state of the art for high-temperature, high-power FPSE technology. If lifetime can be achieved with the Udimet 720, a 1050 K/525 K Stirling system could be employed with either a reactor or solar heat source. Initial testing was done with the cold end of the CTPC. This test hardware is shown in Figure 7.5. Except for the lack of lifetime testing, this hardware successfully demonstrated all of the primary cold side performance goals: 12.5 kWe alternator at 20% efficiency, operation from ambient to 525 K, full displacer and piston stroke of 28

Condenser Section

Gas Passages

Evaporator Section

Nickel Mesh Wick

Mesh Artery Insulation

Heating Element Figure 7.4 Starfish Heater Head/Heat Pipe Assembly (Courtesy of NASA)

mm, 150 bar mean helium pressure, and 70 Hz frequency. In the linear alternator, the stator coils and insulation operated at 573 K, and the samarium cobalt (Sm2Co17) permanent magnets operated at 548 K (Dudenhoefer, et ah, 1994). Full design operation was also achieved with the Starfish heat pipe heater head installed. Figures 7.6 and 7.7 depict these results. LeRC analysis of the SP-100/Stirling system indicates that power density could be nearly doubled if a 1300 K/650 K system could be developed (Dudenhoefer and Winter, 1991). However, major material substitutions would be required on both the hot and cold sides of the FPSE. As shown in Table 7.1, LeRC has rated the suitability of several refractory alloys considered candidates for FPSE application. In general, complex refractory parts are difficult to manufacture and must operate in very high vacuum environments unless protective coatings can be developed. Compatibility with liquid metals, including low levels of impurities, is a significant issue, and one that is not yet fully resolved even with superalloys. On the cold side, 650 K operation necessitates new insulating and magnetic materials. Hence, the transition from 1050 K/525 K to 1300 K/ 650 K constitutes a major development step. In the 1990s, interest in high efficiency converters for radioisotope systems has prompted work on small FPSEs producing a few watts. Small FPSE engines using radioisotope decay as the heat source have been developed and tested. As of July 1998,

Gas spring cylinder

DispJacej Post& flange

Gas spring piston

Joining ring

Power piston cylinder & inner stator

Outer stator

Power piston

AJternator plunger

Pressure vessel

Figure 7.5 Component Test Power Converter (CTPC) Hardware (Courtesy of NASA) CTPC  HEAT  PIPE  ENGINE  TEST  (9/8/93) Pmean  =  15  MPa, Tratio  = 2, Tcooler  =  400K

Test

Alternator power output (kW)

HFAST

Piston amplitude (m) Figure 7.6 Measured CTPC Power (Courtesy of NASA)

CTPC HEAT PIPE ENGINE TEST (9/8/93) Pmean = 15 MPa, Tratio = 2, Tcooler = 400K

Test(Qin) Test (Ore)+ P aft)

System efficiency (%)

HFAST

Piston amplitude (m)

Figure 7.7 Measured CTPC Efficiency (Courtesy of NASA)

one 11 watt test engine had been endurance-tested for 44,000 hours (5 years) (White, 1998). However, the intended application was remote site power rather than space, so the cold side temperatures were low (293-368 K) (Montgomery et al, 1996).

3. Closed Brayton cycle Investigation of Brayton cycle systems for space applications began in the early 1960s based on technology developed by the aircraft industry. NASA and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) sponsored development of closed Brayton cycle (CBC) components and systems for both nuclear and solar heat sources. Designs were developed for a wide range of space applications from 500 watts to 100 kWe. Among the most significant of these developments was the Brayton Rotating Unit (BRU) that accumulated 41,000 hours of operation on one of the units at a nominal power of 10.7 kWe. The BRU was later modified with foil bearings and an upgraded alternator to 15 kWe. Designated BRU-F, it was used by NASA in the 1980s as a test bed for development of the Solar Dynamic Power Module, planned at that time for the Space Station (Overholt, 1994). Another unit, the Mini-BRU was developed as a part of the Brayton Isotope

Table 7.1 Refractory Material Candidates for 1300 K Stirling Engine Components (after Dudenhoefer and Winter, 1991) Base metal W

Melting point (K)

Density (gm/cc)

3680

19.3

3270

16.6

2880

10.2

Ta

Mo

Alloy name W-25ReHfC ASTAR-8 IfC

8% W l%Re l%HfC

TZM

0.08% Zr 0.5% Ti

TZC MoRe

Nb

2780

2740

15.5

8.6

Composition (wt %) 24-26% Re 1% HfC

1.25% Ti 0.1% Zr 0.15% C

Mo-47.5 Re

47.5% Re balMo

FS-85

11% W 28% Ta l%Zr

B-88

C-103

PWC-Il

Nb-IZr

27% W 2% HfC 10% Hf l%Ti 0.7% Zr 1% Zr 0.1% C

Joinability

Fabricability

Alloy availability

Data availability

Vacuum (torr)

5

4

4

3

10"6

8

8

10

5

IO" 8

2

8

10

4

10"6

2

6

10

4

io-6 8

6

8

3

io-8 8

8

5

4 IO"8

7

7

4

2

10

10

10

7

10

10

10

7

10

10

10

8

io- 8

1% Zr

io-8

Power System (BIPS) and produced 1.3 kWe during a 1000 hour endurance test at an overall efficiency of 28%. In 1995, NASA tested that same Mini-BRU unit with upgrades at 2.0 kWe as part of the Solar Dynamic Ground Test Demonstration (SDGTD) project. The most recent nuclear-based CBC system was the Dynamic Isotope Power System (DIPS) designed in the 1980s, also largely based on the Mini-BRU technology. The objective of the DIPS program was to extend the power range of Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs) into the 1-10 kWe range by replacing the thermoelectrics with a high-efficiency CBC system. A system design was developed for 6 kWe end-of-life operation. Figure 7.8 illustrates the ideal temperature-entropy diagram. In the CBC, gas is pressurized and heated, then expanded through a turbine to produce work. The ideal CBC consists of isentropic compression, isobaric heat addition, isentropic expansion, and isobaric cooling. Ideal performance is reduced by heat and flow losses, bearing losses, and irreversibilities in the compression and expansion processes. Cycle efficiency is improved significantly by adding an intermediate heat exchanger known as a recuperator. The recuperator recovers a large portion of the heat from the turbine exhaust and transfers it to the compressed gas flowing into the heat source. Hence, less heat is required from the heat source. Space CBC systems are normally optimized to minimize mass, although limiting the area of the waste heat radiator or increasing efficiency to reduce radioisotope inventory sometimes takes precedence. The key independent cycle parameters are (Overholt, 1994): • Output power • Compressor inlet temperature • Turbine inlet temperature T Qhealcr

Turbine expansion

Qirom recuperator

QlO recuperator

Compression Qcoolor

s Figure 7.8 The Ideal CBC Temperature-Entropy Diagram

• Recuperator effectiveness • Compressor pressure ratio • Pressure loss parameter • Shaft speed • Working fluid and molecular weight The design trades among these parameters are many. Output power is determined by the application, including mission duration and power system degradation over that time period. For high efficiency, low compressor inlet temperature is desired, but compressor inlet also sets the temperature of the waste heat radiator which in turn sets radiator size and mass. Although a recuperator increases efficiency, it adds mass and usually lowers the cold side temperature, thus adding to the size and mass of the radiator. Increasing recuperator effectiveness also increases its size and mass, but system mass generally optimizes at very high recuperator effectiveness. Recuperated CBCs optimize at relatively high turbine temperatures, which in turn reduces the pressure ratio required across the turbine. Lower pressure ratio simplifies the design of the turbine. Turbine inlet temperature is typically limited by the strength and compatibility of the materials used. Design speed is chosen to avoid resonance points, limit bearing loads, and achieve high alternator efficiency. The working fluid must be compatible with CBC materials and have desirable heat transfer and flow properties. The state of the art for CBC systems for space applications is embodied in the NASA solar dynamic designs and the DOE DIPS. Both CBC systems draw heavily on development work in the 1970s, particularly the BRU and Mini-BRU technology. Chapter 3 discusses the solar dynamic systems in more detail. The DIPS system diagram and state points are shown in Figure 7.9 and Table 7.2, respectively (Rockwell, 1988). The materials used for the various components are listed in Table 7.3 (Rockwell, 1988). The BRU and Mini-BRU constitute the state of the art for turboalternatorcompressor (TAC) technology for space applications. Figure 7.10 illustrates the MiniBRU TAC. For power levels less than about 100 kWe, radial turbomachinery can be used instead of more complex multistage axial schemes. Figure 7.11 shows several radial compressor and power turbines designed for space systems. The power conversion portion of the CBC is typically packaged as a single TAC unit with all three components mounted on a single shaft. The major advantage of this configuration is reliability because the alternator is housed within the gas system, so no external mechanical drive and associated seals are required. The TAC shaft is the only rotating component in that type of CBC design. This configuration also enables the use of self-actuated foil gas bearings, illustrated in Figure 7.12. Working fluid bled from the compressor discharge provides both lubrication and cooling for these bearings. Foil bearings have the additional advantages of no running contact, good shock and vibration resistance, no constraint on rotor speed, increased load capacity at higher speed, and relatively high tolerance to support misalignment. Application of this bearing technology to the BRU and

Pump Auxiliary Radiator

Auxiliary Cooler

Radiator

HeXe Syltherm

Subcooler

Comp.

Alt.

Turbine

Cooler

Heat Source

Bypass Valve

Recuperator

Figure 7.9 The DIPS Block Diagram (after Rockwell, 1988)

Table 7.2 State Points for DIPS (after Rockwell, 1988) State point I I1 2 21 3 31 4 41 5 51 6 61 7 8 A B C D E F G

Location Temperature (K) Pressure (psia) Mass flow (gm/sec) Heat source outlet 306.4 1038 52,55 Turbine inlet 306.4 1033 52.49 Turbine outlet 306.4 861 31.27 Lo-P recuperator in 311.6 852 31.26 Lo-P recuperator out 417 311.6 30.99 Gas cooler in 317.9 419 30.95 Gas cooler out 317.9 290 30.34 Compressor inlet 317.9 290 30.31 Compressor outlet 317.9 384 53.86 Hi-P recuperator in 384 306.4 53.79 Hi-P recuperator out 306.4 826 53.10 Heat source inlet 306.4 826 53.04 Bleed flow out 15.86 384 53.86 Bleed flow to TAC 15.86 337 53.84 Pump outlet 337 12.68 Bleed cooler inlet 3.05 337 TAC inlet 9.63 337 TAC outlet 9.63 365 Bleed cooler out 3.05 367 Cooler inlet 366 12.68 Cooler outlet 12.68 336 Net power = 6 kWe; TAC speed = 49,632 RPM; He-Xe molecular weight = 61.7

Table 7.3 Materials for DIPS Components (after Rockwell, 1988) Component Turbine shroud, nozzle and scroll Turbine rotor Bearings Thrust rotor Thrust carrier Thrust foil Foil journal spacer Foil carrier Compressor Diffuser Impeller Scroll Alternator Shroud Stator Laminations Main housing and seals Recuperator Plate Fin Structure Cooler

Material Inconel 617 Inconel713LC 15-5PH CRES 347 Inconel X-750 Inconel X-750 CRES 347 CRES 347 Ti-ЈA1-^V (Forged) CRES 347 Copper AISI 4340/Inconel 718 ARMCO ingot iron CRES 347 HastelloyX Hastelloy X Hastelloy X High chromium steel

Mini-BRU was a major advancement in CBC reliability (Rockwell, 1988; Overholt, 1994). Magnetic bearings are another option for high-efficiency, long-life CBC systems. Turbine inlet temperature is limited to about 1050-1150 K for the state-of-the-art nickel-based superalloys used for the turbine, shroud, and hot side ducts. Refractory materials, such as niobium alloys, can raise hot side temperatures about 300 K, but these materials are very susceptible to oxygen corrosion and some impurities. In a CBC loop that also contains nickel alloys or stainless steel, the transport of oxygen in the working fluid is an important lifetime concern. The automotive industry has developed ceramic (silicon carbide and silicon nitride) radial turbomachinery that can be used up to about 1700 K, but these materials also have compatibility questions and can fail catastrophically. Future developments in carbon-carbon composites may allow hot side temperatures above 2000 K, but require reliable coatings. In all advanced material cases, the manufacture of complex shapes is an issue (Overholt, 1994; Gilmour, et al, 1990). Figure 7.13 shows a cross section schematic of the DIPS alternator (Rockwell, 1988). The Rice (modified Lundell) alternator has been used in all space CBC systems to date. It is a brushless, nonrotating coil, synchronous machine. The fully redundant, stationary field coils provide excitation. A conventional 3-phase winding is used for

Turbine wheel

Foil bearings

Turbine discharge

Thrust bearing

Alternator section Compressor inlet Compressor impeller Figure 7.10 The Mini-BRU Turboalternator Compressor (Courtesy of NASA) TYPE RADIAL RADIAL RADIAL RADIAL 6a RADIAL p2 RADIAL p2 RADIAL p2

DIA. IN SPEED RPM FLUID 4.16 3.2 6.0 6.5 4,25 10.75 2.12

45,000 64,000 38,500 38,500 36,000 35,000 52,000

ARGON ARGON ARGON ARGON Xe-He Air Xe-He

PRESSURE PERFORM. SPONSOR RATIO % AIRESEARCH 82.5 2.0 USAF 80.5 2.06 NASA 80.0 2.38 NASA 83.0 2.38 83.0 NASA 1.9 86.0 2.5 AIRESEARCH 77.0 1.53 NASA

TYPE RADIAL RADIAL RADIAL RADIAL RADIAL

DIA. IN 3.5 4.6 6.0 5.0 2.85

SPEED RPM 53,000 50,500 38,500 36,000 52,000

PRESSURE PERFORM. SPONSOR RATIO % 1.56 NASA 87 ARGON NASA 1.56 88 ARGON NASA 1.56 88 ARGON NASA 1.87 90 Xe-He NASA 1.5 84 Xe-He FLUID

Figure 7.11 Radial Compressor and Power Turbines Designed for Space Systems (Courtesy of NASA)

THRUST BEARN IG

JOURNAL BEARN IG

FOL t FOL I SEGMENT REMOVED S PS RE N IM GBLY AS

FOL I BACKN I G ASSEMBLY PLATE

FOIL HOUSN I GASSEMBLED FOL ISEGMENTS

FOIL SEGMENTREMOVED FOL I

Figure 7.12 Self-Actuated Foil Gas Bearings for CBC (Courtesy of NASA)

the stator. The alternator rotor is an integral part of the TAC rotor and consists of three brazed components: two 4340 steel end pieces that carry the flux and an Inconel 718 center section. For startup, the alternator acts as an induction motor when external power is applied. For systems generating over 100 kWe, permanent magnet generators probably weigh less (Rockwell, 1988; Overholt, 1994). For space power systems, the working fluid is typically a mixture of helium and xenon. High-purity inert gases add to the reliability of unattended, long-life systems by greatly reducing the potential for corrosion. The mixture ratio is selected to balance the favorable heat transfer characteristics of helium (molecular weight = 4) and the improvements in turbomachinery performance afforded by the higher molecular weight (131) of xenon (Overholt, 1994). NASA designed the SDGTD system for a He/Xe mixture with a molecular weight of 83. In the DIPS design, the molecular weight of the He/Xe mixture was 61.7 (Rockwell, 1988). CBC systems employ heat exchangers for various purposes. Heat input and waste heat rejection radiators are necessary in all CBC systems, and most designs incorporate a recuperator to enhance efficiency. As shown in Figure 7.10, the DIPS design employs an auxiliary loop to cool the alternator stator, and this loop entails two heat exchangers: a subcooler and an auxiliary radiator. Other designs, like the NASA SDGTD, use an intermediate heat exchanger between the primary CBC gas loop and a liquid-based waste heat radiator. The waste heat rejection radiator typically constitutes a significant portion of the mass and size of the CBC system; hence, lightweight materials with good

C O P P EA R NONMAGNET C I SE P A R TOR F E ISL W N IE DN IG S ^DE C O PX P 3 5% P O YR POWER WN tDK ICOPPER G 3S.S% BA AL A N ED VO D I OR V R N S IC H

A M C N IG OT R IAR O N E -O NF D B ND RAM EELLS M IX ARY F -P LR U GAP S EU CX ONDG AR FL AY P

FLUX FLOW

S3A 4 4E 0 ARROW CONVCNT O IM N I T O P A Q E A R MATU RW E S LOTS OUT OF PAGE FO R P O ER W N IDN IG OO C 2 D O L O NS G TIUDN IE AC LTO C OLA N T F E C HO S S IN 90°LOW PASSAG LATERAL CROSS SECTO IN PR M liIAR yAP PR(MARY SL E C ON O A R S E C O N O A R V F L X  G FLUX GAP F U X G A Pr BACK IRONFLUX CAPN POLE S POLE ARMATURE N POLE

ARMATURE

SAE 4340 AR L 4 7U 5R 0 S A MAT E TEEL LAMIHATIONS

S POLE

ELECTROMAGNET C F I LUX FLOW D A IGRAM Figure 7.13 Cross-section of the DIPS Four-Pole Rice Alternator (Courtesy of NASA)

heat transfer characteristics are necessary. In addition, this radiator must fit in the launch vehicle, and deployable radiators may be necessary for larger power systems. Because of high temperature operation, the heat input heat exchanger and the recuperator must use lightweight materials with high structural and creep strength at high temperature. The recuperator technology from the BIPS program in the 1970s is state-of-the-art for CBC systems. This plate-fin design has a demonstrated effectiveness of 0.975, and has been subjected to accelerated life tests, including 200 thermal shocks, without formation of internal or external leaks (Overholt, 1994). Chapter 9 provides more detail on thermal management technology.

4. Rankine cycle The most common example of the Rankine system is the steam thermodynamic cycle used extensively for commercial power production. However, other fluids are desirable for space applications, and operation in zero-g or microgravity requires some specially designed components. NASA, DOE (and its predecessor agencies), and the Air Force sponsored development of Rankine designs for both solar and nuclear energy sources. However, most of the Rankine system development was based on either nuclear reac-

tors or radioisotope heat sources. During the SNAP program in the 1960s, the 3-5 kWe SNAP-2 and the 35-50 kWe SNAP-8 liquid metal Rankine systems were developed and tested. In addition, the larger (300 kWe nominal) potassium (K-Rankine) SNAP50 was designed. Some SNAP-50 components were tested, but no system tests were conducted. Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) designed two versions of its Medium Power Reactor Experiment (MPRE): a moderate temperature version with stainless steel, and a high temperature version with refractory metals. All of the aforementioned designs used liquid metals as the working fluid. Other lower temperature designs use organic fluids as the working media. A 6 kWe organic Rankine cycle (ORC) system was tested in the 1960s. The most recent ORC system development was the 1.3 kWe Kilowatt Isotope Power System (KIPS) developed by DOE in the 1970s as part of the DIPS program. (In that program, ORC was chosen over Bray ton for further development, and both are often designated DIPS, not to be confused with the later DOE/Air Force DIPS Brayton program in the 1980s). In the 1980s, early designs for the Space Station used solar dynamic modules in addition to photo voltaics. Although NASA eventually selected Brayton (solar dynamic was later dropped), some additional ORC component work was performed (Anderson, 1983; Angelo and Buden, 1985; Bennett and Lombardo, 1987; Bloomfield, 1994; Chaudoir, et a/., 1985; Voss, 1984). Figure 7.14 illustrates the ideal Rankine cycle T-s diagram with superheat. The key attribute of Rankine systems is the alternate boiling and condensing of the working fluid that allows the use of very effective, lightweight, and compact heat exchangers. The cycle consists of isentropic compression of the liquid in a subcooled state by the pump, isobaric heat addition in the boiler which vaporizes and superheats the fluid, isentropic expansion in the turbine, and isothermal heat rejection by the condensing radiator. By superheating the vapor beyond its vapor state at the boiling temperature, T

QbciLr

'

Turbine expansion Pump QcOnden*r

s

Figure 7.14 Temperature-Entropy Diagram for Ideal Rankine Cycle with Superheat

Carnot efficiency is improved and liquid droplets can be largely eliminated in the expansion process. The droplets are undesirable because they increase erosion of the turbine blades. Efficiency can be improved further by reheating the fluid between turbine stages or adding a regeneration step. Regeneration transfers heat from the fluid exiting the turbine to the liquid entering the boiler. Both reheat and regeneration add components and complexity to the system, and the efficiency gains must be traded against reliability and total system mass. Selection of the working fluid and its operating pressures establishes the boiling and condensing temperatures of the cycle. At the turbine inlet, higher enthalpy (temperature and pressure) fluid is desirable to improve Carnot efficiency. Table 7.4 summarizes typical turbine inlet conditions. However, the turbine and ducting materials must be compatible with each other and the fluid and must have sufficient structural and creep strength at temperature to withstand the pressure, thermal stresses, and any other loads. Low fluid enthalpy in the condenser increases efficiency but also increases radiator size. Toluene and Dow Chemical Company's Dowtherm A® (a eutectic mixture of diphenyl and biphenyl oxide) are the organics that have received the most attention for space ORC designs. The Air Force has considered phosphorous halides, phosphoryl halides, and thiophosphoryl halides as possibilities for raising Rankine operating temperatures (to as high as 1000 K boiler temperature), but very little work has been done for space systems (Grzyll, et al, 1988). Liquid metal options include mercury and alkali metals like potassium, cesium, and rubidium. Potassium is of particular interest because of possible vaporization temperatures of 1400 K. However, material problems are much more challenging with liquid metals than with ORCs. Table 7.4 Typical Turbine Inlet Temperature and Pressure for Rankine Cycle Fluids (after Bloomfleld, 1994) Fluid Organic Mercury Potassium

Temperature K 650 950 1420

[F 700 1250 2100

Pressure kPa 2200 1830 1120

psia 320 265 160

Additional trades occur at the system level. Liquid metal designs are primarily intended for reactor-based systems where the reactor coolant is also a liquid metal. For example, both SNAP-2 and SNAP-8 used mercury as the working fluid, but the boiler in each was an intermediate heat exchanger to a NaK loop that cooled the reactor. SNAP50 and the follow-on NASA work that investigated K-Rankine technology also used an intermediate heat exchanger between the converter loop and the reactor coolant, lithium in the latter case. The ORNL MPRE program investigated direct loop designs wherein the potassium working fluid also cooled the reactor. The advantage of the direct loop is

elimination of the intermediate high temperature heat exchanger. However, the reactor must now serve as the boiler which complicates reactor design and testing. Indirect systems simplify the development and qualification of the system since the reactor loop and the Rankine loop can be tested independently. Another advantage is that any nuclear activation of the reactor coolant does not affect the Rankine components, nor do any impurities or other materials that may originate in the core. Discussion of the state of the art of Rankine technology for space is best approached by considering the ORC and liquid metal systems independently. ORC systems provide moderate efficiency at lower temperatures than liquid metals and work best for lower power systems. The best established technology comes from the KJPS work in the 1970s, much of which derives from the 6 kWe program of the 1960s. In addition, a very large and relevant data base exists from terrestrial use of ORC systems (Niggemann and Lacey, 1985). Figure 7.15 shows the block diagram, and Table 7.5 lists the state points for the 1.3 kWe KIPS system. In this design, only one Rankine loop is included, but any future flight system will probably incorporate a least one redundant loop for reliability. The ground demonstration system tests accumulated over 11,000 hours between December, 1977 and December, 1980. These hours include an endurance test of 2000 hours that was terminated intentionally. Table 7.6 lists some of the measured component performance parameters. The system produced 1.3 kWe at 28 Vdc. Its mass is 210 kg, and the radiator area is 10.8 m2. For a turbine inlet temperature of 645 K, system efficiency was measured at 18.5% based on the ac output of the alternator. The design is based on the 1970s vintage Multi-Hundred Watt radioisotope source used in the RTGs that powered the Voyager 1/2 and LES 8/9 missions, but the current General Purpose Heat Source (GPHS) can also be easily accommodated. Key ORC ELECTRONC I OUTPUT CONTROLLER POWER TURBtNE ALTERNATOR PUMP BOILER

REGENERATOR FLOW CONTROLVALVE RADIATOR

JET CONDENSER

ACCUMULATOR

I

PRESSURE  bars ©  ©  ®  ©  ©  ©  ©  (D 

6.65 5.96 5.06 4.75 3.93 0.009 0.007 2.18

TEMPERATURE

psia

K

(0F)

(96) (86) (73) (69) (57) (0.137) (0.105) (31)

373.8 348.2 380.1 520.1 630.2 558.7 389.1 373.4

(213) (167) (225) (477) (675) (546) (241) (213)

Figure 7.15 Block Diagram for 1.3 kWe Organic Rankine System (after Anderson, 1983)

Table 7.5 State Points for 1.3 kWe Organic Rankine System (after Anderson, 1983) State point

Temperature (K)

Pressure (psia)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

374 348 380 520 630 559 389 373

% 86 73 69 57 0.137 0.105 31

Table 7.6 Measured Performance Parameters for 1.3 kWe Organic Rankine System (after Anderson, 1983) Parameter Value Input electrical power 7.515 kWe AC power 1.387 kWe AC efficiency 18.5% DC power 1.239 kWe DC efficiency 16.56% Turbine flow rate 14 gm/sec Rotational speed 34,610 RPM Turbine efficiency 68% Pump efficiency 71 % Regenerator effectiveness 97% Alternator efficiency 93.5% Bearing and seal losses 95 watts Turbine inlet temperature 645 K

components are an axial flow impulse turbine, homopolar inductor alternator, centrifugal feed pump, working fluid lubricated film bearings, once-through boiler, jet condenser, and pumped liquid working fluid radiator. The liquid outlet from the pump is split by a flow control valve between the power loop and the cooling loop. Liquid in the power loop first cools the alternator, then passes through the regenerator to extract energy from the turbine exhaust vapor, is vaporized in the boiler surrounding the radioisotope heat source, and finally expands through the turbine. The turbine drives both the alternator and the pump, all mounted on a single shaft as a combined rotating unit (CRU). Liquid from the pump entering the cooling loop flows first through the radiator to reject waste heat, and it is then injected into the jet condenser to condense the vapor from the power loop. The combined liquid returns to the pump through the accumulator that collects noncondensibles that develop in the flow. The Dowtherm A® working fluid is boiled in a heat exchanger that surrounds the radioisotope heat source. The turbine, pump, alternator, condenser, regenerator, and accumulator are all packaged in a single compact arrangement shown in Figure 7.16.

For operation in zero-g, the jet condenser is a key innovation. Subcooled liquid Dowtherm A® is injected at approximately 30 m/s through a central nozzle coaxially with vapor flowing in around it from the regenerator. The cold liquid condenses the vapor. The diffuser section allows recovery of part of the momentum of the injected liquid. To function properly, the jet condenser needs a very low vapor pressure fluid like Dowtherm A®. Nonreversible floodout may occur if the jets are defocused for any reason, e.g., by noncondensible gases or shock loads. The original ground test hardware was reworked to solve this problem. Furthermore, for power levels of several kWe, the high volumetric flow rates necessary with the low pressure Dowtherm A® results in large heat exchangers and other necessary equipment to avoid excessive pressure drops. Toluene is the probable alternative, but jet condenser operation becomes more difficult. To improve reliability, other zero-g condenser options have been studied, notably the Rotary Fluid Management Device (RFMD) and the rotating jet condenser (RJC) (Bland, et al, 1987). Sundstrand operated a prototypic RFMD for over two years in the 1980s (Niggemann and Lacey, 1985), and NASA conducted microgravity tests for short intervals with 54 KC-135 flights in 1987 (Bennett and Lombardo, 1987). Although some development work has been done for these condenser options, reliable, long-life operation in zero-g has not been fully established for ORC systems. Table 7.7 summarizes the properties of three organic fluid options: toluene, Dowtherm A®, and RC-I (hexafluorobenzyne-pentafluorobenzyne). In the KIPS program, slight pyrolytic decomposition of the Dowtherm A® occurred during thermal cycling at high temperatures (Anderson, et ai, 1983). Liquid droplets of high molecular weight formed at the boiler outlet. In the 1980s, during investigation of ORC for the A XU A IL L F L O W M IP SE T URB N IE BEAR N IGS

HO M O PO R A LT ER N AL TA O R C E N TR FIUGAL FU E E D P M P REGENERATOR

JETCONDENSER ACCUMULATOR

Figure 7.16 Combined Turbine, Pump, Alternator, Condenser, Regenerator and Accumulator for 1.3 kWe Organic Rankine System (after Anderson, 1983)

Space Station, NASA funded dynamic loop tests to examine toluene stability (Havens, et al, 1987). Test time was 3410 hours at 670 K with short excursions to 730 K. Fluid samples contained both noncondensible gases (hydrogen, methane, ethane, and propane) and liquids (benzene, benzaldehyde, biphenyl, bibenzyl, and a variety of related species). The total accumulation of noncondensibles was about 200 sec and about 0.3 weight percent liquids. These results are not considered excessive, but point out that the degradation of organics with time must be understood and accounted for in ORC design. For the liquid metal Rankine technology, the data base has not changed appreciably since the major programs ended in the 1960s and early 1970s. Table 7.8 summarizes the U.S. Rankine cycle technology test experience for space applications. Since K-Rankine technology promises to deliver the best performance, and because the later programs focused on this liquid metal, emphasis here is placed on its status. Except for the boiler, the state of the art of K-Rankine derives from two programs: the two-loop, Table 7.7 Summary of Organic Fluid Properties (after Boretz, 1986)

Items Chemical composition Molecular weight Upper cycle temperature Boiling point Freezing point Flash point Specific heat Critical point temperature pressure System design impacts

Dowtherm A® 0.265 (C6H5);,+ 0.735 (C 6 H 5 ) 2 o 166 615 K (650 0F) 285 K (54 T ) 397 K (255 0F) 0.579 cal/gm-K 772 K (930 'F) 3241 kPa(470psia) Easier to adapt to low power system Low head drop in expansion — low tip speed Low turbine exit pressure

Toluene C7H8 92.12 670 K (750 "F) 384 K (231 'F) 178 K (-140 "F) 278 K (40 °F) 0.471 cal/gm-K 594 K (610°F) 4254 kPa (616 psia) Higher pressure levels

509 K (457 T ) 2828 kPa (410 psia) Higher pressure levels

Stable at higher temperature

May be stable at higher temperature

Easier startup due to low Non-toxic and nonflammable freezing point Less fluid inventory

Requires pressure recovery to provide suction head at pump

RC-I 0.60 C 6 HF 5 + 0.40 C 6 F 6 175.26 755 K (900 0F) 351 K (172 T ) 231 K (-44 T ) None

Low head drop — low tip speed — large mass flow rate High fluid inventory

indirect-heating system technology developed under the SNAP-50 and the subsequent NASA work on components, and the single-loop direct-heating of the ORNL MPRE. The ORNL stainless technology is by far the most mature. However, efficiency can be greatly improved (or radiator area greatly reduced) with the higher temperature capability of refractory alloys. Figure 7.17 shows the cycle schematic for the refractory version of the MPRE. This diagram is simplified in that additional components are not shown. Nb-IZr is the refractory alloy used for most of the high-temperature components. Under MPRE, niobium underwent 15,000 hours of thermal convection corrosion testing and 3300 hours of forced convection testing at temperatures up to 1365 K. In a K-Rankine system, it is difficult to superheat the fluid sufficiently at the inlet to avoid condensate formation in the turbine (Angelo and Buden, 1985). Interstage reheat and condensate removal are necessary to achieve long life of the turbine. If condensate does form, turbine lifetime is impacted, although some condensate can be tolerated in the colder stages. The materials and component technology base developed by NASA for K-Rankine includes (Bloomfield, 1994): • Compatibility and corrosion loop testing of 5000 hours for niobium alloys and 10,000 hours for tantalum alloys at temperatures up to 1500 K • Fabrication, performance test, and endurance test of potassium condensers and once-through potassium boilers/lithium-to-potassium heat exchangers

AUX. RADA I TOR TURBN IE GENERATOR TURBN I E DRV I EN PUMP

(BOILER)

FEED HEATER

RADA I TOR

Figure 7.17 Block Diagram and State Points for the Refractory Version of the MPRE K-Rankine System (after Anderson, 1983)

Table 7.8. Summary of K-Rankine Test Experience (hours > 810 K) (after Anderson, etal, 1983)

Aerojet General Corrosion test systems Boiling systems Thermal convection Forced convection All liquid systems Thermal convection Forced convection Component test systems (boiling)

AiResearch

Allison (GM)

1300

General Electric

NASA JPL

NASA LeRC

10,500 5000

ORNL

Pratt & Whitney

43,600 19,200

12,000

Rocketdyne

United Nuclear

100,000 3000 100

5900

Simulated power plants Component-power plant Boilers < 35 kW 1300 >35kW 100 5900 Turbines with K lubricated bearings < 10 kW 3000* 50* > 10 kW 53,000 Turbines with oil lubricated bearings >10kW Boiler feed pumps 7200 100 Electromagnetic Centrifugal Radiator Condensers Liquid metal loop 5900 Air-cooled 1300 100 Radiator (combined) 5900 Pumps (liquid syst) 3050* Potassium seals Bearing test rig 3000* Instrumented 300 Single endurance * Accumulated during operation of the turbine indicated in that column

1000

19,500

4900

200

10,200

-1000 15,500 19,600

2800

1000 1000

71,400 4400

16,900 200

100

5000* 5100*

24,600

3600

1000

26,900 5000*

4900

200

4900 12,000 1300

200

3000

600 2500 16,100 16,500 18,600 5100*

600 -1000 3600

400 1600

5000 43,600 27,500 6100

1600

1600 4500

3000

• Fabrication and 10,000 hours of endurance test of the boiler feed electromagnetic (EM) induction pump • 5000 hour performance and endurance testing of a two-stage potassium vapor turbine • 5000 hour performance and erosion test of a three-stage potassium vapor turbine • 10,000 endurance testing of 980 K electrical components (solenoid, transformer, and stator) Despite this array of data on high-temperature materials and components, significant uncertainty remains about the long-term performance of the K-Rankine system. Most of the issues center on the need for high-strength refractory metal alloys and include fabricability of complex parts, system-level materials compatibility, and corrosion. Particular technology needs include (Bloomfield, 1994): • Fabrication processes for T-111 and ASTAR-81IC alloys • Tip speed limitations and potassium erosion of large potassium vapor turbines • Turbine bearings and seals capable of operating at higher temperatures and pressures • Non-magnetic generator winding seals

5. References Anderson, R. V., et aL, Space Reactor Electric Systems, ESG-DOE-13398, (Rockwell International, CanogaPark, CA, March 29, 1983), IV 362-363. Angelo, J. A. Jr., and Buden, D., Space Nuclear Power, (Orbit Book Company, Inc., Malabar, FL, 1985). Bennett, G. L. and Lombardo, J. J., Technology Development of Dynamic Isotope Power Systems for Space Applications, Proceedings of the 22nd Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference (IECEC 87), Paper #879094, (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, New York, 1987), 366-372. Bland, T. J., Sorensen, G., and Clodfelter, K., Two-Phase Fluid Managementfor a Rankine Cycle Isotope Power System, Transactions of the Fourth Symposium on Space Nuclear Power Systems, El-Genk, M. S., and Hoover, M. D., (eds.), CONF-870102Summs., (University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, 1987), 209-214. Bloomfield, H. S., Dynamic Power Conversion Systems for Space Nuclear Power, Section II: Rankine Cycle, A Critical Review of Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion 1984-1993, M. S. El-Genk, (ed.), (American Institute of Physics Press, New York, 1994), 345-357. Boretz, J. E., Supercritical Organic Rankine Engines (SCORE), Proceedings of the 21st Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference (IECEC 86), Paper #869474, (American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 1986), 2050-2054.

Chaudoir, D. W., Niggemann, R. E., and Bland, T. J., A Solar Dynamic ORC Power System for Space Station Application, Proceedings of the 20th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference (IECEC 85), Paper # 859085, SAE P-164, (Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1985), 1.58-1.65. Dhar, M., Jones, D., Huang, S., and Rauch, J., Design and Performance of a 25-kWe Free-Piston Stirling Space Power Demonstrator Engine, Proceedings of the 22nd Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference (IECEC 87), Paper #879163, (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, New York, 1987), 133-137. Dochat, G. R. and Dudenhoefer, J. E., Performance Results of the Stirling Power Converter, Proceedings of the Eleventh Symposium on Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion, AIP Conference Proceedings 301, (American Institute of Physics Press, New York, 1994), 457-464. Dochat, G. and Dhar, M., Free-Piston Stirling Component Test Power Converter, Proceedings of the 26th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference (IECEC 91), (Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1991), 5.2395.244 Dudenhoefer, J. E. and Winter, J. M., Status of NASA's Stirling Space Power Converter Program, Proceedings of the 26th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference (IECEC 91), (Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1991), 2.38-2.43. Dudenhoefer, J. E., et ai, Dynamic Power Conversion Systems for Space Nuclear Power, Section I: Stirling Cycle, A Critical Review of Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion 1984-1993, M. S. El-Genk, (ed.), (American Institute of Physics Press, New York, 1994), 306-344. Gilmour, A. S., Jr., Hyder, A. K., Jr., and Rose, M. R, Space Power Technology, short course, circa 1990. Grzyll, L, R., Mahefkey, E. T., and Leland, J. E., Identification of New Working Fluids for Use in High-Temperature Rankine Cycles, Proceedings of the 23rd Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference (EECEC 88), Paper # 889189, (American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Fairfield, NJ, 1988), 267-272. Havens, V. N., Ragaller, D. R., and Sibert, L., Toluene Stability Space Station Rankine Power System, Proceedings of the 22nd Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference (IECEC 87), Paper #879161, (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, New York, 1987), 121-126. Montgomery, W. L., Ross, B. A., and Penswick, L. B., Third Generation Development of an 11-Watt Stirling Converter, Proceedings of the 31 st Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference (IECEC 96), Paper #96371, (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Piscataway, NJ, 1996), 1243-1248.

NASA Reference Publication 1310, Solar Dynamic Power System Developmentfor Space Station Freedom, (NASA Lewis Research Center Solar Dynamic Power System Branch, Cleveland, OH, July 1993). Niggemann, R. E. and Lacey, D., Reactor/Organic Rankine conversion —A SOTA Solution to Near Term High Power Needs in Space, Proceedings of the 20th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference (IECEC 85), Paper #859338, SAE P 164, (Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1985), 1.352-1.357. Overholt, D. M., Dynamic Power Conversion Systems for Space Nuclear Power, Section IH: Brayton Cycle, A Critical Review of Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion 1984-1993, M. S. El-Genk, (ed.), (American Institute of Physics Press, New York, 1994), 358-379. Rockwell International, Rocketdyne Division, Dynamic Isotope Power Subsystem Engineering Unit Flight System Design Report (Draft), ER-00021, (Rockwell International, CanogaPark, CA, October 14, 1988). Voss, S. S., SNAP Reactor Overview, AFWL-TN-84-14, (Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, 1984). White, M.A. presentation of status of an Advanced Radioisotope Space Power System using Free-Piston Stirling Technology, by White, M.A., et al, Proceedings of the 33rd Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference (IECEC 98), Paper #98-417, (American Nuclear Society, LaGrange Park, IL, 1998).

CHAPTER 8 POWER MANAGEMENTAND DISTRIBUTION

1. Introduction If various electronic equipment within the spacecraft could operate at the same voltage, and if the load demand by these pieces of equipment were constant and equal to the power generated by the energy source, the PMAD subsystem would simply be reduced to an interconnect harness or a bus bar. In reality, however, the electronic loads within the spacecraft need different voltages to operate, and special power demands need to be met for a variety of components within the spacecraft during its mission life. On-board computers and housekeeping equipment have very different power requirements than, for example, the solid state power amplifiers (SSPA) or traveling wave tube amplifiers (TWTA) within the communication subsystem. Solar arrays degrade with time, deliver more power and higher voltage immediately after the orbital eclipse, and do not provide power during eclipse. Batteries need to be controlled and monitored during charging and discharging and need reconditioning for long life. The output impedance of the spacecraft power bus needs to be specified, designed, and analyzed as part of an overall system. A properly fused and switched load distribution system is needed to isolate failed components from the remainder of the subsystem. The PMAD subsystem is responsible for managing these widely varying load demands and energy generation and distribution elements. As shown in the schematic for a typical PMAD (Figure 8.1), since it is also responsible for autonomous control of the spacecraft bus, it must be internally redundant for reliability and provide ground-controlled functions and telemetry. In this chapter we will examine the various elements of a modern spacecraft PMAD subsystem, discuss advantages and disadvantages of various systems in use today, and present several prototypical examples.

U

The ideal power system

As spacecraft life expectancies are increased, higher power subsystem efficiency and lower mass are becoming increasingly crucial in providing spacecraft with longer life and a larger end-of-life (EOL) power margin. The ideal power system would provide this power at 100% efficiency, weigh nothing, and be infinitely small. The PMAD subsystem is an integral part of the overall power system, and its design is crucial in providing the highest efficiency solution for a given mission. The goal is to achieve the highest system efficiency possible and, as with any subsystem design, its optimization is secondary to the overall power system optimization.

Payo larJ PA osn i.t-oT f-LW oaT dAs.DR C O -eC SSP cevierC sonveners GN&C DCD -C Conveners HV Bus

HV Bus M V Bus

Ho ke,apn ig OaC -C o,lnve en CuD lsaH T herm lD ConC tro tcers .

H IV BUS

SIH Bui BaHdT 8ui Energy Source (Soa lr Aray} SoalrAray Dv rie / Sp il-Rn ig Assembly

Batery Ces l

Energy So trage (Spacecraft Batteries)

Figure 8.1 The Power Management and Distribution System

As a demonstration of the difficulty of achieving this goal, consider a typical communication satellite system whose primary function is to transmit the maximum amount of radio-frequency (RF) power in a maximum number of channels and multiple beams with the smallest, lightest possible satellite. In this case the overall spacecraft efficiency may be taken as the total equivalent isotropically radiated power (EIRP) divided by the total solar power available at the solar array (see Figure 8.2):

where Tj is the communication satellite system efficiency, EIRP is the product of the total transmitter power and the antenna gain, S0 is the solar power available from the Sun, and A is the area of the spacecraft solar array . While much simplified, this way of looking at spacecraft performance is intended to point out the importance of the individual efficiencies in each subsystem. As we will show, the total efficiency is quite low in spite of the PMAD subsystem efficiency typically

Solar Flux (input)

EIRP (output)

Figure 8.2 A Simplified Method of Determining Satellite Efficiency

being greater than 90%. Solar array efficiencies range between 12% and 18%, and transmitter DC to RF power efficiencies range from 35% for an SSPA to 50% for a TWTA. The overall efficiency is then described as: Spacecraft

Solar Array

Thermal

Communications

The ability of the power subsystem to provide the maximum amount of DC power harnessed from the energy source throughout the mission life and doing that at the maximum efficiency is of paramount importance in maximizing the available EIRP. This is particularly true in a communication satellite since this is directly related to maximizing transponder revenues. To continue the example, consider Table 8.1 which summarizes the key figures from Figure 8,3 for power allocation in a typical mediumpower communications satellite. Assume that the payload consists of 24 SSPAs, each at 2OW RF output, and 24 TWTAs, each at 50W RF output. Referring again to Figure 8.3, and assuming 35% SSPA efficiency and 45% TWTA efficiency, this translates into 1372W of DC power required for the SSPAs and 2667W of DC power for the TWTAs. For a 50% plumbing

Table 8.1 Average Power Required for a Medium-Sized Communications Satellite Component

Power (Watts)

Communications Payload Solid State Amplifiers Traveling Wave Amplifiers Tracking, Telemetry & Control Guidance, Navigation & Control Power System Ohmic Losses

1372 2667 50 70 50

Thermal management Subsystem

100

Total

4309

INPUT OUTPUT Solar Array #1

PMAD 24 SSPAs

pipes & antenna

24 TWTAs

pipes & antenna

50 W internal housekeeping

Solar Flux 28,726 W

plus

Solar Array #2

ohmic losses

70W GN&C

50W TT&C

100 W rhermal

thermal

Figure 8.3 Power Efficiency Flowchart in a Communications Satellite

and antenna efficiency, the total communication subsystem efficiency is less than 20%. The typical power consumption for tracking, telemetry, and control is 5OW; the guidance, navigation, and control, 7OW; the power subsystem harness losses, 5OW; and the thermal management subsystem, 100W. The overall housekeeping efficiency is then 94%. Assuming a solar array efficiency of 15%, the total spacecraft electrical efficiency can be calculated:

spacecraft

This small system efficiency illustrates the overall impact of various elements within the spacecraft subsystems. It is clear that one of the areas that could greatly benefit from improvements in efficiency is the solar array technology, followed closely by the communication transmitters. But it also points out that the efficient generation and distribution of power in a spacecraft is extremely crucial and every percent in efficiency counts.

1.2 Power subsystem overview The design choice and complexity of a spacecraft power subsystem is primarily driven by the type of spacecraft and its mission parameters. Satellites in LEO put unique demands on a power system as compared to their GEO counterparts. Similarly, interplanetary and deep space missions require special designs that are driven by their own unique mission parameters. Once the EOL power requirements for the spacecraft are determined, a power budget and energy balance study is performed to determine the power requirements for the spacecraft at the beginning-of-life. This will guide the designers in selecting the different elements or specific technologies for the power source, storage, and distribution in a power subsystem. A typical spacecraft power subsystem, elements of which are shown in Figure 8.4, consists of the photovoltaic solar array; slip rings and solar array drive; power control electronics; battery charge, discharge, and reconditioning electronics; fuse and switched load assemblies; bus bars; and point-ofload power converters. Two critical functions of the power subsystem, the energy source and the energy storage elements, are briefly described below in order to point out their impact in the selection of the PMAD subsystem design. PDSU

rsr

S^y Battery Bus 1

SA Cki ]

Solar Array

1553 Interface

"CS"

UV Power GSE Power UD

SA Switch

Load Bus

& Battery 1

Fused Loads

Fused/S witched / Loads CSC

Battery N

Figure 8.4 A Typical Photovoltaic Power Subsystem

Energy sources The choice of the energy source for a spacecraft is highly dependent on the mission type. Some of the more typical spacecraft primary power sources are reviewed in this section along with comments that will be important in the context of selecting the proper PMAD design.

Solar arrays By far the most widely used primary source of power in Earth orbiting satellites, the photovoltaic cells convert the radiant solar energy into electrical energy. Solar cells are reliable, safe, and provide sufficient power for long missions. A typical spacecraft solar array consists of a series-parallel combination of a multitude of solar cells mounted on a support structure . Slip rings are used to transfer the energy from the cells to the remainder of the power system. Two types of solar array structures are in use today: body-mounted arrays are used primarily on spin-stabilized satellites, and deployable arrays are used on the three-axis stabilized satellites (Figure 8.5). Body-mounted arrays simplify construction and thermal management; however, they have limited power capability since the available solar array area is restricted. In the case of a spinning body-mounted array, only a small portion of the array is illuminated at any given time. Deployable arrays are capable of providing much higher power (typically 5-20 kW). These arrays are wing-type structures which are folded during launch and transfer orbit, and are deployed once the spacecraft is parked on-orbit. Various deployed solar array structures have been designed and are successfully operating on orbit. The most widely

Deployable Arrays Body Mounted Figure 8.5 Two Common Array Configurations

used, the rigid structure, has solar cells mounted side-by-side on a honeycomb structure, while the less-frequently seen flexible solar arrays provide lower weight and ease of storage.

Radioisotope Thermonuclear Generators (RTG) RTGs (Figure 5.2) are used as the primary source of power in instances where use of a solar array is not practical due to reduced solar flux. These missions are usually longduration interplanetary and outer planetary missions. The RTG uses the heat generated from the natural decay of Plutonium-238 and directly converts this heat to electrical energy using a thermoelectric couple device. Among the spacecraft that have used RTGs are the Pioneer, Voyager, Galileo, and the recently launched Cassini. The Voyager II spacecraft has now traveled beyond the solar system and has provided data continuously for over 20 years.

Primary batteries For short duration missions, primary batteries offer a high specific energy and are often used. These batteries cannot be recharged and are used for missions such as launch vehicles or small, specialized spacecraft. The JPL Sojourner micro-rover aboard the Mars Pathfinder used a primary battery on the Martian surface for operations during the Martian night and a flat panel solar array for daytime operation. The Sojourner used three lithium-thionyl chloride cells in series with a nominal capacity of 12 A-hr. A number of primary cells have been used in space and the reader is referred to Chapter 4 for a full discussion of this technology.

Energy storage Storage devices are needed to supply the spacecraft with power during the orbital night. These devices are charged when incident light is available and are discharged to supply the spacecraft loads in eclipse. For a GEO satellite, the eclipse seasons occur for 45 days around Vernal and Autumnal equinox with each eclipse lasting less than 70 minutes (Figure 2.5). The number of eclipses in a low-Earth orbit satellite depends on the mission and orbital altitude, but typically number about 15 per day. It is evident from this discussion that storage technologies are mission dependent and place specific demands on the rest of the power subsystem, especially the PMAD.

Secondary batteries Secondary batteries, those that can be recharged, consist of individual electrochemical cells connected in series to meet the bus voltage requirements. In a battery dominated PMAD system, the battery provides a peak power capability and low output impedance to the spacecraft bus. The capacity of a battery (C, in ampere-hours), for a given battery chemistry, depends mostly on the discharge current. When a battery supplies high-current loads, the battery capacity is drastically reduced. In contrast, when delivering power to low-amperage loads, the battery discharge curve reflects a constant voltage for most of the discharge period. As discussed in Chapter 4, the discharge rate is defined as the capacity divided by time. For example, C/10 is the current that is required to completely charge or discharge the battery in 10 hours. For a 100 A-hr battery, a C/10 charge rate indicates a 10A current is required. A figure-of-merit for batteries is the ampere-hour capacity, the number of ampere hours divided by the battery weight (A hr/kg). The specific energy of the battery is the ampere hour capacity multiplied by the battery voltage (W-hr/kg). The most common discriminators for spacecraft batteries are greater specific energy, cycle life, and depth of discharge. Other design drivers for a battery selection include safety, cost, predictable performance across a temperature range, voltage, shelf-life, and resistance to shock and vibration. Nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries have been the most widely used for spacecraft applications and have provided years of on-orbit reliable performance. In recent times, most Earth orbiting satellites have switched to nickel hydrogen (NiH2) (Figure 4.18) batteries that can provide as much as twice the specific energy of the NiCd. They provide greater depth of discharge (up to 80% for GEO) and do not require reconditioning. Since the pressure of the hydrogen in the cell is linearly proportional to the amount of energy stored in the cell, the state of charge in a NiH2 battery can easily be measured using a pressure monitor. Nickel hydrogen batteries cost more than NiCd but, considering the system weight savings and high launch cost, they can provide a lower system cost. The advent of lithium-ion batteries promises to revolutionize the spacecraft battery technology. With batteries constituting 5-10% of a spacecraft's weight, another advancement in battery technology is long overdue. Once qualified for space, lithiumion technology can provide two to four times the specific energy of NiH2 and NiCd batteries.

PMAD Proper conditioning and transmission of the power generated from the energy source to the batteries and the spacecraft loads are the primary functions of the PMAD system. As we have seen, various choices exist in the selection of the spacecraft energy source and

storage elements with some devices better suited for specific missions in spite of higher cost, increased weight, or extra demands on the power management subsystem. Not surprisingly then, the choice for a PMAD system is also highly mission dependent and requires a detailed trade study before the optimum choice can be made. The electrical and mechanical design of a PMAD system requires a clear understanding of the mission requirements and consideration of such issues as energy balance over life, system stability, electromagnetic interference, corona and electrostatic discharge immunity, radiation and single event effects, reliability, redundancy, autonomous operation, fault recovery, thermal design margins, size, efficiency, weight, and cost. Choices exist between a distributed versus a centralized system, regulated versus unregulated buses, high voltage versus low voltage, etc. These options are discussed in the next sections.

1.3 Electrical power system options Centralized versus distributed systems A small spacecraft requiring less than a few hundred watts of power would be a good candidate for a single, centralized PMAD system. The small size of the spacecraft and low power demand from the pay load do not require the distribution of high-power, lowvoltage lines over long distances. For example, the Orbital Sciences Orbcom satellite, for which transmission distances are typically one meter or less, may use a centralized PMAD system due to its small size and relatively small ohmic losses. This allows the entire function of the PMAD to be performed by a single box or card. Future missions such as the JPL X2000 program are considering these systems. In a typical high-power (10-15 kW) communications satellite, the distance between the power system electronics of the PMAD and the pay load components may be as long as 12 meters (roundtrip). The ohmic losses over these distances at low voltage would be prohibitive. In contrast to these small, low-power specialized missions, most commercial communication satellites are striving for more power. This has given rise to a choice between highvoltage and low-voltage buses.

High voltage versus low voltage The power requirement for a typical Fixed Services Satellite (FSS) has tripled over the past decade. Commercial communications satellites in the mid 1980s, with a DC power level of three to four kilowatts, have now grown to power levels of greater than 15 kilowatts. At these power levels, centralized and low voltage power systems become impractical. Much like the interstate power distribution which requires high voltage transmission lines, a regulated high-voltage intermediate bus is often selected to carry

the payload current over extended distances within the spacecraft. With the size of a typical FSS communication satellite bus approaching the size of a small room (a cube three meters on a side), distribution often to 15 kilowatts of power at low bus voltages would incur excessive ohmic loss. Secondly, high-voltage buses allow better utilization of energy density from secondary batteries. Most communication satellites now use regulated bus voltages such as 50V, 70V, 100V and even 120V. For future higher power missions, such as the space-based laser and radar systems, 270V DC regulated systems are now being studied.

AC versus DC distribution Since the energy source in most satellites provides a DC voltage, the typical distribution system has remained DC. As demand for higher power spacecraft increases, the debate for the selection of an AC bus resurfaces. AC buses can be more economical for a spacecraft with greater than a 20 kilowatt power requirement, the International Space Station (ISS) being a current example. However, most of these AC systems would require new point-of-load AC-DC converters. Even the ISS power system was finally changed back to DC after much debate. With proper design and a larger initial investment, AC systems could provide a higher overall system efficiency at a lower mass.

Direct energy transfer (DET) versus peak-power tracker (PPT) Power subsystems are further categorized as DET and PPT systems. The DET systems, also referred to as dissipative systems, Figure 8.6, are the most widely used today. They provide the lowest parts count and offer higher system efficiency and lower cost. In these systems, linear or switching shunt transistors are connected in parallel to the array and regulate the excess power available from the array. APPT system, also referred to as a non-dissipative system, regulates the array power by extracting only the required load power at the array's maximum power point when the load demands it. This configuration typically involves the addition of a power converter in series with the bus and can reduce the overall system efficiency in higher power spacecraft. However, in missions that require maximum solar array power at end-of-life or in low Earth orbit applications, these systems can be advantageous.

Regulated versus unregulated bus Most system trades are often interrelated (i.e., choice of a high-voltage bus typically also implies a distributed, regulated system). The choice of a regulated versus an

Power Subsystem Options

Non-Dissipative Systems (Peak Power Tracker) PPT

Dissipative Systems (Direct Energy Transfer) DET

Regulated

Unregulated Bus

Unregulated

Regulated Bus

BCR BDRl

PPT

Bus

PPT

Bus

BDR BCR

BCR: Battery Charge Regulator

BDR: Battery Discharge Regulator

Solar Array

Shunts

Figure 8.6 Power Subsystem Electronics (PSE)

unregulated system also implies several other factors which need to be considered. These include the type of the mission, EOL power requirements, bus voltage, and the existing heritage equipment that could require a major redesign. Regulated bus systems require a switching regulator and are much more complex than their unregulated bus counterparts. They do simplify the design of the point-of-load DC-DC converters, however, and may decrease the overall spacecraft weight.

2. Functions of PMAD The PMAD functions can be divided into several main areas: power management and control (which includes the solar array control); battery charging, discharging and reconditioning; power distribution; system fault management and telemetry; and pointof-load DC-DC voltage conversion.

2.1 Power management and control Most Earth-orbiting satellites use solar arrays as the primary energy source. Solar arrays do not provide power in eclipse, they degrade with time, and have a varying output voltage depending on the temperature. Batteries are used to provide power to the loads during eclipse and must be fully charged when the satellite is in sunlight. In a LEO application, the battery charging must be completed in approximately one hour, and a spacecraft battery will go through 30,000 to 50,000 cycles during its life. Batteries also

have varying output voltages depending on state of charge and temperature. They cannot be overcharged and the depth of discharge must be limited to extend the battery life. Batteries also need periodic reconditioning for long life. The output characteristics of the solar array must be matched to the spacecraft bus and the batteries. Power management electronics are required to perform these functions. This power management and control function is categorized in three sub-functions: solar array control, battery charging and discharging, and, if needed, bus regulation.

Solar array control The power generated by the solar array must be controlled to limit the maximum bus voltage, to regulate the charge and discharge of the batteries, and to maintain the energy balance in the spacecraft. As discussed earlier, two types of solar array control systems are in use today. The dissipative systems shunt the excess solar array power and maintain the bus voltage at a regulated level by dissipating the excess power in a shunt transistor. Non-dissipative systems extract only the required power from the solar array using a peak-power tracker DC-DC converter placed in series with the solar array bus or a series-switched solar array connection. Most communication satellites use the simpler dissipative systems.

Direct energy transfer systems Typically, the two methods used in DET, or dissipative systems, are the linear and switching shunts (Figure 8.7). Further variations include partial shunts, full shunts, and sequential shunts. In the linear shunt, a power transistor, operating in its active region, is placed across the solar array string and dissipates the excess power from the array. A series resistor is sometimes used to share the dissipated power in the shunt transistor. An error amplifier compares the bus voltage with a reference voltage and sends a control signal to the shunt transistor. These systems are simple, but the heavy heatsink-mounted transistors that are required increase the subsystem mass. In a linear shunt system, a higher control bandwidth can be attained which provides a lower output impedance to the bus. In contrast, the transistor in a switching shunt regulator is pulse width modulated (PWM) to control the solar array power. As in the linear system, the bus voltage is compared to a reference voltage and an error signal is generated. In this case, however, the error voltage is then compared with a ramp signal and the resulting output is used to modulate the shunt transistor between the saturated and cutoffstates. Since the transistors are operated as switches, power dissipation is drastically reduced and lower-power transistors can be utilized.

One ofN Panels Bus

Solar Array Circuit

Slip Rings

Solar Array Circuit

Gate Drive

Full Shunt, either Linear or Switching Return

comparator ref error amplifier

Switching Shunt

error amplifier ref

Linear Shunt

Figure 8.7 Linear versus Switching Shunts (Both Operating as Full Shunts)

In practice, however, both of these systems are used in a multistage sequential topology (Figure 8.8). In a sequential shunt configuration, several transistors are used as a switch in series with a shunt resistor. The scaled-down bus voltage is compared with a reference and the error signal is used to turn on shunt transistors one at a time, As the error voltage increases, more transistors are turned on to shunt more solar array circuits. In a PWM shunt regulator each solar array string is connected to a PWM transistor and these stages are modulated to control the solar array power. An improved version of the multistage PWM shunt circuit operates the transistors in a phase-shifted fashion so that the instantaneous number of circuits connected to the bus is reduced, resulting in lower peak current spikes. In yet another dissipative linear shunt method, the shunt transistor is placed across a portion of the solar array string allowing a better matching of the solar array power and the load demand (Figure 8.9).

Peak power transfer systems The typical current-voltage curve of a silicon solar cell is shown in Figure 8.10a. Note that the solar cell is capable of a producing the maximum power available from the cell at the "knee" of its I-V curve. To take advantage of this characteristic, some power

systems use a peak power tracker in series with the array (Figure 8.10b). This is achieved by utilizing a DC-DC converter to control the operating point of the array. As the load demand decreases, the peak power tracker moves the operating point towards the open circuit voltage of the array. As the load demand increases, the operating point is moved to the maximum power point of the solar array. Peak power trackers decrease the power transfer efficiency in the current path, but at moderate to low power they do provide a higher overall system efficiency at lower mass. Other non-dissipative systems have been successfully used which do not use a peak power tracker. The series-switched solar array string provides a high efficiency method of solar array control. Solar array circuits are connected to the power subsystem using a series transistor. In this system more solar array strings are connected to the bus as the load demand increases or battery charging is required. Bus Error Amplifier

Slip Rings Solar Array Segment

Gate Drive

ref

One of N redundant controls

Return

Slip Rings Solar Array Segment

ref

Redundant Control Litfe

Gate Drive

Slip Rings Solar Array Segment

Gate Drive

ref

Figure 8.8 Sequential Shunts

Slip Rings One of N Panels

Bus

Upper Solar Array Circuit

Upper Solar Array Circuit

Lower Solar Array Circuit

Lower Solar Array Circuit

Shunt Assembly Return

Figure 8.9 Partial Shunts

ISA

VSA Power

Solar Array Segment

Gate Drive

Control

Maximum Power Point

Capacitor Bank Slip Rings Return

V (a)

(b)

Figure 8.10 (a) Solar Array IV Characteristics (b) A Peak Power Tracker Subsystem Using a Buck Regulator

Battery charging, discharging, and reconditioning Batteries are sensitive devices and require special attention in every aspect of their design and use. Batteries are never used at their maximum nameplate rating. They are sensitive to overcharging and their life cycle will be reduced if repeatedly discharged to their full capacity. Typical spacecraft battery cell charge and discharge voltage profiles are shown in Figure 8.11 for NiH2 cells. Notice in Figure 8.11 (a) the higher end-of-charge voltage at lower temperatures, similar to NiCd cells, and the linear relationship between charge input and cell internal pressure. As mentioned earlier, this linear relationship, unique to NiH2, provides an easy method for determining the state-of-charge. Figure 8.1 l(b) shows the pressure and voltage of a 40-Ahr cell during charge and overcharge (200%). As Schiffer (1984) points out, that the pressure and voltage level off at full charge is an important safety factor in this system. Finally, Figure 8.1 l(c) shows the discharge performance of this same cell. Notice the higher capacity at lower temperatures, and again, the linear relationship between cell pressure and state-of-charge. During discharge, the voltage drops at a faster rate due to electrode polarization and internal series resistance. The cell voltage then flattens for most of the battery capacity until another rapid drop in voltage, with time, indicates the end of the battery capacity. The most commonly used method for battery charging is the constant current approach with a change to constant voltage taper charging at full charge. To determine the proper charge rate for a battery, the battery's state of charge needs to be known. For nickel-hydrogen batteries this can be determined by measuring the cell pressure, usually using a strain gauge (Figure 8.12). This task is not as simple for nickel-cadmium batteries. In this case, battery voltage and temperature are sometimes used to approximate the state of charge. However, the most reliable method is ampere-hour integration in which the exact amount of current and duration of discharge are measured and the same number of ampere-hours is used during battery charging (Figure 8.13). A typical battery charging circuit provides two charge modes. When commanded, a high charge-rate current can be selected from several pre-selected temperature-and voltage-compensated charge-rate curves (typically referred to as V/T curves) (Figure 8.14). When the battery voltage and temperature reach the maximum V/T limit, the charging circuit reduces the charge current into a trickle charge mode and maintains the batteries at a constant voltage. The maximum depth of discharge allowed for a battery depends on the battery chemistry and the type of mission. In a LEO mission, the spacecraft experiences 15 eclipses daily, each lasting 30 minutes. For a five-year LEO mission this translates into more than 27,000 charge and discharge cycles imposed on the battery. To ensure that the batteries meet these requirements, the depth of discharge for a NiCd battery must be limited to less than 20%, although nickel-hydrogen batteries can tolerate a higher depth of discharge. For a similar LEO mission, nickel-hydrogen batteries can be used with a

PSlG

VOLTS

PRESSURE(PSIG) VOLTAGE(VOLTS)

REF: EPI LOT 2 (40 AH) lc • 4.0 AMPERES FOR 16 HOURS

INPUT (AMPERE-HOURS)

VOLTS

HEF: EPI LOT 2 (40 AH) l c - 2.0 AMPERES FOR 72 HOURS

PSIG

PRESSURE (PSIG) VOLTAGE  (VOLTSJ

(a)

THROUGHPUT (AMPERE-HOURS)

PRESSURE-PSIG

VO LTAG E-VO LTS

(b)

REF: EPI LOT 2 {40 AH) lD-20.0 AMPERES

CAPACT IY (AH) (C)

Figure 8.11 Battery Charge and Discharge Voltage Profiles (Schiffer, 1984, used with permission)

40-50% depth of discharge. For a GEO mission, the number of the charge/discharge cycles demanded from the batteries is much less (less than 1500 cycles for a 15-year mission), so a much higher depth of discharge can be tolerated. Batteries require periodic reconditioning for long life. This is achieved by providing a simple relay/reconditioning resistor circuit to deplete the battery periodically to a full discharge state. Although this is required only for nickel-cadmium batteries, most power subsystem designs do include this feature to allow for system flexibility.

PRESSURE TCLEyETRY VO (vL oTA tuG )E

E N I-N N tA G O FS E TYPC IALB R JC U C H RGEF U PRE SURE

PRES< S U RE "  P »U BOLSOC EOLSOC Figure 8.12 NiH2 Battery Pressure Characteristics

Individual cell bypass diodes are required in the event of an open-cell failure. Antiparallel diodes are placed in parallel with each cell to bypass the battery in case of a failed cell. Some designs may use MOSFETs or even mechanical relays. To equalize discharge in a multiple battery spacecraft, a cell removal circuit is used to delete a cell from one of the batteries in the event of a cell failure on an opposite battery. Thermistors are typically utilized to monitor the individual cell temperatures. This information is used for both V/T charge control and spacecraft telemetry. Strain gauge resistors are used on each cell to monitor the cell pressure and thus the battery's state of charge. The analog strain gauge output is used for battery charge and discharge control and spacecraft telemetry. Battery voltage telemetry monitors the overall battery voltage (as distinguished from individual cells) and is used for the V/T charge and discharge control, and for spacecraft telemetry. Newer battery technologies such as the lithiumion batteries are extremely sensitive to the over and under voltage limits of the cell and require individual cell monitoring and balancing circuits. Although NiCd and NiH2 batteries are sensitive to overcharging, both can be slightly overcharged without damage. The overcharging can result in generation of excess heat but with proper thermal design this can easily be handled. In contrast, lithium-ion battery technology, while promising dramatic improvements in specific energy, cannot tolerate the slightest overcharge. Special charging circuits requiring individual cell voltage monitoring and charge balancing are required to prevent damage to the battery. Even small amounts of overcharge can lead to permanent cell damage or possible cell explosion. This complicates the battery charging system in a lithium-ion power subsystem

design, but because of increased consumer application of this technology, great progress has been made in integrated circuits specifically designed to manage the charge monitoring of these batteries. BEGN I NN I G OF TAPER CHARGE (TEMPERATURE COMPENSATED WT REACHED) MAXM I UM CHARGE CURRENT

AHD (ampere-hours)

BATTERY CURRENT (amperes)

COMMAND TO TBtCKLE CHARGE RATE

AHDRESETTOO ASSUMED CONSTANT DS I CHARGE" (CONSTANT EPS LOAD]

BATTERY CURRENT

INTEGRATED BATTERY CURRENT (AHD)

VOLTAGE (VOLTS)

Figure 8.13 Determining the Battery State of Charge (Integration Method)

17 CELLS 16 CELLS

TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE)

Figure 8.14 Battery Voltage/Temperature Limits

Bus regulator In battery-dominated systems, the spacecraft bus simply follows the battery and the bus voltage is unregulated and follows the battery state of charge (e.g., from 22-36V). This is a simple PMAD subsystem and is preferred for applications with less than approximately four kilowatts in power requirements. With the majority of communication satellites in the eight to 15 kilowatt range (as in the Lockheed Martin A2100 and Hughes HS702 systems), low-voltage buses are not practical. The resulting harness mass requirement would make the system too heavy and the battery capacity would not be optimized. Regulated high-voltage buses are more practical for these systems and offer many advantages. The high-voltage bus drastically reduces the harness weight and the regulated bus simplifies the design of the point-of-load DC-DC converters. Additionally, battery capacity can be optimized at higher voltage buses. The solar array shunt and series control provide a regulated bus in sunlight although during the orbital eclipse the bus would follow the battery discharge voltage. A series power converter is typically used to regulate this voltage. Since the regulated bus voltage is higher than the low end of the battery discharge voltage, a boost switching regulator is used. A boost converter is one of three basic building blocks in switching DC-DC converters and will be discussed in detail in the next section. In general, switching regulators are exclusively used for this purpose. Linear regulators can supply only a regulated output that is less than the input and are not very efficient; switching regulators can provide an output higher, lower, or equal to the input voltage and at very high efficiencies. Depending on the input and output voltage, power efficiencies in the 9096% range can be realized. Some power subsystems combine the battery charge and discharge regulator into one circuit in the form of a bi-directional power converter. As we will see later, this method simplifies the regulation circuit design.

2.2 Power distribution The power distribution includes the solar array slip rings, the bus bar, cabling, fuses, and switches. Many trades are considered during the design phase of the power distribution system and concurrent engineering is a key discriminator for this task, and the entire process is an iterative and integrated part of the initial PMAD subsystem trade study and bus voltage selection. Important considerations in the design ensure easy access during the integration and test phase of the spacecraft, proper grounding and shielding, elimination of single-point failures, and fault isolation. Particular attention must be given to implement features that ensure a fault tolerant and robust PMAD subsystem. Diode isolation techniques, proper separation of high voltage lines, double insulation of power lines, and redundancy of critical elements are a must. An example from a typical communication satellite (Figure 8.15) illustrates the process and highlights

Solar Panels

Slip Ring Stepper Motor

Attitude Control System

Solar Array Drive " & Onboard Computer | Electronics

Launch Vehicle Umbilical Ground Support Equipment iLoad Bus

EMI filters

Shunts

Charge Discharge Converter Converter Battery Bus

Telemetry '& Onboard Computer Control Fuse Box

Voltage Temperature Pressure

Battery LetDown Relay

Bypass Diodes

Capacitor Bank

Switched Loads

Point-of-Load DC-DC Converters Heaters

Telemetry

2

!individual Pressure Cells

N

Figure 8.15 A Typical PMAD Architecture

the typical elements of the distribution, regulation, and protection circuits. Slip rings are required to transfer the power from the solar array to the spacecraft. In three-axis stabilized satellites, the solar array is deployed in a wing. This allows more panels to be deployed for more power, and permits, using a brushless DC or stepper motor, the solar array wings to be kept pointed normal to the Sun for maximum power. This rotation requires the use of a solar array slip ring and brush assemblies to transfer the power and the telemetry and control signals to the spacecraft. A typical solar array slip ring assembly may contain over 120 individual rings for this purpose. The powercarrying capability of these rings is always derated for margin. Power distribution also includes the individual battery bus bars (in a multi-battery system) and the main bus. From this point, multiple fused and/or switched lines carry the power throughout the spacecraft. The bus bars are double insulated to ensure reliability. Some spacecraft use a dual bus system since some of the critical payload may use previously-designed heritage hardware and it is more economical to provide them with a separate bus voltage rather than redesign each element of the payload hardware. Proper grounding and harness routing and shielding are also extremely important. Many spacecraft have suffered from spurious commands due to poor EMI design. A single-point ground system referenced to the spacecraft structure is often used. All

spacecraft loads are then fed with twisted shielded power and return lines to minimize stray magnetic fields and unwanted ground loops. Point-of-load power converters are all transformer-isolated, DC-DC converters so that primary power is kept separate from secondary power lines. This isolation also limits stray structure currents. Proper shielding and termination of these shields are also crucial.

23 Fault management and telemetry The spacecraft bus supplies power to all other subsystems. It is the "life line" to the entire spacecraft and is protected against all spacecraft fault conditions. Battery cells have bypass circuits in case of a cell opening. The battery cells use double insulation to minimize the possibility of a cell short to ground. Solar array circuits are diode isolated in case of a circuit short to ground. Harnesses are double insulated and fused to preclude any fault condition from compromising the spacecraft bus, and loads are switched to isolate faulty sections. Functional redundancy is used to prevent single-point failures. All electronic functions such as housekeeping DC-DC converters, the solar array shunts, and the control circuits are redundant. Several redundancy methods are utilized. Cold redundancy is used when one or more back up functional elements are in a cold (off) or warm (standby) mode until required to take over for a failed element. Another common redundancy method involves an N+l system (i.e., one more than actually needed) in cases where several boards are operational but a minimum number of boards are required to complete the mission. Solar array shunt circuits are often utilized this way. Finally, some other key circuits, such as the voltage error signal for a regulated bus, may use a voting circuit to select the mid-point from three redundant error signals. Protection features are built-in so that transients or failed components do not propagate. For example, bus over-voltage protection disables the solar array series switches or enables more solar array shunts (depending on the system) to protect the subsystem and spacecraft loads. Data from essential telemetry points are sent to the spacecraft computer or the telemetry processor. The batteries are instrumented with thermistors to monitor the cell temperature. This information, along with the battery voltage, is sent to the spacecraft computer for proper V/T charge curve selection. Strain gauge resistors are mounted on individual battery cells for state-of-charge monitoring. This information is also sent to the telemetry processor unit for transmission to ground stations for monitoring and intervention of over-temperature or over-pressure conditions, or for V/T manual override. Within the power system, data from various other points are telemetered, including on/ off status of functional elements such as the solar array shunt or series switch voltages, and temperature, battery reconditioning relay and distribution load switches, and solar array currents.

2.4 Point-of-load DC-DC converters Not all electronic components can operate from the same voltage magnitude or polarity. The function of a DC-DC converter is to accept a single DC input voltage and to provide a single or multiple regulated DC output voltage of the same or opposite polarity and of higher, lower, or equal magnitude. (Figure 8.16) Most electronic subsystems within the satellite receive the regulated or unregulated bus and locally convert this voltage to multiple, isolated low voltages using a DC-DC converter. Such a distributed system has two advantages. First, the distribution of multiple low-voltage, high-current lines across spacecraft are impractical due to ohmic losses. The high-voltage bus can efficiently carry the payload and housekeeping power to various points within the spacecraft while the local DC-DC converter can then efficiently convert the main bus to multiple isolated outputs for a specific use. Second, isolation of the primary power bus from the secondary voltages is required at the point-of-load to reduce EMI and prevent spacecraft chassis currents. Transformer-isolated switching DC-DC converters are normally used for this purpose. Many different circuit topologies are in use today, but they are all built around a few basic arrangements of three ideal, non-dissipative components such as inductors, diodes, and transistors-operated-as-switches. A number of converter options are compared in Figure 8.17. These basic topologies will be examined, but first we begin by describing the simplest forms of a voltage regulator.

DC-DC Converters

Figure 8.16 The DC-DC Converter

Linear regulators From the early days, the basic method of regulation was the linear voltage regulator. Although the majority of regulators in use today are the switching variety, linear regulators still play an important role in the field of power electronics. When extremely quiet outputs are required (e.g., gate voltage for an SSPA), the sub-millivolt output ripple performance of a linear regulator cannot be matched. Also, linear regulators are often used as low-power secondary post regulators in point-of-load DC-DC converters. A basic resistor divider is a simple form of a DC-DC converter, and although it is not regulated and not very practical for power conversion, it does provide a stepped down DC output from a given DC input voltage (Figure 8.18a). This simple circuit

DC-DC Converters

Switching Regulators (Isolated and Non-Isolated)

Linear Regulators

Hard Switched

Resonant Converters Zero-Voltage Switched

Zero-Current Switched

Buck

Boost

Buck-Boost

Figure 8.17 Converter Options

suffers from poor load regulation due to its high output impedance. To make this a practical voltage regulator, the input resistor can be replaced with a transistor operating in its active region (Figure 8.18b). This will serve as a variable resistor that now can be controlled to provide a regulated output voltage. The series transistor is operated as an emitter-follower and lowers the output impedance of the simple divider circuit by the transistor current gain. The output voltage is now regulated against load variations. This circuit still relies on a stable input voltage. To provide line regulation, another modification is necessary, namely the addition of a Zener diode in the base of the transistor (Figure 8.18c). This provides a stable reference to the emitter follower and the circuit is now a complete regulator that provides both an input line and output load regulation. To further reduce the output impedance of the linear regulator and improve its load regulation, negative feedback can be employed. As shown in Figure 8.18d, an additional transistor can be added to compare a sample of the output voltage with the Zener reference voltage and produce an error signal which drives the series transistor. An operational amplifier for the error signal can also be added. The extremely high open loop gain of the op-amp drastically reduces the output impedance of the circuit (Figure 8.18e). An additional benefit of this circuit is the ease with which the output voltage can be adjusted since changing the reference voltage adjusts the output voltage. However, the output voltage regulation is only as good as the reference voltage and varying the input voltage will change the Zener current. The Zener diode breakdown characteristics indicate that there is a finite dynamic resistance in series with the Zener which affects the Zener voltage with varying current through it. Additionally, the Zener voltage varies with temperature. Further improvements are required to improve the line regulation. Replacing the input resistor to the reference Zener with a constant current source

minimizes the effects of the Zener dynamic series impedance. Some circuits connect the reference circuit to the regulated output, but care must be taken to ensure that the circuit will start up. Temperature effects also deteriorate circuit performance. To avoid temperature drift problems, a diode is inserted in series with the Zener to cancel out the temperature drift of the Zener diode. The constant-current Zener circuit improves both temperature and dynamic resistance deficiencies. In practice, however, designers use commercially available laser trimmed and radiation-hardened band-gap reference circuits. Several integrated-circuit linear regulators are available but these are typically limited in current capability and are difficult to analyze for end-of-life variations. Spacecraft

(a)

(W

v

in

(C)

(d)

(e)

Figure 8.18 The Evolution of Linear Regulator Design

• R load

v v out

power designers prefer to use discrete devices to construct their own linear regulators. In this way, individual circuit component variations with temperature, radiation, and aging are better known and more accurate end-of-life analyses are generally possible. A complete linear series pass regulator is shown in Figure 8.19. Note that the series element bipolar transistor is replaced with a MOSFET, a change preferred by designers since it is a voltage driven device and the pass element can be directly driven from the error amplifier instead of a driver stage as with the high current bipolar transistors. MOSFETs also have a high transconductance which lowers the output impedance of the linear regulator.

V0Ut Output of a flyback winding

Figure 8.19 A Linear Series Pass Regulator

Switching regulators Linear regulators are of limited use for high-power, high-efficiency power processing systems. They can provide a regulated voltage lower than the input voltage and cannot provide a voltage inversion. Switching regulators, or power converters, have dominated the field of power electronics for over 30 years. These converters provide a high-density, high-efficiency alternative to their linear regulator counterparts. Unlike the control element in the linear regulator, the transistor in a switching regulator control element is used as an on-off switch. As it switches, it chops the input DC voltage into a variable duty cycle square wave. At a 100% duty cycle the output equals the input DC. As the duty cycle is decreased, the average voltage of the square wave drops by the duty cycle ratio. At 0% duty cycle, the switch is completely open and the average output voltage is zero. This simple variable output control element has advantages over the linear pass transistor operated in its active region and is the heart of

Input Voltage

Switching Element

Low Pass Filter

Output

V in R

Ay

g

V

load

out

Avg V o u t

DC in

Av

A varying duty-cycle switch will produce

§ vout

a varying filtered dc voltage output

Figure 8.20 The Switching Regulator

every switching regulator. Since the transistor carries the load current when it is fully on, and carries no current when it is fully off, the ideal efficiency of this pass element can be 100% (Figure 8.20). In reality, however, the transistor is not a perfect switch and carries a finite voltage when it is fully saturated (or in the case of a MOSFET, it has a finite RDs(ONp* Additionally, the switching time in a transistor is limited, which results in an overlapping voltage and current during the turn-on and turn-off transitions and adds to the circuit losses. Despite these shortcomings, the switching control element efficiency is much higher than its linear counterpart. In contrast to the linear regulator, however, the output of the switching control element cannot be directly connected to the load. An LC filter is typically needed to smooth this output square wave and produce a DC output.

Buck regulators As the name implies, the buck regulator produces a regulated DC output which is always less than the input voltage. The basic theory of operation for the buck regulator was described earlier with one minor modification. A freewheeling diode is needed to provide a current path when the switch is open (Figure 8.21). Since inductor current cannot change instantaneously, this diode provides a current path for the inductor. When the

switch

vin

freewheeling diode

V v out

load

Buck Regulator switch on

V.

in

1

L

1

Q

1

CR

switch off

V out

Figure 8.21 The Buck Regulator

switch is turned on, the current through the inductor ramps up. Since V=dl/dt, we can write the slope of the up ramp current as

or

where I1 is the inductor current when the switch turns on. This equation also assumes the voltage drop across the pass element is zero. When the switch is turned off, the freewheeling diode will be forward biased, the current through the inductor decreases, and the slope of the down ramp current becomes

or

where i2 is the inductor current at the beginning of switch turn-off. This equation assumes the freewheeling diode forward voltage is negligible. If the inductor is large enough, the current in the inductor does not decrease to zero and the buck regulator is said to operate in a continuous conduction mode (CCM). When the switch is on, the current through the inductor increases by (Vin-Vout)DT, when the switch is off, the current decreases by (V014)(I-D)T. Since the starting current in the inductor at turn-on must equal the final current during turn-off we have:

or

where D is the ratio of the 'on' time to the total duty cycle time, T. This indicates that with the buck regulator operating in CCM, the output voltage is independent of load current, and further indicates a very good load regulation which is inherent to CCM switching regulators. In reality, however, there is a net series resistance in the output inductor which modifies the output voltage slightly. Another method of deriving the DC relationship of the CCM buck regulator is to equate the average voltage at the left of the output inductor to the voltage to the right of it since the average voltage across an inductor during each cycle must be zero. Again, we have

Boost regulators The boost regulator produces a regulated DC output always higher than the input voltage. The operation of the boost converter is also intuitive and simple to understand (Figure 8.22). When the switch is turned on the current in the inductor begins to ramp up with a slope

During this time the output capacitor is supplying the load. When the switch turns off, the voltage across the inductor reverses polarity and, being in series with V. , it adds to it. The diode is now forward biased and the inductor delivers its stored energy,

CR

Io Vi11

switch

V0Ut

R

load

Boost Regulator switch off V.in

switch

o 1

Q

1

CR

V

out

Figure 8.22 The Boost Regulator

during the turn on period, to the load and the capacitor. The current through the inductor is now discharging with a down ramp slope given by

Again, the diode forward voltage is assumed negligible. When the switch is on, the current through the inductor increases by V1nD T/L; when the switch is off, the current decreases by ((V1n-V )/L)(l-D)T. Since the starting current in the inductor at turn-on must equal the final current during turn-off, we have

or

Buck-boost regulators Once again, as the name implies, the buck-boost regulator produces a regulated DC output which can be lower (buck), higher (boost), or equal to the input voltage. However, the polarity of the output voltage will be opposite of the input voltage (Figure 8.23). The operation of the buck-boost (also called the flyback) converter is similar to the boost converter with a slight twist. As with the boost converter, when the switch is turned on, the current in the inductor begins to ramp up with a slope

During this time, the output capacitor is supplying the load. When the switch turns off the voltage across the inductor reverses polarity and, being in series with Vin, it adds to it. The diode is now forward biased and the inductor delivers its stored energy during the turn on period to the load and the capacitor. The current through the inductor is now discharging with a down ramp slope

CR

vv

Vin

out

Buck-Boost Regulator

switch on V.in 1

switch off

O

1

Q

1

CR

V

out

Figure 8.23 The Buck-Boost Regulator

R

load

where, again, the diode forward voltage is assumed negligible. When the switch is on, the current through the inductor increases by V1nDTZL; when the switch is off, the current decreases by (-(V1n)ZL)(I-D)T. Since the starting current in the inductor at turn-on must equal the final current during turn-off we have

or

Note that the polarity of the voltage is reversed.

Isolated DC-DC converters Although most pulse-width modulated DC-DC converters in use commercially are based on the three basic topologies discussed in the previous section, these converters are rarely used as shown due to the lack of isolation between the input and output grounds. Additionally, most electronic circuits require several voltages at both polarities (e.g., a solid state power amplifier may require +7V, -3V, ±10V). Although it is possible to produce multiple outputs from the basic topologies, the designs are limited. To provide both the ground isolation and multiple outputs, a transformer is needed. The most common DC-DC converters in use today are actually the same basic buck, boost, and buck-boost topologies with a transformer inserted in the circuit. The basic principles of operation remain the same, however. We will now examine several of these circuits.

Buck derived topologies: forward, voltage-fed push-pull and bridge dc-dc converters These circuits are listed together since they are all driven from the basic buck switching regulator topology. The metamorphosis of the buck circuit into the popular forward converter is shown in Figure 8.24. It is seen that in the forward converter the basic function of the buck switch, generating a square wave from the DC input source, is now replaced with a transistor, transformer, and a diode circuit. The function of the circuit remains unchanged, that is to provide a pulse width modulated square wave at the input of the LC filter. However, the added benefits resulting from this change satisfy both shortcomings of the basic buck circuit. Multiple ground isolated outputs with both

polarities are now as easy as adding another winding to the transformer. In the forward converter, adding the isolation transformer adds certain peculiarities that need to be addressed. Considering a transformer model with a parallel magnetizing inductance and its associated current during the switch-on period, a method is needed to provide a continuous path for the demagnetizing current when the switch turns off. The common method to provide this current path is to add a tertiary winding and reset the core when the switch turns off. The forward converter is a single switch converter and is well suited for medium power DC-DC conversion. The continuous output current makes the forward converter desirable for low-voltage, high-current outputs. The drain (or collector) voltage on the switch is subjected to a voltage twice the input voltage, thus making this converter less attractive for high input voltages. However, with the advances in MOSFET technology and availability of radiation-hardened (against both total dose and single event effects), high-voltage devices, this is less of a concern. The forward converter is often used in the 50-200W output power range. The voltage-fed push-pull (called a voltage-fed since the input to the switching converter is a low impedance voltage source) converter (Figure 8.25) is also a derivative of the basic buck converter. If the tertiary winding diode in the forward converter is replaced with a switch, a voltage fed push-pull converter results. Again it is easily seen that the basic function of the switching cell is unchanged and a pulse width modulated square wave is presented to the input of the LC filter. The advantage is that the primary winding of the transformer is driven in both directions and a full wave rectified output is used. This allows better utilization of the

V out

rload

Vin

Figure 8.24 The Forward Converter

Vout

^oad

V1n

Figure 8.25 The Voltage-Fed, Push-Pull Converter

magnetic core and results in a smaller transformer. The disadvantage of the push-pull topology, as shown, is the possibility of core flux density imbalance which leads to switching transistor failures. The problem is as follows. The change in the flux density of the transformer core (AB) is proportional to the product of the voltage across the winding and the time this voltage is applied to the winding. This product, the voltseconds, must be kept equal in both halves of the push-pull primary. If not, the flux density in the core will not be reset to its initial point at the beginning of the switching cycle, and the transformer core will walk-up its hysteresis curve and reach its saturation flux density (Please see the Appendix for a more detailed discussion of magnetic materials.) At this point, the transformer cannot sustain voltage and the power transistors will be destroyed due to high currents. The volt-seconds imbalance can result from any number of factors including the normal variation in the saturation voltage and the storage times of the switching transistors. With the advent of the MOSFET and current mode control techniques, this problem is less significant. MOSFETs provide an inherent negative feedback to balance the voltage across each half of the push-pull windings. The RDS(0N) of a MOSFET increases with temperature; therefore, if an inbalance occurs, the increased current in the transistor will increase its channel resistance resulting in an increased on-voltage and a lowering of the volt-seconds in that transformer half. Another method used to avoid the flux imbalance in the push-pull DC-DC converter is to use cycle-by-cycle current mode control for the main loop feedback. The current mode control circuit measures the individual transistor currents and limits these currents by adjusting the duty cycle of that switch. Other variations of this converter include the current-fed push-pull (in contrast to the voltage-fed push-pull, the input to the current fed topology is a high impedance current source) which moves the output inductor to the input side of the transformer primary. The advantage this affords is the complete

elimination of the flux imbalance problem. More important, however, the current-fed topology is more suitable in meeting prompt-dose effects in missions that require nuclearevent hardening. The third example of the buck derived circuit is the half bridge converter (Figure 8.26). Unlike the push-pull and the forward converters, the half bridge converter provides the benefit of lower stress on each of its two switches. One end of the single winding primary is switched between the bus voltage and ground and the other end is connected to the middle of a capacitor divider connected to the bus. A dc blocking capacitor is inserted in series with the transformer primary to prevent a flux imbalance problem seen with the voltage-fed push-pull converter. However, since this capacitor forms a resonant circuit with the reflected inductance from the secondary side, care must be taken to assure that the resonant frequency is kept well below the converter switching frequency. A good rule of thumb is between 10% and 20% of the switching frequency. With all its advantages over the push-pull and the forward converter, the half bridge converter has its drawbacks. The half bridge has two switches as compared with one in the forward. The high side switch needs a floating gate drive circuit which makes it more complicated compared to the push-pull and forward counterparts which have ground-referenced switches. Half-bridge converters are well suited for high input-voltage buses with moderately high power outputs.

Boost-derived topologies: current-fed, push-pull dc-dc converters Having discussed several of the isolated versions of the basic buck switching regulator, we now turn to the isolated version of the boost switching topology. The modification of the basic boost circuit to its isolated counterpart is shown in Figure 8.27. The resulting converter and many other variations form a family of current-fed topologies. Current fed topologies eliminate the deficiencies that exist with the voltage-fed topologies previously discussed and are much better suited for high power and high output-voltage applications. As discussed earlier, the flux imbalance problems of the voltage-fed pushpull can be eliminated with the current fed version. The high impedance presented by the input inductor eliminates the need for extra circuits (or the blocking capacitor in the case of the half-bridge converter) in preventing the core flux imbalance. The inductors in a multi-output voltage-fed topology are replaced by a single input inductor. Several problems are thus avoided. The output inductors in voltage-fed topologies need to be sufficiently large to prevent them from operating with discontinuous current at the minimum specified load (a condition generally referred to as inductors running dry). For high output powers (>250W) and high output voltages, the size of this output inductor becomes impractical, at least for the point-of-load converter for a satellite where low mass is so critical. Having a single input inductor instead of the multiple output inductors greatly improves the cross regulation in the lower current windings of the converter.

Vom

R

load

V1n

Figure 8.26 The Half-Bridge Converter

These windings are usually not directly regulated and are "slaved" to the main highcurrent output which is under feedback control. Since in a voltage-fed topology the point of control is at the output side of the main inductor, load variations greatly impact the slave windings' regulation. A current path needs to be provided for the current fed push-pull topology when both switches are opened. To maintain continuous current through the input inductor and prevent switch failures due to the inductive kick, a winding is coupled to the input inductor and excess energy is returned back to the primary bus or the secondaries.

Buck-boost derived topologies: flyback dc-dc converters For low-power applications (typically less than 100W), the flyback converter is one of the most popular and simplest circuits in use today. The modification of the basic buckboost switching regulator to its isolated flyback counterpart is shown in Figure 8.28. It is immediately observed that the flyback circuit is very different than the previously discussed isolated converters. Only one piece of magnetic material is used in this circuit, a coupled inductor, which provides both the isolation function and the filtering circuit. The circuit operates as follows. When the switch turns on, current ramps up in the primary of the coupled inductor and stores energy. No current flows in the secondary of the coupled inductor since the polarity of the secondary winding back biases the rectifier diode. When the switch turns off, the polarity of the secondary winding voltage changes, the rectifier diode is forward biased, and the stored energy is transferred to the load and the output capacitor. It is the simplicity of the circuit with one switch and one piece of

V 0 Ut

R1load.

Vin

Figure 8.27 The Current-Fed, Push-Pull Converter

V 0 Ut

R1load,

V 1n

Figure 8.28 The Flyback Circuit

magnetic material that has made the flyback so popular. Another benefit is good cross regulation for a multi-output version of the converter due to lack of individual output inductors such as those found in the forward converter. However, in practice this is not easily achieved. At low power levels, with an extremely low leakage inductance coupled inductor, good cross regulation can be achieved. However, when the load variations in the outputs are far from each other, the lower power outputs suffer greatly in cross regulation due to the peak charging and current distribution effects. The peak secondary spike voltage resulting from the leakage inductance appears at the secondary winding and is rectified by the secondary diode. When the load current is at a minimum, the output capacitor is peak charged to very high levels which causes the poor cross

regulation. The lack of an output inductor makes this topology suitable for high-voltage applications. Flybacks are not well suited in applications where the peak primary current is too high.

Resonant DC-DC converters The converters that have been discussed thus far have all been of the PWM hard switched variety. They are called hard switched because the voltage and current waveforms in these converters are generally square wave. At the moment of turn-on there is full voltage across the device and at the beginning of turn-off there is full current through the device. Figure 8.29 shows the typical waveforms of a flyback PWM converter and demonstrates the switching losses at turn-on and turn-off of the switching transistor. Since there is a finite rise time and fall time for these waveforms, there is a period of overlapping voltage and current across the switch (e.g., as the drain voltage is rising the drain current is falling). This overlapping current and voltage results in the switching power dissipation in the transistor and occurs every cycle. Therefore, as the switching frequency is increased, the switching losses in the device increases. It is this loss that prevents hard switching PWM converters from operating at frequencies much above -300KHz. Higher switching frequencies are desired since the size of a switching converter is inversely proportional to its switching frequency. This is due to the reduction in size with increasing frequency of energy storage elements such as the magnetics and capacitors. Power supplies are typically measured by a figure-of-merit, the power-mass or power-volume density. This is usually defined as the output power of a DC-DC converter per unit mass or volume respectively (W/kg or W/m3). While PWM topologies are the most widely used DC-DC converters in the industry, they are all limited by a maximum switching frequency limit at which point the switching losses in their switching elements would become too high, and thus, intolerable. Various methods, such as integrated magnetics and ripple current cancellation techniques (e.g., the Cuk' converter), have been employed with reasonable success to increase the power density of the converters. To drastically reduce the switching converter size and increase its density, higher switching frequencies are desired. With very high launch costs, and typically more than 100 point-of-load power converters per spacecraft, reducing the weight of each converter is important. Similarly, if some of the weight saving is exchanged for fuel, on orbit life can be extended which further reduces life cycle cost of the spacecraft and increases the revenues. Figure 8.30 illustrates these improvements over the past several decades. Resonant converters are so called since they utilize the parasitic elements in a circuit as a tuned resonant tank. The resonant frequency of this circuit is designed close to the switching frequency of the converter. As the switching frequency of the converter is varied, the selectivity of the resonant circuit is used to control the amount of power that is transferred to the load. The benefit this method of conversion provides is the ability

CR R

vin ^gate

gate V 1

Q

Q

The overlap of falling voltage and rising current at turn-on

The overlap of rising voltage and falling current at turn-off

Figure 8.29 Waveforms of a Flyback PWM Aurora

Series 7000

A2100

CRAD

IRAD

Dollars (U.S.) per Watt

Watts per Kilogram

Satcom

Figure 8.30 Improvements in Converter Design

L

to switch at frequencies an order of magnitude above hard switching converters without incurring excessive switching losses. This is due to the sinusoidal waveforms that are the natural result of the tuned resonant circuit. The main switch in a converter can now be turned on when its sinusoidal voltage naturally rings back to zero and can be turned off when the current through the device is nearly zero (Figure 8.31), Additionally, since the parasitic elements of the circuit are part of the resonant circuit, there are no uncontrolled switching spikes and high frequency ringing requiring lossy 'snubbers'. The waveforms in a resonant converter can be much closer to 'text book' and, unlike the hard-switched PWM counterparts with square waves rich in harmonics, the sinusoidal waveforms in resonant converters generate less EMI. This further simplifies the filtering requirements in the converter. Other benefits of the resonant converters include higher loop bandwidth due to their higher switching frequencies which results in better transient response.

^drain-source

drain-source

Nearly ideal zero voltage switching at switch tum-on

The switch current is also negligible at turn-off resulting in negligible turn-off losses

Figure 8.31 Resonant Converter Waveforms

There are some disadvantages with resonant converters but most of these can be addressed by proper design considerations. Creation of a high Q resonant tank circuit means higher transistor stresses during the switch-off time (often several times the bus voltage). The same type of ringing also exists in hard switching PWM converters (the inductive ringing and spikes) except it is an uncontrolled parasitic effect and dissipative 'snubbers' are used at a cost of lower efficiency (Figure 8.32). With the advent of higher-voltage, radiation hardened MOSFETs from several vendors (up to 50OV), this is less of an issue. These devices have been successfully tested for single event effects (SEE) including single event burnout and single event gate rupture up to 80% of the

device rating. While the RDS (0N^ for these devices is higher, the added ohmic losses are traded against the losses that are incurred due to dissipative 'snubbers' in hard switching converters. Another disadvantage noted is the increased gate drive losses at higher frequencies. Although the gate drive losses could increase proportionally with frequency, the total gate charge for a MOSFET used in a zero voltage switching resonant converter is much less. The Miller capacitance in the MOSFET is used as part of the resonant tank and the energy stored in this capacitor is resonantly re-circulated in the resonant tank. Since the switch is turned on at zero voltage, the gate charge that is used for gate drive power calculation uses the total gate charge number without the Miller effect capacitance (Figure 8.33). Another disadvantage that is often noted is a faster drop-off in efficiency at lighter loads compared to PWM converters; however all converters drop in efficiency with lighter loads. As the load is decreased, the housekeeping power becomes a larger part of the delivered power to the load. This drop-off in efficiency tends to be flatter for PWM converters (Figure 8.34). This is because high frequency resonant converters regulate the transfer of power based on selectivity of their high Q tank circuit at either above resonance or below resonance mode of operation. Moving away from resonance to deliver less power translates to a lower circuit power factor and higher circulating current in the tank that do not contribute to the delivered power but are rather part of the circuit losses. Secondly, in a zero voltage switching converter, a lighter load means a higher frequency of operation which lowers the efficiency further since frequency dependant losses such as gate drives and core losses are increased. This is not as bad as it may seem at first. In a typical zero voltage switching converter the loss of efficiency may be at most 2-3% from full load to 10% of

Vdrain-source

Vbus

hard-switched PWM converter

Resonant converter

Figure 8.32 Comparison of Waveforms of a Hard-Switched PWM and Resonant Converter

V

gs

Vd-S= 0 at turn-on

at turn-on

Resonant converter

WM ' converter

Ngate charge Figure 8.33 Gate-Drive Losses

Converter Efficiency

Resonant Hard switched PWM

Load Current Figure 8.34 Efficiency Comparisons for Hard-Switched PWM and Resonant Converters

load. Considering the 5-10% efficiency improvement, a resonant converter can provide at full load, the minimum load efficiency can still be better than its hard switching counterpart. Most resonant converters operate with variable switching frequency to regulate their outputs. This is not desirable for systems that require specified switching frequencies that are synchronized with other converters. This is to avoid generation of beat notes and interaction with sensitive instruments in the spacecraft payload. Although

variable frequency resonant converters cannot be synchronized, their range of operation frequency can be specified and designed away from sensitive frequencies. The inherent unit-to-unit variation in switching frequency (since various components are operating at different load levels) has not proven to be problematic. Hundreds of variable frequency resonant converters are successfully operating on orbit aboard various communication satellites. Operation of resonant converters is quite intuitive and easy to understand. Most engineers are very familiar with design and properties of LC filters. If a sinusoidal waveform is presented to, for example, a bandpass filter, the full amplitude waveform is seen at the output of the filter (neglecting any insertion loss) in the pass band of the filter. As the frequency of this signal is varied in the rejection bands, the sinusoidal amplitude is reduced. When the frequency is increased on the low pass side (above resonance), the peak-peak output voltage decreases and as the frequency moves closer to the corner frequency the peak-peak amplitude increases again. The opposite is true in the high pass side of this filter (Figure 8.35). The same principal holds for a simple LC tank circuit. The filter selectivity is used to control the power transfer above and below the resonant point with varying frequency. If the output of this LC circuit is presented to a transformer and is subsequently rectified, a DC voltage is produced. Therefore, varying the switching frequency can now increase or decrease this DC output. For example, in above-resonance mode, as frequency increases the DC voltage would drop (for a given load) and the output would increase again as the frequency moved back towards resonance. The opposite is true for below-resonance. It is immediately observed then, that if a negative feedback loop is closed around this circuit, a regulated

high pass

band pass

low pass

V v out V

,n

Output Voltage Figure 8.35 The Operation of a Simple Band-Pass Filter

load

DC-DC converter would result. The output DC voltage can be sensed and compared to a reference with an error amplifier. The error signal would be fed to a voltage-controlledoscillator (VCO) which is used to drive the switching device. Therefore, for a given mode of operation, say above resonance, a decreasing output voltage would force the VCO to decrease the switching frequency and move the operation closer to resonance, thus bringing the voltage back to the correct level (Figure 8.36). All resonant converters utilize a resonant tank circuit in one form or another in their circuits. There are two basic modes of operation. The series resonant converter places the load in series with the resonant tank and the parallel resonant converter places the load in parallel with the resonant tank capacitor (Figure 8.37). In the series resonant converter, a square wave voltage is generated from a voltage source and is presented to a resonant tank resulting in a sinusoidal current. In a parallel resonant converter, a square wave current is generated from a current source and is presented to the LC network resulting in a sinusoidal voltage. The series resonant converters lend themselves to zero current switching (i.e., the switch is turned off when there is zero current through it) and parallel resonant converters lend themselves to zero voltage switching (i.e., the switch is turned on with zero voltage across it). Any of the hard switched PWM converters can be transformed into its resonant converter by simply replacing the switch network of the PWM converter with its resonant counterpart. A zero current switching resonant buck converter is shown in Figure 8.38. Other resonant DC-DC converters have been developed which find their roots in the RF power amplifier circuits such as the class D or class E amplifiers. Again, the basic principals of operation remain the same and they can be operated in series, parallel, or both.

Vgate V1n

variable frequency gate drive

V

error voltage

V

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voltage-controlled oscillator

Figure 8.36 The Sequence Demonstrating How the Selectivity of an LC Filter Can Be Used to Make a Resonant Converter

Next Page

Series Resonant Circuit

square voltage input

vin

Parallel Resonant Circuit

sine-wave current R

square current input

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sine-wave voltage

Figure 8.37 Resonant Converters

Zero Current Switching Cell

Hard Switching Buck converter

V

R

m

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V

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Figure 8.38 The Zero-Current Switching Quasi-Resonant Buck Converter

3. Components and packaging

Most communication satellites are now designed for 15 years of operation on orbit, and with the typical cost of a satellite in orbit approaching $500 million, the importance ofzyxwv

Previous Page

Series Resonant Circuit

square voltage input

vin

Parallel Resonant Circuit

sine-wave current R

square current input

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sine-wave voltage

Figure 8.37 Resonant Converters

Zero Current Switching Cell

Hard Switching Buck converter

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Figure 8.38 The Zero-Current Switching Quasi-Resonant Buck Converter

3. Components and packaging

Most communication satellites are now designed for 15 years of operation on orbit, and with the typical cost of a satellite in orbit approaching $500 million, the importance ofzyxwv

the design robustness cannot be over stressed. This robustness does not end with the electrical design. The most properly designed, worst-case analyzed and tested electrical circuit can fail due to an improper solder joint, an overheated component, or one with latent ESD damage. Robust packaging design meeting the stringent requirements of launch, pyro shock, and long life is just as important as the electrical design. The packaging design includes worst-case finite element stress dynamics and thermal analyses. The designers must be mindful of issues such as coefficient of thermal expansion among components, PC boards, and associated housings; and thermal conduction and radiation paths must be analyzed and tested to predict maximum board and device junction temperatures. A packaging designer must work with the electrical designer, thermal, materials, radiation and reliability engineers, and understand the trade off in attempting to engineer the highest performance with lowest cost and weight. Simply selecting components that perform their intended function over the temperature range is not sufficient. Established reliability components with known aging effects, radiation and temperature performance, and adequate testing to the stringent spaceenvironment standards, must be used. Lot traceability is required for each of the piece parts to ensure manufacturing process control and, if necessary, determination of the cause of failure. In this section we will examine some of the unique requirements associated with the part selection and packaging techniques for use in space flight.

3.1 High-reliability space-grade parts Although most civilian and defense satellites have been utilizing Class-S (space-grade) components, as manufacturing technologies have improved, new initiatives are moving towards more commercial-grade, high-reliability parts. Several operational satellites have successfully used these parts for certain applications. However, as the demand for spacecraft longevity increases (a minimum of 15 years is now expected for commercial communication satellites), the normal practice is still to use established-reliability, spacegrade parts. Most spacecraft manufacturers typically establish and maintain their own approved parts list, and engineers are urged to design new products using these lists which identify readily available items from certified vendors. Specialized parts, optimized for a specific parameter, may have certain drawbacks which may make them less attractive (e.g., a high precision, extremely low offset voltage op-amplifier may need a highpower, dual-rail supply, or a low power consumption BiCMOS PWM may not tolerate a high level of total dose radiation). Spacecraft costs and cycle times can be reduced only by simplifying designs, reducing the parts count, and using standard parts. Program managers must remain aware of the importance of part specification, vendor selection, and parts management.

Resistors The very nature of switching DC-DC converters demands that dissipative components such as resistors not be part of the power train, although low value resistors are used as current sense devices. Resistors are mostly used in the control, protection, and telemetry circuits within a power converter. There are generally two types of resistor technologies in use for spacecraft: film and wirewound. Each is available in a variety of power ratings, tolerance, and package sizes. It is important to understand the temperature coefficient and aging effects for each type and, in particular, the failure modes must be understood to properly assess the impact on DC-DC converter operation. Radiation effects have typically not been a problem for resistors, but other factors such as the frequency characteristics or noise generation may be important and require special consideration. The application guidelines for parts in general are not limited to their electrical characteristics. Other physical characteristics such as the mounting method are just as important, e.g., proper lead forming with stress. Power resistors are typically mounted near the edge of a PC board with a proper conduction path through a thermal copper layer to a chassis boss, often with a thermal compound used to assure a low thermal resistance. Larger resistors are either tied-down or mounted with solithane compound for bonding and strength. The following is a brief discussion of the specific characteristics of several resistor types typically used in spacecraft power converters. Fixed film resistors are usually best suited for low noise and high frequency applications. Film resistors are made of nichrome, tantalum nitride, or other resistive metal films laminated inside or on an insulating material. Film resistors are well suited for precision circuits such as the feedback loop and the error amplifier in a power converter. The RNC style can be purchased in tolerances as low as 0.1% with a temperature coefficient of better than five PPM. They are also highly stable over their operational life. Typically 0.1% stability is used in the worst-case analysis for a 15-year mission. RLR style resistors are typically used for lower precision applications such as pull-up resistors. Their temperature coefficient is not as good as the RNC but RLR resistors are much less expensive. The wirewound resistors are made of resistive wire wound on an insulated cylinder. These resistors are usually selected for their high power rating and are available in low ohmic values. The power rating ranges from 1 to 10 watts but the most popular ones for spacecraft power converters are typically one and two watts. They are available in 0.1% initial tolerance but, considering typical applications in filter damping networks and output pre-loading circuits, the 1% tolerance is more widely used. These resistors can be purchased in both inductive and non-inductively wound varieties. Various other resistor types are used in a power converter. Thermistors are special devices with decreasing resistance with increasing temperature. They may be used in an over-temperature, shut-down circuit or a temperature-compensated output linear

regulator. Often in an SSPA, the gate voltage is adjusted to temperature-compensate the RF output power by placing a thermistor in the RF section and feeding back the signal to the power converter. The gate voltage is usually generated with a (series pass) linear regulator fed from an auxiliary winding in a multi-output converter. Thermistors are also available in positive temperature coefficient designs, sometimes referred to as sensistors. Resistor networks, available in single-inline (SIP) or dual-inline (DIP) package styles, are also used when board space is at a premium. Variable resistors are usually not used in space applications.

Capacitors Capacitors are available in a multitude of varieties with even more styles and specific usage characteristics than resistors. Capacitors are one of the ideally non-dissipative basic elements in a DC-DC converter power stage. As a general rule, capacitors are extremely sensitive devices so that care is required both in the process control during manufacturing and during installation in circuits. There are three types of capacitors used for space applications: (1) multilayer ceramics that are extremely popular with power designers, (2) tantalum dielectric including both solid and wet-slug varieties and, (3) the glass, porcelain, and mica varieties. The selection of capacitors is based on the specific circuit application requirements. Output filter capacitors, for example, require low equivalent series resistance (ESR) and low equivalent series inductance so that the output ripple is minimized. In applications requiring high temperature stability, NPO multilayer ceramic capacitors may be the most appropriate. Several parameters are often traded in the process of selecting a capacitor: the capacitor voltage and the ac current rating are first determined, and these generally determine the broad family of capacitors that are best suited. A number of other factors are then considered to narrow the selection: the capacitor tolerance and its variation with temperature, operating temperature range, equivalent series resistance and capacitance, self resonance frequency, reliability, packaging style, cost, and production lead time, among others. Once a selection has been narrowed to two or three styles, a capacitor type with the highest volumetric efficiency that meets the circuit application is selected. Multilayer ceramic capacitors, made from a powder of various of titanate compounds, are by far the most popular capacitors in use today. There are three common types of ceramics, each distinguished by the characteristics of the dielectric used. The Z5U, typically made from barium titanate, has a very high dielectric constant. These capacitors provide a high volumetric efficiency but the initial tolerance, temperature coefficient, and long term stability are usually poor. They also demonstrate a poor voltage and frequency stability. The Z5U are best suited for bulk filter capacitors where large variations in capacitance may be tolerated. The Z5U capacitors are typically available

with beginning-of-life tolerance of 5-10% and voltage ratings from 50V to 200V, but with a capacitance variation of ±10% due to swings in applied voltage and a 5% per 1000 hour variation due to aging. To obtain higher precision and better temperature and aging stability, the X7R ceramic material is typically used. These capacitors use calcium titanate. The dielectric constant is much less than the Z5U material and, therefore, smaller capacitance values are typically available given a case size. Their low ESR, good temperature, and end-of-life performance make them a suitable choice in many instances. X7R material offers very low dissipation factors (high Q), exhibit no varactor effects (capacitor does not change with applied voltage), and provide excellent temperature and long-term stability. If even more precision, lower ESR, long-term stability, and very low temperature coefficients are required, a third ceramic style alternative, the COG, is available. These capacitors use a non-ferroelectric ceramic material and are the lowest of all in their dielectric constant. Consequently, these capacitors are much larger and are only used when extreme precision is required, such as timing circuits in a PWM, a VCO for a resonant converter control, or, due to their low losses, as resonant capacitors. Tantalum capacitors, solid and the wet slug designs, are often used for filtering applications requiring high capacitance values at low frequencies. They provide a high volumetric efficiency and good temperature stability. Wet slug capacitors are more often used as input and output filter capacitors of dc-dc converters although, with the advent of higher density multilayer ceramic capacitors, they are losing popularity. Solid tantalum capacitors are popular with commercial manufacturers of power electronics equipment but, due to a failure mechanism in high current applications, they are usually not recommended for high reliability space applications, although they can be safely used with a series limiting resistor or in low-energy circuits. This also eliminates their usefulness as an output filter capacitor; however, with a series resistor they can be used as the damping element in an output-input filter dc-dc converter application. Tantalum capacitors are polarized devices and care must be taken not to exceed their maximum rating. Wet slug tantalum capacitors also provide high volumetric efficiencies similar to that of their solid counterparts but do not suffer from their impurity failure mechanism. At relatively low capacitance values, mica and glass capacitors are an excellent choice. They both exhibit superior performance in temperature (as low as ±1%) and life stability, provide high self-resonance frequencies, and exhibit very low dissipation factors. Mica is a natural material and due to its crystalline structure can be cut into very thin sheets. It has a relatively low dielectric constant but provides better temperature stability and voltage performance compared to its ceramic counterpart. Glass capacitors offer even tighter tolerances and provide extremely low dissipation factors but are often more expensive. Due to better material uniformity, glass capacitors are better suited for applications with high ac voltage.

Magnetics Second only to MOSFETs, the most expensive components used in the spacecraft power electronics equipment are transformers and inductors, principally because these parts are specifically designed and optimized for a unique application and are therefore custom devices. Magnetic devices are in the power-processing path of power electronics equipment, and optimizing their performance greatly impacts the throughput efficiency of the power equipment. Unlike other electronic components for which vendors have developed manufacturing lines with highly optimized processes producing standard components, magnetic devices are usually built-to-print from customer drawings. This means that producibility and repeatability can be major issues. The tight, low-leakage windings produced in the engineering laboratory by an expert technician might not be cost-effective or repeatable at the vendor's factory. Small process changes in the winding impregnate application method or the curing temperature can produce widely varying results. Even if every single conceivable parameter is specified, monitored, and tested to produce an electrically and mechanically consistent part, small process variations may lead to parameter out-of-specification conditions and subsequent lot failure. Two types of magnetic devices are used in power electronics equipment: inductors, which are energy storage elements, and transformers, which are used to transfer energy, isolate the circuit grounds, or step-up or step-down the voltage or current in a circuit. Other combinations of these are also used, such as the coupled inductor in a flyback dcdc converter which does both (i.e., it is an energy storage element with two windings). The reader who is not familiar with the behavior of magnetic materials is referred to the Appendix for a summary of several topics critical to power system design. Spacecraft magnetic components are specified and procured based on a set of requirements involving the design, manufacturing process, and testing procedures. Many issues that are unique to the space environment are detailed, from the smallest wire gauge that can be used to the method of splicing allowed. Many core materials, sizes, and shapes are available to the power electronics designer. The key is to use the best materials suited for the application and to optimize for highest performance at the lowest cost. By far the most popular core material among spacecraft power electronics designers is the class of soft ferrites. Ferrites are homogenous ceramic materials made from a mixture of iron oxide, manganese, magnesium, zinc, nickel, or other rare-earth elements. They provide a high permeability with relatively high saturation flux densities (3000-5000 Gauss) and are well suited for modern high switching-frequency converters. Because the metals are used in an oxide form, the bulk resistivity of the ferrite is increased by several orders of magnitude compared to laminated iron cores, and this high resistivity lowers induced eddy current losses, thus making ferrites ideal for high frequency applications. Ferrites exhibit excellent aging and temperature stability, and the availability of different mixes allows manufacturers to offer special materials optimized for various frequency ranges.

The optimum magnetic core structure is the toroid. Flux lines are nicely contained in a the toroidal core structure and flux crowding problems are minimized. The windings are placed directly on top of the core in a low-cost single step; since the windings are exposed, the toroid provides an excellent thermal path from the winding to a heat sink. Toroidal designs are the most efficient in high-frequency resonant inductor applications with a large ac component. For input and output inductors where large dc currents are present, designers typically use molypermalloy powder cores. Since magnetic materials change from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic at their Curie temperature, thermal management is critical to guarantee that operations remain below the Curie point. Ferrites have a typical Curie temperature in the range of 150-2500C. However, the Curie point is not always the limiting factor. Some high frequency ferrites have an unusally high core loss rising exponentially at temperatures above 1000C and proper analysis must be performed to ensure thermal stability. Other limiting factors may be the maximum temperature of the insulating and binding materials used in their structure.

Semiconductors Digital semiconductor technology is rapidly changing. Whereas power components (such as magnetics, power MOSFETs, and diodes) are in the power path of an EPS, low-power semiconductors devices (such as op-amps, PWMs, and comparators) are key to support functions such as control circuits. Microprocessors requiring 0.9V at greater than 50 amperes will demand output rectifiers for the power converter other than the traditional pn-junction or Schottky diodes. Considering the step load requirements and the magnitude of the current, placement of the power converter becomes critical. Even a 10A transient load and a rise time of 100ns from a source with only 1OnH of lead inductance would produce a IV drop. If the microprocessor were being powered by a 0.9V source voltage, this would be completely unacceptable. At 50A, a higher distribution voltage is required to the point-of-load with a subsequent down conversion to the desired voltage. This is not a new challenge in the spacecraft power technology. To meet the demands of SSPAs and TWTA's operating in a TDMA or multicarrier mode, power designers have developed innovative methods to address the transient response issue. Several aspects of power semiconductors directly impact the power electronics designs and can dramatically improve efficiency and performance. Radiation hardened power MOSFETs with lower RDS (0N) and lower total gate charge are needed. Higher voltage versions can be used as the primary power switch, and lower voltage versions as the secondary synchronous rectifiers. In applications where output voltage is high enough (generally above 5V) at low to medium power levels, better pn-junction or Schottky diodes are needed. For the pn junction diodes, the forward voltage is never

low enough and higher switching speeds are never fast enough. Although Schottky diodes generally provide lower forward voltage drops and much faster switching speeds, they are usually not available in higher reverse breakdown voltages or a low enough reverse leakage current.

3.2 Packaging technologies The space environment places unique demands on electronics assemblies. Packaging is a multidisciplinary function that can be successful only when it is treated as a system. Achieving a reliable and efficient design requires trades and compromises involving electrical, mechanical, thermal, materials, radiation, reliability, and manufacturing engineering functions. Even though satellites are designed to be immune to singlepoint failures, redundancy does not address bad design. Since most redundant functions are carbon copies of the primary assembly, it will only be a matter of time before the secondary assembly fails in much the same way as the primary one did, thus rendering the spacecraft inoperable. The art of spacecraft electronic packaging starts with the demanding task of robust designs that are proven to last for 15 years or more. The real challenge is to do this while providing the highest density, lowest weight, and smallest size assembly to the user. As components are brought closer to each other without leads and packages that provide stress relief, CTE mismatch, adequate thermal conduction paths, EMI, ESD, high voltage arcing, and interconnect fatigue become serious design issues. The basic packaging technique for spacecraft electronics uses one or more printed circuit boards placed in an aluminum or magnesium housing. The boards are made from organic materials such as polyimide or glass epoxies and use the traditional multilayer plated-through-hole technology. Several standards do exist that govern various board materials, conductor thickness and plating, trace widths and clearances, solder mask and markings, board sizes, and many other parameters. Standard board sizes have been carried over from avionics and shipboard equipment into the spacecraft arena. For the most part, however, electronics assemblies within the spacecraft are highly optimized against weight and heat transfer requirements.

4. System examples Despite numerous conflicting requirements, design optimization trades, and inter-related system issues, engineers designing PMAD systems have successfully developed and produced highly reliable spacecraft systems with on-orbit life times far exceeding their intended missions. When one considers that a communications satellite launched today is expected to still be operational in the year 2015, the high level of attention that is

given to details in the spacecraft design and production process can be appreciated. What follows are a few examples of highly successful PMAD subsystems that have demonstrated a proven on-orbit track record, or in the case of ISS, hold the promise to do so.

4.1 The Lockheed Martin A2100 The Lockheed Martin A2100 spacecraft system was designed from a "clean sheet of paper" to set a new standard in commercial communication satellite technology. From the beginning, the system goals were modularity and reconfigurability to meet various customer designs. Every subsystem designer was given the task of improving performance (higher efficiency and lower mass), increasing producibility, and reducing cycle time and cost. New technologies were qualified and infused into the design over a three-year development period. Higher spacecraft power levels (up to 11 kW) with increased life expectancy to 15 years were made available serving a multitude of missions, including fixed satellite services (FSS) and direct-to-home and mobile communication services. Launch mass was reduced by 30% resulting in significant cost savings per launch. Several A2100 spacecraft are successfully operating on-orbit, and a brief description of that system is presented here. The A2100 spacecraft generates its power from dual four-panel rigid gallium arsenide and silicon solar array structures (Figure 8.39). Solar cells are supported on Kevlargraphite light weight panels and are driven with computer controlled stepper motors. Eclipse power is generated from dual nickel-hydrogen batteries made up of 100 and 131 Ahr individual pressure vessel (IPV) cells. Autonomous battery charge management (based on cell pressure and temperature), solar array digital sequential shunt control, bus regulation, and all of the autonomous fault management and telemetry functions are provided by a single modular and expandable (IkW-14kW) box called the power regulation unit (PRU). The PRU is fully internally redundant and provides the spacecraft with a regulated 70V bus (±2% at point-of-load, ±0.5% at the PRU). The 70V bus was chosen as an optimum point, high enough in voltage to significantly lower the spacecraft harness weight and payload DC-DC converter mass, yet low enough to utilize standard flight proven radiation-hardened MOSFETs and standard M123 multilayer ceramic capacitors. Point-of-load DC-DC converters use three standard designs, each optimized for maximum efficiency, lowest weight, and high producibility. The number of components was reduced by more than 40% compared to previous designs. Common part types were used whenever possible. Efficiencies for the payload converters were dramatically improved. TWTA high voltage electronic power conditioner efficiency is improved to 94% and SSPAEPC efficiency was improved to 92%. The power density was doubled from 75W/lb to 150W/lb.

70 Volt Regulated Bus

Solar Array

Solar Array

Solar Array

Solar Array

to Loads

SAS #12 BPC #1

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BPC #2

BPC #4

BPC #3

BPC #6

BPC #5

BPC #7

BPC #8

Battery

Battery

PRU Figure 8.39 The Lockheed Martin A2100 Schematic

The PRU utilizes a novel bi-directional power converter (BPC) topology to charge and discharge the batteries. An N+l redundancy scheme is used for each battery. BPCs are packaged as high density stand-alone subassemblies and are individually tested using automated test equipment before installation into the PRU. Full sequential shunts are utilized to control the solar array power. This function is performed by the solar array shunt assembly (SAS). Again, these are stand-alone subassemblies and are individually tested before installation into the PRU. The control function for the SAS and BPC modules is provided by the bus control board (BCB). The BCB is triply redundant and provides a bus voltage error signal which is selected in a voting scheme at the point of control. Other functions within the PRU include internal housekeeping EPCs, phase synchronization function, and the command and telemetry interfaces. The main power distribution is achieved with a rigid-flex assembly called the power bus assembly (PBA). The PBAs serve instead of traditional wiring harnesses and bus bars. Again PBAs are stand-alone assemblies and are individually tested before installation into the PRU. The PRU's innovative yet robust packaging design has completely eliminated the need for internal point to point wiring. Units are consistent off the line and expensive box level troubleshooting has been virtually eliminated. The A2100 spacecraft housekeeping and payload power converters use three standardized DC-DC converters. Low power TT&C and receiver applications use a high frequency flyback topology. Medium to high power SSPA applications utilize a Lockheed Martin proprietary high-efficiency resonant converter and the TWTA high efficiency EPC also utilizes a proprietary high-frequency topology.

42 Global positioning system block HR The GPS block IIR spacecraft provides accurate longitudinal and latitudinal coordinates to U.S. military personnel and civilians anywhere in the world at any time. The GPS spacecraft is a three-axis stabilized satellite designed for 10 years of operational service. The spacecraft power subsystem provides HOOW at the end of life and 1700W at the beginning of life. The power subsystem includes two solar array wings per spacecraft. Each solar array wing consists of two panels. Positioning the solar arrays normal to sun is achieved by two solar array drive (SAD) assemblies. The SADs provide power through a slip ring assembly within the SAD drive shafts. Two nickel hydrogen 40 Ah IPV batteries provide power during eclipse and when the solar power is insufficient to meet the spacecraft needs. Cell bypass circuits prevent the loss of a battery due to an open cell failure. Battery state of charge is monitored by temperature and pressure transducers. Additionally, ampere-hour integration is used to determine the exact state of charge for each battery. The power regulation unit (PRU) provides bus-voltage regulation, battery charge and discharge functions, telemetry, and fault detection and protection functions. The PRU provides the spacecraft with a regulated 28V bus. Three basic modes of operation are possible. During excess power capacity (over and above the spacecraft need and the maximum battery charge rate), sequential shunts external to the PRU at the solar array shunt boom assembly (SBA) are enabled. This mode regulates the bus to 28V. During the battery charge mode, excess solar array power is used to charge the batteries and to regulate the bus. Three battery charge control modules are used for this purpose in a N+l redundancy. In eclipse, or when excess power above the solar array output is required, battery discharge converters are used.

4.3 The International Space Station The International Space Station (ISS) requires electrical power for a variety of functions: command and control, communications, lighting, heating, life support, as well as powering a host of scientific experiments. There are two electrical power systems (EPS), one each primary for the U.S. Orbital Segment (USOS) and the Russian Orbital Segment. Each EPS can provide power for its segment as well as provide shared power to the other segment and to support international partners. We will focus this discussion on the USOS EPS. The USOSS EPS is a distributed power system consisting of three main subsystems: primary power, secondary power, and support. The primary power is obtained from two photovoltaic modules (PVM) operating at 160 Vdc. Each of these two power channels, designed to provide continuous power both during insolation and eclipse, is

composed of a number of interacting elements: the solar array wing, a sequential shunt unit (SSU), the gimbal assembly (BGA), an electronics control unit (ECU), a direct current switching unit (DCSU), and three battery charge/discharge units (BCDU), and battery assemblies. Primary power generation is through the conversion of solar energy to electrical energy in four photovoltaic blankets, and primary energy storage is performed by banks OfNiH2 battery assemblies. The batteries are designed to require only a 35% depth of discharge to supply nominal ISS power requirements. If power generation were to fail, the batteries could supply power for one complete orbit at a reduced consumption rate. As shown in Figure 8.40, much of the equipment is contained in an integrated equipment assembly that also provides thermal management, transferring heat from the Integrated Equipment Assembly (IEA) hardware to the deployable radiator. The BGA rotates the array to track the Sun while the ECU is the command and control link for power generation. The SSU maintains unregulated power in a specified voltage range, 130 to 180 Vdc. Note that the power storage function is accommodated in the primary power system since this centralized storage design results in decreased weight and cost over a decentralized one. It further provides a degree of flexibility in the event of degraded power generation capacity. Primary power distribution is a function of the DCSU through a network of highpower switches that interconnect the arrays and batteries to the power bus. While the arrays are illuminated, the DCSU routes power to the ISS and to the battery charging units, and battery power supplies ISS requirements during eclipse. PVA

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Figure 8.40 One of Two ISS USOS EPS Power Channels (Courtesy of NASA)

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Users

Figure 8.41 The USOS Secondary Power Conversion and Distribution System(Courtesy of NASA)

4.4 The Modular Power System The Modular Power Subsystem (MPS), though an early vintage, is a flexible electrical power system that was designed to meet a wide range of power requirements in orbits ranging from near-Earth to GEO. The MPS controls, stores, distributes, and monitors power from mission-unique solar arrays and supplies unregulated +28Vdc power to spacecraft loads. The MPS has flown on a number of missions, including Solar Max, TOPEX, GRO, URAS, EUVE, and LANDSAT D. The MPS can receive power from external sources during any mission phase, from pre-launch through spacecraft retrieval operations. Switching is done with relays. Either 20Ahr or 50Ahr NASA standard nickel cadmium batteries can be used to provide eclipse

power, the choice dependent on the total energy storage requirements. A block diagram of the module is shown in Figure 8.42.

GROUNDS / HUTTLE POWER TEST

SIGNAL CONDITIONCOMMANDS ING ASSEMBLY (SCA) DATA

BATTERY 1 TEST

BATTERY 3 (OPTIONAL) TEST TEST BATTERY 2 TEST TEST

POWER CONTROL UNIT (PCU)

TEST

REMOTE INTERFACE UNITA(RIU) TEST REMOTE INTERFACE UNIT B (RIU)

C&OH MODULE C&DH MODULE

TEST

POW WEM tR REGULATION UNIT (PRU) BUS PROTECTO IN ASSEMBLY (BPA)

HEATERS

TEST CHASSS I GRNO POWER GRND SIGNALGRND

S/C STRUCTURE CENTRAL GROUND POINT PRELAUNCH & RESUPPLY FUNCTO I NS MAIN ARRAY ARRAY & LOAD RETURNS SC&CU MODULE C&DH MODULE ACS. PROP. MODULE N I STRUMENTS

TEST PANEL Figure 8.42 The Modular Power Subsystem (Courtesy of NASA)

The PCU serves as the distribution point for the power bus and for battery recharge power. The unit contains relays for power control and for arming and disarming the MPS as well as current sensors for charge control and solar array input, battery charge/ discharge, and load current monitors. The PRU (see Fig. 8.43) conditions the solar array power for use by the various loads and for battery charging. The input to the PRU can vary between 40 and 125 V, 72 A max, and 4500 W max, while the output is unregulated between 22 and 35 V at 108 A max and 3600 W max. It uses a non-dissipative series switching regulator consisting of six 18 A power regulator modules operating in parallel and a redundant PPT circuit, dcdc converters and regulators, and battery charging logic. Its three modes of operation

include PPT, drawing maximum power from the array; voltage limit, with eight selectable battery charge voltage levels; and standby, during which array power is not available. The SCA provides the necessary interface circuitry between the power subsystem and the RIU coders and decoders. Among its design features are redundant dc-dc converters to supply MPS regulated power, the logic to maintain one battery on charge at all times, an independent parallel command redundancy, and automatic individual battery charge inhibit controls. The RIU provides all command and telemetry interfaces between the power subsystem and the Communications and Data Handling subsystem. Finally, the BPA provides redundant fusing for all non-critical MPS loads. The fuses are operated well below their normal rating to avoid failures other than those due to true circuit overload. The primary and redundant fuses are placed on separate plugin cards for added protection against an accidental mechanical disconnect of both fuses. The thermal design of the MPS is a passive equipment-to-baseplate radiator arrangement sized for the worst-case, hot-mode operating point. Active thermal control is provided by louvers during cooler operating times, and for maximum cold-mode operation, heaters and MLI blankets are used (see Chapter 9).

SPRU INPUTPOWER O W E R fiPA  OUTPUTCUHRENT SENSOR INPUT P SPRUPOWER RETURN SPRUCONTROL INPUT i BATTERY TEMP, VOLTS SPRU OUTPUT P O W E R

BATTERY CURRENT-

MON TIOR BATTEHV RETURN POWER TIOR BAT3 TERYMON POWER 7

MON TIOR POWER

MAIN CHARGE

G R O UND S /HUTTLE P O W E R

CHARGE DIODES

C PG A R R AY. G RR O U ND S /HUTTLE L O A D R ETU N S S G INAL H TR R S C ONO T O ITNN IGASSY H T R P W l TOBPA f

COMMANDS TLM DATA BYPASS (4|

POWER DISCONNECT

MA N IARRAY

DIODES

DIRECT CHARGE DIODES

VOLTS TEMP CURRENT SENSORS 12}

DISCONNECT 12]

POWER GND

S P R LIENT C U R SE N SR O R

SPRucuRRENT SENSOR

CURRENT SENSORS (21

ON-OFF CHARGE CONTROL

HTR RELAYS (21

VOLTS TEMP CURRENT SENSORS 121

DISCONNECT

ONOFF CHARGE CONTROL

CURRENT SENSOR

CURRENT SENSOR

VOLTS. TEMP CURRENT SENSORS

CURRENT SENSOR

POWER DISCONNECT

ON-OFF CHARGE CONTROL

POWER DISCONNECT (21

CURRENT SENSOR CURRENT SENSOR (2)

FUSE FUSE SELECT

FUSE

SC 8. CU P O W E R BPA INPUT P O W E R C & D H M O D U L E P O W E R M IIJ PE EC DA C E CURRENT N T IN N A C S *.O  P ROP MODULE P O W ER N IP S T RE U MENTS O W R

Figure 8.43 Standard PCU Functional Block Diagram (Courtesy of NASA)

5.

References

Anderson, R M. and Wolverton, R.H. Capt, A Low Mass, Modular Power System for 300W to L8kWSpace Craft, internal technical memorandum, (Lockheed Martin Astronautics, Denver, CO). Bingley, J.D., A2100 Power Regulation Unit, Design and Predecessor Hardware, internal memorandum, (Lockheed Martin, 1996). Determan, W,R., Concepts for Multi Kilowatt Space Power Applications, internal memorandum 889241, (Rockwell International/Rocketdyne Division, CagonaPark, CA). Dixon, Lloyd, An Electrical Circuit Model for Magnetic Cores, Unitrode Power Supply Design Seminar, SEM-1000, (1994) 6-9 Ebersole, T., Electrical Power Subsystem, GPS Orbital Operations Handbook, internal document, (Lockheed Martin, 1996). El-Hamamsy, S. A. and Chang, E.L, Magnetics Modeling for Computer-Aided Design of Power Electronics Circuits, IEEE Transactions on Power electronics (1989). Floyd, H. and Linkowski, R, Spacecraft Applications of Lithium Ion Battery Technology, internal memorandum (Lockheed Martin, 1998). JPL Web Site, Mars Rover Power Subsystem, http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/roverpout/ power.htl. Kassakian, J.G., Schlecht, M.F., Verghese, G.C., Principles of Power Electronics, (Addison-Wesley, New York,1991). Kim, SJ. and Cho, B.H., Analysis of Spacecraft Battery Charger Systems, internal technical memorandum, (Virginia Power Electronics Center of the Department of Electrical Engineering, VPI, Blacksburg, VA). Kota, Gandi K. and Owens, W., Electric Power Generation and Conditioning for Spacecraft Dynamic Isotope Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics (1987). Krummann, W. and Ayrazian, H., The Hughes HG601 HP Spacecraft Power Subsystem, IECEC Proceedings (1998). Magnetics Inc., Data Book for Ferrite Corsfor Paner and Filter Applications. Mammano, R., Resonant Mode Converter Topologies, Unitrode Power Supply Design Seminar, SEM-1000 (1994). Mclyman, Wm. T., Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook (Second Edition) (Deklcer, New York, 1988) 11-12. Department of Electrical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Magnetics Circuits and Transformers, internal memorandum (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston). Murray, W. E., Space Station Electrical Power Distribution System Development (Society of Automotive Engineers, 1985).

Papula, R, Battery and Solar Array Overview, internal technical memorandum (Lockheed Martin, 1997). Patil, A.R., Cho B.H., and Lee, R C , Design Considerations for a Solar Array Switching Unit, internal technical memorandum (Virginia Power electronics Center of the Department of Electrical Engineering, VPI, Blacksburg, VA). Pressman, Abraham L, Switching Power Supply Design (McGraw Hill, New York, 1991). Reppucci, G.M. and Sorenson, A.A., Space Station Power System Challenges, P-85/ 164 (Society of Automotive Engineers, 1985). Schiffer, S .R, Nickel-Hydrogen Batteries Come of Age, RCA Engineer (RCA Corporation, 1984). Schulten, M., Steigerwald, R.L., and Kheraluwala, M. H., Characteristics of Load Resonant Converters Operated in a High Power Factor Mode, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, VoI 7, No 2, (1992). Severns, R.R and Bloom, G.E., Modern DC-DC Switchmode Power Converter Circuits, Bloom Associates (1985) 14. Steigerwald, Robert L., A Comparison of Half-Bridge Resonant Converter Topologies, IEEE Transactions on on Power Electronics, VoI 3, No 2, (1988). Steigerwald, Robert L., Practical Design Methodologies for Load Resonant Converters Operation Above Resonance, private communication. Troutman, Joe, EOS EPS Bus Voltage Analysis, internal technical memorandum, (Lockheed Martin Corporation, 1991). Troutman, J., Bounds, R., and Stewart, D., EOS Bus Voltage Trade Study, internal technical memorandum (Lockheed Martin Corporation, 1991). Vanduyne, J., Schysani, M., Enhanced Power Regulation Unit for the Lockheed Martin A2100, internal technical memorandum, (Lockheed Martin Corporation, 1998). Walthall, E.R., Spacecraft Design Course Notes, Communication Satellite Design, RCA Astro Electronics (1986).

CHAPTER 9 THERMAL MANAGEMENT

1. Introduction The thermal environment aboard a spacecraft is managed by a thermal control system (TCS) which maintains the proper operating temperature regimes for individual components and for the spacecraft as a whole. In addition to the heat loads imposed by the external environment, inefficiencies in the spacecraft systems will generate internal heat that must be accommodated. Thermal management is a multidisciplinary technology based on detailed knowledge of the orbit and its environment, materials and their longterm behavior in space, heat transfer, and spacecraft modeling. While much of the thermal load on a spacecraft comes from the external environment, e.g., the direct solar flux, the TCS is also sensitive to the design and operation of the onboard electrical power system because of the need to control, collect, transport, and reject the heat generated due to inefficiencies in the operation of the electrical subsystems and components. As important as the TCS is to proper spacecraft operation, it accounts for less than five percent of the total spacecraft cost and mass. Two aspects of the space environment, the vacuum of space and zero gravity, combine to eliminate free convection, the most common method employed on Earth for transporting heat and operating cooling devices. During operation, the spacecraft absorbs heat from the Sun and reflected Sunlight and infrared radiation from planets, and, in addition, will generate some heat onboard from the operation of a number of spacecraft systems and subsystems. Unlike systems that operate on Earth, systems aboard spacecraft cannot easily reject the heat that continues to accumulate. Compounding the challenge of maintaining overall thermal equilibrium is the need to keep selected parts of the spacecraft operating within strict temperature limits that may be greatly outside the equilibrium temperature of the spacecraft. In some cases, the temperature control demands placed on the TCS by individual components throughout the spacecraft may range from near zero Kelvin to over 1000 Kelvin. The thermal control of a spacecraft presents a number of difficult engineering issues. Since free convection is not a viable option in space, maintaining a proper thermal balance for both the structure and the various pieces of equipment aboard the spacecraft over long periods of time becomes a delicate balancing act between the various sources of heat and the ability of the spacecraft to radiate the excess heat. In some limited applications (as in the case of cryogenic boiloff to maintain very low temperatures for

sensors), mass ejection has been used to remove heat, but this is generally not available for long-term operation of large systems. In this chapter, we discuss the considerations that are a part of the design of the TCS, how the spacecraft mission and the thermal environment of space impact that design, how the TCS might interface with the power system, and some of the key components of a thermal control system.

1.1 Definition and purpose of a TCS The thermal control system is designed to maintain the temperature of various elements of the spacecraft within defined bands under the varying conditions of orbital flight and over the relatively long lifetime of an operational satellite. The thermal loads on the spacecraft will vary due to changes in the external environment, over which the thermal engineer may have little control, and the internal environment, whose design characteristics often involve tradeoffs with other systems. Thermal control is more than just a case of maintaining balance between the minimum cold temperature of the spacecraft and its maximum hot temperature. Throughout the operational life of the satellite there will be specific temperature demands placed on its various components. Figure 9.1 shows several of these components and the temperature bands within which they must be maintained under varying conditions such as changing orbits, power generation and usage, and environmental degradation of the materials comprising the TCS. The necessity of maintaining the temperature within these bands varies from component to component. For example, while the solar arrays can operate over a wide temperature range, their efficiency decreases as the temperature rises so that a tradeoff between decreased efficiency and the cost of maintaining control of the temperature must be made. In other examples, cryogenic systems such as IR sensors fail to operate above a narrow temperature range, and hydrazine fuel freezes at the lower end of its storagetemperature range and decomposes at the upper end of that storage temperature. The broad range shown for typical structures can be limited because of requirements for accurate pointing and tracking systems attached to the structural member which may be expanding and contracting with changes in temperature. The thermal control system maintains the necessary balance within the systems and across components comprising those systems. The relationship between the TCS and the spacecraft electrical power system is a particularly close one because of changing internal thermal loads due to varying demands for electrical power and the internal heat generated by all electrically powered devices. As we will discuss later, a critical issue within the spacecraft is the thermal conductivity of the spacecraft structure necessary to provide low resistivity pathways from components to radiators located on the exterior surfaces.

Although the structural components will most often provide the high conductivity pathways needed, the electrical insulation in the power system will present high thermal resistance as well. Materials research aimed at this and related problems (such as developing electrical conductors that can serve as solar array coatings) have produced solutions that, while available, remain costly. Large, cyclic temperature gradients across the craft can create structural problems as well as contributing to difficulties in pointing, tracking, and alignment of sensors and antennae. Through clever design, the thermal engineer seeks to protect domains of tight temperature control at low cost in dollars and mass and in a way that is compatible with the other operating systems of the spacecraft.

structures batteries (NiCd) analog electronics ir sensors solar arrays hydrazine fuel humans mechanical bearings motors microprocessors particle detectors

degrees Centigrade Figure 9.1 Representative Temperature Ranges for Spacecraft Components

12 Characterization and design of the thermal control process Many considerations go into a complete characterization of the thermal management system, only some of which are at the discretion of the designer. Foremost is the mission, which overshadows all other issues. The mission will dictate features such as the orbit (and the attendant space environmental issues for that orbit choice), the on-station duration and design life, reliability criteria, operations requirements and timelines, configuration constraints (e.g., sensor field of view, allowable jitter), launch and ascent constraints (e.g., ground cooling, booster interfaces), safety, survivability, contamination control, spacecraft maintenance and interfaces, and programmatic constraints (cost, schedule, risk) (Vernon, 1989). In a simple case of a satellite in LEO with no signifi-

cant internal heat loads, the design process may be a straightforward passive thermal control system. As the spacecraft design or operation becomes more complex, additions beyond the passive design may become necessary. As depicted in Figure 9.2, the process starts with a definition of the mission in order to establish requirements. The thermal design requirements may be specified (as in choice of launch vehicle, orbit, design lifetime, acceptable temperature limits), derived (as in duty cycles, design techniques, temperature margins), or allocated (as in power, weight, volume). Preliminary subsystem definition is then performed on not just the TCS, but all spacecraft subsystems. This preliminary analysis defines the overall sufficiency of the TCS concept. Tradeoffs among subsystems lead to a preliminary satellite concept design and configuration. More detailed analyses, which might involve interactions of the TCS with the structure, the power system, placement and specific temperature requirements of components, among others, lead to modifications of the original concepts and result in a preliminary analytical model for the TCS. After refinements, verification of the modeling is usually done by thermal vacuum testing (Agrawal, 1986; Vernon, 1989). There are a number of system constraints that must be accommodated within the trade-off allowed for each of the features demanded by the mission, and, in most cases, the interdependence of choices narrows options as the design progresses. As an example, in the choice of orbit, consideration must be taken for percent eclipse coverage. This, in turn, for the common case of photovoltaic power, impacts the power system design, the choice of battery configurations and operating parameters (such as depth of discharge) of the power management system, the weight allocated to the power system, and reliability, among others. This same interaction among systems and design philosophy will apply to all thermal design system constraints such as redundancy design, design margin philosophy (especially power margin), choices of an active or passive TCS, specific temperature specifications for components, weight, volume, and cost considerations, and acceptable failure modes. The proper design of a TCS goes beyond simply maintaining overall spacecraft temperatures between some maximum and minimum values. A variety of design parameters, many related to temperature, enters into the thermal engineer's task (Wise, 1993). For example: • Maximum and minimum non-operational temperatures- during ground operations and during flight prior to achieving final orbit, there may be temperature constraints placed on certain components. Allowing the thermal environment to stray outside of these limits may cause damage to the component or may not allow the component to begin operation when required. These limits are usually more generous than those imposed while the system is operating. • Maximum and minimum operational temperatures- allowing the temperatures to go outside these limits may cause problems ranging from loss of calibration to component failure.

Mission Requirements

Mission Definition

Subsystem Definition

Launch Vehicle

Transfer Vehicle

Attitude Control

Electrical Power

Telementry &Comm

TCS

Structures

Conceptual Design of the Spacecraft Preliminary Analyses

Preliminary Design Steps

Configuration Definition

Structural Details Detailed Design Steps

Power Dissipation

Temperature Claculations Component Placements

Prelininary TCS Analytical Modeling Analytical Modeling and Testing

Thermal Balance Test TCS Model Refinements

Verification

Thermal Vacuum Testing

Figure 9.2. Typical TCS Design Process (after Agrawal, 1986; Vernon, 1989)

• Minimum turn-on temperatures- often a component may be stored at a much lower temperature than the norm for operation, but must be raised to a higher minimum temperature before safe operation can be assured. A simple example is a heat pipe that may be 'frozen' during dormancy but must be heated prior to operation. • Rate-of-change limitations (ATVAt)- when bringing a system or component into its safe operational range there may be limitations imposed on the rate at which heat

may be added to or removed from the component by the TCS. Optical systems may be particularly sensitive to this rate of change of temperature. • Controlled temperatures- there are numerous components (e.g., oscillators, ovens, sensors, and devices that operate at cryogenic temperatures) whose operating temperatures must remain within very tight limits. These devices usually require spot heaters or refrigerators to maintain tolerances. • Temperature versus lifetime- it is usual for the temperature of a spacecraft to tend to rise with time, often because of changes in the surface properties of the radiator; overdesign of the TCS may be required to accommodate this temperature versus time trend. The INSAT-2A, a geosynchronous communications satellite launched on an Ariane vehicle in 1992, offers a specific example of the component temperature limits. These are presented in Table 9.1. Table 9.1 Component Temperature Limits for INSAT-2A (Kaila and Bhide, 1994) degrees C Spacecraft Component Traveling Wave Tube Amplifier Solid State Power Amplifier Battery (NiCd) Very High Resolution Radiometer Gyros Momentum Wheels Earth Sensor HgCdTe IR Sensor Propulsion Tanks Reflectors Solar Panel Spacecraft Structure

Non-Operating Min Max ^40 80 -40 65 0 35 -30 55 -15 70 -15 55 -40 60 -168 -158 5 45 -175 90 -120 115 -50 65

Operating Min Max 1 B 75 -15 60 0 35 -15 50 -10 65 -5 50 -15 55 -168 -158 5 45 -175 90 -120 115 -50 65

Thermal design considerations also involve compromises with the structural, attitude control, and power systems, as well as meeting cost, weight, and volume constraints. The issue of mass constraints in spacecraft design is particularly critical to the TCS. Lightweight spacecraft tend to be inherently poor thermal conductors so that the task of conducting internally-generated heat to the surface radiators becomes an even more difficult problem. As the availability of prime geostationary orbits decreases, the need to increase the number of channels and power per channel on these communications satellites will become an option of choice. This, in turn, will increase the internally generated heat loads and make thermal management even more challenging.

2. The thermal environment The thermal loads with which the TCS must deal come from several sources, as shown in Figure 9.3. Although each of the sources contributes to the overall thermal environment, the dominant source is the Sun which dictates much of the TCS design. At the Earth's average distance from the Sun (1 AU), about 1370 W/m2 of thermal load is delivered to the surface of a spacecraft. In addition to this direct illumination, the Sun's radiation affects the spacecraft in three other ways: the reflection of the Sun's radiation from the surface of the Earth, the albedo, presents a thermal load to the spacecraft which varies with the latitude and the orbit; the Sun's radiation scattered from one part of the spacecraft to another; and the infrared radiation from the Earth that is present even on the nighttime side of the orbit. Finally, during launch and orbital positioning there are aerodynamic and rocket plume thermal loads that must be accommodated by the TCS.

fairing and aerodynamic heating Sun

reflected sunlight from s/c surfaces

direct solar radiation

plume heating and soakback

reflected solar illumination (albedo) radiation to space infrared radiation

Earth

Figure 9.3 Sources of Heat Affecting a Spacecraft

Prior to launch, the thermal management of the spacecraft is controlled by ground units either in a clean room or on the launch vehicle itself. It is common for a satellite to spend weeks or months in a vehicle while preparing for launch. The TCS requirements during this phase are not as demanding as those on-orbit because of the greater freedom available to terrestrial thermal management systems. Once the launch preparation phase

is completed, however, and thermal management is under the spacecraft's TCS, the thermal environment of the spacecraft will never again be static. There are several distinct thermal environments that must be accommodated: launch and ascent, orbit transfer, and final orbit parking. During launch and ascent, aerodynamic heating can generate loads of several hundred W/m on the fairings. Once the vehicle has reached an altitude of greater than about 100 km, the aerodynamic heating is no longer an issue, but is replaced by the several other sources of heat with which the spacecraft must deal throughout its operational lifetime. While there may be little distinction between the environmental characteristics of the transfer orbit and the final operational orbit, there is a significant distinction between them in the internal heat generated by systems operating in the final orbit that are not active during orbit transfer. (Pisacane and Moore, 1994). The thermal loads will continuously change due to orbital dynamics, the operation of onboard systems, and the interactions of the spacecraft with the environment. As we will see later in this section, these changes occur with time constants varying from minutes to years.

2.1 Solar radiation The primary source of heat for a typical spacecraft is radiation heating from the Sun, about 1370 W/m . This number will vary by about 5% during the course of the year as the Earth's distance from the Sun increases and decreases. The 'blackbody' temperature of the Sun is about 5860 K (see Section 3.2), and the energy radiated as a function of wavelength for a blackbody of that temperature is shown in Figure 9.4. At the Sun's blackbody temperature, virtually all of the solar radiation occurs at wavelengths between 0.2 and 2.6 micrometers so it is important that materials used in spacecraft construction have their absorptivity fully characterized for these wavelengths. The behavior of materials exposed to this wavelength band, especially the degree to which the energy is absorbed, is of paramount importance to the thermal design engineer. The actual heating that this solar radiation causes is dependent on the characteristics of the materials covering the spacecraft, particularly the solar absorptivity, a, and thermal emissivity, e, which are discussed in detail in Section 3.3. The extent to which solar heating occurs is also dependent on the orbit of the spacecraft and the method by which the satellite is stabilized. The amount of time the spacecraft spends in eclipse, and thus out of the Sun's direct radiation, may vary from more than 40 minutes of every 90-minute low-Earth orbit to as little as zero for much of the year for satellites in geosynchronous orbits. The solar heating load will change dramatically during eclipse and vary during the year as the Earth proceeds in its orbit. The method by which the satellite is stabilized will also influence the thermal balance. The thermal design for spin-stabilized spacecraft uses the cylindrical solar array surrounding the satellite to radiate internally-generated heat. An a/e ratio of unity for

Emissive Power (W/m2-njn)

Log Wavelength Wavelength (jun)

Figure 9.4 Radiated Power versus Wavelength for a Blackbody at 5870 K

solar panels makes them a useful heat sink and radiator. Heat is conducted either by direct contact or via a structural member of the satellite to the solar array as it spins about an axis normal to the direction of the Sun (Gilmore, 1994). The most common method of stabilization, especially for geosynchronous satellites, is three-axis, and generally all use the same thermal management techniques, namely a combination of multilayer insulation and efficient radiators. Electronic boxes generating large amounts of heat are usually mounted directly on the walls of the structural members supporting the outward-facing radiators. Boxes internal to the spacecraft transfer their heat to the radiators by radiation or conduction. As we will see, radiators are designed to be low solar absorbers. This low absorbing surface, combined with the multilayer insulation used on the other parts of the satellite, makes the three-axis stabilized spacecraft less sensitive to variations in the external heat loading than those that are spin-stabilized (Gilmore, 1994). Variations in the solar flux do occur, however, and must be a part of the thermal design. As Agrawal (1986) points out, in the case of geosynchronous satellites the variations occur on two different time scales. The geosynchronous satellite makes one complete revolution every 24 hours, and this gives rise to a diurnal (i.e., daily) variation that is depicted in Figure 9.5. In this case, the solar flux is a maximum on the various

faces of the satellite as the day progresses: anti-Earth facing at noon, west at dawn, etc. Because the north and south facing sides are never in direct illumination, there is no significant variation in flux loading for these faces. They are the faces most likely to show the best temperature stability. In addition to the diurnal variations, there is a seasonal variation as the Sun rises and falls 23 degrees from the equinox direction. As seen in the figure below, and as discussed in Chapter 2, it is only at equinox that eclipses can occur for geosynchronous satellites. The maximum eclipse period during these semiannual eclipse seasons is about 75 minutes.

Vernal Equinox

Spring Summer Solstice

no eclipse season

Summer

45 day eclipse season

Winter

no eclipse season

Sun

45 day eclipse season

Winter Solstice Fall

Autumnal Equinox

Figure 9. 5 Solar Flux Variations at Geosynchronous Orbit (Sabripour, 1999)

2.2 Planetary radiation Although this section will be restricted to a discussion of the radiation from the Earth, all of what is presented can be generalized to the thermal load imposed on a spacecraft in orbit around any planet. The Earth contributes to the overall thermal load of a satellite in two ways: direct reflection of Sunlight (albedo) and infrared emissions defined by the equilibrium temperature of the planet. These effects are important in low Earth orbits and are only minor additions to the thermal models at geosynchronous altitudes.

The Earth albedo The albedo characterizes the Sun's reflected radiation from the surface of the Earth and is usually expressed as a percentage of the Sun's radiation reflected back into space. While a nominal value of about 0.3 is often used in calculations, the actual albedo is not a constant. The amount of Sunlight reflected varies depending on whether the reflection occurs from continents or oceans, forests or ice packs, by direct illumination or grazing incidence, etc. There are much data available on the details of albedo calculations, some of which is nicely summarized by Gilmore (1994). One should also note that the albedo is independent of any particular orbit. Orbital averages are usually sufficient in thermal calculations because of the relatively short time constants of most periods and the thermal capacity of most satellites. When using the albedo to estimate the thermal flux reaching the satellite, it is important to remember that the flux will decrease as the satellite passes the subsolar point of the orbit. The solar energy reaching the Earth, and so being reflected from the surface, varies as the cosine of the angle from the subsolar point. The albedo of the Earth is also a function of the latitude with the largest value occurring at the poles and the smallest at the equator. This variation is to be expected since reflection from snow is greater than that from dense vegetation.

The Earth IR Emission The Earth itself absorbs some of the solar radiation. The equilibrium temperature of the Earth is above zero Kelvin and so emits electromagnetic radiation approximated by a blackbody at its equilibrium temperature. This equilibrium temperature can be estimated simply by equating the solar energy absorbed by the Earth to the energy radiated by the Earth:

In the expression above, S is the solar radiance (1370 W/m2), R e is the radius of the Earth, p is the albedo (0.3), o is the Stephan-Boltzmann constant, and e is an assumed emissivity of 0.9 for the Earth. At this low temperature, the peak amplitude of this radiation occurs at a wavelength of about 10 micrometers, far above the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, but in the infrared portion. It is common, therefore, to refer to this radiation as the Earth

ER emission. Near the Earth's surface, the average value of the thermal radiation is about 240 W/m2. The IR emission varies with latitude, with the largest emission, as might be expected, taking place near the equator. The average IR emitted at the equator is about 50% greater than that at the poles, as shown in Table 9.2. Table 9.2 Variations in Earth IR Emission and Earth Albedo as a Function of Latitude (used with permission, Gilmore, 1994) Latitude Range (degrees) 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 -10 -10 -20 -20 -30 -30 -40 -40 -50 -50 -60 -60 -70 -70 -80 -80 -90

Average IR (W/m2) 177 177 189 202 218 240 259 256 240 252 256 259 240 218 202 183 161 136

Average Albedo (percent) 69 68 53 44 37 31 26 24 25 23 24 24 28 35 45 56 74 74

At all spacecraft altitudes where the flux is significant, the Earth's IR is greater than the albedo flux. Also, recall that the albedo contribution to spacecraft heating will disappear while the vehicle is in the Earth's shadow. The IR flux is present at all times, however, independent of whether or not the satellite is being shielded by the Earth from the solar radiation. A graphical comparison of the relative values of IR and albedo flux averaged over the surface of a spherical satellite for low-to-mid altitudes is shown in Figure 9.6. Both sources of heating are negligible at geosynchronous orbits, the IR flux being of order 0.5 W/m2 and the albedo about half that value.

2.3 Spacecraft-generated heat The launch vehicle and the spacecraft itself will be the source of some heat that must be collected, transported, and then radiated. In addition to the planetary radiation, there is a thermal load of about 0.5 W/m2 throughout the solar system due to cosmic rays interacting with the spacecraft. While these heat loads will be significantly less than those

Incident Flux (W/m2)

IR

Albedo

Altitude (km)

Figure 9.6 Incident IR and Albedo Flux on a Spherical Satellite versus Altitude

imposed by solar radiation or the Earth's IR, they may be sufficient to interfere with the performance of sensitive components, especially those operating at cryogenic temperatures.

On-board systems Electrical power components on satellites are designed to operate at the highest efficiency to reduce the heat generated. Generally these components function at efficiencies between 0.15 (e.g., solar arrays) and 0.97 (inverters) and at power levels from a few watts to hundreds of watts. Any inefficiency will produce some localized heat, usually low-grade (i.e., low temperature) heat that the TCS must accommodate, and low-grade heat is the most difficult to manage in space.

Aerodynamic heating As we saw in Chapter 2, even at altitudes of 150 km there remains some measurable atmosphere. As the launch vehicle leaves the denser atmosphere, the fairings protecting

the payload are discarded to minimize dead weight. This exposes the satellite to the ambient atmosphere, and the collisions of these molecules with the satellite surface generates heat. The heating rate is proportional to the product of the ambient density (decreasing with increasing altitude) and the cube of the velocity (increasing with increasing altitude) and although this heating source may be present only for a short time (tens of minutes) during the ascent, it plays a role in the thermal analysis of any orbit whose perigee is below about 150 to 200 km (Gilmore, 1994). Above the altitudes where there is any sensible neutral atmosphere lie the Van Allen belts of charged particles (see Chapter 2). These trapped electrons are found at altitudes between several hundred km and more than 50,000 km while the trapped protons are found primarily in the inner belt between altitudes of several hundred km to about 5500 km. Satellites whose orbits cross these regions are subject to some modest surface heating which may be neglected for spacecraft whose equilibrium temperature is above the cryogenic range, perhaps greater than 200 K (Figure 9.7). However, a significant local temperature rise can be seen as these charged particles are stopped in the first tens of micrometers, and this local heating can adversely impact systems designed to operate at cryogenic temperatures (Gilmore, 1994). Note in this example that at an altitude of 2.0 Re, a radiation surface at 20 K can experience a potentially unacceptable temperature increase of almost 40 K.

Temperature increase (K)

Combined proton and electron heating Earth equatorial orbit conditions No solar heating

Steady-state surface temperatures

Radiator equilibrium temperature (K) Figure 9.7 Temperature Increase in an Aluminum Radiator Due to Charged-Particle Heating (used with permission, Gilmore, 1994)

3. Heat transfer mechanisms Except for the operation of closed loop systems (see Section 9.5.2), convection does not play a role in heat transfer onboard spacecraft. Conduction inside the spacecraft and radiation both inside and outside the spacecraft are the dominate heat transfer mechanisms.

3 J Heat transfer by conduction Conduction is the primary method by which heat is transferred from the interior of the spacecraft to the external surface. Conductive heat transfer is described by Fourier's law, which for the steady-state, one-dimensional case is (9.1) where Q is the rate at which energy is being transferred (W), k is the thermal conductivity (W/m-K) of the material involved, A is the area across which the heat is being transported (m2), d is the distance along which the heat is conducted (m), T2 is the hot-side temperature (K),and T1 is the cold-side temperature (K). The key design issue governing this method of heat transfer is the thermal conductivity of the materials involved. The thermal conductivity of several materials useful in TCS design is given in Table 9.3 below. Table 9.3 Densities and Thermal Conductivities of Selected Spacecraft Materials (Eden, 1991;Juhaz, 1997) Material Aluminum alloys Diamond (natural) Diamond (VD) Aluminum nitride Gallium arsenide Molybdenum Aluminum Copper Silver Stainless steel (304) Carbon steel Phenolic

Thermal Conductivity (W/m-K) 120-210 2000 500-1600 170-230 45 145 237 395 428 17 52 .03

Once cannot help but notice the extremely large thermal conductivity of diamond. While not yet a realistic material to be considered for large-scale applications, the use of thin-film diamond in conductive heat transfer from component-dense electronics packages is becoming more practical. When possible, components generating large heat loads, such as the collectors of travelling wave tube (TWT) amplifiers, are mounted directly to the surface of the spacecraft to minimize the conduction path. When these components are mounted further inside the spacecraft, care must be taken to ensure adequate heat transport. Transport by conduction alone may impose mass requirements on the structure that cannot be accommodated, so the component is placed to allow for a combination of conduction and radiative heat transport.

3.2 Heat transfer by radiation Radiation is the principal mechanism by which the environment transfers heat to the satellite, and the method by which the satellite rejects its waste heat into the space environment. In many designs, it is also the primary method of heat transfer onboard the spacecraft from individual systems to the radiators. All bodies with a temperature above zero Kelvin emit and absorb electromagnetic energy, i.e., radiation. The most efficient radiator of this electromagnetic radiation is the 'blackbody,' a surface that emits the maximum amount of energy for a given equilibrium temperature. Such a blackbody also is the most efficient absorber of thermal radiation, a fact that will be useful in our later discussion of properties of materials used in a TCS. The concept of a blackbody is more than just a theoretical nicety; in practical calculations, real bodies are often approximated by these blackbodies at a fixed temperature. In 1900, Planck proposed an empirical expression, based on quantum theory, to fit experiments measuring spectral distribution of radiation emitted by blackbodies at different temperatures. This expression, Planck's Law, relates the blackbody absolute temperature to the rate at which energy is emitted:

(9.2)

where E is the energy emitted by a blackbody at temperature T (K) and at wavelength A,, h is Planck's constant (6.6252 x 10~34 J-s), c is the speed of light (3 x 108 m/s), and k is Boltzmann's constant (1.38 x 10"23 J/K). The spectral radiancy is defined such that E dA,

is the power radiated per unit area for wavelengths in the wavelength interval X to A, -tdA. The units of E are then watts per unit area per unit wavelength (W/m2/(im). The remarkable feature of the equation at the time it was initially proposed by Planck is that it contained only the single unknown constant, h, and yet produced with great accuracy a fit to the emission data then available. Eq. (9.2), of itself, has limited direct value to the thermal engineer. It is, however, the basis for several expressions that are of great practical value. A plot of Eq. (9.2) is shown for several temperatures (Figure 9.8). Note that the amplitude of the emission increases with increasing temperature, and that the wavelength of the peak amplitude decreases (hence the energy of the corresponding photons increases) with increasing temperature. Recall from Chapter 2 that the solar spectrum can be approximated using a blackbody temperature of 5780 K, and the Earth's IR spectrum corresponds to a temperature of about 290 K. By differentiating Eq. (9.2) and equating the result to zero, one can derive Wien's displacement law which defines the wavelength Xmax at which the spectral radiancy has its maximum value for a given temperature T. The Wien displacement law (9.3) relates the temperature of a blackbody to the peak in the spectral intensity, i.e., the 'color' of the body. The Earth's IR spectrum peaks at about 10 (im, consistent with the Earth's equilibrium temperature of about 290 K, while the solar spectrum is a maximum around 0.5 |um in agreement with its blackbody temperature of 5780 K. An even more useful expression for thermal management is obtained by integrating Planck's expression over all possible wavelengths, that is, from zero to infinity. This integrated result, Q, the radiancy, is the power per unit surface area radiated into the forward hemisphere from all wavelengths. This produces an expression for the rate at which energy is emitted by a blackbody in equilibrium at temperature T (Kelvin). The resulting expression (9-4) is known as the Stefan-Boltzmann equation and is fundamental to maintaining thermal balance onboard spacecraft. The constant, a, is the Stephan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 x 10"8 W/m2/K4), and T (Kelvin) is the temperature of the radiating body. As will be discussed later, the radiative behavior of various materials is different, so that in practical use Eq. 9.4 is written as (9.5) where Ј is the emissivity of the material. As one might expect at this point, the absorptivity and emissivity of the materials covering the outside of spacecraft are critical to

Spectral Radiancy