Southeast Asian Archaeology 1986: Proceedings of the First Conference of the Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe: Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 8th – 10th September 1986 9780860547099, 9781407348582

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Southeast Asian Archaeology 1986 Proceedings of the First Conference of the Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe Institute of Archaeology, University College London 8th-10th September 1986

edited by

Ian and En1ily Glover

BAR International Series 5 61

1990

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S'b61, 19YO: 'boutheast Asian Archaeol□RY l�tlti' @ The Individual Authors, lYYO

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860547099 paperback ISBN 9781407348582 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860547099 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

S ou theas t A s ian A r chaeo logy 1 986

CONTENTS Ed itor ia l L i s t o f P a r t ic ipan ts i nt he C on fe rence

V

T he T ingkayu I n dus t ry o fL a te P le is tocene S abah P e te r B e l lwood

1

H oab inh ian C ave E xcava t ions i nB an K ao D i s t r ic t , Wes tT ha i land S ur in P ooka jo rn

1 1

T he Mo l luscan F auna o fU lu L eang 1C ave , S ou th S u lawes i , I n dones ia Em i ly G love r

2 9

E xcava t ions a t Ob luang , P rov ince o fC h iang Ma i , ( Tha i land ) Ma r ie l le S an ton i , J ean -P ie r re P au t reau , a nd S ayan P r ishanch i t

3 7

S tone T oo l Manu fac tu r ing a reas i nt he P rov ince o fN an ( Tha i land ) J ean -P ie r re P au t reau , Ma r ie l le S an ton i , a nd S ayan P r ishanch i t

5 5

AT r ipod P o t te ry C omp lex i nP en insu la r Ma lays ia L eong S au H eng

6 5

C hang ing E nv i ronmen ts a nd A g r icu l tura l O r ig ins a tK hok P hanom D i , T ha i land : t he p o l len e v idence B e rna rd Ma loney a nd J ud i th B rown

7 7

P i gs a nd R i tua ls o n B oho l I s land , P h i l ipp ines E len i ta Z .d e V e ra

8 7

P roduc ing S tanda rds f o r I d en t i fy ing P lan t F ood R ema ins o n A nc ien t P o t te ry : w i th s pec ia l r e fe rence t oS ou theas t A s ia a nd t he P ac i f ic A rea H .E . H i l l a nd J .E vans

1 01

P reh is to r ic C oppe r Sme l t ing i nC en t ra l T ha i land A nna B enne t t

1 09

T he B an C h iang C h rono logy R ev ised J oyce C . Wh i te

1 21

A nc ien t B ase Me ta l M ines a nd M in ing i nS ou thwes tT ha i land V anessa C oo te

1 31

B an D on T a P he t : t he 1 984 -85 E xcava t ion I a n G love r

1 39

B an D on T a P he t B ryan A lvey

1 85

-

D a ta C ap tu re a nd A na lys is

K e t t led rums o fH ege r 1T ype : s ome o bse rva t ions P er S orensen

1 95

M oa ted S e t t lemen t i nt he M un B as in , N or theas tT ha i land E l izabe th Moo re

2 01

G lass a nd B eads a tK huan L ukpad , S ou the rn T ha i land B enne t t B ronson

2 13

1

S ou theas t A s ian A r chaeo logy 1 986

T rade a nd t he S an tubong I r on I n dus t ry J an W isseman C h r is t ie

2 31

C lemen t H ue t a nd t h e o r ig in o ft he V ie tnamese C o l lec t ions o ft he M usées R oyaux d 'A r t e td 'H is to i re , B russe ls J an ine S cho tsmans

2 41

N ew D a ta o nt he V I I -V i l l th C en tur ies H is to ry i nt he K hme rL ands C laude J acques

2 51

G o ld Wo rk f r om K o ta C ina : at e chn ica ls t udy R ache l Swan a nd D av id S co t t

2 61

C u l tu ra l R e la t ions a nd A s ian T rade :t heV ie tnamese T i les o f Ma japah i t J ohn G uy

2 75

T he F u tu re o fO ve rseas A rchaeo log ica l R esea rch i nS ou theas tA s ia : a n i n fo rma ls em ina r I a nG love r

2 87

N o tes o n C on t r ibu to rs

2 89

1

S ou theas tA s ian A r chaeo logy 1 986

ED ITOR IAL T he c hap te rs i nt h is v o lume r ep resen t mos t o ft he p apers p resen ted a tt he f i r s t c on ference o f t h e A ssoc ia t ion o f S ou theas t A s ian A rchaeo log is ts i n Wes te rn E u rope w h ich was h e ld a tt he I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , U n ive rs i ty C o l lege L ondon f r om t he 8 th 10 th S ep tembe r 1 986 . H owever , s ome p ape rs p r esen ted t ot he C on fe rence a re n o t i n c luded h e re a st he i ra u tho rs f e l t t h a t p re l im ina ry i d eas , a pp rop r ia te f o rp resen ta t ion t oa n a ud ience o ft he i rc o l leagues ,w e re n o t r e ady f o r p ub l ica t ion . T he p ape rs r ead t ot he C on fe rence b u t n o t i n c luded i nt h is v o lume a re l i s ted a tt he e nd o ft h is e d i to r ia l . Af ew wo rds a re n eeded t o i n t roduce t he A ssoc ia t ion o f S ou theas t A s ian A rchaeo log is ts i n Wes tern E urope , o r ASEAA WE , t ou se t he r a the r a wkwa rd a c ronym . T h is g roup d eve loped o u t o ft he A ssoc ia t ion o fS ou th A s ian A rchaeo log is ts i n Wes te rn E urope a tt ha t O rgan isa t ion 's 7 t h I n terna t iona l C on fe rence i nB russe ls i n 1 983 w he re i tw as a g reed t ha t t he S ou th A s ian m ee t ings h ad g rown t os uch a s i ze t ha t t hey c ou ld n o l o nge rt ake p ape rs o n S ou theas t A s ian a r chaeo logy . C e r ta in o fu s t he re fo re f e l tt ha t i tw ou ld b e a pp rop r ia te t os t a r t ap a ra l le l s t ruc tu re t oa ccommoda te o ur p a r t icu la rr eg iona l i n te res ts a nd w e s hou ld h o ld mee t ings e very t wo y ea rs i nt he E uropean s umme r , a l te rna t ing w i th t he S ou th A s ian C on fe rence . P ro fessor P er S orensen o f C openhagen t ook t he i n i t ia t ive t o o rgan ise a c omm i t tee o f N a t iona l S ec re ta r ies f r om v a r ious Wes te rn E u ropean c oun t r ies a nd w e a g reed t oh o ld t he f i r s t a cadem ic mee t ing o f t h e n ew a ssoc ia t ion i n L ondon i n 1 986 t o f o l low t he Wo r ld A rchaeo log ica l C ong ress i n S ou thamp ton i nt he f i r s tw eek i nS ep tembe r . O u r c on ference h ad t ob e s e l f f inanc ing a s t he a ssoc ia t ion h ad n o f unds t op ay f o rt r ave l a nd a ccommoda t ion c os ts f o rc o l leagues , e ven f o rt hose t r ave l l ing f r om A s ian c oun t r ies , a nd s o w e f e l t t ha t we m igh t b e a b le , a tt h is t i me , t oe ncou rage s ome o ft he d e lega tes who h ad f und ing t o a tend t he b i gge r S ou thamp ton c ong ress t os t ay o n f o r o u r r eg iona l S ou theas t A s ian mee t ing . T h is wo rked q u i te s uccess fu l ly a nd s ome 5 0 a r chaeo log is ts f r om f i f teen c oun t r ies a t tended ; t h ese i n c luded r ep resen ta t ives f r om A us t ra l ia , B e lg ium , C h ina , D enma rk , F rance , G ermany , G rea t B r i ta in , I n d ia , I t a ly , Ma lays ia , P h i l ipp ines , S o lomon I s lands , S r i L anka , T ha i land , a nd t he U n i ted S ta tes . A l though o u rA ssoc ia t ion u ses t he w o rds " Wes te rn E urope " i ni t s t i t le t he re i s , a s t he i n te rna t iona l r ep resen ta t ion i nL ondon i n1 986 d emons t ra tes , n o i n ten t ion t o e xc lude n on -European p ar t ic ipan ts f r om t he mee t ings o ft he A ssoc ia t ion i n deed , t hey a re v e ry much w e lcomed . B u t t he C omm i t tee d oes i n tend t ha t t he b i enn ia l c on fe rences s hou ld t a ke p l ace a t d i f feren t c en t res w i th in Wes tern E urope a nd p rov ide a r egu lar f o rum t he re f o r s cho la rs s pec ia l is ing i nt he a rchaeo logy o f S ou theas t A s ia a nd n e ighbour ing r eg ions t o m ee t a nd t o p r esen t t he r e su l ts o ft he i r l a tes t r esea rch . T he re i sa tp resen t n o p e rmanen t s t ruc tu re t ot he A ssoc ia t ion o the r k han t h e b i enn ia l c on fe rences a nd o ccas iona l c o r respondence b e tween t he N a t iona l S ec re ta r ies , n o m embe rsh ip s ubsc r ip t ions , a nd t he o n ly p ub l ica t ions p l anned a re t he c on fe rence p roceed ings w h ich w e h ope t op roduce r egu la r ly , a nd i na s e conom ica lf o rma t a s i s c ons is ten tw i th c l a r i ty a nd e ase o fu se . U n l ike t he p roceed ings o ft he S ou th A s ian A rchaeo logy c on ferences t hey w i l l p robab ly a ppea r i n as t anda rd ised f o rma t , s i nce B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo r ts o fO x fo rd h ave a g reed t op ub l ish t hem a s as e r ies . We h ope t ha tt h is r egu la ro u t le tf o r n ew r esu l ts w i l l s t imu la te m o re r e sea rch i n to S ou theas t A s ian a r chaeo logy a nd w i l l e ncou rage n ew s t uden ts a s w e l l a s e s tab l ished r e sea rche rs t oj o in u s i ns t udy ing t he p as t o ft h is r i ch ly v a r ied y e t l i t le k nown p a r to ft he w o r ld . -

A tt he L ondon mee t ing i tw as a nnounced t ha tt he s econd m ee t ing o ft he A ssoc ia t ion w ou ld b e h e ld i n D enma rk i n1 988 u nde r t he a usp ices o ft he S cand inav ian I n s t i tu te f o r A s ian S tud ies . H owever P ro fessor S orensen r epo r ted t ha t s t ruc tu ra l r ea r rangemen ts w i th in t he S cand inav ian I n s t i tu te h ave made t h is d i f f icu l tt or ea l ise a nd a tt he C on fe rence o ft he S ou th A s ian A ssoc ia t ion i nV en ice i nJ u ly 1 987 w e w e re a b le t oa nnounce t ha t , t hanks t ot he g ene ros i ty o f P ro fesso r J ean -F ranço is J a r r ige , t h e s econd m ee t ing w ou ld t a ke p l ace i nP a r is , a tt he M usée G u ime t , i n S ep tember 1 988 a nd w ou ld b e o rgan ised b y Ma r ie l le S an ton i , t he F rench N a t iona l S ec re ta ry o f t h e A ssoc ia t ion . l tw as o u r i n ten t ion t ha t t h is v o lume , t he p roceed ings o ft he f i r s t C on fe rence o fo ur n ew A ssoc ia t ion , s hou ld h ave b een r eady f o rd i s t r ibu t ion a nd s a le a t t he mee t ing i nP a r is i n1 988 , b u t u n for tuna te ly t h is p roved n o tt ob e p oss ib le . A tt he t i me o fw r i t ing t h is E d i to r ia l t he P a r is c on fe rence h as l o ng s i nce t aken p l ace a nd a t t rac ted mo re p ape rs a nd mo re p a r t ic ipan ts t h an t he L ondon mee t ing .

1 11

E d i to r i a l

O u ro r ig ina l i n ten t ion was t op roduce t h is v o lume w i th t he t e x t -ed i t ing f ac i l i t ies o ft he m u l t i -user c ompu te ra tt he I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy , UCL , b u tt h is p roved d i f f icu l tt ou se a nd i n1 989 a lt he t ex t w as t r ans fe r red o n t o a n A pp le Mac in tosh w h ich mean t t ha t t he e n t i re v o lume h ad t o b e r e fo rma t ted . O nce t h is was d one p roduc t ion o fc ame ra ready t e x t , u s ing M ic roso f t Wo rd 4 , was r e la t ive ly s t ra igh t fo rwa rd , a nd t he v o lume was p r in ted i n1 0 p o in t H e lve t ica w i th t he d esk top p ub l ish ing f ac i l i t ies o ft he I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy , UCL . V a r ious p eop le h ave h e lped w i th t he p roduc t ion o ft he b ook a nd Iw ou ld p a r t icu la r ly l i ke t ot hank C h r is t ine C r ickmo re a nd R aymond A sombang w ho t yped s ome o ft he p ape rs w h ich w e re n o t s en t i no n d i scs , a nd J ud i th H i ggens w ho c o r rec ted many o ft he s pe l l ing , a nd o t he r e r ro rs w h ich c r ep t i nf r om t i me t o t ime . T hose r ema in ing a re e n t i re ly o u rr e spons ib i l i ty . l tw as a g reed i nP a r is t ha tt h e T h i rd C on fe rence w ou ld b e h e ld i n1 990 , a nd t h is was p l anned f o r t he M usée Ma r imon t i nB e lg ium , b u t ar ebu i ld ing p rog ramme t h e re made t h is i mposs ib le t op u t i n to e f fec t a nd w e h ave n ow a r ranged f o r t he T h i rd C on ference t o b e h e ld a t t he M usées R oyaux d 'A r t e td 'H is to i re i nB russe ls i nD ecember 1 990 . P ape rs w h ich w e re p resen ted a t t he C on fe rence b u t a re n o t i n c luded i nt h is v o lume a re " Sou theas t A s ian P igs : p rob lems i n a rchaeozoo logy " , b y C h r is t ine Wha t rup , " Tha i land A rchaeo me ta ll ur g y P ro jec ts 1 985 -86 : s ome p re l im ina ry r e su l ts " b y R obe r to C ia r la , a nd " The J a r B u r ia l C omp lex i nS ou theas tA s ia " b y N ancy D ow l ing . I na dd i t ion t ot hese f o rma l p resen ta t ions t he re w as af i na l s em ina ro nt he t op ic o f" The F u tu re o fO ve rseas R esea rch i nS ou theas tA s ia " f o rw h ich t he b r ie fp re -c i rcu la ted d i scuss ion p ape r i si n c luded a tt h e e nd o ft h is v o lume t o ge ther w i th s ome o ft he c ommen ts made b y p a r t ic ipan ts w h ich w e w ere a b le t o r eco rd . T hese a r e n o t c omp rehens ive a nd i fw e h ave t oo m uch a bb rev ia ted , o r m is rep resen ted t he i r c on t r ibu t ions t o t he w ide rang ing d i scuss ion t hen w e c an o n ly a sk f o rt he i r u nde rs tand ing . l ts eems t ou s t ha t t h is i s at h eme w h ich m igh t b e d eve loped i n amo re f o rma l manne ra t af u ture c on ference o fo ur A ssoc ia t ion . I a na nd Em i ly G love r , L ondon , F eb rua ry 1 990

i v

S ou theas tA s i an A r chaeo logy 1 986

L IST OF

PART IC IPANTS

P ro fesso r D .P . A grawa l , P hys ica l R esea rch L abora to ry , N av rangpu ra , A hmedebad 3 80 0 09 , I n d ia . B ryan A lvey , C u l tura l H e r i tage I n fo rma t ion C onsu l tan ts , 2 13 B rooke R oad , L ondon E 25 8 AD , E ng land . P ro fessor S enake B anda ranayake , D i rec tor , P os tg radua te I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy , U n ive rs i ty o fK e lan iya , 2 12 / 1 B auddha loka Mawa tha , C o lombo 7 ,S r i L anka . D r P e ter B e l lwood , D epa r tmen to fP reh is to ry a nd A n th ropo logy , A us t ra l ian N a t iona l U n ive rs i ty , C anbe r ra , ACT 2 60 1 , A us t ra l ia . D rA nna B enne t t , I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy , U n ive rs i ty C o l lege L ondon , 3 1-34 G o rdon S qua re , L ondon WC1H OPY , E ng land . R i cha rd B lur ton , D epa r tmen to fO r ien ta lA n t iqu i t ies , B r i t ish M useum , L ondon WC1 B 3 DG . D rB enne t t B ronson , F i e ld M useum o fN a tu ra l H i s to ry , R ooseve l t R oad a tL ake S ho re D r ive , C h icago , 1 1 .60605 , U .S .A . D rS .B u lme r , A n th ropo logy D epa r tmen t , U n ive rs i ty o fA uck land , P r iva te B ag , A uck land , N ew Z ea land . R obe r to C ia r la , l SMeO ,v i a Me ru lana 2 48 , 0 0 185 , R ome , I t a ly . M iss V anessa C oo te , I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy , U n ivers i ty C o l lege L ondon , 3 1-34 G o rdon S qua re , L ondon WC 1 1 1 OPY , E ng land . D rM agda len v on D ewa l l , S em ina rf ü rE thno log ie , S üdas ien I n s t i tü t , U n ive rs i tä t H e ide lbe rg i , Wes tG e rmany . M s N ancy D ow l ing , Wand lebu ry C o t tage , Wand lebu ry , B ab raham , C amb r idge , E ng land . B r ian D u r rans , Museum o f Mank ind , 6B u r l ing ton Ga rdens , L ondon W1X 2 EX , E ng land . P ro fesso rS amue l E i lenbe rg , 6 5 R oebuck H ouse , P a lace S t ree t , L ondon SW 1 , E ng land . R i cha rd E ng leha rd t , UNDP , Man i la , P h i l ipp ines . D rR .C . Gau r ,A l iga rh M us l im U n ive rs i ty , U t ta rP radesh , I n d ia . Em i ly G love r , I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy , U n ive rs i ty C o l lege , 3 1-34 G o rdon S qua re , L ondon WC1H OPY , E ng land . D r I a n G love r , I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy , U n ive rs i ty C o l lege , 3 1-34 G o rdon S qua re , L ondon WC1H OPY , E ng land . P ro fessor J .G o lson , D epar tmen t o fP reh is to ry , R esea rch S choo lo fP ac i f ic S tud ies , A us t ra l ian N a t iona l U n ive rs i ty , C anbe r ra, ACT 2 60 1 ,A us t ra l ia . M iss S a rah G ooda le , P eppe rco rns , S t Ma ry 's V i l las , B a t t le , E as t S ussex , T N3 OBY . J ohn Guy , I n d ia D epa r tmen t , V ic to r ia a nd A lbe r t M useum , C romwe l l R oad , L ondon SW7 2 RL , E ng land . D r F l o ran te H enson , D epar tmen to fA n th ropo logy , N a t iona l M useum , R i za l P a rk , P h i l ipp ines . H .E . H i l l , I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy , U n ive rs i ty C o l lege L ondon , 3 1-34 G ordon S qua re , L ondon WC1H OPY , E ng land .

V

P a r t i c ipan t s

P ro fesso rC laude J acques , 2 8 r ue d u M ou l in V e r t , P a r is 7 50 14 , F rance . M iss K unwadee J i n tavon , U n ive rs i ty o fC h iang Ma i , T ha i land . L eong S au H eng , D epa r tmen to fH i s to ry , U n ive rs i ty o fM a laya , 5 910 K ua la L umpur , M a lays ia . M sA nna L i ndebo L e th , M oesgâ rd A l lee 7 ,D K8320 , Mâ rs le t , D enma rk . M iss T he lma L owe , D epa r tmen to fA n th ropo logy , U n ive rs i ty o fC a l i fo rn ia , B e rke ley , C a l i fo rn ia , 9 4720 , USA . D rB e rna rd M a loney , D epa r tmen to fG eog raphy , T he Q ueen 's U n ive rs i ty o fB e l fas t , B T7 i NN , N o r the rn I r e land , U .K . D r R icha rd Meadow , P eabody M useum , 1 D i v in i ty A venue , C amb r idge , Mass . 0 2138 , U SA . D r D . M i l le r , D epa r tmen t o fA n th ropo logy , U n ive rs i ty C o l lege L ondon , G owe rS t ree t , L ondon WC 1E 6 BT , E ng land . D r E l izabe th M oo re ,Schoo lo fO r ien ta l a nd A f r ican S tud ies , Ma le tS t ree t , L ondon WC 1 1 1 OXG , E ng land . O sca rN a les in i , d o P racch ia ,v i aM ecena te 8 / e , 0 0 184 , R oma , I t a ly . M iss T a ryn N ixon , D epa r tmen to fU rban A rchaeo logy , M useum o fL ondon , L ondon Wa l l , L ondon E C2Y 5 HN , E ng land . A n thony P low r igh t , 9 9 B ou leva rd Magen ta , P a r is 7 50 10 , F rance . D rS u r in P ooka jo rn , F acu l ty o fA rchaeo logy , S i lpako rn U n ive rs i ty , B angkok 0 0103 , T ha i land . P ro fesso rP .L . P rema t i l leke , D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy , U n ive rs i ty o fP e raden iya , P e raden iya , S r i L anka . D rT . R eyno lds , S tC a the r ine 's C o l lege , C amb r idge C 1 32 1R L . A lec R uk ia , D epa r tmen to fP reh is to ry a nd A n th ropo logy , A us t ra l ian N a t iona l U n ive rs i ty , C anbe r ra , ACT 2 60 1 ,A us t ra l ia . D rM .D .N . S ah i , D epa r tmen to fA nc ien t I n d ian H is to ry , C u l tu re a nd A rchaeo logy , A l iga rh M us l im U n ive r s i ty , A l iga rh , U t ta r P radesh , I n d ia . D r Ma r ie l le S an ton i , C .N .R .S , U RS 1 6 , M usée G u ime t , 6P l ace d ' léna P a r is 7 50 16 , F rance . Mme J an ine S cho tsmans , M usées R oyaux d 'A r t e td 'H is to i re , P a rc d u C inquan tena i re 1 0 , 1 040 B ruxe l les , B e lg ium . D rS udha rshan S enevera tne , D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy , U n ive rs i ty o fP e raden iya , P e raden iya , S r i L anka . P ro fesso r P u rusho t tam S ingh , D epar tmen t o fA nc ien t I n d ian H is to ry , C u l tu re a nd A rchaeo logy , B ana res H indu U n ive rs i ty , V a ranas i , I n d ia . G . d e G . S ievek ing , C hu rch C o t tage , D a rsham , S axmundham , S u f fo lk , l P7 3 PK , E ng land . M ike Sm i th , M useums a nd A r t G a l le r ies o ft h e N o r the rn T e r r i to ry , P0 B ox 2 109 , A l ice S p r ings , N .T .A us t ra l ia . P ro fesso r P e r S o rensen , S cand inav ian I n s t i tu te o fA s ian S tud ies , K e jse rgade 2 ,C openhagen , D K1 155 , D enma rk .

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S ou theas tA s ian A rchaeo logy 1 986

D r M a t thew S p r iggs , D epa r tmen to fP reh is to ry , A us t ra l ian N a t iona l U n ive rs i ty , P0 B ox 4 , C anbe r ra , ACT 2 60 1 ,A us t ra l ia . R ache l Swan , I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy , U n ive rs i ty C o l lege L ondon , 3 1-34 G o rdon S qua re , L ondon WC 1 H OPY , E ng land . P ro fessor T ong E nzheng , S ichuan U n ive rs i ty M useum , C hengdu , S ichuan , C h ina . D rE l en i ta Z .d eV e ra , D epa r tmen to fA n th ropo logy , N a t iona l Museum , R iza l P a rk , Man i la , P h i l ipp ines . M iss C h r is t ine Wha t rup , Wes tV i l la , 1 00 B a l ls P ond R oad , L ondon N i 4 AJ . D rJ oyce C . Wh i te , T he U n ive rs i ty M useum , U n ive rs i ty o fP ennsy lvan ia , 3 3 rd a nd S p ruce S t ree ts , P h i lade lph ia , P A 1 9 104 -6324 , USA . T im W i l l iams , D epa r tmen to fU rban A rchaeo logy , Museum o fL ondon , L ondon Wa l l , L ondon E C2Y 5 HN , E ng land . D rJ an W isseman C h r is t ie , C en t re f o rS ou th -Eas tA s ian S tud ies , U n ive r s i ty o fH u l l , HU6 7 RX , E ng land .

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S ou theas tA s ian A rchaeo logy 1 986

THE T INGKAYU I NDUSTRY OF LATE P LE ISTOCENE SABAH P e ter

B e l lwood

A bs t rac t.T he p ape rr e po r ts o n L a te P l e is tocene f l aked s t one a ssemb lages f r om t wo s i tes , T i ngkayu 1a nd 2 , l o ca ted o n t h e e dge o f af o rme r l a ke b as in i nS abah , n o r theas te rn B o rneo , E as t M a lays ia . T he i n dus t r y i n c ludes b i faces m ade o n ag r ey t op i nk c he r tw h ich i sq u i te d i f fe ren tt ol i t h ic m a te r ia lf o und i nl a t e rs i tes i nt h e r e g ion . T he m a te r ia l c an b e d a ted t ob e tween 1 8 ,000 2 8 ,000 B P a nd r e p resen ts a n U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic t r ad i t ion p rev ious ly u nknown i nS ou theas tA s ia . -

I n troduct ion T he t wo s i tes d i scussed i nt h is b r ie f n o te T ingkayu 1a nd 2 h ave y i e lded a n i n dus t ry o fb i fac ia l t oo ls made o n c he r tw h ich a re s of a ru n ique i nt he S ou theas t A s ian p reh is to r ic s cene . T he s i t es a r e n o t d i rec t ly d a ted , b u t t hey a re l o ca ted o n t he s ho re l ine o f a n e x t inc t l a ke w h ich e x is ted b e tween 2 8 ,000 a nd 1 8 ,000 y ea rs a go . T he r aw ma ter ia ls u sed a nd t he c ha rac ter is t ic b i fac ia l t echno logy a ppea rt o b e e n t i re ly a bsen t i na rchaeo log ica l a ssemb lages f r om n e ighbou r ing s i tes s pann ing t he p e r iod f r om 1 8 ,000 y ea rs a go t ot he p resen t . -

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A tt h e o u tse t , i ts hou ld b e made c l ea rt ha tt he T i ngkayu r e sea rch h as b een o n ly o ne sma l l p a r t o fa m uch l a rge rf i e ldwo rk o pe ra t ion u nder taken s i nce 1 980 b yt he a u tho r i nc oope ra t ion w i th t he S abah M useu m 1 T he s i tes e xam ined i n c lude c aves i nt he Mada i a nd B a turong l i mes tone mass i fs , i n land f r om L ahad D a tu B ay ( F igu re 1 ) , p l us t he T i ngkayu o pen s i tes d i scussed i nt h is a r t ic le . Ar epo r to n a l t he r e su l ts i sn ow p ub l ished ( Be l lwood 1 988 ) . M uch o ft he r e sea rch h as b een o n t he p o t te ry -us ing p hases o f l a te r p reh is to ry ( pos t 2 000 BC ) , a nd s ome q u i te l a rge t e rm ina l P le is tocene ( pos t 1 8 ,000 B P ) a nd H o locene s t one t oo l a nd f auna l a ssemb lages h ave a l so b een u near thed . P re l im ina ry c ommen ts o n t he r esea rch h ave a l ready b een p ub l ished ( Be l lwood 1 984 ; 1 985 :179 -87 ) , a nd t he o ve ra l l d e ta i ls c anno t b e r epea ted h e re . T h is p ape r i s d es igned p ure ly a s an o te o n t he p resen t s t a tus o f t he T ingkayu o pen s i tes , f o l low ing f u r the r f i e ldwo rk i nJ anua ry 1 987 ( t ha t i s , a f te r t he L ondon C on fe rence o ft h e A ssoc ia t ion o fS ou theas t A s ian A rchaeo log is ts w h ich i sr epor ted i nt h is v o lume ) . T he a rea o fr e sea rch i n te res t i ss hown i nF i gure 1 ,w h ich ma rks c l ea r ly t he S unge i T ingkayu a nd t he l i mes tone mass i fs o f Mada i a nd B a tu rong . T he r eg ion i se qua tor ia l i nc l ima te , a nd p r io rt o r ecen t l o gg ing a nd p l an ta t ion d eve lopmen t was c omp le te ly c l o thed i n r a in fores t . T he n a t ive I d ahan p opu la t ion h as u sed t he l i mes tone c aves i nt he r eg ion f o r b i rds ' -nes t ing s i nce a t l e as t 1 76 1 , b u t t h e re i sn o e v idence t os ugges tt ha t al a rge p opu la t ion h as o ccup ied t he r eg ion i nr e cen t t i mes . S i nce t he e a r ly 1 950s , r e sea rch b yg eo log is ts a nd s o i ls c ien t is ts i nt he T ingkayu b as in h as i n d ica ted t ha t t he m idd le p o r t ion o ft he v a l ley , t oge the rw i th t he t r ibu ta ry B inuang v a l ley , o nce c on ta ined a l a rge f r esh -wa te r l a ke , p oss ib ly 7 5 s qua re k i lome t res i ne x ten t . T he e s t ima ted s ho re l ine o ft h is l a ke i ss hown i nF i gure 2 ,w h ich w as c omp i led f r om t he g eo log ica l l i t e ra tu re , a nd a f ter g eomo rpho log ica l f i e ldwork u nder taken w i th P h i l ip H ughes i n1 98 1 , s ubsequen t o bse rva t ions i n1 984 a nd 1 987 , a nd s ed imen to log ica l a na lyses b y J ohn Magee . T h is a r t ic le i s n o t t he p lace t o p resen t t he g eomo rpho log ica l e v idence f o rt he f o rme re x is tence o ft h is l a ke , a nd Iw i l l o n ly men t ion h e re t ha t i t w as f o rmed w hen a l a va f l ow f r om t he f l anks o f G unung Mos tyn b l ocked a p r io r c ourse o f t he T i ngkayu v a l ley . T he l a va f l ow h as b een r ad ioca rbon d a ted t oa pp rox ima te ly 2 8 ,000 y ea rs a go , a nd t h e c essa t ion o f l a cus t r ine s ed imen ta t ion h ad o ccur red b y 1 8 ,000 y ea rs a go , a ccord ing t o t he r a d ioca rbon d a t ing o fs ed imen ts i nt he B AT 1r o ck -she l te r i nt he B a turong mass i f ( a l lt hese l o ca t ions a r es hown o n F i gu re 2 ) .2 A f te rt he l a va -dammed l a ke h ad f i led ,t he wa te rs o ve r f lowed t he d owns t ream l a ke r i mt of o rm an ew s ou th to -nor th c ou rse f o r t he T ingkayu r i ver w h ich c an b e s een o n F i gu re 2 i mmed ia te ly n or th o f T i ngkayu v i l lage . T he t wo T ingkayu o pen s i tes ( T IN 1a nd T IN 2 ) a re o n l ow r i ses o n t he e nd o fa p r omon tory w h ich w ou ld h ave p ro jec ted i n to t he l a ke wa te rs v e ry c l ose t ot h is o ve r f low o u t le t . T hey a re a l so j u s t a bove t he a l t i tude r econs t ruc ted f o r t he l a ke a t i t s h i ghes t l e ve l p r io r t o o u t le t d owncu t t ing . H oweve r , t h is n eed n o t n ecessa r i ly m ean t ha tt he s i tes w e re u sed when t he l a ke w as f i r s tf o rmed , a nd c ons ide r ing p ure ly t he l o ca t iona l g rounds t hey c ou ld h ave b een o ccup ied a ta ny t i me d ur ing t he 1 0 ,000 y ea rs pan o fe x is tence o ft he l a ke . A n tt h is p robab ly h ad v a r ious s t ages , f r om t h e i n t ia l d am ing t oal a ke fu l l s t age , t h rough al o ng p hase o fe xpand ing u ps t ream s wamp , t ot h e f i na l s tage o f d owns t ream d ra inage a nd u l t ima te e x t inc t ion . l ts hou ld b e r emembe red t ha t t h e

1

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S ou theas tA s ian A r chaeo logy 1 986

l a ke w ou ld n o t h ave h ad ap ermanen t s hape , b u tw ou ld h ave s h runk c ons tan t ly w i th in i t su ps t ream b o rde rs a s t he o u t le t g orge was e roded d own . S ince T IN 1a nd T IN 2 a re c l ose t ot he o u t le t t hey w ou ld h ave h ad t he b ene f i t o f al o nge r e x is tence o f a d jacen t l a ke w a te rs t han s im i la r l o ca t ions u ps t ream . F i gu re 3 s hows t he l o ca t ions o ft he t wo s i tes . T IN 1 l i es o n t op o f al ow r i se o n t he e nd o f t he p r omon tory , a nd a ppea rs t oh ave b een t o ta l ly d i s tu rbed b yb u l ldoz ing i n1 975 . T he s i te h as y i e lded a n e xce l len t a r ray o fb i faces , b u t b ecause o ft he e x ten to fd i s tu rbance t he a ssoc ia ted f l ake d eb i tage h as n o t b een a na lysed . T he s i te o fT IN 2 ,w h ich l i es j u s tb e low t he s umm i to f as im i la rl ow r i se a bou t 1 50 m e t res n o r th -eas t o fT IN 1 , was f o r tuna te ly u nd is tu rbed . T he s t one t oo ls h e re f o rmed at h ick b and s ea led i nc l ay b e tween 5 0 cms a nd o ne me t re f r om t he s u r face , b u t o w ing t os o i l a c id i ty a nd l e ach ing t hey w e re n o t a ssoc ia ted w i th a ny e conom ic o r d a tab le o rgan ic r ema ins , s uch a s b one , s he l lo rc ha rcoa l . H ence t h eu nce r ta in d a t ing w h ich i sd i scussed a ts ome l e ng th i nt h is a r t ic le . T he r e su l ts o ft he e xcava t ions o n t he T IN 2 s i te i n1 980 , 1 984 a nd 1 987 a re s hown i nF i gu re 4 . B as ica l ly , t he a rea o fs t one t oo l d i s t r ibu t ion f o rmed a n o va l o fa pp rox ima te ly 3 0 b y 2 0 me t res , a nd w i th in t h is o va lo ccu r red d i sc re te a reas o fh i gh d ens i ty , i no ne c ase w i th w e l lo ve rt wo k i log rammes o f s t one p e r 0 .25 s qua re m e t re o ft r ench . P os t -bu l ldoz ing o bserva t ions made o n T IN 1s ugges tt ha t i t w as o r ig ina l ly v e ry s im i la ri ns i ze .3 T he T ingkayu I ndus try T he T ingkayu b i faces w e re made o n s l abs o fc he r t , ma in ly g rey i nc o lou rw i th f r equen t g rada t ions t owa rds p i nk , w h ich p resumab ly o nce o u tc ropped n ea rt he s i tes . N o o u tc rops a re v i s ib le t oday , b u t i ti sp oss ib le t ha tt hey w e re f o rme r ly e xposed b y e ros ion a tt he l a ke s ho re l ine . Iw ish t os t ress h e re t h a t9 9% o ft he a r te fac ts i nt he T ingkayu a ssemb lages a re o ft h is c he r t , a nd a l so t ha t n o to ne s i ng le p i ece o ft h is c her t h as e ve r b een f ound i nt he a ssemb lages f r om t he Mada i a nd B a tu rong c aves , w h ich s pa n t he p e r iod f r om 1 8 ,000 y ea rs a go t ot he r ecen tp as t . Iw i l l r e tur nt ot h is p o in t l a te r . Iw ish a l so t o s t ress t ha t t he f l ak ing a c t iv i t ies a tb o th T ingkayu s i tes w e re d evo ted e n t i re ly t o t he m anu fac ture o f b i fac ia l t o o ls . A l though Ih ave r e fe r red t o p ebb le t oo ls , s i ng le p la t fo rm c ores a nd s c rape rs f r om t hese s i tes i ne a r l ie rp ub l ica t ions ( Be l lwood 1 984 :43 ; 1 985 :182 ) , Imus t n ow c on fess t ha t mos t o ft hese t oo ls w ere m is iden t i f ied , a pa r t f r om a f ew s pec imens o n u nusua l r o cks w h ich w e re c l ea r ly i mpor ted f r om e l sewhe re . T h is means t ha t t he u b iqu i tous T ingkayu b i faces a re a ssoc ia ted w i th n o th ing t ha t i sd i agnos t ic o fa ny p a r t icu la ra rchaeo log ica l ' s tage ' i nt he p reh is to ry o f I s land S ou theas tA s ia , a l though i tc an b es t a ted t ha tt he T ingkayu i n dus t ry h as l i t le i nc ommon w i th t h e m id -Ho locene sma l lf l ake , b l ade a nd m ic ro l i th i n dus t r ies w h ich a re s ow e l l r e co rded f r om S ou th S u lawes i a nd J ava . T he o bsess ion w i th b i fac ia lt oo l manu fac ture a tT i ngkayu i sq u i te u np receden ted i nt h is p a r to ft he w o r ld . A s w i th t he g eomo rpho logy , i ti sn o t my i n ten t ion h e re t o e n ter i n to d e ta i l a bou t t he t echno logy b eh ind t he T ingkayu b i faces . T he a r te fac ts t hemse lves c ove ra l s t ages o fb i face manu fac tu re f r om s l ab b l anks t of i n ished o va te o rp o in ted t oo ls ( F igures 5 ,6 ) , s ome o ft he l a t te rd emons t ra t ing s upe rb s u r face f i n ish ( F igure 7 ) . T he f l ake d eb i tage f r om T IN 2h as b een measu red a nd a na lysed i nd e ta i l , a nd t he re i s ap oss ib i l i ty t ha t s o f t h amme rs ( pe rhaps made f r om s amba r a n t le r ) w e re u sed f o r t he l a ter s tages o f b i fac ia l t h inn ing , a l though t h is c anno t b e p roved o w ing t ot he n on -su rv iva l o fo rgan ic ma te r ia ls i nt he s i te . T he f i n ished t oo ls g ene ra l ly h ave v e ry r egu la rl e n t icu la rc r oss -sec t ions . A l though q u i te a n umbe ro fc omp le te t oo ls h ave b een f ound , i ti sr ea l ly n o t c l ea rh ow many d i s t inc t t o o lf o rms w ere b e ing manu fac tu red a tT i ngkayu . T he s ha rp -po in ted a nd r ound -bu t ted t oo ls ( F igu re 7 )w e re c l ea r ly d es igned c a re fu l ly , a nd p robab ly s erved a s c omb ined p ro jec t i le p o in ts a nd k n ives . T he l a rge o va te f o rms ( F igure 5 ) m igh t h ave s e rved a s as epa ra te c l ass o f h and -he ld c u t t ing a nd c hopp ing t oo ls , b u t many m ay a l so h ave r e su l ted f r om f a i led a t temp ts t oa t ta in ap o in ted l e a f -shaped f o rm . R eso lu t ion o ft h is p rob lem i sn o t e asy , s i nce t he c omp le te t oo ls f o rm a s i ng le i n te rg rad ing s e r ies i nt e rms o ft he i rm easu remen ts , a nd t he g rea t e x ten to fs ub -m ic roscop ic e dge c h ipp ing w h ich r e su l ted f r om t he p rocesses o fb i fac ia l manu fac ture a round t he p e r iphe r ies o f a l t oo ls means t ha t a ny m ean ing fu l r e sea rch o n u se -damage w i l l b e v e ry d i f f icu l t .4 S ome o ft he d eb i tage f l akes i nb o th s i tes s how v ery o bv ious s i gns o f a d h oc u sage f o r s c rap ing a nd c u t t ing a c t iv i t ies , b u t f l akes w i th t h ese i n d ica t ions f o rm u nder 2% o ft he t o ta l .

7

P .B e l lwood T he T i ngkayu I ndus t ry o fS abah

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S ou theas tA s ian A r chaeo logy 1 986

0

5 cm

F i gu re 7 Two c omp le te p o in ted b i faces . T he u ppe r I s f r om T IN 2 , a nd i t s m ake r a t temp ted t o c on t inue w o rk ing o n t he b u t t p o r t ion a f te r b reakage , e v iden t ly t o n o a va i l . T he l owe r o ne i sf r om T IN 1 .T he u ppe ri sd r awn b y M andy M o t t ram a nd t h el o we rb yL ak im K ass im . T he s ugges t ion t ha t t he T i ngkayu s i tes d a te t ot he p e r iod b e tween 2 8 ,000 a nd 1 8 ,000 y ea rs a go c anno t b e p roven c onc lus ive ly . I ni t sf a vou rt he re a re t h ree a rgumen ts , a sf o l lows . 1 ) B o th s i tes s i tf a i r ly e xac t ly o nt he d owns t ream s ho re l ine o fL ake T ingkayu , a l though t h is a l one i s n o t ag ua ran tee o fc on tempo ra ry d a te s i nce t he re a re p o t te ry s i tes f r om w i th in t he l a s t 1 000 y ea rs w h ich o ccupy s im i la rl o ca t ions u ps t ream . 2 ) T IN 2was b u r ied t o ad ep th o fo ve r5 0 cms i n ah omogeneous a nd h i gh ly w ea the red c l ay ma t r ix . T h is s ugges ts ac ons ide rab le ( b u t i n de te rm ina te ) a n t iqu i ty f o rt h is s i te . 3 ) N e i ther b i faces o fT ingkayu t ype , n o rt he d i s t inc t ive c he r ts o nw h ich t hey w e re made , h ave e ve r t u rned u p amongs t t he t h ousands o fs t one a r te fac ts e xcava ted i nt he Mada i a nd B a turong c aves ; t he l a t ter mass i f l i es o n ly 6 k m f r om T IN 1 a nd 2 .T he Mada i a nd B a tu rong s equences s pan t he p e r iods f r om 1 8 ,000 t o 7 000 y ea rs a go a nd f r om 4 000 y ea rs a go t o t he r ecen t p as t w i th f a i r ly i n tens ive o ccupa t ion , a nd t he p e r iod f r om 7 000 t o3 000 y ea rs a go mo re s pa rse ly . T he l a t te rp e r iod , h oweve r , i sq u i te we l l d ocumen ted i na d jacen t r eg ions s uch a s t he s ou the rn P h i l ipp ines , S u lawes i a nd t he T a laud I s lands , a nd n o s im i la rt e chno logy i sk nown f r om t hese r e g ions i nt h is t ime -span . Iw ish t o s ugges t , t he re fo re , t ha t t he b i face a ssemb lage f r om t he s i tes o fT ingkayu 1a nd 2 h as a h i gh p robab i l i ty o fb e ing o ve r 1 8 ,000 y ea rs o l d . A f te rf u r ther f i e ldwo rk o n t he s i te i nJ anua ry 1 987 I f ee lt ha tt he p oss ib i l i ty o f ay ounge rd a te c anno tb e e n t i re ly r u led o u t , b u t i ts eems u n l ike ly g i ven t he

9

P .B e l lwood T he T i ngkayu I ndus tr yo fS abah

e x ten t o f r esearch i nt h is t ime -span a c ross I s land S ou theas t A s ia , a nd t he a bsence o f a ny s im i la r t echno logy i n n e ighbour ing a reas . l ts ee ms t ha t t he ma t te r w i l l o n ly b e r eso lved c onc lus ive ly b y a f or tuna te d i scove ry e l sewhere , p erhaps i n as t ra t i f ied a nd d a tab le r ock -she l te r .

References B e l lwood , P .S . 1 984 A rchaeo log ica l r e sea rch i nt he Mada i -Ba tu rong r e g ion , S abah . B u l le t in o ft h eI ndo -Pac i f i c P reh i s to ry A ssoc ia t ion 5 : 3 8 -54 . B e l lwood , P .S . 1 985 P reh i s tor yo ft h eI ndo -Ma lays ian A r ch ipe lago . S ydney : A cadem ic P ress . B e l lwood , P .S . ( e d ) 1 988 A rchaeo logy i nS ou th -eas te rn S abah. K o ta K i naba lu : S abah Museum M onog raph 2 . No tes 1 . T he r e sea rch b y B e l lwood h as b een f u nded b y t he A us t ra l ian R esea rch G ran ts C omm i t tee , a nd b yt h e F acu l t ies R esea rch F und o ft h e A us t ra l ian N a t iona l U n ive rs i ty . 2 . T he s i tes ma rked a sT IN 5 11 o n F i gu re 2d a te f r om r e cen t p reh is to ry , p robab ly w i th in t h ep as t 1 000 y ea rs a cco rd ing t ot he i r p o t te ry , a nd t hey a re n o t c ons ide red i nt h is a r t ic le . T hey h ave n o t p roduced b i faces , n o rt h e s ame c he r tr aw ma te r ia ls , a sT IN 1a nd 2 . 3 .

T he l o ca t ion ma rked a sT IN 3o n F i gu re 4i sn o tn ow c ons ide red t ob ea n a r chaeo log ica ls i te .

4 . A cco rd ing t oT homas L oy s ome o ft he t oo ls a ppea rt oh ave b l ood r e s idues o n t he i r c u t t ing e dges . T h is a venue o fr e sea rch r ema ins t ob e e xp lo red .

1 0

S ou theas tA s ian A rchaeo logy 1 986

Hoab inh ian c ave e xcava t ions i n B an K ao D is tr ic t , Wes t T ha i land S u r in P ooka jo rn A bs t rac t B e tween 1 977 1979 a r chaeo log is ts o f t he H oab inh ian R esea rch P ro jec tf r om S i lpako rn U n ive rs i ty e xcava ted a tK hao T a lu , M en ta nd H eap c aves n ea r B an K ao v i l lage , K anchanabu r i P rov ince , Wes tT ha i land . T he c ave d epos i ts w e re u pt o 2m e t res d eep a nd t wen ty s i x r a d ioca rbon d a tes f r om K hao T a lu a nd H eap c aves a low u s t od a te t h e d epos i ts t ob e tween 1 ,000 a nd 2 , 000 B .P . T h ree m a in c u l tu ra l l e ve ls w e re i d en t i f ied : 1 ) E a r ly H oab inh ian f r om a bou t 1 0 ,000 -4 ,500 B .P . w i th l a rge p ebb le t oo ls a nd f l akes ; 2 ) L a te H oab inh ian f r om a bou t 4 , 500 -3 ,500 B .P . i nw h ich p o t te ry o ft he w e l l -known B an K ao N eo l i th ic t r ad i t ion w as a dded t o t he H oab inh ian a ssemb lages , a nd 3 ) at r ans i t iona l l a te N eo l i th ic -B ronze A ge l e ve ld a ted t oa bou t2 , 500 2 000 B .P . F auna l r ema ins i n c lude t i ge r , p i g , v a r ious d ee r , g o ra l , r a t , d og , c a t t le , p o rcup ine , b a t , b i rds , a nd n ume rous a mph ib ia , r ep t i les a nd c r us tacea . T wen ty e i gh ts amp les o fh i ghe rp l an ts w e re i d en t i f ied . -

T he t opography o f t he B an K ao a rea B an K ao i s as ma l l h am le to f C ho ra -Khe P huak v i l lage , K anchanabu r i P rov ince i nt he w es te rn p a r to f c en t ra lT ha i land ( F igu re 1 ) . B an K ao l i es o n ap l a in , a lmos tc e r ta in ly a no l d r i ve rt e r race ,t r ave rsed b y t he R iver Kwa i . T he w es tern p a r t o ft he p l a in s uppo r ts a g ove rnmen t p l an ta t ion w h i le t he e as te rn p a r t ,w i th wh ich w e a re c once rned h e re , i so ccup ied b y p r iva te ly o wned p l an ta t ions . T he re i sd ense b amboo v ege ta t ion b e tween t he r i ve r a nd r a i lway t r ack , w he reas t he a rea b e tween t he r a i lway a nd t he s u r round ing l ow l i mes tone r ange h as a mo re s avannah l ike a ppea rance , w i th b amboo c l us te rs a nd s ca t te red t r ees .The p l a in b e tween t he r i ve r a nd t he moun ta ins h as af a i r ly e ven f a l l f r om t he m oun ta ins t ot he r i ve r . S o l id r o ck o u tc rops o ccur a ts eve ra lp l aces , b u t a so ne a pp roaches t he r i ve r t he d eepe rt he f l uv ia l d epos i ts b ecome , a nd c ons is t o fl i gh tt or ed b rown l a te r i t ic s o i l . N ea rt he r i ve r t hey r each at h ickness o f 8t o1 0 m e t res ,w i th r a the rs t eep s l opes t owa rds t he r i ve r . L oca t ion o f t he c aves K hao T a lu , M en t a nd H eap c aves a re l o ca ted a t 1 40 0 '1 5 " N o r th a nd ggO 9 'Eas t , a tt he t op o f l i mes tone h i l ls w h ich r i se t o ah e igh t o fa bou t 1 20 me t res a bove s ea l e ve l . T hese h i l ls l i e b e tween K hao K aeo a nd K hao P a thav ia ta t ad i s tance o fa bou t4 .5 k m n o r th o ft he r i ve r Kwa i N o i . T he h i l ls a re b ounded b ya luv ia lf ans , r i ve rt e r races a nd t he a luv ia lp l a in ( F igu re 2 ) . T he c aves a re i nl i mes tone h i l ls w h ich w e re f o rmed b e tween t he C a rbon i fe rous a nd P erm ian e ras a nd h ave b een much a f fec ted b y u nde rg round w a te r . T he re a re d epos i ts o f l i mes tone d eb r is a nd r e s idua l s o i l w h ich c ons is ts o fd r ips tone s i l t , i r on a nd a l um inum o x ide a nd c hem ica l c ompounds o f p hospha te . T he c aves w e re f o rmed i nt he l a te Q ua te rna ry p e r iod ( Ja r i l -Chavanaphe t 1 9 72 :32 ) a nd c on t inuous p rocesses o fs o lu t ion a nd e ros ion h ave f i led t he c aves w i th s i l t , s t one d eb r is , e a r th a nd c l ay w h ich o ve r la id a p l an t f o ss i l l a ye r o fp robab le P l iocene a ge . T hese d eb r is r esu l ted f r om t he l i mes tone r ubb le f r om t h e r oo f a nd wa l ls o f t he c ave , f r om h umus , a nd c hem ica l c ompounds o f p hospha te w h ich d e r ived f r om a n ima ld ung . K hao T a lu c ave K hao T a lu c ave f aces s ou thwes t , a nd i s 8 me t res w ide a nd 2 me t res h i gh . T he e xcava t ions w e re c a r r ied o u t i nt h ree p a r ts o ft he c ave ( F igu re 3 ) . C hambe r 1f o rms t he e n t rance o ft he c ave a nd

measures 1 me tres i nw id th a nd 1 6 me t res i nl eng th a nd s lopes t owa rds t he s ou th . I t s s ur face c on ta ins a bundan t was te f l akes a nd p ebb le t oo ls . I t st he re fore c a l led t he ' i ndus t r ia l a rea ' . C hambe r 2i s1 5 me tres w ide a nd 1 2 me t res l o ng . T h is c hambe r c on ta ins o n i t s s ur face a l a rge n u mber o f p o tshe rds . T es t p i ts we re o pened w i th a n a uger , r evea l ing t wo l i nes o f c ha rcoa l . T h is p ar t o f t he c ave i so pen t os un l igh tt h rough a h o le i nt he r oo f a nd , b e ing mo re s u i tab le f o r h ab i ta t ion , i ti sc a l led t he ' Hab i ta t ion a rea ' . C hamber 3 i ss i tua ted n or th o ft he h ab i ta t ion a rea . l ti s1 6 me t res w ide a nd 1 4 me t res l ong . T h is c hamber c on ta ined a l a rge n umber o f h uman b ones a nd p o tsherds a nd t he s u r face h ad b een d i s tu rbed b yt he v i l lage rs . T h is a rea i sc a l led t he ' Bur ia l a rea ' . T he who le c ave was c ove red b y ag r id o f 3 x3 m . s qua res n umbe red 1 ,2 ,3 ,4 e tc . a nd 1 ' ,2 '3 ' ,4 ' e as t a nd wes t o ft he n or th -sou th a x is . A long t he e as t -wes t a x is t hey were f u r ther n amed i na lphabe t ica l

1 1

S .P ooka jo r n E xcava t i ons i nB an K ao c ave s , T ha i land

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o rde ra sA ,B ,C ,D , e t c . a nd A ' ,B ' ,C ' ,D ' , e t c . l twas d ec ided t oe xcava te t he f o l low ing :t wo s qua res ( A l ' a nd A ' l ' ) i nc hamber 2 , t o t es t whe the r t h is w as i n deed a ' Hab i ta t ion a rea ' , a nd t wo s qua res i n c hambe r3 ,n umbe rs A 6 ' a nd B 7 ' , t oc heck w he the rt h is was aB ur ia l a rea A f i xed s u rvey p o in tw as ma rked b y ac ross i nr ed o nt he c ave wa l l ( Pooka jom 1 9 77 :48 ; 1 984 ) . .

Men t c ave T h is c ave i s3 0 me t res t ot he n o r th o fK hao T a lu . l ti s1 5 me t res w ide , 3 me t res h i gh a nd 1 7 .5 me t res l o ng . At r ia lt r ench , 2 .5 x6me t res , was l a id d own i nt he n o r thwes to ft he c ave . A n a l idade w as u t i l ised f o r mak ing t he t h ree -d imens iona l r ecord o ft he a r t i fac ts f ound i nt he c ave .The a l idade w as s e t 6 . 16 me t res f r om t he d a tum p o in t wh ich was f i xed o nt he h i l lock a l ong t he n or th -sou th a x is a tt he f r on ta l p a r t o ft he c ave ( F igure4 ) ( Pooka jo rn 1 977 :120 -12 1; 1 984 ) .

1 2

S ou theas tA s ian A rchaeo logy 1 986 MENT

CAVE

I (HAO

T ALU CAVE

HEAP CAVE

THAN P HRA

HUA I MAENG RAK

. TUNG PONG SAO \

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SK i l

WANG WA BK . I

TUNG NOR KAR IAN BK , HONG-RAE

TO KANCHANABUR I

BR .

S TAT ION

TO NAM TOR . S TAT ION

TUNG HONG T AKONG

B KV I I I

B AN R .AO

TUNG NO I KATO l

- TAT I ON BAN R .AO

F 31 4 . IM

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EANG S ITE Bk I

MENAM I kWAE NOL-

0

1 000 METRES

F i gure 2 M ap o f B an K ao a rea , K anchanabu r l P rov ince H eap c ave H eap c ave i sa l so s i tua ted n ea r K hao T a lu , a nd w as e xcava ted i n1 9 79 . T he e n t rance o f t he c ave f a ces s ou theas ta nd i s4m e t res w ide a nd 5me t res h i gh . T he c ave i sd i v ided i n to 4c hambe rs ( F igu re 5 ) . C hambe r 1i so n t he r i gh t o ft he e n t rance o ft he c ave , a nd i s1 2 me t res w ide b y 1 4 me t res l o ng . T he a rea b e tween t he e n t rance o ft he c ave a nd c hambe r 1i ss l op ing , a nd t he f l oor i sc ove red b y l i mes tone b l ocks wh ich f e l lf r om t he c e i l ing o f t he c ave . C hambe rs 2a nd 3 : ac o r r ido r 1me t re w ide l e ads wes t i n to c hambe r 2w h ich i s6 me t res w ide a nd 1 3 me t res l o ng , w h i le c hambe r 3i s al i t le a l cove n o r thwes t o fc hambe r 2r eached b y ap assage 2 me t res w ide . T he c hambe r i t se l f , wh ich i s d a rk , i s1 . 5 m e t res h i gh . C hambe r 4i s 4 me t res a bove c hambe r 1( s ee F i gu re 6 ) . T he a ccess t ot h is c hamber i sb y av e r t ica l s haf to n t he e as t o fc hamber 1 .T he a rea i s 'L ' -shaped , measur ing 1 1 .36 m e t res w ide , 5 .8 me t res l o ng a nd 5 0c en t ime t res h i gh .

1 3

S .P ooka jo r n E xcava t ions i nB an K ao c av e s , T ha i land

F i gu re 3 P l an o f e xcava ted s qua res a t K hao T a lu C ave , B an K ao B ecause t he p l aces t ha tw e re t ob e e xcava ted w e re r a the rs ma l l ,w e d i d n o t u se t he s ame b ase l i ne f o r b o th n or th a nd s ou th d i rec t ions b u tt he e as t a nd w es t b ase l i nes o ft hese c hambe rs w e re f i xed , i no rde r t o c ross t he n or th -sou th b ase l i ne w h ich d epended o nt he r equ i remen ts o ft h e a rea . T he z e ro p o in t made a n a ng le o f 1 20 d eg rees w i th t he n o r th d i rec t ion . l twas d ec ided t o e xcava te f ou r s qua res i nc hambe r 1 ,e ach measu r ing 2x2me t res . T hese w e re n amed A l , A ' l ' , A '2 a nd B '2 ; at r i a l t r ench 1 . 5 x4me t res i nc hambe r2 . ; at r i a lt r ench 1x3 . 5 m e t res i nc hambe r3 ;a nd t wo t r i a lt r enches i n c hamber 4 ( F igu re 6 ) . T rench 1 measured 0 .60 x 2 me t res a nd t r ench 2 , 0 .80 x 2 me t res ( Pooka jo rn 1 979b :13 -14 ; 1 984 ) . R esu l ts f r om t he f auna l a na lyses a t H eap Cave a re n o t y e t a va i lab le . C hrono logy o f K hao T a lu , Men t a nd H eap c aves F rom t he b ones a nd c ha rcoa l s amp les a na lysed b y t he O f f ice o f A tom ic E nergy f o r P eace o f T ha i land , 2 6 C 14 d a tes w e re o b ta ined a nd t h ese a re l i s ted i nT ab les 1a nd 2 .

1 4

S ou theas tA s ian A rchaeo logy 1 986

F igure 4

P lan o f e xcava ted s qua res a t Mon t C ave , B an K ao .

F igure 5

P lan o f e xcava ted s qua res a t H eap C ave 1 -3 , B an K ao .

1 5

S .P ooka jo r n E xcava t ions i nB an K ao c ave s , T ha i l and

K At4

79 N 1 4 TRE N C H 2 .

F i gu re 6 P l an o f , a nd s ec t ion

t h rough H eap C ave 4 , B an K ao .

T he s equence c an b e s umma r ised a sf o l lows : Cu ltura l

L eve l

1 ( c .10 ,000 -4 ,500

BP )

A r t i fac ts d i scove red i n c lude p ebb le t oo ls a nd f l akes , b ones a nd b o tan ica l r ema ins a nd c ha rcoa l . T he p ebb le t oo ls a re o ft he f o l low ing ma jo rt ypes : GROUP 1 Mass ive h i gh -domed s c rape rs , n ea r ly i ne qua l t h ickness a nd l e ng th , a nd u n i fac ia l ly w o rked . T hey a re s im i la rt o t he l a rge P a t j i tan ian s c rape rs o fJ ava ( Mov ius 1 9 49 : 108 ) . GROUP 2 L a rge u n i fac ia lc hoppe rs ,w i th s ome r ema in ing c o r tex ( F igu re 7 ) . GROUP 3 F l a tu n i fac ia ls c rape rs ,w or n ,w i th s i gns o fu se o n o ne e dge . GROUP 4 R ounded o va l h amme rs t ones . GROUP 5S ha rp -po in ted u n i fac ia l p i cks w i th c or tex o n b u t t , p resumab ly f o rd i gg ing o rp unch ing . GROUP 6 P o in ted u n i fac ia lt oo ls w h ich a re d i f fe ren tf r om t he p i cks a s f l ak ing i sp resen t o n b o th e dges f r om t he p o in t , p a r tw ay t ot he b u t t . GROUP 7A s i de s c rape rs haped l i ke ab i fac ia l h and -axe made f r om c ha lcedony w i th t h ee n t i re e dge r e touched ( F igu re 8 ) .

T oo ls i nG roups 1 -6 f r om C u l tu ra l L eve l Ia re c ompa rab le w i th t o o ls f r om o the rH oab inh ian s i tes . T he p ebb le t oo ls r e semb le t oo ls f r om s evera l c aves i nV ie tnam ( Tan 1 9 79 :127 197 ) , S a i Y ok c ave ( Heeke ren 1 9 6 1 , H eeke ren & K nu th l 9 67 ) , a nd S p i r i t C ave ( Go rman 1 970 :8 1 ) i nT ha i land . G roup 7 t oo ls f r om K hao T a lu , Men t a nd H eap c aves r e semb le i mp lemen ts f ound i n Gua C ha , G ua K ech i l c aves i nw es t Ma lays ia , a nd N o r theas t I n dones ia ( Heeke ren 1 957 :83 -9 1 ) . C ompa rab le p ebb le t oo l H oab inh ian l o ca l i t ies h ave p roduced t he f o l low ing C 14 d a tes . W i th c hoppers , s c rape rs a nd S uma t ra l i ths i . e . T ham H o i c ave i nV i e tnam : 1 0 125±175 B .P . , 1 0 875± 175 B .P . ( B In 1 275 I& I ) , 1 0225± 150B .P . , 1 0 8 15± 150 B .P . a nd 1 0550± 1 20 B .P . ( B in 1276 I& I ) ( Tan1979 : 1 40 145 ) . W i th u n i fac ia l t oo ls s uch a s t hose f r om S p i r i t C ave i n T ha i land d a ted t o 9 455±360 B .P . ( Gak 1 845 ) a nd 1690 ± 560 B .P . ( F .S .U . -3 15 ) ( Go rman 1 9 70 : 9 4 -97 ) . -

1 6

S ou theas tA s ian A rchaeo logy 1 986

T ab le 1 R ad iocarbon r esu l ts f r om K hao T a lu C 'Cave , B an K ao , T ha i land OAEP = Of i ce o f A tom ic E ne rgy f o r P eace , T ha i land A l l t h e s amp les a r e f r om S qua re A l '

D a tes a re u nca l ib ra ted a nd b ased o n t h e 5 568 h a l f l i f e

S amp le N o .

R ange 1 SD

L ayer

D a te B P

OAEP 104 OAEP -053 OAEP -054 OAEP -107

I I l I I I I

2 800±300 3 420±380 4 215±95 4 520±430

OAEP 106 OAEP -108 OAEP -109

I V I V I V

5 100±500 5 700±700 5 640±700

OAEP 110 OAEP -056 OAEP 111 OAEP -112

I V I V V V

7 350±850 7 530±530 8 400±640 8 300±620

OAEP -113 OAEP -114 OAEP -055

V V V

8 790±750 9 450±1050 9 980±530

OAEP -058

V

9 530±1050

R ange 2 SD

C u l tura l

3 100-2500 3 809-3040 4 310-4120

3 400-2200 4 100-2660 4 405-4025

I I I l I

4 950-4090 5 600-4600 6 340-4940

5 380-3660 6 100-4100

I

6 400-5000 8 200-6500 8 380-6680 8 290-7680 9 040-7760 9 540-8040 1 0500-8400 1 0510-9450 1 0580-8480

l eve l

7 040-4240 7 100-4300 9 050-5650 8 910-6150 9 560-7040 9 660-7140 1 0290-7290 1 560-7350 1 040-8920 1 630-7430

T ab le 2 R ad iocarbon d a tes f ro m H eap C ave B an K ao , T ha i land OAEP = Of ice f o r A tom ic E ne rgy f o r P eace , T ha i land D a tes a re u nca l ib ra ted a nd b ased o n t he 5 568 h a l f l i f e S a mp le No . L ayer Square D a te BP R ange 1 SD OAEP -149

I

l : A '1

2 150±300

2 450-1850

OAEP -150 OAEP -152

l b I

I : A '2 I : B '2

2 070±360 3 200±370

2 430-1710 3 570-2830

OAEP -153 OAEP-154 OAEP -155 OAEP -157

I I I l I V I V

I : B '2 1 :B '2 I : B '2 I :T .1

4 100±300 4 350±400 5 200±380 6 050±500

4420-3780 4750-3950 5 580-4820 6 550-5550

OAEP-158 OAEP-156 OAEP-11i OAEP -233

I V V V I I V I I

I : A '2 I : A '2 I : B '2 I : B '2

6 350±570 5 600±450 8 200±500 8 740±470

6 920-5780 6 050-5150 8 700-7700 9 210-8270

R ange 2 SD 2 750-1550 2 790-1350 3 940-2460 4 140-3460 5 150-3550 5 960-4440 7 050-5050 7 490-5210 6 500-4700 9 200-7200 9 680-7800

Cu ltura l I I I l l I I

L eve l

T he d a t ing a nd a r t i fac ts f r om t hese , a nd o fC u l tura l L eve l Ia tK hao T a lu , Men t a nd H eap c aves a re c l ose e nough t oj u s t i fy u s i na ss ign ing t he l a t te rt o a n E a r ly H oab inh ian o f t he L a te P le is tocene t o E a r ly H o locene . A rchaeob io logy D r Amphan K i jngam a nd M .L . S urasawad i S uksawad i h ave s tud ied t he b ones f r om t hese s i tes ( F igu re 8 a nd T ab le 3 ) 1 , a nd P ro fesso rs K as in S uwa tabundhu a nd K osum P y rama rn , t oge the rw i th M rS o rasak C han t ra ra t tanaku l h ave s t ud ied t he b o tan ica l r ema ins ( Tab le 4 ) . T he i rf i nd ings r e la te t o t he s e t t lemen t a rea a tK hao T a lu , Men t a nd H eap c aves , a nd h ave g i ven u s i mpo r tan t n ew d a ta o n E a r ly H oab inh ian s ubs is tence . F auna T he b ones f r om b e low l e ve l 1 00 cm . i . e . C u l tura l L eve l I ,s how t ha t t he c aves ' i n hab i tan ts w ere h un te rs , a nd t ha t t hey l i ved i n at r op ica l s easona l ly -d ry f o res t n o t d i ss im i la rt ot ha t o ft he p resen t d ay . I na dd i t ion , t u r t le ( Emyd idae ) a nd f r eshwa te r mo l luscs w e re c o l lec ted ( Cyc lopho rus s p ; S ino ta la s p ; F i lopa lud ina s p ; C hambe ri lan ia s p ( Le r t r i t 1 9 85 ) a nd t hese i n d ica te t ha tt he re w e re s t reams a nd s wamps n ea rby . One o b jec t , p oss ib ly af r esh wa te rp ea r l ( S ino ta ia s p ) was a l so f ound i nt h is C u l tu ra l L eve l ( Pe rs . c omm . D rK ampo l I s sa rangku l ) .

1 7

S .P ooka jo r n E xcava t ions i nB an K ao c ave s , T ha i land

C. M .

2

3

N O ,5 0

N O . 2 1 F i gure 7 U n l fac ia l p ebb le c hoppe rs

‚

B an K ao C aves .

N O . 22 CM

0

1

2

3

I ,

5

F i gu re 8 C ha lcedony b i fac la l ly f laked s c rape r ( g roup 7 ) f r om K hao T a lu C ave , B an K ao Mos to ft he a n ima ls whose b ones w e re f ound i nt he c aves w e re o fk i nds w h ich p eop le c ou ld e as i ly c a tch a nd wh ich we re n o t t oo d ange rous t o h un t , a l though G au r , t he l a rge f o res t -dwe l l ing b ov id , w as f ound i nK hao T a lu a nd Men tC aves , a nd T ige ra tK hao T a lu ( F igu re 9 ) . Ap re l im ina r yc ompa r ison o ff auna a tt he B an K ao c aves , a nd t ha t i d en t i f ied f r om S a i Y ok a nd B anyan V a l ley C ave i n Mae H ongson P rov ince i si n s t ruc t ive ( Tab le 3 ) , b u t s i nce l i t le i n fo rma t ion i sa va i lab le o n r ecove ry , s amp l ing a nd i d en t i f ica t ion p rocedures f r om t hese s i tes i ti su nw ise t o make t oo much o f t h e d i f fe rences a tt h is s t age o fa rchaeozoo log ica l r e sea rch i nT ha i land . A t t he s i te , w e a l so d i scove red t ha t t he a n ima ls h ad b een c ooked a nd s ome b ones h ad b een b roken b y t he h eav ie rs t one t oo ls i no rde rt oe x t rac tt he ma r row . A s p a r t o fa n e thnoa rchaeo l o g ica l s t udy o f mode rn -day M iab r i h un ter -ga therers ( Pooka jo rn 1 985 ) , k now ledge o f t he i r c ook ing me thods i sp a r t icu la r ly s i gn i f ican tf o rt he i n te rp re ta t ion o ft he f a una l r ema ins f r om t hese c aves , a nd a

1 8

S ou theas tA s ian A rchaeo logy 1 986

s umma ry o fo ur f i nd ings i ss e t o u t l a te r i nt h is p ape r . H oweve r , n o p o in ted b one t oo ls o r n eed les w e re f ound a tt he s i te a nd s ot he re i sn o e v idence f o rt he u se o fb one a re a r aw ma te r ia l ; n o d oub t t he a nc ien t h un te rs made e x tens ive u se o fs ha rp , b u t u n fo r tua te ly v e ry p e r ishab le b amboo .

F igure 9 F auna a t K hao T a lu a nd Men t C aves , B an K ao 20 1 8 1 6 1 4 1 2 mn i

K hao T a lu

1 0

Men t. D

8 6 4 2 0 2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1 0

1 1

1 2

1 3

1 4

1 5

S pec ies p resen t , s ee k ey b e low

K ey t of auna l s pec ies i nF i gu re 9 : 1b ov ids , 2d ee r , 3p i g , 4u n iden t i f ied u ngu la tes , 5d og , 6t i ge r , 7 g o ra l , 8r oden ts , 9p o rcup ine , 1 0 b i rds , 1 c rocod i le , 1 2 l i za rds , 1 3t u r t le , 1 4c rabs , 1 5f r ogs .

P lan t r ema ins T he s eed a nd p lan t r ema ins f r om C u l tura l L eve l Iwere f i rs t s t ud ied b y P ro fessor K as in S uwabaundhu o fC hu la longko rn U n ive rs i ty ,w ho i d en t i f ied g ourd p l an ts ( Ben isa a r i fera ) o ft he f am i ly C ucu rb i taceae . T hese v i nes g row v e ry w e l l i nh um id , wa rm w ea the r . A no the r p l an t i d en t i f ied i st he n u t p a lm L i cua la s p inosa Wu rmb . ,o ne o ft he P a lmaceae . S ad ly P ro fesso rK as in d ied w i th t h is w o rk u ncomp le ted a nd f u r the rs amp les o f h i ghe r p l an ts w ere i d en t i f ied b y P ro fessor K osum P y rama rn ( 1 989 ) a nd t hese i n c lude mo re p a lms , l e gumes , b l ack p l um , c r o ton o i l p l an t , as pec ies o fb ean , a nd w a te r me lon . P ro fesso rK osum 's i d en t i f ica t ions a re l i s ted i nT ab les 4a nd 5 . P ooka jo rn ( 1984 ) r e fe rs t o as pec imen r e semb l ing ag ra in o fc ha r red r i ce i nC u l tura l L eve l I l ( La te N eo l i th ic -Ea r ly Me ta l A ge ) o f K hao T a lu C ave a nd d a ted t o a bou t 2 800±300 B P . H oweve r c l ose e xam ina t ion s howed t ha tt h is s pec imen , a l though h av ing t he s ame s hape a nd p ropo r t ions a s t he w i ld r i ce O ryza r u f ipogon , l a cked t he d i s t inc t ive m ic romo rpho logy o f r i ce a nd i ti sp robab ly a f r agmen t o f ac ha r red t w ig . l ts hou ld a l so b e n o ted t ha t t he p l an t t ypes i d en t i f ied f r om t hese t h ree c aves a re e n t i re ly d i fe ren tf r om t hose i d en t i f ied b y Y en ( 1977 ) a tS p i r i t C ave i nn o r thwes tT ha i land a sw e l l a s t hose r epo r ted b y G love r ( 1979 ) f r om c on tempo ra ry s i tes i nI n dones ia , a nd t h is p o in ts t o t he f ac t t ha t w e h ave b a re ly s t ar ted t o d e f ine t he n a ture a nd r ange o f p lan t e xp lo i ta t ion b y H oab inh ian a nd o the r L a te S tone A ge p eop les i nS ou theas tA s ia . O ft he w ide r ange o fp l an tf oods w h ich a re l i ke ly t oh ave b een u sed b yt he H oab inh ian i n hab i tan ts o f t he B an K ao r eg ion l i t le s u rv ives a nd t h is l e nds s uppo r tt ot he l o ng -he ld n o t ion t ha t d i e ta ry s t ap les w e re p robab ly r oo ts a nd t u be rs w h ich a re s e ldom p rese rved b yc ha r r ing o rm ine ra l isa t ion , a nd h ave r a re ly b een i d en t i f ied f r om p re -ag ra r ian s i tes i nt he O ld Wo r ld . H oweve r , we c an d raw s eve ra l c onc lus ions a bou t t he e nv i ronmen t a nd c l ima te o ft he p e r iod o n t he b as is o ft hese p l an t r ema ins . T he r eg ion was c ove red b y as easona l ly -dry monsoon f o res t . b u t , s i nce w e a l so f i nd i nt he s i tes s pec ies o f d eer w i th l a rge a n t le rs , i tw ou ld s eem t ha t t he a nc ien t j ung le w as n o t t oo d ense . T he c l ima te was h um id a nd w a rm , p e rhaps s im i la rt ot ha tf o und i nt he t he T ung Y a i N a t iona l F o res t t oday .

19

S . Pooka jorn

E xcava t ions i n Ban Kao c aves , T hai land

T ab le 3

F auna p resen t i n , a nd a bsen t f ro m T ha i Hoab inh ian s i tes : *

i nd ica tes p resence a nd

S pec ies n ame

Common n a me

S us s c rof a B ibos g au rus

Gau r

B ibos j av an icus

B an teng

P ig

Mun t iacus mun ( jak Mun t jak A x is p orc inus P ig d ee r T raga lus n apu Mouse d ee r C apr icorn is s uma t r aens is S e row Cervus u n ico lor D idermocerus s uma t r aens is Rh inocerus

S amba r d ee r

s onda icus P reshy t is o bscu ra P reshy t is c r is ta ( a P reshy t is s p . Ma c ac as p . Maca c aa ssamens is

R h ino . . .

Ma tes f / av igu la C an is f am / hans P an thera t i g r is C uon a /p inus P et au r is ta p e tau r is ta C annomys b ad ius R hyzomys s um a t rens is Hys te ryx s p .

*

*

-

*

*

*

R h inoce rus

D usky L angu r C res ted l a ngu r L angur Macaque monkey A ssam macaque G ibbon

H og b adge r O t te r Ma r ten D og T iger R ed d og F ly ing s qu ir re l L esse r b amboo r a t H oa ry b amboo r a t P o rcup ine

C a / losc iu nus s p . R a t tus s p . H ippos ide ros s p .

S qu irre l R a t B a t

R h ino lophus s p . Megade rma s p

B a t B a t C a rp

A c rossochelus s p . B arb ius s p . V aranus s a /va ( o r

i nd icates a bsence

Spirit B anyan C ave V a l ley C ave

H y loba ( e s s p . N yc t icebus c oucang S low l o r is P aradoxurus C ommon h ermaphrod i tus p a lm c i ve t Hem iga /us B anded p a lm d e rbyanus c ive t F e / is v i ver r ina F i sh ing c a t S e /enarc tos t h ibe tanus B ea r A rc tonyx c o l lar /s L u t ra s p .

-

C a rp Mon i to r l i za rd

2 0

S a l Y ok Khao T a lu Ment

Sou theas t As ian A rchaeo logy 1 986

T ab le 4 P lant r e ma ins i den t if ied f rom t he B an K ao C aves a dapted f rom P yra marn 1 989 , T ab le 1 6 .1 C u l tura l L eve l

K hao T a tu I

Ment I

I

Heap I

I l l

P lan ts

L i cua la s p inosa u n iden t i f ied p a lm E ugen ia C um in i C ro ton t i g l ium P haseo lus l a thy ro ides

S eeds p rese rved b y c ha r r ing o r c a lc i f ica t ion a nd p robab ly a nc ien t 1 1

8 4

1

S eeds p rese rved w i thou t c ha r r ing o r c a lc i f ica t ion a nd p robab ly r ecen t i n t rus ives P haseo lus a denan the ra 1 C rc t a /ar ia b rac tea ta 4 C i f ru /us l ana tus B en incasa h i sp ida R u taceae ( i nde t . ) T ab le 5

1 9

2

?1 ? 2

Commen ts o n t he r ecen t u ses o f t he p lan ts i dent i f ied f rom c har red

o r c a lc if ied s eeds i n t he B an K ao C aves , T ha i land , a f ter P yramarn 1 989 P lan ts L i cua la s p inosa

C ommon n ames F an p a lm

E ugen ia c um in i

B lack p l um

C ro ton t i g l ium

C ro ton o i l p l an t

P oss ib le u ses L eaves a re u sed f o r ma t t ing a nd r oo f ing a nd t he s eeds h ave med ic ina l u ses R ipe f r u i ts a re e a ten , a dded t o w ine a nd v i nega r , t he s eeds , r oo ts a nd b a rk h ave med ic ina l u ses , t he b a rk c on ta ins t ann in a nd t he t imbe r i su se fu l T he s eeds h ave p u rga t ive p rope r t ies , o i l f r om

t he s eeds i su sed f o r s oap -mak ing , i l um ina t ion a nd med ic ine . D r ied f r u i ts a nd o the r p a r ts o f t he p l an t a re u sed a s ap o ison P haseo lus l a thy ro ides B ean A l l p a r ts o ft he p l an t a re u sed a s ag reen manu re a nd f o r f odde r R u taceae R ue a nd c i t rus f am i ly Many membe rs o ft he R u taceae f am i ly , s uch a s o ranges , l emons a nd p umme lo h ave e d ib le f l eshy f r u i ts , a nd s ome o f t he i r w i ld a nces to rs may h ave b een n a t ive t ot he B an K ao a rea . T he s i ng le s eed c anno t b e i d en t i f ied t oa s pec ies

C u l tura l L eve l I ( c .4500 -c .2000 BP ) T rench A ' 1 ' o fK hao T a lu c ave i sd a ted b yt wo s amp les , 4 2 15±95 B .P . a nd 4 520 ± 430 B .P . , a nd t wo h ave b een d a ted f r om H eap c avel rench B '2 ; 4 100±00 B .P . a nd 4 350± 4 00 B .P . I n a dd i t ion t o p ebb le t oo ls o f t he H oab inh ian T echnocomp lex , t here w e re f l akes , was te f l akes , a n ima l b ones ( c ha r red a nd u ncha r red ) , s eeds a nd l umps o fc ha rcoa l . O the r e v idence i n c ludes p o tshe rds o f t he B an K ao C u l tu re t ype f ound a tt he B ang a nd L ue s i tes b y t he r i ve r ( Sorensen a nd H a t t ing 1 967 ) . B ecause p o tshe rds w e re f o und o n ly i nC u l tura l L eve l Iwe c an d i s t ingu ish t hese t wo l e ve ls e ven t hough t hey s ha re s ome t y pes o f p ebb le t oo ls .Bes ides t he s even g roups o f p ebb le t oo ls a l ready m en t ioned a s b e ing f ound i nC u l tura l L eve l I ,t he re a re t h ree mo re t ypes i nC u l tura l L eve l I ,t hese a re : GROUP 8 S ho r tu n i fac ia la xes GROUP 9 O va l , u n i fac ia lp i eces , o r' Suma t ra l i ths ' GROUP 1 0 U n i fac ia lf l a tc l eave rs .

2 1

S .P ooka j o rn E xcava t i ons i nB an K ao c ave s , T ha i land

T he p o tsherds w h ich w e re f ound a t K hao T a lu , Men t a nd H eap c aves w e re a na lysed b y M r S u rapha rn B o r isu th , M rP i n i t Wannee -Ve jas i lpa a nd M s P ayom C han t ra ra t iyaka rn . T he r e su l ts o ft he i r a na lys is s how t ha tt hey a re c ompa rab le t os he rds d i scove red a tt he B ang s i te i n1 962 , a nd t ha tt hey a re made w i th t he s ame r aw ma te r ia ls . F rom t he p o t tery a na lys is o ft he t wo s i tes i ta ppea rs t ha tt he s hapes a nd d es igns a re n o t d i ss im i la r . When w e c ompa re t he d es igns o f t he p o t te r yf r om t h e B ang

a nd L ue s i t es t ot h ef i nds , a nd t h ed a tes f r om C u l tu ra l L eve l I ,t h ey a r e n o tt o of a ra pa r t .T he B ang a nd L ue s i tes a r ed a ted t ob e tween 3 800 3 200 B .P . ( B ronson a nd Wh i te 1 9 84 ) , a nd a tK hao T a lu t h is p o t te ry i sd a ted t o3 420±380 B .P . a nd s ot h et wo s i tes a re r o ugh ly c on tempora ry .

S orensen a nd H a l t ing ( 1967 :110 -111) a t t r ibu ted t he B ang a nd L ue s i tes t o t he N eo l i th ic p er iod , a nd t h is i ss u re ly c o r rec t . When w e c ompa re t he f u l l r ange o fc u l tura l ma te r ia ls , b ehav iour a nd s ubs is tence r ep resen ted a tB ang a nd L ue s i tes w i th C u l tura l L eve l Ia tK hao T a lu , Men t a nd H eap c aves we f i nd t ha tt he l a t ter , a pa r tf r om t he p o t te ry , p ossessed av e ry d i fe ren tt oo l k i t , a nd , a sf a ra s w e c an j udge f r om t he e v idence , aw ay o fl i f e b ased o n c o l lec t ing w i ld f o res tf oods a nd h un t ing w i ld a n ima ls l tc ou ld b e a rgued t ha t t he o ccupa t ion l e ve ls i nt he c ave r ep resen t o n ly t h e h un t ing a c t iv i t ies o fp eop les n o rma l ly l i v ing as e t t led , a g r icu l tu ra l way o fl i f e i nv i l lages b yt he r i ve r . C er ta in ly t he p o t te ry s eems t o l i nk t he t wo t ypes o f s i te , b u t i nt he c aves we f i nd s t one t oo ls w h ich a re e xc lus ive ly o fL a te H oab inh ian t ype , w h i le a tt he B ang a nd L ue s i tes w e f i nd n o H oab inh ian s t one t oo ls a nd v e ry many p o l ished a dzes a nd a xes ( t he B ang s i te a l one y i e lded o ve ro ne t h ousand s uch t oo ls ) , a nd t h is s eems t o i n d ica te t ha t H oab inh ian o ccupan ts o fK hao T a lu , Men t a nd H eap c aves w e re c u l tu ra l ly a nd p e rhaps e t hn ica l ly d i s t inc t f r om t he v i l lage rs a nd t r aded w i th , o r a tl eas t h ad c on tac t w i th , t he s e t t led i n hab i tan ts o ft he r i ve r ine p l a in , a nd t ha t t he p o t te ry i s ap roduc t o f t h is e xchange a nd was p robab ly n o tt he p roduc to ft he H oab inh ian p eop le . T he re fo re , we c an s t i l l p l ace C u l tu ra l L eve l Io ft he c ave s i tes w i th in L a te H oab inh ian T echnocomp lex , b u t i nc on tac tw i th e a r ly N eo l i th ic v i l lagers . T he e nv i ronmen to ft he c aves d u r ing C u l tu ra lL eve l Iwas s omewha ts im i la rt ot ha to fC u l tu ra l L eve l I . F auna l a nd b o tan ica l r ema ins d i scove red f r om t he s i tes a re i nt he s ame g roups . O n t he b as is o f e v idence f r om C u l tu ra l L eve l I ,t hese i n hab i tan ts a l so h ad a ccess t o a qua t ic r esou rces s uch a s t u r t le , f r og a nd c rocod i le . Cu l tura l L eve l I l ( c .2500 -1000 BP ) Two s amp les f r om s qua re A l 'o fK hao T a lu a re d a ted 2 800 ± 300 B .P . ;and 3 420 B .P . , a nd f r om H eap C ave , p i t A ' l , 2 1 50 ± 300 B .P . , p i t A '2 2 070±360 B .P .and p i t B ' 2 3 200 ± 3 70 B .P . P o tshe rds o f B an K ao b l ack p o l ished t ype w e re f ound i na ssoc ia t ion w i th h uman t ee th , s eed r ema ins , ( Py rama rn 1 9 89 ) a nd b eads i nt h is l e ve l , i nl a rge q uan t i ty . B e fo re w e e xcava ted c hambe r 3o f K hao T a lu Cave , t h e l o ca l r es iden ts o fB an T ha P oe t o ld u st ha tb a tg uano c o l lec to rs h ad d i s tu rbed t he s u r face s o i l i nt h e l o ca l i ty . I nt he d i s tu rbed a rea , w e f ound h uman s ku l ls , ap o l ished s t one a xe , b eads , b l ack p o l ished p o tshe rds o fB an K ao t ype a nd b o tan ica l r ema ins . T h is C u l tu ra l L eve l I l was a ss igned t ot he L a te N eo l i th ic t oE a r ly Me ta la ge . M labr i e thnoarchaeo loy R ecen t ly , e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l r e sea rch b yt he a u tho r among t h e M lab r i , ah un ter -ga the re r g roup i n n or the rn T ha i land , s howed t ha t b o th t he M lab r i a nd t he p reh is to r ic H oab inh ian p eop les m igh t h ave s im i la r ways o f c ook ing , s uch a s r oas t ing o r g r i l l ing a nd b o i l ing ; me thods wh ich a r e s umma r ised b e low a nd w h ich Ih ave d esc r ibed e l sewhe re i nm o re d e ta i l ( Pooka jo rn i np ress ) . R oas t ing o r g r i l l ing U sua l ly t he M lab r iw ou ld r oas ta ny g ame ,s uch a sw i ld b oa r , d ee r , b amboo r a ts , t he s ame d ay u s ing b amboo s kewe rs w i th p i eces o f mea t . I ft he g ame i sl a rge t h en t he w ho le c a rcase m igh t b e t h rown o n t he f i re u n t i l c ooked a nd t he m ea t t hen c a rved u p f o r c onsump t ion . F i sh , c rabs o re ven w i ld y ams a re a l so r oas ted o rg r i l led b ecause t he M lab r i b e l ieve u ncooked f o od w ou ld c ause i n d iges t ion w h ich i si na greemen t w i th c o r rec t n u t r i t iona l p rac t ice t o day . A na lys ing f ea tures i nK hao T a lu c ave a tB an K ao , w e i d en t i f ied f i r e p i ts ,w h ich we b e l ieve we re f o rr oas t ing o r g r i l l ing mea t i na rchaeo log ica l l e ve l 5o fC u l tura l L eve l 1 ( 10580 -8920 B P ) , a nd i nl e ve l 6 -7 o f H eap c ave f r om C u l tura l L eve l 1 ( 92 10 -6550 B P ) . B o i l ing B amboo ,w h ich i se as i ly o b ta inab le , i su sed b yt he M lab r i , a sb y many o the rS ou theas tA s ian p eop les , a s ac ook ing u tens i l i np l ace o f p o t tery w h ich i st o o d i f f icu l t t ot r anspor t f o r p eop le w ho move c amp s o r egu la r ly . A ny g ame , f i sh , f ow l o r mea t i ss l iced i n to l o ng s t r ips w ide e nough t of i t e as i ly i n to t he b amboo s ha f t . P lan ts , s uch a s L as ia s p inosa L . ; A raceae o r P ipe rs a rmen tosum,

22

S ou theas tA s ian A rchaeo logy 1 986

P i pe raceae , C issuo s p . V i taceae , a nd w i ld y ams , a re a l so b o i led i nt he b amboo t ubes , e i the rw i th t h e mea to rw i th t he l e f t -ove rb ro th t o make as oup . ‚

T h is me thod o fc ook ing a g rees w e l lw i th t he e v idence f r om t he H oab inh ian s i tes . T hus d a ta f ound a tK hao T a lu , Men t a nd H eap c aves ( Pooka jo rn 1977 , 1 979a , 1 9 79b ) i na rchaeo log ica l l e ve ls 4 -5 o f C u l tura l L eve l In o t o n ly s how t he e x is tence o ff i re p i ts f o r r oas t ing o rg r i l l ing b u t a l so e v idence o f b urn t b amboo , wh ich Ii n te rp re t a s e v idence f o r H oab inh ian u se o fb amboo f o rs im i la rp urposes t o t he M lab r i . G orman 's e xcava t ions a tS p i r i t C ave y i e lded s im i la r e v idence . T he p reh is to r ic u se o f b amboo f o r c ook ing s eems e spec ia l ly p robab le s i nce C u l tura l L eve l I ,w h ich c o r responds t o t he E a r ly H oab inh ian T echnocomp lex ( 1 0500 -6500 B .P . ) , h ad n o k now ledge o f p o t te r y n o r h ad c ome i n to c on tac tw i th a ny v i l lage f a rm ing , o rn eo l i th ic t r ad i t ion . F o rs ta r t ing af i r e ,t he M lab r it oday s t i l l u se f l i n to rc he r ts t ruck t oge the rt of o rm s pa rks a nd t os e t l i t le p i eces o fd ry w i ld j u te o n f i re . T hen t hey b l ow o n t he t i nde r a nd t r ans fe rt he f i re o n to l e aves a nd w ood . H oab inh ian p eop le i nt he B an K ao a rea c l ea r ly k new h ow t o make f i re f o r c ook ing a nd p e rhaps u sed as im i la rm e thod s i nce p i eces o fc he r t ( wh ich i sn o tt he s t one mos tc ommon ly u sed f o r c u t t ing t oo ls ) w e re f ound a ssoc ia ted w i th r ema ins o fc a rbon ised b one a nd mo l lusc s he l ls . T he re fo re , when a l t he e v idence i s c ompa red t oge the r , we c an c onc lude t ha t t he p eop le r e spons ib le f o r t he H oab inh ian T echnocomp lex o f C u l tura l L eve l Ic ooked a nd u sed f i re i n a g ene ra l ly s im i la r way t ot h e M lab r ip eop le o ft he p resen td ay . D iscuss ion a nd c onc lus ion F r om t he r e su l to fs t one t oo ls a na lysed f r om t he e xcava t ions a tB an K ao a rea w ec an c onc lude t ha t t h e H oab inh ian p eop les ' s t one t oo ls i nt h is r eg ion we re n o t u sed f o r e x t rac t ive , s ubs is tence , p u rposes ( Hu t terer 1 977 ; T hosa ra t 1 982 ) . F ur the rmore , i ft he t oo ls w e re u sed f o r ma in tenance p u rposes o n ly , t hey m igh t b e e xpec ted t os how l i t le c hange i nl i t h ic t echno logy o ve r l o ng p e r iods b ecause t hey w ere m ed ia t ing t oo ls . T he s t one t oo ls o f t he H oab inh ian h un te r -ga the re rs , i n p a r t icu la r , may h ave b een u sed a s w oodwo rk ing t oo ls , e spec ia l ly o n b amboo ( Heeke ren & K nu th 1 967 ; S o lhe im 1 970 ; G o rman 1 970 ; 1 971 ; T hosa ra t 1 982 ; K an janavana t 1 986 ) . T h is s ugges t ion i s s uppo r ted b y t he f ac t t ha t n o o bv ious h un t ing t oo ls h ave b een r ecove red f r om t he H oab inh ian c on tex ts . I na dd i t ion , t he f auna l r ema ins ( Tab le 3 ) r e cove red f r om S p i r i t C ave , B anyan V a l ley C ave ( Go rman 1 970 ) , S a i Y ok ( Heekeren & K nu th 1 9 67 ) a nd B an K ao a rea ( Pooka jo rn 1 984 ) i n d ica te t ha t t he H oab inh ian men e xp lo i ted a w ide r ange o f a n ima l p opu la t ions w i th s oph is t ica ted h un t ing t e chn iques , e f fec t ive h un t ing e qu ipmen t a nd k now ledge o ft he n a ture , b ehav iour a nd h ab i ta t ion o f w i ld l i fe . T he H oab inh ian l i t h ic a ssemb lages ,con ta in b o th u n i fac ia l a nd b i fac ia l ly w o rked p ebb le t oo ls , a nd t he f l ake o rc o re t oo ls w e re u ndoub ted ly i n suf ic ien t t ob e u sed a s h un t ing i mp lemen ts ; r a the r , t h ey were ' t oo ls t o make o the r t oo ls ' , e spec ia l ly f o r manu fac tur ing w ooden a r t i fac ts . Mo reove r , m ic rowea rs t udy o f l i t h ic s amp les f r om T am P ha C an C ave ( Thosa ra t 1 9 82 ) , K hao T a lu , Men t a nd H eap Caves i n d ica te t ha t t he t oo ls may h ave b een u sed f o r w ood w ork ing . S ome o f t he e dge d amage p a t te rns ( s tep f l ak ing i n mos tc ases ) o ft h e s t one t oo ls f r om S p i r i tC ave , s t ud ied b yG o rman ( 1 97 1 :312 ) a l so s ugges t t he w ork ing o f sma l l d i ame ter wooden s ha f ts a nd l a rge rw ooden o b jec ts . T he a dvan tage o fb amboo o ve ro t he rt y pes o fw ood i st ha t i ti su b iqu i tous , l i gh twe igh t , c an b e e as i ly t r anspor ted , c an b e e as i ly w orked w i th s t one t oo ls e t c . R ema ins o f b amboo h ave a l ready b een d i scove red f r om t he s i tes o fS p i r i t , B anyan V a l ley , T ham P ha C han C aves ( Go rman 1 970 ,197 1; Y en 1 977 ) a nd K hao T a lu C ave . B o tan ica l a na lys is b y P y rama rn ( 1 989 ) s ugges ts t ha tt he p a lm , L i cua la s p inosa w as t he d om inan t s pec ies b yv i r tue o ft he n umbe rs o fs eeds s of a rd i scove red i nt he c aves . C ha rac te r is t ica l ly w i th l a rge f a n l ike o rb icu la r l e aves , L i cua la s p inosa i s ac ommon p a lm f ound i n monsoon f o res ts , r a in f o res ts , t e ak f o res ts a nd a l ong a reas c l ose t os andy b eaches . l ti sm uch u sed a s ab u i ld ing ma te r ia l , t hough h av ing o the ru ses , a nd g rows w e l l i nd ry a nd l a nds a sw e l l a so n l i mes tone b u t n o t i nm uddy a reas . l t i sd i s t r ibu ted w ide ly t h roughou tt he c en t ra l , w es te rn a nd p en insu la rp ar ts o fT ha i land , Ma lays ia a nd J ava . ‚

T he M lab r i b u i ld t empo rar y s he l te rs o u t o fa va i lab le b amboo o rw ood a nd r oo f t hem w i th b anana l e aves , p a lm l e aves o r r a t tan l e aves ( Pooka jo rn 1 9 85 ) . T hose l a rge l e aves a re a l so s p read o n t he g round f o rc om fo r tab le s l eep ing ma ts . E ven t oday r oo f b u i ld ing b y p a lm l e aves i sq u i te c ommon i n

23

S .P ooka jo r n E xcava t ions i nB an K ao c ave s , T ha i land

r u ra la reas . T he H oab inh ian p eop le a tB an K ao w ho l i ved i nt he c aves , p oss ib ly u sed L i cua la l e aves a ss l eep ing ma ts . F ru i t p a r ts o fL i cua la a re a l so s t i l l u t i l ised f o r med ic ina l p u rposes b y T ha i v i l lage d oc to rs , a nd t h is may b e a n a nc ien tp rac t ice a st wo e xcava ted s pec imens , p oss ib ly o ft hese p a lm f r u i ts ,w e re f o und i n H eap C ave C hambe r2 ,T rench Ia nd C hambe r3 ,T rench I( Py ramam 1 989 : F i g .16 .1) . A lso d i scovered i ns i tu a t H eap C ave w e re wa te r me lon s eeds e xac t ly l i ke t he p resen t o nes , a l though c a lc i f ied . We a re u nce r ta in , f o rt he momen t w he the r t h ese s eeds a re c on tempo ra ry w i th t he d epos i t i nw h ich t hey w e re f ound , o r i n t rus ive f r om l a te r l e ve ls s i nce t he re i sn o o the rr e co rd o f w a te r me lon b e ing p resen ts o e a r ly i nS ou theas tA s ia . B es ides w a te rme lon ,t here e x is ted o t he rw i ld e d ib le f r u i ts ;w ek now n owadays t ha tb l ack p l um (E ugen ia c um in i )i su se fu l i n many r e spec ts :f r u i ts a re e d ib le , t he b a rk f r om s t em a nd r oo ts , r i pe f r u i ts a nd s eeds a re t r ad i t iona l h erba l m ed ic ines i n T ha i land . A lso o i l e x t rac ted f r om t he s eeds o fc ro ton o i l p l an ts ( C ro ton t i g l ium) i sp resc r ibed a s a s t rong p u rga t ive b y v i l lage t r ad i t iona l d oc to rs : h owever t h is p l an t may a l so b e am o re r ecen t i n t roduc t ion t oT ha i land a nd t hus b e i n t rus ive i n to t he d epos i ts . I na ne a r l ie rp ub l ica t ion ( Pooka jo rn 1 979a ) Ir epo r ted t ha t as i ng le c a rbon ised g ra in o fr i ce w as f ound i nC u l tura l L eve l I lo fK hao T a lu C ave a tc . 2800 ± 300 B .P . b e long ing t ot he L a te N eo l i th ic o r E a r ly Me ta l A ge . A l though t h is s amp le h ad a v e ry s im i la r s hape a nd p ropor t ions t o p resen t r i ce ( Oryza s a t iva ) s ubsequen t e xam ina t ion s hows t h is t o b e m o re p robab ly a c ha r red f r agmen t o f awoody t w ig , a nd n o t r i ce . ‚

A n e xcava ted s eed f r om 6 0 -70 cm l a ye r ( Cu l tura l L eve l I )o fH eap C ave s howed ad i s t inc t ive s hape w i th as t ra igh t r i dge f r om t he b ase t owa rds t he t op o ft he s eed . A l though t he s hape a nd s i ze o ft he s amp le was s im i la r t o s eeds o f t he R u taceae , t he l a ck o f m ode rn s eed s amp les s im i la r t o t he e xcava ted o nes made i td i f f icu l t t od e te rm ine c l ea r ly . P end ing t he a va i lab i l i ty o fs uch s pec imens a t t h is s t age o fa na lys is ,w ep rov is iona l ly s ay t ha ti tb e longed t o aw i ld f r u i to ft he R u taceae f am i ly . Many s pec ies o f R u taceae , s uch a s o range , l emon , p omme lo , h ave f l eshy a nd j u icy f r u i ts a nd t he ir w i ld a nces to rs a re p robab ly n a t ive t ot h is a rea . H oweve r , i t sp rese rva t ion w i thou tc ha r r ing o rc a lc i f ica t ion s ugges ts t ha tt h is may b e a no the rm ode rn i n t rus ive . Many s eed r ema ins f ound i nH eap C ave c an b e i d en t i f ied a s C ro ta la r ia b rac tea ta ( N iyomd tham 1 978 ) . T h is i s ah e rb w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted i nK anchanabu r i p rov ince , a nd g rows w e l l i nd r ya nd l a te r i t ic s o i l s uch a s i nt he v i c in i ty o f t he e xcava t ion s i tes . O the r l e gume s eeds w ere o f P haseo lus l a thy ro ides a nd P .a denan thera. W i th t he s pec ies o b ta ined f r om t he s i tes , w e c an s ay t ha t t he p l an t c ommun i ty o f t h e H oab inh ian T echnocomp lex b e longed t o D ry Monsoon F o res t Z one , w i th b i g leaved p a lms a nd l e gumes a s d om inan t s pec ies . P eop le l i v ing i nt h is p e r iod s hou ld h ave k nown h ow t oc ons t ruc t s he l te rs o u t o f b i g L i cua la l e aves . T he f i nd ing o fs eeds o fw a te r m e lon a nd g ou rd a s w e l l a s o fw i ld e d ib le b l ack p l um i nt he e xcava t ion s i tes s ugges ts s ome o ft he p l an t r ema ins w e re a l so b rough t t ot he s i te a s f oods . A cco rd ing t o D rT .J ohns o ft he U n ive rs i ty o fC a l i fo rn ia , t he l e gume s eeds r epo r ted i nT ab le 4 , C ro ta la r ia a nd P haseo lus , a re a l so e d ib le . T he r e su l t o ff auna l a nd b o tan ica l a na lys is p resen ted i nt h is p ape r c an a l so t e l l u s s ome th ing o f c hanges i ng eo log ica l a nd c l ima t ic c ond i t ions f r om t he E a r ly H oab inh ian p e r iod t ot h e p resen t . D u r ing t he L a te P l e is tocene i nS ou theas t A s ia , L a te Wu rm t empe ra tures w ere o n ly af ew d egrees ( 3 .50 C ) b e low p resen t l e ve ls a nd may h ave h ad o n ly a l i m i ted d i rec t e f fec t i nd ep ress ing a l t i tud ina l v ega ta t ion z ones i nt he u p land a reas ( G love r 1 977 :160 ) . T h is i n forma t ion h as b een r e con f i rmed b y t he S ov ie t p a laeogeog raphe r V .M .S in i tsyn ( Tan 1 979 :180 ) w ho a na lysed P le is tocene f l o ra i n I n doch ina a nd h as d i v ided i ti n to t h ree g roups : 1 )d ip teroca rp f o res t i nt he h um id t r op ica l r eg ion o n t he c oas t . 2 )s avannah a nd d ec iduous f o res t i nt he i n te r io r . 3 )t he d i p te roca rp i s land f o res t ( Tan 1 979 :180 ) . T an ( 1979 :183 ) h as a l so c onc luded t ha t t he c l ima te o f S ou theas t A s ia d ur ing t h e P le is tocene was a l ready a f fec ted b y monsoons a nd t h is s ugges ts t ha t n o g rea t c hange o fc l ima te b e tween t he l a te P le is tocene a nd t he H o locene t ook p l ace i nt h is r eg ion . T he l a s t c onc lus ion p resen ted i n t h is p aper i st ha t t he H oab inh ian c u l tura l m a te r ia ls f ound t h roughou tt h is a rea , f r om S ou th C h ina ( Cheng T e -K 'un 1 9 57 , 1 959 ; C hang 1 963 ) t on o r th S uma t ra ( Heeke ren 1 957 , H eeke ren & K nu th 1 9 67 ; H e ide r 1 957 ; Ma t thews 1 96 1 , 1 964 , 1 969 ; D unn 1 9 64 ; P eacock 1 965 ; Go rman 1 9 70 ; S o lhe im 1970 , 1 974 ; T haw 1 9 7 1; S orensen & H a t t ing 1 967 a nd A d i

2 4

S ou theas tA s ian A rchaeo logy 1 986

1 985 ) a nd f r om I n doch ina ( Co lan i 1 9 32 ; P a t te 1 936 ; B o r iskovsk i i 1 9 68 , 1 9 69 , 1 9 69 70 ; Mou rer 1 970 , 1 973 a nd T an 1 979 ) t ot he b o rde r o f I nd ia ( Dan i 1 9 60 ) b e tween r ough ly 1 2 ,000 a nd 5 ,000 y ea rs a go , i sb e t te rc a l led a ' Technocomp lex ' r a the rt han a "Cu l ture " ; a nd Ia g ree w i th Go rman ( 1 970 :82 ) t ha t " the H oab inh ian h as b een d i f f icu l t t o d e f ine , b ecause o ft he l a ck o f c oncep tua l c a tego r ies o f s u f f ic ien t magn i tude t oc ove rs uch l o ng l a s t ing a nd w idesp read c ha rac te r is t ics " . G o rman ( 1 970 :81) q ues t ioned t he c u l tura l s ta tus o ft he H oab inh ian g i ven i t se no rmous g eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion a nd l o ng p e rs is tence . H e l i s ted wha t h e s aw a s s i x k ey t r a i ts d e f in ing t he H oab inh ian ( 1 970 :82 ) wh ich may b e s umma r ised a s f o l lows : t he d om inance o f u n i fac ia l t oo ls made o n s t ream c obb les i n c lud ing s ome f l ake t oo ls d e tached f r om t hese . C omp le te ly u n i fac ia l t oo ls ( Suma t ra l i ths ) t oge the r w i th g r ind ing s t ones a nd r ed o ch re . A h i gh i n c idence o f u t i l ised f l akes . C ons is ten t a ssemb lages o ff ood r ema ins i n c lud ing mo l luscs ,f i sh a nd sma l lt o med ium s i zed mamma ls .T he u se o fr o ck s he l te rs n ea rf r esh wa te ri nu p land k a r s tc oun t ry a nd c oas ta l s he l l m iddens , i n d ica t ing a tl e as t t wo d is t inc t e co log ica l o r ien ta t ions . T he a ppea rance o f e dge -g round t oo ls a nd c o rd i mp ressed p o t te ry i nt he u ppe rl a ye rs o f many H oab inh ian s i tes . T he s i x k ey t r a i ts d e f ined b y Go rman , e spec ia l ly t he s econd a nd t he t h i rd mus t b e mod i f ied . T he l i t h ic t oo ls f ound a t K hao T a lu , Men t a nd H eap C aves s how t ha t H oab inh ian men o f t hese t h ree c aves k new h ow t o make b i fac ia lt oo ls ( F igu re 7 ) when t hey h ad ab e t te rq ua l i ty o fr aw ma te r ia ls uch a s c ha lcedony , c her t a nd f l i n t e tc . f o r mak ing t oo ls . A cco rd ing t o q uan t i ta t ive a na lys is o f a pp rox ima te ly 3 ,000 s amp les f r om t h ree c aves i nB an K ao a rea , we c an s ee t ha tt he u t i l ised f l akes m en t ioned b y Go rman d o n o t h ave a h i gh i n c idence , b u t r a the rt hey w e re i n tended a s u t i l i ty t oo ls . I f w ea ccep t G o rman 's s i x k ey t r a i ts t oge the rw i th m y mod i f ica t ion o ft hese ,t hen i td oes n o t n ecessa r i ly i mp ly t he e x is tence o f aH oab inh ian C u l tu re i nt he s ense i nw h ich t he w o rd c u l ture i sn o rma l ly u sed . A n a l terna t ive h ypo thes is , a dvanced b y Go rman , i s t ha t t he H oab inh ian i s n o mo re t han a T echnocomp lex d e f ined b y t he e nv i ronmen t i n wh ich t he s i tes a re s i tua ted , a nd b y t he r esources a va i lab le t op reh is to r ic c ommun i t ies t he re .

1E d i to rs 'n o te o nT ab le 3a nd F i gu re 8 .F auna l i n fo rma t ion f o rS a iY ok i sf r om v an H eeke ren a nd K nu th ( 1 967 ) , a nd f o rB anyan V a l ley C ave f r om H i gham ( 1 977 ) . F o r K hao T a lu C ave t h ei d en t i f ied f a una i nt h et a b le a nd f i gu re c omes f r om C hambe r2 ,t r enches A l a nd A2,a nd C hambe r 3t r enches A6 a nd B7.F o rM en tC ave t h ef a una i s f r om t r ench 1o n ly .The E d i to r sa r e u nce r ta in w he the ra ny f a una w as f o und i no t he rt r enches a tt h ese s i tes , a nd w he the r a ny a ta lw as r e cove red f r om H eap C ave . A nd t h e re a r es ome a noma l ies b e tween i n fo rma t ion o nt h e n umbe rs a nd p r esence o ff a una i nK hao T a lu a nd M en tc aves w h ich t h e E d i to rs a r e u nab le t or e so lve . F o r i n s tance s ome b a ts a nd f i sh a r e r e co rded f o rK Ti nT ab le 3 ,b u tw e re o m i t ted f r om t h el i s tf r om w h ich F i gu re 8i s d e r ived . T he l a ck o fp r ima tes a tt h e B an K ao C aves i sa l so p uzz l ing a nd m ay r e p resen t t h e l o we r l e ve l o f i d en t i f ica t ion w hen c ompa red w i th t h e M ae H ongson s i tes . F o rt h em omen tt h en i ts eems b e t te rt or e ga rd t h ese f a una li d en t i f ica t ions a sp r ov i s iona la nd m in ima l . R e ferences A d iH a j iT aha r1 985 T he r e -excava t ion o ft h er o ckshe l te ro fG ua C ha , U l u K e lan tan , Wes tM a la ys ia . F ede r a t ion M u seumsJ o u rna l . ( N .S . )3 0 :1-89 . B o r iskovsk i i , P . I . 1 968 V i e tnam i nP r imeva lT imes . S ov i e tA n th r opo logy a nd A r chaeo logy V I I( 2 ) :14 -32 . B o r i skovsk i i , P . I . 1 969 V i e tnam i nP r imeva lT imes .

S ov ie tA n th r opo logy a nd A rchaeo logy V I I( 3 ) :3 19 .

B o r iskovsk i i , P . 1 . 1 969 1 70 V i e tnam i nP r imeva lT imes C hs . I V &V , t rans .f r om R uss ian i n S ov ie tA n th r opo logy & A r c haeo logy V I I I ( 3 ) :2 14 -57 . B r onson , B . & Wh i te , J .1 984 R ad ioca rbon a nd C h rono logy i nS ou theas tA s ia . P r iva te ly c i rcu la ted r o neo p r ep r in t . C hang , K .C . 1 963 T he A r chaeo logy o fA nc ien tC h i na . N ew H aven :Y a le U n ive r s i ty P ress . C heng ,T e -k 'un 1 957 A r chaeo l og i ca lS tud ies i nS zechwan .C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r ess . C heng T e -k 'un 1 9 59 A r chaeo l ogy i nC h i na I :P reh i s to r i cC h i na . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P ress . C o la n i , M1 932 L eP ro toéo l i the . p p .93 -5 i nP r aeh i s to r i ca A s i ae O r ien ta l i s . H ano i : I mp r ime r ie d ' Ex t röme O r ien t . D an i ,A .H . 1 9 60 P reh i s to ry a nd P r o toh i s to ry o fE as te r nI n d ia . C a lcu t ta :F i rma K . L .M ukhopadhyay .

2 5

S .P ooka jo rn

E xcava t ions i nB an K ao c aves , T ha i land

D unn , F .L . 1 964 E xcava t ions a tG ua K ech i l , P ahang . J ou rna lo ft he M a lays ian B r anch o f t he R oya lA s ia t ic S oc ie ty 3 7 (2 ) :87 104 . G love r , I . C . 1 977 T he H oab inh ian : h un te r g a the re rs o r e a r ly a g r icu l tu ra l is ts i nS ou theas t A s ia . p p .145 -66 i n J .V .S . M egaw (ed ) H un te r s , G a the re r sa nd F i r s tF a rme r sb eyond E u rope . L e ices te r U n ive rs i ty P ress . G love r , I . C . 1 979 P reh is to r ic p l an t r ema ins f r om S ou theas t A s ia w i th s pec ia l r e fe rence t o r i ce . p p 7 -37 i nM . T adde i ( e d ) S ou th A s ian A r chaeo logy 1 977 . N ap les : I s t i tu to U n ive rsa r io O r ien ta le , S em ina r i d iS tud iA s ia t ic i . Go rman , C .F . 1 970 E xcava t ions a tS p i r i t C ave , T ha i land : s ome i n te r im i n te rp re ta t ions . 1 3 :79 107 .

A s ian P e r spec t ives

Go rman , C .F . 1 97 1 T he H oab inh ian a nd a f te r : s ubs is tence p a t te rns i nS ou theas t A s ia d u r ing t he l a te P le is tocene a nd e a r ly R ecen t p e r iods . Wo r ld A rchaeo logy 2 (3 ) :300 20 . H eeke ren , H .R . v an 1 957 T he S tone A ge o fI ndones ia. T he H ague : M . N i jho f f . H eeke ren , H .R . v an 1 96 1 Ap re l im ina ry n o te o n t he e xcava t ion o ft he S a i Y ok r o ckshe l te r . J ou r na lo ft he S iam S oc ie ty 4 9 (2 ) :99 108 . H eeke ren , H .R . v an & K nu th , E . 1 967 C openhagen : M unksgaa rd .

A rchaeo log ica l E xcava t ions i nTha i land , V o lume I :S a i Y ok

H e ide r , K . 1 957 N ew a r chaeo log ica ld i scove r ies i nK anchanabu ry . J ou r na lo ft h eS iam S oc ie ty X LV ( 1 ) : 6 2 -70 . H igham , C .F .W . 1 977 E conom ic c hange i np reh is to r ic T ha i land . p p .385 -4 12 i nC . R eed ( ed ) T he O r ig ins o f A g r icu l tu re. T he H ague : Mou ton . H u t te re r , K .L . 1 9 77 R e in te rp re t ing t he S ou theas t A s ian P a laeo l i th ic . p p .3 1-7 1 i nJ .A l len , J . Go lsen & A .J ones ( eds ) S unda a nd S ahu L P reh i s to r ic S tud ies i nS ou theas tA s ia , Me lanes ia a nd Aus t ra l ia. L ondon : A cadem ic P ress . J a r i l C havanaphe t C . 1 972 B angkok .

Geo log ica l Map o f T ha i land ( i n T ha i ) . M i l i ta ry Geog raph ic Mapp ing D iv is ion ,

K an janavana t , S a rana ra t 1 986 T he p re -ag ra r ian i n te rac t ion a nd e xp lo i ta t iono fb amboo i nS ou theas tA s ia , w i th s pec ia lr e fe rence t oT ha i land : a n e thnoa rchaeo log ica ls t udy . U npub l ished B A R epo r t .I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy , L ondon . L e r t r i t , S awang 1 985 . S he l ls amp le a na lys i s f r om H oab inh ian e xcava t ions i nt he B an K ao a rea . B At hes is ( i n T ha i ) . B angkok : F acu l ty o fA rchaeo logy ,S i lpako rn U n ive rs i ty . Ma t thews , J .M . 1 96 1 U n ive rs i t ies P ress .

Ac heck l i s to f ' Hoab inh ian 's i tes e xcava ted i n Ma laya 1 860 -1939, S ingapo re : E as te rn

Ma t thews , J .M . 1 964 T he H oab inh ian i nS ou theas t A s ia a nd e l sewhe re. P h . D . T hes is . Canbe r ra : A us t ra l ian N a t iona l U n ive rs i ty . Ma t thews , J .M . 1 969 A r e v iew o ft he H oab inh ian i nI n doch ina . A s ian P e r spec t ives 9 : 86 -95 . Mou re r , C . & R . 1 970 T he p reh is to r ic i n dus t ry o f L aang S pean , P rov ince o f B a t tambang , C ambod ia . A rchaeo logy a nd P hys ica lA n thropo logy i nO cean ia 9 ( l) : 128 -46 . Mou re r , C . &R . 1 973 P reh is to r ic r e sea rch i nC ambod ia d u r ing t he l a s tt en y ea rs . A s ian P e rspec t ives 1 4 ( f o r 1 97 1) : 3 5 -42 . Mov ius , H .L . 1 949 T he L owe r P a laeo l i th ic C u l tu res o fs ou the rn a nd e as te rn A s ia . T ransac t ions o ft he Ame r ican P h i losoph ica l S oc ie ty 3 8 : 3 29 -40 . N i yomd than , C . 1 975 A r e v is ion o ft h eg enus C ro ta la r ia L i nn . ( Pap i l ionacae ) . T ha iF o res t ry B u l le t in 1 : 1 0 5 -8 1 . P a t te , E . 1 936 L ' Indoch ine p réh is to r ique . R evue A n th ropo log ique 4 6 :277 -3 14 . P eacock , B .A .V . 1 965 T he p reh is to r ic a r chaeo logy o f Ma layan c aves . Ma layan N a tu re J ou rna l 1 9( 1 ) :4 0 -65 .

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S ou theas tA s ian A rchaeo logy 1 986

P ooka jo rn , S . 1 9 77 P re l im ina ry R epo r t o fE xcava t ions a tK hao T a /u , Men ta nd P e tch K uha C aves i n 1 977 . B angkok : S i lpako rn U n ive rs i ty P ress V o l .1 ( 1 ) ( i nT ha i ) . P ooka jo rn , S . 1 979a T he r esu l t s o fS c ien t i f ic A na ly ses o fE xcava t ions a tK hao T a /u , Men ta nd P e tch K uha C aves i n1 977 . B angkok : S i lpako rn U n ive rs i ty P ress , V o l . 1 ( 2 ) ( i n T ha i ) . P ooka jo rn , S . 1 979b P re l im ina ry R epo r to fE xcava t ion a tH eap C ave i n1 979 . B angkok : S i lpako rn U n ive rs i ty P ress V o l .2 ( 1 ) ( i nT ha i ) . P ooka jo rn , S . 1 984 . T he H oab inh ian o f Ma in land S ou theas tA s ia :n ew d a ta f r om t he r ecen t T ha ie xcava t ion i n t h eB an K ao a rea . B angkok :Thama sa tU n ive rs i ty P ress . P ooka jo rn , S . 1 985 E thnoa rchaeo logy w i th t he P h i T ong L uang ( M lab r i ) : f o res t h un te rs o f n o r the rn T ha i land . Wo r ld A rchaeo logy 1 7 ( 2 ) :2 06 -2 1 . P ooka jo rn , S .i np ress T he P h i T ong L uang ( M iab r i ) ah un te r -ga the re rg roup i nT ha i land . B angkok . P y rama rn , K osum 1 989 N ew e v idence o n p l an t e xp lo i ta t ion a nd e nv i ronmen t d u r ing t he H oab inh ian ( La te S tone A ge ) f r om B an K ao C aves , T ha i land . p p282 -9 1 i nD .R . H a r r is a nd G . C . H i l lman ( eds . ) F o rag ing a nd F a rm ing :t he e vo lu t ion o fp lan te xp lo i ta t ion . L ondon : U nw in H yman . S o rensen , P . &H a t t ing , T . 1 967 A rchaeo log ica l E xcava t ions i nT ha i land ,Vo l .2 B an K ao . M unksgaa rd .

C openhagen :

S o lhe im ,W .G . 1 970 N o r the rn T ha i land , S ou theas t A s ia a nd Wo r ld P reh is to ry . A s ian P e r spec t ives 1 3 :145 -62 . S o lhe im , W .G . 1 974 T he H oab inh ian a nd I s land S ou theas tA s ia . P roceed ings o ft h eF i r s tR eg iona lS em ina ro n S ou theas tA s ian P reh i s tor ya nd A rchaeo logy p p .1 9 -26 . Man i la : N a t iona l M useum . T an , H aV an 1 979 .The H oab inh ian i nt he c on tex to fV ie tnam . V ie tnamese S tud ies 4 6 :127 -97 . T haw , A ung 1 973 T he ' neo l i th ic 'c u l tu re o ft he P adah L i n C aves . A s ian P e r spec t ives 1 4( f o r 1 97 1) : 1 23 -33 . T hosa ra t , R achan ie 1 982 H oab inh ian a nd Woodwork ing i n T ha i land . A n th ropo logy , U n ive rs i ty o fP ennsy lvan ia .

M .Sc . R epo r t , D epa r tmen t o f

Y en , D .E . 1 977 H oab inh ian h o r t icu l tu re : t he e v idence a nd t he q ues t ions f r om n o r thwes t T ha i land . p p .567 -99 i nJ .A l len ,J . Go lson & R .J ones ( eds ) . S unda a nd S ahu L P reh i s to r ic s t ud ies i nS ou theas tA s ia , Me lanes ia a nd A us t r a l ia L ondon : A cadem ic P ress .

2 7

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1 6 CM

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Ob jec ts o f ma te r ia lc u l tu re o ft h e M iab r i

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S ou theas tA s ian A r chaeo logy 1 986

THE MOLLUSCAN F AUNA OF ULU L EANG 1 CAVE , SOUTH SULA WES I , I NDONES IA

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A b s t rac t U l u L eang 1C ave , S ou th S u lawes i , w as o ccup ied f r om 9 000 t o2 000 B P a nd c on ta ined ar i c h f a una l a ssemb lage . F r eshwa te r m o l luscs w e re a bundan t t h roughou t t h e s equence , i np a r t icu la r t h e f r e shwa te rr i v e r ine s pec ies B r o t i ap e r f ec ta A bou t6 000 B Pe s tua r ine s pec ies a ppea ri nt h es i t ef o rt h ef i r s t t i me , w h ich c o inc ides w i th p os t -g lac ia l s ea l e ve l m a x imum . E s tua r ine s pec ies w e re n o t m o re t h an 1 %o f i n d iv idua ls ,b u to ccu r red i na ls amp les f r om l a ye rV i to t h et o po ft h es i t e . E s tua r ine t a xa i n c rea se i nn umbe r f r om 2i nl a ye rV 1t o 7i nl a ye rV 1 12 .T he m o l luscan e v idence s ugges ts t h a tc oas ta lr e sou rces w e re e xp lo i ted i n f r equen t ly , b u tt h e i ru se m ay h ave i n t ens i f ied t owa rd t h ee nd o ft h eo ccupa t ion . I n troduc t ion U l u L eang i ss i tua ted i nt he L ea leang v a l ley , i nt he d i s t r ic t o f Ma ros , S ou th S u lawes i . l twas e xcava ted i n 1 969 , 1 973 a nd 1 975 a nd t he d epos i t c on ta ined n ume rous f l i n t a nd b one a r te fa c ts a sw e l la s ar i ch f auna l a ssemb lage , i n c lud ing a bundan t r ema ins o ff r eshwa te r mo l luscs ( C lason 1 976 , G love r I .1 976 , G love r E . 1 986b ) . 1 4C d a tes s how t ha t t he c ave was i n hab i ted f r om a bou t9 000 t o2 000 y ea rs B P . D esp i te n ea r ly 8 0y ea rs o fa rchaeo log ica l r e sea rch i nS u lawes it he re a re o n ly af ew p ub l ica t ions w h ich i n c lude q uan t i f ied d a ta o n t he f auna l r ema ins ( Be l lwood 1 985 , G love r E . 1 98 1 , 1 986a & b ) . Y e t i ti so bv ious t ha t t h is r e sea rch p rov ides u n ique i n forma t ion o n a nc ien t d i e t , r esource e xp lo i ta t ion a s we l l a s p as t e nv i ronmen ts . T he a im o f t h is r epo r t i st o f u l ly d ocumen t t he a bundance a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fm o l luscan f auna a tU lu L eang s o t ha t i nt he f u tu re c ompa r isons c an b e made w i th t he d a ta f r om o the rs i tes i nI n dones ia . Me thods M o l lusc s amp les w e re c o l lec ted i n1 973 a nd 1 975 . I nt h is r epo r tt he r e su l ts o ft he 1 973 a na lys is , p ub l ished i n ap re l im ina ry f o rm i nG love r I .( 1976 ) h ave b een r ev ised a nd b o th s e ts o f d a ta c omb ined i ns even s amp les n umbe red V I I If r om t he t op o ft he s i te . T hese s amp les c o r re la te w i th t he s t ra t ig raph ic l a ye rs i l us t ra ted i nG love r1 ( 1976 ) . F o re ach s amp le s pec ies w e re i d en t i f ied a nd t he m in imum n umbe ro fi n d iv idua ls c oun ted . Gas t ropods s he l ls w e re u sua l ly d amaged a round t h e a pe r ture a nd t he a pex b roken o f . G ene ra l ly t he b ody o ft he s he l l was i n tac t a nd t h is w as c oun ted a s o ne i n d iv idua l . B iva lves w e re i n f requen t i nt he s i te , a nd e ve ry i d en t i f iab le v a lve was c oun ted a so ne i n d iv idua l . F ragmen ts o fs he l l o ft he c o rb icu l id b i va lves we re c oun ted a nd l i s ted s epa ra te ly f r om t he c oun to f i n d iv idua ls . I ti sp oss ib le t ha t ma tch ing v a lves f r om o ne i n d iv idua l c ou ld h ave s u rv ived , b u t i ti sd i f icu l tt od emons t ra te t h is i np rac t ice . I ns i tes w he re b i va lves a re a bundan t i ti su sua lt oc oun t e i the rl e f to rr i gh t h and v a lves o rd i v ide t he n umbe ro fv a lves i nh a l f . T he i d en t i f ica t ion o ff r eshwa te rg as t ropods f r om t he f am i ly T h ia r idae w as c omp l ica ted b ecause t he s pec ies f r om S u lawes i h ave b een s o l i t le s t ud ied a nd c ompa r ison w i th o the r b e t te rk nown a reas o fS ou theas tA s ia i sd i f f icu l t b ecause o ft he h i gh l e ve lo fe ndem ism i nt he S u lawes if auna ( Wh i t ten 1 987 :283 ) . T he f a una h as b een i d en t i f ied t os pec ies w here t h is was p oss ib le . T he max imum h e igh t o f t he a per ture was measured o n t he mos t a bundan t mo l lusc , t he f r eshwa te r s na i l B ro t ia p e r f ec ta . A pe r tu re h e igh t i s ar easonab le i n dex o fs i ze f o rt h is s pec ies ( Dudgeon 1 982 ) . S he l l h e igh tw as measu red o nt h ree s pec ies o fc o rb icu l id b i va lves . T he mo l lusc s amp les a re h e ld p resen t ly a t t he I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , U n ive rs i ty C o l lege L ondon .

29

E .G love r U lu L eang mo l lusc s

0

3 cm

F igure 1 F reshwa te r mo l luscs f r om U lu L eang 1 T op r ow : B ro t la p er fec ta M idd le r ow f r om l e f t : B ro t la p er fec ta , B ro t la p er fec ta ( smoo th mo rph ) , Me lano ldes o f t ubercu la ta , T areb la g rani fera . B o t tom r ow f r om l e f t : Me lano ldes o f c renu la ta , N er i t ina pu l l igera . Mo l lusc t axa Gas tropoda NER IT IDAE Ner i t ina p u li lgera ( L innaeus , 1 767 ) F i gu re 1

l ti su nce r ta in w he the rt h is s pec ies was e a ten . Ner i t ina l i ves i nt he u ppe ra nd m idd le c ourses o f f a s tf l ow ing r i ve rs a nd s t reams a nd i si n to le ran to fs a l in i ty .T he h ab i ta to ft h is s pec ies w as w rong ly d esc r ibed a s ma r ine i nG love r I .( 1976 ) . V lV lP AR I DAE T he g enera V iv iparus a nd Be I /a mya w e re p resen t b u t t he f r agmen ted c ond i t ion o ft he s he l l mean t t hey c ou ld n o t b e s epa ra ted w i th c e r ta in ty . I nT ab le 1t h e d a ta i sc omb ined u nde rf am i ly V iv ipa r idae . T hey a re f ound i n av a r ie ty o ff r eshwa te r h ab i ta ts a nd p robab ly we re c o l lec ted f o r f ood .

3 0

S ou theas tA s ian A rchaeo logy 1 986

T H IAR IDAE B ro t ia p er fec ta ( Mousson , 1 849 ) F i gu re 1 Me lan ia p er fec ta was d esc r ibed b y Mousson ( 1849 ) w i th s pec imens c o l lec ted n ea r Ma ros , S ou th S u lawes i , c l ose t ot he s i te o f U lu L eang . T he g enus Me lan ia h as b een r ev ised ( B rand t 1 974 ) a nd t he a rchaeo log ica l s pec imens p robab ly b e long t o t he g enus B ro t ia a l though t h is i d en t i f ica t ion i sp re l im ina ry . O ne o f t he d i f f icu l t ies o fd e te rm in ing t he a rchaeo log ica l s pec imens o f B ro t ia p er fec ta w as t he v a r iab i l i ty o f s he l l mo rpho logy , wh ich r anged f r om s p iny , h eav i ly s cu lp tured t o q u i te smoo th f o rms . Gene ra l ly , t he s cu lp tured mo rphs w ere t he mos t c ommon , w i th s p i ra l r i bb ing a nd o r s p ines o n a l b u tt he u ppe rw ho r ls o ft he s he l l ( F igu re 1 ) . H oweve r , i n t ra -spec i f ic v a r ia t ion i ns he l l m o rpho logy i s u sua l amongs t t r op ica l f r eshwa te r t h ia r ids whe re i s o la t ion i n u nchang ing e nv i ron men ts c auses t he m ic ro -evo lu t ion o f many d i f fe ren t r aces ( van B en tham J u t t ing 1 956 , D av is 1 969 , 1 973 ) . B ro t ia p e r fec ta i n hab i ts s t reams a nd r i ve rs w i th as t rong t o mode ra te c u r ren t , a nd i si n to le ran to fs a l in i ty . M e lano ides c renu la ta ( Deshayes , 1 838 ) M e lano ides t ube rcu la ta ( F . M ü l le r , 1 774 ) F i gu re 1 M e lano ides ( Ta reb ia )g ran i fe ra ( Lama rck , 1 822 ) F i gure 1 T he re were t h ree s pec ies o f Me lano ides . T hree i n d iv idua ls we re s im i la r t o Me lano ides c r enu la ta , w i th s t urdy s he l ls a nd s p i ra l s cu lp tu re . T hey w e re d i f fe ren t f r om a g roup o f sma l le r , s moo th s he l led i n d iv idua ls w h ich h ave o ccas iona l a x ia l r i bs n ea r t he a pex a nd v ery d e l ica te l o ng i tud ina l s cu lp ture o n t he l owe r w ho r ls . T h is g roup r e semb les t he c ommon a nd w idesp read t r op ica l s pec ies Me lano ides t ubercu la ta , e xcep t t ha t i tl a cks t he u sua l s p i ra l s cu lp tur ing . B ecause o ft he u ncer ta in ty o fi d en t i f ica t ion t h is g roup o f smoo th s he l led t h ia r ids i sl i s ted i nt h is r e po r t a s Me lano ides c ft u be rcu la ta . M . c renu la ta a nd M . t ube rcu la ta a re f o und i n mos tf r eshwa te r h ab i ta ts a nd p re fe r as l ow c u r ren t o rs t i l l wa te r . T hey a re t o le ran to fs ome s a l in i ty . T a reb ia g ran i fera i sa l so f ound i n many f r eshwa te r h ab i ta ts , i ns t i l lo r r unn ing w a te r . l ti st o leran to ft u rb id i ty a nd i sf ound o ccas iona l ly w i th in t he t i da l z one .

T h ia ra s cab ra ( 0 . F .M ü l le r , 1 774 ) T h is i s asma l lg as t ropod w i th n o f ood v a lue a nd i sp robab ly a n a cc iden ta l i n t roduc t ion t ot he s i te . I ti sf o und i n mos tf r eshwa te rh ab i ta ts a nd a l so t o le ra tes s ome s a l in i ty . P OTAM ID IDAE T e lescop ium t e lescop ium ( L innaeus , 1 758 ) T h is s pec ies i sf ound i nb o th mang rove a nd mud f la ts , a nd p re fe rs s o f t , w e t te r muds , e i the r i n o pen p oo ls o r amongs tt he r oo ts o fl a rge r mang roves . I ti s af ood s pec ies . MUR IC IDAE N aque t ia c apuc ina ( Lama rck , 1 822 ) N . c apuc ina i so ne o ft he f ew mu r ic ids w h ich l i ve i n mang rove b u t l i t le i sk nown o fi t s b i o logy . l t m ay h ave b een c o l lec ted f o rf ood . B i va lv ia ARC IDAE A nada ra g ranosa ( L innaeus , 1 758 ) F i gu re 2 A nada ra ( Scapharca ) i n equ iva lv is ( B rug ie re , 1 789 ) T hese a re e d ib le s pec ies w h ich o ccur i nt he s eawa rd f r inges o f mang roves a nd i na d jacen t s andy mud f l a ts . A NOM I IDAE P lacuna p lacen ta ( L innaeus , 1 758 ) . Al a rge , f l a tb i va lve f r om i n ter t ida l m ud f l a ts .

3 1

E .G love r U l uL eang m o l lusc s

OSTRE l DAE O n ly o ne v a lve o fo ys te r was f ound a nd i tw as n o tp oss ib le t od e te rm ine t he s pec ies . CORB ICUL lDAE B a t /gsa v i o lacaea ( Lama rck , 1 806 ) G e l/na c fe rosa ( L igh t foo t , 1 786 ) F i gu re 2 G e lo ina c fe xpansa ( Mousson , 1 849 ) T he t a xonomy o ft h is g roup i sc on fused ( B rand t 1 974 , Mo r ton 1 983 , 1 984 ) a nd i twas d i f icu l tt o d e te rm ine t he s pec ies o f Ge lo ina , whose s he l l morpho logy i sv e ry s im i la r . T he a rchaeo log ica l ma te r ia l h as b een g rouped i nt wo s pec ies , b ased o n M o r ton ( 1984 ) . G e l/na a nd B a t issa l i ve i n i n te r t ida l mang rove a nd N ipa p a lm s wamp .

/

n •v

0

F i gu re

3 cm

2E s tua r ine mo l luscs f r om U lu L eang 1 L e f t : G e lo lna o f . e rosa . R igh t : A nadara g ranosa

Resu lts T he s pec ies o f mo l luscs f r om t he s i te a re l i s ted i ni nT ab le 1a nd 2 a nd t he mos t c ommon a re i l us t ra ted i nF i gu res 1a nd 2 .T ab le 1s hows t he p e rcen tages o fs pec ies f r om t he s he l l s amp les V 1 12 t o I ,b ased o n ac oun t o f i n d iv idua ls . T ab le 2 g i ves t he n umbe rs o f i n d iv idua l s he l ls o f e s tua r ine s pec ies t ha t w e re p i cked u p f r om t he s i eves w i th o the r f auna l ma te r ia l d u r ing t he e xcava t ion . T ab le 3s hows t he a per tu re h e igh to fB ro t ia p e r fec ta a nd T ab le 4p rov ides t h e s he l l h e igh to ft he t h ree s pec ies o fc o rb icu l ids .

3 2

S ou theas tA s ian A rchaeo logy 1 986

T he mos t a bundan t mo l luscs a tU lu L eang w e re f r eshwa te rg as t ropods b e long ing t ot he f am i ly T h ia r idae , i np a r t icu la r B ro t ia p er fec ta , w h ich c ons t i tu ted mo re t han 8 0% o ft he i n d iv idua ls i n e ach s amp le . F reshwa te r s pec ies o ccu rt h roughou t t he s equence b u t t he re i s ah i ghe r p ropo r t ion o ft he l e ss c ommon t h ia r ids a nd t he v i v ipa r id s na i ls i nt he e a r l ie rl e ve ls . E s tua r ine s pec ies w e re n o tc ommon a nd t hey d o n o t a ppea r b e fo re l a ye r V I , d a ted t o a pp rox ima te ly 6 000 B P ( Tab les 1 a nd 2 ) . T he rea f te rt he re i s as l ow i n c rease i nd i ve rs i ty o f ma r ine s pec ies a nd t he n umbe ro fi n d iv idua ls o f e ach s pec ies g radua l ly i n c reases t owa rd t he t op o ft he s i te . D iscuss ion D u r ing t he e a r ly H o locene , U lu L eang c ave w as i n hab i ted b y h un ters w ho f ound f ood i nt he f o res ted moun ta ins a nd a d jacen t p l a ins . F reshwa ter mo l luscs c o l lec ted f r om s t reams a nd r i ve rs w e re i n c luded i nt he d i e t . l ti sn o t p oss ib le t o q uan t i fy t he n u t r i t iona l c on t r ibu t ion o f t hese m o l luscs b u t t hey w ou ld p rov ide a n e as i ly c o l lec ted s ource o fp ro te in , a l though t he amoun t o f m ea t i ne ach a n ima lw ou ld b e q u i te sma l l . S i ze a na lys is o f B ro t ia ( Tab le 3 )s hows t ha t s im i la r s i zed i n d iv idua ls w ere c o l lec ted t h roughou tt he o ccupa t ion o ft he s i te . M a r ine t r ansg ress ion d u r ing t he e a r ly H o locene w ou ld h ave b rough t t he c oas t l ine t ow i th in 3 5 k m o ft he s i te a bou t 6 000 B P ( Chappe l l a nd T hom 1 977 , G love r E1 986a ) . A t t h is t ime manga l w ou ld h ave d eve loped e x tens ive ly a l ong e s tua r ies a nd i ns he l te red b ays o n t he c oas t , a nd m ang rove mo l luscs a ppea ri nt he s i te f o rt he f i r s tt ime i nl a ye rV I . W i th t he e xcep t ion o fP lacuna s p . t he ma r ine mo l luscs i nt he s i te a re g ene ra l mang rove a ssoc ia tes , p a r t icu la r ly Ge lo ina s p . ; A nadara g ranosa a nd T e lescop ium t e lescop ium a re f ound a tt he s eawa rd f r i nges o f mang roves a nd a l so i na d jacen t i n te r t ida l mud o r s and f l a ts . T he e xp lo i ta t ion o f mang rove f auna f r om t he m id -Ho locene o nwa rds h as b een d esc r ibed a t an umbe ro fs i tes i nS ou theas tA s ia a nd A us t ra l ia ( A l len 1 987 ) .

T ab le

1

P ercen tage o f mo l lusc s pec ies a t U lu L eang , l ayers I 3 500 4 000 V 112 V III -

5 000 V II

-

6 000 V I

7 000 V / IV

V 1 12 -

8 000 II

9000 I

F RESH WATER S PEC IES Ner i t ina p u l l igera

0 .1

V iv ipa r idae B rot ia p er fec ta

Me lano ides ( T areb ia )

9 7 .0

0 .1

-

-

0 .1

0 .2

1 .0

0 .7

3 .0

6 .0

9 7 .0

9 8 .1

9 5 .0

8 7 .2

9 2 .9

9 1.4

g ran i fera

0 .3

1 .5

0 .4

2 .0

8 .2

2 .2

1 .0

Me lano ides c / f t u be rcu la ta M . c / f c renu la ta

1 .0 0 .6

0 .5

0 .8

2 .0

3 .4

1 .7

1 .3

-

T h iarascabra

-

0 .1

0 .1

0 .2

E STUAR INE S PEC IES Naque t iacapuc ina

0 .3

T e lescop ium t e lescop ium

0 .1

0 .1

0 .1

Co rb icu l idae

0 .8

0 .2

0 .1

0 .1

t o ta l n umber

5 18

5 67

1 222

1 682

-

33

-

2 262

1 987

2 514

E . G lover

U lu L eang mo l luscs

T ab le 2 Nu mbers o f e stuar ine mo l luscs c o l lec ted d ur ing e xcavat ion a nd n u mber o f f r agments o f Corb icu l idae V 112 T e lescop ium t e lescop ium N aque t ia c apuc ina A nada rag ranosa Anadara ( Scapharca ) i nequ iva lv is P lacuna p lacen ta O s t re idae B a t issa v i o lacaea

V lI1

V i ii

V II

V I

V IV

0 0 5 1

17 7 8 0

1 0 1 3 0

4 1 1 0

1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 18

1 0 6

0 0 4

0 1 1

0 0 0

0 0 0

Ge loi n a c / f e rosa

7

6

0

0

0

0

c / fe xpansa

9

8

2

0

0

0

C o rb icu l idae , s he l l f r agmen ts

47

49

1 2

1 2

8

0

Ge lo ina

T he mos tc ommon ma r ine mo l luscs a tU lu L eang w e re t he l a rge c o rbucu l id b i va lves , G e lo ina s p . a nd B a t issa s p .w h ich i n hab i tt he h i ghe rl e ve ls o ft he s ho re i n manga lo rN ipa p a lm s wamp . B o th s pec ies a re a t t rac t ive t oh uman f o rage rs ;t hey a re l a rge ( Tab le 4 ) , r ead i ly c o l lec ted f r om t he mud a nd w i l l s u rv ive many d ays ' eme rs ion . T he i ra b i l i ty t ow i ths tand l o ng p e r iods o fd es icca t ion i sa ma jo r a spec t i nt r ans fer f r om s ho re t o t ab le , when b i va lve m o r ta l i ty i st yp ica l ly h i gh ( Mo r ton 1 983 : 109 112 ) . Amongs tt he c o l lec to rs o ft he P u ra r i D e l ta a nd i nn o r the rn A us t ra l ia B a t issa a nd Ge lo ina a re s ome o ft he m os t i mpo r tan tf o od s pec ies ( Po ra i tuk 1 980 , Meehan 1 982 ) a nd emp ty v a lves o f t he s he l l a re p u t t o many u ses , f o r e xamp le a s s poons i n N ew Gu inea . l ti sn o t u nexpec ted t ha t t hey a re t he f i r s t o f af ew e s tua r ine s pec ies t oa ppea r a t U lu L eang a nd w e re a l so amongs tt he sma l l n umbe ro f ma r ine s pec ies f o und i ni n land s i tes i nT imo r , d a ted t ot he m id H o locene ( G love r I .1 986 ) . Ge lo ina h as b een f ound a t i n land s i tes i n n or the rn S u lawes i ( He f te rnan 1980 :22 ) , i nA rnhem L and , n or the rn A us t ra l ia ( A l len 1 987 :5 ) , a tN iah c ave , S a rawak ( Be l lwood 1 985 :178 ) a nd i nT ha i land ( Such i t ta 1 984 ) . T ab le 3

B ro t ia

p er fec ta

s ize

( aper ture h e igh t mm )

n

mean

s d

r ange

V I I I

27

7 .1

1 .0

5 .8

V I I2 V I I1

23 27

7 .0 7 .5

1 .0 0 .8

4 .8 5 .5

V I I V I

34 32

7 .9 8 .1

0 .9 0 .9

6 . 1 6 .5

38 60 29

7 .8 6 .7 8 .2

1 .4 1 .2 1 . 1

6 . 1 5 .5 4 .8

L AYER

I V I I I

-

V

T ab le

4

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

9 .0 9 .7 9 .4 1 0 .4 1 0 .0 1 2 .2 9 .5 1 2 .0

Corb icu l idae , B a t issa v io lacea , Ge lo ina c / f e rosa , Ge lo ina c / f e xpansa , s ize ( she l l h e ight i n mm ) ( a l l s a mp les c omb ined )

SPEC IES B . v i o bacea G . c / fe rosa G . c / fe xpansa

n

mean

s d

1 7

4 1.7

8 .2

16 2 3

6 9 .5 5 7 .6

8 .1 1 1.5

3 4

S ou theas tA s ian A rchaeo logy 1 986

E s tua r ine mo l luscs we re i n f requen t a tU lu L eang , n o t mo re t han 1% o fi n d iv idua ls i na ny s amp le . T he t o ta l n umbe ro f ma r ine s pec ies was n i ne . L aye rV I c on ta ined t wo s pec ies , t h is i n c reased t o f o u ri nl a ye rV I I a nd t os even i nl a ye rV 1 12 n ea rt he t op o ft he s i te ( Tab le 1a nd 2 ) . T h is i s as l ow r a te o f i n t roduc t ion , a s w e l l a s al ow n umber o f t axa w hen t he re i s ag rea t d i ve rs i ty o f e d ib le mo l luscs f r om e s tua r ine a nd c oas ta l h ab i ta ts . Mo l luscan d i ve rs i ty i n c reases f r om t he u ppe r e s tua r ies t ot he c oas t p rope r ,whe re t he re a re m ore h ab i ta ts a nd r egu la rt i da l i n unda t ion ( Mor ton 1 983 ) . T he a bsence a tt he s i te o f aw ide r ange o fe d ib le e s tua r ine o r ma r ine mo l luscs s ugges ts t ha tc oas ta l a nd mang rove h ab i ta ts w e re e xp lo i ted o n ly o ccas iona l ly , w h ich may r e f lec t b o th t he d i s tance t ot he c oas t a nd t he n ove l e xpe r ience o fc oas ta l g a the r ing . S im i la r ly , t he P aso s he l lmound , wh ich was o ccup ied f r om 8 500 t o 7 500 BP , a nd l i es 2 0 km i n land f r om t he p resen t c oas t , c on ta ined o n ly t wo e s tua r ine s pec ies , a s we l l a s t he c ommon f r eshwa te rt h ia r ids ( He f fe rnan 1 980 ) . I nc on t ras t p resen td ay c o l lec to rs who l i ve c l ose t ot he P ie R ive r , P ura r i D e l ta , N ew G u inea , c o l lec t a t l e as t 2 3 s pec ies a nd Meehan ( 1982 ) d esc r ibes 3 0 mang rove a nd e s tua r ine s pec ies e a ten b yt he A bo r ig ines i nn or thern A us t ra l ia . I ti sp oss ib le t ha t t he i n hab i tan ts o fU lu L eang r e l ied o n mo l luscs t r aded f r om t he c oas t r a the rt han i n c lude c oas ta l h ab i ta ts w i th in t he i rf o rag ing r ange . I nt he P u ra r i D e l ta i n land v i l lages mo re t han 1 5t o2 0 km f r om t he c oas t r a re ly c o l lec t ma r ine mo l luscs a nd o b ta in t hem i ne xchange f o rs ago , v ege tab les a nd l o gs f o r c anoe mak ing ( Po ra ik tuk i b id ) . D esp i te t he m in ima l e xp lo i ta t ion o f e s tua r ine mo l lusca n umbe rs o f i n d iv idua ls o ff ou r s pec ies , n ame ly G e lo ina s p . ; B a t issa s p . ; T e lescop ium s p . a nd A nadara s p . i n c rease t owa rds t he t op o ft he s i te ( Tab les 1a nd 2 ) . I nt he a bsence o fc ompa rab le a rchaeo log ica l d a ta i ti sp oss ib le o n ly t o g uess t ha t t h is c hange i n a bundance o f s pec ies i n d ica tes a n i n c reas ing u se o fe s tua r ine r esou rces .

References A len , H . 1 987 H o locene m ang roves a nd m iddens i nN o r the rn A us t ra l ia a nd S ou theas tA s ia . B u l le t in o ft h e I n do -Pac i f ic P reh i s tor yA ssoc i a t ion 7 :116 .

B e l lwood , P . 1985 P reh i s to ry o ft h e I ndo -Ma lays ian A rch ipe lago . R yde , N .S .W . :A cadem ic P ress . B en tham J u t t ing , W .S . v an 1 956 . S ys tema t ic s t ud ies o n t he n on -ma r ine mo l lusca o ft h e I n do -Aus t ra l ian A rch ipe lago 5 :c r i t ica l r e v is ion o fJ avanese f r eshwa te rg as t ropods . T r eub ia 2 3 (2 ) :3 8 15 05 . B rand t , R .A .M . 1 974 T he n on -ma r ine a qua t ic m o l lusca o fT ha i land . A rch iv f ü r Mo l luskenkunde 1 05 :1-

4 23 .

C lason , A . 1 976 A p re l im ina ry n o te a bou t t he a n ima l r ema ins f r om U lu L eang 1C ave , S ou th S u lawes i , I n dones ia . Mode rn Qua te rna ry R esea r ch i nS ou theas tA s ia 2 :5 3 -67 . C happe l l , J .& T hom , B .G . 1 977 S ea l e ve ls a nd c oas ts . I nA l len , J . , G o lson , J .a nd J ones , R . ( e ds ) S unda a nd S ahu l :p reh i s to r ic s t ud ies i nS ou theas t A s ia , Me lanes ia a nd A us t ra l ia : 2 75 -9 1 L ondon : A cadem ic

P ress .

D av is , G . 1 969 A t a xonom ic s t udy o fs ome s pec ies o fS em i su lcosp i ra ( mesogas t ropoda : P l eu roce r idae ) i n

J apan . M a laco l og i a 7 ( 23 ) :2 11 2 94 .

D av is , G . 1 973 . Oncome lam ia h upens is ( Gas t ropoda : H yd rob i idae ) H yb r id iza t ion , g ene t ics a nd t r ansm iss ion o fS ch is toma j a pon icum . Ma laco log ica lR ev i ew 6 :18 1-97 . D udgeon , D . 1982 L i fe h i s to ry o fB ro t ia h a inanens i s B ro t 1 972 ( Gas t ropoda : P rosob ranch ia : T h ia r idae ) . Z oo log ica lJ ou rna lo ft h eL i nnaean S oc ie ty 7 6 (2 ) :14 1-54 . G love r , E . 198 1 L eang B u rung 2 :s he l l a na lys is . Mode rn Qua te rnar yR esea rch i nS ou theas tA s ia 6 :4 5 -50 . G love r , E . 1 986a Mo l lusca i nI n dones ian A rchaeo log ica l R esea rch . I n dones ia C i r c le 4 0 : 3 3 -45 . G love r , E . 1 986b P reh is to r ic u t i l iza t ion o ft r op ica l r ee f mo l luscs i nE as t T imo r , I n dones ia . C oncho logy 3 2 :15 1165 .

J ou rna l o f

G love r , I .1 976 U lu L eang C ave , Ma ros : ap re l im ina ry s equence o fp os t P le is tocene c u l tu ra l d eve lopmen t i nS ou th S u lawes i . A rch ipe l 2 :113 -54 .

3 5

E .G love r U lu L eang mo l lusc s

G love r , I .1 978 S u rvey a nd e xcava t ion i nt he Ma ros d i s t r ic t , S ou th S u lawes i , I n dones ia : t he 1 975 f i e ld s eason . B u l le t in o ft he I ndo -Pac i f ic P reh i s tor yA ssoc ia t ion 6 0 103 . G love r , I .1 986 U n ive rs i ty .

A rchaeo logy i nE as te rn T imor , 1 966 -67 . T e r ra A us t ra l is I . C anbe r ra : A us t ra l ian N a t iona l

H e f fe rnan , K . 1 980 Mo l luscan R esou rces a nd t he T a laud E conomy : e co log ica l a nd c u l tu ra l p a rame te rs i n t he s t udy o fr e fuse . ( BA d i sse r ta t ion ) . D epa r tmen t o fP reh is to ry a nd A n th ropo logy , ANU . Meehan , B . 1 982 S he / /bed t os he / /m idden . C anbe r ra : A us t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o fA bo r ig ina l S tud ies . Mo r ton , B . 1 983

Mang rove b i va lves .T he Mo l lusca 6 :77 138 .

Mo r ton , B . 1 984 A r e v iew o fP o lymesoda ( Ge lo ina ) G ray 1 842 ( B iva lv ia : C o rb icu lacea ) f r om I n do -Pac i f ic mang roves . A s ian Ma r ine B io logy 1 :7 7 -86 . Mousson , J .R .A . 1 849

D ie L and u nd S üsswasse r -Mo l lusken v on J ava . Z u r ich .

P o ra i tuk , S . &U l i jaszek , S . 1 98 1 Mo l luscs i nt he s ubs is tence d i e t o f s ome P u ra r i D e l ta p eop le . E nv i ronmen ta l S tud ies 2 0 . P u ra r i R ive r ( Wabo ) H yd roe lec t r ic S cheme , Wa ig in i :O f f ice o fE nv i ronmen t a nd C onse rva t ion , C en t ra l G ove rnmen t . S uch i t ta , P o rncha i 1 984 K hok P hanom D i : ap reh is to r ic s he l lmound o n t he e as te rn c oas t o fT ha i land . I n B aya rd , D . ( ed ) S ou theas tA s ian A rchaeo logy a tt h e XV P ac i f ic S c ience C ong ress . U n ive rs i t y o fO tago S tud ies i nP reh is to r ic A n th ropo logy 1 6 : 1 13 . Wh i t ten , A .J ; Mus ta fa , M . a nd H ende rson , G . 1 987 U n ive rs i ty P ress .

T he e co logy o fS u lawes i . Y ogyaka r ta : Gad jah Mada

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S ou theas tA s ian A rchaeo logy 1 986

E xcava t ions a t Ob luang , P rov ince o f Ch iang Ma i , T ha i land Mar ie l le S an ton i , J ean -P ierre P au treau a nd S ayan P r ishanch it A bs t rac t T he s i te o fO b luang ,o nt h e R i ve rM ae C haem ( P rov ince o fC h iang M a i , T ha i land )w as d i scove red i n1 984 . I n1 985 a nd1986 , t wo a r eas o nt h e l e f tb ank o ft h e r i ve rw e re e xcava ted a nd t h ese c o r respond t o t wo d i f fe ren t p e r iods . T he M eso l i th ic s e t t lemen t , u nde r ar o ckshe t te r , y i e lded p ebb le t oo ls o f ag ene ra l H oab inh ian t y pe . S eve ra lo ccupa t iona l f l oo rs c ou ld b e r e cogn ized a l though t he s i te w as l a rge ly d i s tu rbed . T he B ronze A ge b u r ia l i n c luded a n a ssemb lage o fb r onze ,s he l l , a nd c a rne l ian o rnamen ts , a ssoc ia ted w i th c o rdma rked p o t te ry . A no the r s e t t lemen t w as f o und o n t he r i gh t b ank w h ich y i e lded a n a ssemb lage o f p o l ished s t one a xes a nd a dzes , c o rd m a rked p o t te ry , a nd af ew p ebb le t o o ls . T he p o t te ry d i f fe rs f r om t ha t f o und i nt he b u r ia l . T he s i tes a tO b luang p rov ide a n e mb ryon ic c hrono logy t ha t f u r the r e xcava t ions , s u rveys , a nd a bso lu te d a t ing w i l l p e rm i t u st or e f ine . S ince 1 984 , t he F rench A rchaeo log ica l M iss ion a nd t he F i ne A r ts D epa r tmen t o fT ha i land h ave w o rked t oge the ro n al o ng t e rm p ro jec t t os t udy t he c u l ture h i s to ry , a nd t o e s tab l ish at en ta t ive

c h rono logy f o rt he p reh is to r ic p e r iods i n ac i rcumsc r ibed a rea o fn o r the rn T ha i land . S urveys a nd e xcava t ions h ave b een u nder taken , p a r t icu la r ly i nt he N an B as in ( s ee J . - P . P au t reau i nt h is v o lume ) a nd a t Ob luang i nC h iang Ma i P rov ince .

T he s i tes a t Ob luang w e re d i scove red i n 1 984 b y S . P r ishanch i t a nd P . P eng tako o f t he N o r the rn T ha i land A rchaeo log ica l R esea rch P ro jec t . T hey c o l lec ted f r om t he s ur face a g ood n umber o f i n c ised a nd c o rd -ma rked s herds , i n c lud ing f r agmen ts o f ap edes ta l v esse l , t oge the r w i th s t one t oo ls ( c hoppe rs a nd p o l ished a xes ) a nd f l akes o fq ua r tz i te . T he r e su l ts o ft ha ts urvey w e re r epor ted t ot he F i ne A r ts D epa r tmen to fT ha i land ( Peng tako a nd P r ishanch i t 1 984 ) .

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F i gu re 1 L oca t ion o f t he O b luang s i tes ( Changwa t C h iang M a i ) .

3 7

M . S an ton i , J .P . P au t reau & S .P r i shanch i t E xcava t ions a tO b luang , T ha i land

T he s i tes a re s i tua ted 1 7 km n o r thwes to ft he t own o fH o t , a bou tlOO km s ou thwes to ft h ec i ty o f C h iang Ma i i nt he N a t iona l P a rk o fO b luang , o n b o th s i des o ft h e N am Mae C haem , w h ich i sa t r ibu ta ry o ft he Mae N am P ing ( f i g . 1 ) . I nt h is a rea , t he r i ver f l ows i n ad eep a nd n a r row g orge wh ich g i ves i t s n ame t o t he s i te ( Ob luang= G rea t Go rge ) . T h is p l ace h as , f o r al o ng t ime , a t t rac ted t he a t ten t ion o ft r ave l le rs , b e ing s i tua ted o n at r ad i t iona lc omme rc ia l r oad b e tween Mae H ongson a nd L i , a nd h as b ecome s ome th ing o f at our is t a t t rac t ion . T he r eg ion i so ne o f d i ssec ted t opog raphy w i th g enera l ly ma rked s l opes . D om ina ted b y t he mass i fs o fD o i P ha D am ( 1200 m ) ,t he a rea i sc ha rac te r ised b y am o rpho logy t y p ica lo fi t sg ran i to g ne iss ic c on tex t : j umb les o fb l ocks o fv a r ious s i zes , mo re o r l e ss a t tached t ot he s ubs t ra tum o r h av ing s l id d owns lope . As ys tem o f f au l ts , p a ra l le l t o t he v a l ley , r esu l ts i na n a l ignmen t o f r ounded h i l ls c u lm ina t ing a t1 00 o r2 00m a bove t he r i ve r . T he g eo log ica l s ubs t ra tum b e longs t o t he e ndogenous s oc le ,t he p r inc ipa lf ac ies o fw h ich a re m igma t i t ic g ne isses o fp recamb r ian a ge . T he v ege ta t ion i sd om ina ted b y a no pen h i gh i nda ing f o res t .

P l a te 1 V i ew o f O b luang s i te o n t he l e f t b ank o f N am M ae C haem . A rchaeo log ica l r emnan ts o ft he o ccupa t ion a re s p read o nt he s l opes o ft he h i l ls t ha tb o rde rt he R iver Mae C haem . On t he l e f t b ank ( P la te 1 )w e h ave e xcava ted t wo a reas c or respond ing t o d i f fe ren tp e r iods ( Meso l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge ) , w h i le o nt he r i gh tb ank , w ef ound t he t r aces o fa p oss ib le N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t . T he P ha Chang Rockshe l ter T he Meso l i th ic s e t t lemen t i ss i tua ted u nde r t he P ha C hang R ockshe l ter w h ich i sf o rmed b y a h uge i n c l ined b l ock o f r ock ( m igma t i t ic g ne iss ) , l a id o n t he s l ope o f t he h i l l o n s ub te r ranean b l ocks , i t s b ase b e ing p a r t ia l ly e xposed . T he s paces o rf au l ts b e tween t he b l ocks f o rm k i nds o f d iac lases i n to wh ich t he r a in wa te rs c an r un f r ee ly , c a r ry ing w i th t hem t he s o i l s ed imen ts wh ich f i na l ly f i la lt he s paces . T he p reh is to r ic s e t t lemen t o ccur red o n o ne o ft hose f i led d i ac lases , a tt he f oo t o ft h e s he l ter . T he a rea p ro tec ted b y t he s he l te r i sa lmos t f l a t w i th , h oweve r , as l igh t s l ope t o t he s ou theas t d ue t o e ros ion . T he a rea n or th o f t he s he l te r i sf o rmed o f aj umb le o f b l ocks o n as t rong ly a scend ing s l ope , w h i le t he e as te rn a nd s ou thern a reas a r e s l op ing a nd a re c ove red w i th s ca t te red b l ocks o fr o ck . P a int ings T he wa l l o fP ha C hang r o ckshe l te r ( Pha C hang means E l ephan t S he l te r ) c on ta ins t wo s e r ies o f p a in t ings . O n ly t he mo re r ecen to ne w as r ecogn isab le : t he p a in t ings i nw h i te p i gmen t r e p resen t s evera l f i gura t ive mo t i fs i n c lud ing e l ephan ts , u n iden t i f ied a n ima ls a nd h uman s hapes . T hey o ve r lap m o re a nc ien t p a in t ings i nr ed p i gmen t , t he mo t i fs o fw h ich a re e rased a nd a re n o l o nge r r e cogn isab le T he p r inc ipa l g roup o fw h i te p a in t ings c ove rs a n a r ea o f1 . 8 mi nh e igh t a nd 0 .6 m

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S ou theas tA s ian A rchaeo logy 1 986

i nw id th . O r ig ina l ly , t he p a in ted a rea w as l a rge r , b u tt he wa l l h as b een e x fo l ia ted b y r unn ing w a te r a nd p a r to ft he p a in ted s u r face h as c o l lapsed .

P l a te 2 P ha C hang r ockshe l te r b e fo re e xcava t ion . F r om t he t op t ot he b o t tom a re r ep resen ted : a n e l ephan t o f h uge p ropo r t ions c ompa red t ot he o t he rs , o f wh ich o n ly t he h i ndqua r te rs a re p reserved a nd , j u s t b e low t he l e gs , s ome p oss ib ly h uman s hapes a nd t r iang les w h ich may r ep resen t a r rows . B e low t hese , ag roup o f s eve ra l q uad rupeds a nd ap oss ib le t r ee , t hen a h uman s hape , a nd f i na l ly , ag roup o ft h ree q uad rupeds a mong wh ich a re p robab ly t wo e l ephan ts , a nd a ga in a h uman s hape moun ted o n ap oss ib le q uad ruped . T he re a re a l so af ew i s o la ted p a in t ings , p ar t icu la r ly ag roup w i th o ne h uman s hape b es ide aq uad ruped ( e lephan t? ) a nd a n i s o la ted r o se l ike mo t i f . l ti sd i f f icu l t t oa ss ign a ny d a te t ot hose p a in t ings w h ich a re g ene ra l ly t hough t t o b e r e la t ive ly r e cen t , a nd maybe n o t p r eh is to r ic . O n t he o ther h and , t he r ed p a in t ings , u n for tuna te ly h a rd ly v i s ib le , c ou ld b e c on tempo ra ry w i th t he p reh is to r ic o ccupa t ion o ft he s he l te r . We a c tua l ly f ound i nt h e u nd is tu rbed a rchaeo log ica l l a ye rs s evera l f r agmen ts o f h aema t i te w h ich h ad o bv ious ly b een u sed . E xcava t ion T he a rea o ft he a rchaeo log ica l d epos i t p reserved u nde rt he s he l te r i sn o t v e ry l a rge ( abou t 5 0 m2)a nd h as b een m uch d amaged b y e ros ion , t e rm i te h o les , a nd s eve ra l e p isodes o f r e cen t h uman i n terven t ion . T he o ccupa t ion o ccu r red o n t op o fs ed imen ts t r apped i n af au l t ( d iac lase ) f o rmed b y t he wa l l o ft he s he l te r a nd t he b ed rock . T h is c on f igura t ion a lows t he w a te r t o r un f r ee ly t h rough t he f au l t , c r ea t ing a s i nkho le , aw e l l k nown f ea ture i n l i mes tone a reas . T he s i nkho le h as d rawn d own m os to ft he s ed imen to ft he s u r face a nd p a r to ft he o ccupa t iona l l e ve ls a sw e l la s mode rn d epos i ts . T wo s ound ings w e re c onduc ted i nt he p rese rved a rea , o f wh ich o n ly o ne y i e lded u nd is turbed a r chaeo log ica l l a ye rs . T he f i r s ts ound ing ( 3 x4 m )was mo re o r l e ss p e rpend icu la rt ot he w a l lo f t h e s he l ter a nd i n c luded t h e s i nkho le a rea . T he s ur face was s l op ing s l igh t ly f r om n o r th t os ou th ( 0 .4 m ) a nd w as q u i te e roded . l ti sc l ea rt ha t much o ft he u ppe r l a ye rs o ft he s e t t lemen t h as d i sappea red , d rawn i nt h es i nkho le . O ur e s t ima ted d ep th f o rt he l o s td epos i t i sa bou t 1m . T he e xcava t ion p rog ram w as , f i r s t t o e xpose t he u nd is turbed a rchaeo log ica l l e ve ls , t hen t o c l ean a nd c u tt h rough t he s ed imen to ft he s i nk h o le t or e vea l i t sf o rma t ion a nd a c t iv i ty ;f i na l ly , t o d i g at es t p i t b e tween t h e b ack o f t he t r ench a nd t he wa l l o f t he s he l te r , t o u nde rs tand t he r e la t ion b e tween t he d i s tu rbed a nd u nd is turbed a reas .

3 9

r . I . r ö S P t , S h o n c h i l a , 5 I • ü n o t S

M . S an ton i , J . -P . P au t reau & S .P r i shanch i t E xcava t ions a tO b luang , T ha i land

F igure 2 Wh i te p a in t ings o n t he wa l l o f P ha C hang r ockshe l ter .

4 0

S ou theas tA s ian A r chaeo logy 1 986

P l a te 3 S ou theas t s ec t ion o f t he s ound ing I n P ha C hang r ockshe l te r .

T he u nd is turbed d epos i ts ( abou t 1m i nt h ickness ) c ou ld b e d i v ided i n to f i ve l a ye rs , a nd t h ree o ccupa t iona l f l oo rs c ou ld b e r ecogn ised ( s ee P la te 3 ) . T he f i r s t o ccupa t iona l f l oo r i n c luded a sma l l c l us ter o fs t ones i nt h e w es te rn p a r t , a nd a c l us te r o f b ones i nt he n o r the rn p a r t o ft he s ound ing . T h is l e ve l i ss eem ing ly c ha rac te r ised b yt he p resence o ff r agmen ts o fh aema t i te . T he s econd o ccupa t iona lf l oo rw as ma rked b ys eve ra l sma l l b l ocks o ff e ldspa th l a id h o r izon ta l ly o n t h e f l oor a nd v i s ib le i nt he s ec t ion . T he l a ye rs eems t ob e c ha rac te r ised b y t he p resence o f many sma l l f l akes o fr ock c r ys ta l . l ti so ve r lapp ing t he t h i rd o ccupa t iona l f l oo r , w h ich i n c ludes , a ga ins t t he n or the rn s ec t ion o ft he s ound ing , ar ema rkab le f ea ture made o f sma l l b l ocks o f f e ldspa th p i led u p a nd l a id i nh a l f ac i rc le ( t he o the r h a l f o ft he c i rc le , i fa ny , b e ing u nde rt he s ec t ion ) . T h is i st he o n ly ' s t ruc tu re 'f ound i nt he l a ye rs . I nt he s ou the rn h a l fo ft he s ound ing was as ma l l r ounded b l ock o fs t one a round wh ich w ere many b ones a nd f l akes l y ing o n t he f l oo r . Among t he b ones c ou ld b e r ecogn ised a v e r teb ra , s eve ra l l a rge f r agmen ts o f r i bs , a nd t he s capu la o f a sma l l a n ima l . T h is i se xcep t iona l , b ecause mos t o ft he b ones f ound i nt he u ppe r l a ye rs w ere e x t reme ly f r agmen ta ry . T he f l ake a ssemb lage i n c ludes r ed a nd y e l low c he r t ( j aspe r a nd c ha lcedony ) a sw e l l a s r o ck c r ys ta l , a nd s ome f r agmen ts o fh aema t i te . T he l a ye rs b e low t h is f l oo r a re p oo re r , w i th t he a ppea rance o ft he b l ocks f o rm ing t he s ubs t ra tum . T he b asa l l a ye r ( P la te 4 ) i sc omposed o f n a tura l s ed imen t mo re o r l e ss c omp ressed b e tween t he b l ocks o f s t one o ft he s ubs t ra tum a nd c on ta in ing af ew f l akes a nd f r agmen ts o fb ones . T he e xcava t ion o ft he s i nkho le p e rm i t ted e xposu re o f i t s s t ruc ture , s ome u nde rs tand ing o f i t s f o rma t ion a sw e l l a s r e cove ry o f al a rge q uan t i ty o f ma te r ia l t ha t i tm igh t b e p oss ib le t or e la te t o t he ma ter ia l f r om t he u nd is turbed a nd f r om t he s l op ing l a ye rs . T he s upe r f ic ia l a shy l a ye r c on ta ined mode rn o b jec ts ( c h ina wa re , p i eces o f i r on , e t c . ) a nd many r ecen t a n ima l b ones i n c lud ing p o rcup ine a nd m onkey . T he m a te r ia l t r anspo r ted d own b y t he w a te r i sm ixed a nd b e longs t o t he v a r ious p hases o f o ccupa t ion o ft he s he l te r . T hus , t he re w e re f ound a l a rge q uan t i ty o fl i t h ic i mp lemen ts f r om t he M eso l i th ic ( Hoab inh ian ) l e ve ls a nd many b one f r agmen ts , p robab ly o ft he s ame d a te . Af ew f r agmen ts o f p o l ished o b jec ts a nd s ome c o rd -ma rked w a re t end t o p rove t he e x is tence o f a s ma l lN eo l i th ic o ccupa t ion , p robab ly q u i te s ho r t ( o r maybe as imp le b u r ia l? ) o fw h ich n ot r ace h as b een p reserved i nt he u nd is turbed l a ye rs . S ome c ow r ies , f r agmen ts o f S ukho ta i w a re a nd c e ladon may c ome f r om a n h i s to r ic p e r iod g rave ( 16 th o r 1 7 th c en tury A .D . ) d ug u nder t he s he l te r a nd l o o ted i nt he p as t . T he s ke le ton o f ay oung man , f ound d own i nt he s i nkho le , i s p e rhaps r e la ted t ot he g rave . F i na l ly , a s n o ted b e fo re , s ome mode rn r ema ins , mos t ly i nt he a shy p i ts , s how t ha tt he s i nkho le h as c on t inued t ob e a c t ive a nd t ha tt he h o le i t se l f h as b een u sed a s ar e fuse a rea .

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M . S an ton i ,J .P . P au t r eau & S .P r i shanch i t E xcava t ions a tO b luang , T ha i land

P l a te 4 S ubs t ra tum o f b l ocks I n t he s ound ing I n P ha C hang r ockshe l te r . Ma ter ia l On t he w ho le , t he ma ter ia l r ecove red f r om t he u nd is tu rbed l a ye rs , f r om t he t es t a rea , a nd f r om t he d i s turbed a reas ( s inkho le i n c luded ) i sq u i te h omogenous b u t f o rt he mode rn i n t rus ions . l t c ons is ts mos t ly o f b ones , b roken a nd c ove red w i th c onc re t ions . T he l o ng b ones h ave b een a ppa ren t ly s ys tema t ica l ly c rushed i nt he c ook ing a nd e a t ing p rocess . S ome o f t h e b ones a re b urn t a nd b roken p i eces f r om s ha f ts o f l o ng b ones d om ina te t he a ssemb lage . S ome s ho r t b ones s uch a s a n a s t raga lus w ere a l so f ound . T he c oa t ing o f c onc re t ion r e nders t he i d en t i f ica t ion d i f f icu l t , b u t we c ou ld i ns ome c ases r ecogn ise a sma l l b ov id , d ee r , p o rcup ine , t u r t le a nd f i sh . Mo re p rec ise i d en t i f ica t ions w i l l h ope fu l ly b e p oss ib le a f ter t he b ones h ave b een c l eaned . l tmay a l so b e p oss ib le t os ee w he the rs ome o ft he b ones h ave b een c u to rb ea ro the r s i gns o f b u tcher ing . We m us t n o te t he p resence o f d ee r a n t ler p i eces ,wh ich may h ave b een u sed d u r ing t he f l ak ing o ft he s t one t oo ls . Al a rge n umbe r o fs na i l s he l ls w e re a l so f ound , s ome o ft hem i ng ood c ond i t ion , o t he rs a lmos t d i s in teg ra ted o rb roken i n to sma l l p i eces . Whe the rt hey a re i n t rus ive o rn o t i sd i f f icu l tt ot e l l . T he s t one i mp lemen ts f o rm t he o the r ma jo r p a r t o ft he r ecove red ma te r ia l i n c lud ing c omp le te p ebb les , b roken p ebb les , p ebb le t oo ls , c o re a nd f l ake t oo ls , a nd w as te f l akes . A l l t he r aw ma ter ia l h ad b een b rough t t o t he s he l te r a nd i se xogenous , b u t t he f l ak ing was c a r r ied o u t u nde rt he s he l te r . R ema rkab le i st he p resence o ft he r o ck c r ys ta l a nd , t o al e sser e x ten t , o ft he h aema t i te o fw h ich s ome p i eces w e re f o und i nt he u nd is turbed l a ye rs a sw e l l a s i nt h es i nkho le . We n o te p a r t icu la r ly at h in s t ick o fh aema t i te , c a rved a nd p a r t ly p o l ished b yw ea r . We mus t i n s is t o n t he f ac t t ha t n o p o l ished t oo ls a nd n o p o t tery h ave b een f o und i n t he u nd is turbed l a yers . A lso n o c ha rcoa l was r ecove red f r om t hese l a ye rs , a nd n o s eeds we re f ound , i ns p i te o fv e ry c a re fu l a nd s ys tema t ic d ry a nd w e ts i ev ing . A n e xhaus t ive t echno log ica l s t udy o ft he l i t h ic ma te r ia l i si np rocess , a nd w e s ha l l n ow p resen t o n ly a r ough c l ass i f ica t ion o ft he s t one i mp lemen ts . S ince a lt he m a te r ia l c ou ld n o t b e e xam ined a nd c oun ted d ur ing t he f i e ld s eason , n o p e rcen tages w i l l b e g i ven f o rt oo l t y pes . L i th ic r aw ma ter ia l A s s a id b e fo re , w i th af ew e xcep t ions , t he r aw m a te r ia l i sc omposed o fp ebb les c o l lec ted i nt he r i ve r( Nam Mae C haem ) , af ew h und red me te rs d own f r om t he s he l te r . S amp l ing f o rp e t rog raph ic d e te rm ina t ion w as d one w i th t he h e lp o f M ichae l C ampy o n t wo h und red p ebb les c o l lec ted a t

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t h ee nd o f ab each l o ca ted o n asma l lu ps t ream i s land , a nd t h is h as a lowed u st oe s tab l ish al i s t o ft h e r aw ma te r ia ls a va i lab le t op r eh is to r ic m en . T he ma te r ia ls a re mos t ly q ua r tz i te ( 68 % ) g enera l ly o fl i gh t c o lo r . T he re i sa l so among t he sma l l a nd m idd le s i ze p ebb les ac er ta in q uan t i ty o fm igma t i tes , b lack q ua r tzy s ch is t a nd q ua r tz ( f rom v e ins ) , a nd af ew g ran i tes , b l ack r ocks , a nd g reen r o cks . T he d i s t r ibu t ion a cco rd ing t o r ock t ype o f t he a r te fac ts a nd o f t he p ebb les b rough t b y t he p r eh is to r ic men i nt he i mmed ia te e nv i ronmen t o ft he s he l ter c o r responds r o ugh ly t ot he s amp le o fm a te r ia ls f o und o nt he b anks o ft he N am Mae C haem .The o n ly e ssen t ia ld i f fe rence i st ha tf l i n t w as n o tf ound n ea rt he r i ve rb u t was u sed i nt he s he l te r mos t ly t o make sma l lt oo ls ,w i th a' s ho r t b l ade f l ak ing ' t e chn ique ( l ong b l ade f l ak ing i su nknown h e re ) . T he m icasch is ts , e x t reme ly r a re o nt h e b anks o ft he r i ve r ,c ons t i tu te 5% o ft he r aw ma te r ia l u sed o rc o l lec ted . T he a ve rage s i ze o ft he t oo ls i sl e ss t han t he s i ze o ft he p ebb les f r om t he b ank , a nd i ts eems t h a tt he c ho ice d epended a s m uch o n t he s i ze a s o n t he ma te r ia l . T he re i sn o e v idence t ha t a s pec ia l ly a dap ted r ock w as s ough t f o r mak ing a c er ta in t ype o ft oo l . I nt he c ase o f t he l i gh t c o lo red q ua r tz i tes , t he mos t a bundan t r aw ma te r ia l , n ea r ly a l o ft he q u i te n ume rous sma l l s i ze p ebb les a va i lab le s eem t o h ave b een u sed , wh i le o n ly o ne t h i rd o f t he m idd le s i ze p ebb les ( wh ich were a l so n ume rous ) a nd o ft he l a rge p ebb les h ave b een c o l lec ted b yt he i n hab i tan ts o f t h e s he l te r . T he s ame p henomenon a f fec ts , w i th a f ew s l igh t d i f fe rences , t he b lack q ua r tzy s ch is ts a nd t h e m igma t i tes . F o rt he l a t te r , a nd f o rt he q ua r tz ,w ef i nd t ha tt he r a te o ft oo ls a nd o f s ma l l p ebb les u sed a nd c hosen , i sh i ghe rt han t he i ro ccu r rence o nt he b anks o ft he r i ve r . T h is f a c tt ends t oi n d ica te e i the rp re fe ren t ia lc o l lec t ing w i th c l ea r ing o ft he r i ve rb anks , o rf l ak ing f r om t h e l a rges t e l emen ts .T he t wo e xp lana t ions a re c ompa t ib le . We m us t n o te , t o e nd t h is p a r t , t he n ea r ly s ys tema t ic c ho ice o ft he l i gh t c o lo red q ua r tz i tes t o m ake t he c hoppe rs , a nd t he r a the r s i gn i f ican t q uan t i ty o f l i gh t g rey o r p i nk ish f l i n t , w h ich i n m ak ing u p 8% o f t he ma ter ia l f r om t he s he l te r , e n ters i nt he manu fac ture o f as i gn i f ican t p e rcen tage o ft he l i t h ic i n dus t ry t he r aw p ebb les n o t b e ing c oun ted . -

A l l p hases o f f l ak ing a re a bundan t ly r ep resen ted u nder t he s he l ter , f r om f i rs t f l akes t o r e sha rpen ing f l akes . L a rge f l akes a nd s ho r t l am ina rf l akes a re s i gn i f ican t ly mo re n ume rous t han l ame l la rf l akes o rt r ue b l ades o r b l ade le ts , w h ich , t hough v e ry r a re , a re p resen t i nt he d epos i t . T he n uc le i a re o bv ious ly e xcep t iona l . Many f r agmen ts o ff l akes a nd p ebb les a re a l so p resen t , a s w e l l a s c omp le te u n f laked p ebb les . T he s i ze o ft hese i sv a r iab le . T he sma l l a nd m idd le s i ze p ebb les ( 4t o 1 4 cm ) a re t h e mos tf r equen t . T he v ery sma l l p ebb les a nd t he v ery l a rge s t ones f r om t he r i ve ra re e xcep t iona lo nt he s i te . T oo ls M os t o ft he t oo ls a re c o re t oo ls , w i th u n i fac ia l f l ak ing t ha t s e ldom c ove rs t he who le f ace o ft he p ebb le , t hus l e av ing ac en t ra lc or t ica l a rea o fv a r iab le s i ze . B i fac ia l r e touch i ss e ldom u sed , a nd t h en mos t ly o n a xes . 1A xe /adzes T hese i n s t rumen ts , p robab ly m u l t i func t iona l , a re a lways u n i fac ia la nd c an b e r o ugh ly d i v ided i n to t wo t ypes . T ype 1( F igu re 3 : 1-5 ) ,w i th ac u rv i l inea rc u t t ing e dge , p resen ts a s i lhoue t te s im i la rt o t h ose o fc er ta in b i fac ia lt o o ls o ft he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i nE u rope ,w h i le t ype 2t oo ls ( F igure 3 :6 8 )h ave a r ec t i l inea rc u t t ing e dge w h ich r em inds u s o ft he s hape o fN eo l i th ic a xes . T here a re , o f c ou rse , s ome i n termed ia te m o rpho log ies , a nd a l so s ome u n f in ished t oo ls , a l o fw h ich make a ny c l ass i f ica t ion d i f f icu l t . T hese o b jec ts u sua l ly h ave ac u t t ing e dge a nd ma rg ins w h ich s eem ing ly h ave b een u sed . T he b roken p i eces may b e m is taken f o rc er ta in t h ick s c rape rs . O nt he s i te o f Ob luang l a nce -shaped , o va l -shaped , o rd i sco id morpho log ies ( s uma t ra l i th t ype ) a r e m o re n umerous t han t h e r ea l a xe l ike o r t r anche t l ike t ypes . N o t r ue ' s ho r t a xe ' h as b een f o und , t hough t he s ho r tes t among t he t y pe 2 i n s t rumen ts a re c l ose t ot h is t ype . 2S c rape rs .c u t te rs ,o rc l eave rs ( F igu re 4 : 1t o9 ) T hese c ons t i tu te t he l a rges t a r t i fac t g roup i nt he w ho le d epos i t . T hey c an b e d i v ided i n to s i de s c rape rs a nd e nd -sc rape rs . T he f i r s t c a tego ry i n c ludes d i f feren t i n s trumen ts , f r om t he t h ick s c raper ( evo lved c hoppe r , F i gure 4 : 3 ) t o s ome p i eces w i th a s i lhoue t te c l ose t o t ha t o ft he ' Qu ina t ype ' o ft he E uropean M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . S ome d oub le i n s t rumen ts w i th t wo f unc t iona l

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AR

5 cm

F i gu re 3 A xe /adzes f r om P ha C hang r ockshe l te r . e dges a re mo rpho log ica l ly c l ose t ot he a xe t ype . T he ma rg ins o ft he l a t ter s eem t o h ave h ad a s im i la rf unc t ion . T he s ca rs a re t hose o fc u t te rs o rc l eave rs a s m uch a so ft r ue s c rape rs , t ow h ich t hey a re t ypo log ica l ly v e ry c l ose . T he c u t t ing e dges a re mos t ly s l igh t ly b owed . A lso f o und w e re d i sco ida l s c rape rs , a nd s c rape rs w i th p o in ts ( F igu re 4 :6 ) . T he s econd c a tego ry ( end s c rape rs ) i n c ludes t h ick c hopper l ike i n s t rumen ts ( F igure 4 : 1 ,2 ) , d oub le e nd -sc rape rs o n l o ng p ebb les ( F igure 4 : 4 ) , a nd s ome sma l l i n s t rumen ts w i th a r ounded f r on t , o n f l a t p ebb les ( F igu re 4 :7 ) . A lso f ound a re s i de -and -end s c rape rs ( F igu re 4 :5 ) . T he ' mu l t ip le s c rape rs ' ( F igu re 4 :8 -9 ) o n sma l l , v e ry f l a t p ebb les ( w i th t o ta l ly f l aked ma rg ins ) o r o n f l akes , f o rm a q u i te o r ig ina l g roup a nd c ou ld c ons t i tu te at h i rd c a tegory . S ome l a rge rt oo ls ,

S ou theas tA s ian A r chaeo logy 1 986

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F i gu re 4 V a r ious s tone t oo ls f r om P ha C hang r ockshe l te r . w i th f l akes r emoved o n ly f r om t he ma rg in ( s im i la r t ot hose o n t he mu l t ip le s c rape rs ) may b e a dded t ot h is g roup . 3A ssemb lage o fg r inde r /c rushe rs . h amme rs a nd p o l ishe rs ( F igu re 4 :1 ) T hese t oo ls w h ich a re u sua l ly a bundan t o n r ecen t p reh is to r ic s i tes h ere o ccur i nv ery sma l l n umbe rs . T he i r c ha rac te r is t ics a re a f ew t r aces o fp e rcuss ion a nd s ome t imes w ea r p o l ish o n m idd le -s ize p ebb les .

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4 P e r fo ra ted t oo ls ( F igu re 4 : 10 ) O n ly t h ree p i eces w e re f ound : ap e r fo ra ted p ebb le ,f r agmen ts o f af l a tr i ng , a nd h a l f o f af l a to va l p ebb le w i th t wo o ppos ing p i ts ; p e rhaps a n u n f in ished p er fora t ion . 5B roken t oo ls a nd p ebb les Al a rge n umbe ro fb roken f l aked p ebb les w e re f ound . T hey d o n o t f o rm as epa ra te g r oup , b u t t he i r i d en t i f ica t ion i ss ome t imes d i f f icu l t . Whe the rt hey a re p a r ts o fb roken t oo ls o rt he r e su l t o f a cc iden ts d ur ing t he f l ak ing p rocess i sd i f f icu l t t o d e te rm ine . S ome o ft hese u n f in ished t oo ls h ave o bv ious ly b een u sed a st hey w e re , a nd b roken t oo ls may a l so h ave b een r e -used . 6F l ake t oo ls T hese a re p ropo r t iona l ly l e ss n ume rous t han c o re t oo ls , a re m os t ly r e touched f l akes , w i th f l i n t o r c her t p redom ina t ing . S ide s cape rs a nd e nd s c rape rs w e re f o und , a s w e l l a s af ew p o in ts , n o tched p i eces a nd d en t icu la tes . O n t he w ho le , t he l i t h ic ma te r ia l s eems h omogenous e nough . N o r ea l t echno log ica l a nd mo rpho log ica l e vo lu t ion o ft he t oo ls c an b e t r aced t h rough t he e xam ina t ion o ft he ma te r ia l f r om t he u nd is turbed l a ye rs , w h ich a l so d oes n o t d i f fe rf r om t he m o re a bundan t ma ter ia l r e covered f r om t he s i nkho le a nd t he t e s t p i t . T he o ccupa t ion , n o t v ery l a rge , may h ave b een q u i te l o ng , b u t r ep resen ts o n ly o ne c u l tura l p e r iod . L i t t le c an b e s a id a bou t t he t ype o f t he o ccupa t ion , s i nce n o r ea l h ab i ta t ion s t ruc tu re h as b een f ound . N ever the less i ti s at r ue s e t t lemen t , p e rhaps s easona l , b u t n o tt empo ra ry . T he ' Bronze A ge ' b ur ia l ( P la te 5 ) D ur ing t he 1 984 s urvey , t he a t ten t ion o f t he a rchaeo log is ts w as f i r s t d rawn t o ar e la t ive ly e x tens ive ( c .500 s q .m . ) a nd a lmos t l e ve l a rea b e tween t wo z ones o f b l ocks , whe re a l a rge n umbe r o f s herds w e re v i s ib le o n t he s ur face a l ong w i th s eve ra l c omp le te a nd f r agmen ted p o l ished s t one t oo ls a nd many f l akes . I n1 985 , a tt he f oo t o fo ne o ft he b l ocks , w e n o ted a p a r t icu la r ly d ense c oncen t ra t ion o f s he rds . As l igh t s c rap ing s howed t ha t many o ft h e s herds w e re i ns i tu a nd b e longed t o t he s ame v esse l . T h is s t rong ly s ugges ted t he p resence a tt h is s po t o f ab ur ia l o r o f u nd is turbed o ccupa t iona l ma te r ia l . B rush ing t he s ur face i mmed ia te ly r e vea led b ronze a nd s he l l b race le ts . A sw o rk c on t inued w ew e re a b le t ou ncove rt ot h ew es t o f t he b l ock a b u r ia l c on ta in ing o ne h uman s ke le ton i n av e ry p oo r s t a te o fp rese rva t ion i n te r red w i th b race le ts , an eck lace , a nd many p o ts a ti t sf ee t . T he o va l g rave p i t , o r ien ted e as t -wes t , measu red a bou t 2m l o ng a nd 7 0 -80 cm w ide . I t s max imum p rese rved d ep th w as 4 0 c m . T he e dges o ft he p i t , v i s ib le e nough t owa rd t h e f e e t a nd o nt he s i des , w e re n o t p ar t icu la r ly c l ea r i nt he a rea o ft he h ead w he re t he b o t tom o ft h e p i t was a lmos to nt he s ur face a s ar e su l t o fe ros ion o n t he s l ope . T he g rave p i t h ad b een p ene t ra ted b y r oo ts , g row ing a l ong t he l o ng b ones , d es t roy ing t hem i n many i n s tances . O ne r oo t i np a r t icu la r g rew t h rough t he b race le ts o ft he l e f t a rm . T he b ones w ere f ound t o b e i nv ery p oor c ond i t ion . T he s ku l l , t he b ones o f t he c hes t , t he p e lv is , a nd t he l owe r p a r t o ft he l e gs b e low t he k nee h ad c omp le te ly d i s in tegra ted a nd w ere v i s ib le o n ly a s wh i t ish p owder m ixed w i th t he s ed imen t . T he t ee th r ema ined , h owever , a nd f o rmed asma l l p i le , a tt he s ur face , w he re t he h ead h ad b een . O ft he l o ng b ones , o n ly t h e s ha f ts o ft he h ume rus , r ad ius , u l na , a nd f emu r w e re p rese rved . Two u n iden t i f iab le p ha langes o f t he l e f t h and w ere a l so f ound . T h is b one d es t ruc t ion c an b e a t t r ibu ted t o t he a c t ion o f t he v ege ta t ion a nd t o wa ter p e rco la t ion . T he re s eems n o t t o h ave b een a ny h uman d i s tu rbance e xcep t , p e rhaps , i nt he a rea o f t he f ee t . T he i n d iv idua l h ad b een i n te r red i n u nd is turbed s ed imen t a nd t he p i t r e f i l led i mmed ia te ly . T he b ody l a y o n i t s b ack , i t s h ands i na na tom ica l p os i t ion ( a rms a l ong t he b ody ,pa lms f ac ing f r on t ) . As t udy o ft he t ee th b y S ayan P r ishanch i t s howed t ha tt he i n d iv idua lw as ay oung a du l t ( San ton i e ta l1 985 : A ppend ix 1 ) . T he b ody , w hen i n te r red , h ad ac o l la ro f sma l l d i sco ida l -shaped s he l l b eads a round i t sn eck o f w h ich 6 2 w ere r ecove red a ccompan ied b y as i ng le c y l ind r ica l b ead o f c a rne l ian . T he t wo f o rea rms w e re e nc i rc led b yb race le ts o fb ronze a nd s he l l . T he b r onze b race le ts a re o ft w ot ypes : t h in , n a r row o nes w i th o va l to rec tangu la r s ec t ions a nd t h icke r , w ide o nes w i th v ery e l onga ted r e c tangu la rs ec t ions .

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P l a te 5 T he B ronze A ge b ur ia l a t Ob luang .

P la te 6 D e ta i l o f B ronze A ge b ur ia l ; l e f t a rm w i th b ronze a nd s he l l b race le ts p ene tra ted b y at r ee r oo t .

4 7

M . S an ton i , J .P . P au t reau & S .P r i shanch i t E xcava t ions a tO b luang , T ha i land

P l a te 7 S he l l b race le t , b roken a nd m ended , f r om t he r i gh t a rm o f t he B ronze A ge b u r ia l a t P ha C hang . T he s he l lb race le ts a re o f ma r ine c onch . T he l e f t a rm ( P la te 6 )h ad n i ne b race le ts o fb ronze ( t wo n a r row a nd s even w ide ) a nd o ne o f s he l l , i n tac t e xcep t t ha t t he o u ts ide s ur face s hows t he b eg inn ings o ft wo h o les t ha t may c o r respond t oa n i n c rus ta t ion . T he r i gh ta rm h ad f i ve b r ace le ts o fb ronze ( f ou r n a r row a nd o ne w ide ) a nd o ne o fs he l l . T he l a t te rh ad b een b roken b e fo re b ur ia l i n to t h ree p i eces a nd t hen mended . E ach s egmen t h as ah o le f o r r epa i r ing t h e b race le td r i l led a t e ach e nd ( P la te 7 ) . A bove t he p ub ic r eg ion we re f ound , o n t he i r s i des , t wo b roken c i rc le ts o f s l igh t ly t w is ted o r c omp ressed b ronze ( P la te 8 ) . B ecause a l t he b reaks c o inc ide , t hese a re c l ea r ly c i rc le ts t ha t w e re b roken a nd n o ts imp ly f o lded b ands o fm e ta l . l ti so n ly d i f icu l tt os ay w he the rt hese o b jec ts h ad b een i n ten t iona l ly b roken ( ' k i l led ' ) , a nd o f fered t o t he d ead , o r r i ngs o r b race le ts 'a cc iden ta l ly b roken a nd r eu t i l ized t oc l asp ap i ece o ff ab r ic o r 'l e a the rt ha tw as p a r t o f t he c l o th ing , o ro fa n a do rnmen t . A na lys is o ft he b ronze b y J .R . B ou rh is ( Tab le 1 )s hows s ome s ma l l d ife rences i nc ompos i t ion among t he o b jec ts . C i rc le t 1( w ide , t h in , a nd f l a t ) h as ar a the rl ow t i nc on ten t i nc ompa r ison w i th c i rc le t 2( med ium w id th , b u tt h ick a nd h eavy ) . T he b race le ts ,w he the rn a r row o rw ide , a r ea loyed w i th b e tween 1 0 a nd 1 2 p e rcen t t i n , w h i le t he c as t ing r e s idue a ppea rs t o b e f r om a h i gh t in b ronze s uch a s t hose f ound a t B an D on T a P he t , a nd B an C h iang ( Ra jp i tak 1 983 ) . T h is c ompos i t ion f o rt he b ronzes c o r responds w e l l t ot ha t f r om o the r b ronzes k nown f r om T ha i land f o rt he p reh is to r ic p e r iods . G rave f u rn ish ings , e xcep tf o rt he t wo b ronze c i rc le ts , w e re e xc lus ive ly p o t tery ( F igu re 5 ) . T he p o t tery v esse ls w e re a l c oncen t ra ted n ea r t he f ee t a nd t he l ower p ar t o ft he l e gs b e low t he k nees . A par t f r om t he p edes ta l v esse l d i scove red d ur ing t he s urvey t ha t s eemed t ob e i ns i tu , t he r ema inde ro ft he p o t te ry w as b roken u p a nd t he s herds m ixed . A s n o ted a bove , t h es u r face o f t he g rave h ad b een s eve re ly e roded a nd many s he rds w e re f ound s t rewn a l a r ound , i n p a r t icu la r l a rge f r agmen ts o ft he p edes ta l b ow l c o l lec ted i n1 984 . l ti sp oss ib le t ha t t h is p a r t o f t he g rave h ad b een d amaged b y t he u p roo t ing o f as t ump w hen t he f o res tw as b e ing e xp lo i ted f o rt i mbe rs ome t h i r ty y ea rs a go . l ti sa l so p oss ib le t ha tt h e o b jec ts h ad b een i n ten t iona l ly b r oken a nd d i s t r ibu ted a round t he f ee t o ft he d ead . C a re fu l e xcava t ion p e rm i t ted u st o d i sce rn as l igh t s l ope i nt he c e ram ic d epos i ts , a nd c oncen t ra t ions o fs he rds , v esse l b yv esse l . U pt o5 0% o ft he s he rds f r om t he s ame v esse l c ome f r om t he s ame a rea . We t h ink t ha t o r ig ina l ly t he re w e re a t l e as t f our teen v esse ls i n c lud ing s even p edes ta l , c ha l ice -shaped b ow ls , a nd s even r ound b o t tomed v esse ls , s ome c a r ina ted , o f ten w i th q u i te h i gh n ecks .

4 8

S ou theas tA s ian A rchaeo logy 1 986

w P l a te 8 B roken a nd c omp ressed b ronze c i rc le ts f r om t he B ronze A ge b u r ia l a t P ha C hang . T he t y pe o f d eco ra t ion i sr a ther s imp le b e ing mos t ly h a tched , o b l ique ly i n c ised l i nes . C o rd i mp ress ions s ome t imes a re a ppa ren t b enea th t he i n c is ions . T h is t ype o fd eco ra t ion i sg enera l ly f o und o n t he b ody o ft he v esse l . O the r r mo t i fs , a lways a ssoc ia ted w i th t h is h a tched d eco ra t ion , i n c lude b ands o fp a ra l le l l i nes i n c ised u s ing ac omb w i th t wo , t h ree , o rf ou rt ee th ; t hese b ands c an b e h o r izon ta l o rv e r t ica l , s t ra igh to ru ndu la t ing , a nd a re o f ten a r ranged a s c hev rons . T he re i s a l so s ome t imes a n a l te rna t ion o f sma l l v e r t ica l a nd h o r izon ta l mo t i fs made w i th ac omb a nd , i n o ne c ase , ab and o fl a t t ice d eco ra t ion . T hese mo t i fs g ene ra l ly d eco ra te t he s i des o fb ow ls a nd t he n ecks a nd s ome t imes t he s hou lders o fg l obu la r o r c a r ina ted v esse ls . On t he who le , t he w a l ls o ft he p edes ta l v esse ls a re t h icke rt han t hose w i th r o unded b o t toms , a nd t he d ecora t ion o f t he l a t te r i so f ten mo re e l abo ra te . T ab le 1

Ana lys is o f b ronzes f rom Ob luang a nd K hao K ha .

S amp le

C u

S n

1 2

6 7 .55 7 9 .30

7 13

0 .050 0 .002

P b

0 .030 0 .007

0 .010 1 r .

0 .006 0 .200

0 .010 0 .100

3 4 5

6 3 .45 8 0 .80 6 4 .80

10 12 -5

0 .080 0 .025

0 .015 0 .003 0 .001

0 .010 0 .001

0 .080 0 .150 0 .007

0 .040 0 .060 0 .001

0 .001 0 .005

6

7 2 .15

2 6 .65

0 .100

0 .050

0 .001

0 .150

0 .040

0 .015

-

A s

S b

-

P g

N i

B i

F e 0 .001 0 .003

-

0 .002

0 .003 0 .002 0 .010

-

-

Z n -

-

t r . -

-

-

Mn -

-

-

I ns . 2 8 .20 2 0 .70 2 7 .45 1 7 .45 1 8 .30 3 3 .8

T he c oppe r c on ten t was d e te rm ined b y e lec t ro lys is , a nd t i n a nd i mpur i t ies b ys pec trography -

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