Solid Waste Management: Principles and Practice (Environmental Science and Engineering) [2 ed.] 3031504410, 9783031504419

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Environmental Science and Engineering

Ramesha Chandrappa Diganta Bhusan Das

Solid Waste Management Principles and Practice Second Edition

Environmental Science and Engineering Series Editors Ulrich Förstner, Buchholz, Germany Wim H. Rulkens, Department of Environmental Technology, Wageningen, The Netherlands

The ultimate goal of this series is to contribute to the protection of our environment, which calls for both profound research and the ongoing development of solutions and measurements by experts in the field. Accordingly, the series promotes not only a deeper understanding of environmental processes and the evaluation of management strategies, but also design and technology aimed at improving environmental quality. Books focusing on the former are published in the subseries Environmental Science, those focusing on the latter in the subseries Environmental Engineering.

Ramesha Chandrappa · Diganta Bhusan Das

Solid Waste Management Principles and Practice Second Edition

Ramesha Chandrappa Karnataka State Pollution Control Board Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Diganta Bhusan Das Department of Chemical Engineering Loughborough University Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK

ISSN 1863-5520 ISSN 1863-5539 (electronic) Environmental Science and Engineering ISBN 978-3-031-50441-9 ISBN 978-3-031-50442-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6 1st edition: © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012 2nd edition: © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Paper in this product is recyclable.

The authors dedicate the book to their families and colleagues

Preface

Our first edition of the book Solid Waste Management: Principles and Practice published by Springer in 2012 witnessed more than 66,000 downloads across the world making it one of the best books with respect to the subject. However, the readership number was much more considering the book was used as text and reference book across the globe; besides, it was used for preparing competitive examinations. After a decade of publishing the book, as we got exposed to more to ‘state of the art and science of trash management’, we felt a ‘feeling of responsibility’ to document them before it is too late (e.g. topics changes and we get too old and vanish from this earth). Yes—passing on the knowledge and skills to the next generation is what makes humans different from other living organisms. ‘Garbology’, ‘Trashonomics’, ‘Eco-mafia’, and ‘Waste-Mathematics’ are not only evolving, but it is also livelihood for billions across the world. If you wake up in the morning to find out someone has resolved the puzzle of ‘waste generation’, then billions will go jobless and may end up in street demanding government to give them waste. But wait!! That day is far away, and ‘our generation’ may not witness the solution to ‘waste generation’ overnight. We are going to ‘live with trash’, and there are plenty of it to be managed by every one of us as there are little bit of ‘waste managers’ in every one of us. Our previous edition made an attempt to provide a bird’s-eye view of solid waste management. This book attempts to go beyond that, as birds cannot see below earth and what is happening in board room, laboratory, and eco-mafia-syndicate. So, we surfed internet, glided literature, and mined data for couple of years besides visiting some of the best and worst waste management places. By virtue of our official positions, we are able to interact with policymakers, advocates, judges, politicians, NGOs, start-ups, corporate bodies, waste traders, rag pickers, waste generators, reusers, recyclers, waste disposers, academicians, students, and eco-criminals. In this book, we have tried to include the application of artificial intelligence, space science, criminology, forensic-science, advanced recycling, and mathematical modelling to update our patrons.

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This book is neither complete nor comprehensive considering its’ vastness and fastness by which the subject is evolving in laboratories, corporate-board room, startup garages, waste dumps, universities, eco-crime-circles, international organisations, and judiciary system across the world. We have made an attempt to link the reader to key issues/remedies beside history and future of solid waste management so that reader can further dig into documented/undocumented information as many things pertaining to solid waste are ‘best kept secrets’, and there are huge opportunities beneath stinking and smoky scenes. We thank publishers and reviewers beside all those who taught us little bit of everything they knew. Bengaluru, India Loughborough, UK

Ramesha Chandrappa Diganta Bhusan Das

Contents

1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Need for Solid Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Importance of a Sound Solid Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Change in Quantity and Characteristics Over Time . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Waste Management in Pre-industrialization Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Waste Management in Post-industrialization Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 Integrated Solid Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 Waste Prevention and Life Cycle Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8 Producers Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 Solid Waste Mangement and Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9.1 Need for Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9.2 International Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9.3 Regulation in Different Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10 Framework for SWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10.1 Elements of a Waste Management System . . . . . . . . . . 1.10.2 Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.11 Financial Issues in SWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.11.1 Capital Investment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.11.2 Operation and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12 Waste Generation—Rich Versus Poor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13 Psychology and Waste Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 3 5 9 9 12 19 21 22 23 23 25 26 33 34 36 37 40 40 40 40 43

2

Waste Quantities and Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Sources of Solid Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Quantities and Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Physical Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Chemical Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3 Biological Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47 48 51 66 66 69 77 83

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Storage and Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Collection from Low-Rise Detached Houses . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Collection from Medium-Rise Building . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3 Collection from High-Rise Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.4 Collection from Commercial and Industrial Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.5 Vehicles for Collection and transportation . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.6 Pneumatic Refuse Collection System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Transfer and Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Drop-Off Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

89 91 98 114 115 118

Materials Recovery and Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Segregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 Hand Sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2 Screens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.3 Air Classifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.4 Sink-Float Separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.5 Inclined Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.6 Shaking Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.7 Optical Sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.8 Sorting by Differential Melting Temperature . . . . . . . . 4.1.9 Sorting by Selective Dissolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.10 Magnetic Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.11 Eddy Current Separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.12 Electrostatic Separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.13 Shredding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.14 Pulping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.15 Crushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.16 Baling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.17 Ballistic Separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Reuse and Recycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Aerobic and Anaerobic Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Road Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Removal and Recovery Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.4 Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.5 Deactivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.6 Metal Removal and Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.7 Aqueous Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.8 Plastic Granulating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.9 Recycled Polyester Fibre Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.10 Glass Recycling and Reusing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

145 149 151 151 151 153 157 158 159 160 160 160 161 162 163 164 166 166 166 167 168 178 178 178 179 179 179 181 181 181

119 124 129 134 143 143

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4.2.11 Waste to Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 4.2.12 Emerging Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 5

Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Landfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Processes Within a Landfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Controlling Leachate and Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3 Monitoring of Landfills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.4 Closure of Landfills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.5 Operation of Landfills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.6 Use of Old Landfill Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.7 Landfill Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.8 Landfilling Hazardous Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.9 Bioreactor Landfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Co-processing of Solid Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Incineration and Waste to Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Heat Value of Refuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Combustion and Energy Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3 Energy Production from Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.4 Material and Thermal Balances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.5 Waste Heat Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Other Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 Gasification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2 Plasma Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.3 Pyrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

193 195 199 200 214 214 220 220 222 222 222 223 224 228 234 235 235 236 236 237 237 238 239

6

Biomedical Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1 Household Biomedical Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2 Biomedical Waste from Rural Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Nosocomial Infection and Health Burden Due to Biomedical Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Characteristics and Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Storage and Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Treatment and Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.1 Encapsulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.2 Needle Mutilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.3 Sharp Pit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.4 Incineration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.5 Autoclaving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.6 Shredding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.7 Hybrid Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.8 Microwaving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.9 Deep Burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

243 246 250 252 252 253 262 271 279 280 281 281 284 285 286 286 286

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6.5.10 Chemical Disinfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.11 Frictional Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.12 Composting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.13 Burning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.14 Rendering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.15 Above-Ground Burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Radioactive Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 Mercury in Biomedical Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

287 288 289 289 289 290 290 292 293

Hazardous Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Precautions to Be Taken Storage and Transportation of Hazardous Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Characteristics and Quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.1 Household Hazardous Waste and Special Waste . . . . . 7.3.2 Hazardous Waste from Rural and Urban Area . . . . . . . 7.4 Storage of Hazardous Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 Treatment and Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.1 Stabilization and Solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.2 Incineration and Co-incineration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.3 Landfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.4 Precautions and Practices During Incineration and Land Filling Hazardous Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

299 301

8

Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Characteristics and Quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Material Recovery, Treatment, and Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.1 Manual Dismantling and Sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.2 Mechanical Shredding and Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 Metallurgical Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 Recycling of Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6 Recycling of E-Waste Under Uncontrolled Conditions . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

343 345 347 351 354 355 362 363 363 364

9

Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Extractive Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.1 Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.2 Quarrying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.3 Oil and Gas Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Basic Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.1 Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.2 Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.3 Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

369 372 373 375 375 375 376 381 385

7

303 305 319 321 321 327 331 333 336 337 341

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9.2.4 Plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.5 Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.6 Textile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.7 Wood Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.8 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.9 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Conversion and Fabrication Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.1 Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.2 Automotive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.3 Electrical and Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.4 Paper Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.5 Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.6 Soft Goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.7 Food Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.8 Construction and Demolition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 Service Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.1 Entertainment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.2 Hospitality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.3 Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.4 Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5 Commercial Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5.1 Restaurants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5.2 Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5.3 Warehouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6 Source Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7 Zero Waste—Concept and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8 Innovative Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

386 390 390 392 393 394 394 394 399 402 402 403 403 404 407 407 409 410 411 411 411 411 412 412 412 413 413 417

10 Radioactive Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1 Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Classification of Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.1 Mine and Mill Tailings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.2 Waste from Nuclear Power Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.3 Waste from Institutional Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.4 Defence and Weapon Related Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3 Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 Pretreatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.1 Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.2 Decontamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5 Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5.1 Compaction and Supercompaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5.2 Incineration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5.3 Chemical and Thermochemical Decomposition . . . . . 10.5.4 Partitioning and Transmutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

421 422 427 431 432 433 434 434 435 435 436 438 438 438 438 439

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10.5.5 10.5.6 10.5.7

Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Immobilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electrochemical Treatment of Radioactive Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7 Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7.1 Near-Surface Disposal Facilities (NSDF) . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7.2 Stone-Lined Earth Trenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7.3 Reinforced Concrete Trenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7.4 Tile Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7.5 Geological Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.8 Surveillance and Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

439 439

11 Health and Safety Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Required Precautions During Manual Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Required Precautions for Moving Materials Mechanically . . . . . 11.3 Safety During Storage and Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3.1 Stacking Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3.2 Safety During Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4 Safety During Treatment and Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4.1 Safety Issues During Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4.2 Safety Issues in Dumpsite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4.3 Safety Issues in Landfill Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4.4 Safety Issues in Incinerator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5 Work Permit System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.6 Safety Education and Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7 Safety Promotion and Publicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8 Hazards Encountered in Hazardous Waste Handling and Disposal Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.9 Electrical Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.10 Heat Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.11 Cold Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.12 Noise and Vibration Hazard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

453 459 462 464 466 468 472 473 474 476 480 481 485 487

12 Environmental Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1 Impact on Air, Water, and Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2 Impact on Flora and Fauna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3 Greenhouse Gas Generation and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

495 499 511 525 528

443 443 444 445 446 447 447 448 449 450

488 488 489 489 489 490

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13 Issues in Disaster Affected Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1 Tsunami . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2 Earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3 Haphazard Disposal of Hazardous Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4 Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5 Hurricanes, Typhoons, Cyclones, Tornados . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6 War and Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.7 Wildfires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.8 Industrial Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.9 Landslide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.10 Avalanche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.11 Drought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.12 Pandemic/Epidemic Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.13 Hailstorms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.14 Volcanoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.15 Windstorms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.16 Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.16.1 Emergency Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.16.2 Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.16.3 Rebuild . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.16.4 Waste Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.16.5 Waste Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.16.6 Waste Reuse/Recycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.16.7 Waste Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

539 546 548 549 550 553 555 557 559 561 562 562 563 563 563 565 565 568 570 571 573 573 574 575 575

14 Solid Waste and Livelihood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.1 Rag Pickers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2 Scrap Dealers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 Waste Collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4 Sweepers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5 Truck Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.6 Waste Handlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.7 Manual Waste Dis-assemblers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.8 Waste Recyclers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.9 Itinerant Waste Buyers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

583 594 597 598 599 600 600 602 602 603 604

15 Construction and Demolition Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.1 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3 Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.4 Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.5 Specifications for Recovered C&D Debris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

609 612 612 617 622 632 635

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16 Legacy Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1 Bioremediation and Biomining of Old Municipal Dumpsites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1.1 Processing Bioremediation and Biomining Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1.2 Equipments for Processing Legacy Waste . . . . . . . . . . 16.2 Treatment Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3 Use of Screened Fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4 Process Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4.1 Space Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4.2 Leachate Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4.3 Fire Control and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4.4 Use of Recovered Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.5 Biomining Below-Ground Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.6 Clearing Versus Capping of Legacy Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

639

17 Waste Mafia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1 Illegal Trafficking and Unsustainable Waste Management . . . . . 17.1.1 Significance of Organized Environmental Crime . . . . 17.1.2 Market Situation and Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1.3 Non-reliable Data and Greatly Varying Data . . . . . . . . 17.1.4 Lack of Expert Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1.5 Inadequate Resources for Enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1.6 Corporate Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1.7 Insufficient Cross-Border/Inter-department Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1.8 Poor Administrative Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.2 Consequences of Waste Mafia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.2.1 Missing Legal Links and Enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

657 661 663 664 667 669 671 673

18 Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.1 The Regulatory Framework: Key Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.2 Modern Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Management: Concepts and Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.3 Preparation of a Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan . . . . 18.3.1 Policies, Programmes, and Legal Framework . . . . . . . 18.3.2 Assessment of Current Situation and Gap Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.3.3 Stakeholder Consultation for Municipal Solid Waste Management Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.3.4 Preparation of Draft Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.3.5 Schedule for Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

644 646 646 646 648 648 650 650 652 652 652 653 655

682 684 687 690 691 699 701 703 706 715 716 718 720 724

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18.3.6

Stakeholder Consultation for Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.3.7 Approval by Concerned Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4 Role of State and Regional Level Authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.5 Understanding Local Solid Waste Management Needs . . . . . . . . 18.6 Role of Stakeholders in Municipal Solid Waste Management Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.7 Establish Appropriate Institutional Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.8 Ensure Sustainable Financing for Municipal Solid Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.8.1 Basis for Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.9 Public–Private Partnership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.10 Centralized Versus Decentralized Municipal Solid Waste Management Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.11 Role of the Informal Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

724 725 726 727 733 733 735 736 740 742 743 746

19 Siting of Municipal Solid Waste Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.1 Ground and Surface Water Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2 Presence of Threatened and Endangered Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2.1 Pathogens Infection Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2.2 Toxics and Foreign Body Ingestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2.3 Impacts on Invasive and Threatened Species . . . . . . . . 19.2.4 Indirect Impacts of Rubbish Dumps on Wildlife . . . . . 19.3 Land Use Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.4 Water, Sewer, and Electric Utility Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.5 Hauling Distance to the Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.6 Proximity to Waste Generators as Well as Schools, Churches, Hospitals, and Other Public Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.7 Existence of Natural Buffers Between the Public and the Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.8 Present and Future Population Density and the Need to Relocate Residents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.9 Cultural and Historic Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.10 Transportation and Traffic Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.11 Perceived Impact on Property Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.12 Noise and Visual Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.13 Perceived Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.14 Environmental Equity (Not Concentrating MSW Site in Low Income and Minority Area) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

749 753 754 754 755 755 756 756 757 757

20 Mathematical Modelling for Solid Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.1 Introduction to Mathematical Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.1.1 Types of Mathematical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.1.2 Steps in Mathematical Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

771 773 774 780

758 758 759 759 761 762 763 765 765 766

xviii

Contents

20.2 Waste Generation Prediction Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3 Facility Planning and Operation Scheduling Model . . . . . . . . . . . 20.4 Operation Yield and Residue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.5 Manpower Assignments Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.6 Vehicle Management Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

785 791 798 798 799 802

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827

Abbreviations

3R ABCs ABS ACI ACM AD ADB AFP AIDS ANN ANSTO APO ASR AWCS BAN BANANA BaO BARC BBMP BBO BC BF BFS BIS BLOT BMP BMW BOO BOOT BOT

Reduce, Recycle, and Reuse Atmospheric brown clouds Australian Bureau of Statistics Air curtain incinerator Asbestos-containing material Ano Dominy or anaerobic digestion Asian Development Bank or African Development Bank Active fire protection Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome Artificial neural networks Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation Asian Productivity Organisation Automotive shredder residue Automated Waste Collection System Basel Action Network Build Absolutely Nothing Anywhere Near Anybody Barium oxide Bhabha Atomic Research Centre Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (Metropolitan Corporation of Greater Bengaluru) Buy-Build-Operate Before Christ Blast furnace Blast furnace slag Bio-Intelligence Services Build-Lease-Operate-Transfer Biomedical methane potential Biomedical waste Build-Own-Operate Build-Own-Operate-Transfer Build-Operate-Transfer xix

xx

BTU C&D C&I CAG CAGR CaO CAVEmen CBA CBMWTDF CBO CCl4 CCN CE CEA CFC CH3 COOH CH4 CHIKV CHNS Ci/Kg CIDA CNS CO2 COPD COVID-19 CPA CPHEEO CRT CSG CSIR CT CTC CWC DB DBFO DCC DEFRA DENV DMP DRS DSNC DTI DW DWM

Abbreviations

British thermal unit Construction and Demolition Commercial and Industrial Comptroller and Auditor General Compound annual growth rate Calcium oxide Citizens Against Virtually Everything Cost–benefit analysis Common Bio-Medical Waste Treatment and Disposal Facility Community-based organisations Calcium tetrachloride City Council of Nairobi Circular economy Cost-effectiveness analysis Chlorofluorocarbon Acetic Acid Methane Chikungunya virus Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Sulphur Curie/kg Canadian International Development Agency Central nervous system Carbon dioxide Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Coronavirus disease 2019 Critically polluted areas Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation of India Cathode-ray tube Coal seam gas Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Community toilets Carbon tetrachloride Clean Washington Centre Design Build Design-Build-Finance-Operate Dhaka City Cooperation Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Dengue virus Disaster Management Plan Deposit–refund system Department of Sanitation New York City Department of Trade and Industry, UK Disaster waste Disaster Waste Management

Abbreviations

DWMS EBS ECDGE EDA EEA EEE EH&S EIA ELV EMP EoL EPA EPHA EPP EPR EU FC FHNW FHWA FMD FML GCL GDP GESAMP GHG GI GIS GLONASS GMP GPS GRB GTZ GVA H2 O H2 S ha HBW HC HCE HCl HHP HHV HHW HIA

xxi

Decentralised Waste Management System Engineered Barrier System European Commission Director General Environment Emergency Declaration Area European Environment Agency Electrical and Electronic Equipment Environment Health and Safety Environmental impact assessment End-of-life vehicle Environment Management Plan End of life Environment Protection Agency of the USA Environmental Public Health Act Emergency Preparedness Plan Extended producer responsibility European Union Field capacity University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland Federal Highway Authority Floating marine debris Flexible membrane liners Geosynthetic clay liner Gross domestic product Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution Greenhouse gases Gastrointestine Geographic Information System Global Navigation Satellite System Garbage Management Plan Global Positioning System Garbage record book Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (German Technical Cooperation) Gross value added Water Hydrogen sulphide Hectare Household biomedical waste Hydrocarbons Healthcare establishment Hydrogen chloride Household hazardous product Human herpesvirus Household hazardous waste Health impact assessment

xxii

HIV HLS HLW HOD HR HSE HSLT HWGF IAD IAEA IATA IEC ILO ILW IMC IMDG INR INS IPCC IRRC ISL ISWM IVD IWB IWT JICA K2 O kg KPI kt KWh L LCA LCD LCIA LCT LDAR LDC LFG LFM LILW LILW-LL LILW-SL LLW LMIC

Abbreviations

Human immunodeficiency virus School of Life Sciences High-level wastes Handing over document Human resource Health and Safety Executive of the UK High speed low torque Hazardous waste generation factor Ion-assisted deposition International Atomic Energy Agency International Air Transport Association Institute for Ecopreneurship International Labour Organisation Intermediate level waste Indore Municipal Corporation International Marine Dangerous Goods Indian rupees In situ leach Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Integrated Resource Recovery Centres In situ leach Integrated solid waste management Ion vapour deposition Itinerant waste buyer Illegal waste trafficking Japan International Cooperation Agency Potassium oxide Kilogramme Key performance indicators Kilotonne Kilo watt hour Litre Life cycle assessment Liquid crystal display Life cycle impact assessment Life cycle thinking Leak detection and repair Less developed country Land fill gas Land fill mining Low- and intermediate-level wastes Low- and intermediate-level wastes-long lived Low- and intermediate-level wastes-short lived Low-level waste Low- and middle-income Countries

Abbreviations

LOC LSHT LSWMP LULU LWD LWMC LWP MCDA MCi mCi MEIP MFA MgO Mha Mm3 MoEKoC MPPCB MRF MRI MSDS MSW Mt N2 O NA NaO NCR NEA NEERI NEP NFC NGO NH4 OH NIABY Ni-Cd Ni-Cr NIMBY NIMD NiMeH NIMEY NIMFOS NIMFYE NIMTO NITL NMOCs NMRS

xxiii

Library of Congress Low speed high torque Local Solid Waste Management Plan Locally unwanted land uses Large woody debris Lahore Waste Management Company Limited work permit Multiple criteria decision analysis Megacurie, 1,000,000 times a curie Millicurie, 1/1000 of a curie Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Programme Material flow analysis Magnesium oxide Million hectare Million cubic metre Ministry of Environment, Kingdom of Cambodia Madhya Pradesh Pollution Control Board Material recovery facility Magnetic resonance imaging Material safety data sheet Municipal solid waste Megatonne (million tonnes) Nitrous oxide Not applicable Sodium oxide National capital region Nuclear Energy Agency National Environmental Engineering Research Institute Natural Edge Project Nuclear fuel cycle Non-governmental organisations Ammonium hydroxide Not in anyone’s backyard Nickel cadmium Nickel chromium Not in my backyard Not in my district Nickel metal hydride Not in my election year Not in my field of sight Not in my front yard either Not in my terms of office Not in this lifetime Non-methane organic compound Nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer

xxiv

NO2 NOPE NORF NORM NOT NOTE NOx NSWMA NTPC NUMBY NWM NYSDEC O&M O3 °C ODAAB ODS OECD OL OPC OPCW P&T PAH PBDE PbO PCDD/Fs PCS PDCA PDF PDR PEF PFA PFT PIITBY PMC PMF POHC POP POST PP PPE PPF PPF PPP PRC

Abbreviations

Nitrogen dioxide Not on planet Earth No observable redeeming features Naturally occurring radioactive materials None of that Not over there either Oxides of nitrogen National Solid Waste Management Authority National Thermal Power Corporation Not under my backyard Nuclear waste management New York State Department of Environmental Conservation Operation and maintenance Ozone Degree Celsius Office of The Director of Audit, Antigua and Barbuda Ozone-depleting substance Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development Operation licence Ordinary Portland Cement Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons Partitioning and transmutation Polyphenolic aromatic hydrocarbons Polybrominated diphenyl ethers Lead oxide Polychlorinated dioxins and furans Potentially contaminated site Plan-Do-Check-Act Packaging-derived fuels Peoples Democratic Republic Process engineered fuel Pulverised fly ash Permission for test Put it in their backyard Pune Municipal Corporation Powder metal fuel Principal organic hazardous constituents Persistent organic pollutant Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology Polypropelene Personal protective equipment Paper and plastic fraction Passive fire protection Public–private participation People’s Republic of China

Abbreviations

PRC PS PT PTW Pu+3 Pu+4 PVC QW RA RAP RCC RCM RCT RDF RDW REF RFID RLB RRT RSS RTS SA SAP SBA SBRI SCN SEA SHG SIDS SiO2 SLF SLT SMS SNF SoEA SOP SPREP SPW SRS SST STP SUP SWM SWOT TBBPA

xxv

Pneumatic refuse collection Polysterene Public toilets Permit to work Plutonium (III) Plutonium (IV) Polyvinyl chloride Quarantined waste Risk assessment Reclaimed asphalt pavement Reinforced cement concrete Reliability centred maintenance Reinforced concrete trenches Refuse-derived fuel Reactor decommissioning waste Recovered fuel Radio frequency identification Rural local body Recycling rate targets Royal Scientific Society Reservoir-triggered seismicity Sustainable assessment Superabsorbent polymers Sustainable Business Associate Ship breaking and recycling industry Safety clearance notice Strategic environmental assessment Self help group Small island developing states Silicon dioxide Substitute liquid fuel Stone-lined earth trenches Steel melting shop Spent nuclear fuel Socioeconomic assessment Standard operating procedure South Pacific Regional Environment Programme Solid petroleum waste Sealed radioactive sources Sea surface temperature Sewage treatment plant Single-use plastic Solid waste management Strength, Weakness, Opportunity, and Threat Tetrabromobisphenol-A

xxvi

TCLP TDMS TH TLWK TPY TRU TRUW TSDF TTD TWRF UC UK ULB UN UNCF UNDP UNECE UNEP UNESCAP UNU USA USACE USD USEPA USFA VFA VFPE VLLW VOC VRF VUCA WATP WAW WEEE WGF WHO WIEGO WMP WTE ZIKV ZnO

Abbreviations

Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure Temporary debris management site Tile hole Tonne of live weight killed Tonnes per year Transuranic Transuranic waste Treatment, storage, and disposal facility Tirumala Tirupathi Devastanam Tsunami waste recovery facilities Uropean Community United Kingdom Urban local body United Nations United Nations Children Fund United Nations Development Programme United Nations Economic Commission for Europe United Nations Environment Protection Agency United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific United Nations University United States of America U.S. Army Corps of Engineers United States dollar United States Environment Protection Agency United States Fire Administration Volatile fatty acid Very flexible polyethylene Very low level waste Volatile organic compounds Volume reduction factor Volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity Willingness and ability to pay Waste pickers around the world Waste from electrical and electronic equipment Waste generation factors World Health Organisation Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing Waste Management Plan Waste to energy Zika virus Zinc oxide

List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.2 Fig. 1.3 Fig. 1.4 Fig. 1.5 Fig. 1.6 Fig. 1.7 Fig. 1.8 Fig. 1.9 Fig. 1.10 Fig. 1.11 Fig. 1.12 Fig. 1.13

Fig. 1.14 Fig. 1.15 Fig. 1.16 Fig. 1.17 Fig. 1.18 Fig. 1.19 Fig. 1.20

Fig. 1.21 Fig. 1.22 Fig. 1.23

Solid waste dumped in open drain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water contamination of groundwater due to indiscriminate throwing of solid wastes into a well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Likely impacts due to improper solid waste management practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fishbone analysis of failure of SWM in a city ABC . . . . . . . . . Fishbone analysis of failure of SWM in a city XYZ . . . . . . . . . Fishbone analysis of failure of SWM in a city YYY . . . . . . . . . Fishbone analysis of failure of SWM in a city XXX . . . . . . . . . Bulky waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste transformed in to art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste on tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste at the middle of road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Addition of new waste components over time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The first human-made plastic was invented in 1855 which now makes more than 10% of solid waste in most of the urban area throughout the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . White goods have increased many fold in the present century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Affluence has resulted in ‘use and through’ culture . . . . . . . . . . Components of integrated SWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Integrated SWM planning process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Life cycle of syringe and needle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Driving wheels of pollution control legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Regulatory issues in solid waste management does not deal only with waste management but also with other social issues like child labour as well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Example of effective communication through better communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hierarchy of legal instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Driving forces for corruption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 3 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9

13 15 16 20 20 21 23

24 24 28 30 xxvii

xxviii

Fig. 1.24

Fig. 1.25 Fig. 1.26 Fig. 1.27 Fig. 1.28 Fig. 1.29 Fig. 1.30 Fig. 1.31 Fig. 1.32 Fig. 1.33 Fig. 1.34 Fig. 1.35

Fig. 1.36 Fig. 1.37 Fig. 2.1 Fig. 2.2 Fig. 2.3 Fig. 2.4 Fig. 2.5 Fig. 2.6 Fig. 2.7 Fig. 2.8 Fig. 2.9 Fig. 2.10 Fig. 2.11 Fig. 2.12 Fig. 2.13 Fig. 2.14 Fig. 2.15 Fig. 2.16 Fig. 2.17 Fig. 2.18

List of Figures

Tripod model of interdependency of Legislative, Executive and Judiciary wings of government in supporting environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interlinking amongst politician, businessmen and bureaucrat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Punitive procedure in case of conventional crime . . . . . . . . . . . . Punitive procedure in case of pollution/waste related environmental crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Material flow and generation of waste in society . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste management hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elements of waste management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Classification of stake holders in SWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Staff requirement for maintenance of vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Unsophisticated waste collection are some time economical and efficient as well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sophisticated waste collection like road sweeping vehicle may turn out be costly and take away existing jobs . . . . . . . . . . Solid waste management should just not end up in cleaning urban area but it should conclude in safe disposal of waste at disposal points too . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Same object can be identified differently by unconscious mind of individual persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pictorial depiction of COM-B Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Regional waste generation per annum in million tons . . . . . . . . a Sources of solid waste; b sources of solid waste; c sources of solid waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Haphazardly thrown wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste composition (percentage) by income level . . . . . . . . . . . . Balloons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste consumables/body parts of vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Furniture and equipment lying after useful period . . . . . . . . . . . P-F curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Simplified mass diagram for waste quantification . . . . . . . . . . . Contaminated rags stored for disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Date expired medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste generated during manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Variation of per capita municipal waste generation matured economy over time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Physical, chemical, and biological characteristics vary hugely from place to place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Example of average particle size distribution curve . . . . . . . . . . C&D waste at a road construction site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHNS analyser used for analysis of Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Powder X-ray diffractometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31 31 32 33 35 35 36 36 38 39 39

39 41 43 48 49 52 53 54 55 56 56 57 59 59 60 62 67 68 69 73 74

List of Figures

Fig. 2.19 Fig. 2.20 Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2 Fig. 3.3 Fig. 3.4 Fig. 3.5 Fig. 3.6

Fig. 3.7 Fig. 3.8 Fig. 3.9 Fig. 3.10 Fig. 3.11 Fig. 3.12 Fig. 3.13 Fig. 3.14 Fig. 3.15 Fig. 3.16 Fig. 3.17 Fig. 3.18 Fig. 3.19 Fig. 3.20 Fig. 3.21 Fig. 3.22 Fig. 3.23 Fig. 3.24 Fig. 3.25 Fig. 3.26 Fig. 3.27 Fig. 3.28 Fig. 3.29 Fig. 3.30 Fig. 3.31 Fig. 3.32 Fig. 3.33

xxix

High resolution mass spectrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Solid waste from sources like slaughterhouse would be biologically diverse and dangerous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Various stages of SWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Storage without environmental concern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of onsite storage, offsite storage, collection, transfer and transport of solid waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Segregated papers stored for recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Segregated waste piles for recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dry waste stored on foot path during lockdown period during COVID-19 pandemic in Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Metal scrap stored in dry waste collection centre . . . . . . . . . . . . Outside view of a dry waste collection centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste stored in waste incinerator facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pictorial depiction of primary and secondary collection system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Primitive litter collection system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A fixed bin collection system for solid waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hauled container system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stationary container system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Door-to-door waste collection in pushcart along with street sweeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Door-to-door waste collection in motorized vehicle . . . . . . . . . . Private waste collector announcing request for valuable waste for a price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Door-to-door waste collection with partition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MSW collection vehicle with provision to collect six categories of waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . View of low-rise detached houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste being collected at the edge of slum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . View of medium-rise buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C&D waste chute at construction site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C&D waste being collected during interior modification in a high-rise building (Blue and yellow carrier) . . . . . . . . . . . . C&D waste being collected using net during flyover construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Airport terminal waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Airport tenant waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Galley waste collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Airport sweeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of collection vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pneumatic refuse collection system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of transfer station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Storage load type transfer station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

75 79 90 90 91 94 94

95 95 96 96 107 108 108 109 110 111 111 112 112 113 118 118 119 120 121 122 122 122 123 123 125 130 134 135

xxx

Fig. 3.34 Fig. 3.35 Fig. 3.36 Fig. 3.37 Fig. 3.38 Fig. 3.39 Fig. 3.40 Fig. 3.41 Fig. 3.42 Fig. 3.43 Fig. 3.44 Fig. 3.45 Fig. 3.46 Fig. 3.47 Fig. 3.48 Fig. 4.1 Fig. 4.2 Fig. 4.3 Fig. 4.4 Fig. 4.5 Fig. 4.6 Fig. 4.7 Fig. 4.8 Fig. 4.9 Fig. 4.10 Fig. 4.11 Fig. 4.12 Fig. 4.13 Fig. 4.14 Fig. 4.15 Fig. 4.16 Fig. 4.17 Fig. 4.18 Fig. 4.19 Fig. 4.20 Fig. 4.21

List of Figures

Direct load type transfer station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Combined (direct and storage) load type transfer station . . . . . . Vertical type transfer station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marine transfer station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Example for comparison of hauling costs with and without a transfer station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transfer station in one of the small cities in India . . . . . . . . . . . Waste is being loaded in private transfer station for recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vehicles entering transfer station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Command and control centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weighing bridge for waste collection vehicles entering transfer station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weighing scale for domestic hazardous waste, e-waste, pet bottles and sanitary waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Storage for domestic hazardous waste, e-waste and sanitary waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste transferred into capsule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste capsule being loaded in transfer station for hauling to processing plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drop stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compost yard and dry waste collection centre in a rural area in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Segregation at point of collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dry waste being handled for resource recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . Segregated waste at zero waste plant where components of waste are segregated to maximum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Non-biodegradable waste received in waste recycling plant . . . Biological processes for the recovery of conversion products from solid waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zero waste plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic diagram of hand sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hand sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Line diagram of trommel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inside view of a trommel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trommel with belt conveyors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Disc screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vibratory screen (line diagram) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vibratory screen (Photo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Collectors of different screened fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cyclone waste classifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Horizontal air classifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Air knife classifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inclined air classifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vertical air classifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

135 135 136 136 137 137 138 138 140 140 141 141 142 142 143 148 149 149 150 150 150 152 153 153 154 154 154 155 155 156 156 157 157 158 158 159

List of Figures

Fig. 4.22 Fig. 4.23 Fig. 4.24 Fig. 4.25 Fig. 4.26 Fig. 4.27 Fig. 4.28 Fig. 4.29 Fig. 4.30 Fig. 4.31 Fig. 4.32 Fig. 4.33 Fig. 4.34 Fig. 4.35 Fig. 4.36 Fig. 4.37 Fig. 4.38 Fig. 4.39 Fig. 4.40 Fig. 4.41 Fig. 4.42 Fig. 4.43 Fig. 4.44 Fig. 4.45 Fig. 4.46 Fig. 4.47 Fig. 5.1 Fig. 5.2 Fig. 5.3 Fig. 5.4 Fig. 5.5 Fig. 5.6 Fig. 5.7 Fig. 5.8 Fig. 5.9 Fig. 5.10 Fig. 5.11 Fig. 5.12 Fig. 5.13 Fig. 5.14 Fig. 5.15

xxxi

Optical sorter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Magnetic separator embedded in mobile crusher . . . . . . . . . . . . Magnetic separator installed above fixed crusher . . . . . . . . . . . . Magnetic separator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eddy current separator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shredder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Material fed into hoppers for pulping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pulping operation in progress monitored by SCADA . . . . . . . . Baled recyclables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Line diagram of ballistic separator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Refuse-derived fuel from trash ready for transportation . . . . . . . Waste processing at a typical processing facility to bale material for recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Large-scale composting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Composting tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical pH and temperature profiles in composting process . . . Vermicomposting process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Components of feedstock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste digesters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biogas dispensing outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digested sludge being composted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plastic granulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Used glass bottle in heap and stored in boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plastic lump-making machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plastic lumps ready to be used as fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Advanced plastic recycling with pyrolysis followed by plastic pellet forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Diversity of advanced recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A typical schematic diagram of landfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical trench method of landfill setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of single-liner system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of composite liner system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Physicochemical treatment plant with membranes . . . . . . . . . . . Chemical precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sludge from chemical precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multiple effect evaporator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of double-liner system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geotextile in landfill area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geomembrane placed on landfill prior to closure . . . . . . . . . . . . Liner and punctured geotextile laid unscientifically over abandoned quarry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Example of different layers in landfill cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Usual methods of venting landfill gases: a cell, b barrier, c well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gas collection system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

160 161 161 162 163 163 165 165 166 167 169 169 171 172 173 174 176 177 177 177 182 183 185 185 187 188 195 198 201 202 205 205 206 208 208 209 209 210 211 212 213

xxxii

Fig. 5.16 Fig. 5.17 Fig. 5.18 Fig. 5.19 Fig. 5.20 Fig. 5.21 Fig. 5.22 Fig. 5.23 Fig. 5.24 Fig. 6.1 Fig. 6.2 Fig. 6.3

Fig. 6.4

Fig. 6.5

Fig. 6.6

Fig. 6.7

Fig. 6.8

Fig. 6.9 Fig. 6.10 Fig. 6.11 Fig. 6.12 Fig. 6.13

List of Figures

Protection of solids filled in landfill from rain prior to capping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Layering of cover soil on landfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Covering clay with topsoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste stored in a cement manufacturing facility for co-processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Optimum requirement of combustible fraction, moisture, and ash content for WTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fuel briquette made out of waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Material balance in waste incineration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thermal balance in an incinerator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of incineration and gasification with respect to flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biomedical waste stored unscientifically for recycling . . . . . . . Consequences of indiscriminate biomedical waste disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic diagram depicting infection cycle. Source Based on information available in Medical Air Solutions (2011), Anthony and Elizabeth (1981)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mixing of infected waste with non-infected waste leads to increase in volume of infected waste resulting in increase in volume of infected waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A good practice of onsite segregation. The recycle waste like plastic, sharps and non-infected waste shall be segregated to avoid generation of dioxins and furans due to combustion of all the waste and avoid increase in infected waste due to contact between infected and non-infected waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Individual rooms with colour coding as per local legislation or protocol will increase chances of cross-contamination and reduce cost of treatment and disposal incineration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chute conveyor in modern hospital to transfer waste from individual wards in different floors to centralized storage area from where different categories of waste will be collected and transported to common treatment facility . . . . Even though such practice is not observed in many countries, biomedical waste demands special vehicle with proper labelling to identify from a distance and during accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elements of BMW management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Needle encapsulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Needle mutilation under progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sharp pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Batch type incinerator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

217 218 218 224 226 234 235 236 237 245 247

251

263

270

270

270

271 272 280 281 281 282

List of Figures

Fig. 6.14 Fig. 6.15 Fig. 6.16 Fig. 6.17 Fig. 6.18 Fig. 6.19 Fig. 6.20 Fig. 7.1 Fig. 7.2 Fig. 7.3 Fig. 7.4 Fig. 7.5 Fig. 7.6 Fig. 7.7 Fig. 7.8 Fig. 7.9 Fig. 7.10 Fig. 7.11 Fig. 7.12 Fig. 7.13 Fig. 7.14 Fig. 7.15 Fig. 7.16 Fig. 7.17 Fig. 7.18 Fig. 7.19 Fig. 7.20 Fig. 7.21 Fig. 7.22 Fig. 7.23 Fig. 7.24 Fig. 7.25 Fig. 7.26

xxxiii

Rotary incinerator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Expired medicine being segregated from packaging prior to incineration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Autoclave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shredder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BMW deep burial facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic diagram of rendering process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Radioactive waste storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil contamination due to hazardous waste disposal . . . . . . . . . Records and manifest used at different stages of transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Example of a wrong practice of hazardous waste transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Master samples preserved at a treatment storage disposal facility (TSDF) site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flow chart for manufacturing paracetamol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flow chart of manufacturing naproxen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Used crackers which comprise of many toxic chemicals . . . . . . Onsite storage of hazardous waste at an industry . . . . . . . . . . . . Onsite storage of hazardous waste with closed structure . . . . . . Expired drugs dumped at disposal facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Storage of used oil in underground sump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Used oil stored in open area exposed to sun light at a bus depot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Liquid hazardous waste stored in disposal facility . . . . . . . . . . . Stacking and sprinkler arrangement at waste disposal facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hazardous waste stored in plastic bags in unsecured, poorly ventilated and poor lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rusted fuel tank left on ground without precautionary measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Storage of used container . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Labelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Correlation of waste analysis with treatment and disposal option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Draining of chemicals from used containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vehicle mounted mixer at a TSDF facility for mixing stabilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mixing platforms at a TSDF site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Improper disposal will only increase quantity of waste as the contaminated soil will also require treatment . . . . . . . . . . Hazardous waste incinerator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Close-up view of a rotary kiln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cement kiln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

282 283 285 286 287 290 291 300 305 305 318 318 319 320 322 323 323 324 324 324 325 325 325 326 326 327 330 331 331 333 334 335 335

xxxiv

Fig. 7.27 Fig. 7.28 Fig. 7.29 Fig. 8.1 Fig. 8.2 Fig. 8.3 Fig. 8.4 Fig. 8.5 Fig. 8.6 Fig. 8.7 Fig. 8.8 Fig. 8.9 Fig. 8.10 Fig. 8.11 Fig. 8.12 Fig. 8.13 Fig. 8.14 Fig. 8.15 Fig. 8.16 Fig. 9.1 Fig. 9.2 Fig. 9.3 Fig. 9.4 Fig. 9.5 Fig. 9.6

Fig. 9.7 Fig. 9.8 Fig. 9.9 Fig. 9.10 Fig. 9.11 Fig. 9.12 Fig. 9.13 Fig. 9.14

List of Figures

Arrangement of non-compatible waste types in a hazardous waste disposal site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phases of siting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conceptual diagram of control cells for hazardous waste disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reasons for generation of WEEE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Consequences of improper disposal of WEEE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical lead smelting plant in developing country . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic diagram of steps at a materials recovery facility . . . . Process diagram for disposing of CRTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical storage and dismantling units in WEEE processing units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wire stripping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Storage of dismantled parts of electronic goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . Different parts of dismantled electronic goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recycling options for managing plastics from end-of-life electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Process for secondary lead recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Processes for secondary copper recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Precious metals recovery process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Processing of WEEE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Solar panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compressor cutter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sludge from chemical industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ports and Harbour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stagnant liquid in crude storage generates huge quantity of contaminated soil which qualifies to be solid waste . . . . . . . . Mining activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematicdiagram of aluminium production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major chemical production for year indicated in parentheses in Mt. Source Davis (2011), Schlag and Funada (2009), Suresh (2009a), Suresh (2009b), Glauser and Kumamoto (2010), Schlag (2010), Beal and Linak (2011), Glauser (2009), Will (2009), International Lead and Zinc Study Group (2023), UNEP (2013a, b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . View of chemical industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste from chemical industry stored crudely in plastic bags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Date expiry medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Used containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recovery choices for plastic waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . View of Plastic recycling plant with waste plastic . . . . . . . . . . . Waste plastic being segregated based on density . . . . . . . . . . . . View of Plastic recycling plant with shredded plastic . . . . . . . .

337 338 340 344 346 354 355 356 356 357 357 358 359 359 360 360 361 362 363 370 371 372 374 379

383 383 384 384 384 387 388 388 388

List of Figures

Fig. 9.15 Fig. 9.16 Fig. 9.17 Fig. 9.18 Fig. 9.19 Fig. 9.20 Fig. 9.21 Fig. 9.22 Fig. 9.23 Fig. 9.24 Fig. 9.25 Fig. 9.26 Fig. 9.27 Fig. 10.1 Fig. 10.2 Fig. 10.3 Fig. 10.4 Fig. 10.5 Fig. 10.6 Fig. 10.7 Fig. 10.8 Fig. 11.1 Fig. 11.2 Fig. 11.3

Fig. 11.4 Fig. 11.5 Fig. 11.6 Fig. 11.7 Fig. 11.8 Fig. 11.9 Fig. 11.10 Fig. 11.11 Fig. 11.12 Fig. 11.13 Fig. 11.14 Fig. 11.15 Fig. 12.1

xxxv

Plastic filament making unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plastic filament being cut into granules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste textile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Packaging roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste packaging roles being pulled for shredding packaging roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Growth of number of vehicles in the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . End of life vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical automated ELV processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste in electrical and electronic industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Process diagram of meat packing industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flow diagram of fish packing industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flow diagram of fruit pulping packing industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lean manufacturing principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nuclear fuel cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Metal containers for holding ground sludge for decontamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Classifications of radioactive wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stages of managing radioactive waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic diagram of waste processing and disposal in a nuclear facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Concrete trench for disposal of radioactive waste . . . . . . . . . . . . Tile hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conceptual drawing of geological disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rag picker picking waste without safety concerns . . . . . . . . . . . Tubing contaminated with body fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Organized waste processing plants provide necessary personal safety equipment, training to employs in addition to proper training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste stored on a roadside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Slippery floor in a slaughterhouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste overloaded on stored on a truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste storage and proper workplace discipline can reduce injury and accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste being loaded on truck without safety concern . . . . . . . . . Stacking of cylindrical materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sprinkler system in hazardous waste TSDF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emergency shower and eyewash in hazardous waste TSDF . . . Docks and ports are slippery posing special safety issues . . . . . Personal protective equipment in Common Biomedical Waste Treatment Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Positioning of garbage bins during snow fall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transportation may get affected during snow fall due to difficulties in vehicle movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Animals feeding on solid wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

389 389 392 398 398 399 400 400 403 408 409 410 415 427 428 428 434 437 446 447 448 455 456

460 460 464 465 466 466 468 469 469 470 471 471 490 496

xxxvi

Fig. 12.2 Fig. 12.3 Fig. 12.4 Fig. 12.5 Fig. 12.6 Fig. 12.7 Fig. 12.8 Fig. 12.9 Fig. 12.10 Fig. 12.11 Fig. 12.12 Fig. 12.13 Fig. 12.14 Fig. 12.15 Fig. 12.16 Fig. 12.17 Fig. 12.18 Fig. 12.19 Fig. 12.20 Fig. 12.21 Fig. 12.22 Fig. 12.23 Fig. 13.1 Fig. 13.2 Fig. 13.3 Fig. 13.4 Fig. 13.5 Fig. 13.6 Fig. 13.7 Fig. 13.8 Fig. 13.9 Fig. 13.10 Fig. 13.11 Fig. 14.1 Fig. 14.2 Fig. 14.3 Fig. 14.4 Fig. 14.5

List of Figures

Demolition waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elephant camp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Positive and negative effects of solid waste management on air/water/soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Point air pollution from solid waste incinerator and street combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fugitive air pollution from road sweeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spillage at storage yard in solid waste processing unit . . . . . . . . Liquid from wet waste at storage yard in solid waste processing unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Damage to vegetation due to waste dumping and transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Damage to soil and vegetation due to industrial waste dumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Improper storage of hazardous waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Damage to soil due to improper industrial waste disposal . . . . . Waste floating on river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste thrown in open drainage in dry season . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Positive and negative effects of solid waste management on flora and fauna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feathers disposed haphazardly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Slaughterhouse waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interaction between microbial pathogens, animals, and humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interactions of wildlife and litter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Monkeys feeding on discarded trash by tourist in a temple . . . . Adverse impact of land dumping on terrestrial ecosystem . . . . . Adverse impact of ocean dumping on marine ecosystem . . . . . . Mechanism of GHG contribution from solid waste . . . . . . . . . . Tsunami affected area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flood in a semi-urban area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flood in an urban area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Small businesses in a street of a flood affected area . . . . . . . . . . Dead animal after flood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wildfire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Destruction after wildfire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Industrial fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste sorted before despatching for recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Remains after a fire at Russell Market, Bangalore, India . . . . . . Waste spread in disaster affected area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . History of livelihood opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Series of jobs created by waste management activity . . . . . . . . . Livelihood and solid waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Colony of waste pickers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scrap shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

497 497 499 500 501 501 503 504 504 505 505 506 507 512 512 513 514 515 516 520 521 525 547 551 551 552 552 558 558 560 567 572 573 585 587 588 595 598

List of Figures

Fig. 14.6

Fig. 14.7 Fig. 14.8 Fig. 14.9 Fig. 14.10 Fig. 15.1 Fig. 15.2 Fig. 15.3 Fig. 15.4 Fig. 15.5 Fig. 15.6 Fig. 15.7 Fig. 15.8 Fig. 15.9 Fig. 15.10 Fig. 15.11 Fig. 15.12 Fig. 15.13 Fig. 15.14 Fig. 15.15 Fig. 15.16 Fig. 15.17 Fig. 15.18 Fig. 15.19 Fig. 15.20 Fig. 15.21 Fig. 15.22 Fig. 15.23 Fig. 15.24 Fig. 15.25 Fig. 15.26 Fig. 15.27 Fig. 15.28 Fig. 15.29 Fig. 15.30 Fig. 15.31 Fig. 15.32

xxxvii

Livelihood pyramid with respect to SWM in Pune, India (based on data presented by Poornima and Lakshmi (2009)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste handlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste categorization based on destination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Role of IWB in waste collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Itinerant waste buyers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Concrete sleepers placed adjacent to railway track for replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C&D waste generated from demolition of buildings for road expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C&D waste generated from repairing road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Demolition of a building for reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building site without any plan to manage C&D waste . . . . . . . . Waste from site clearance activity in a river valley project site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Contaminated site due to oil spillage in a river valley project site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Unearthed pipes during road construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Asphalt-coated aggregates removed while reconstruction . . . . . Excavated and levelled site for new road construction . . . . . . . . Modular construction for Metro train project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Construction site of multi-storey building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Construction site of individual house . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . World heritage site in Hampi, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Doors and windows of old building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste generated during tunnelling activity at storage yard . . . . Mixed C&D waste at storage yard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Large blocks of C&D waste generated from up-gradation of airport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feeding machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crusher feeder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stationary crusher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile crusher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile screening machine capable of screening crushed aggregate into to three sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steel bars extracted from C&D waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Binding wire extracted from C&D waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plastic pipes extracted from C&D waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crushed and screened C&D waste being filled into trucks . . . . Crushed and screened C&D waste being stockpiled . . . . . . . . . Aggregate (40 mm size) extracted from demolition waste . . . . . Aggregate (20 mm size) extracted from demolition waste . . . . . Aggregate (12 mm size) extracted from demolition waste . . . . . Fine aggregate extracted from demolition waste . . . . . . . . . . . .

599 601 603 603 604 611 613 613 614 614 616 616 617 617 618 619 619 620 621 625 626 626 626 627 628 628 628 629 629 629 630 630 631 634 634 635 635

xxxviii

Fig. 16.1 Fig. 16.2 Fig. 16.3 Fig. 16.4 Fig. 16.5 Fig. 16.6 Fig. 17.1 Fig. 17.2 Fig. 17.3 Fig. 17.4 Fig. 17.5 Fig. 17.6 Fig. 17.7 Fig. 17.8 Fig. 17.9 Fig. 17.10 Fig. 17.11 Fig. 17.12 Fig. 17.13 Fig. 17.14 Fig. 17.15 Fig. 17.16 Fig. 17.17 Fig. 18.1 Fig. 18.2 Fig. 18.3 Fig. 18.4 Fig. 18.5 Fig. 18.6 Fig. 18.7 Fig. 18.8 Fig. 18.9 Fig. 18.10 Fig. 18.11 Fig. 18.12

List of Figures

A view of legacy waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic diagram of framework for a logical sequence of legacy site remediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Legacy waste spread over large area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leachate flow from legacy waste site waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leachate collected in pond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leachate generated in dump site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Classification of Environmental Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Type of corruption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Disposal strategy of waste mafia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Common models of illegal trafficking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Driving forces of organized environmental crime . . . . . . . . . . . . Market situation/complexity which leads to waste mafia/ scam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nonreliable data and greatly varying data often leads to mismatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Knowledge base required for proper solid waste management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of resources required for SWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Corporate structure to evade tax, enhance profit, siphon investors’ money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Causes of waste crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reasons for corporate crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Unscientific hazardous waste storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emission from Waste Incinerator Due to Non-operation of Scrubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Common mode of mode of IWT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Consequences of waste mafia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major missing legal links and enforcement leading to eco-mafia/eco-scam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Linear economy model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Circular economy model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PDCA cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic diagram for preparation of MSW management plan by ULB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sample strengths, weaknesses, threats, and opportunities in SWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Black spot in the context of SWM is place where people throw waste at undesignated place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste littering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste generated during festival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trees removed from ULB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical stakeholders in SWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An informal waste collector collecting C&D waste . . . . . . . . . . An informal waste collector collecting C&D waste . . . . . . . . . .

640 649 650 651 651 651 658 659 660 662 663 665 668 670 672 674 676 680 680 681 683 688 690 704 705 706 711 718 721 721 722 722 734 744 744

List of Figures

Fig. 18.13 Fig. 19.1 Fig. 19.2 Fig. 19.3 Fig. 19.4 Fig. 19.5 Fig. 19.6 Fig. 19.7 Fig. 19.8 Fig. 19.9 Fig. 19.10 Fig. 19.11 Fig. 19.12 Fig. 19.13 Fig. 20.1 Fig. 20.2 Fig. 20.3 Fig. 20.4 Fig. 20.5 Fig. 20.6 Fig. 20.7 Fig. 20.8 Fig. 20.9 Fig. 20.10 Fig. 20.11 Fig. 20.12 Fig. 20.13 Fig. 20.14 Fig. 20.15 Fig. 20.16

xxxix

Waste picker collecting valuable waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste thrown at historic site being cleaned by volunteers in Srirangapattana, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste thrown at historic site being cleaned by volunteers in Srirangapatna, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste thrown at historic Site in Srirangapatna, India . . . . . . . . . World heritage site at Hampi, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . World heritage site at Hampi, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . World heritage site at Hampi, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bottle bank, UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Animal on street feeding on waste at Bengaluru (Formerly Bangalore), India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste floating on storm water drain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . View of waste dump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Abandoned waste processing plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Screened inert in solid waste processing plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . River being used for washing cloths and garbage dump . . . . . . Linier equation for waste generated in city xyz . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exponential equation for waste generated in city xyz . . . . . . . . Logarithmic equation for waste generated in city xyz . . . . . . . . Second order polynomial equation for waste generated in city xyz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Power equation for waste generated in city xyz . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conceptual diagram for ANN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hypothetical comparison of waste generation model output with actual data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conceptual life cycle of EEE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Example of linear regression analysis using percentage waste collected and ration of household to waste collectors . . . Schematic diagram to illustrate throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Simple operation diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Detailed operation diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Routing diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Residue generation in waste processing plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste collector dragging bag to transport waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . Front end view of fleet management system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

745 760 760 760 760 761 761 762 762 763 763 764 764 766 775 775 776 776 776 779 786 787 789 794 796 797 797 798 800 800

List of Tables

Table 1.1 Table 1.2 Table 1.3 Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3 Table 2.4 Table 2.5 Table 2.6 Table 2.7 Table 2.8 Table 2.9 Table 2.10 Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 3.3 Table 3.4 Table 3.5 Table 3.6

SDGs related to solid wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Legislations in various countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Income level and waste generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Example of quantification of waste generation from good with life span 15 years (hypothetical scenario) . . . Waste generation in different category of viewers in a sports event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Proximate and ultimate analyses of solid waste components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wet and dry masses of different component in the city cited in Example 2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ultimate analysis of dry component of solid waste in Example 2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Revised composition after converting calculating hydrogen and oxygen content in moisture in Example 2.1 . . . Molar composition of the waste and normalized ratio of solid waste in Example 2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weight of elements in solid waste in Example 2.1 . . . . . . . . . . Major living organisms present in various solid wastes . . . . . . Some published methodologies to measure biodegradable organic matter content of organic wastes . . . . . Different categories of MSW storage containers . . . . . . . . . . . Dos and Don’ts for onsite storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Precautions for solid waste storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Checklist for waste storage in commercial establishments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Precautions to be taken during transportation of solid waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frequency of collection for treatment/disposal of waste from point of waste generation for best management . . . . . . .

27 29 41 57 63 71 75 76 77 77 78 78 81 97 99 103 104 105 105

xli

xlii

Table 3.7 Table 3.8 Table 3.9 Table 3.10 Table 3.11 Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 4.3 Table 4.4 Table 4.5 Table 5.1 Table 5.2 Table 5.3 Table 5.4 Table 5.5 Table 5.6 Table 5.7 Table 5.8 Table 5.9 Table 5.10 Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Table 6.3 Table 6.4 Table 6.5 Table 6.6 Table 6.7 Table 6.8 Table 6.9 Table 6.10 Table 6.11

List of Tables

Example of comparison of operational cost estimate (in INR) for two scenarios for same ward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Checklist for solid waste collection by vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of some of the specialized waste collection trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical sizes of trash chute for different height of building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Advantage and disadvantage of automatic pneumatic waste collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Approximate reserve depletion time of major non-renewable resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples use of some of the components of waste . . . . . . . . . Important factors affecting composting of waste . . . . . . . . . . . Metal recycling technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Different technology/process/method used in waste to fuel process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use of plastic in agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Important factors to be considered while evaluating a landfill site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Factors to be considered in design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Effectiveness of leachate treatment depending on landfill age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Checklist for operation of landfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of landfill sealants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Factors to be considered during construction and operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Factors to be considered during post-closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Checklist for incinerator operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Classification of pyrolysis unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of pathogenic virus and associated disease . . . . . . . Examples of pathogenic bacteria and associated disease . . . . . Examples of pathogenic protozoa and associated diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Select physical and chemical characteristics of BMW . . . . . . Comparison of biomedical waste generation in various countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical weight for major medical consumables . . . . . . . . . . . . Checklist for SWM in HCEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Different coloured bin/bag for segregation based on legal requirement in different countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of treatment and disposal options for BMW . . . . . . Key uses of blood components and shelf life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste type of major concern to environment from dental healthcare units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

115 116 128 130 132 146 168 173 180 186 194 196 197 207 215 219 221 221 229 239 248 249 250 254 256 259 264 268 273 274 276

List of Tables

Table 6.12 Table 6.13 Table 7.1 Table 7.2 Table 7.3 Table 7.4 Table 7.5 Table 7.6 Table 7.7 Table 8.1 Table 8.2 Table 8.3 Table 8.4 Table 9.1 Table 9.2 Table 9.3 Table 9.4 Table 9.5 Table 9.6 Table 9.7 Table 9.8 Table 9.9 Table 9.10 Table 9.11 Table 9.12 Table 9.13 Table 9.14 Table 9.15 Table 9.16

xliii

Checklist depicting major sources of various categories of waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Commonly used chemical disinfectants which can be used for disinfection of BMW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Some illustrative examples of hazardous waste . . . . . . . . . . . . Hazardous waste commonly included in list of hazardous waste globally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical characterization of hazardous waste in legislations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parameters and rationale for analysis of hazardous waste . . . . Examples of waste analysis parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hazardous WGF of paracetamol and naproxen . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of waste minimization and waste management option in drug manufacturing industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major component of commonly used rechargeable batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major components in commonly used non-rechargeable batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Components and materials that frequently occur in EEE and that contain hazardous compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Potential hazardous e-waste exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Source and quantity of generation of some major industrial waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of solid waste from mining activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste generated during oil and gas exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . Solid waste from some of the primary metallurgical industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Solid waste from secondary ferrous metallurgical industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Solid waste from foundries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sectors of chemical industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste from plastic manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Activity and type of waste from textile industry . . . . . . . . . . . Major electric power fuel/sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major solid wastes from petroleum industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hazardous solid substance generated during ELV dismantling and processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of usable products form waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Some of the treatment options for non-hazardous industrial waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of management tools used in lean manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Some of the causes for waste generation during manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

277 288 300 307 313 316 317 320 330 349 350 351 352 373 374 375 377 378 381 382 387 391 393 395 401 406 414 416 416

xliv

Table 10.1 Table 10.2 Table 10.3 Table 10.4 Table 10.5 Table 11.1 Table 11.2 Table 11.3 Table 11.4 Table 11.5 Table 11.6 Table 11.7 Table 11.8 Table 11.9 Table 11.10 Table 11.11 Table 11.12 Table 11.13 Table 11.14 Table 11.15 Table 11.16 Table 12.1 Table 13.1 Table 13.2 Table 13.3 Table 13.4 Table 14.1 Table 14.2 Table 15.1 Table 15.2 Table 16.1 Table 18.1 Table 18.2 Table 18.3 Table 18.4

List of Tables

Some of the legislation dealing with radioactive waste throughout the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Radiation safety inspection checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Classification of waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Packaging category of radioactive waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Disposal options for various radioactive waste categories . . . . Examples of solid waste categorization and health hazard . . . Some of the published injury and disease risks for SWM workers versus control baseline populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SWM options and associated health impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Concerns and requirement of storage of different categories of solid waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Non-compatible chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Example of reaction leading to toxic gas formation . . . . . . . . . Concerns and requirement of storage of different category of solid waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Safety concerns during solid waste treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of major landfill fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Some of the major disasters due to improper waste disposals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sample permit to work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . List of safety documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Area/room safety clearance notice (Format I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Area/room safety clearance notice (alternate to format I) . . . . Sample limited work permit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sample permit to test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of impact on environment due to solid waste management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of disasters with examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quantity of waste generated in some of the disasters . . . . . . . . Types of waste generated during various disasters . . . . . . . . . . Suggested transportation option for disaster waste . . . . . . . . . Number of waste pickers in different cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Number of trucks used for hauling MSW in selected cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Advantages of concrete sleepers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Some of the recycled products from C&D waste . . . . . . . . . . . Equipment for processing legacy waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of goals and objectives at different levels . . . . . . . . Challenges, KPI, scope for mismanagement, and key responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of environmental impact due to SWM during operation phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sample checklist for gap analysis for solid waste planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

423 424 430 436 445 457 461 462 463 467 467 473 473 478 479 481 482 483 484 485 486 509 540 541 543 574 596 600 611 632 647 707 709 713 717

List of Tables

Table 18.5 Table 18.6 Table 18.7 Table 18.8 Table 18.9 Table 18.10 Table 18.11 Table 20.1 Table 20.2 Table 20.3 Table 20.4 Table 20.5 Table 20.6 Table 20.7 Table 20.8 Table 20.9 Table 20.10 Table 20.11

xlv

Sample VUCA analysis for SWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical table of content for SWM plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sample schedule for implementation of municipal SWM plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Some of the issues with respect to financial, social, and environmental needs in SWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sample table for calculating establishment expenses . . . . . . . . Sample PAYT structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Different legal forms of PPP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mathematical models useful in SWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Advantage and disadvantage of mathematical modeling . . . . . Average waste generated per day in city xyz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Result of ai+1 in different iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chart of time and speed for calculating waste collection vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Guidelines for meaningfulness of correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Resource category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Resource properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Resource constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Operational characteristic with respect waste processing plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Precedence relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

719 723 725 727 737 738 741 772 773 774 778 784 789 793 793 795 796 797

List of Boxes

Box 1.1 Box 1.2 Box 1.3 Box 1.4 Box 3.1 Box 3.2 Box 4.1 Box 4.2 Box 4.3 Box 4.4 Box 4.5 Box 4.6 Box 5.1 Box 5.2 Box 5.3 Box 5.4 Box 5.5 Box 5.6 Box 5.7 Box 6.1 Box 6.2 Box 7.1 Box 7.2 Box 8.1

Operation Green Fence and Operation National Sword . . . . . . . . Decriminalization of Environmental Laws India . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pilot Program of Waste Segregation in China—Case Study . . . . Choice Architecture Used for Garbage Bins during Kumbh 2019—Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobro 4000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Collection, Transfer, Transport in Indore, India—Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study: Vellore, Tamil Nadu State, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biogas from Faecal Sludge and Kitchen Waste at Prisons . . . . . . Briquettes from agrowaste (Kampala Jellitone Suppliers, Uganda) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Briquettes from municipal solid waste (COOCEN, Kigali, Rwanda) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Briquettes from Agrowaste and Municipal Solid Waste (Eco-Fuel Africa, Uganda) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Power From Manure and Agrowaste for Rural Electrification (Santa Rosillo, Peru) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study, Failure of Payatas Landfill of Quezon City, Metro Manila District, Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study—Nepean, Ontario, Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WTE Case Study Timarpur, Delhi, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study Baku WTE, Azerbaijan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study of Waste Incineration Phuket, Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . Combustion Chemistry of Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tyre Pyrolysis Oil units in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Disposal of Hair and Foetus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Path of Expired Medicine in Supply Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Valley of Drum Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Baia Mare Cyanide Spill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . End-of-Life White Goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16 26 42 43 127 139 151 176 183 183 183 184 199 223 228 228 228 232 238 275 283 302 303 345 xlvii

xlviii

Box 8.2 Box 11.1 Box 11.2 Box 12.1 Box 12.2 Box 12.3 Box 13.1 Box 13.2 Box 13.3 Box 13.4 Box 14.1 Box 14.2 Box 14.3 Box 14.4 Box 14.5 Box 15.1 Box 15.2 Box 15.3 Box 16.1 Box 16.2 Box 16.3 Box 16.4 Box 17.1 Box 17.2 Box 18.1 Box 18.2 Box 18.3 Box 18.4 Box 18.5

List of Boxes

The Zapallal Waste Site in Peru—Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Studies: Impact of Poor SWM on Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study: Love Canal, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Impact of Improper Disposal of Radioactive Material in Delhi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biomagnification and Bioaccumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Consequences of Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study: Tropical Cyclone (TC) Winston, February 2016 (MoE, GoJ 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study: Waste to energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case study of Flood at Bangkok, Thailand, 2011(MoE, GoJ 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study of Solid waste management at Russell Market fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zabbaleen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Green Job . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ecopreneurs and Eco-Enterprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study—Jam Chakro Disposal Site in Karachi . . . . . . . . . . . Networking Among Waste Pickers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study of Hungry in 2011 (BIO Intelligence Service 2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study of Spain in 2011 (BIO Intelligence Service 2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case study of Finland in 2011 (BIO Intelligence Service 2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study: Hanford Site, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study: Bhalswa Landfill—India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study: Landfill Reclamation at a Florida Landfill Site (Jain et al. 2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical Table of Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Organic Waste Convertor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study of Pittsburgh, Charleston, New Orleans, St. Louis, and Columbus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study: Mazatenango City, Guatemala (Yousif and Scott 2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study: Msheireb Downtown, Doha, Qatar (Ove Arup & Partners Ltd. (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study: Yokohama’s G30 plan (Jones 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study: Waste Management Plan for England (DEFRA 2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . People Participation and Consultation in Indore, India—Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

346 458 478 518 521 526 567 568 570 571 584 584 593 595 597 622 623 623 641 645 649 654 666 675 705 715 716 717 720

List of Boxes

Box 18.6 Box 18.7 Box 18.8

xlix

Case Study: Financial Sustainability in Argentine an Municipalities (Kaza et al. 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Studies: Decentralized Waste Treatment (Storey et al. 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Study: informal sector in SWM (Scheinberg et al. 2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

736 743 745

Chapter 1

Introduction

Wastes are any materials that are not produced for the market for which the waste generator has no further use. The term solid waste can be used specifically for waste material which is ‘solid’ in its physical state. Solid waste management (SWM) is one of the most vital problems of our time as the development and subsequent use of materials generates enormous quantity of wastes. Solid waste is a universal issue that has been a problem even before water and air pollution issues affected the human civilisation. Quandaries linked with solid wastes can be dated back to prehistoric days. Quest to ‘living better’ urge for ‘ease of living’ disposing ‘extra income’ at personal level clubbed with ‘competing with rest of world’ at national level has led to depletion of resources, a part of which becomes waste. Economic growth, which indicates an increase in the quantity and quality of the economic goods as well as services that a society generates and consumes, has resulted in the invention of new products, technologies and services. Economic growth has two periods. In the first period, the average person was very poor and human societies achieved no significant economic growth in which incomes remained almost unchanged over a period of several years. Life too changed remarkably little, and the people’s requirements were stagnant and revolved around shelter, food, clothing, and basic energy supply. This was the period when solid waste was not a major issue as almost everything was recycled through the natural biogeochemical cycle. Nomadic people left their wastes and moved on while for those who settled in small communities, wastes were not an issue. The second period is much shorter, wherein the people invented machines to convert raw materials into end products which generated solid wastes. For example, production of grams of pure gold generated tons of mining wastes. Similarly, invention and processing of new chemicals resulted in the generation of toxic waste products. Economic prosperity and lesser work led to a boom in religious activity, entertainment, leisure, sports, travel and services, which in turn generated solid waste. The paper was not only just used for documenting important matters but also it was used

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6_1

1

2

1 Introduction

Fig. 1.1 Solid waste dumped in open drain

for single use-wiping body part, printing news, packing goods. Metals were used to make single use items which were later replaced by plastic for many purposes. The urge to live better led to scientific inventions which in turn has created wastes. Wealthy countries started spending more on national defense while poor countries struggled to survive. Urge to look beautiful resulted in a boom in cosmetic industry which again contributed to a significant amount of waste by means of discarding packing material, cosmetic container/tube. Demolition/repair of old buildings, construction of new infrastructure (roads, airports, railways, ports etc.,) added to waste quantities as well. Online buying of food and material came with packaging which became wastes. Change in lifestyles, increased ailments and progress in medical science created medical procedures and infrastructure but medical consumables became waste after their use. Urge to travel increased demands for vehicles and infrastructure that generated wastes. It is obvious that the quantity and quality of waste have changed over the years and still changing. The waste characteristics depend on people’s income, culture, geography, disasters, culture to which society is subjected. So, the composition of waste that comprised of ash, bone and fruit/vegetable parts changed with additional components –paper, metal, glass, plastic and textile. It is evident that the humans are a wasteful lot on the planet Earth and are an inherent, unavoidable characteristic of human society. The processes of eating, living, working, playing, and dying lead to ditches with solid wastes that became the main reason for epidemics in Europe in 1348 and 1665 (Hall 2008) which can be observed in developing nations now (Fig. 1.1). In order to overcome epidemics England passed an order in 1578 to eradicate plague compelling householder with a pump or a well to pour water down the gutters in the street and residents were required to sweep the mud/filth of the street and out of the gutters. As shown in Fig. 1.2 people even throw waste into unused wells poisoning the ground water.

1.1 Need for Solid Waste Management

3

Fig. 1.2 Water contamination of groundwater due to indiscriminate throwing of solid wastes into a well

The characteristics and quantities of waste generated depend on the lifestyle and living standards of the region’s citizens beside other factors - climate, economy, legal framework, frequency of disaster, and mindset of the people. Societal wastes range from the refuse produced by residents to highly toxic industrial wastes from the production of specialized goods. There is sawdust wood processing, waste from mining, cow dung from farmhouse, metal shavings from fabrication workshop, sludge from sewage treatment, leftover food from marriage halls, wastepaper from offices, dirty diapers besides other garbage. Virtually every aspect of our daily lives generates waste. Waste cannot be avoided. But what happens to all this waste? Some of it is recycled. Excessive quantities of waste are produced from a society from inefficient production processes, and low durability of goods as well as unsustainable consumption of resources (Nicholas 2003). Historically, wastes that were dumped in rivers, oceans, depressions, ravines, and were close to the settlements generating the wastes were acceptable for centuries that caused serious harm to public health and environment. The technological and consumer revolution resulted into the creation of more hazardous products like pesticides, paints, and arrays of other chemicals which ended up in waste dumps. Development comes with environmental burdens which includes generation of waste. At the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002, Governments of member countries reiterated the importance of SWM and called for priority attention to waste prevention, minimization, reuse, recycling, and development of environmentally sound disposal facilities.

1.1 Need for Solid Waste Management As the world becomes more urbanized resulting in increase in consumption rates, an inevitable consequence of more consumption is the rapid surge in the quantity of solid waste generation. Today, SWM conditions in the developing countries are often

4

1 Introduction

Safety issues

Pollution

Odour, vectors, rodent

Risk to aviation Green house gases

Fig. 1.3 Likely impacts due to improper solid waste management practices

quite dire and reminiscent of those found in the developed nations many generations ago. The negative impacts of insufficient SWM practices on natural as well as human environments are now being acknowledged (McAllister 2015). Since the second half of the last century, the environment became an important issue at the global level as the scientific community revealed strong links between human health and environment. Improper SWM will have impacts on deserts, forests, streams, lakes, oceans, wells (Fig. 1.2) and other place resulting in wide impacts leading to international and national legislations. Need for SWM involves understanding of existing practices (including reduction to disposal) as well as adoption of new methods to get better existing practices. The costs for environmental management are multi-tiered, and potential events are difficult to predict with assurance. But, the risks in the future and connected costs can be reduced and eradicated by choosing suitable preventive measures (Nicholas 2003). Figure 1.3 shows the impacts due to improper SWM. In a nutshell improper SWM has following impacts: (a) water and air pollution; (b) problems connected with bad odour, pests, rodents in addition to stray animals; (c) production of greenhouse gases (GHG)s; (d) problems connected with aviation due to birds flying above dump site; (e) fires within the waste dump/land fill; and (f) erosion and stability problems in waste dump or land fill. Need for SWM varies from place to pace and can be identified by root cause analysis or fishbone analysis1 . An example of fishbone analysis for failure of SWM 1

The fishbone analysis by fishbone diagram (also called as Ishikawa diagram) is a cause-and-effect diagram to track down the reasons for defects, imperfections, variations, or failures.

1.2 Importance of a Sound Solid Waste Management

Absence of law

Absence of public complaint

5 Disinterest from people’s representative

No funding for SWM

Failure of SWM in a city ABC

Leadership crisis – Disinterested Mayor/commissioner

Technical incompetency of staff

No epidemic due to poor SWM

No fire/land slide at dumpsite/pollution episode

Fig. 1.4 Fishbone analysis of failure of SWM in a city ABC

Strong law exists but enforcing agency is not active. Head of enforcing agency is friend of commissioner/mayor

Public complaint is not attended due to staff crunch

Election not conducted due to litigation

Funding for SWM is used of filling potholes on road and street light

Failure of SWM in a city XYZ

Mayor/commissioner is interested but grass root level workers are on strike

Technical competent staff is wasting time searching lost file and ding clerical work as clerk is dead

Most of staff is admitted to hospital due to epidemic

Fire/land slide has triggered sumoto case and commissioner is arrested

Fig. 1.5 Fishbone analysis of failure of SWM in a city XYZ

with respect to city hypothetical cities - ABC, XYZ, YYY and XXX is given in Figs. 1.4, 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7.

1.2 Importance of a Sound Solid Waste Management Solid waste is linked to health (discussed in detail in Chap. 11), economy and environment (discussed in detail in Chap. 12). Solid waste characteristics (discussed in detail in Chap. 2) change from place to place and time to time (Figs. 1.8 and 1.9). Waste can be a source of income by repair, reuse, recycle (discussed in detail Chap. 4). The online platform Tirumala Tirupathi Devastanam (TTD) temple in India netted an income of 1130 million Rupees (13.8 million USD) through ‘e-auctioning’ of human hair in the year 2011 as approximately ten million people shave their hair as an offer to deity, Lord Venkateshwara.

6

1 Introduction

SWM facility is closed due to court order. Head of law enforcing agency is afraid of commissioner/mayor

Public protest around villages surrounding waste processing plant has led to dumping waste on both the side of highways and railway track

Waste collection agency is owned by relatives of staff of city YYY

No user fee is collected from waste generators

Failure of SWM in a city YYY

C&D waste is not collected by city YYY. No C&D waste processing facility exist in/near city

Technically competent person is retired and new incumbent has not joined due to litigation against recruitment scam

Staff is on strike demanding hike in salary

Staff is not competent to process the pending bills. Errors has result in audit objection

Fig. 1.6 Fishbone analysis of failure of SWM in a city YYY

Law exists but the city corporation staff is not aware of the law. Most of the staff is relatives of people’s representative

Public complaint is un-resolved and complainants are pressurized to withdraw complaints

Waste collection agency is owned by people’s representative

Funding for SWM is used to pay waste collection agency owned by people’s representative against fake bills. But collection is not done.

Failure of SWM in a city XXX

Mayor/commissioner is silent on poor SWM as waste collection agencies belong to people’s representatives of ruling party and opposition party

Technically competent person is removed from job as he blew whistle against corruption

Epidemic due to poor SWM killed many waste collectors

Fire/land slide at dumpsite/pollution episode regularly happens but staff is not competent to prepare tender document

Fig. 1.7 Fishbone analysis of failure of SWM in a city XXX

Worldwide arms sales totalled 40.4 billion in the year 2010. Sales of arms as well as military services by the 100 largest companies in the industry reached $592 billion in 2021 (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute 2022) that generate waste while manufacturing, testing and practicing usage of weapons by mass destruction (discussed in detail Chap. 13). About 50 000 tons of chemical weapons were dumped to the Baltic Sea after the Second World War (Vannien 2020).

1.2 Importance of a Sound Solid Waste Management Fig. 1.8 Bulky waste

Fig. 1.9 Waste transformed in to art

7

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1 Introduction

More than of one million tonnes of munitions were dumped in Beaufort’s Dyke (Irish Sea), 300 000 tonnes in the North Sea, and 168 000 tonnes in the Skagerrak (OSPAR Commission 2009). In German coastal waters of the North and Baltic Sea about 1.6 Mt of munition were dumped during and after World Wars I and II (Böttcher 2011). The indiscriminate disposal of waste may sometime stick to trees (Fig. 1.10) and at other times they can lead to accident and traffic disruption (Fig. 1.11). Fig. 1.10 Waste on tree

Fig. 1.11 Waste at the middle of road

1.4 Waste Management in Pre-industrialization Era

Prehistory

Up to 5000 BC

9

. Animal hide, fruit/vegitable peel, seed, bones

. Cotton cloths, wood, ash, boken pots

5000 BC to 1200 AD

. Metal slag, metal pieces, paper, plastic, chemical, infectious waste

1200 AD to till date

. Radio active substance, hazardous waste, waste from electrical and electronic equipment

Fig. 1.12 Addition of new waste components over time

1.3 Change in Quantity and Characteristics Over Time Archaeological studies have shown that waste generation rates can be correlated to the rates of prosperity (Bingemer and Crutzen 1987; Mertins et al. 1999; OECD 2004; IPCC 2000; Richards 1989; Rathje et al. 1992; US EPA 1999). The plague, cholera and typhoid due to poor SWM influenced monarchies besides changing the populations of Europe. Europeans threw their domestic waste out of the window to the streets and some still do so in developing world. New innovation and development in science added new products to world which added to new materials to waste stream over the time (Fig. 1.12). As a result, the characteristics of waste changed from purely organic waste in prehistoric time to waste with radioactivity as of date.

1.4 Waste Management in Pre-industrialization Era Solid waste of prehistoric era was composed of the leftovers from hunting, gathering, as well as food preparation. people moved to new location when wastes accumulated. Due to the very low human populations besides characteristics of waste, impact on environment waste not significant. The Neolithic2 period was the beginning of changeover from nomadic communities to settlement during which the concept of SWM was not evolved and individuals could dump waste wherever they felt like dumping.

2

New stone age.

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1 Introduction

In the Egyptian city of Heracleopolis founded around 2100 BC, efforts were made to collect and dispose waste in the elite as well as the religious areas, which usually ended up in the Nile River, while the wastes in the “non-elite” areas were ignored (Melosi 1981). An effective composting effort was established at Koulouri in the ancient Crete3 capital of Knossos4 (1500 BCE) (Kelly 1973). By 2100 BC several cities on the island of Crete had trunk sewers (Melosi 1981; Vesilind et al. 2002a, b). Houses were equipped with waste chutes and trash bins city of Mohenjo-Daro in the Indus Valley civilization (Melosi 1981). Numerous Asian cities also collected wastes in earthen vessels that were hauled away (Vesilind et al. 2002a, b). The Minoans5 covered their waste intermittently with layers of soil, in large pits (Priestley 1968; Wilson 1977). The solid waste accumulated in the ancient city of Troy was estimated to be 1.4 Mt per century (Rathje, 1990). The Roman practice of dumping solid waste in the streets resulted insignificant quantities of waste to be carried along the rainwater runoff. Humans might have started wearing clothing between 100,000 and 500,000 years ago. The people of the Indus valley civilization used clothing of cotton between the 5th millennium BC and 4th millennium BC. Mahenjodaro city in the Indus valley civilization had houses with rubbish chutes and Harappa had toilets (Melosi 1981). Around 9000 BC, people started to create permanent communities and dumps were established away from human settlements to safeguard populated areas from odors, insects and wild animals (Bilitewski et al. 1997). At the moment, very few records related to SWM is available prior to 3000 BC. The first documentation of SWM was recorded in Athens, Greece during 500 BC and the city of Athens structured the first municipal dump where people were required to dispose the solid waste at least one mile away from the city walls. Metallurgy evolved between 5th and 6th millennium BC, and making of alloy started around 3500 BC during the Bronze age. Around 1200 BC, the world witnessed the start of the Iron Age and metallurgy activity from that period generated slag and scrap materials. In the fifth century BC Greek municipalities started to establish town dumps for solid waste containing food waste, feacal matter, and potsherds6 etc. (Kelly 1973). The first landfill was commissioned in Knossos Crete during 3000 BC. The first recorded law for SWM was made during the Minoan civilization (Tammemagi 1999). About 2000 BC, Israel provided guidelines to manage wastes.

3

Largest and most populous of the Greek islands. Europe’s oldest city (Now largest Bronze Age archaeological site on Crete. 5 Non-Indo-European people who flourished (3000–1100 BC) on the island of Crete during the Bronze Age. 6 Broken piece of ceramic material, especially one found on an archaeological site. 4

1.4 Waste Management in Pre-industrialization Era

11

By 200 BC, numerous Chinese cities employed “sanitary police” to enforce waste disposal laws (Vesilind et al. 2002a, b). Each household was responsible for collecting and hauling its wastes in Athens during about 320 BC (Tammemagi 1999). Between 27 BC and 410 BC animal and human carcasses from gladiatorial combats were disposed at the ancient roman city’s outskirts in open pits and the law about disposal of fecal matter was adopted by Romans (John 2005). The Persian Ibn Sina (980–1037 CE) and Hippocrates (about 400 BC) suggested a relationship between infectious disease and waste (Bilitewski et al. 1997). Rome was the first civilization to create an organized waste collection workforce in 14 CE (Vesilind et al. 2002a, b). Paper was invented in China during second century BC. Further China invented composting, and recycling bronze. In the fourth century AD ancient Greeks had to deal with the multiple challenges of aligning waste removal systems with a lack of space, growing population, and sanitation problems. SWM practices were very rudimentary with waste just being collected and transported to pits outside the city (McAllister 2015). Since it was not safe to burn wastes in the city limits due to presence of wooden structures (Wilson 1977), wastes remained in place in London and in 1297, and an order was made requiring all tenants to keep a clear pavement in front of their house, but the order was largely ignored, and the waste was burnt in household open fires (John 2005). During the mid-1300s kites as well as ravens were protected by law as they fed upon the waste heaps. During this period, the pigs roamed on the streets and dogs were innumerable (Rawlinson 1958). Surge in population, settlement and urbanisation lead to epidemics in many parts of the world, the major one being plague of Justinian which began in 540 AD (Hall 2008). The population of world touched 500 million, in 1300 AD the first major epidemic swept across Europe in 1348 (Hall 2008) making law for official inspections of streets as well as the removal of solid waste. Plague was endemic between 1348 and 1665 (Hall 2008). During the medieval7 period, numerous farm animals were slaughtered during the fall as grazing was no longer possible in winter and fodder for livestock was usually unavailable near large cities like London. Spoiled food comprised a major component of medieval European wastes (Alexander 1993). During 1350 “The Black Plague” killed nearly 25 million people in 5 years. Around the 1350s, Britain made law mandating clean front yards but the law was not taken too seriously. In 1354, an order was issued to be remove “filth” deposited in front of houses weekly (Wilson 1977). Britain introduced first garbage men for collection of solid waste in the history. London wards were allotted a beadle8 or bailiff9 , who hired assistants called “rakers” who would collect solid waste once in a week from the middle of the streets as well 7

Between the fifth and fifteenth centuries. A ceremonial officer. 9 A sheriff’s officer who executes writs and processes as well as carries out distraints/arrests. 8

12

1 Introduction

as from the fronts of houses which was carted away, outside the city (Harris and Bickerstaffe 1990; Alexander 1993). In 1388 the English Parliament banned dumping of waste in ditches and public waterways. In 1407 Britain passed the law declaring waste should be stored inside till rakers remove it. The city authorities of London announced forbidding throwing rubbish, earth, gravel, or dung into the Thames in 1357. The use and manufacturing of paper spread from China to medieval Europe in the thirteenth century. Progress in the working and dyeing of wool occurred in the thirteenth century. Latrines in London over waterways were legalised with annual fee in 1383 and the city prohibited latrines over the Walbrook in 1462 followed by other urban ditches and moats in 1477 (Hall 2008). Butcher waste from London was discarded at the centre of Thames River from 1392 onwards to avoid pollution of the riverbank. City authorities of London ordained in 1405 that the carts used to transport wastes from the city should be provided with backboards of two and a half feet high in order to avoid rubbish falling on streets. In the early fifteenth century, informers with respect to throwing of rubbish in the streets of London or into the Thames were rewarded. The first recorded use of packaging began in 1551 in Germany. In Prescott (northern English town), the authorities made an order in 1580 allowing public to stack solid waste in the street near their doors up to a week prior to removal. Waste heaps outside of Paris gates interfered with city’s defense in 1400 and the city employed 800 carts to remove filth in 1554. Orders issued in the year 1578 in response to plague outbreaks to keep streets clean and dung heaps were prohibited both in streets and other open spaces. While the SWM in Europe took utmost importance, Asia and Africa stood where they were in spite of colonisation of the Europeans in these continents. Rittenhouse Mill, Philadelphia started manufacturing paper from wastepaper and rags in 1690, perhaps the first effort towards major recycling. Benjamin Franklin started the municipal street-cleaning service for first time in Philadelphia of USA in 1757 and during the same time period American homes began digging solid waste pits instead of throwing it out of doors and windows. This was followed by the first metal recycling in 1776 in the USA.

1.5 Waste Management in Post-industrialization Era People started experimenting to evolve new things after they settled in different regions of the world and ended up in industrial revolution between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that greatly lowered manufacturing cost in the nineteenth century but increased the waste quantity.

1.5 Waste Management in Post-industrialization Era

13

Fig. 1.13 The first human-made plastic was invented in 1855 which now makes more than 10% of solid waste in most of the urban area throughout the world

A proper waste collection service was first instigated in the Cape Colony10 in 1786, and by the 1820s a regular waste collection, using animal-drawn carts, was established (CSIR 2000). At the beginning of modernization in Japan, waste was treated by waste generators or by private waste treatment operators. These private operators collected waste and selected valuables to sell them for profits. Waste was habitually dumped by waste treatment operators on roadsides or vacant stacks and was piled up in unsanitary conditions due to which various infectious illnesses used to spread. Therefore, the Waste Cleaning Act was enacted in 1900 in Japan order to improve public health. The Act defined the collection and disposal of waste as the responsibility of municipalities and placed waste treatment operators under the supervision of government agency to establish a waste administration system. But the waste materials were piled up out in the open beside continuously burned (Ministry of the Environment, Japan 2014). SWM made its entry in many ‘municipal acts’ throughout the world. The first human-made plastic was invented in the mid-nineteenth century which now makes more than major part of solid waste in most of the urban area throughout the world (Fig. 1.13). Low density polyethylene was invented in 1942 and first garbage bag was made in 1950 (Jacqueline 2009). During the post-war period, to effectively solve problems of urban waste, the Japanese government enacted the Public Cleansing Act in 1954(Ministry of the Environment, Japan 2014). The global population in 1810 touched 1000 million, during which there were seven cities in England with population more than 50,000. By 1811 England had eight cities with population of more than 50,000, and by 1821, there were twelve. At the conclusion of the nineteenth century one third of the population in England lived in a town (Scull 1993). London which had a population of 840,000 in 1801 grew to more than a million people by 1811. During this period waste was collected 10

Also known as the Cape of Good Hope, was a British colony in present-day South Africa

14

1 Introduction

by "dustmen" in London was recovered/recycled/reused by manual segregation in "dust-yards"(Velis et al, 2009). Edwin Chadwick’s Report of an Inquiry into the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain in 1874 linked diseases to filthy environmental conditions. In the same year in Nottingham, England, municipal solid waste (MSW) was systematically incinerated for the first time. The Public Health Act of 1875 was enacted in Britain to give authority for waste collection. The bins were used to store waste and emptied weekly. About 250 giant burn plant called destructors were built all over Britain which led to floating of ash and burnt paper all over the country. Around 1757 first street cleaning service was introduced, and public were encouraged to dig pits to dispose their solid waste. The first waste incinerator was built in Governor’s Island, New York 1885. Waste reduction set up in the USA in the year 1896 and New York opened first waste recycling plant in USA in 1899. The early use of incinerators in the USA was a failure due to faulty design and construction and hence 102 of the 180 incinerators installed in the USA between 1885 and 1908 were deserted by 1904 (Wilson 1986; Blumberg and Gottlieb 1989, John 2005). The population became 1608 million in 1900 AD. The USA’s first major aluminium-recycling plants were opened in Cleveland and Chicago in the year 1904. More than 100 incinerators were closed in the USA in 1909 due to noxious smoke but by 1914 more than 300 incinerators were functioning in 1914 in the USA and Canada for combustion of waste. Sanitary landfill was introduced in England for disposal of solid waste in 1912. The city of Olympia, USA, started paying for aluminum cans in 1954. The USA enacted first SWM law in 1965. Spread of AIDS caused flourishing of disposable needles. Dumping waste in ocean, wetlands, waste land was common practice in Europe during 1908. While USA collected 71% of solid waste in 161 large cities, small towns and cities continued feeding waste to pigs. The first aluminum recycling plant commissioned in Cleveland and Chicago. Cities of the USA begin switching from horse-drawn to motorized waste collection equipment during 1916 and using wetlands for disposal of waste becomes popular during 1920s followed by banning of MSW dumping into oceans by supreme court of USA in 1934. In the 1920s of mechanical transport in SWM in South Africa was introduced (CSIR 2000). The palace, forts and religious place like temples in India were swept and kept clean but waste is not hauled to great extent it was composted or thrown away. While the dead animals and placenta are usually buried, the discarded butcher wastes were usually picked by birds or street dogs. The urbanization took a new dimension in British rules and cities grew. Institutional arrangement for the SWM by municipal authorities in India came into being in the eighteenth century British regime (Da et al. 2008). The king of Patiala in India converted cars into garbage vehicles in 1930.

1.5 Waste Management in Post-industrialization Era

15

100 cities in the US were using sanitary landfills around 1945. After the World War II, open burning dumps and backyard waste burning was prohibited in most areas. Consumerism becomes high and America was named as “throwaway society”. Disposal of packaging material increased by 67% after World War II, with consumerism and obsolescence becoming entrenched in now developed countries. Clean Air Act is passed in Britain in 1956 replacing solid fuel used for heating house by with gas and electricity. Waste Management Act was passed in Japan in 1970 (which was revised in 1976, 1991, 1997, 2000, 2003 to 2006, 2010) (Ministry of the Environment, Japan 2014). With Solid Waste Disposal Act in the USA, the government placed emphasis on inventory, recovery, and research and solid waste grants. Concept of the “transfer station” was introduced during this period. The UN’s first major conference on international environmental issues was attended by the representatives of 113 countries. ‘The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment’ held in Stockholm, Sweden held in 1972 marked a turning point in SWM. White goods increased many folds during the period (Fig. 1.14), affluence also contributed to new wastes which were not generated earlier (Fig. 1.15). Invention of radioactive substances generated radioactive wastes. Plague causes widespread havoc in India and Vietnam in twentieth century with confirmed and suspected human cases touching 28,530 with 2015 deaths during the year 1994–2003 (Thomas 2009). Plague hits Surat in India in 1994 due to which the city authorities took extensive measures with respect to SWM. Asia witnessed the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) outbreak and avian flu from birds to humans. Millions of fouls were killed, and biomedical waste attracted special attention. The COVID 19 pandemic affected all over the world killing several people and affecting global economy discussed in detail in Chaps. 6 and 11. Fig 1.14 White goods have increased many fold in the present century

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1 Introduction

Fig 1.15 Affluence has resulted in ‘use and through’ culture

Scientific progresses lead to invention of numerous chemicals/merchandise and innovation in electronics and computer science lead to generation of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE). The rich countries started smuggling out the waste to poor which ultimately ended in formation of international laws to combat trans-boundary movement of waste beside countries banning import of waste (Box 1.1). Box 1.1 Operation Green Fence and Operation National Sword ’Operation Green Fence’ was introduced in 2013 to curb flow of contaminated, poor-quality scrap into China (Balkevicius et al., 2020). China issued the ‘Waste Ban’ on the import of 24 categories of solid waste in 2017 under ‘Operation National Sword’ (Luo et al 2023). In February 2013, China launched ’Operation Green Fence’in an attempt to enforce existing waste import quality regulations that lasted 10 months until the 31st of November 2013 (Balkevicius et al., 2020). With fulfilment of basic needs food, clothing shelter civilisation started spending on tourism and entertainment which generates huge waste. Film example film industry generates waste in the following activities: 1. Film Production a. b. c. d.

Food for production team Makeup Production consumables Transportation

1.5 Waste Management in Post-industrialization Era

i. Waste from repair cleaning e. Creation and destruction of temporary structures for shooting f. Editing and voice/music recording g. Stunts i. Explosives ii. Damaged vehicles, items and temporary structure 2. Promotion a. Posters b. Events i Food waste ii. Setting stage for promotion 3. Screening a. Cleaning b. Selling/consuming snacks c. Power backup i. Use of battery ii. Use of diesel generator d. Selling ticket e. WEEE from repair and end of life electronic equipment Similarly, sports industry generates waste from following activity 1. Production/packing/selling of sports goods 2. Used damaged sports goods during practice/event 3. Promotion a. Posters b. Events i. Food waste ii. Setting stage for promotion 4. Event a. b. c. d.

Construction/maintenance of stadium, sports village Cleaning Selling/consuming snacks Power backup i. Use of Battery ii. Use of Diesel generator e. Selling ticket f. WEEE from repair and end of life electronic equipment g. Single used goods used for cheering 5. Transportation of sports goods, spectators, players, construction material

17

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1 Introduction

Future The global population was projected to reach about 8.5 billion in 2030, 9.7 billion in 2050 and 10.4 billion in 2100 due to declining levels of mortality and increase in life expectancy at birth (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division 2022). Global economy saw turning point due to COVID-19 infections, lingering supply-chain constraints, persistent labour market challenges, and rising inflationary pressures. Last two decades saw significant increase in disaster events per year. Medium- and large-scale disasters averaged around 90–100 per year from 1970 to 2000 but such events increased to 350–500 per year between 2001 and 2020 which included earthquakes, tsunamis, climate- and weather-related disasters, volcanoes, and outbreaks of biological hazards that includes crop pests and epidemics(United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction 2022). Scaling up the circular economy and decoupling economic growth from resource use, ensuring the long-term competitiveness has been the global mantra to combat resource crunch, combat climate change and economic prosperity. Products’ environmental impacts can be determined at the design phase, the linear pattern of “take-make-use-dispose” generates more waste and burden to society. Many products are made for single use only while several products break down too quickly and cannot be easily repaired reused, or, recycled. As per a new Circular Economy Action Plan for a cleaner and more competitive Europe, appropriate ways to regulate the following aspects include (European Commission 2020): • improving product durability, reusability, upgradability and reparability, addressing the presence of hazardous chemicals in products, and increasing their energy and resource efficiency; • increasing recycled content in products, while ensuring their performance and safety; • enabling remanufacturing and high-quality recycling; • reducing carbon and environmental footprints; • restricting single-use and countering premature obsolescence; • introducing a ban on the destruction of unsold durable goods; • incentivising product-as-a-service or other models where producers keep the ownership of the product or the responsibility for its performance throughout its lifecycle; • mobilising the potential of digitalisation of product information, including solutions such as digital passports, tagging and watermarks; • rewarding products based on their different sustainability performance, including by linking high performance levels to incentives. Further as per the action Plan European Commission will enable greater circularity in industry by: • assessing options for further promoting circularity in industrial processes; • developing an industry-led reporting and certification system

1.6 Integrated Solid Waste Management

19

• supporting the sustainable and circular bio-based sector through the Bioeconomy Action Plan; • promoting the use of digital technologies for tracking, tracing and mapping of resources; and • promoting the uptake of green technologies. Though SWM issues can be addressed, the challenges ahead include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Increasing waste scams and environmental crime across the world (Chap. 17), Growing unaccounted and undeclared legacy waste across the globe (Chap. 16), Global increasing waste due to disasters (Chap. 13), Absence of SWM laws, and Poor enforcement of SWM laws.

Private sector has huge interest in SWM. The private sector is benefiting from solid waste as it gets following business: • Supply of vehicle, machinery, tools, consumables even in places where government is totally managing waste, • Public Private Participation (PPP) has attracted huge interest amongst private entrepreneurs to involve in SWM, • Depleting minerals and other natural resources will make waste mining/recycling attractive option to get raw material, • Requirement of local/international laws, international standards/accreditation, compels countries to adopt proper SWM, • Increase in Public Interest Litigation (PIL), people’s movement, eco-terrorism would pressurise governments to take action with respect to SWM. High-fertility nations in sub-Saharan Africa will experience a rapid rise in the population. Informal sector will play major role in SWM in developing nations which consists of a number of waste pickers, individuals, who engage in collection, sorting, recovery, and valorisation. Youth population in the more developed nations has been declining. Hence, an array of new startups and innovation has begun in the application of robotics, pneumatic waste collection, internet of things (IoT), mobile app, smart waste collection, artificial intelligence, advanced recycling in SWM sector.

1.6 Integrated Solid Waste Management Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) is comprehensive SWM which includes prevention, recycling, treatment, and disposal program. ISWM planning should consider institutional, financial, economic, social, legal, technical, and environmental factors. Fig. 1.16 shows schematic diagram of components of ISWM and Fig. 1.17 shows ISWM planning process.

20

1 Introduction

Prevension

Disposal

Integrated Solid Waste Management

Recycling

Fig. 1.16 Components of integrated SWM

Identify needs

Evaluate the system

Review Existing system/legislation

Develop and implment ISWM system

Establish objectives

Identify components/options

Fig. 1.17 Integrated SWM planning process

1.7 Waste Prevention and Life Cycle Assessment

21

The sustainable SWM is necessary from planning to design, to commission, to operation, to shut down, and to decommissioning. Hence, the range of new and existing SWM technologies and strategies have also spanned from preserving environmental quality as on date to meet goals of sustainability in the future (Pires et al. 2010). Integrated solid waste manage should integrate: (1) Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA); (2) forecasting waste generation trends; (3) Material Flow Analysis (MFA); (4) Life Cycle Assessment; (5) Risk Assessment (RA); (6) Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA); (7) Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA); (8) Socioeconomic Assessment (SoEA), and (10) Sustainable Assessment (SA).

1.7 Waste Prevention and Life Cycle Assessment Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a methodology for assessing environmental impacts connected with all the stages of the life cycle of a product, process, or service. Fig. 1.18 shows the life cycle assessment of syringe and needle. Widely recognized procedures for conducting LCAs are: • ISO 14040: 2006 Environment management—Life cycle assessment—Principles and framework

Waste transportation and disposal

Mutilation of used sharp and syringe for material recycling

A t/year

Plastic and metal

Raw Material F t/year

B t/year G t/year

E t/year

Used sharp and sysringe storage

Syringe and needle H t/year B t/year D t/year

Injection

Fig. 1.18 Life cycle of syringe and needle

C t/year

Distribution

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1 Introduction

• ISO 14044: 2006 Environment management—Life cycle assessment—Requirements and guidelines. LCA is based on four main phases: (1) goal and scope, (2) inventory analysis, (3) impact assessment, and (4) interpretation. Goal and scope define the aims of the study. The Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) involves the data collection and the calculation procedure. In the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) phase, LCI results are linked to environmental impact categories in addition to indicators. In the Life Cycle Interpretation phase, results from LCI and LCIA are interpreted.

1.8 Producers Responsibility The term extended producer responsibility was first used in Sweden and the concept has been adopted in many countries. The producer responsibility was introduced in Sweden by law in 1994. The Producer Responsibility Obligations (Packaging Waste Regulations) 2008 in the UK are intended to achieve the minimize/recover/recycle packaging waste. The concept of EPR has entered into legislation pertaining to SWM across the world even though in practice it is yet to witness complete success. The important characteristic of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) policies is that responsibility for a product’s environmental impacts at the end of life is placed on the original producer/seller. EPR is an extension of the "polluter pays" principle and aims to ensure producers to take responsibility for those products which have reached the end of life. The intention of placing such responsibility is to make producers necessary arrangements to reduce waste by improving product recyclability/reusability. The German packaging “take-back” law was based on the EPR principle. Measures to be taken for EPR includes: (1) improving product recyclability/ reusability, (2) downsizing products, (2) reducing material usage, and (2) engaging “design for environment” (DfE) activities. The common instruments for achieving EPR are: (1) Product take-back mandate, (2) Recycling rate targets (RRT), (3) RRT, with tradable recycling credit scheme, (4) Voluntary product take-back with RRT, (5) Advance recycling fees(ARF), (6) ARF combined with a recycling subsidy, (7) Landfill bans, (8) Pricing of waste collection/ disposal, (9) Recycling subsidies, (10) Recycling investment tax credits.

1.9 Solid Waste Mangement and Regulation

23

1.9 Solid Waste Mangement and Regulation Law with respect to nuisance was considered as a local or regional phenomenon until the world conference organized by the UN in Stockholm in 1972 gave it a global dimension. Awareness, incentives, warning and punitive action are the main components in implementation of pollution control legislation (Fig. 1.19). Environmental Rule of Law - First Global Report (UNEP 2019) finds weak enforcement to be a worldwide trend since 1972 (discussed in detail in Chap. 12). Although there are abundant laws for the developed countries since more than a century, there is no uniform enforcement (Garbutt 1995; Lieberman 1994). Enforcement of legislation about waste in the developing world is the major problem (Ajomo 1992; Adewale 1996; Onibokun et al. 1999). As shown in Fig. 1.20 regulatory issues in SWMinclude social issues like child labour. Developing the world employs substantial number of youngsters in SWM due to cheap labour.

1.9.1 Need for Regulation Unlike historic days many nations have separate legislative, executive and judiciary system. Even though a loophole within this system exists, the country makes a law to impress the international community. Keeping all the negative aspects of system aside, the country needs regulation of solid waste for following reasons: Fig. 1.19 Driving wheels of pollution control legislation

Awareness

Incentive

Warning and punitive action

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1 Introduction

Fig. 1.20 Regulatory issues in solid waste management does not deal only with waste management but also with other social issues like child labour as well

• • • • • •

To guide the stakeholder about their responsibility, To monitor the waste regulating activity, To maintain records about past waste regulation and improvements thereupon, To bring in an amendment to existing legislation, To form basis for citizens and NGOs to approach judiciary system, and To have a permitting system in place.

But enacting acts and passing rules would not make things better. There needs to be substantial and clear communication with all stakeholders. As shown in Fig. 1.21 a large banner not to put garbage and applicable fine has resulted in desired result.

Fig. 1.21 Example of effective communication through better communication

1.9 Solid Waste Mangement and Regulation

25

1.9.2 International Regulations The 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment led to the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). After the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, several nations made an intensive effort to enact environmental laws, establish environment ministries/ agencies, and preserve environmental rights/protections in their national constitutions. By the 2012 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, the focus was on implementation of these laws where progress has decreased (UNEP 2019). International waste traders have passed on large quantities of wastes to developing countries. The main reason could be attributed to economic imbalance; weak enforcement of environmental laws; absence of ethics among traders; absence of environmental concern; easy and cheap recycling. Scrap metal from developed countries have great demand in developed countries where there is huge number of foundries operated at lower cost due to availability of cheap labour, and energy. The Basel Convention, which was adopted on 22 March 1989 to stop movement of hazardous waste from one country to other country. The Final Act of the Basel Convention was signed by 105 States, and European Community. The Convention entered into force on 5 May 1992. Many countries have now passed legislation enlisting waste that cannot be imported into their territory. Many international laws require the states to license potentially harmful activities: • Oslo Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by dumping waste from Aircraft and Ships; • Bonn Convention on Protection of the Rhine against Chemical Pollution; • Paris Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources; • London Dumping Convention; • Basel Convention on Hazardous Waste; • Bamako Convention on Hazardous Waste in Africa; • Antarctic Treaties; • Regional Seas Agreements; • ASEAN Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources; and • African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. The Convention on the control of trans-boundary movements of hazardous waste and their disposal (22 March 1989), or the Basel Convention, was initiated in response to several international scandals regarding hazardous waste trafficking in the late 1980s. The Convention entered into force in 1992 and amended on 22 September 1995 and re-amended it on 10 December 1999. The Convention on the ban of import into Africa and the control of trans-boundary movement and management of hazardous waste within Africa (29 January 1991) also known as Bamako Convention, places a total ban on the import of hazardous waste to signatory countries.

26

1 Introduction

In an attempt to ban the importation and control hazardous wastes in the region, Waigani Convention was adopted in 1995 to ban the importation into forum island countries of hazardous and radioactive wastes and to control the transboundary movement and management of hazardous wastes within the south pacific region. Dumping of MSW in ocean is banned/restricted by legislation in most of Africa due to the London Dumping Convention of 1972 as well as Bamako conventions 1989. In spite of such legislation dumping still occurs in larger coastal cities of Africa (African Development Bank 2002). In September 2015, the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit adopted a new framework to guide development efforts from 2015 to 2030, entitled “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development”. The 2030 Agenda contains 17 SDGs, divided into 169 targets, which are informed by 247 indicators. Out of 17 SDGs Goals 11, 12, 14 are related to solid wastes (Table 1.1).

1.9.3 Regulation in Different Countries Globally environmental laws have grown noticeably since 1972 after international after United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. As of 2017, 150 countries have included environmental protection or the right to a healthy environment in their constitutions; 176 countries have environmental framework laws; and 164 countries have created cabinet-level bodies responsible for environmental protection (UNEP 2019). But, too often, implementation and enforcement of these laws falls far short to address environmental challenges and sometimes deficient in clear standards or necessary mandates beside some are not tailored to national/local contexts and thus fail to address the conditions on the ground. Besides this, decriminalization of environmental crime is considered to be appropriate in some countries (Box 1.2). Box 1.2 Decriminalization of Environmental Laws India The six waste management rules in India notified under The Environmental Protection Act, 1986. The punishment for violation attracts imprisonment or fine or both. The penalty of imprisonment and fine has to be decided by judiciary. A total of 992 cases were filed in 2020 under the said act totaling 1161 cases including cases pending from previous years (National Crime Records Bureau 2020)). Government of India is under consultation process to decriminalize environmental laws. According to the proposed changes, person not complying with the Act will be liable to pay fine. Normally laws at national level are formed through Acts and Rules. Acts at national level are offspring of national constitution and anything said in act should not be against constitution. The acts are formally enacted in parliament or assembly by

1.9 Solid Waste Mangement and Regulation

27

Table 1.1 SDGs related to solid wastes Sustainable Development goal

Target

Indicator

Goal 11: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable

Target 11.6: by 2030, reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by paying special attention to air quality, municipal and other waste management

Indicator 11.6.1: Proportion of urban solid waste regularly collected and with adequate final discharge out of total urban solid waste generated, by cities

Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns

Target 12.3: By 2030, halve Indicator 12.3.1: Global per capita global food waste at Food Loss and Waste the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses. Target 12.4: By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment

Indicator 12.4.1: Compliance with the Basel Convention on Hazardous Waste and Other Chemicals Indicator 12.4.2: Hazardous waste generated per capita, and proportion of hazardous waste treated, by type of treatment

Target 12.5: By 2030, Indicator 12.5.1: National substantially reduce waste recycling rate, tons of generation through prevention, material recycled reduction, recycling and reuse Goal 14: Conserve and Target 14.1: By 2025, prevent Indicator 14.1.1: Index of sustainably use the oceans, sea and significantly reduce coastal eutrophication and and marine resources for marine pollution of all kinds floating plastic debris density sustainable development

legislative wing of government. Rules are framed afterwards considering the provisions within the parent act. Rules cannot have provisions which are not there in its parent act (act under which rules are framed). National environmental legislation in their preambles lay out definitions of important words, terminologies and concepts. Later the purpose of legislation is explained followed by elaboration of law. The laws will fix responsibility to concerned authorities and stakeholders. The penal action for violation of responsibility will be made part of environmental legislation for enforcement. If penal provisions are not present in the rules, then reference is made to its parent act.

28

1 Introduction

Fig. 1.22 Hierarchy of legal instruments

Constitution Acts Rules/Regulations/Notification/Orders/ by-laws Clarifications, Circulars, Office Memorandums, Proceedings

Governments are monopoly suppliers of laws and there are various reasons for formulation and enforcing national regulation. The Philippines enacted the Ecological SWM Act during the year 2001 after collapse of dumpsite which resulted in more than 200 deaths in the Payatas in 2000 (UN-Habitat, 2010). Malaysia enacted 2007 SWM and Public Cleansing Act in 2007 in order to federalize SWM and progress the nation to status of a developed country by 2020. When dealing with pollution and solid wastes, one should have knowledge of applicable multiple laws all applicable legal instruments (Fig. 1.22). Constitution in a country is the apex instrument against which no act can be passed. All provision within any instruments subsequent to an act should be in accordance with the act. Environmental compliance demands a keen knowledge of all the environmental laws in the nation. Over the year governments have passed arrays of legislation after the governments have gained knowledge of shortfalls within the existing legislation. Beside federal as well as regional laws Urban Local Bodies (ULB) will make and enforce own by-laws applicable to its jurisdiction. Waste legislation elaborates the responsibility of two set of stakeholders, namely, (1) regulators, and (2) waste managers. Legislations adopted by some of the nations are given in Table 1.2. The reasons could be one or many of the following issues: • • • •

Corruption(government/corporate) (Fig. 1.23), Defaulter will not be punished due to lack of evidence, Delay in hearing and disposal of cases in court of law with respect to waste, Enforcing agency itself is controlled by numerous other legislations (for recruitment, financial auditing, right to information, labor related legislation) and hence much of the resource is spent on other legal issues rather than concentrated efforts on SWM, • Fear amongst the officials of enforcing agency to take action against business belonging to people in power, • Frequent transfers of officials in enforcing agencies,

1.9 Solid Waste Mangement and Regulation

29

Table 1.2 Legislations in various countries Sl. No.

Country

Legislations

1

Australia

Hazardous Waste (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act, Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery Act, The Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery Levy Act, The Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery Regulations, The Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery Levy Regulations

2

Austria

Waste Management Act

3

Azerbaijan

The Law of Azerbaijan Republic on Industrial and Domestic Waste

4

Bangladesh

Bangladesh Environmental Conservation Act

5

Cambodia

Sub-Decree on Solid Waste Management No.36 ANRK.BK.

6

China

Solid Waste Disposal Act; Toxic Substance Management Act

7

China

Law on Prevention of Environmental Pollution

8

India

Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, Biomedical Waste Management Rules, Solid Waste Management Rules, e-waste (Management) Rules, Plastic Waste Management Rules

9

Ireland

Circular Economy and Miscellaneous Provisions Act

10

Iran

The Law of Protection and Improvement of the Environment

11

Kiribati

Special Fund (Waste Material Recovery) Act

12

Malaysia

Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities/Environmental Impact Assessment) Order

13

Mongolia

Law on Household and Industrial Waste, Law on the import, export and cross-border transport of hazardous waste

14

Marshall Islands

Solid Waste Regulations

15

Nepal

The Environmental Protection Act

16

Palau

Solid Waste Management Regulations

17

Papua New Guinea

Dumping of Wastes at Sea Act

18

Philippines

Ecological Solid Waste Management Act, Republic Act No. 9003, Toxic Substances & Hazardous & Nuclear Wastes Control Act, Republic Act No. 6969, Penalty for Improper Garbage Disposal Presidential Decree No. 825, Anti-Dumping Act

19

Scotland

The Waste (Scotland) Regulations

20

South Africa

The National Environmental Management Act

21

Tonga

Waste Management Act

22

Uzbekistan

Joint Regulation of the Committee of Environment

23

UK

Waste (England and Wales) Regulations; The Waste Management Licensing Regulations

24

USA

The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, Medical Waste Tracking act, National Environmental Policy Act

30

1 Introduction Reason for demand from superiors

•Promotion •Transfer/posting •Withholding/withdrwaing suspension order departmental enquiry •Goodwill amount to political parties •Arrange parties get-together for networking

Reason for demand from family •Urge to leave better •Increase in unexpected legal/hospital/education expenses •Rise in living expenses •Adoption of lifestyle which demands money beyond legal income

Reason for demand from subordinates (drivers, field staff, office staff) •Demand to provide them extra money apart from salary for better cooperation

Fig. 1.23 Driving forces for corruption

• • • • • • • • • • •

Inability of press and other media to report improper SWM, Inability to hire services of competent knowledgeable advocates/experts, Inability to train personnel, Law implementing/enforcing officer will be political nominee who yields and accepts political intervention, Legislations are made to impress international community instead of for enforcing for the benefit of country, Loopholes within the legislation, Loss of manpower due to leave availed by waste managing and enforcing personnel, Manpower on records being different from that in reality due to leaves availed by staff, Misuse of office vehicle, equipment and other resources by higher officials and people’s representatives, No respect or less respect to the law of land, Officers of enforcing and waste managing agencies are often deputed for – Cultural/sports events, and – To attend personal and family needs of people in power

• • • • • •

Politics among the employees within the enforcing agencies, Political equation11 which tends to create poor workforce Poor administration, Poor infrastructure and absence of funds for SWM, Position of a waste managing officials being more than that of enforcing officials, Pressure on officials to provide business to relatives and friends of people in higher position, • Promotion of corrupt and incapable persons within the enforcing agencies and denying growth opportunities to honest and knowledgeable persons, • Recruitment of incapable persons, 11

Broad term often used in literature to cite interference in administration for benefit of politicians.

1.9 Solid Waste Mangement and Regulation

31

• • • •

Shyness to acquire and adopt technology, SWM may not be priority, Threat to waste managing and enforcing officers from rich contractors, Transfer of officials from enforcing agency to SWM agency and vice versa resulting in poor enforcement, and • Unethical accounting like reporting more vehicles and expenditure than actually been used/hired. Apart from the above, there could be many other reasons which are beyond understanding of experts that are not reported/published due to which international community is still unable to find a full proof solution. Fig. 1.24 shows support required by legislative, executive and judiciary wings of government to protect environment. The mere passing of a legislation to convince international community does not protect environment. Similarly, if judiciary drags the case dozens of years instead of interpreting and passing verdict at right time, environment will be affected. On the other hand, executive wing should act upon the culprits to safeguard environment instead of just collecting ‘rent for not acting’ due to interlinking amongst politician, businessmen and bureaucrat (Fig. 1.25). Fig. 1.24 Tripod model of interdependency of Legislative, Executive and Judiciary wings of government in supporting environment

Environment

Judiciary

Legislative Executive

Fig. 1.25 Interlinking amongst politician, businessmen and bureaucrat

Politician

Businessmen

Bureaucrat

32

1 Introduction

Gaoussou and Sebastien (2011) suggested effectiveness of regulatory institutions depends on: (i) firm’s environmental noncompliance as well as petty corruption (firm-inspector relation); and (ii) judicial efficiency. There is a rise in waste/pollution in developing countries due to relocation of industries from developed countries due to lower environmental standards, and cheap labour. As a result, there is a rise in waste in these ‘pollution heavens’. Corruption and rent-seeking actions in many countries have paralyzed the environmental legislation copied from elsewhere. Pollution levels consequent to corrupt behavior are above the socially optimal level (Ram´on and Siddhartha, 2000). Environmental legislation is of two types namely (1) resource/wildlife conservation, and (2) Pollution/waste control laws. But, the procedure followed in punitive procedure for proving the crime and identifying culprit before taking punitive action is quite different than that of the procedure followed in conventional crime. Figure 1.26 shows punitive procedure in case of conventional crime. Figure 1.27 depicts punitive procedure in case of pollution/waste related environmental crime. In case of conventional crime like murder, robbery, violence the police will take evidence and take suspecting people into custody and produce before court. It is quite common all over the world to give third degree punishments like physical assault of suspect while investigating conventional crime compelling him/her to accept the crime. Suspects are also killed some time in encounter during investigation or afterwards. In case of pollution/waste related environmental crimes, suspects are not taken into custody. Suspects will neither be given third degree treatment or killed in encounters. The culprits will be given ample opportunities under principle of natural justice. The culprits will be issued notice seeking reasons why action should not be taken against them. Such notices which are called ‘Showcause Notice’ will provide time to criminal to rectify fault or time to think to about reason. Apart from the notice the pollution/waste related environmental criminals are also personally heard by

Informaton

Inspection and evidence collection

Arresting Culprit

First Informaton report

Take culprit into custody

Third degree treatment to culprit (Optional)

Producing culprit before court

Judgement

Punishment as per judgement

Third degree treatment or encounter (Optional)

Fig. 1.26 Punitive procedure in case of conventional crime

1.10 Framework for SWM

33

Informaton

Inpspetcion and evidence collection

Give directions to culprit and other agencies only in case of emergency

Issue notice and conduct personal hearing as per principle of natural justice

Give directions to culprit and other agencies

Lodge case in court of law

Judgement

Punishment as per judgement

Fig. 1.27 Punitive procedure in case of pollution/waste related environmental crime

enforcing authority prior to initiating action except in highly exceptional cases (like pollution which might have affected people/environment significantly).

1.10 Framework for SWM In the tremendously competitive world of business framework for SWM depends on the development of a nation, type of solid waste and quantity of solid waste generation. The framework used in urban SWM depends on the population of the urban area. The collection and transportation of waste will become more complicated with augment in size of urban area. Industries and major commercial operations often will have private arrangements for the many of the waste generated by him. Local bodies often will not have capability to accept hazardous, radioactive and infectious waste which needs to be disposed within captive facility of common disposal facilities. The SWM becomes complicated if the cities have grown without proper planning. Many of industrial clusters in developing countries, which were in the outskirts of cities decades ago, are now at the centre of the cities due to growth of urban bodies over the time making it difficult to haul waste in through thickly populated residential or commercial area. A SWM system comprises a few or all of the following actions: • Assessment of health and safety issues along with remedies,

34

1 Introduction

• Collection, transporting, treatment, disposal of waste and marketing recovered materials, • Creating awareness to all stake holders including generators and public, • Creating incentives, • Establishing prices for services, • Formation and enforcing laws, • Formulation of policies, • Identifying environmental damages and formulation of environmental management plan, • Incorporating emergency preparedness, • Involving private sector businesses, • Planning and evaluating activities including formulation of financial plans, • Safeguard livelihood of people who depend on solid waste,; and • Training to SWM staff. Material flow in a society will usually follow the illustration in Fig. 1.28. The Waste Management Hierarchy is shown in Fig. 1.29. Minimization, recovery and transformation, and disposal on land are implemented by most developed countries for developing solid waste management schemes. But avoiding waste is yet to gain its momentum. The waste avoidance can occur by banning the product which is not environmentally friendly or good for society. Examples of such items include intoxicating drugs, cigarettes, alcohol, crackers etc. Many parts of the world have banned many items. Gujarat state in India has put total ban on selling and consumption of alcohol. The degree to which any one alternative is utilised in a nation largely depends on a numerous factors like transportation, population density, topography, socioeconomic and environmental regulations (Sakai et al. 1996).

1.10.1 Elements of a Waste Management System SWM is a multidimensional issue that incorporates political, environmental, institutional, social, and economic aspects. Improving SWM in developing nations requires efforts to raise public awareness, build expertise, increase funding, and invest in infrastructure. To make progress communities need to embrace new systems for SWM that are contextually integrated, complex, participatory, and adaptive (McAllister 2015). For SWM to be successful its elements need to be properly linked with interrelated elements. The key elements of SWM are (a) policy, law and planning, (b) waste handling, (c) training, (d) awareness, (e) safeguard livelihood incentives, and (f) emergency preparedness. The inter-relationship among the elements is shown in Fig. 1.30. Policy, law and planning are essential part of SWM as without them there would not be any clarity among the stakeholder about their roles and responsibility. People tend to dispose the waste indiscriminately in the absence of law. The laws would not act themselves and

1.10 Framework for SWM

35

Fig. 1.28 Material flow and generation of waste in society

Manufacturing

Consumer

Waste

Waste Disposal

Waste Recovery

Fig. 1.29 Waste management hierarchy

Avoid Reduce Recovery Reuse Recycle Disposal

needs proper implementation of waste handling for which the training is required for both enforcing as well as managing. Apart from training the waste generators needs wide awareness for changing their behaviour.

36

1 Introduction

Emergency preparedness Safegaurd lively hoodIncentives Awareness

Training Waste handling Policy, law and planning

Fig. 1.30 Elements of waste management

1.10.2 Stakeholders SWM is not a decretory activity with limited stake holders. It involves almost everyone in the world and organisations in almost all sectors. Figure 1.31 shows classification of stake holders in SWM.

Stake holders National Government

Private

NGO

International International agencies

Fig. 1.31 Classification of stake holders in SWM

Government

Private

NGO

1.11 Financial Issues in SWM

37

The stake holders at national level include (1) waste generators; (2) local bodies; (3) private waste handlers; (4) employees of local bodies and private waste handlers; (4) local, regional, national government; (5) Non-Government Organisation(NGO)s; (6) community based organisation; (7) industries that generate waste; (8) recycling industries; (9) commercial establishments; (10) waste pickers; (11) scrap dealers; (12) consultants; (13) financial institutions; (14) media; (15) Citizens; (16) Self Help Groups(SHG); and (17) waste processing and disposal organisations. The stake holders at international level include: (1) International Organisations; (2) International donor agencies and lending agencies; (3) International waste handling companies; (4) International NGOs; (5) Scrap importers and exporter; (6) Media; and (7) International consultants.

1.11 Financial Issues in SWM SWM is an expensive service. For cities in low-income countries, SWM expenditures, comprise 19 % of municipal budgets (Kaza 2018). Such estimation would clearly indicate the inefficiency of the systems adopted by local government in Asia. Like any business SWM expenditure and revenue. The expenditure in SWM includes capital investment and operational investment. The capital investment includes investment made on (1) waste collection equipment; (2) waste transportation vehicles; (3) land for waste disposal facilities; (4) waste handling equipment; (5) office building and equipment; (6) infrastructure like roads, electric connection, pollution control equipment; water supply to waste handling sites; and (7) investment towards safety, environment monitoring. Operational costs include expenditure accounted and unaccounted in official records. Major expenditure include: (1) Salary to waste handling staff and office staff; (2) stationary; (3) energy/fuel; (4) office stationary; (5) communication; (6) chemicals/other consumables; (7) training; (8) insurance; (9) statutory fees; (10) consultancy/auditor/ advocate/legal fees; (11) training; (12) vehicle maintenance; (13) equipment maintenance; (14) bribe to government agencies; (14) party funds for political parties; (15) payment/expenditure to local community to maintain good will; (16) payment to other organisations which may threaten the operators; (17) safety equipment; (18) environmental monitoring; (19) official travelling/ entertaining clients / entertaining government officials; (20) beverages and refreshments for stakeholders; (21) health check-up and vaccination of employees; (22) unforeseen expenditure due to accidents; (21) interest towards loans if any. Transportation is important expenditure in SWM.As per CPHEEO (2000) staff requirement for maintenance of vehicles would vary as depicted in Fig. 1.32. As shown in the figure expenditure towards maintenance will vary depending on the vehicles deployed for SWM. There will be need for additional specialised staff stores clerk and maintenance in-charge at the level of 50vehicles. Deployment of more vehicles would require more staff. There is also requirement of 30% extra number

38

1 Introduction

Fitters 6 Maintenance Incharge

5

Electricians

4 3 Store clerks

2

Tyre fitters

1 0

Number of Vehicles 50

25

Helpers/Cleaners

Body smith

10 5

Mechanics

Welder Supervisors

Fig. 1.32 Staff requirement for maintenance of vehicle

of vehicles as standby vehicles in order to replace vehicles which may breakdown or meet with accident. Revenue generation occurs by (1) collection, transportation and handling fee; (2) analysis fee; (3) subsidy; (4) financial assistance from government or international agency or others; and (5) revenue from selling recyclable/reusable material. Economics of solid waste can be made profitable with resource recovery and improving traditional waste collection. Copying models from other countries would only make SWM costlier and hence higher expenditure. Use of unsophisticated waste collection vehicle (like bicycle shown in Fig. 1.33) will not only save cost it will be eco-friendly as there would be reduction in carbon generation. Waste minimisation could achieve benefits listed below: • • • • • •

Recycling revenue; Increased profit; Reduced raw material costs; Reduced energy costs; Increased productivity; and Cost avoidance.

Sophestication of SWM like using sweeping vehicles as shown in Fig. 1.34 may result in unemployment and demand investment. Poor SWM would end up in dump site (Fig. 1.35) leading to impact on environment (discussed in detail in Chap. 12).

1.11 Financial Issues in SWM Fig. 1.33 Unsophisticated waste collection are some time economical and efficient as well

Fig. 1.34 Sophisticated waste collection like road sweeping vehicle may turn out be costly and take away existing jobs

Fig. 1.35 Solid waste management should just not end up in cleaning urban area but it should conclude in safe disposal of waste at disposal points too

39

40

1 Introduction

1.11.1 Capital Investment Capital investment towards SWM can be mobilised through grants, foreign aid, private investment, equities, debentures, bonds, loan, corporate social responsibility fund, user fee (discussed in detail in Chap. 18).

1.11.2 Operation and Maintenance SWM need funds for operation and maintenance which is raised through user fees, equities, debentures, bonds, loan, waste disposal fees, deposit-refund system (DRS), disincentives and fines (discussed in detail in Chap. 18).

1.12 Waste Generation—Rich Versus Poor Waste-generation can be correlated to indicators of affluence, energy consumption, and final consumption (Bingemer and Crutzen 1987; Rathje et al. 1992; Richards 1989; Mertins et al. 1999; US EPA 1999; OECD 2004). In the past few years, SWM in the world have involved complex and multifaceted trade-offs amid an excess of economic instruments, technological alternatives, and regulatory frameworks resulting in a variety of environmental, economic, and regulatory impacts. As evident from the Table 1.3 most of the waste in the world is generated from rich people. But ultimately the burden and impact are felt by all the people across the world.

1.13 Psychology and Waste Generation Unconscious mind is not the exception but is the rule (John and Ezequiel 2008). People decision to discard any substance which is registered as waste in his/her unconscious mind. As demonstrated in Fig. 1.36 the same object can be viewed differently by two individuals. Psychology and mindset of people depends on attitude, religion, self-efficacy, country, moral norm, social status, situation factor, food habit, concern for the community, economic status, and knowledge about environmental harms. Some examples of unconscious mind in the context of solid waste are: 1. Waste pickers consider components in waste heap which fetches him revenue as resource and immediately picks the item which he/she can sell 2. People show inhibition to use waste bins in most of the developing country and throw waste on street or the point of generation itself whereas throwing

1.13 Psychology and Waste Generation

41

Table 1.3 Income level and waste generation Income level

Example

Waste generation

Income lesser than price of nutritional requisite of family Rag pickers, 0 – 0.01 kg/ beggars, person/d Agricultural labours Income equal to cost of nutritional requisite family

Agricultural labours, micro entrepreneurs

Income exceeds nutritional requisite and afford minimum clothing

Household servants, 0.1 – 0.5 kg/ labours in person/d unorganised sectors

Income exceeds nutritional requisite and can afford minimum clothing and medicine

Servants in restaurants and unorganised sectors

0 – 0.1 kg/ person/d

0.5 –1.0 kg/ person/d

Income exceeds nutritional requisite and afford clothing, Farmer with low medicine, low-cost housing and public transportation land ownership, fishing community

1.0 – 5.0 kg/ person/d

Can afford housing, private transportation. Has sufficient savings and disposable income. Travels few times to far away destination in a year

People in organised sector

5.0-10.0 kg/ person/d

Can afford housing, private transportation. Hash high savings and disposable income. Travels once in month for fun. Travels once or twice to far away destination in a month for business and fun

Entrepreneurs, sports personality

10.0-20.0 kg/ person/d

Owns house in more than one place/country, private transportation, with very high savings disposable income. Travels extensively every week

High income entrepreneurs, politicians, sports personality, movie actors

>20.0 kg/ person/d

Fig. 1.36 Same object can be identified differently by unconscious mind of individual persons

Waste

Vegetarian

Dead fish

Food

Non-vegetarian

waste outside waste bin is considered uncivilised among most of the people from developed world. 3. People who eat worms, dog, cockroach, scorpions will consider rotten dead dog, spoiled worms/scorpions as food waste.

42

1 Introduction

Substantial research exists regarding the recycling behaviour of individuals Successful influencing using Behavioural Insights persuasive messages has identified six principles of influence (Cialdini 2009) two of these are important to the domain of waste source segregation: 1. Authority: Individuals are convinced by messages that are endorsed by trusted authority, e.g., When people are shown the opinion of a distinguished economist on an economic problem, people followed that opinion, without evaluating other relevant evidence (Engelmann et al. 2009). 2. Social Proof: People are influenced by similar others in taking a course of action. e.g.: British tax officials were able to get more tax revenues by including a message on tax recovery letters stating that most citizens do pay their taxes on time. Home energy report on average reduces 2% energy consumption by providing households with information on their past energy consumption and those of their neighbours (Allcott 2011). Capability intervention (Box 1.3) functions could be increasing knowledge or understanding, imparting skills, increasing means/reducing barriers to increase capability and opportunity. Box 1.3 Pilot Program of Waste Segregation in China—Case Study The Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of China launched a waste segregation program in June 2000 in 8 cities which was extended the 8 pilot cities to 26 cities wherein people could segregate their waste at home voluntarily and then send the segregated waste to separate containers in the community. People in cities that launched waste sorting scheme showed a 0.243 points increase in the frequency of waste sorting which continued to persist even thirteen years after the program was introduced (Zhijian and Xueyuan 2020). Among the various models for predicting the understanding of behavior, the COM-B (Short form for Capability, Opportunity, Motivation, and Behavior) model (Fig. 1.37) provides a simple framework for understanding behavior. Opportunity intervention (Box 1.4) functions could be changing the physical or social context and enablement, using laws to increase the target behavior by reducing the opportunity to engage in competing behaviors. Kuching South City, Sarawak, Malaysia witnessed improvement in community participation after bins and collection centers as well as regular collections were ensured (Otitoju and Seng 2014).

References

Capability (Education, Training, and Enablement)

43

Restriction and Environmental restructuring)

(Persuasion, Incentivisation and compulsion)

Behavior

Fig. 1.37 Pictorial depiction of COM-B Model

Box 1.4 Choice Architecture Used for Garbage Bins during Kumbh 2019—Case Study Kumbh Mela or Kumbha Mela is a major pilgrimage and festival in Hinduism celebrated one in 12 years, at four river-bank pilgrimage sites: Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik, and Ujjain. In keeping with the goal of Swachh Kumbh in 2019, the Prayagraj Mela Authority deployed 20,000 dustbins during the Allahabad Kumbh Mela(Prayag Kumbh Mela) ensuring visible, regular, easy to access, as well as predictable availability of dustbins. The waste management services was operated around the clock to ensure there were no overflowing dustbins which was instrumental in responsible waste disposal behaviour by pilgrims at the event (Ramesh et al. 2021, Niti Ayog 2021).

References Adewale O (1996) Legal aspects of waste management in the petroleum industry. In: Aina EOA, Adedipe NO (eds) The Petroleum industry and the environmental impact in Nigeria. FEPA Monograph Series no. 5. Federal Environmental Protection Agency, Abuja, Nigeria, pp 210–220 African Development Bank (2002) Study on solid waste management options for Africa, Project Report, Final Draft Version Ajomo MA (1992) Legal and institutional issues of environmental management. In: Environmental consciousness for Nigerian national development. FEPA Monograph Series no. 3. Federal Environmental Protection Agency, Lagos, Nigeria, pp 213–230 Allcott H (2011) Social norms and energy conservation. J Public Econ 95(9–10):1082–1095 Balkevicius A, Sanctuary M, Zvirblyte S (2020) Fending off waste from the west: the impact of China’s operation green fence on the international waste trade. World Econ 43(10):2742–2761 Bilitewski BB, Hardtle G, Marek K (1997) Waste management. Springer, Berlin BingemerH G, Crutzen PJ (1987) The production of CH4 from solid wastes. J Geophys Res 92(D2):2182–2187 Blumberg L, Gottlieb J (1989) War on waste. Island Press, Washington, DC

44

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Böttcher C, Knobloch T, Rühl NP, Sternheim J, Wichert U, Wöhler J (2011) Munitionsbelastung der DeutschenMeeresgewässer - Bestandsaufnahme und Empfehlungen (Stand 2011). BSH, Hamburg, Rostock Cialdini RB (2009) Influence: science and practice, 5th edn. Pearson Education, Boston, p 2009 OSPAR Commission (2009) Assessment of the impact of dumped conventional and chemical munitions (update 2009). Publication Number: 365/2008 (update 2009). OSPAR Commission, London CPHEEO (Central Public Health & Environmental Engineering Organisation) (2000) Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) South Africa (2000) Guidelines for human settlement waste planning and design, vol II Da Z, Asnani PU, Zurbrügg C, Anapolsky S, Mani S (2008) Improving municipal solid waste management in India - a sourcebook for policy makers and practitioners. The World Bank Engelmann JB, Capra CM, Noussair C, Bern GS (2009) Expert financial advice neurobiologically “offloads” finanacial decision-making under risk. PLoS ONE 4(3):e4957 European Commission (2020) A new circular economy action plan for a cleaner and more competitive Europe, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, The Council, The European Economic And Social Committee and The Committee of the Regions, Brussels, 11.3.2020 COM(2020) 98 final Hall A (2008) Plague in London, a case study of the biological and social pressures exerted by 300 years of Yersinia pestis. Thesis on Master of Arts in History of Science, Oregon State University Gaoussou D, Sebastien M (2011) Environmental Compliance, corruption and governance: theory and evidence on forest stock in developing countries. Centred’Etudes et de Recherches sur le Développement International, Etudes et Documents, E 2011.01. http://www.cerdi.org/uploads/ ed/2011/2011.01.pdf. Downloaded on 19 Nov 2011 Garbutt J (1995) Waste management law: a practical handbook, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York, NY, p 247 IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (2000) Emissions scenarios. In: Nakicenovic N, Swart R (eds) Special report of the IPCC. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p 570 Jacqueline V (2009) Waste management: a reference handbook. ABC-CLIO John AB, Ezequiel M (2008) The unconscious mind. Perspect Psychol Sci 3(1):73–79 John P (2005) Waste management practices municipal, hazardous, and industrial. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group Kaza S, Yao L, Bhada-Tata P, Van WF (2018) What a waste 2.0: a global snapshot of solid waste management to 2050. World Bank Group, Washington, DC Kelly K (1973a) Garbage: the history and future of garbage in America. Saturday Review Press, New York Lieberman JL (1994) A practical guide for hazardous waste management, administration and compliance. CRC Press, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, p 239 Luo A, Rodríguez F, Leipold S (2023) Explanations of the political gridlock behind international circular economy: waste ban narratives in the China-EU cooperation. Ambio 52(1):126–139. Epub 2022 Jul 19. PMID: 35852705; PMCID: PMC9666588. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280022-01758-4 McAllister J (2015) Factors influencing solid-waste management in the developing world. A Plan B report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Geography, Utah State University Melosi MV (1981) Garbage in the cities. Texas A&M Press, College Station, Texas Mertins L, Vinolas C, Bargallo A, Sommer G, Renau J (1999) Development and application of waste factors - an overview. Technical report No. 37. European Environment Agency, Copenhagen. Ministry of the Environment, Japan (2014) History and current state of waste management in Japan. Ministry of the Environment, Japan Tokyo National Crime Records Bureau (2020) Crime in India 2020. National Crime Records Bureau, (Ministry of Home Affairs) Government of India, Delhi

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Nicholas PC (2003) Handbook of solid waste management and waste minimization technologies. Butterworth-Heinemann Niti Ayog (2021) Policy guidelines promoting behaviour change for strengthening waste segregation at source, November 2021. https://www.niti.gov.in/sites/default/files/2021-12/PromotingBehavi ourChange-forStrengtheningWasteSegregation-at-Source-PolicyGuidelines.pdf. Accessed 15 Aug 2022 OECD (2004) Towards waste prevention performance indicators. OECD Environment Directorate. Working Group on Waste Prevention and Recycling and Working Group on Environmental Information and Outlooks, p 197 Onibokun AG, Kumuyi AJ (1999) Governance and waste management in Africa. In: Onibokun AG (ed) Managing the monster: urban waste and governance in Africa.International Development Research Center, Ottawa, ON, Canada, pp 1–10 Otitoju TA, Seng L (2014) Municipal solid waste management: household waste segregation in Kuching South City, Sarawak, Malaysia. Am J Eng Res 2014:10 Pires A, Martinho G, Chang N (2010) Solid waste management in European countries: a review of systems analysis techniques. J Environ Manage 92:1033–1050 Priestley JJ (1968) Civiliation, water and wastes. Chemistry and Industry, pp 353–363 Ramesh G, Tripathi R, Raj P (2021) Kumbh 2019 an integrative assessment, 2021; Report submitted to Prayagraj Mela Pradhikaran Rathje WL, Hughes WW, Wilson DC, Tani MK, Archer GH, Hunt RG, Jones TW (1992) The archaeology of contemporary landfills. Am Antiq 57(3):437–447 Rathje WL (1990) The history of garbage. Garbage Pract J Environ (Special issue):32–39 Rawlinson J (1958) Singer C et al (eds) A history of technology, vol IV. Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK Richards K (1989) Landfill gas: working with Gaia. Biodeterioration Abstracts 3(4):317–331 Sakai S, Sawell SE, Chandler AJ, Eighmy TT, Kosson DS, Vehlow J, van der Sloot HA, Hartlen J, Hjelmar O (1996) World trends in municipal solid waste management. Waste Manage 16:341 Scull A (1993) The most solitary of afflictions. Madness and Society in Britain, 1700–1900. Yale University Press, New Haven and London, pp 26–33 Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (2022) Arms sales of SIPRI Top 100 arms companies grow despite supply chain challenges, 5 December 2022. https://www.sipri.org/ media/press-release/2022/arms-sales-sipri-top-100-arms-companies-grow-despite-supplychain-challenges. Accessed on 18 Feb 2023 Tammemagi H (1999) The waste crisis. Landfills, incinerators, and the search for a sustainable future. Oxford University Press, New York Thomas B (2009) Plague into the 21st century. Clin Infect Dis 49:736–742 UNEP (2019) Environmental rule of law first global report, Nairobi. UN-Habitat (2010) Solid waste management in the world’s cities water and sanitation in the world’s cities 2010 United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2022). World population prospects 2022: summary of results. UN DESA/POP/2022/TR/NO. 3. United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (2022). Global assessment report on disaster risk reduction 2022: our world at risk: transforming governance for a resilient future. Geneva. US EPA (1999) National source reduction characterization report for municipal solid waste in the United States. EPA 530R-99-034, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Washington DC Vanninen P, Östin A, Bełdowski J, Pedersen EA, Söderström M, Szubska M, Grabowski M, Siedlewicz G, Czub M, Popiel S, Nawała J, Dziedzic D, Jakacki J, P˛aczek B (2020) Exposure status of sea-dumped chemical warfare agents in the Baltic Sea. Marine Environ Res 161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.105112 Velis CA, David CW, Christopher RC (2009) 19th century London dust-yards: a case study in closedloop resource efficiency. Waste Manage 29(4): 1282–1290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman. 2008.10.018

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Vesilind PA, Worrell WA, Reinhart D (2002) Solid waste engineering. Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning, Pacific Grove, CA Vesilind PA, Worrell WA, Reinhart D (2002) Solid waste engineering. Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, CA Wilson DG (1977) Handbook of solid waste management. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, p 1977 Wilson DG (1986) History of solid waste management. The solid waste handbook: a practical guide. Wiley, New York, NY, p 1986 Zhijian Z, Xueyuan W (2020) Nudging to promote household waste source separation: mechanisms and spillover effects. Resour Conserv Recycl 162:105054 Zhongjun T, Xiaohong C, Jianghong L (2010) Determining socio-psychological drivers for rural household recycling behavior in developing countries: A case study from Wugan, Hunan, China. Environ Behav. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916510375681

Chapter 2

Waste Quantities and Characteristics

Waste quantities and characteristics are among the most important features to be considered for SWM. Global material consumption has risen by over 10 folds in the last century and human beings currently use about 60 billion tons of materials per year (Krausmann et al. 2009). To make things worse, some predictions (Allwood et al. 2011) show that by 2050 the demand for materials will at least double the present levels. Global waste is likely to grow to 3.40 billion tonnes by 2050 with waste generation in high-income nations is projected to rise by 19% by 2050, compared increase by more than three times in low-income countries. Total waste generation in sub-Saharan Africa; South Asia; and the Middle East and North Africa is expected to nearly triple, double, and double, respectively by 2050 (Kaza et al. 2018). New products wrapped with packaging materials, enhanced living standards, change in income and lifestyles practised by the affluent people have increased global waste quantity. However, as discussed in the subsequent sections in this chapter, the per capita waste quantity starts declining after it reaches a maximum which is specific to a country or region. This could be due to change in technology which would decrease the waste generation or change in the attitude of people or change in the purchase power or drop in the demand of the product. The USA which has the maximum cars per thousand people in the world would obviously generate less cars and wastes from car manufacturing compared to India and China, where there is more aspiration among the people to own private transport. SWM was not a major problem until the nineteenth century since the population was small, and the available land was very large. Nowadays, the population has grown and the waste more difficult to eliminate due to the high quantity of waste generated and also the heterogeneity of its composition. Regional waste generation per annum in million tons is shown in Fig. 2.1 (Kaza et al. 2018). As of 2018, the East Asia and Pacific regions were producing 23% of the waste generated in the world, whereas the Middle East and North Africa regions are generating 6%. Waste generation rate is growing the fastest in sub-Saharan Africa,

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6_2

47

48

2 Waste Quantities and Characteristics

2018

2012

468 392 334 289

270

231 160 93

East Asia Europe and South Asia and Pasific Central Asia

174 129 62

North America

Latin America & Caribbean

63

Sub Middle East Saharan & North Africa Africa

Fig. 2.1 Regional waste generation per annum in million tons

South Asia, and the Middle East North Africa regions, whereas, by 2050, total waste produces is likely to increase by two to three times (Kaza et al. 2018). Recyclables make up 16% in low-income nations, whereas recyclables form about 50% in high-income nations. More than 1/3rd of the waste in high-income nations is recovered through composting and recycling (Kaza et al. 2018).

2.1 Sources of Solid Waste The sources of solid waste include residential, agriculture, commercial, institutional, and industrial activities. Figure 2.2 shows some major sources of solid waste. SWM is one of the important services provided by most urban local bodies (ULBs) as well as rural local bodies (RLBs). The urban/rural divide is usually based on population within administrative boundary. As the population grows it is merged with ULB if it is adjacent to ULB. In case the village is away from ULB, then the village itself will qualify as ULB based on legislation of the country. Solid wastes need to be characterized by sources, generation rates, types of wastes produced, and composition in order to monitor and control prevailing SWM systems while improving the existing system. These data will help to make financial, regulatory, and institutional decisions. But, population explosion, migration, consumption pattern as well as invention of new materials have kept the quantities and characteristics changing over time.

2.1 Sources of Solid Waste

Fig. 2.2 a Sources of solid waste; b sources of solid waste; c sources of solid waste

49

50

Fig. 2.2 (continued)

2 Waste Quantities and Characteristics

2.2 Quantities and Composition

51

Fig. 2.2 (continued)

2.2 Quantities and Composition Waste composition depends on the economic activity of the region. Introduction/ change in law relates solid waste to increase resource recovery/conservation and environmental protection also has its impact on waste characteristics. Considering European consumption of textiles which is responsible for the fourth highest impact on the environment and climate change after food, housing and mobility EU Strategy for Sustainable and Circular Textiles to implement commitments made under the European Green Deal, the new Circular Economy Action Plan and the Industrial Strategy, proposes actions for the entire life cycle of textiles products, setting mandatory minimums for the inclusion of recycled fibres in textiles (European Commission 2022). Quantity and composition vary from country to country and place to place. With the world becoming more urbanized and developed, consumption levels are reaching historic levels resulting in a rapid upsurge in the quantity of solid waste generated. Having effective and sustainable waste management systems in place needs information on waste quantity and characteristics. Quantification of waste is not documented in several countries especially haphazardly thrown waste (Fig. 2.3). Due to the absence of exact records, quantification of waste is done based on estimations. As per Kaza et al. (2018), the world generated 0.74 kg/day/capita wastes in 2016. The national waste generation varied widely from 0.11 to 4.54 kg/day/capita. In 2016, about 2.01 billion tonnes of MSW were generated and under a business-asusual scenario is expected to grow to 3.40 billion tonnes by 2050. The quantity of waste generation in low-income countries is likely to rise by more than three times by 2050 (Kaza et al. 2018).

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2 Waste Quantities and Characteristics

Fig. 2.3 Haphazardly thrown wastes

As per Millati (2019), globally more than 10 billion tons of wastes as well as residuals are generated out of which agricultural waste is about 2 billion tons worldwide, whereas forest waste accounts for nearly 0.2 billion m3 , MSW, 1.7 billion tons, and, industrial waste, 9.1 billion tons. Information on the quantity of solid waste is required to make the following decisions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

To estimate crew size for collection of waste, To assess type and number of vehicles required to haul the waste, To locate the treatment and disposal site, To assess extent of area required for treatment and disposal site, To design the waste processing and disposal facility, To fix user fee and assess expenditure towards SWM, To assess value of scrap, compost, refuse-derived fuel (RDF) and arrangements to be made to market these items.

Information on the quantity and characteristics of solid waste is required to make the following decisions: 1. 2. 3. 4.

To evolve technology option to process the waste, To assess safety issues while managing the waste, To design the waste processing and disposal facility, To assess value of scrap, compost, refuse-derived fuel (RDF) and arrangements to be made to market these items.

Quantity and composition of solid waste vary from place to place. The MSW characteristics as well as quantity are a function of the lifestyle as well as living standard of the region’s inhabitants. Waste composition by income level is shown in Fig. 2.4 (Kaza et al. 2018). The development of fundamental structure of the European urban system happened from 1100 to1300 BC when the large majority of cities were first mentioned

2.2 Quantities and Composition

53

Low income

High income

Other

Wood

Plastic

Rubber and leather

Paper and card board

Glass

2012

2018 Metal

Other

Wood

Plastic

Rubber and leather

Paper and card board

Glass

Metal

Food and Green

2018

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Food and Green

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

2012

Fig. 2.4 Waste composition (percentage) by income level

as an ‘urban settlement’ with vocabulary like ‘urbs’ or ‘civitas’ (Hohenberg and Lees 1995; Clark 2009). Faeces generated by humans and animals were usually dumped in cess-pools located in courtyards which was used as fertilizing dung. With the disappearance of agricultural land and growth of cities, wastes were stored in disused cess-pools or dumped into rivers (Schott 2014). The forest contributed to the economic foundation of medieval cities (Schbert 1986). Medieval cities, especially north of the Alps, were mainly wooden cities as wood was cheap, most easily available, and easily handled. By the late middle-ages, the houses were built in masonry with roofs covered in straw, wooden tiles, or thatch. City fires were among the most frequent reasons of large-scale disasters (Bookmann 1994; Zwierlein 2011; Schott 2013). The need to clean up polluted urban area was at the main reason of the famous Roman cloaca maxima, built under Tarquin the Proud (seventh to sixth century BC) to drain the Velabrum1 and the lowlands between the Palatine hill and Capitoline hill. Eighteenth century doctors observed excess mortality, and also the life expectancy of urban residents was lower than in the neighbouring countryside (Poussou 1992; Kunitz 1993). This encouraged the political, scientific, and intellectual communities to establish new requirements to correct the harmful conditions of these cities (Fortier 1975). They recommended better management of urban and human excreta, improved ground covering, and universalized cleaning/sweeping as well as improved distribution of these services throughout the nineteenth century (Barles 2014). An important part of emerging industries was dependent on using raw materials supplied only by cities. Vegetable rags used for papermaking for several centuries became much more needed after the papermaking machine was developed (André 1

Is the low valley in the city of Rome that connects the Forum with the Forum Boarium and the Capitoline Hill with the western slope of the Palatine Hill.

54

2 Waste Quantities and Characteristics

1996, Hills 1988 and Strasser 1999). In the nineteenth century, rags became a planned industrial issue, such that France banned their export from 1771, followed by Belgium, Holland, Spain, Portugal, and other nations during the first half of the nineteenth century (Turgan 1986–1885). North America and Great Britain fought over the international markets forcing them to look for rags in nations that did not produce paper or produced little paper (Strasser 1999). Science evolved many inventions that resulted in ‘take-make-dispose’ linear economy. Single use cutleries, plates, cups, syringes, carry bags, straws, packaging material became part of the living style. Quantification of solid waste is still a challenge as many developing countries do not have legal mechanism to submit annul reports with respect to SWM. Furthermore, where the law exists, the statistics generated is not reliable and often biased. With diminishing global resources and impact of solid waste on environment heath world is catching up on circular economy and switching over to ‘take-makeuse-reuse’ circular economy. Many manufactured goods are meant to be single use which includes: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Balloons (Fig. 2.5), Campaigning material used for election, Cigarettes, Cosmetics, Crackers, Disposable diapers, Ear buds,

Fig. 2.5 Balloons

2.2 Quantities and Composition

55

Fig. 2.6 Waste consumables/body parts of vehicle

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Flowers for decoration/worship, Laboratory reagents and consumables, Medical consumables, Newspapers, Paints, Pesticides and other agrochemical containers, Sanitary napkin, Single use packaging material, Single use plastic (SUP) items, Ticket (bus, train, flight, event etc.), Tissue papers, and Cleaning rags.

On the other hand, the goods meant to serve several years’ need consumables and replacement of body parts (Fig. 2.6). After their useful period, the equipment, machine, furniture and other material would become useless and, hence, become waste (Fig. 2.7). The P-F2 curve is graphical depiction of an equipment/asset’s condition or behaviour before it has reached a failed state (Fig. 2.8). The P-F curve often used reliability centred maintenance (RCM) planning that aims to manage and respond proactively to failure. Historic data can reveal lifetime of an asset which will be helpful in quantifying waste prediction in advance. As 2

“P” in a P-F curve refers to potential failure (The point where equipment/asset it is likely to start to fail). The “F” refers to an asset’s functional failure (The point where the asset/equipment has failed).

56

2 Waste Quantities and Characteristics

Fig. 2.7 Furniture and equipment lying after useful period

Resistance to failure

Predictive

P

Preventive

Reactive

F

Time

P = The point where equipment/asset it is likely to start to fail F = The point where the asset/equipment has failed P-F Interval = The time between P and F Fig. 2.8 P-F curve

the income of family increases, it will start spending on luxury items like electronic gadgets, vehicles, consumer durables which obviously has to join waste stream after its useful lifetime. On the other hand, the commercial and manufacturing sectors would also invest in machinery and asset and calculate depreciation and scarp values of the asset well in advance in their business plan. Simplified mass diagram for waste quantification is shown in Fig. 2.9. Society as a whole should be ready and be prepared to manage the waste to be generated in the beginning of its lifetime. If a nation is manufacturing ‘X’ tons of SUP and importing ‘Y’ tons of SUP, it should be prepared to manage is after its use. A country can theoretically quantify waste generation of good with life span L using following formula:

2.2 Quantities and Composition

57

End of life durables goods End of life consumables

Durables goods Consumable goods

Society

Fig. 2.9 Simplified mass diagram for waste quantification

WwL =

n Σ

Wi Ni ,

i=1

where W wL = weight of waste of good with life span L. Wi = weight of good ‘i’ with life span L. Ni = number of good ‘i’ sold in the country L years back. n = number of goods with life span L. Example of using above formula for calculating waste generated from some equipment sold 15 years back is given in Table 2.1. In practice, some goods may be kept unused or used after refurbished. In the year 2016, UK generated about 1.53 million tonnes of plastic waste which was up by 24% since 2010 and 13% since 2014. The service sector contributed 53% while households contributed 8% (House of Library 2022). Whereas a report for WWF in calculated that in the UK in 2014 was about 4.9 million tonnes and could raise to about 6.3 million tonnes by 2030 with plastic packaging making about twothirds of plastic waste in 2014 (3.3 million tonnes) (House of Library 2022). In 2016, 91% of plastic waste went to ‘recycling and other recovery’ and 9% to landfill. The Table 2.1 Example of quantification of waste generation from good with life span 15 years (hypothetical scenario) Sl. No.

Good

Weight of good (in kg)

Number of goods sold 15 years back

Total weight

Waste expected in current year due to end-of-life good

1

Television

15

25,672

385,080

385,080

2

Washing machine

61

21,987

13,41,207

13,41,207

3

Bicycle

15

12,566

188,490

188,490

4

Table fan

12

34,501

414,012

414,012

5

Mixer

4

22,342

89,368

89,368

6

Grinder

25

34,765

869,125

869,125

Total

387,311

58

2 Waste Quantities and Characteristics

UK exported 0.54 million tonnes of plastic waste in 2020 the and about 0.9 million tonnes in 2011. Not all the waste generated enter into waste bins or handed over to a waste collection system. With business-as-usual scenario textile/apparel sector’s nonrenewable raw material usage will reach 300 Mt and the quantity of microplastic released to the oceans will reach 22 million by 2050 (Ellen MacArthus Foundation 2017). The average American throws away about 80 pounds of textiles and clothing per annum, occupying nearly 5% of landfill space (Wicker 2016). Nearly, 500,000 tons of used clothing are exported from the USA each year, mostly to low-to-middle-income-countries (LMICs) (Angueloc 2016). About 150,000 tons/year of sanitary napkin made up of more than 90% plastic waste is produced globally (Sabrina 2021). About 250,000 tons superabsorbent polymers (SAPs) in hygiene products are used worldwide each year, most of which are used in disposable diapers for babies (Bajpai 2018). Apart from the used substances, waste is generated during the manufacture of many items due to: 1. Off specification products, 2. Products rejected by clients for nonconformity to quality, and 3. Waste generated during manufacture. Waste is also generated due to expiry date before which product is suitable for consumption (Figs. 2.10, 2.11, and 2.12), e.g., 1. 2. 3. 4.

Medicines, Agrochemicals, Cosmetics, and Packaged food.

Quantity of waste in a region generated depends on several independent variables which include 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Climate change trend, Climate of the region, Construction and demolition activity, Culture, End-of-life equipment—vehicle. Machinery, electronic equipment, etc., Extent if linear/circular economy, Extent of adoption of circular economy by the society, Legal framework, Lifestyle and health of the citizens, Migration trends, Population density, Population, Tourism, Trend in consumerism, Trend in packaging, and

2.2 Quantities and Composition

59

Fig. 2.10 Contaminated rags stored for disposal

Fig. 2.11 Date expired medicine

16. Trends in natural/anthropogenic disaster. Globally, about 14% of food produced is lost from the post-harvest stage up to retail stage but excluding retail stage (FAO 2019). Approximately, one-third of the edible parts of food produced for human consumption gets lost or wasted worldwide, which is around 1.3 billion ton per annum. More food is wasted in the developed countries as compared to the developing countries. Each consumer in Europe and North America wastes 95–115 kg/

60

2 Waste Quantities and Characteristics

Fig. 2.12 Waste generated during manufacture

year, while in sub-Saharan Africa and South/Southeast Asia food wastage is 6–11 kg/ year. Globally, about 7.3 Mt/y fish catch (dead, dying, or damaged) is discarded to the sea. A large portion of purchased fish/seafood is also wasted at consumer level beside losses at the distribution level due to deterioration (FAO 2011). Kenyan Government destroyed nearly 14,000 t of maize in 2014 due to contamination with aflatoxins3 (East African Community 2017). Packaging accounted for 36% of the total 400 million tonnes of plastic produced in 2015 and 47% of the total 300 million tonnes of primary plastic waste (Geyer et al. 2017). Food is wasted broadly in the following activity: 1. Primary production, a. Fishing, b. Agriculture, 2. Manufacture, 3. Distribution (Trade), 4. Consumer, a. Restaurants, b. Caterers, c. Household, 5. Transportation.

3

Type of mycotoxin produced by a fungal infestation of crops.

2.2 Quantities and Composition

61

The total food waste generated in manufacture, distribution (trading) and consumer in the year 2012 was 1,211,000 tonnes (127 kg/person) out of which 171,000 tonnes (18 kg/person) was generated in food industry, 70,000 tonnes (7 kg/ person) was generated during distribution (trading), 142,000 tonnes (15 kg/person) was generated in restaurants, 58,000 tonnes was generated by caterers (6 kg/person), 771,000 tonnes (81 kg/person) was generated in households (SEPA, 2013). The wasted mass in the retail sector was dominated by fresh fruit and vegetables. Rejection on the delivery was the main reason for food being wasted in retail sector (Eriksson 2015). Waste occurring in the retail stage of the supply chain is about 70 000 t/y in Sweden on 2012 (SEPA 2013) and 4.4 Mt/y in the EU-274 (EC 2010). Film sets are extremely wasteful places. Big movies can produce 225 tons of scrap metal, approximately 50 tons of construction and set debris besides 72 tons of food waste(O’leary 2014). Quantity of PPE waste generated during COVID-19 pandemic is reported differently in different reports and publications which are discussed in detail in Chap. 6. Boom in construction/demolition (C&D) sector is adding to waste stream globally. Quantity and characteristics of C&D waste is discussed in detail in Chap. 15. Although there are several benefits from solar power generation, its end of life would become reason for it to become waste. Globally installed photovoltaic system capacity reached about 400 GW at the end of 2017 and is likely to increase to 4500 GW by 2050 which is likely be the source of 4–14% of total generation capacity by 2030 and rise to more than 80% (about 78 million tonnes) by 2050 considering an average panel lifetime of 25 years (Chowdhury et al. 2020). Other studies reveal that 60–70% of waste from Ghana is organic (Caboo 2006; Fobil 2002; Hogaarh 2008). The developing countries use newspaper for packaging including food item in restaurants and roadside merchants, fruits and vegetables. Income levels play a role in material consumption and waste generation. As economies industrialize and incomes increase, material consumption as well as waste disposal levels tend to increase. The quantity of MSW generated from urban settlement is a function of human development index which in turn depends on the life expectancy, gross domestic product, and education indices. The quantity of MSW generated is invariably higher in the developed nations compared to the developing nations. Typical waste characteristics of the developing nations are (i) high waste densities, (ii) high moisture contents, (iii) large organic fraction, (iv) cities with sweeping as well as open ground storage characterized by large amount of dust and dirt. Solid waste quantity would grow up to a certain extent and decline thereafter as shown in Fig. 2.13. Waste quantity will increase with an increase in the national income, development, and size of urban settlement. But, once the economy of a 4

Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden.

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2 Waste Quantities and Characteristics

Fig. 2.13 Variation of per capita municipal waste generation matured economy over time

country reaches maturity in terms of creation of infrastructure, income and jobs, there would be steadiness in per capita waste generation thereafter it would decline. The decline in waste generation could also be attributed to adoption of circular economy, legal requirement, technology, civic responsibility in the society and lower corruption among enforcement agencies. The quantities and characteristics of waste produced in an aeroplane depend on the length of the flight. The quantity of waste generated in the airports of the USA was about 1.28 pounds per passenger departed in 2004. As per studies conducted by Peter et al. (2006), the airport waste had the 20% compostable, 26% non-recyclables, 14% newspaper, 11% mixed paper, 3% magazines, 12% cardboard, 1% aluminium, 2% glass bottles, 2% plastic bottles, and 9% other plastics (packaging, bags, etc.). The airline industry in the USA disposed 9000 tons of plastic in 2004 (Peter et al. 2006). Similar studies carried out by the Central Pollution Control Board (2009) in India revealed the quantity of plastic waste production form Indian airports to be 4130 kg per day out of which the amount of plastic bottles was 3370 kg with per capita plastic waste production at international and domestic airports being 68 gm and 70 gm, respectively. The quantity of solid waste depends on special occasions like festival, sports events, conferences, and elections. Table 2.2 shows waste generation in different categories of viewers in a sports event. A typical international sports event is likely to generate about one kg of waste per person entering the stadium. But, within the stadium very important persons (VIPs) and elite club would generate more waste than other general viewers. Sports matches in a stadium often draw more than 40,000 people resulting in 3–4 t of mixed waste. A huge volume of waste is generated during football matches, biggest matches, and international tournaments attract thousands of people. The average European

2.2 Quantities and Composition

63

Table 2.2 Waste generation in different category of viewers in a sports event Sl. No.

Section

Facilities

Waste quantities

1

Very important persons

Complimentary drinks, meals, advertisement material, cheering material

Two to three kg/ person

2

Elite club

Drinks and eatable on payment. Viewers have to bring their own cheering material, banners. Free advertising hand out, caps

One to two kg/person

3

General class

Drinks and eatables on payment. Viewers have to bring their own cheering material, banners. Free advertising hand out paper caps

Quarter to one kg/ person

football match generates 0.8 kg of waste/spectator, which corresponds to the waste generation of ~4.2 t/match. The waste generation organized by European national football associations is around 7,50,000 t/y (European Commission 2023). The 2016 Summer Olympic Games held from 5 to 21 August 2016 in Rio, Brazil, generated more than 17 Mt of waste in 16 days (Natemoris 2021; Settimi 2016). Around 540 tonnes of waste were collected during 1994 Lillehammer Winter Olympic Games. About 3900 tonnes of waste was collected over the 17 days of the Atlanta Olympic Games (held in 1996) (Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games 1998). The global sports goods industry is expanding speedily due to rising disposable incomes, growing focus of governments towards promoting sports activities and events, increasing fitness awareness, changing lifestyle, as well as the increasing sports participation, particularly in the developing economies. Sports and tourism are activities dominantly enjoyed by affordable and rich people. Poor people hardly go on tour or spend time playing. The sports industry generates significant quantity of waste and so as the end-of-life sports goods. The revenues of the global sports goods sector recorded a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of nearly 5.2% during 2012 to 2019. And of life sports goods would end up as waste as most of them are not reusable/recyclable. The worldwide market for hand-stitched footballs stands at about 45–50 million units per year, but the mechanized type sells at least twice as many (Export–Import Bank of India 2001) similarly end-of-life sports goods will be wasted which is necessarily be disposed by consumers or by producers rather than leaving it to the society. The 11 major sports goods categories are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Athletics and gymnasium equipment, Badminton and similar rackets, Billiards and accessories, Equipment for use in casino, bowling alley, funfair, circus, fairground amusements, etc., 5. Festive articles, 6. Fishing equipment,

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2 Waste Quantities and Characteristics

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Golf clubs and other golf equipment, Ski and skating equipment, Sporting, hunting or target-shooting shotguns, Table tennis, Tennis balls, inflatable balls, other balls (excl. Golf balls, and table tennis balls), Tennis, and Water sports equipment.

Components of sports activity likely to be associated with waste generation are 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Marketing and advertisement, Packaging sports goods, Sports education, Sports event, Sports foods, Sports goods manufacturing, Sports infrastructure, Sports medical care, Sports retail and wholesale selling, and Sports-related tourism.

Among the largest as well as fastest growing sectors in the globe, tourism contributes to 10% of global GDP. In a ‘business-as-usual’ scenario, tourism would generate through 2050 a rise of 152% in water consumption, 154% in energy consumption, 131% in greenhouse gas emissions and 251% in solid waste disposal (UNEP 2022). Elections in democratic nations can generate huge waste during election time for which proper literature is not available. The election process generates wastes by contesting candidate/party and election conducting authority. The contesting candidate/party generate waste by 1. Printing poster, banner, hand out, voter slips, voter list, 2. Distribution of food/beverages for campaigners/voters, 3. Transportation (waste generated due to repair/consumables). Waste generated by election conducting authority include 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Printed training materials, Printing poster, banner, hand out to educate voters, Food waste generated during training and official duty, Transportation (waste generated due to repair/consumables), Election material (e.g., sealing wax, seals, statistics paper, tag, electoral rolls, ballot papers (where electronic voting machine is not used) paper, candle, indelible ink bottle, cardboard, match box, forms, envelops, labels, cloth).

Supporters of winning candidates celebrate the winning of leaders by bursting crackers, partying, handing over flowers to winning candidate.

2.2 Quantities and Composition

65

The number of international travellers has raised more than 50-fold in the past 70 years accompanied by a rise in environmental as well as socio-economic impacts (Obersteiner 2021) with an average value of 1.67 kg waste generated per tourist (Obersteiner and Gruber, 2017). About 692.5 million international tourists produced 4.8 Mt tons of solid waste in 2001 and can be expected to augment by 251% by 2050 (UNEP 2019). Studies have reported increases in MSW for tourist areas or regions during high season (e.g., Teh and Cabanban 2007; Shamshiry et al. 2011; Mateu-Sbert et al. 2013). Festivals throughout the world are accompanied by waste generation creating a shock load to existing system. The responsible collection agency would usually collect waste with its existing capacity leaving behind additional burden to be cleared in subsequent days. Apart from festivals, other reasons for shock loads will be elections and disasters. Festivals and elections are responsible for an increase in quantity by two to ten times the daily average waste. On the other hand, disasters can increase waste generation by 300–500 times on the daily average. Disaster waste quantity and characteristics are discussed in detail in Chap. 13. Waste from agriculture activity is changing dramatically across the globe due to changes in agriculture practices. The quantity and characteristics of agriculture waste depends on but not restricted to 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Cropping pattern, Livestock management, Irrigation and drainage, Nutrient management, Water conservation goods (like plastic mulching/shading, drip irrigation), Pest control, Poly houses, Agromachinery, Agrochemicals, Equipment maintenance and replacement, and Produce storage, transport, and marketing.

The quantity and characteristics of animal waste depends on animal age and species, production practices, type of ration, and environment. Animal waste commonly refers to faeces and urine with added wash water, soil, bedding, hair, or spilled feed. Tropical climate not only supports growing crops but also insects and weeds there by creating a high demand for pesticides. The bottles as well as packages holding these pesticides are likely to contain about 1.8% of the chemicals (Dien and Vong 2006), which result in environmental consequences like food poisoning, contaminated farmland. Commercial production of plastics that started in 1950s had reached global annual production of 330 Mt for 2016 (Plastics Europe 2017).The generation of mismanaged plastic waste (MPW) in the environment is estimated to be between 60 and 99 Mt

66

2 Waste Quantities and Characteristics

of MPW which was generated worldwide in 2015 which is likely to triple to 155– 265 Mt/y by 2060 in business-as-usual scenario. The majority of MPW (91%) are transported via watersheds to rivers which are major pathways for plastic litter to the ocean (Lebreton and Andray 2019). Quantities and composition of biomedical waste is dealt in detail in Chap. 6, while the quantities and composition of C&D waste is dealt in Chap. 15. Leaf litter which is part of nutrient recycling mechanism may not be a serious concern in forest and rural area. But leaf litter and falling branch is often not well documented separately in literature. Leaf litter varies depending on species and canopy size. Trees are often pruned and under nourished in urban areas and root growth is hindered due to the presence of foundation and underground infrastructure. Tree roots are often cut during construction activities. As per Sebulime et al. (2018), leaf fall was highest in the dry season and A. heterophyllus registered the highest quantity. Leaf biomass from pruned trees was heaviest for M. indica (42.4 ± 3 kg) in the wet season and at the 50% pruning regime (45.7 ± 2.1 kg). As per Yang et al. (2021), annual leaf litter amount per tree was found to be 10.2–14.83 kg/year in a place with average tree population density (231.9 plants/ha).

2.3 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Characteristics Physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of waste vary hugely from place to place. As shown in Fig. 2.14, the waste, which is dominated by bottles, reveals that the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics vary hugely from place to place. The collective waste density depends on the fraction of the waste and density of individual waste.

2.3.1 Physical Characteristics Physical characteristics of solid wastes are important for the selection of vehicle/ equipment and design of disposal facilities. The physical characteristics considered in decision making are discussed in the subsequent sub-sections. Physical properties of the waste materials can be categorized as being either intensive or extensive. Extensive properties vary with the quantity of the substance and include weight, mass, and volume. Intensive properties do not depend on the quantity of the substance; they include colour, melting point, electrical conductivity, flash point, calorific value and physical state at a given temperature. The major physical characteristics measured in waste are (1) density, (2) size distribution of components, and (3) moisture content. Other characteristics which may be used in making decision about SWM are (1) colour, (2) voids, (3) shape of components, (4) optical property, (5) magnetic properties, (6) thermal properties, and (7) electric properties.

2.3 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Characteristics

67

Fig. 2.14 Physical, chemical, and biological characteristics vary hugely from place to place

Optical property can be used to segregate opaque from transparent substances which would predominately contain glass and plastic. Magnetic separators are designed based on the magnetic characteristics of the waste. Moisture content is essential for leachate calculation and composting. Density is used to assess volume of transportation vehicle and size of the disposal facility. Shape can used segregation as flaky substance will behave differently compared to non-flaky substance. Density: It is the mass per unit volume (kg/m3 ) of any substance. Mathematically, ρ=

W , V

where ρ = density of a substance. W = weight of the substance. V = volume of the substance. This property is important to design storage, treatment, and disposal facilities. Like soil, solid waste will have voids. Solid waste like sludge from effluent treatment plant and waste from chemical manufacturing will have less voids and hence more density. Municipal solid waste will have high voids and hence low density. Normal compaction equipment can achieve reduction in volume of wastes by 75% if the solid waste has 75% voids, thereby increasing density by four times and reducing hauling costs. Moisture content: It is the ratio of the weight of water in waste to the total wet weight of the waste.

68

2 Waste Quantities and Characteristics

Mathematically, MC =

Wwet − Wdry × 100, Wwet

where MC = moisture content in %. Wwet = wet weight of the substance. Wdry = dry weight of the substance. Moisture augments the weight of solid wastes, and thereby, the cost of transport and collection. It is a critical determinant in the economic feasibility of waste treatment by incineration and calculation of leachate quantity. Size Distribution of Waste Constituents: The size distribution of waste constituents in the waste stream is important to design of mechanical separators, shredder and other waste treatment process. Example of size distribution curve is shown in Fig. 2.15. The procedure involves sieving the sample of solid waste in standard sieves following by tabulation and /or graphical depiction of the data. Calorific Value: It is the quantity of heat generated from combustion of a unit weight of a substance. It is measured using bomb calorimeter and unit of measurement is cal/gm or kcal/kg. This property is essential to assess the feasibility of waste for incineration. Field Capacity (FC): It is the total quantity of moisture which can be retained in a waste sample subject to gravitational pull. It varies with pressure and the state of decomposition of wastes. This property is used to assess leachate quantity. Theoretically, no leachate generated until FC exceeded. Permeability (Hydraulic Conductivity): It is the rate at which water passes through waste. It is measured using permeability meter the unit of measurement is cm/s.

Fig. 2.15 Example of average particle size distribution curve

2.3 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Characteristics

69

Fig. 2.16 C&D waste at a road construction site

Typical range for MSW is 10–3 to 10–6 cm/s. These characteristics are used for prediction of leachate production, evaluation of equivalent liner systems, and estimation of liner leakages. Permeability depends on pore size distribution, porosity and surface area. Porosity: It is the quantity of voids per unit total volume of material. The porosity of MSW varies typically between 0.40 and 0.67. Compressibility: It is the degree of physical changes of the material when subjected to pressure. Globally not all waste is categorized and managed appropriately. Figure 2.16 shows C&D waste where in asphalt road has been removed to upgrade the road into concrete road even before useful life span of asphalt road. Due to insufficient infrastructure to manage such waste, it will be taken to fill pits or left as it is.

2.3.2 Chemical Characteristics Important chemical properties measured for solid waste are (1) moisture (water content can change chemical and physical properties), (2) volatile matter, (3) ash, (4) fixed carbon, (5) fusing point of ash, (6) calorific value, (7) per cent of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, and ash. Knowledge of chemical compounds and their characteristics in solid waste is essential for the proper understanding of the behaviour of waste, as it moves through the SWM system.

70

2 Waste Quantities and Characteristics

Chemical characteristics include pH, lipid, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (N-P-K), total carbon, C/N ratio, carbohydrates, proteins, natural fibre, biodegradable factor, heavy metals, pesticides, insecticides, toxicity characteristics leaching procedure (TCLP) test for leachates. pH: It is the measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a substance. Higher and lower values of pH are corrosive in nature and do not favour microbial activity. It is measured using pH meter and pH paper. It does not have any unit and is represented as number. Lipids: This class of compounds includes oils, grease, and fats. Lipids have highcalorific values, about 38,000 kcal/kg, and suitable for energy recovery. Lipids in the solid state liquefy at temperatures above ambient and add to the liquid content during waste decomposition. Carbohydrates: This class of compounds includes sugars and polymers of sugars. Carbohydrates are readily biodegraded are particularly attractive for rats and flies. Hence, waste with carbohydrates should not be left exposed for periods longer than is necessary. Proteins: This class of compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen is found mainly in food and garden wastes. Partial decomposing of proteins can result in the generation of amines, which have high unpleasant odours. Natural Fibres: This class includes cellulose and lignin, which are resistant to biodegradation. Paper, cotton, and wood products are 100%, 95%, and 40% cellulose, respectively. The calorific values of oven dried paper are in the range 12,000–18,000 kcal/kg and of wood around 20,000 kcal/kg. Synthetic Organic Material (Plastics): They are highly resistant to biodegradation; hence, the increasing attention being paid to the recycling of plastics. Plastics have a calorific value, and suitable for incineration. Non-combustibles: This class includes glass, ceramics, bricks, concrete pieces, metals, dust, and ashes. Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP): In the TCLP procedure, the pH of the sample material is first established, and then leached with an acetic acid/ sodium hydroxide solution to simulate an extended leaching time in the ground. It is then filtered and the solution is analysed. Proximate Analysis: Proximate analysis of waste aims to determine moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon. Ultimate Analysis: Ultimate analysis of waste aims to analyse per cent of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, and ash. Table 2.3 gives proximate and ultimate analyses of various components of waste along with the physical properties of the wastes. Analysis of solid waste for carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulphur can be done using CHNS analyser (Fig. 2.17). Advanced instrumentation like Powder X-ray

6–12

800–1500

105

120–480

Brick/Concrete/Tile/ dirt

Electronic Equipment

Food waste

8–12

2–6

90–450

Leather

30–80

90–200

250–350

Rubber

Sawdust

4–10

30–130

30–156

Paper

Plastic

15–40

8 7–348

Municipal solid waste / Biomedical waste

1–4

1–4

2–4

120–1200

60–240

Metal—Ferrous

Metal—Non-ferrous

1–4

60–225

90–260

Garden trimmings

Glass

50–80

4–10

6–12

680

Asphalt

30–80 Cardboard, corrugated paper box

Moisture Content (%)

Waste density (kg/m3 )

Waste Material

8–20

6–20

6–20

99

99

8–20

99

2–6

2–8

0–50.8

99

3–6

Inert Residue (%)

20,510

12,216–18,540

4785–18,563

14,116.27–45,358.28

16,375

17,100–18,400

Calorific value (kj/ Kg)

Table 2.3 Proximate and ultimate analyses of solid waste components

49.0

78.0

60.0

43.5

60.0

47.8

48.0

38.85–83.10

44.0

83–87

Carbon (%)

6.0

10.0

7.2

6.0

8.0

6.0

6.4

3.56–14.22

5.9

9.9–11

Hydrogen (%)

22.8

44.0

11.6

38.0

37.6

7.46–51.50

44.6

0.2–0.8

Oxygen (%)

2.0

0.3

10.0

3.4

2.6

0.03–9.95

0.3

0.3–1.1

Nitrogen (%)

(continued)

0.10

0.2

0.4

0.3

0.4

-

0.2

1.0–5.4

Sulphur (%)

2.3 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Characteristics 71

6–15

15–40

30–100

156–900

Textile

Wood

1–2

2–4

Inert Residue (%)

14,400–17,400

Calorific value (kj/ Kg)

49.5

55.0

Carbon (%)

Source Tchobanoglaus (1977); Engineering Tool Box (NA); Wess et al. (2004); Othman (2008)

Moisture Content (%)

Waste density (kg/m3 )

Waste Material

Table 2.3 (continued)

6.0

6.6

Hydrogen (%)

42.7

31.2

Oxygen (%)

0.2

4.6

Nitrogen (%)

0.1

0.15

Sulphur (%)

72 2 Waste Quantities and Characteristics

2.3 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Characteristics

73

Fig. 2.17 CHNS analyser used for analysis of Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Sulphur

diffractometer (Fig. 2.18) and high resolution mass spectrometer (Fig. 2.19) can display molecular formula of sample. In the absence of such equipment, chemical formula for solid waste can be calculated as illustrated in Example 2.1. Abbreviated waste analysis, frequently referred to as “fingerprint analysis,” is done for parameters (e.g., specific gravity, colour, flash point, presence of more than one phase, pH, halogen content, cyanide content, per cent water) that can be used to help verify that the waste received by an offsite TSDF, matches the expected characteristics for that waste. Because the operator of a TSDF knows the detailed properties of a waste, the appropriate fingerprint or spot check parameters is done to verify that each waste arriving at the TSDF is the actual waste expected. Solid waste is a mixture of various components which have their own chemical compositions and chemical formulae. But, deriving the approximate formulae will help SWM in many ways including a. Calculating oxygen requirement to burn or decompose the waste, b. Probable emission of different gases during natural degradation or waste treatment, c. To find energy that can be generated from the waste. The procedure for deriving chemical formula is simple and given in Example 2.1. Example 2.1 Different samples of waste collected in a city have been taken and analysed. It has been found that it can be divided into four categories which are food waste, paper, cardboard, and plastic. The amount of potentially critical elements against each category is found in Table 2.4. Determine:

74

2 Waste Quantities and Characteristics

Fig. 2.18 Powder X-ray diffractometer

1. Approximate formulae of solid waste, 2. Energy contents of solid waste per kg (assume that ash is removed before incineration). Step One: Derive ultimate analysis and moisture of individual solid waste components (Table 2.5). Step Two: Convert moisture content into Hydrogen and Oxygen Hydrogen = Oxygen =

2 × 26kg = 2.89 kg, 18

16 × 26kg = 23.11 kg. 18

Step Three: Revise composition in kg (Table 2.6). Step Four: Compute molar composition of the waste and the compute normalized ratio (Table 2.7). Approximate formula is C644 H1777 O793 N5 S.

2.3 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Characteristics

75

Fig. 2.19 High resolution mass spectrometer

Table 2.4 Wet and dry masses of different component in the city cited in Example 2.1

Dry mass in kg

Component

Wet mass in kg

Food Waste

20

5

Paper

50

45

Cardboard

15

10

Plastic

11

10

Total

96

70

Putting in Dulong formula5 (Mohammad et al 2013) ) ) 1 Energy content = 145C + 610 H − O + 40S + 10N Btu/lb 8 )) ) ) 1 × 56.29 = 145 × 35.36 + 610 × 7.89 − 8 + (40 × 0.14) + (10 × 0.32) = 5127.2 + 610 × (7.89 − 7.04) + 0.56 + 3.2 )

)

= 5127.2 + 518.5 + 0.56 + 3.2 = 5649.46 BTU/lb = 13140.64 kJ/kg. (HHV) = 145C + 610(H- O/8) + 40S + 10N; where HHV: High heating Value in (Btu/lb) C: is Carbon percentage H: is Hydrogen percentage O: is Oxygen percentage S: is Sulphur percentage N: is Nitrogen percentage.

5

10

10

70

50

15

11

96

Paper

Cardboard

Plastic

Total

45

26

1

5

5

15

20

Food Waste

5

Wet mass Dry mass Moisture in kg in kg in kg

Component

60.0

44.0

43.5

48.0

32.375

6.000

4.400

19.575

2.400

7.2

5.9

6.0

6.4

H %

kg

C %

Composition

Table 2.5 Ultimate analysis of dry component of solid waste in Example 2.1

4.33

0.72

0.59

2.70

0.32

kg

O

22.8

44.6

44.0

37.6

%

28.42

2.28

4.46

19.80

1.88

kg

N

0.0

0.3

0.3

2.6

%

0.295

0.000

0.030

0.135

0.130

kg

S

0.0

0.2

0.2

0.4

%

0.13

0.00

0.02

0.09

0.02

kg

Ash

10

5

6

5

%

4.45

1.0

0.5

2.7

0.25

kg

76 2 Waste Quantities and Characteristics

2.3 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Characteristics

77

Table 2.6 Revised composition after converting calculating hydrogen and oxygen content in moisture in Example 2.1 Composition without moisture

C

H

O

N

S

Ash

32.375

4.33

28.42

0.295

0.13

4.45

2.89

23.11

32.375

7.22

51.53

0.295

0.13

4.45

Moisture content6 Total

Table 2.7 Molar composition of the waste and normalized ratio of solid waste in Example 2.1 C

H

O

N

S

Mass, kg

32.375

7.220

51.530

0.295

0.130

Kg/mol (please see foot note)7

0.012

0.001

0.016

0.014

0.032

Atomic mass(in atomic mass unit (amu)

12.0107

1.00784

15.999

14.0067

32.065

6.022 × 1023 carbon atoms (or molecules)

12.0107 g (0.012 kg/mol)

1.00784 g (0.001 kg/mol)

15.999 g (0.016 kg/mol)

14.0067 g (0.014 kg/m)

32.065 g (0.032 kg/m)

No. of Moles = (Mass, kg) ÷ (kg/ mol)

2697.917

7220

3220.625

21.071

4.063

1777

793

5

1

Mole ratios = (No. 644 of Moles) ÷ (No. of Moles of Sulphur)8

Total weight of wet waste:96 kg Total weight without ash: 96 - 4.45 = 91.55 kg

2.3.3 Biological Characteristics Solid waste contains living organisms and dead organisms beside excreta of living organism. The placenta of animals is often not taken into consideration and often eaten by dogs in rural area, thereby not contributing to quantification statistics. Human/animal operation, abortion and post-mortem also contribute to solid waste beside culling/killing of animals during avian/swine flu pandemic. Dead animals and wastes from slaughtering activity do not need special attention in SWM. Plants and trees which are also living organisms do contribute significant to the quantity of solid waste. Plant parts and seeds from agriculture activity, gardens, kitchen, cattle sheds, and markets add to biological component of solid waste. The seeds of weeds and crops may remain dormant and germinate when the conditions are suitable to germinate. Plant pathogens may not pose significant health issues 2 Hydrogen = 18 × 26 kg = 2.89 kg; Oxygen = 16 18 × 26 kg = 23.11 kg A mole, abbreviated as mol, is equal to 6.022 × 1023 units which is a huge number usually describe the number of molecules or atoms. 8 Rounded off to the nearest integer. 6

7

78

2 Waste Quantities and Characteristics

to humans/animals but their presence near healthy plants may cause plant diseases (Table 2.8). Table 2.9 shows majors living organism in various solid wastes. Most protozoa feed on bacteria. The free-living protozoa can be found in any aerobic environment in which bacteria are present to support their growth. Some of the protozoa are parasitic to humans/animals. Protozoa are primarily aquatic animals, but they are also found in solid waste and soil. The ability to form cysts allows them to survive during desiccation and unfavourable conditions. Numerous human diseases are caused by protozoa including amoebic dysentery. Solid waste production is a function of land use as well as its composition is inversely proportional to the possible soil damage and bacterial contamination of the environment (Achudume and Olawale 2009; Lober 1996; Omuta 1999; Shakibaie et al. 2009). Wet waste will host more bacteria compared to dry waste. The nutrition in waste also acts as a key factor which decides population balance of species in the waste and immediate environment. Toxic elements discourage multi-cellular organism in the waste. But, micro-organisms may still persist at places which may favour some species of micro-organism. Saprophytes and fungi will flourish in decomposable matter. Solid waste also hosts substantial amount to fungi. Of about 100,000 species of fungi about 100 are pathogenic to animals and humans (Anthony and Elizabeth 1981). Fungi causes infections to hair, nail, skin, and lung. Infection occurs by person sores in air which may be present in solid waste. Toxins generated by Asperigillus flavus Table 2.8 Weight of elements in solid waste in Example 2.1 Mass in Kg

C

H

O

N

S

0

0

0

0

0

% by weight = (Weight of element) ÷ (Total weight without 35.360 7.89 56.29 0.32 0.14 ash) × 100

Table 2.9 Major living organisms present in various solid wastes Waste Category

Fungus

Protozoa

Bacteria

Insect

Rodent

Biomedical waste

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Plants

Construction and demolition waste

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Food waste

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Hazardous waste Municipal solid waste Radioactive waste WEEE Agriculture waste

✓

✓

✓

✓

2.3 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Characteristics

79

can cause liver cancer and fatty degeneration of liver in people who eat contaminated food. Some of the bacteria can form spores to allow them to survive when nutrients are not available during dry period. These spores can easily be carried away by wind. Contamination of wounds and food by spores of Clostridium can lead to fatal consequences. Species such as C. botulinum produce toxins which lead to food poisoning. Species such as C. Persringens grow speedily in wounds leading to gangrene (Anthony and Elizabeth 1981). Waste from slaughterhouse, fish market, and hospital will have abundant pathogens which are also diverse with respect to the species (Fig. 2.20). Solid waste can host an array of insects, arthropod, and annelids. The examples of insects include cockroach, dung beetle, ants, fruit fly, termite, mosquito, honey bee, and house flies. Vector-borne diseases are associated with solid waste accumulated in the urban area other vectors are linked with trash as a source of food, burrow, and breeding site (Krystosik et al. 2020). Aedes species mosquitoes prefer to breed in man-made plastic containers (Ramos et al. 2008; MacCormackGelles et al. 2018) and transmit dengue (DENV), Zika (ZIKV), and chikungunya (CHIKV) viruses. Aedes albopictus is reported to preferentially breed in solid waste (Abramides et al. 2013), tyres (Alencar 2009), open coconut shells, and small plastic containers (Alencar 2009; Rao and George 2010).

Fig. 2.20 Solid waste from sources like slaughterhouse would be biologically diverse and dangerous

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2 Waste Quantities and Characteristics

Some of the arthropods in solid waste are spiders and scorpions. Annelids in solid waste include centipede, millipede, and earthworm. In some of the waste dumps adjacent to forest area attract wildlife as well, while herbivores are attracted towards vegetables and food carnivores are attracted towards hospital waste and other animals which come to eat solid waste. Solid waste dumps attract and host rats, lizards, snakes, and street dogs depending on the food available. Due to the absence of agricultural land honeybees in urban area are attracted to left over sweet drinks in trash for collecting nectar. Micro-organisms play important role in decomposition of decomposable fraction of solid waste. Thermophilic bacteria would breakdown of proteins and other easily biodegradable material. Fungi and actinomycetes would degrade complex organic matter like cellulose and lignin. Streptomyces and micromonospora species are commonly observed actinomycetes in compost. Thermonomyces sp., Asperigallus and Penicillium dupontii fumigatus are common fungi observed in compost. Most of these organisms will be present in municipal solid waste even before composting (CPHEOO 2000). The common housefly and number of other fly species (filth fly, blowflies, and other flies) have four distinct stages in their life: egg, larva or maggot, pupa, and adult. Depending on the temperature, egg develops into the adult fly in usually 2–3 weeks but in cooler conditions it may even be more. A female house fly is capable of laying up to 150 eggs in a batch. Over a period of a few days, it can also lay five or six batches of eggs. Female house flies favour damp, dark surfaces such as compost/manure for egg laying wherein hatching occurs within a few hours. The young larvae burrow into the breeding material where sufficient fresh air is available. The larvae develop rapidly from a minimum of three days to several weeks, depending on the species, temperature, and food available. After completion of feeding stage, the larvae migrate to a drier place and burrow into or hide under objects offering protection where they form a capsule-like case, the puparium, where larva is transformed to adult fly in usually 2–10 days. Solid waste dumps provide food resources to animals and can host several vertebrates. The detailed discussion on the subject is done in Chap. 19. The analysis of waste treatment efficiency requires reliable measure of biodegradable organic matter content of organic waste. Oxygen consumption can be classified into dynamic and static methods depending on if there is continuous air/oxygen supply or not. The main methodologies are summarized in Table 2.10. Anaerobic methodologies have not been as extensively used to determine biodegradability or stability in solid samples (Sergio 2010). These tests provide 1. Essential information for optimal design, 2. Performance of anaerobic digestion, 3. Reliable measure of the potentially biodegradable organic matter under anaerobic condition.

Specific oxygen uptake rate

Cumulative O2 uptake during 20 h

SOUR in solid sample

Dynamic Adani et al(2001); Dynamic 4 d but only Self-heated respirometric European data index recorded Commission(2001) during 24 h is used

SOUR

OD20

Solid SOUR

DRI

Static

4 days

20 °C

Potential DRI

PDRI

AT4 Sapromat Aerobic Cumulative Index in 4d

Dynamic 4 d but only Self-heated data Self-heated recorded during 24 h is used

Real DRI

Self-heated

RDRI

3h

Static

Static respirometric index

30 °C

SRI

Binner and Zach (1998)

5–6 h

Lasaridi and Stentiford (1998)

30 °C

16 h 37 °C incubation + 1 h assay

20 h

Sample 60 g

Weight

Solid

50 g

Moisture

Unit

< 10 mm

Saturation

Adjustment to 75% water holding capacity

< 9.5 mm

In suspension

(continued)

gram oxygen/kg organic matter

(gram oxygen/ kg organic matter)/hour

< 9.5 mm 50–55% w/ gram oxygen/kg w organic matter

Sieving

From few < 50 mm grams up if to necessary industrial scale

Liquid 3–8 g

Solid

Temperature State

Iannotti et al(1993) Static

Time

Assay Condition

O2 uptake

Type

O2 uptake

Reference

Name

Index

Table 2.10 Some published methodologies to measure biodegradable organic matter content of organic wastes

2.3 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Characteristics 81

Name

Respiration index (O2 update rate)

Respiration index at 37 °C O2 update rate

Aerobic Cumulative Index in 4d

Aerobic Cumulative Index in 4d

Index

RIT

RI37

AT4

AT4

Table 2.10 (continued)

Federal Government of Germany (2001)

European commission (2001)

Barrena et al. (2005)

Reference

Static

37 °C

18 h incubation + 1.5 h assay

20 °C

58 °C

Process

4 d + lag phase

Sample

Temperature State

4h incubation + 1.5 h assay

Time

Assay Condition

Dynamic 4 d expandable

Type

50 g DM

500 g

250 ml

250 ml

Weight

Sieving

Saturation

50%

40–55%

40–55%

Moisture

gram oxygen/kg dry matter

gram oxygen/kg organic matter

(gram oxygen/ kg organic matter)/hour

Unit

82 2 Waste Quantities and Characteristics

References

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Biogas potential, biological methane production, and biochemical methane potential are commonly used anaerobic methodizes defines in subsequent paragraphs. Biogas potential: Its cumulative volume of biogas generated in fixed time (usually 21 days) per kg of dry matter feed. Biological methane production: It corresponds to the cumulative volume of methane generated per kg of dry matter feed. Biochemical methane potential (BMP): The methane generated from the substrate expressed as per mass of volatile solids added or chemical oxygen demand (COD) added after the material is stored at a stable temperature of either 35 °C or 55 °C, and constantly mixed for a period of 30–60 days. The unit is usually expressed as m3 CH4 /tVS or m3 CH4 /tCOD.

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Chowdhury MS, Rahman KS, Chowdhury T, Nuthammachot N, Techato K, Akhtaruzzaman M, Tiong SK, Sopian K, Amin N (2020) An overview of solar photovoltaic panels’ end-of-life material recycling. Energy Strategy Rev 27:100431. ISSN 2211-467X. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.esr.2019.100431 Clark P (2009) European cities and towns: 400–2000. Oxford University Press, Oxford European Commission (2001) Working document. Biological treatment of biowaste. 2nd draft CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) (2009) Assessment of plastic waste and its management at airports and railway stations in Delhi CPHEOO (Central Public Health & Environmental Engineering Organisation) (2000) Manual on Municipal solid waste management, Ministry of urban development, and Government of India Dien BV, Vong VD (2006) Analysis of pesticide compound residues in some water sources in the province of Gia Lai and Dak Lak. Vietnam Food Administrator East African Community (2017) Disposal and alternative use of aflatoxin contaminated food. Policy Brief No. 9. https://aflasafe.com/wp-content/uploads/pdf/Policy-Brief-9-Disposal-andAlternative-Use-of-Aflatoxin-Contaminated-Food.pdf. Accessed on 4 Apr 2023 EC (2010) Final report—preparatory study on food waste across EU27. European Commission. DG ENV—Directorate C, Brussels Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2017) A new textiles economy: redesigning fashion’s future. https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/assets/downloads/publications/A-New-Tex tiles-Economy_Full-Report.pdf. Accessed on 28 Jan 2020 Engineering Tool Box (NA) Fuels—higher and lower calorific values. http://www.engineeringtool box.com/fuels-higher-calorific-values-d_169.html. Accessed on 21 Sep 2023 Eriksson M (2015) Supermarket food waste—prevention and management with the focus on reduced waste for reduced carbon footprint. Doctoral Thesis. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala Plastics Europe (2017) Plastics—the facts. Plastic Europe. https://www.plasticseurope.org/en/res ources/publications/274-plastics-facts-2017. Accessed on 20 Apr 2018 European Commision (2022) Question and answers on EU starategy for sustainabel circular texitles, March 30, 2022. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/QANDA_22_ 2015. Accessed on 2 Jan 2023 European Commission (2023) Teaming-up for a conscious kick for the legacy of environment. LIFE17 GIE/IT/000611. https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/life/publicWebsite/index.cfm?fus eaction=search.dspPage&n_proj_id=6662. Accessed on 16 Apr 2023 European Compost Network/Organic Recovery and Biological Treatment Association. The EU legislation and the requirements following for national organic waste management strategies and policies. First Baltic biowaste conference Export-Import Bank of India (2001) Indian sports goods industry: strategies for tapping the export potential, working paper no 104. Export-Import Bank of India, Mumbai FAO (2011) Global food losses and food waste—extent, causes and prevention. Rome FAO (2019) The state of food and agriculture 2019. Moving forward on food loss and waste reduction. Rome Federal Government of Germany (2001) Ordinance on environmentally compatible storage of waste from human settlements and on biological waste-treatment facilities of 20 February 2001 Fobil JN, Carboo D, Clement C (2002) Defining options for integrated management of municipal solid waste in large cities in low income economies: the case of the Accra metropolis in Ghana. J Solid Waste Technol Manage 28(2):106–117 Fortier B (1975) La politique de l’espace parisien à la fin de l’ancien régime. Corda, Paris Geyer R, Jambeck JR, Law KL (2017) Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Sci Adv 3(7):e1700782

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Othman N, Basri NEA, Yunus NM, Sidek LM (2008) Determination of physical and chemical characteristics of electronic plastic waste (Ep-Waste) resin using proximate and ultimate analysis method. In: International conference on construction and building technology, pp 169–180 Peter A, Allen H, Darby H (2006) Trash landings. How airlines and airports can clean up their recycling programs Poussou J-P (1992) La croissance des villes au XIXe siècle: France, Royaume-Uni, États-Unis et pays germaniques, 2nd edn. C.D.U. et SEDES, Paris Ramos M, Mohammed H, Zielinski-Gutierrez E, Hayden MH, Lopez JL, Fournier M (2008) Epidemic dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever at the Texas-Mexico border: results of a household-based Seroepidemiologic survey, December 2005. Am J Trop Med Hyg 78:364–369. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2008.78.364 Rao BB, George B (2010) (2010) Breeding patterns of Aedes stegomyia albopictus in periurban areas of Calicut, Kerala, India. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 41:536–540 Sabrina S (2021) Sustainable menstrual alternatives: the journey so far. Int J Home Sci 7(3):216–219. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.34990.43842 Schott D (2013) Katastrophen, Krisen und städtische Resilienz. Blicke in die Stadtgeschichte. Informationen Zur Raumentwicklung H 4:297–309 Schott D (2014) Urban development and environment, the basic environmental history, vol 4. ISBN 978-3-319-09179-2 Schubert E (1986) Der Wald: wirtschaftliche Grundlage der spätmittelalterlichen Stadt. In: Herrmann B (ed) Mensch und Umwelt im Mittelalter. DVA, Stuttgart, pp 252–269 SEPA (2013) Food waste volumes in Sweden. Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, Stockholm Sergio PS (2010) Different indices to express biodegradability in organic solid wastes. Application to full scale waste treatment plants. PhD Thesis, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona Settimi C (2016) The 2016 Rio Summer Olympics: by the numbers, Aug 5, 2016. https://www. forbes.com/sites/christinasettimi/2016/08/05/the-2016-summer-olympics-in-rio-by-the-num bers/?sh=b9c5300fa18b. Accessed on 29 Jul 2023 Shakibaie MR, Jalilzadeh KA, Yamakanamardi SM (2009) Horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes among gram negative bacteria in sewage and lake water and influence of some physico-chemical parameters of water on conjugation process. J Environ Biol 29:45–49 Shamshiry E, Nadi B, Mokhtar MB, Komoo I, Hashim HS, Yahaya N (2011) Integrated models for solid waste management in tourism regions: langkawi Island, Malaysia. J Environ Publ Health 2011:709549 Ssebulime G, Nyombi K, Kagezi GH, Mpiira S, Byabagambi S, Tushemereirwe WK, Kubiriba J, Karamura EB, Staver C (2018) Canopy management, leaf fall and litter quality of dominant tree species in the banana agroforestry system in Uganda. Afr J Food Agric Nutr Dev 18(1):13154– 13170. https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.81.16700 Strasser S (1999) Waste and want: a social history of trash. Metropolitan Books, New York Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games (1998) The Sydney 2000 Olympic games integrated waste management solution a waste management and resource recovery strategy for the Sydney 2000 Olympic and Paralympic Games, Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, October 1998, Sydney Tchobanoglaus G, Theisen H, Eliassen R (1977) Solid wastes: engineering principles and management issues. McGraw-Hill, New York Teh L, Cabanban AS (2007) Planning for sustainable tourism in southern Pulau Banggi: an assessment of biophysical conditions and their implications for future tourism development. J Environ Manag 85(4):999–1008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2006.11.005 UNEP (2019) Tourism. https://www.unenvironment.org/explore-topics/resource-efficiency/whatwe-do/responsible-industry/tourism. Accessed 16 Feb 2019 Wess J et al (2004) Asphalt (Bitumen), concise international assessment document 59. World

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Chapter 3

Storage and Collection

SWM is a universal issue. Poor SWM is contaminating the water bodies oceans, clogging drains, causing flooding, spreading diseases, harming animals, affecting economic development through diminished property value, tourism, and lost man days by sickness. As countries develop, their SWM situations also evolve. However, SWM practices are expensive. In low-income nations, it comprises of about 20% of municipal budgets, more than 10% in middle-income nations, and around 4% in high-income nations (Kaza et al. 2018). Challenges in SWM include ever-expanding urban cities and sprawl raising consumption patterns, mining operations, tourism activities as well as practices of illegal dumping. Remoteness, steepness, and prevailing socio-economic conditions as well as vulnerability to natural hazards make SWM in mountains more challenging than in lowland areas. Gravity and river flow can also increase the footprint of mountain waste to thousands of kilometres downstream and into the oceans (Alfthan et al. 2016). Since the middle of the nineteenth century, municipalities have been collecting solid waste. The major cities had formal collection services in place for more than a century but with deferring efficiencies. Storage duration depends on the collection frequency. Poor collection system leads to overflow of waste in storage locations. On the other hand, frequent collection reduces economic feasibility of the system. Figure 3.1 shows various stages of an SWM system. Waste storage and collection are important stages where inefficiency of the management may start. Proper onsite storage along with segregation would lessen burden of segregation at the processing stage. Segregation into at the least the degradable and non-degradable components in MSW would make transportation of degradable waste to composting and nondegradable waste to further categorization or processing. Storage in industry can happen without environmental concern as shown in Fig. 3.2 wherein dust from waste could cause air pollution, reaction within the waste can emit toxic fumes, and

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6_3

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Waste Generation

Onsite Waste Storage

Waste Collection

Waste Transfer

Waste Transport

Waste Offsite Storage

Waste Processing

Waste Disposal

Fig. 3.1 Various stages of SWM

Fig. 3.2 Storage without environmental concern

rainwater can absorb chemicals and carry along into groundwater or surface water. Figure 3.3 shows numerous examples of storage, collection, transfer and transport. Waste storage and collection depend on size of the community (urban/rural/gated) and management strategies which could be one or combination of following: Strategy 1: Generation point/area to processing plants, Strategy 2: Generation point/area to waste dump/landfill sites, Strategy 3: Generation point/area to dry waste collection centres and processing plants, Strategy 4: Generation point/area to transfer station to processing plant to disposal sites, Strategy 5: Generation point/area to treatment, storage and disposal Facility, Strategy 6: Generation point/area to mustering point to processing plants, Different waste needs different precautions for storage and collection. Since storage/collection requirement of biomedical waste, hazardous waste and radioactive waste are different the requirements are elaborated in Chapters 6, 7, and 10, respectively.

3.1 Storage

91

Onsite storage

Offsite storage

Collection

Transfer

Transport

Fig. 3.3 Examples of onsite storage, offsite storage, collection, transfer and transport of solid waste

3.1 Storage Storage is a term used to keep substances in place. In the context of SWM, waste storage is done at the point of generation, processing, and disposal apart from intermittent points. Solid waste storage is the interim containment of solid waste. Storage

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can happen at a point of generation, transfer station, treatment, or disposal facility. In residential neighbourhoods solid waste, collection frequency may vary from twice a day for wealthy neighbourhoods to once a week for poor neighbourhoods. A slum may not have the service of waste collection at all. Once collected, domestic solid waste is transported to transfer/disposal sites. The vehicles used for this purpose vary from open trucks to compactor trucks with series of small and medium sized vehicles. Proper storage of waste has to consider following constraints/issues: • Available space—Space in urban is costly, and, hence, less space is available for storage compared to rural area, • Safety—Infectious/hazardous/radioactive waste need higher safety precaution. Infectious waste needs to be disposed earliest to avoid spreading of disease, • Available waste collection mechanism—Some countries/places have separate mechanisms for infectious/hazardous/radioactive waste while it may not be case in other places, • Willingness to comply with law—Some people may prefer to disobey the law of land due to ignorance/negligence or economic reasons, • Disaster—Natural/anthropogenic disaster may disrupt normal SWM. Several mountain communities in the developing world face noteworthy challenges in managing the increasing quantity of non-biodegradable waste. Several communities have not developed practices as well as norms for SWM. In many places, formal institutional systems for SWM do not exist resulting in informal means of SWM. Several mountain regions are experiencing a growing SWM problem. Tourists on treks as well as mountaineering expeditions contribute to the escalating quantities of solid waste where there are no adequate systems in place to store and collect the waste. For example, the growth in tourists visiting in the Mount Everest region in Nepal has seen an increase in visitors (from 20 in 1964 to about 36,000 in 2012) and about 140,000 kg of solid waste is remained after 60 years of expeditions (Kelliher 2014). Winter tourism in the mountains can also have important waste impacts and implications (Alfthan et al. 2016). Despite diversity in SWM and collection practices, there are attempts to standardize the equipment and practice by standard organizations. Standards published by International Organization for Standardization. • ISO/TC297 Waste Collection and Transportation Management, • ISO 24161:202299 (En) Waste Collection and Transportation Management— Vocabulary. Standards published by Bureau of Indian Standard. • IS 12647: 2021 Solid Waste Management Collection Equipment Requirements and Guidelines, • IS 12662 (Part 2): 2002 Reviewed In: 2019 Vehicles for Indian Standard Collection of Municipal Solid Wastes: Part 2 Guidelines for Maintenance,

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93

• IS 12662 (Part 1): 1989 Reaffirmed In: 1019 (First Revision) Guidelines of Vehicles for Collection and Transportation of Vehicles, • IS 16557: 2016 Reaffirmed In: 2021 Solid Waste Management—Segregation, Collection and Utilisation at Household/Community Level—Guidelines. Standards published by British Standards Institutions. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

BS 5906:2005 Waste Management in Buildings—Code of Practice, BS 792, Specification for Mild Steel Dustbins, BS 1703, Specification for Refuse Chutes and Hoppers, BS 4998, Specification for Molded Thermoplastics Dustbins (Excluding Lids), BS 6642, Specification for Disposable Plastics Refuse Sacks Made from Polyethylene, BS 8300:2001, Design of Buildings and Their Approaches to Meet the Needs of Disabled People—Code of Practice, BS EN 840-1, Mobile Waste Containers—Part 1: Containers with Two Wheels with a Capacity From 80 L To 390 L For Comb Lifting Devices—Dimensions and Design, BS EN 840-2, Mobile Waste Containers—Part 2: Containers with Four Wheels with a Capacity From 500 L To 1 200 L With Flat Lid(S), for Trunnion and/or Comb Lifting Devices—Dimensions and Design, BS EN 840-3, Mobile Waste Containers—Part 3: Containers with Four Wheels with a Capacity From 770 L To 1300 L with Dome Lid(S), for Trunnion and/or Comb Lifting Devices—Dimensions and Design, BS EN 840-4, Mobile Waste Containers—Part 4: Containers with Four Wheels with a Capacity From 750 L To 1 700 L with Flat Lid(S), for Wide Trunnion Or BG- and/or Wide Comb Lifting Devices—Dimensions and Design, BS EN 840-5, Mobile Waste Containers—Part 5: Performance Requirements and Test Methods, BS EN 840-6, Mobile Waste Containers—Part 6: Safety and Health Requirements, BS EN 12,574-1, Stationary Waste Containers—Part 1: Containers with a Capacity From 1 700 L To 5 000 L With Flat or Dome Lid(S), For Trunnion, Double Trunnion or Pocket Lifting Devices — Dimensions and Design, BS EN 12,574-2, Stationary Waste Containers—Part 2: Performance Requirements and Test Methods, BS EN 12574-3, Stationary Waste Containers—Part 3: Safety and Health Requirements, BS EN 13,071, Selective Waste Collection Containers—Above-Ground Mechanically-Lifted Containers with Capacity From 80 L To 5 000 L For Selective Collection of Waste.

Storage can be done using containers or without containers (Figs. 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, and 3.9). There are many designs available for MSW collecting containers (Table 3.1). Rubbish skip, which is a big open-topped container used for loading onto a special type of vehicle instead of being transferred into a waste vehicle onsite. In many places, it is used for filling waste by generator or door to collector. A skip may

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be replaced by an empty skip. A dumpster is a large steel waste container designed to be emptied into a solid waste truck. The term is a generalized trademark (http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genericized_trademark) of the Dumpster brand, but the term is also common in other places where the Dumpster is not an established brand. Underground and semi-underground containers which can take up to 5 m3 of waste in 2 m2 of floor space are installed will have following advantages:

Fig. 3.4 Segregated papers stored for recycling

Fig. 3.5 Segregated waste piles for recycling

3.1 Storage

95

Fig. 3.6 Dry waste stored on foot path during lockdown period during COVID-19 pandemic in Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore)

Fig. 3.7 Metal scrap stored in dry waste collection centre

• • • •

Significantly higher collection point capacity, Collection frequency reduction, Waste is stored below the ground resulting in better compaction by own weight, Aesthetic appearance.

Waste bins with solar-powered compactor can hold up to five times more waste compared to non-compacting bins.

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Fig. 3.8 Outside view of a dry waste collection centre

Fig. 3.9 Waste stored in waste incinerator facility

The purpose of storage is keeping substance in place until it is used, processed, or disposed. Storage facility shall have sufficient space to store waste until it is moved out to make space for new waste. Putrescible wastes are usually cleared every day to avoid smell nuisance. The non-biodegradable waste can be accumulated at source provided sufficient space is available. Intermittent storage of MSW is done by waste dealers who collect the waste till the quantity reaches a level wherein the transportation can be done economically. In case the MSW waste quantity is less than a truck load, it does not make any business sense to haul the waste if the waste price is less than transportation cost. Dry waste collection centres of MSW have been the choice of many cities in India where dry waste is stored and segregated manually and sold to recyclers. These centres can be self-owned or created by urban local bodies (ULBs) or rural local

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Table 3.1 Different categories of MSW storage containers Capacity

Description

Common usage

Collection Methods

85 L

Plastic bin liners

Small business, industry, domestic, public amenities

Liners are deposited directly by hand into collection vehicle

85 L

Rubber/galvanized steel bins

Domestic, small business, industry public amenities

Bins emptied directly by hand into collection vehicle

120/240 L Mobile refuse bins

Domestic, small business, industry, public amenities

Rear-end loading compactors with lifting equipment

1/2 m3

Small business and industry

Rear-end loading compactors with lifting equipment

4 to 11 m3 Bulk containers

Large business, industry, garden refuse, construction and demolition waste, public amenities, bulk wastes

Rear-end loading compactors with lifting equipment

15 to 30 m3

Large business, industry, garden refuse, construction and demolition waste, bulk wastes

Roll-on roll-off vehicles

Large shopping centres, transfer stations & industries

Roll-on roll-off vehicles

Mobile refuse containers

Open bulk containers

11, 15, Closed containers and 35 m3

bodies (RLB) and let out by tendering or permitted to NGOs or self-help groups without any cost. Commercial and industrial establishments vary in size, activity, layout, and location making it difficult to generalize collection scenarios and methodologies. Some of the amusement parks, motels, and supermarkets located outside service area of local bodies have to make own arrangements to transport and dispose waste from their facilities. Some industry like thermal power plants and integrated steel mills will have township within their premises. Bottom ash and fly ash storage from thermal power plants has changed over the time so as slag from steel mills. Fly ash from thermal power plants and granulated blast furnace slag from steel mill have been considered as by-product since technology was established as to use the same as raw material in cement manufacturing. Cement industries will usually have their own arrangement to store and haul fly ash and granulated blast furnace slag to cement manufacturing facilities. Large industries will have their own scrap yard to store recyclable waste generated during manufacturing and end-of-life machinery. Hazardous waste and radioactive waste generated in industry and commercial establishments (including laboratory) need to be stored in accordance with procedure discussed in Chaps. 7 and 10, respectively. Precautions should be taken during storage of biomedical waste as discussed in Chap. 6.

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Storage facilities should be established so that it will not lead to unhygienic and unsanitary conditions. Dos and Don’ts for onsite storage are given in Table 3.2. Precautions for storage for several types of waste are given in Table 3.3. A checklist for Waste Storage in Commercial Establishments is given in Table 3.4. Following criteria shall be considered while establishing and maintaining MSW storage facilities: • • • • • • • • •

Quantities of waste generation in each area, Waste should not be exposed to atmosphere to avoid rainwater contamination, Storage facilities shall have ‘easy to operate’ design for handling waste, Storage containers shall be readily cleanable with proper drainage to avoid pooling of water, Floor shall be waterproof, and roof shall be leaking proof, Ensure sufficient parking place and approach road for transportation vehicles in case of larger/common storage facilities, Storage area shall be well lit to avoid dark spaces, Manual handling of waste if unavoidable shall be carried out under proper safety precaution, and Ensure precautionary fire safety measures like sufficient fire extinguishers, training to employees to operate fire extinguishers, periodic mock drills, and escape routes in case of fire.

3.2 Collection Solid waste collection is the transfer of solid waste from the point of generation to the transfer/treatment/disposal locations. The term waste collection includes the collection of solid wastes from sources and hauling as well as unloading of these wastes at unloading point (Tchobanoglous et al. 1993). The major types of collection services are (1) source-separated wastes and (2) commingled wastes. Precautions to be taken during transportation of different types of waste are given in Table 3.5. Frequency of collection for treatment/disposal of different types of waste from point of generation for best management is given in Table 3.6. Problems associated with waste collection in developing nation are (UN HABITAT 2011): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Experience with contractors has been disappointing, Inability to provide full coverage, Lack of public co-operation, Littering and illegal dumping, Shortage of funds, Too many complaints, Unreliable vehicles, Use of unsuitable vehicles.

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Table 3.2 Dos and Don’ts for onsite storage Sl. No.

Source

Dos

Don’ts

1

Households

1. Store biodegradable waste in a non-corrosive container with a lid 2. Store non-biodegradable waste in a bin/bag or a sack 3. Store domestic hazardous waste and domestic biomedical waste if generated separately

Not to throw any solid waste in the neighbourhood, streets, open spaces, and vacant lands, drains or water bodies

2

Multi-storeyed 1. Store food waste/biodegradable buildings, waste in a non-corrosive commercial container with a lid complexes, private 2. Keep dry/recyclable waste in a bin/bag or a sack societies, etc. 3. Keep domestic hazardous waste and domestic biomedical waste if generated separately 4. Provide separate community bin/bins large enough to hold waste 5. Direct the members of the association/ society to deposit their waste in community bin

Not to throw any solid waste in the neighbourhood, streets, open spaces, and vacant lands, drains or water bodies

3

Slums

1. Store food waste/biodegradable waste in a non-corrosive container with a lid 2. Keep dry/recyclable waste in a bin/bag or a sack 3. Keep domestic hazardous waste and domestic biomedical waste if generated separately 5. Use community bins provided by local body for deposition

Not to throw any solid waste in the neighbourhood, streets, open spaces, and vacant lands, drains or water bodies

4

Shops, offices, movie theatres, drama theatres,

1. Keep food waste/ biodegradable waste in a non-corrosive container with a cover (lid) 2. Keep dry/recyclable waste in a bin/bag or a sack 3. Keep domestic hazardous waste and domestic biomedical waste if and when generated separately for disposal at specially notified locations 4. If situated in a commercial complex, deposit the waste so stored by community bin provided by the association

Not to throw any solid waste in the neighbourhood, streets, open spaces, and vacant lands, drains or water bodies

(continued)

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Table 3.2 (continued) Sl. No.

Source

Dos

Don’ts

5

Schools, educational institutions, etc.

1. Keep food waste/biodegradable waste in a non-corrosive container with a cover (lid) 2. Keep dry/recyclable waste in a bin/bag or a sack 3. Make sure hazardous/ biomedical/radioactive waste from laboratory is stored separately disposed as per applicable statutes

Not to throw any solid waste in the neighbourhood, streets, open spaces, and vacant lands, drains or water bodies

6

Hotels and Restaurants

1. Keep food waste/biodegradable waste in a non-corrosive container with a cover (lid) 2. Keep dry/recyclable waste in a bin/bag or a sack 3. Keep hazardous waste and biomedical waste if and when generated separately for disposal at specially notified locations

Not to throw any solid waste in the neighbourhood, streets, open spaces, and vacant lands, drains or water bodies

7

Vegetable and fruit 1. Provide large containers, which 1. Not to throw any solid waste market match the transportation system in the neighbourhood, of the local body streets, open spaces, and 2. Deposit the waste as and when vacant lands, drains or water generated into the large bodies container placed in the market 2. Do not dispose waste in front of shops

8

Religious/ worshipping places

1. Keep food waste/biodegradable waste in a non-corrosive container with a cover (lid) 2. Keep dry/recyclable waste in a bin/bag or a sack 3. Keep hazardous waste and biomedical waste when generated separately for disposal at specially notified locations

9

Street food vendors

1. Keep a bin or bag for the 1. Not to throw any solid waste storage of waste that generates in the neighbourhood, during street vending activity streets, open spaces, and 2. Preferably have an arrangement vacant lands, drains or water to affix the bin or bag with the bodies 2. Not to throw any waste on handcart used for vending the street, pavement or open spaces (continued)

Not to throw any solid waste in the neighbourhood, streets, open spaces, and vacant lands, drains or water bodies

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Table 3.2 (continued) Sl. No.

Source

Dos

Don’ts

10

Marriage halls, community halls, stadiums, sports events and other entertainment events

Provide a large container with lid which may match with the transportation system of the local body and deposit all the waste generated in the premises in such containers

1. Not to throw any solid waste in the neighbourhood, streets, open spaces, and vacant lands, drains or water bodies 2. Not to throw any solid waste in their neighbourhood, on the streets, open spaces, and vacant lands, into the drains or water bodies

11

Hospitals, nursing homes, etc.

1. Keep food waste/ biodegradable waste in a non-corrosive container with a cover (lid) 2. Keep dry/recyclable waste in a separate scrap yard if space permits. Small-scale industry can earmark separate space within available space 3. Make sure hazardous/ biomedical/radioactive waste are stored separately disposed as per applicable statutes

1. Not to throw any solid waste in the neighbourhood, streets, open spaces, and vacant lands, drains or water bodies 2. Not to dispose of the biomedical waste in the municipal dust bins or other waste collection or storage site meant for municipal solid waste

12

Construction and demolition waste

Store the waste within the premises or with permission of the authorities just outside the premises without obstructing the traffic preferably in a container

Not to deposit construction waste or debris on the streets, foot paths, pavements, open spaces, water bodies, etc.

13

Garden waste

1. Compost the waste within the garden, if possible 2. Store the waste into large bags or bins for handing over to the municipal authorities or contractors appointed for the purpose on the day of collection notified

Not to throw any solid waste in the neighbourhood, streets, open spaces, and vacant lands, drains or water bodies

(continued)

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Table 3.2 (continued) Sl. No.

Source

Dos

Don’ts

14

Industries, amusement parks

1. Keep food waste/ biodegradable waste in a non-corrosive container with a cover (lid) 2. Keep dry/recyclable waste in a separate scrap yard if space permits. Small-scale industry can earmark separate space within available space 3. Make sure hazardous/ biomedical/radioactive waste from laboratory/manufacturing are stored separately and disposed as per applicable statutes

Not to throw any solid waste in the neighbourhood, streets, open spaces, and vacant lands, drains or water bodies

15

Ports/harbours, airport, railways, bus stand

1. Keep food waste/ biodegradable waste in a non-corrosive container with a cover (lid) 2. Keep dry/recyclable waste in a separate scrap yard if space permits 3. Make sure hazardous/ biomedical are stored separately and disposed as per applicable statutes

Not to throw any solid waste in the neighbourhood, streets, open spaces, and vacant lands, drains or water bodies

16

Veterinary institutions, animal farms, zoos, animal care houses

Make sure animal dung, biomedical waste, hazardous wastes are stored separately and disposed as per applicable statutes

Not to throw any solid waste in the neighbourhood, streets, open spaces, and vacant lands, drains or water bodies

The failure of MSW collection has led to many failed systems and the wastage of funds. In several cases, collection vehicles and containers have been procured in large numbers but not been effective and have been operational for periods much less than their expected design lives. In some cases, unsuitable equipment has been procured because of corruption, but in several cases, the fault lies with the assumption that the similar type of waste collection equipment will work effectively in any situation. Decision makers visiting cities in industrialized countries that use sophisticated compaction vehicles assume that the cleanliness is the result of using complex vehicles. In some cases, the vehicles may be selected on the basis of advertising or visit of a persuasive salesman (UN HABITAT 2011). Local factors to be considered for proper MSW collection. Expectations and Attitudes of the Citizens: In some cities, the people expect that their waste to be collected from each house every day, whereas in northern Europe,

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Table 3.3 Precautions for solid waste storage Type of waste

Precautions to be taken Restricted access

Closed room

Fire safety

Provision for leachate /spillage collection/ management

Hazardous

All hazardous waste except commercial/ domestic hazardous waste of minor quantity

All hazardous Toxic/flammable/ Required for waste except explosive liquid hazardous commercial/ component waste domestic/ hazardous waste of minor quantity

Radioactive

All radioactive waste

Biomedical

All biomedical waste except commercial/ domestic/ biomedical waste of minor quantity

All biomedical waste except commercial/ domestic/ biomedical waste of minor quantity

e-waste

All e-waste except commercial/ domestic e-waste waste of minor quantity

All e-waste except commercial/ domestic e-waste waste of minor quantity

Required

Domestic

Required

Construction and Required for demolition large sites to avoid accidents Slaughterhouse waste

Required for large slaughterhouses to avoid accidents

Required

citizens accept collection once a week or less. Large compactor trucks are suitable for relatively large quantities of waste are picked up at each stop. In some countries, waste is scattered around street container, and residents will not accept to have a street container located in front of their residence. Some residents find it unacceptable to be seen carrying their wastes in the street, and if children are sent to carry waste to a street container, the container needs to be of a size and type that allows children to use it. Some people dump wastes in drains unaware of the risks of flooding and mosquito-borne disease. Climate: Biodegradable waste decomposes faster at higher temperatures, and it is necessary to collect the waste more frequently than in a cold climate in a hot climate, to avoid the generation production of odour. Further flies breed more rapidly at

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Table 3.4 Checklist for waste storage in commercial establishments A. Waste segregation and storage 1 Are all recycling bins clearly labelled? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 2 Are all waste containers in good condition and suitable for use? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 3 Is the bin transfer route free of steps? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 4 If the gradient is manageable when full bins are moved manually? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 5 Are number of waste container adequate? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 6 Are waste containers emptied regularly? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 7 Are waste containers lined properly? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 8 Have arrangement made to store hazardous waste separately and properly? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 9 Is the location of waste container proper? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 10 Is waste removal properly scheduled? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable B Record Keeping 11 Does facility keep all records as per statutory requirement? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 12 Whether emergency numbers posted ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 13 Is SOP available? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 14 Whether injury and emergency response procedure available ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 15 Whether regulatory permits available ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 16 Personnel training files up to date and available ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable C Safety 17 Does everyone who will be handling waste have the appropriate PPE? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 18 Whether adequate onsite fire control measures are provided? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 19 Whether personnel have been provided with separate eating place ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 20 Whether personnel have been provided sufficient toilets, bathroom and changing room ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 21 Are the waste storage areas free from odours, contaminants, or signs of vermin? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 22 Are the wastes stored in a well-ventilated room? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 23 Do all workers wear appropriate PPE while segregating wastes? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 24 Does the exhaust fan in the room operate properly? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 25 Is the first aid kit readily available in case of emergency? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable

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Table 3.5 Precautions to be taken during transportation of solid waste Type of waste

Precautions to be taken Packaging

Labelling

Radiation exposure controls

Infection exposure control

Segregation based on treatment/ disposal method ✓

Domestic Hazardous

✓

✓

Radioactive

✓

✓

Biomedical

✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓ ✓

✓

e-waste

✓

Construction and demolition

✓ ✓

Slaughterhouse waste

✓

Table 3.6 Frequency of collection for treatment/disposal of waste from point of waste generation for best management Type of waste

Maximum frequency of collection Every day

Domestic

Biodegradable/infectious component

Hazardous

Infectious component

Radioactive

Biomedical

Three months

At the end of maximum onsite storage capacity

Toxic/flammable/ explosive component At the end of maximum onsite storage capacity unless local law demands early collection

Biodegradable/ infectious component

Date expired drugs

e-waste

At the end of maximum onsite storage capacity

Construction and demolition

At the end of maximum onsite storage capacity

Slaughterhouse waste

Biodegradable/infectious component

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higher temperatures, requiring more frequent collection. Big vehicles are not suitable to frequent collections of small quantity of waste. Please with heavy rainfall may influence the type of waste storage container (UN HABITAT 2011). Types of Waste: In some industrialized countries, the waste has a very low density. In arid countries where yards and internal floors are not paved generate large quantity of soil in the waste, making it dense and abrasive. Countries which consume fresh food are plentiful and generate dense, wet, and corrosive waste. Coastal areas with large quantities of fish require frequent collection of waste to avoid odour problem. Further waste is dense, dry, and abrasive where wood/coal is used for cooking food and heating. If plants are mixed with the waste, the resulting overall density is likely to be low. Mixing construction wastes and street sweepings would make the overall density high. Modern compactor trucks are designed to handle dry, non-abrasive, low-density waste, and hence, other type of waste need a different type of vehicle (UN HABITAT 2011). Architecture and Infrastructure: Dwellings with courtyards may have a place for storing waste for many days, but small house with no space for storage require that some waste is taken outside as soon as it is produced. Narrow streets may not have space for storage motorized collection vehicles may not be used. Houses that are located at considerable distances from motorable roads pose problems in collection (UN HABITAT 2011). Animals: Waste storage containers in places where there are domestic animals must take this into account, so that the waste is not scattered by animals (UN HABITAT 2011). Economic Factors: The cost of operating vehicles and the wages paid to waste collectors need to be considered while deciding on the type of waste collection vehicle. Compactor trucks with small crews are suitable when costs associated with wages are high compared to vehicle operating costs. But low- and middle-income nations use larger crews and smaller, simpler vehicles (UN HABITAT 2011). Absence of solid waste collection has a direct health impact. Air pollution due to uncontrolled burning of waste, blocked drains, and uncontrolled dumpsites, can cause disease to citizens. Waste collection is a critical step in SWM, but rates vary largely by income levels. As per data published by World Bank in 2018, upper-middle- and high-income nations providing complete waste collection, low-income countries collect around 48% of waste in cities, and 26% outside urban areas. Sub-Saharan Africa collects around 44% of waste while Europe, Central Asia, and North America collect at least 90% of waste (Kaza et al. 2018). Whereas as per the UN (2022) in 2022, an average of 82% of MSW globally was being collected and 55% was being managed in controlled facilities. Municipalities in Oceania and sub-Saharan Africa have an average collection rate of less than 60%. In Latin America, Asia, and the Caribbean cities, the collection rate ranges from 70–85%. Long-running problems in the Naples metropolitan area, Italy, with MSW management had left waste to pile up in the streets that became breeding grounds

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107

Primary collection route Primary collection point

Residential/commercial/ industrial cluster

Secondary collection point

Secondary collection route

Fig. 3.10 Pictorial depiction of primary and secondary collection system

for vector-borne diseases. The crises made national and international news in 1994, 1999, 2003, 2008, 2010, and 2011 (D’Alisa et al. 2010; UNEP 2015). Lack of organized collection had resulted in seasonal flooding in Accra, Ghana, resulting in blocking of drains by wastes. Floods in 2011 resulted in deaths of 14 people and affected 43,000 and 17,000 lost their homes, besides 100 incidents of cholera (UNEP/OCHA 2011). Collection in mountainous regions is amplified due to difficulties of transporting waste. In tourist destinations, waste generated is linked to the tourism industry. Waste collection is an important link in SWM. Even though practice varies across the globe, garbage collectors fall into two categories—the driver of the vehicle and the helper, or “ground man,” who picks up the waste. In some places, ground man is not employed due to non-availability or economics reason. As per the information published by US Bureau of Labor Statistics (2022), number of refuse and recyclable material collectors stood 126,050.1 Collection by pneumatic waste collection system does not require waste collectors as waste is transferred by air in the network of pipe installed for waste collection. There are many types of collection practised throughout the world. In Yaounde of Cameroon, two types of collection systems are practised: (1) the primary collection and (2) the secondary collection. Primary collection is done at the household level, whereas the secondary collection is carried out by the urban council or its contractors. In addition to the primary and secondary collection system (Fig. 3.10), some SWM systems can add tertiary collection system to collect waste collected in a secondary waste collection system. 1

Estimates for detailed occupations do not sum to the totals because the totals include occupations not shown separately. Estimates do not include self-employed workers.

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Among the numerous waste collection practices that have evolved over time, one of the most primitive systems is shown in Fig. 3.11 wherein the waste littered by people is collected by a service providing agency. Such a system may be practised where there is a lack of civic sense among the citizens. In a fixed bin collection system (Fig. 3.12), a bin is placed into which people would drop the waste which is then collected. A disadvantage of such a collection system is that the bin would host rodents and dogs if it is not cleared frequently. These bins are constructed at sites of collection or prefabricated depending on the budget available and local knowledge/practice of SWM. Figure 3.13 shows a hauled container system wherein the containers filled with waste are hauled to a transfer station or treatment/disposal point. The empty container is placed back in the original position from where it was lifted.

Collection route

Residential/commercial/

Fig. 3.11 Primitive litter collection system

Collection route

Residential/commercial/ industrial blocks

Fig. 3.12 A fixed bin collection system for solid waste

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109

Figure 3.14 shows a stationary container collection system, wherein the containers are emptied into a collection vehicle at the point of collection. Manual methods used for the collection include: (1) the direct lifting and carrying to the collection vehicle; (2) rolling of containers on their rims for emptying to the collection vehicle; and (3) the rolling of containers with wheels to the collection vehicle. Large containers referred to as tote containers and drop cloths called tarps are sometime used into which wastes from smaller containers will be emptied. Door-to-door collection has been practised in India and several other countries. Door-to-door collection of biodegradable waste is required to avoid extended storage and associated consequences like fly nuisance, odour, and littering which further linked to dog/rodent nuisance, whereas the non-biodegradable waste and domestic

Container location

Filled container

Empty container

Collection route

Transfer station, processing centre, disposal point

Fig. 3.13 Hauled container system

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3 Storage and Collection

Filled container

Container location

Empty container

To transfer station/ treatment/dispos al points

Fig. 3.14 Stationary container system

hazardous waste can be done once in a week which is not associated with fly nuisance and odour.

Door-to-door collection can be combined with road sweeping (Figs. 3.15, 3.16, 3.17, 3.18, and 3.19) or standalone activity depending on budget availability and manpower availability. Smart waste management is a novel approach to waste collection based on Internet of Things (IoT) technology. Smart waste collection system that is adopted in some places will have containers with sensors which send messages to centralized data management system to collect the waste as it gets filled. The waste bins can also be fitted with bar code or QR code and integrate the information of each bin with centralized monitoring system. In conventional waste collection systems, waste collection vehicles will follow a predefined route without knowing containers’ fullness level. Installing sensors in waste collection containers can measure the fill level along with temperature and live location which in turn can notify waste management services to collect them as it gets filled enabling to optimize the SWM process. Temperature sensors can alert in case of fire hazard. Further weighing mechanisms can be installed

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111

Fig. 3.15 Door-to-door waste collection in pushcart along with street sweeping

Fig. 3.16 Door-to-door waste collection in motorized vehicle

in waste collection vehicles to predict fill levels and use the data to optimize waste collection. Manual sweeping and push carts are only choice where mechanized street sweeping is not feasible due to: a. Narrow streets not favourable for operation of mechanised road sweepers, b. People park their vehicle as they do not have sufficient parking space inside their property, and c. Street is unpaved and/or characterized by potholes. Collection of unsegregated and segregated solid waste is an important part of SWM programme. Collection starts with the waste bins holding materials that a waste producer has identified as no longer useful and ends with the transportation of wastes to a location for processing, transfer, or disposal. Manpower for street

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Fig. 3.17 Private waste collector announcing request for valuable waste for a price

Fig. 3.18 Door-to-door waste collection with partition

sweeping and door-to-door collection is usually one person for 1.50 km of road length while each vehicle can collect waste from 1000 houses. In addition to service provided by local authorities, private waste collectors can also buy valuable waste for a price (Fig. 3.15). Local authorities that collect biodegradable/non-biodegradable/hazardous waste every day can make partition (Fig. 3.16) in collection vehicle so that it will not get mixed and processed according to their characteristics. Figure 3.17 shows a private waste collector announcing a request for valuable waste for a price. Figure 3.18 shows door-to-door waste collection with partition.

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113

Fig. 3.19 MSW collection vehicle with provision to collect six categories of waste

Most waste collection happens during off-peak traffic hours. In Australia, kerbside collection is the method of collection of waste. All houses in an urban area will have three bins for (1) recyclables, (2) general waste, and (3) garden materials. Also, many households will have compost bins. Some developed countries across the globe convey solid waste via underground vacuum systems. In India, curb-side collection and door-to-door collection is the usual method of disposal. In Taipei, waste is collected by the urban council in government issued rubbish bags. Transport of waste from households, industries, commercial establishments, etc., is a growing problem as the rapid urbanization in the developing nations leaves little time for proper layout and planning. Most of the fast-growing cities in the developing nations are at the outskirts of existing settlement, and waste management is becoming less efficient due to an increase in traffic. UNEP (1996) estimates that up to 70% of vehicles used for collection/transfer in cities of West Africa may be out of function at any one time. No containers are designated in Barbados for waste collection and individual residences have to designate collection container (Headley 1998). Solid waste collection varies between countries and cities. Some cities like Kinshasa have zero collection of waste. War, mutiny, economic crises or booms, political strife has influence on solid waste generation and management. Huge mounds of solid waste accumulated over the Mogadishu, Somali, during civil war (Barise 2001). Even though African cities are using 20–50% of budget for SWM, collection is in the range of only 20–80%. Corruption often plays a major role in SWM. Other factors may also influence, e.g., soldiers interrupted clean-up activities demanding payment for allowing waste to be removed over the Mogadishu, Somali, during their civil war (Barise 2001). Waste collected in push carts and small vehicles by local bodies are loaded into larger vehicle in mustering (assemble) points spread across the local bodies. These

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mustering points are also used to take attendance of waste collectors, vehicles and sweepers besides verifying actual waste collected by them. Such points are also provided with bathrooms and toilets for staff involved in SWM to enable them to clean up and change cloths. Basic theory used to calculate the vehicle requirement has following steps: 1. Estimate/assess volume of solid waste 2. Analyse road route, 3. Calculate vehicle buying/operating cost Analysis of road routes can be done by making note of time or by global positioning system (GPS). • Analysis of road route. • Vehicle operating cost is calculated through conventional method using secondary data. The cost of operation shall take following expenditure into considerations: i. Standing cost—vehicle cost, vehicle registration certificate cost, insurance cost, crew salary, ii. Indirect cost—controller cost, cleaning service cost, running cost (cost of fuel, consumable, check-up, maintenance). Each country, city, village, and ward is unique in terms of layout, road condition, people’s behaviour, vehicle maintenance cost, labour cost. Decision maker has to make decision based on the local scenario. Example of comparison of operational cost estimate (in INR) for two scenarios for the same award is given in Table 3.7. As can be seen, scenario 2 makes the best among two. Not all types of collection system fall into one of the above discussed systems. A combination or standalone system is practised for construction and demolition (C&D) waste, slaughterhouse waste, WEEE, disaster waste, and radioactive waste where situation would decide the methodology. Checklist for solid waste collection by vehicle is given in Table 3.8.

3.2.1 Collection from Low-Rise Detached Houses The most familiar types of residential collection services for low-rise detached houses (Fig. 3.20) include (1) curb, (2) alley, (3) set out-setback, (4) door-to-door collection, (4) set out, and (5) backyard carry. Where curb service is employed, the homeowners shall place the containers with waste at the curb for collection and returning. Alley service is used where alleys are part of the layout of a residential area. In set out-setback service, homeowner will set out the container and collection crew will load the collection vehicle. In case of door-to-door collection service, the waste generator will hand over the waste to a

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115

Table 3.7 Example of comparison of operational cost estimate (in INR) for two scenarios for same ward Scenario 1: Using tricycle for collection and mini truck for transfer

Scenario 2: Using mini truck for collection and transfer

Description

No

Description

No

Tricycle required

40

Tricycle required

0

Mini truck required

1

Mini truck required

5

Waste collector

92

17,500

Waste collector

Supervisor

1

18,000

Supervisor

Rate (in INR)

Cost (in INR)

1,610,000 18,000

Rate (in INR)

Cost (in INR)

40

17,500

700,000

1

18,000

18,000

Diesel

1

17,000

17,000

Diesel

1

50,000

50,000

Maintenance

1

14,000

14,000

Maintenance

5

13,000

65,000

Driver

1

17,500

17,500

Driver

5

17,500

1,676,500

87,500 920,500

collector. In a set out service, a homeowner shall return the containers to a storage location. Slums usually located in the midst of urban settlement have following challenges: 1. No willingness to pay for waste collection service by public authorities, 2. Characterized by narrow roads, sometime as low as about one metre making it difficult for movement of waste collection vehicles, 3. Unpaved road. Waste being collected at the edge of slum is shown in Fig. 3.21. Unless these slums act as sink of urban solid waste where waste pickers and residents of slum engage themselves in collection, segregation and storage of waste for selling, the waste generated would be thrown at the edge of slum leaving urban local bodies to collect it at the cost of taxpayers.

3.2.2 Collection from Medium-Rise Building Most of the medium-rise apartments (Fig. 3.22) use curb-side collection service and the maintenance staff will usually transport the containers to curb-side collection location. The apartment residents association may voluntarily adopt or legally compelled to install storage facility for segregated waste from where ULB would collect the waste.

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Table 3.8 Checklist for solid waste collection by vehicle A Routes 1 Do the maps of collection routes exist? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 2 Does a copy of route map is available with driver? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 3 Are all vehicles have been geotracked? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 4 Is the vehicle is being monitored in control and command centre? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 5 Is the total capacity of waste collection vehicle/vehicles higher than waste generated in the areas served by it/them? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 6 Is there a dedicated vehicle whose capacity is more than the waste generated in the area served by it? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 7 Does the city/town have spare vehicle/staff to attend the duty, when vehicle is under repair or during accident? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 8 Are the financial resources sufficient to meet expenditure? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 9 Is the vehicle dimension suitable for roads in the area where it serves? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 10 Is the vehicle leak proof to avoid liquid from solid waste falling on road? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 11 Is transfer station located in location which provides optimal operation cost? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 12 Do all the vehicles have first aid box? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 13 Does all the staff engaged in collection have been provided with PPE? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable (continued)

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Table 3.8 (continued) B Transfer station 14 Does the vehicles collecting waste deposit waste in transfer station without causing traffic congestion? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 15 Does the number/capacity of the vehicle transfer waste from transfer station to disposal/ processing site is adequate? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 16 Whether the waste collected is weighted and recorded at transfer station? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 17 Are SOPs for waste holding and storage available in the storage area? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 18 Is the record of quantity of collected waste in the storage area well maintained and up to date? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 19 Are training aids posted in the storage area? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 20 Is transfer station is having adequate fire safety equipment? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 21 Does transfer station is having adequate leachate collection/treatment? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 22 Are the waste collection tanks not overfilled? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 23 Is waste storage area kept clean, free from loose litter and malodorous spillages and debris? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 24 Is waste storage area free from pests and vermin? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 25 Is waste storage area secure and with access restricted to authorized personnel only? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 26 Is waste storage area well lit? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 27 Is waste storage area well ventilated? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 28 Is waste storage separated from food preparation area(s) and supply rooms? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 29 Is stored waste cleared within the prescribed periods? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 30 Is there access to first aid and washing facilities? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 31 Is waste storage area away from routes used by the general public? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 32 Is water supply available for cleaning purpose in the storage area? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable C Training 33 Are storage area personnel training files up to date and available? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 34 Is refresher training available to all related staff at least yearly? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 35 Do personnel understand hazards and how to minimize risks? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 36 Is injury and emergency response procedure known and understood by all relevant personnel? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable

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Fig. 3.20 View of low-rise detached houses

Fig. 3.21 Waste being collected at the edge of slum

3.2.3 Collection from High-Rise Building In high-rise apartment, the wastes are collected by building maintenance personnel or wastes are taken to a service area by the tenants or waste will be disposed through chute system. In some countries, underground pneumatic transport systems are used along with a chute system. A garbage chute, or trash chute, is a 24–36-diameter tube that runs down

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Fig. 3.22 View of medium-rise buildings

the height of a high-rise building, through which waste is moved to a crucial point on the ground floor. Most chutes have an entry for every floor of the building and are enclosed with a door for security reasons. Waste chutes eliminate the need for hiring workers to collect waste outside of the building. Chutes need regular maintenance and cleaning as dirty trash chutes attract cockroaches and flies. During cleaning, the chutes are sealed so that water would not leak out on each floor then begin cleaning with very hot, high-pressure water along with sanitizing and degreasing cleaners to wash and deodorize the chute. C&D waste at construction sites also use waste chutes (Fig. 3.23) to easily collect C&D waste at every floor and deposit them into a large waste receptacle at the bottom of the building. Where the construction in high-rise building has to happen in any specific floor/floors, then separate temporary lift (Fig. 3.24) may be established to take the waste to ground or nets placed at places where there is likely hood of fall of debris (Fig. 3.25).

3.2.4 Collection from Commercial and Industrial Facilities As discussed before, size of commercial and industrial activity varies hugely from room/shed to township spread over acres. Solid wastes from small-scale commercial and industrial facilities are collected in the lean traffic hours like early morning hours. Waste will be usually stored at a predetermined location for collectors to pick it. Large-scale industries like cement industry shall have well-established parking places for trucks. Due to its large size and affordability, biodegradable waste will be usually composted within the premises and used for garden and green belt. The recyclable waste is usually auctioned wherein recycler will pay to collect it. The

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Fig. 3.23 C&D waste chute at construction site

hazardous waste and other waste which attract statutes wherein it has to be disposed as within time limit have to be disposed accordingly. For example, hazardous waste and e-waste have to be disposed within few months, whereas biomedical waste has to be disposed within few hours. Airport solid waste can be primarily classified based on source/activity into: 1. Terminal waste (Fig. 3.26)—From public areas and airport administrative offices, 2. Tenant waste (Fig. 3.27)—From terminal retail and concessions, 3. Airline waste—from aeroplanes and airline offices, 4. Cargo waste—from cargo operations, 5. C&D waste—From construction, repair, and demolition within airport premises, 6. Deplaned waste—From passenger aircraft (almost 20% of an airport’s total MSW comes from deplaned waste after flights), 7. Galley waste (Fig. 3.28)—Waste collected by airline caterers as part of the decatering process, 8. International waste—Waste from international flights, and terminals that provide international flights service, 9. Hazardous and industrial waste—Contains of oils/solvents/chemical waste from aircraft/ground-vehicle washing/cleaning/fuelling/maintenance operations, and abandoned aircraft, 10. Lavatory waste—Waste from lavatory on flight and airport, 11. Airport sweeping (Fig. 3.29)—Waste from sweeping runway, taxiway, passenger waiting area, and other places.

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Fig. 3.24 C&D waste being collected during interior modification in a high-rise building (Blue and yellow carrier)

When waste originates from foreign countries, there is a risk of the introduction of diseases, plant pests, as well as other contaminants. Hence, this waste is sometimes called quarantined waste (QW) and airports usually handle and process international waste separately. In many cases, international waste is incinerated onsite, or packaged, and sent for disposal. To ensure safety of personnel and prevention of marine pollution, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) relies on two International Conventions—Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) and the convention for Prevention of Marine Pollution (MARPOL).

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Fig. 3.25 C&D waste being collected using net during flyover construction

Fig. 3.26 Airport terminal waste

Fig. 3.27 Airport tenant waste

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Fig. 3.28 Galley waste collection

Fig. 3.29 Airport sweeping

SOLAS establishes the least safety measures in the construction, equipment, and operation of merchant ships. MARPOL intends to ensure the marine environment is stopped by the eradication of pollution by all harmful substances discharged from the ship.The garbage generated onboard ships needs to be properly disposed of as stated by the MARPOL Annex V. As per the MARPOL Annex V, the garbage generated on the ship includes domestic, operational and all other types of victual waste, excluding fresh fish and parts thereof, produced during the usual operation of the ship and liable to be disposed of periodically or continuously except those materials which are defined or listed in other Annexes of Convention.

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Every ship of 12 m long or over and every fixed or floating platform needs to display placards notifying passengers as well as crew of the disposal requirements. MARPOL Annex V obliges Governments to make sure the provision of adequate reception facilities at terminals as well as ports for the reception of garbage without causing unnecessary delays to ship, and according to the requirements of the ships using them. Small Island Developing States (SIDS) could satisfy the requirements for providing adequate port reception facilities through regional arrangements. All ships of 100 gross tonnage and above, every ship certified to carry 15 persons or more, and every fixed or floating platform must carry a Garbage Management Plan (GMP) on board, which must designate the person responsible for the plan and be written in the working language of the crew (IMO 2019). The standard specification for shipboard incinerators in MARPOL covers the design, manufacture, performance, operation, and testing of incinerators designed to incinerate garbage and other shipboard waste (IMO 2019).

3.2.5 Vehicles for Collection and transportation All forms of vehicles (Fig. 3.30) that move on land and water are used for collecting the waste or materials. Muscle-powered vehicles work well in: (1) densely populated areas with modest street access or unpaved streets, in unlawful residential settlements, on hilly, wet, or rough terrain, and where relatively low volume of waste from a relatively huge number of dense urban settlements (UNEP 1996). The disadvantages of a muscle-powered vehicles are: (1) old-fashioned or shameful, (2) they have limited travelling range and are generally slower compared to fuel-powered vehicles, (3) weather exposure will have greater effect on humans and animals, (4) the problems of animal temperament, health, etc. (UNEP 1996). Non-compactor trucks used for the transport of goods are widely used in the collection of transported of waste under the following conditions: (1) waste is very wet or dense, (2) labour is inexpensive, (3) there is limited access to skilled maintenance, and (4) collection routes are long and sparsely populated. Compactor trucks are advantageous where paved roads are available, and density/ moisture of the waste is low. The major disadvantages of these trucks are: (1) government officials feel using compactor trucks as a means to modernization, (2) high initial investment and subsequent maintenance are needed; (3) they need skilled labour for maintenance, (4) spare parts may not be available in the local market, and (5) waste is wet, greasy and abrasive. Singapore has both direct and indirect collection systems. In direct collection method, waste is collected from individual households. Indirect waste collection has two types of system: (1) in the first type, the waste is stored in bulk containers in the basement of the apartments which is manually transferred to the bin compounds. From the bin compounds, it is later transported to the waste disposal sites, (2) in the second type, centralized refuse-chute (CRC) is used into which residential waste

3.2 Collection Manual

Pushcart

Animal Driven Cart

Bicycle

Tricycle

Three Wheeled Automobile

Small Truck

Fig. 3.30 Types of collection vehicles

125

Manual and simple collection carried out without much investment. It is rather practiced widely by rag-pickers as they can’t afford to buy vehicles.

Push carts are simple to use and can be used almost all sort of road. It could be stopped anywhere to collect waste. It is easy to collect waste littered all around and street sweepings.

Animal driven cart are widely used in rural area and semi urban area. The multipurpose carts can be easily maintained where there is plenty of food like grass and leaves are available for the animal is without any cost. Bicycle is widely used by door to door collectors especially in commercial area where in the recyclable waste can be collected by housekeeping personal of office or commercial establishment. Tricycle is used where is waste segregation is required and quantity to be collected is too much for a bicycle and too little for motor driven vehicles.

Three wheeled automobile is preferred where too little waste has to be collected from too many pickup points.

Small trucks are useful inside cities especially in narrow road where large or medium sized trucks cannot move. The trucks can be covered with net or filled with sacks of waste as shown in the picture.

126 Medium Sized Truck

Truck with Compactor

Tractor

Ship

3 Storage and Collection

Medium sized trucks are useful where three to five tons of waste have to be hauled. This is preferred for collection from big shopping complex or office complex.

Truck with compactor needs special maintenance. Preferred if the waste is having low density.

Tractors with or without attachment like one shown in picture is commonly used for many years especially if the roads are narrow and is poorly paved /unpaved.

Ships or boats are used if the waste has been collected across or along the surface water body. If the country or region has well established network of canals which is used for transportation, then the ship/boat can replace trucks.

Fig. 3.30 (continued)

is discharged from individual flats to the central waste container from where it is transferred to the waste collection vehicle. Vehicles in some countries are provided with tracking, global positioning system (GPS), geotag, geofence, and radio frequency identification (RFID) to efficiently monitor the collection mechanism. The GPS assists a monitoring agency to track the movement of a vehicle on a computer monitor from the intermittent signal sent by the vehicle attached with GPS instrument attaché with signal emitting instrument. RFID and georeference confirm the vehicle has reached the waste container. Geotag provides alerts to the staff in a collection vehicle and monitoring agency. Drones can be used in SWM in managing illegal dumping, landfill site selection, identifying open dump areas, landfill monitoring, waste storage, calculating airspace of landfill, etc., beside monitoring/inspecting industries, layouts, water bodies, slums, rural area, and disaster affected areas. Drone technology, together with the Internet of Things (IoT), can be used for collecting waste from coastlines.

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Another application of drones is in cleaning power lines, trees, other high-rise structures, and water bodies. Transporting radioactive/hazardous/biomedical waste poses serious health and safety issues; hence, high precautions must be taken prior to transport, especially when a law exists with respect to these wastes. Packaging shall be in conformity with the design specifications to ensure compliance with the relevant law. Before each shipment of any package with radioactive waste, it shall be ensured that the package contains neither radionuclide different from those specified for the package, nor contents different from those specified for the package design. Before each shipment of wastes, it shall be ensured that all the requirements specified in the relevant provisions of applicable laws have been fulfilled. A package with radioactive substance shall not contain any items other than those that are necessary for the use of the radioactive material to ensure safety. Each package shall be marked legibly and durably on the outside of the packaging with details of consignor and/or consignee. The waste shall be transported in a dedicated vehicle. Hazardous waste is usually transported by truck on the road. Only a small amount is transported by rail, and usually not hauled by air or inland waterway. The vehicle shall be meant only for the specific purpose with proper signage of type of hazardous waste transported. The consignment shall have a manifest, first aid kit, emergency contact number, and details of health/environment hazards in case of accidents. Transporters shall complete the following manifest requirements to avoid illegal/ unscientific disposal: • Sign leave a signed and dated copy of the manifest with the generator, • Ensure that the manifest accompanies the waste, • Obtain the signature of the next transporter or the owner/operator of the designated facility, • Submit to the enforcing agency/department a legible copy of the manifest, • Keep a copy of the manifest for audit/verification by enforcing agency. The paper manifest being is replaced by e manifest to avoid misplacement and tempering of records. A garbage scow is a large watercraft used to transport refuse and waste/ garbage across waterways is often in the form of a barge, which is pulled or moved by means of tugboats; though, many are also self-propelled which are common in large, coastal cities. The Infamous Islip Barge episode occurred in 1987 is given in Box 3.1. Box 3.1 Mobro 4000 On 22 March 1987, a garbage barge by name the Mobro 4000 left Islip, New York, with 3168 tonnes of solid waste from New York State, towards North Carolina where the waste was to be converted into methane. Upon arrival in North Carolina waters, public outcry resulted in refusal of the waste, resulting

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in a long journey up to Belize before ultimately returning to New York (Canady 2014). Garbage trucks (also called rubbish trucks, garbage trucks, dustbin lorry, bin lorry trash truck, refuse truck, dustcart, junk truck, bin wagon, bin van, waste collection vehicle, or refuse collection vehicle) come in various shapes and sizes. Some of the specialized waste collection vehicles are given in Table 3.9. Transportation of waste by train has been practised in several parts of the world. Using railroads to transport waste began in—Cleveland, Chicago, and New Orleans—a century ago (Forester Media 2004). ÖBB RCG transports around 8 Mt—12% of about 66 Mt of waste produced by Austria in 2018 (Rail Cargo Group 2021). 9000 t/d of solid waste from Los Angeles to a landfill in the Mojave Desert is transported by railways mode. Solid waste from Washington and Oregon is transported by train travelling 340 miles before unloading at a Rabanco landfill in Eastern Washington with more than 100 round trips a year Chohan (1993). Waste from Washington, D.C., and San Francisco was being hauled shipped by rail in the 1930s. The District of Columbia operation, which included Table 3.9 Examples of some of the specialized waste collection trucks Sl. No

Type of truck

Brief description

1

Truck with Pneumatic collection

These trucks have a crane with a tube and a mouthpiece that fits in a hole, normally under a plate in the street from waste is sucked from an underground installation

2

Truck with bin Tipper

A bin tipper is a machine which lifts bins mechanically and inverts bins into trucks

3

Roll-off tucks

Trucks to carry roll-offs (dumpster with wheels)

4

Grapple trucks

Truck to collect oversized items such as large appliances/ logs/branches which have hydraulic knuckle boom (a standard crane tipped with a clamshell bucket and normally include a dump body or trailer)

5

Trucks with semi-automated side loaders

Trucks with semi-automated side loaders are trucks equipped with an automated mechanism to lift and dump manually aligned waste containers into the hopper

6

Trucks with front loaders

Trucks with front loaders are trucks equipped with powered forks on the front of truck to lift waste container over the truck and flip upside down and the waste into the hopper

7

Trucks with rear loaders

Truck with mechanism to load from the back

8

Trucks with side loaders

Truck with mechanism to load from the side

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ash from D.C. incinerators, used gondola cars2 to ship the waste to a landfill, that continued until the 1950s (Forester Media 2004). Following criteria will maximize the economic feasibility American Public Works Department (1973): a. b. c. d.

Loads of 100 or more tonnes per rail car is necessary, Shipment per train should be at least 1000 t, Shipment schedule should fully use equipment—100, 200, or 300 trips/year, Shipment shall normally be equipment used only for transporting solid waste

3.2.6 Pneumatic Refuse Collection System Conventional municipal waste collection by vehicles presents problems such as odours, plagues, and hygiene problems caused by their storage beside greenhouse gas emissions from vehicles used for the transport of the waste (Farré et al. 2021). An automated vacuum collection (AVAC), or automated waste collection system (AWCS), or pneumatic waste collection system (PWCS), also known as pneumatic refuse collection system (PRCS) (Fig. 3.31), transports waste from trash chute system to centralized collection system at high speed through underground pneumatic tubes where it is compacted and sealed in containers. When the container is full, it is transported away for reuse/recycling/disposal (Pradan and Varshney 2019). PRC system has been in use since the 1960s, and at the time of writing, this book over 1000 PWCSs was in use worldwide in more than 20 nations and the systems can be used to move waste economically up to 3 kms. Areas being serviced by the PRC system will still require traditional on road collection system for bulky waste, garden trimming, C&D waste, hazardous waste, material with more than 10% liquid, waste that may cause erosion of pipe, heavy waste which may not be transported in pneumatic system. An PRC system contains following components: (a) Trash Chute: Trash Chutes are used in high-rise residential buildings for collection of waste from successive floor through the inlets located on the vertical system of pipes that discharge the same into the collecting chamber. Typical sizes of trash chute for different height of building are given in Table 3.10. (b) Trash Compactor: Trash compactor located at the end of waste chute is automatically activated once waste enters it in order to lower volumes of waste. (c) Pneumatic Pipes: Pneumatic pipes transport waste from the trash chute of building to centralized collection system through underground pipe network of about 500 mm diameter steel pipes that are hermetically (tightly closed that no air can leave or enter it) welded.

2

Gondola Railcars are a type of rail vehicle used to transport large quantity of high-density cargo on railroad tracks.

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Waste for disposal

Waste is placed in separate container

Fig. 3.31 Pneumatic refuse collection system

Table 3.10 Typical sizes of trash chute for different height of building

Chute size (mm)

Number of floors

> 450

20+

> 500

30+

> 600

40+

> 750

60+

> 800

75+

The PRC system contains waste loading hopper connected by a stainless-steel pipe that ends at the base of the shaft where a discharge valve temporarily holds the waste for a small period above it in a temporary storage Chamber. A network of transport pipes from a PRC plant room connects to Air Inlet Valves that control the air flow in the pipe transport system. At periodic intervals, the automated PWC system is started, and it opens the respective primary air inlet through air intake valve to create air flow below a respective discharge valve which opens in sequence to vacuum the waste from the temporary storage chamber through the transport pipes to the waste collection centre. The air used to transport the waste filtered using filtration system, and the odour is removed a by deodouring system. In the PRC plant room, the waste is separated by a waste-air separator which is compacted by waste compactor. PRC can have single chute or multiple chutes. Multiple inlets with multiple chutes are feasible for multiple waste streams. Waste deposited comes to rest atop a valve that opens into the trunk line (main underground pipe). The valves are opened one at

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a time regularly (daily or biweekly) to allow each stream to flow separately through the trunk line to the collection centre. The pneumatic tubes are powered by vacuum pumps located in the collection centre to transport waste at speeds of up to 20–30 km/hr and the operating vacuum pressure of the system shall be around 350 mbar. The waste collected at the collection centre is transported by trucks for processing/disposal. Pipe Network Pipes are usually laid after testing for quality in factory by passing different type of waste through it. But in practice, the waste disposed will have characteristics different from that of the materials used for transporting in ducts. Case study of failure analysis published by Farré et al. (2021) with respect to two AWCS revealed that corrosion and attrition were responsible for the materials failure. The reason for corrosion published was attributed to accumulation of organic matter resulting in acid pH in cavities. Abrasive attrition and impact attrition happen at the same time and responsible for failure of pipe. The impact of attrition occurs at high angle elbows, pipe fittings, protrusion pipes, and in reparation zones where the shapes are not flawlessly reconstructed. Abrasive attrition can occur due to the presence of glass and ceramic materials harder than the pipe. Electrochemical corrosion by the organic fraction and stagnating bag rich in chloride ions are key reasons to failure by corrosion. Installation operation may generate abrasion and impact attrition. Welding defects can result in corrosion beside impact due to pipe protrusion and pipefitting. It is important to select the right material to perform the welding as the welding zones are the most critical. Collection Station The collection station of AWCS comprises a series of centrifugal vacuum pumps powered by 110 kW three-phase motors for creation of vacuum, preceded by waste cyclone separator for separation of waste. The conveying air finally is passed through air pollution control equipment (usually cyclone separator followed by filter). To ensure continuity of service, a backup generator is provided for use during power blackouts. Control System AWCS is usually operated with a control system is based on a programmable logic controller (PLC) with a supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) platform. In an attempt bring standardization to PWMS, the following standards are published by the British Standard institution and Singapore Standard: 1. PAS 908:2018 Specification for automated vacuum waste collection systems, the British standard institution, 2. SS 642:2019 (ICS 13.030.40) Code of practice for Pneumatic Waste Conveyance System, Singapore Standard. The advantages and disadvantages of automatic pneumatic waste collection system are given in Table 3.11.

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Table 3.11 Advantage and disadvantage of automatic pneumatic waste collection Sl. No

Issue

Advantage

Disadvantage

1

Traffic

Avoids traffic congestion during operation

May affect traffic during construction phase

2

Investment and expenditure

Operational cost may come Require huge investment during down compared to construction of infrastructure door-to-door collection and billing may be done depending on waste disposed through automated pneumatic waste collection

3

Land value

Increases land value

Slum dwellers may demand free service of automated pneumatic waste collection

4

Construction

May require road cutting and affect existing infrastructure

Difficulty in laying underground pipeline in rocky land

5

Job opportunity and skill

Needs low but skilled human resource to operate

Job opportunity and lively hood in formal/informal waste sector will be affected resulting in issues related to unemployment

6

Operational issue Low scope for waste build-up

Issues during strike of employees of organization operating automatic pneumatic waste collection are not fully understood

7

Resilience to disaster

Waste collection will not be affected due to fall of tree or building on road

Resilience to disaster is not fully understood especially during earthquake, tsunami, war and high flood

8

Act of terror

Act of terror on road may not affect waste collection operation

Terrorist may drop bomb or highly combustible waste and need security check-up of waste

9

Type of waste

Most suitable for waste with character for which infrastructure is created

Infrastructure built for MSW may not be suitable for infectious waste, C&D waste, bulky waste larger than transport pipe/chute, dead animal carcasses, liquids (soups/gravies/water) that exceeds 10% by weight of waste bag, adhesive/hazardous waste and radioactive waste

10

Logistics

Reduced vehicle distances travelled, no restricted timing of access to bins. Above ground space saving

Need to maintain logistics of consumables and spare part for maintenance. Alternative arrangement is required during pipe/machine damage and/or break down (continued)

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Table 3.11 (continued) Sl. No

Issue

Advantage

Disadvantage

11

Environmental

Reduced collection vehicle All environmental issues associated distances travelled. with lying pipeline persist Improved hygiene. Reduction in noise/air pollution from waste transportation. Reduction in litter/ street dogs

12

Health and safety Lower vehicles in heavy Accidental disposal/rupture of waste footfall area decreases risk bag still poses health and safety issue of pedestrian injury Lower manual handling, reduces injury/infection and toxic exposure to waste collection employees

13

Flexibility

Inlet locations can be The service area still needs placed in indoor and public conventional waste collection system areas for infectious waste, C&D waste, bulky waste larger than transport pipe/chute, dead animal carcasses, liquids (soups/ gravies/water) that exceed 10% of by weight of waste bag, adhesive/ hazardous waste, and radioactive waste

The PRC system in Singapore introduced in 1998 proved to be costly with capital costs being $2000 per flat and operating costs being $13/flat/month. The CRC system in Singapore, has an investment cost of $146 per flat and an operating cost is $3/flat/ month (Renbi and Mardina, 2002). Following types of waste cannot be handled by the PWC system: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Waste that are larger than 300 mm in any direction, Hard material which can cause harm to pipe, Adhesives and hazardous items, C&D waste, Liquids (gravies, soups, and water) that exceed 10% of waste bag, Dead animal carcasses, Faces.

Inspection piece or access cover is provided below the discharge valves for maintenance and service purposes beside observation holes on the pipe sections. The transport pipe size shall be at least 6 mm thick carbon steel with 500 mm diameter. A minimum 1800 mm radius bend is provided to ensure the smooth flow of waste through the pipe network, except 750 mm radius bend at the base of the discharge valve. A minimum distance of 5 m straight pipe is provided between two bends.

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3.3 Transfer and Transport Transfer stations are facilities where waste is transferred from smaller vehicles used for waste collection into bigger vehicles for hauling to a disposal or processing site. The transfer may happen in any of following ways: (1) directly from smaller vehicle to larger vehicles, (2) transferring waste dumped by small vehicles on open space, (3) transferring waste through infrastructure accompanied by some removal, separation, compaction, shredding, etc. Vehicles servicing a collection area will travel a shorter distance, unload, and return to collecting the waste. Waste transfer stations play a significant role in a community’s waste management system, serving as the link between a community’s solid waste collection programme and a waste disposal/processing facility. Facility ownership, sizes, and services offered vary among transfer stations, but they all serve the same basic purpose— consolidating waste from multiple collection vehicles into larger vehicles for more economical transport to distant disposal/processing sites. The waste is usually compacted, then loaded into larger vehicles for long-haul transportation to a final disposal/processing site. No long-term storage of waste occurs at a transfer station. It is usually consolidated and loaded into a larger vehicle and moved offsite within hours. The transfer station could be vertical or horizontal (Figs. 3.32, 3.33, 3.34, 3.35, and 3.36). Due to shortage of land availability or ease/economy of marine transportation, marine transfer stations (MTS) (Fig. 3.37) are gaining importance due to advantages associated. MTS is an intermediate collection point on sea of seashore for waste before transported to disposal places. The waste is loaded to barge by:

Transfer station

Vertical

Horizontal

Direct load

Storage load

Fig. 3.32 Types of transfer station

Combined (Direct & Storge) load

3.3 Transfer and Transport

135

Tipping platform Hydraulic ram / manual loading

Loading platform

Tipping platform Loading platform

Tipping Hydraulic power unit

Compactor

Container

Fig. 3.33 Storage load type transfer station Fig. 3.34 Direct load type transfer station

Tipping platform Loading platform Fig. 3.35 Combined (direct and storage) load type transfer station

Tipping platform Loading platform

1. The tipping platform designed to overhang into the barge3 so that waste is tipped into the centre of the barge (excavators are used to spread the waste in the barge to ensure that it is optimally loaded), or 3

Barge often refers to a flat-bottomed waterway vessel which does not have its own means of mechanical propulsion. They are pulled by tugs, or pushed by pusher boats/vessels.

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Compactor

Hydraulic Power Unit

Tipping

Fig. 3.36 Vertical type transfer station

Tipping Hydraulic power unit

Compactor

Container Barge

Fig. 3.37 Marine transfer station

2. Overhead cranes transferring sealed waste containers onto the waiting barges. On the other hand, a convenience centre is a designated area where residents manually discard waste and recyclables into collection containers which are periodically removed or emptied, and the waste is shipped to the appropriate disposal/ processing site. The financial feasibility of setting up a transfer station can be assessed by comparison of hauling costs with and without a transfer station (Fig. 3.38). In the figure comparison shows a break-even distance of about 35 km (round-trip). In this example a transfer station is cost-effective when the round-trip distance exceeds 35 miles. When the round-trip distance is less than 35 miles, direct haul is more cost-effective. Some of the transfer stations are given in Figs. 3.39, 3.40, and 3.41. Transfer station design in developed countries includes a tipping floor serviced by equipment for pushing waste into large vehicles. Waste components, which have recyclable values, are sorted and processed to recover the cost of SWM. The physical size of a transfer station is usually determined based on the following factors (USEPA 2002):

3.3 Transfer and Transport

137

30

Haul cost without transfer station Hauling cost ₤/ton

25 20

Break Even Point Haul cost with transfer station

15 10

Transfer station capital, Operating and mainatenance cost

5 0 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Round Trip Distance from Waste Source to Disposal (km)

Fig. 3.38 Example for comparison of hauling costs with and without a transfer station

Fig. 3.39 Transfer station in one of the small cities in India

• • • • • •

The definition of the service area, The quantity of waste generated within the service area, The types of vehicles delivering waste, The types of materials to be transferred, Daily and hourly arrival patterns of customers delivering waste, The availability of intermodal barges, containers, railcars, or transfer trailers, and how fast these can be loaded.

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3 Storage and Collection

Fig. 3.40 Waste is being loaded in private transfer station for recycling

Fig. 3.41 Vehicles entering transfer station

There are several types of transfer station designed to consider local needs and constraints. Some of major types are discussed below: Open Tipping Floor: In this type of collection trucks, uncompacted waste is unloaded onto the tipping floor from where material handling equipment organizes the waste and places it in larger vehicles. Open Pit Design: In this type of transfer station, collecting vehicles dump waste into an open pit from where waste material is mechanically or manually transferred into larger vehicles.

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139

Direct Transfer Stations: In this type, waste from smaller vehicles is directly transferred into larger vehicles. Transfer Station with Compartment: In this type, compartments are formed in open space or under large structures with roofs. Collection vehicles will dump in one of the compartments while waste in the other compartment is segregated shredded along with other operation. Once the intermediate operations like segregation, shredding, etc. are carried out, waste would be loaded into larger vehicles. Box 3.2 Collection, Transfer, Transport in Indore, India—Case Study Indore in India which has been awarded cleanest city in India continuously for five years work with group of NGOs who have educated all waste generators in the city to segregate and hand over the waste to collection vehicles which is designed to collect six type of waste from residential area—biodegradable, non-biodegradable domestic hazardous waste, sanitary waste, e-waste, and pet bottles. Besides street sweeping, waste is segregated into three category of waste—tree/plant litter, non-biodegradable dry waste and other residue. Each collection vehicle is accompanied by a person of NGO who is paid by Indore Municipal Corporation through concerned NGO. The accompanying NGO is responsible for documentation and interacting with waste generator to ensure proper segregation. The vehicles for bulk generators from commercial area are designed keeping the type of waste they generate. All vehicles are fitted with GPS and all waste generators are geofenced to ensure the vehicle movement in predetermined route which is tracked through control and command centres (Fig. 3.42). Any discrepancy collection will be immediately brought to notice of collection crew. Besides, the city has mobile application from where citizens can complain in case the vehicle does not collect waste beside other issues to take corrective action. Each vehicle would then move to transfer station where it unloads the waste after which it moves to other route. The routes have been optimized through trial and error to ensure resources are used optimally.

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3 Storage and Collection

Fig. 3.42 Command and control centre

The vehicle entering the collection centre with weighted in weighbridge (Fig. 3.43). Waste stream with small quantity—pet bottles, e-waste, sanitary waste, domestic hazardous waste—is weighed in weighing scale (Fig. 3.44) and stored separately (Fig. 3.45).

Fig. 3.43 Weighing bridge for waste collection vehicles entering transfer station

3.3 Transfer and Transport

141

Fig. 3.44 Weighing scale for domestic hazardous waste, e-waste, pet bottles and sanitary waste

Fig. 3.45 Storage for domestic hazardous waste, e-waste and sanitary waste

Biodegradable waste and non-biodegradable waste are transferred to separate waste capsule and compressed (Fig. 3.46) and loaded (Fig. 3.47) to be hauled to processing stations.

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3 Storage and Collection

Fig. 3.46 Waste transferred into capsule

Fig. 3.47 Waste capsule being loaded in transfer station for hauling to processing plant

Most main cities in Africa have an organized municipal waste collection system with collection coverage ranging from 20 to 80% with a median range of 40% to 50% (CalRecovery, Inc., and IETC 2005). The collection is carried out in many ways including bags carried by humans, human- and animal-drawn carts, bicycles and tricycles, open-back trucks, compactor trucks, and trailers.

References

143

Fig. 3.48 Drop stations

3.4 Drop-Off Station Drop-off station/centres (Fig. 3.48) (also called convenience centres or waste collection centres sometimes) are collection place for the acceptance of waste by donation, purchase, or redemption4 from the public. Facilities serving as citizen drop-off stations or community convenience centres are not considered waste transfer stations.

References Alfthan B, Semernya L, Ramola A, Adler C, Peñaranda LF, Andresen M, Rucevska I, Jurek M, Schoolmeester T, Baker E, Hauer W. Memon M (2016) Waste management outlook for mountain regions—sources and solutions. UNEP, GRID-Arendal and ISWA, Nairobi, Arendal and Vienna American Public Works Department (1973) Rail transport of solid waste, Report prepared by American public works department for USEPA, Report No PB 222 709 Barise H (2001) Somali: cash from rash. BBC focus on Africa. 12:55 as cited in Eric Achnkeng (2003) Globalization, urbanization and municipal solid waste management in Africa, African Studies Association of Australasia and the Pacific 2003 Conference Proceedings—African on a Global Stage CalRecovery, Inc., and IETC (UNEP International Environmental Technology Centre) (2005) Solid waste management (Volume II: Regional overviews and information sources) 4

Redemption Centers work with distributors of products like carbonated beverages to redeem bottles/cans with a deposit value. Even though consumers get rebate at retail outlets under deposit refund system, some people bring their collected items to a redemption center. A deposit-refund system (or deposit-return system or advance deposit fee or deposit-return scheme)is a system where a surcharge is fixed on a product when purchased and a given a rebate when it is returned.

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3 Storage and Collection

Canedy T (2014) Islip garbage barge. Wexler P (ed) Encyclopedia of toxicology, 3rd ed, Academic Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. ISBN 9780123864550 Chohan P (1993) Waste-by-rail: a system that’s been working on American railroads. Waste 360, Dec 01, 1993. https://www.waste360.com/mag/waste_wastebyrail_system_thats. Accessed on 21 Apr 2023 D’Alisa G, Burgalassi D, Healy H, Walter M (2010) Conflict in Campania: waste emergency or crisis of democracy. Ecol Econ 70:239–249 Farré JA, Salgado-Pizarro R, Martín M, Zsembinszki G, Gasia J, Cabeza LF, Barreneche C, Fernández AI (2021) Case study of pipeline failure analysis from two automated vacuum collection system. Waste Manage 126:643–651. ISSN 0956-053X. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman. 2021.03.041 Forester Media (2004) Rail Haul, May 1, 2004, MSW Management. https://www.mswmanagement. com/collection/article/13002918/rail-haul. Accessed on 4 Apr 2023 Headley J (1998) An overview of solid waste management in Barbados. In: Thomas-Hope E (ed) Solid waste management: critical issues for developing countries. Canoe Press, Kingston, pp 159–167 International Marine Organization (IMO) (2019) Prevention of pollution by garbage from ships. https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/Pages/Garbage-Default.aspx. Accessed on 30 Aug 2022 Kaza S, Yao L, Bhada-Tata P, Van WF (2018) What a waste 2.0: a global snapshot of solid waste management to 2050. World Bank Group, Washington DC Kelliher K (2014) An examination of governmental and nongovernmental organizations in Nepal: A partnership in managing and eliminating waste in the Solukhumbu. Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection. Paper 1964 Pradhan B, Varshney C (2019) An automated waste collection system by using of trash Chute for hi-rise residential buildings. Int Res J Eng Technol 06(06):3218–3222 Rail Cargo Group (2021) Eco-friendly rail transport for waste 17.03.2021. https://www.railcargo. com/en/news/eco-friendly-rail-transport-for-waste. Accessed on 21 Apr 2023 Renbi B, Mardina S (2002) The practice and challenges of solid waste management in Singapore. Waste Manage 22:557–567 Tchobanoglous G, Theisen H, Vigil SA (1993) Integrated solid waste management, engineering principles and management issues. McGraw-Hill, New York U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2022) Occupational employment and wages, May 2021, 53-7081 Refuse and recyclable material collectors. Last Modified Date: March 31, 2022. https://www. bls.gov/oes/current/oes537081.htm#nat. Accessed on 31 Dec 2022 UN (2022) The sustainable development goals report 2022. United Nations Publications, New York UNEP (2015) Global waste management outlook. UNEP, Geneva UNEP (1996) International source book on environmentally sound technologies for municipal solid waste management. UNEP Technical Publication 6, Nov. 1996 UNEP/OCHA (2011) Rapid disaster waste management assessment: 26 October flash flooding, Central Accra, Ghana. November 2011, Joint UNEP/OCHA Environment Unit, Geneva UN-HABITAT (2011) Collection of municipal solid waste key issues for decision-makers in developing countries. UN-HABITAT, Nairobi USEPA (2002) Waste transfer stations: a manual for decision-making, EPA530-R-02–002, June 2002

Chapter 4

Materials Recovery and Recycling

Recycling is the reprocessing of recovered materials at the end of product life, returning them into the supply chain (Worrell and Reuter 2014). Materials play a key role in the transition of our society, which is often discarded at the end of life. This linear economy is now running to its limits given the large demand for materials and limitation of resources. In 2022, an average of 82% of municipal solid waste worldwide was collected and 55% was managed in controlled facilities. Municipalities in sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania have a collection rate of below 60%. In Asia and in Latin America and the Caribbean, cities have higher collection rates—70 to 85%. In Central and Southern Asia, the gap between the collection and controlled management rate is more than in other regions, implying that many cities still rely on open dumping (UN 2022). The global average consumption of materials consumption is growing rapidly. Over the last five decades, material extraction has increased three times with the rate of extraction hastening since the year 2000. An average person in a high-income nation consumes 60% greater materials than an average person in upper-middle income nations and over 13 times what is consumed by person in a low-income nation (International Resource Panel 2019). Urbanization is the important global phenomenon that accounts for 75% of the world’s natural resource consumption, and generating more than half of the worldwide waste on just 2–3% of the earth’s land surface. In the absence of recycling, urban area will continue to constitute huge sinks for food waste (Rao and Hanjra 2018). Approximate reserve depletion time of major non-renewable resources is given in Table 4.1. Different literature may provide different values based on the assumption and estimation procedure. Without going deeper into the validity and procedure of estimation without any dispute, we can conclude that not all resources available on earth are infinite. The warnings about pollution and the limits of natural resources are encouraging the development of a circular economy (CE). Finite sources are always reused. Land being a finite resource, it is passed on to the next generation for reuse so as rivers, oceans, and other water bodies. Ancestral/

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6_4

145

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4 Materials Recovery and Recycling

Table 4.1 Approximate reserve depletion time of major non-renewable resources Sl. No

Natural resource to manufacture raw material

Approximate reserve depletion time (Estimated Life of Reserves in years)

Depletion time after

1

Crude Oil

35

2015

2

Gas

37

2015

3

Phosphorus

50–100

2010

4

Phosphate rock

327

2022

5

Copper

100

2015

40

2022

6

Coal

107

2015

7

Antimony

150

2015

16

2022 2015

8

Gold

150 17

2022

9

Graphite

254

2022

10

Boron

150

2015

11

Silver

150

2015

21

2022

12

Bismuth

150

2015

13

Molybdenum

200

2015

14

Uranium

48

2022

230

2015

15

Indium

250

2015

16

Chromium

350

2015

14

2022

400

2015

17

Zinc

16

2022 2015

18

Nickel

450 30

2022

19

Tungsten

600

2015

45

2022

700

2015

20

Tin

15

2022

21

Rhenium

700

2015

22

Selenium

700

2015

45

2022

23

Cadmium

850

2015

24

Iron

1100

2015 (continued)

4 Materials Recovery and Recycling

147

Table 4.1 (continued) Sl. No

Natural resource to manufacture raw material

Approximate reserve depletion time (Estimated Life of Reserves in years) 69

2022

25

Cobalt

1100

2015

44

2022

26

Platinum group metals (Palladium, Platinum, Iridium, Osmium, Rhodium, and Ruthenium)

1200

2015

175

2022

27 28

Manganese Lead

Depletion time after

1350

2015

85

2022

1500

2015

19

2022 2015

29

Lithium

1600 200

2022

30

Niobium (Columbium)

1700

2015

215

2022

31

Arsenic

4500

2015

32

Gallium

5100

2015

33

Rare earth elements

5300

2015

433

2022

34

Strontium

5400

2015

35

Aluminium

10,500

2015

797 to 1087

2022

36

Titanium

24,000

2015

73

2022

37

Tantalum

29,500

2015

38

Vanadium

40,000

2015

260

2022

39

Magnesium

40,000

2015

40

Germanium

550,000

2015

Source Fetter (2009), Shafiee and Topal (2009), Henckens (2021), Ruz (2011), USGS (2023)

purchased properties are reused. The nature itself recycles elements through natural biogeochemical cycles. Organ transplants for reuse are order of the day. Blood reuse has been in practice for many decades. The concept of CE based on strategies, practices, policies, and technologies to achieve reuse, recycle, redesign, repurpose, remanufacture, refurbish, and recover waste materials provides the necessary conditions to encourage economic and social actors to adopt strategies towards sustainability represents one of the most mentioned

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Fig. 4.1 Compost yard and dry waste collection centre in a rural area in India

frameworks trying to combine economic activity as well as environmental wellbeing in a sustainable way. The concepts of CE and sustainability have recently gained momentum among scholars, theorists, academics, as well as practitioners (Nikolau et al. 2021). Resource crunch and international pressure have made countries make new policies to manage waste. Compost yard and dry waste collection centre in one of the villages in India are shown in Fig. 4.1 or it could be just a place under trees. CE aims to change the archetype in relation to the linear economy by limiting the waste of resources and environmental impact besides rising efficiency at all stages of the product economy. CE is a demonstration of economic models that emphasize business opportunities where material cycles are preferred instead of linear processes. It restores and regenerates by design and aims to keep components, products as well as materials at their uppermost utility and value at all times. The three principles of life cycle thinking (LCT)1 in CE are: 1. No waste, 2. Value is maintained, 3. Consider economic framework conditions. The CE holds promise to achieve multiple SDGs, which includes: • • • • • • • • 1

SDG 6—Clean water and sanitation, SDG 7—Affordable and clean energy, SDG 8—Decent work and economic growth, SDG 11—Sustainable cities and communities, SDG 12—Responsible consumption and production, SDG 13—Climate action, SDG 14—Life below water, and SDG 15—Life on land.

Holistic thinking about the environmental impact of products beyond manufacturing including extraction, consumption, and end of life that includes the economic, environmental, and social consequences of a product or process throughout its life.

4.1 Segregation

149

4.1 Segregation Waste segregation is the separation of different waste components to facilitate recycling as well as onward disposal. When waste is sorted correctly at source can save financial resources for treatment and disposal (Box 4.1). Segregation of solid waste is carried out at(1) source (residences, operation theatre, industries, etc.), (2) the collection point (Figs. 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5), (3) transportation, (4) treatment site, or (5) disposal point. It is most important that non-degradable fractions of solid wastes are segregated so as to carryout major biological processes mentioned in Fig. 4.6.

Fig. 4.2 Segregation at point of collection

Fig. 4.3 Dry waste being handled for resource recovery

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4 Materials Recovery and Recycling

Fig. 4.4 Segregated waste at zero waste plant where components of waste are segregated to maximum

Fig. 4.5 Non-biodegradable waste received in waste recycling plant Fig. 4.6 Biological processes for the recovery of conversion products from solid waste

Compost

• Aerobic conversion

Organic acids

• Alkaline hycrolysis

Methane Ethonol

• Fermentation • Anaerobic digestion

4.1 Segregation

151

4.1.1 Hand Sorting Hand sorting or picking waste by hand and is the most widely used method in the world. Hand sorting can be done on floor or table or moving belt (Figs. 4.8 and 4.9). Sorting can be negative sorting or positive sorting. In the positive sorting, a person will pick what is required from the conveyor belt. In the negative sorting, person will pick what is not required. Box 4.1 Case Study: Vellore, Tamil Nadu State, India Temple, technical institute, medical college campus, and residential area at Vellore practice where the organic fraction is fed to cattle (Fig. 4.7). The cattle dung is fed to anaerobic digester. The anaerobic digester converts dung into biogas and digested sludge which is ready for vermicompost. The digested cow dung is used as seed microorganism to organic waste to speed up the degradation.

4.1.2 Screens Screening is a procedure in which a uniform-sized opening allows separation of materials smaller than that of the opening. The most popular screen for processing MSW is the trommel rotary screen (Figs. 4.10, 4.11, and 4.12). Diameters of trammel range between 0.6 and 3 m. A motor is attached to the trommel at one end which rotates the drum at about 10 to 15 r/min. Another type of screen is a disc screen (Fig. 4.13), wherein discs mounted on shafts are rotated. Undersized objects fall between the spaces of the discs which are collected in a hopper. The larger objects are carried along and deposited in a second hopper. Another type of screen called vibrating screen (Figs. 4.14 and 4.15) consists of a flat screen which undergoes reciprocating or gyrating motion Screened fractions may be collected in different screened fractions by series of conveyor belts and hoopers (Fig. 4.16).

4.1.3 Air Classifiers Air classifiers are used to separate the less dense materials from denser fraction using air by trapping less dense materials in an upward current of air, while the denser materials will drop down. The less dense materials trapped in the air will be

152

Degradable waste mostly food waste is fed to animals. Waste must be collected from source before it starts rotting and stinking to be edible by cows. Pigs can eat stinking waste. Waste will be digested and converted into dung. Milk and meat becomes other products in the process. Dung can be used in biogas and digested dung is used for composting.

Fig. 4.7 Zero waste plant

4 Materials Recovery and Recycling

Waste is segregated into degradable and nondegradable components in the first stage. In the next stage, non-degradable components are segregated into maximum number of components which will be picked by different buyers for reuse and recycle.

4.1 Segregation

153

Sorting with single conveyor belt Sorting personel

Sorting with double conveyor belt

Fig. 4.8 Schematic diagram of hand sorting

Fig. 4.9 Hand sorting

separated from the air. Different types of commonly used air classifiers are shown in Figs. 4.17, 4.18, 4.19, 4.20, and 4.21.

4.1.4 Sink-Float Separators Sink-float separators are used to separate heavy material from lighter material in which a fluid is used as media for separation. While the lighter materials with specific density greater than that of fluid float, the heavier materials. Common fluids used

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4 Materials Recovery and Recycling

Feed

Overflow

Under Flow Under Flow Fig. 4.10 Line diagram of trommel Fig. 4.11 Inside view of a trommel

Fig. 4.12 Trommel with belt conveyors

4.1 Segregation

155

Feed Feed Flow

Overflow material

Under flow Fig. 4.13 Disc screen

Feed

Underflow

Underflow Oversize Material

Fig. 4.14 Vibratory screen (line diagram)

include water, water–methanol mixture, sodium chloride solutions, and zinc chloride solutions. Float baths are kept in a series (i.e., one after another) based on the specific gravity of materials to be sorted. Pumps are used to circulate as well as direct the flow. Disadvantages of this method are:

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4 Materials Recovery and Recycling

Fig. 4.15 Vibratory screen (Photo)

Fig. 4.16 Collectors of different screened fractions

(a) Contamination of objects, (b) Density of aqueous solutions varies due to changes in ambient temperature and evaporation, (c) Difficulty in controls as smaller flakes of heavier fraction may float and vice versa, (d) Needs wastewater treatment, (e) Veeds wetting of particle in order to avoid attachment of air bubbles to objects and flocculation, and (f) Requires long retention period for flaky objects to settle.

4.1 Segregation

157

Fig. 4.17 Cyclone waste classifier

Lightest Fraction

Feed

Air

Shredded waste

Heavy Fraction

Light Fraction

Air

Air

Heavy fraction

Light fraction

Fig. 4.18 Horizontal air classifier

4.1.5 Inclined Tables Inclined tables are table inclined at an angle for ease of sorting waste, which are used to separate material of various densities/sizes by washing down lighter objects down the inclined table along the slope.

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4 Materials Recovery and Recycling

Feed

Light

Medium

Heavy

Fraction

Fraction

Fraction

Air

Fig. 4.19 Air knife classifier

Air

Air Mixed waste Light fraction

Heavy fraction

Fig. 4.20 Inclined air classifier

4.1.6 Shaking Tables Shaking tables are tables shaken with a movement at right angle to fluid flow. Under the effect of crosswise running water, gravity, inertia, and friction, objects are stratified by weight and size.

4.1 Segregation

159

Shredded waste Light fraction

Shredded waste

Light fraction Air

Air

Air Heavy fraction

Heavy fraction Air Fig. 4.21 Vertical air classifiers

4.1.7 Optical Sorting Optical sorting (digital sorting) is the automated sorting of solid products using laser and/or camera. Depending on the types of sensors and the software optical sorters can recognize materials’ colour, size, shape, structural properties in addition to chemical composition. The sorter compares material to user-defined accept/reject criteria. The optical sorting(Fig. 4.22) can be done for: (1) differently coloured waste bags and (2) different components in waste. In the case of sorting-coloured bags, users are provided with different coloured bags. Optical sorting machines can segregate different types of plastics by distinguishing resin types.

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4 Materials Recovery and Recycling

Fig. 4.22 Optical sorter

4.1.8 Sorting by Differential Melting Temperature Sorting by differential melting temperature (DMT) is used for separation of commingled plastic by using a heated belt/roll separator on which separation takes place by selective thermo-adhesion.

4.1.9 Sorting by Selective Dissolution In this method, separation of different objects is achieved by a selection of suitable solvents in addition to control of temperature (Matsuda 1994, Pappa et al. 2001, Kannan 2017). The dissolution process uses heat as well as solvents to dissolve plastic into a solution of polymers as well as additives that they were originally made from. In the next step, the additives are separated from the polymers before recovering the polymers from the solution. In a final step, new additives are added to the polymers to generate new recycled plastic.

4.1.10 Magnetic Separation Magnets are used to separate magnetic substances from other substances. A magnet is placed at a premeditated location near a conveyor belt, carrying the solid waste. Figure 4.23 shows a magnetic separator embedded in a mobile crusher, which can be used for crushing C&D waste. Figure 4.24 shows a magnetic separator installed

4.1 Segregation

161

Fig. 4.23 Magnetic separator embedded in mobile crusher

Fig. 4.24 Magnetic separator installed above fixed crusher

above a fixed crusher. Figure 4.25 shows a schematic diagram of a magnetic separator. The materials, which are attracted towards the magnet, are separated from the waste stream.

4.1.11 Eddy Current Separators Eddy current 2 separators (Fig. 4.26) are used for non-ferrous metals in waste stream. When a non-ferrous metal passes an eddy current separator, the magnets in the shell rotate at high velocity resulting in the formation of eddy currents in the non-ferrous metal, which in turn creates a magnetic field around the non-ferrous metal. The polarity of the resultant magnetic field will be the same as that of the rotating magnet causing the non-ferrous metals to be repelled away from the magnet. Such repulsion results in the trajectory of the non-ferrous material more than that of non-metal fraction allowing the non-ferrous streams to be separated. The ratio of electrical conductivity and density of the materials is the main criteria for an eddy separation. 2

Eddy currents are loops of electric current induced within conductors by a changing magnetic field in the conductor.

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4 Materials Recovery and Recycling

Electromagnet

Nonmagnetic fraction

Magnetic fraction

Electromagnet

Nonmagnetic fraction

Magnetic fraction Fig. 4.25 Magnetic separator

The materials with higher ratio of conductivity to density will be separated easily as compared to those with lower ratios.

4.1.12 Electrostatic Separators Electrostatic separators have been used since the 1970s for separating mixed plastic waste through differences in electrostatic charges in different types of plastic. The materials are sorted by charging the material and collecting them which rely on the extent of electric charge the objects attain.

4.1 Segregation

163

Conducting material

S N N

S

S

N N S

Non-conducting material

Fig. 4.26 Eddy current separator

4.1.13 Shredding Shredders (Fig. 4.27) are used for decreasing size of objects. There are many types of shredders. There are two major categories of shredders used for shredding MSW—low-speed, high torque (LSHT) shredders and high-speed, low torque (HSLT) shredders (hammer mills). Hammer Mill Shredder: This shredder contains a central rotor with pinned radial hammers. Hog shredder used in pulp and paper manufacturing can be used to shred garden waste. Rotary Shear Shredders: This type of shredder is the most common preshredder used for scrap tyres which will have two counter-rotating shafts. The shredded tyres are further processes by grinding machines to generate granules.

Fig. 4.27 Shredder

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4 Materials Recovery and Recycling

Vertical Hammer Mill: This will use high-speed rotating shafts at 700–1200 rpm equipped with fixed/pinned hammers. Hammer mills use impact forces to convert waste into smaller particles. Low-speed, high torque shredders use shear cutting and tearing forces. High-Speed Impact Horizontal-Shaft Hammer Mill: This will comprise of a feed hopper, wherein material is fed to a hammer circle. The hammers, attached to a shaft, impact the feed material and break it into smaller pieces. Further below the hammer circle, there will be a series of cast grates, wherein the material is torn between the hammers and the grate until its size is reduced to pass through the grates. Vertical-Shaft Ring Grinders: These are gear-type device which grinds the feed material. In a Flail Mill: In this machine material is fed through a feed chute. The flails are attached to a rotating shaft, which function as knives wherein paper is torn and ripped, and glass is pulverized into very fine sizes, whereas cans pass through the mill relatively unaffected. Pulverizer: This machine utilizes a breaker plate and hammers along with impact bars and impact plates that assist in the pulverization of fragile materials. Knife Shredder: This will have long knives for cutting materials into small pieces for later separation. Paper Shredders: These are used to cut paper into strips or fine particles, which can be either electrically powered or hand operated. Sizes of paper shredders range from few pages to million pages per hour and can be built into a shredding truck. Strip-cut shredders use rotating knives for generating narrow strips. Cross-cut shredders use two rotating drums to cut parallelogram/rectangular/rhombus shaped shreds. Particle-cut shredders cut paper into tiny pieces. Cardboard shredders shred cardboard into strips or a mesh pallet. Disintegrators and granulators cut the paper at random till the paper pieces are capable of passing through a mesh. In pierce and tear type of shredder rotating blades pierce and then tear the paper.

4.1.14 Pulping Waste pulpers (Figs. 4.28 and 4.29) are used for grinding waste like food waste, cardboard, food scraps, and paper with water. The pulp is then processed to produce dry pulp by removing the moisture content. Capacities of waste pulpers may vary from 125 to 2000 kg/hr and capable of reducing the waste volume by 70–85% by reducing waste transportation costs. The food waste is segregated from paper and cardboard waste, so that pulp from food waste can be used for animal feed. Dry pulp can be mixed with other feed materials. Waste pulpers are used in educational facilities, restaurants, healthcare facilities, casinos, cruise ship lines, manufacturing plants, and in-flight kitchens.

4.1 Segregation

165

Fig. 4.28 Material fed into hoppers for pulping

Fig. 4.29 Pulping operation in progress monitored by SCADA

Food waste pulping facilities will have the potential for foul odour and rodent/ pest infestations. Advantages of waste pulping are (1) reduction in volume of waste, (2) reduction in number of waste pickups, (3) reduction in labour, and (4) elimination of the need to segregate paper from food waste. Disadvantages include high initial cost and energy costs.

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4 Materials Recovery and Recycling

Fig. 4.30 Baled recyclables

4.1.15 Crushing Crusher means compress or squeeze forcefully so as to damage, break, or distort in shape. Waste crushing is done to hard brittle material like bottle, drums, can, cars, concrete, and tyre. Waste crusher can be mobile or stationary.

4.1.16 Baling Bale is a large bundle prepared tightly compressed and secured by hoops, wires, cords for storage, transportation, or sale. Balers are machine and can be used for baling corrugated cardboard, paper, aluminium cans, plastic containers etc. Figure 4.30 shows baled recyclables.

4.1.17 Ballistic Separators A ballistic3 separator (Fig. 4.31) is a sorting machine with oscillating paddles that run through the length of the sorting deck. Alternating sets of paddles are 60–120° out of phase from the adjacent paddle to provide agitation of the object stream on top 3

Ballistics is a science that deals with propulsion, flight, and impact of projectiles. It also deals with the art of designing different types of projectiles for different performances and consequences. The term ballistics means “to throw” derived from the Greek word ballein.

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Input

Flat and flexible items

Rolling and Rigid Items

Sieving - fraction

Fig. 4.31 Line diagram of ballistic separator

of the deck. The agitation causes separation of rigid items off one end and flexible items off the other. The paddles usually have a mesh opening in the deck to allow the fines material to pass through it and provide another separation.

4.2 Reuse and Recycle Reuse and recycle are the oldest SWM practice. Ancient man used bones as tools. In India, even today charcoal and crushed brick are used for cleaning teeth by many poor people. The newspaper is used for packaging and old bottles are recycled for refilling beverages. Used cloths, which are waste for affluent people, are being used by the poor. Industrial waste such as coal combustion residues, steel slag and red mud (of bauxite) can be used in concrete, bricks, blocks, and tiles. Gypsum and fly ash generated as waste from industry can be used for manufacture of gypsum board and cement. Agrowaste is used as fuel and power generation. Bagasse (leftovers after extraction of juice from sugar cane) is used as fuel and power generation. Agrowaste like baggage, rice straw, wheat straw, and rice husk, saw mill waste, ground nut shell, jute, cotton stalk, vegetable residues can be used for manufacture of particle boards, insulation boards, wall panels, roof sheets, fibrous building panels, and bricks. Coconut fibres can be used for making rope or fibre-cement board. The finely ground glass with a particle size finer than 38 µm and can be used as a substitute for Portland cement in concrete (Safiuddin et al. 2010). The C&D waste can be used for embankments, pavement, and concrete. As per Kaza et al. (2018), globally around 19% of waste undergoes materials recovery through recycling and composting. Developed countries have invested in infrastructure and communication strategies to augment recycling rates (UN-Habitat 2010). High-income nation’s recycle/compost 36% of the waste generated (Kaza et al. 2018) with Germany recycling 66.1% in 2015 claiming the number one spot followed by Wales (63.8%) and Singapore (61%) (Eunomia and Resource Media

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Table 4.2 Examples use of some of the components of waste Waste

Use

Agrowaste

Fuel, power production, particle board

Bone

Bone char, Bone meal

Coconut shell

Activated carbon, fuel

Dried skin of citrus fruits

Fragrance agents in floor/toilet cleaners

Eggshell

Plant feed, source of calcium

Food waste

Composting, animal feed

Glass Pieces

To place it on compound walls for added security

News paper

Packaging

Used chemical drums

Growing plants, Container for water in houses

Used printed flex sheet used in hoarding

Blanket, mat, tarpaulin to cover agricultural product, waterproofing in roofs

Rice husk

Tooth powder after converting into rise husk charcoal

Charcoal

Tooth cleaning

Waste steal dust

Ferrock4

2017). Recycling not only provides livelihoods to vast numbers of the poor people, but also saves the city nearly 15 to 20% of its SWM expenditure (UN-Habitat 2010). During 1980s recycling of waste was favoured against disposal in developed countries. In 2009, recycling which is included about 9000 curb side recycling and around 3000 yard trimmings composting programmes recovered 33.8% of MSW generation in 2009 (USEPA 2010). Table 4.2 shows some examples of using some of the components of waste. Figure 4.32 shows a refuse-derived fuel from trash ready for transportation. Figure 4.33 shows waste processing at a typical material recycling facility to bale material for recycling in developed country which is more machine-dependent. The methods for recovering recyclable from MSW are: (1) source separation, (2) separation of comingled waste at MRFs, (3) separation at MRF preceded by frontend processing facilities.

4.2.1 Aerobic and Anaerobic Treatment Aerobic treatment is a process, wherein waste is degraded by microorganisms in the presence of oxygen. In the case of anaerobic treatment, microbial degradation is carried out in the absence of oxygen. The subsequent paragraphs deliberate some of the widely used aerobic as well as anaerobic treatment methodologies. 4

Made by chemical reaction steel dust, silica, and carbon dioxide in air during mixing, wherein mixture is converted into iron carbonate.

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Fig. 4.32 Refuse-derived fuel from trash ready for transportation

Waste receiving hopper

Magnetic separator

Air Classifier

Disc screen

Plastic perforator and bottle flattener

Eddy current separator

Automated optical sorting machine

Baler

Fig. 4.33 Waste processing at a typical processing facility to bale material for recycling

4.2.1.1

Composting

Composting is a method of reusing known since times immemorial for treating biodegradable fraction of solid waste. Composting is the decay of biodegradable material by microorganism in artificially controlled facility. Dry waste may have to be added or the leachate in the waste be drained for wastes that are too wet. Major issues with composting are methane emission, flies, and odour due to poor management of compost plants. Improper waste segregation may result in entry of toxic substance into the stream of MSW affecting activity of microorganism.

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The most commonly used composting methods are: (i) passive piles, (ii) turned windrows, (iii) aerated static piles, (iv) in-vessel systems, (v) channel system, (vi) tunnel system, (vii) in-vessel composting, (viii) pit composting, and ix) pipe composting. Passive Piles: In this method, waste piles of about 1.5–2 m height and 4.3–4.8 m wide remain static without alteration and may occupationally turn during the process. In the case of MSW or large quantities of vegetable waste, odour may be problem and so as fly nuisance. Turned Windrows: In this method elongated composting piles of about 1.5 to 1.8 m height and 2.4 to 3.6 m height are turned frequently to maintain aerobic condition (Fig. 4.34). The dimension of windrows can be reduced if sufficient space is available as it reduced requirement for turning. These windrows are turned time to time by means of an automatic turning machine or manually.in order to maintain a constant temperature. Water is added to maintain optimum moisture content. After a required level of decomposition is attained, the composted material will be ready for use in agricultural application. Forced Aerated Static Piles: In this method, air is forced through trapezoidal waste pile of about 2 to 2.6 m height. Waste piles are aerated by passing air through pipes into the windrows. Channel System: In this method, many parallel channels where initial matrix is fed on one side of the channel and final composted material is obtained on the other side. Tunnel System: In this method, tunnels of around 4 m height, 5to 6 m width, and 20 m length are used to control aeration, moisture and temperature mechanically. In-Vessel Composting: The in-vessel or compost tanks are constructed with provision for drainage and aeration (Fig. 4.35). In in-vessel systems decay of organic materials is carried out in large sophisticated vessels built for speeding biological decay by controlling oxygen, temperature, moisture content and carbon-to-nitrogen ratios. Usually course material of 40 mm makes the bottom layer, over which pebbles of smaller dimensions and gravel are placed to avoid water logging and for easy drainage. While it is essential to maintain pH, humidity, and temperature at optimum level, field conditions may not allow this. But as precautionary principle citrus fruits and other acidic substances may be segregated to avoid drop in pH. Occasional spraying of water to maintain humidity is essential. Proper ventilation ensures optimum temperature by avoiding heat build-up due to bacterial activity within the tank. Pit Composting: In this method, compost pits dug to bury waste while the organic materials gradually break down over a period of time. Pipe Composting: The method uses PVC pipes placed over the ground within households and waste is fed into pipe for a period of time to break down the waste into manure.

Fig. 4.34 Large-scale composting

Packaging

Screening

Composting in windrows

Waste segregation

The final fine particles of compost are packed and marketed.

Screening is carried out to separate larger non degraded fraction.

Windrows of organic material are formed either in dedicated shelter or in open atmosphere. Humidity is maintained by spraying water; temperature is maintained by proper mixing and passing heat through heaps; pH is maintained by adding lime or other basic material. Commercially available microorganism or old compost is added to inoculate microorganism.

Waste segregation is done to separate biodegradable fraction of waste. Shredded to reduce size of waste component for proper handling and increase surface area so that microbes can decompose at a faster rate.

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Fig. 4.35 Composting tanks

Important factors affecting composting are shown in Table 4.3. The time required for composting varies from one to three months. Addition of nitrogen source like urea may be required to optimize the process. Increase in temperature would increase the rate of biological activity. But the rate of activity of enzymes and microorganism would decrease if the increase in temperature rise is more than the optimum temperature required for species responsible for composting. The activity of cellulose enzyme will reduce at temperature more than 70 °C. Optimum temperature for nitrification is 30 °C to 50 °C beyond which nitrogen loss will occur. Temperature below 20 °C inhibits the activity of microorganisms lowering their decomposition capacity (Strom 1985; Finstein et al. 1986). Micro-organisms tend to decompose materials most effectively within their temperature tolerance range. The optimum range of thermophilic micro-organisms is preferred as it prompts rapid decomposing and destroys pathogens and weed seeds. The optimal pH for biological process is normally in the range of 6–7.5 for bacterial and 5.5–8 for fungi (Boyd 1984). If pH is below 6, microorganisms particularly bacteria die and decomposition slows down (Wiley 1956). If the pH rises above 9, ammonium becomes ammonia, which is toxic for microorganisms (Rynk 1992). Like temperature, pH follows a typical profile throughout the composting process. If system becomes anaerobic, the acid accumulation could decrease the pH level below 4 and thus limit microbial activity. Typical pH and temperature profiles in composing process are given in Fig. 4.36. Aeration in composting process supplies the oxygen needed by aerobic microorganisms. This facilitates regulation of excess moisture by evaporation; removal of heat and other gases (e.g., carbon dioxide, methane, mercaptans, etc.). Vermicomposting is a process of composting, in which earthworms are used for conversion of waste into compost (Fig. 4.37). The vermicomposting is carried out at 10–32 °C (temperature in the pile of waste). The process is quicker than composting as the material passes through the gut of earthworm. Vermicompost is superior to conventionally produced compost. Worms can be used as a high-quality animal feed.

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Table 4.3 Important factors affecting composting of waste Factors

Comment

Waste size

For optimum results, it is necessary that size be in the range from 45 to 75 mm

Seeding

Seeding like animal dung, sewage sludge, compost or commercially available microbes will enhance the speed of decomposition. The seeding required would vary from 1 to 5% by weight

Mixing/turning

Required to avoid drying, caking, air channelling. The requirement of mixing and turning depends on waste type

Moisture content

Moisture content of 50 to 60% would give the optimum results

Temperature

For the best result, the temperature required is between 50 °C and 60 °C depending on type of waste. Beyond 66° the activity of bacteria would be reduced to a great extent

Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio

Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio between 50 and 60 would be optimum

pH

It is desirable to maintain a pH between 6 and 8

Particle size and Air Filled Porosity (AFP) The particle size should be large enough to prevent compaction. Particle size of less than 25 mm and 30–60% of AFP would be optimum

Curing Stage

Curing Stage

Maturing Stage

70o C

Temprature

pH

Stability

7

Time Fig. 4.36 Typical pH and temperature profiles in composting process

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4 Materials Recovery and Recycling

Segregation

Composting Tanks/windrows

Vermicomposting

Screening

Vermicompost ready for despatch

Fig. 4.37 Vermicomposting process

Disadvantage of vermicompost is that it requires more labour and space as worms do not operate in waste heap more than a metre in depth. The worms are vulnerable changes in temperature, pH, toxic substance, and other inhibiting factors like water logging. Vermicompost requires more worms and hence worms need to be procured prior to starting vermicompost plant. Vermicomposting needs bedding with high absorbency, good bulking potential, and high carbon-to-nitrogen ratio. Worms respire through their skins and hence must

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have a moist environment. The bedding must be capable of absorbing and retaining water. Flow of air is reduced or eliminated if the material is packed too tightly leading to reduced oxygen in bedding. Rapid degradation and associated heating are not favourable to worms and could be fatal. Some of the materials that can be used for beds are coconut fibre, hay, straw, paper, bark, corrugated cardboard, sawdust, wood chips, dry leaves, corn stalks, and corn cobs. Earthworms consume organic matter and reduce the volume by 40 to 60%. The earthworms consume the biodegradable matter and generate excreta referred as vermi-castings. Each earthworm weighs approximately 0.5–0.6 g, eats organic matter equal to its body weight, and generates cast equivalent to around 50% of the organic matter it consumes in a day. Vermicomposting provides the growth-enhancing hormones and nutrients and required for plant growth. Plant products grown with vermicompost have reported to be of good quality. Normally the beds are 75–90 cm thick with provision of filter for draining excess water. The bed should be uniform in height throughout the length and width. The bed width should be sufficient to allow easy access to the centre of the bed, and hence, 1.5 m wide is recommended and practised. Length and width of bed do not matter as long as the temperature of 20–30° and moisture content of 40–50% are maintained. The number of earthworms introduced varies between 300 and 400 worms per m3 of bed volume for optimum result. Eisenia fetida, Eudrilus eugeniae, Perionyx excavatus are some of the best species used for vermicompost. The life of earthworms is about two years. One earthworm would reach reproductive stage in about six weeks and worms at the reproductive stage will lay egg capsules every 7–10 days and three to seven worms will come out of each capsule. Hence, the multiplication of worms in optimum environment is very fast. Fully grown worms can be separated and dried to make ‘worm meal’ for use in animal feed as it comprises 70% of protein. The worms should be fed with waste that provides nutrition to worms waste should not contain material that generates heat due to decomposition. The waste should also be devoid of excess moisture, grease, salt, and chemical that is detrimental to worms. Extreme pH would also affect worms, and hence, the waste should be devoid of citrus fruits and other acidic substances. Hence, it is advisable to precompost partially prior to introduction of worms. For optimization of the vermicompost it would be necessary to have batches of one month after which the compost need to be sieved and larger fractions be returned to vermicompost pit. Worms are food for birds, moles, ants, centipede, ants, and mites. Hence, it is essential that worms are protected by covering or constructing beds in sheds. In spite of all the above constraints, vermin compost is carried out massively as the vermicompost stimulates the plant growth (Atiyeh et al. 2000) and provides resistance to plant decreases.

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Easily degradable

Water Feed Stock

Organic Dry material

Recalcitrant Inorganic

Fig. 4.38 Components of feedstock

4.2.1.2

Anaerobic Digestion

Anaerobic digestion (system was used by the Assyrians in the tenth century BC and in Persia during the sixteenth century. Most of the anaerobic digestion system was done in anaerobic ponds prior to 1920. The industrialization of anaerobic digestion system started in 1859 with the first anaerobic digestion system in Bombay (Now Mumbai), India. The energy crisis in 1973 and 1979 triggered the development of AD systems for methane production. Industrial countries are now using the technology for the treatment of municipal as well as industrial waste. Figure 4.38 shows the components of feedstock. The organic matter can be divided into easily degradable (like proteins, fats, and carbohydrates) or can be recalcitrant (like lignin and cellulose). Fats are decomposed to glyceride and organic acids, and hence, the presence of too much fat in the feedstock will lead to the accumulation of organic acids resulting in decrease of pH and inhibition of degradation. Carbohydrates are degraded into mono-saccharides or acidic acids. Feedstock rich in starch/ saccharide will be quickly converted into acids leading to drop in pH and digester will turn into irreversible state of acidification. Proteins consist of nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus resulting in the generation of ammonium and hydrogen sulphide. Volatile fatty acids (VFA) generated by hydrolysis-acidification should properly be balanced in AD system as methanogenic bacteria are sensitive to the presence of VFA. Production of VFA higher than the methanogenic rate will lead to failure of the anaerobic digestion system due to the accumulation of VFA. Each bacteria culture has its own optimum temperature range, and hence, a temperature fluctuation should be avoided. Variability in feedstock will affect the performance, and as such variation does not allow microbes to get acclimatized. Figure 4.39 shows waste digesters, Fig. 4.40 shows biogas dispensing outlet, and Fig. 4.41 shows digested sludge being composted. Case study of biogas from faecal sludge and kitchen waste at prisons is given in Box 4.2. Box 4.2 Biogas from Faecal Sludge and Kitchen Waste at Prisons The International Committee of Red Cross (ICRC) has implemented institutional biogas sanitation systems across prisons in Rwanda, Nepal, and the

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Fig. 4.39 Waste digesters Fig. 4.40 Biogas dispensing outlet

Fig. 4.41 Digested sludge being composted

Philippines. The biogas systems comprise of fixed dome digesters of 10 m3 to 100 m3 with one to two digesters in each prison.

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4.2.2 Road Making Use of waste material comes with property needs as well as technical restriction which leads to processing cost which is higher than cost of virgin material. Steel slag, scrap tyre, glass, and plastic can be used for road making (Yue et al. 2007). The USA, France, Germany, and the Netherlands use bottom ash from waste incinerators for road construction (Mullen, 1990; Chandler 1997). Use of 10–15% crushed glass with 4.75 mm maximum size in surface course has shown satisfactory performance in asphalt pavements (Yue et al. 2007). The same equipment and method designed for conventional asphalt can be used for asphalt with recycled glass (Airey et al. 2004; CWC, 1996; FHWA, 1997; Maupin, 1998; Su and Chen, 2002). Anti-strip agent, usually 2% hydrated lime, is added to maintain the stripping resistance. Glass in asphalt of higher content and larger size is likely to result in inadequate friction and bonding strength (Yue et al. 2007). The angular shape, hardness, and rough surface make steel slag substitute coarse aggregates in asphalt. Scrap tyre can be used by dissolving crumb rubber in the bitumen as binder modifier. Portion of fine aggregates can be replaced with ground rubber. Plastics can be used either as aggregate by replacing a part of aggregates or as a binder modifier. As per the published research combining shredded medical masks with construction materials used for road base and sub-base applications enhances the performance of the road material (Saberian 2021).

4.2.3 Removal and Recovery Method In this method, waste is blended with solvent and subject to distillation treatment for recovering organic fraction which has combustible value. Organic acids formed during anaerobic digestion are recovered using freezing and thawing, centrifugation, filtration as well as evaporation (Farah et al. 2009).

4.2.4 Stabilization In this method, waste is mixed with solidification agent such as cement/asphalt before land disposal. The procedure is adopted elaborately for hazardous waste fraction in order to safeguard environment from possible leachate generation and reaction within compatible substances. A more details discussion on the topic is done in Chap. 7.

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4.2.5 Deactivation This treatment is primarily used for corrosive wastes and explosives. In this method, corrosive and explosive wastes are blended with suitable chemicals prior to disposal in landfill to avoid possible reaction in the landfill.

4.2.6 Metal Removal and Recovery Metal recycling (Table 4.4) is one of the oldest practices used in civilization after inversion of metals by humankind. Scrap metal often is stored in many metal industries for selling. Conventional cupola furnace has been replaced rapidly by electric arc and induction furnace. Metal recovery from semisolid waste like sludge involves precipitation of heavy metals followed by recovery of metal from precipitate. Metal ions form complexes with water-soluble polyelectrolytes, which can be precipitated with polybases for recovery of metals (Jellinek and Ming, 2003). Hydroxide and Carbonate precipitation could be used for recovery of manganese (Wensheng et al. 2010). Pyrometallurgical technology as well as some mild extracting reagent, such as ammonia–ammonium, chloride medium, and non-cyanide lixiviants can effectively recycle metals. Compared with the traditional acid and cyanide leaching, they have extraction efficiency of more than 98% for Cu and 70% for Au. Electrochemical technology, supercritical technology, vacuum metallurgical technology, supercritical water oxidation, electrokinetic (EK) technology, vacuum technology, ultrasound technology, mechanochemical technology, and molten salt oxidation technology have also been tried to recycle metals from WEEE (Zhang and Xu 2016).

4.2.7 Aqueous Treatment This treatment includes biological treatment; wet air oxidation, chemical oxidation/ reduction. In this method, waste is subject to treatment after mixing with water. Biological treatment can be aerobic or anaerobic which is already discussed in Sect. 2.1.

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Table 4.4 Metal recycling technologies Sl. No

Process

Technology

Specialized technology

1

Physical and Physicochemical

Material preparation for Physical separation

Cryogenic comminution

Gravity separation processes

Shaking Table

Comminution

Pneumatic Table Jigs Classifiers Spiral concentrators Heavy Media Separation Magnetic separation

Low Intensity and High Intensity Magnetic Separators High Gradient Wet Magnetic Separators Magnetic Fluid Separators

Electrostatic separation

Eddy Current Separators

Shredding systems Adsorptive bubble Separation techniques

Froth Flotation Dissolved Air Flotation Ion Flotation Precipitate Flotation Foam Fractionation

Separation by manual picking 2

Hydrometallurgical

Selective precipitation

Hydroxide Precipitation Precipitation as Sulphides

Ion exchange processes Solvent extraction 3

Electrochemical

Electrowinning of metals Cementation

4

Leaching

5

Biotechnological

Elution (remove adsorbed material by washing with a solvent) of biosorbent material ashing (removal by converting metal-laden biosolvent into ash) Bacterial Leaching

6

Pyrometallurgical

Calcination (continued)

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Table 4.4 (continued) Sl. No

Process

Technology

Specialized technology

Roasting Smelting Refining

4.2.8 Plastic Granulating Postconsumer plastics can supplement or replace virgin plastic resins. Plastic in waste stream is typically segregated by resin type and by production method as different resins possess differing characteristics. Granulation involves cutting waste plastic into flakes followed by washing (if required) with hot water and detergents. Dried flakes are melted and drawn into thin filaments which are cut into equal-sized granules. The process is called plastic granulating (Fig. 4.42).

4.2.9 Recycled Polyester Fibre Manufacturing Polyethylene terephthalate (PETE or PET) is thoroughly cleaned and chopped into fine flakes and melted and converted into fibre by extrusion5 process.

4.2.10 Glass Recycling and Reusing Virtually all glass is recyclable. But, household glass products like light bulbs, drinking glasses, and window panes vary significantly in chemical composition and possess different melting temperatures. Hence, mixing such products with container cullet may result in defects in new containers. Glass recycling involves decontamination waste glass followed by sorting, crushing, screening, melting, and reshaping. Used glass items are separated into clear, and different colours are crushed into small pieces which are called furnaceready cullet which is combined with soda ash, limestone, and silica to create new glass products (Pichtel 2014). Used bottles can be cleaned and reused. Figure 4.43 shows used glass bottle in heap and stored in boxes.

5

Material deformation by the application of a force causes that material to flow through an orifice or die.

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Fig. 4.42 Plastic granulation

4.2.11 Waste to Fuel Scientific studies have proved, and it is possible to produce a wide variety of bioenergy from biomass residues and waste but cost is not competitive with other renewable energy and petrofuels (Lee et al. 2019). But things will change as petrofuels are nonrenewable and rising energy demand is likely to create demand for waste-derived fuel and energy. Case studies of some of the waste to fuel are given in Boxes 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, and 4.6.

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Fig. 4.43 Used glass bottle in heap and stored in boxes

Box 4.3 Briquettes from agrowaste (Kampala Jellitone Suppliers, Uganda) Kampala Jellitone Suppliers (KJS), Uganda, that produces briquette from agrowaste. The company’s lookout for alternate fuel for its baking and coffee roasting resulted in production of briquettes from agrowaste (Gebrezgabher and Musisi 2018).

Box 4.4 Briquettes from municipal solid waste (COOCEN, Kigali, Rwanda) Coopérative Pour La Conservation De L’Environement (COOCEN), established in 2002, delivers waste collection as well as briquette making service in Nyamirambo District of Kigali, Rwanda, through public–private partnership (PPP) with the Kigali City Council. Kigali City Council provided 7 ha of land in Nyamirambo District for COOCEN where waste segregation as well as briquette production takes place (Gebrezgabher and Musisi 2018).

Box 4.5 Briquettes from Agrowaste and Municipal Solid Waste (Eco-Fuel Africa, Uganda) Eco-FuelAfrica (EFA), in Lugazi Town, Uganda, converts farm and municipal waste into briquettes and biochar fertilizer by inventively developed simple, low-cost, easy-to-use technologies—kilns for carbonization of waste besides eco-fuel press machine.

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Box 4.6 Power From Manure and Agrowaste for Rural Electrification (Santa Rosillo, Peru) Santa Rosillo, a rural community with 42 households (220 people) in northern Peru, is only accessible by foot or boat. Most of the community did not have access to electricity and depended on candles, batteries, and lighters for lighting. About 12% of the population depended on private diesel generators for electricity. Through a rural electrification project biogas generated by agrowaste (livestock waste and cocoa waste) is fed into the electricity generator for distribution to each house. Agricultural and forestry residues, building and industrial waste, and MSW can be source of fuel/energy. The biofuels generated from these feedstock are categorized as second-generation biofuels which differ from first-generation biofuels that derived from edible food crops. Second-generation biofuels are produced from lignocellulosic materials (i.e., jatropha, cassava, wood, and straw) as well as biomass residues(Naik et al. 2010, Sims 2010). The straw generated from harvesting food crops and wood processing wastes generated through sawmill and lumber processing activities are being used as boiler fuels and feedstock for ethanol production. Corn stover6 has potential to be converted into fermentable sugars for biobutanol (Quereshi et al. 2010, Cai et al. 2016) besides sugarcane residues can be used for the production of bioethanol (Krishnan et al. 2010, Chandel 2012) and other biofuels such as biochar (Inyang 2010). Palm kernel press cake, can be used to generate bioethanol via fermentation process (Cerveró et al. 2010, Jørgensen 2010). Low-cost biodiesel can be produced from used cooking oils (Zhang et al. 2003a, 2003b). Conversion through thermochemical method involves bond breaking and reforming of organic matter into synthesis gas, bio-oil (liquid), and biochar (solid) by high-temperature chemical reformation process. Figure 4.44 shows plastic lumpmaking machine and Fig. 4.45 shows plastic lumps ready to be used as fuel. Table 4.5 shows different technology/proceed/method used in waste to fuel process.

4.2.12 Emerging Technologies Word advanced recycling, used synonymously with molecular recycling, and chemical recycling are technologies that use supercritical fluids, enzymes, solvents, heat, and pressure to regenerate polymers, monomers, or hydrocarbon feedstocks to create new plastic (Figs. 4.46 and 4.47). Many of the technologies are still in R&D or demonstration phases.

6

Leaves and stalks of field crops, such as sorghum, corn (maize), or soybean, are left in a field after harvesting the grain.

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Fig. 4.44 Plastic lump-making machine

Fig. 4.45 Plastic lumps ready to be used as fuel

Feeding of MSW to larvae constitutes a benefit for low-income countries. Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) has been studied and found that waste can be reduced from 65.5 to 78.9% and prepupae can be used as additive in animal feed (Stefan et al. 2011). Biologically produced hydrogen (or biohydrogen) can be produced by wide variety of microorganisms under anoxic conditions (Gustavo 2008). Compostable face masks are being produced in France with locally produced hemp fibres. In Spain, face masks made from natural raw materials were produced, which are biodegradable. A company in France collects masks that are then ground into small pieces and exposed to ultraviolet light for decontamination and then mixed with a binding material and transformed into moulded plastic, integrated into textiles, or used for building materials (WHO 2022). Adsorptive bubble separation techniques based on differences in surface activity can be used to separate solids in particulate or colloidal form by selective recovery

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Table 4.5 Different technology/process/method used in waste to fuel process Sl. No

Technology/Process/ Method

Feed

Process

End product

1

Combustion

Combustible fraction of solid waste

Combustion

Heat

2

Pyrolysis

Combustible fraction of solid waste

In this process decomposition of biomass that takes place in the absence of oxygen at 350 to 700 °C

Syngas, bio-oil, biochar

3

Torrefaction

Combustible fraction of solid waste

Mild form of pyrolysis at temperatures usually between 200 and 320 °C

Torrefied biomass

4

Anaerobic digestion

Waste with BMP values suitable for economic methane production

Biodegradation in anaerobic condition

Biogas

5

Gasification

Combustible fraction of solid waste

Process involves heating at Syngas 500–1400 °C at atmospheric pressures up to 33 bar and with low/absent oxygen content The process transforms carbonaceous constituents into syngas consisting hydrogen, higher hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, and nitrogen

6

Solid Recovered Fuel Combustible dry, (SRF) or non-hazardous (Refuse-Derived Fuel waste having (RDF)) making

Involve some of the following SRF/RDF steps depending on waste characteristics: Sorting, course preshredding, screening, magnetic separation, refining separation, fine shredding, baling & wrapping, pelletization

7

Liquefaction

This process involves the generation of bio-oil at 250 to 374 °C and 40 to 220 bar pressure with or without catalyst in the presence of hydrogen

Bio-oil

8

Alcohol fermentation Food waste

Fermentation followed by distillation

Bioethanol

Combustible fraction of solid waste with high moisture

(continued)

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Table 4.5 (continued) Sl. No

Technology/Process/ Method

Feed

Process

9

Biohydrogen

Carbohydrate-rich biomass

Biohydrogen can be obtained Hydrogen from carbohydrate-rich biomass dark fermentation and light fermentation microbes Dark fermentation is carried out by microbes in the absence of light and oxygen on the substrate to generate hydrogen. The substrate for the dark fermentation is lignocellulose biomass, wastewater from industry, sugar-containing crop residues, and MSW (Kamran and Fazal 2021)

10

Photofermentation

Organic material

Photofermentation is an Hydrogen organic substrate fermentative conversion, with light energy, by photosynthetic bacteria to form H2 and CO2 in light microbial fuel cells (MFCs) provide an effective mode of bioelectricity production by converting organic matter into energy using bioelectro-oxidation of material to generate electricity (Pandit et al. 2022)

Fig. 4.46 Advanced plastic recycling with pyrolysis followed by plastic pellet forming

End product

Discarded plastic

Plastic goods

Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis Oil

Plastic Pellet

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4 Materials Recovery and Recycling

Gasification (Thermochemical Recyclng) (End product: Syngas)

Enzymolysis (Chemical Recycling) (End product: Monomers)

Pyrolysis (Thermochemical Recyclng) (End product: Pyrolisis oil)

Dissolution (Physical Recycling) (End product: Polymers)

Waste

Solvolyslis (Chemical Recycling) (End product: Monomers)

Depolymerisation (Termochmeical Recycling) (End product: Monomers)

Fig. 4.47 Diversity of advanced recycling

by a gas (usually air) bubble by a process of attachment wherein the bubbles rise to the surface of water and the captured particles are recovered. Adsorptive bubble separation technique includes froth flotation, dissolved air flotation, ion flotation, precipitate flotation, and foam fractionation (Rao 2006).

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Krishnan C, Sousa LdC, Jin M, Chang L, Dale BE, Balan V (2010) Alkali-based AFEX pretreatment for the conversion of sugarcane bagasse and cane leaf residues to ethanol. Biotechnol Bioeng 107:441–450. https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.22824 Lee SY, Sankaran R, Chew KW, Tan CH, Krishnamoorthy R, Chu D, Show P (2019) Waste to bioenergy: a review on the recent conversion technologies. BMC Energy 1:4. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s42500-019-0004-7 Matsuda M, Asada S, Webber K, Lynch J, Nauman EB (1994) Application of selective dissolution to the recycling of commingled automotive plastics. SAE Trans J Mater Manuf 103(5):792–807 Mullen JF (1990) Heavy metals in fugitive dust from recycled municipal solid waste combustion bottom ash. In: Proceedings of the third international conference on municipal solid waste combustor ash utilization. Arlington, VA, pp 187–200 Naik SN, Goud VV, Rout PK, Dalai AK (2010) Production of first and second generation biofuels: a comprehensive review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 14:578–597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser. 2009.10.003 Nikolaou I, Jones N, Stefanakis A (2021) Circular economy and sustainability: the past, the present and the directions. Circular Econ Sustain 1. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43615-021-00030-3 Pandit C, Thapa BS, Srivastava B, Mathuriya AS, Toor UA, Pant M, Pandit S, Jadhav DA (2022) Integrating human waste with microbial fuel cells to elevate the production of bioelectricity. Biotechnology (Basel) 11(3):36. PMID: 35997344; PMCID: PMC9397044. https://doi.org/10. 3390/biotech11030036 Pappa G, Boukouvalas C, Giannaris C, Ntaras N, Zografos V, Magoulas K, Lygeros A, Tassios D (2001) The selective dissolution/precipitation technique for polymer recycling: a pilot unit application. Resour Conserv Recycl 34(1):33–44. ISSN 0921-3449. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0921-3449(01)00092-1 Pichtel J (2014) Waste management practices—municipal, hazardous, and industrial, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton London New York Qureshi N, Saha BC, Hector RE, Dien B, Hughes S, Liu S, Iten L, Bowman MJ, Sarath G, Cotta MA (2010) Production of butanol (a biofuel) from agricultural residues: part II—use of corn Stover and switch grass hydrolysates. Biomass Bioenergy 34:566–571. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.biombioe.2009.12.023 Rao SR (2006) Resource recovery and recycling from metallurgical wastes. Elsevier, Oxford, Amsterdam Rao KC, Hanjra MA (2018) Business models for a circular economy: linking waste management and sanitation with agriculture (Otoo M, Drechsel P (eds)). Routledge, Oxon Ruz C (2011) The six natural resources most drained by our 7 billion people. The Guardian, 31 Oct 2011. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/blog/2011/oct/31/six-natural-resourcespopulation. Accessed on 24 Apr 2023 Rynk R (1992) On-farm composting handbook. Cooperative Extension, Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service, Ithaca, New York Saberian M, Li J, Kilmartin-Lynch S, Boroujeni M (2021) Repurposing of COVID-19 single-use face masks for pavements base/subbase. Sci Total Environ 769:145527. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.scitotenv.2021.145527 Safiuddin M, Mohd ZJ, Salam MA, Islam MS, Hashim R (2010) Utilization of solid wastes in construction materials. Int J Phys Sci 5(13):1952–1963 Shafiee S, Topal E (2009) When will fossil fuel reserves be diminished? Energy Policy 37(1):181– 189. ISSN 0301-4215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2008.08.016 Sims REH, Mabee W, Saddler JN, Taylor M (2010) An overview of second generation biofuel technologies. Bioresour Technol 101:1570–1580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.11.046 Stefan D, Nandayure M, Studt S, Floria RG, Christian Z, Klement T (2011) Biological treatment of municipal organic waste using black soldier fly larvae. Waste Biomass Valor 2:357–363. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s12649-011-9079-1 Strom PF (1985) Effect of temperature on bacterial species diversity in themophilic solid waste comopsting. Appl Environ Microbiol 50:899–905

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Chapter 5

Disposal

Disposal is the last functional element in SWM (Guangyu 2009). Decisions regarding waste disposal have huge effects on the environment of disposal location. Historically, the main disposal methods for MSWwere open dumping and sanitary landfill which are still practised in many places. Uncontrolled dump sites are smoky with a lot of leachate generation with severe environmental pollution. The disposal needs not have to occur within the same country. For example, some materials from wastes in Bahrain are exported after being compressed to a scale below their actual size. Worldwide around 37% of waste is disposed of in some type of landfill, 33% is openly dumped, 19% undergoes material recovery, and 11% is treated through modern incineration. 93% of waste is dumped in low-income nations, whereas only 2% in high-income nations (Kaza et al. 2018). Disposal of biomedical waste, hazardous waste, e-waste and radioactive waste is discussed in Chaps. 6, 7, 8, and 10, respectively. Methods of solid waste disposal include open burning, burning in burn pit,1 dumping into the sea, sanitary landfills, animal feed, incineration, grinding and discharging into sewers. The health and environmental consequences of waste disposal have been deliberated in detail in Chaps. 11 and 12, respectively. 93% of waste is dumped in low-income nations and only 2% in high-income nations. Middle East and North Africa, sub-Saharan Africa, and South Asia openly dump more than 50% of the waste generated in those regions. Upper-middle-income counties dispose 54% of solid waste through landfill. High-income nations dispose to 39%, recycle/compost 36% and incinerate 22% (Kaza et al. 2018). The amount of waste from agro-based industries such as palm oil, rubber, and wood processing plants has more than tripled (Sivakumar et al. 2022), which is untreated and unused and disposed by dumping or landfilling in developing countries.

1

Burn pit is a pit/area devoted to open-air combustion of solid waste usually at military bases.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6_5

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In 2019, agricultural used 12.5 million tonnes of plastic products (Table 5.1) in value chains of plant and animal production beside 37.3 million tonnes in food packaging. Information was not available about plastic usage in storage, processing, as well as distribution. Mulching and silage films are likely to surge by 50% from 6.1 million tonnes in 2018 to 9.5 million tonnes in 2030. The crop production and Table 5.1 Use of plastic in agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry Activity

Use of plastic

Type of plastic

Crop production

Polymer-coated fertilizer

Polyethylene, Ethylene–Vinyl Acetate copolymer (EVA), LDPE, cellulose

Fertilizer sacks

Polypropylene

Flexible intermediate bulk containers

Polypropylene

Seedling plug trays

Polypropylene, polyethylene, expanded polystyrene

Nursery pot trays

Polypropylene, polyethylene

Mulching films

LDPE, PVC, polylactic acid/ polyhydroxyalkanoate

Non-woven textile protection

Polypropylene, polyester

Greenhouses and low tunnels

Multilayer LDPE/EVA films, polycarbonate rigid sheets

Shade and protective nets

HDPE

Irrigation dip tapes

HDPE, LDPE, PVC

Irrigation pipes

Polyethylene, PVC

Support ties and clips

HDPE, PVC, synthetic rubber, and biodegradables

Hermetic storage bags

LDPE

Pesticide containers

HDPE, PET, co-extruded mixed polymers

Reusable crates

HDPE

Tree guards

Polypropylene

Chainsaw fuel container

HDPE, polypropylene

Tree labels and support ties

PVC and synthetic rubber

Ear tags

Thermoplastic polyurethane

Bunker covers

HDPE

Bale nets and twines

HDPE, polypropylene

Silage tubes

LDPE

Used bale twines

Polypropylene

Film wrapped silage bales

LDPE

Insulating crates

Expanded polystyrene, Expanded polyethylene, and polypropylene

Ropes

Polyethylene, polypropylene

Fishing nets

Polyethylene, nylon

Forestry

Livestock production

Fisheries and aquaculture

5.1 Landfill

195

livestock sectors account for 10 million tonnes per year followed by fisheries and aquaculture with 2.1 million tonnes, and forestry with 0.2 million tonnes with Asia being the largest user of plastics in agricultural production, accounting for about half of global usage (around six million tonnes per annum) (FAO 2021). Only small fractions of agricultural plastics are collected and recycled, and most plastics are burned, buried, or landfilled. Inappropriate disposal of agricultural plastic at dumpsites prone to fires. Open burning on farms are sources of toxic emissions. Plastic resins with toxic additives such as phthalates and bisphenols are capable of disrupting endocrine. The accumulation of residues of mulching film in surface soils has reduced agricultural yields. Microplastics consequential from agricultural plastic products have the potential to transfer along trophic levels (FAO 2021).

5.1 Landfill An engineered landfill or sanitary landfill facility is an integrated waste management disposal system. Landfill (Fig. 5.1) is the physical facility designed, constructed, and operated for waste disposal. Engineered bioreactor landfills are designed to minimize the infiltration of rainwater and/or snowmelt into the solid waste. In comparison with other possibilities, landfill should be the last option to manage waste. For example, Denmark has banned landfilling waste suitable for incineration (DEPA 1999). Sanitary landfillfacilities are located in areas where the potential for degradation of the quality of air, land, and water is minimal. Similarly, a sanitary landfill should Final Cover Storm water drain

Working Face

Leachate Collection Sump

Fig. 5.1 A typical schematic diagram of landfill

Storm water drain

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be located away from an airport to avoid air accidents between birds and aeroplanes. The location should preferably be outside the 100-year floodplain and should not be in the proximity of wildlife sanctuaries, monuments, and other important places which are ecologically important. Location of sanitary landfill should also consider seismic sensitivity of the area to avoid environmental damage during earthquake. Key factors to be considered while evaluating a landfill site are given in Table 5.2. Factors to be considered in design of the landfill are given in Table 5.3. Fractured bedrock is highly undesirable to prevent the leakage of leachate beneath a landfill as leachate cannot be located if they escape. Mines and quarries need to be avoided as they usually contact the groundwater. A typical landfill will undergo the following activities during its lifetime: (1) planning, (2) site selection, (3) site preparation, (4) landfill bed construction, (5) leachate and gas collection system incorporation, (6) landfilling, (7) monitoring, (8) closure of landfill, and (9) post-closure monitoring. Table 5.2 Important factors to be considered while evaluating a landfill site Sl. No.

Factor

Remark

1

Access to land

Existing road/railway/waterway should be considered

2

Climate

Rainfall, temperature, humidity, wind speed, snowfall, etc., need to be considered

3

Disaster history of the location

Earthquake, cyclone, draught, flood, tsunami, hurricane, terrorism, war, sabotage, industrial accidents, etc., shall be evaluated

4

Extent of land available Should be capable of accepting waste to an extent so that an investment is feasible

5

Final use of land

Long-term use of land needs to be evaluated

6

Geology and hydrogeology

Groundwater quality and quantity as well as permeability of the geological strata need to be studied

7

Haul distance

Distance from source/transfer station decides to economy of operation especially when a site receives waste from more than one source

8

Local and national legislation

Regulatory issues decide the ultimate location

9

Local environment

The local environment with respect to biota, monuments, religious setting, physicochemical environment like noise, air quality, water quality, land use pattern shall be considered

10

Public acceptability

Local public shall accept the idea and project for the success of the project

11

Soil characteristics

Soil characteristics and availability of cover material need to be evaluated

12

Surface water hydrology

Drainage pattern, distance from major water bodies, watershed boundaries shall be considered

13

Topography

Contours and slope need to be studied

5.1 Landfill

197

Table 5.3 Factors to be considered in design Factors

Remarks

Access

Road, rail, and other transport mode

Cell construction and Cover material

Cover material available onsite and offsite

Drainage

Existing and required drainage

Emergency Preparedness Plan (EPP) and Disaster Management Plan (DMP)

Comprehensive EPP and DMP should prepared

Environment Management Plan (EMP)

Extensive EMP should be prepared

Equipment requirement

Need to be assessed

Extent of land area

To be arrived considering at least 10 years of operation

Landfilling method

To be evolved depending on the local environmental setting

Litter/rodent control

Litter/rodent control plan should be finalized

Onsite storage and pretreatment

May be required in case hazardous and special waste

Project specific consideration

Need to consider local requirements like loss of livelihood, the market for salvaged material

Regulatory issues

Need to be considered extensively

Reception, weighing, security, unloading, and vehicle washing

Provision shall be made for reception, weighing, and security

Spread and compaction

Need to be considered type of waste and cover material

This chapter discusses the general landfill objectives and practices. The special precautions and practices followed in hazardous waste landfill are discussed in detail in Chap. 7. The landfill method can be broadly classified into trench method, area method, and depression method as explained in the subsequent paragraphs. Excavated Cell/Trench Method: This method is ideally suited in areas where there is an adequate depth of cover material, and the water table is not near the surface. In this method, solid wastes are placed in cells/trenches excavated in the soil (Fig. 5.2). The soil excavated in the site is used for daily/final cover. The cells/trenches are lined with lining system to restrict the movement of landfill gases and leachate. The cells are provided with side slopes of 2:1 to 3:1 and vary from 50 to 300 m in length, 1 to 3 m in depth, and 5 to 15 m in width. Area Method: This method is used where the terrain is not suitable for the excavation of cells or trenches. Liner system is provided to manage leachate and cover material must be hauled from other places. Canyon/Depression Method: In this method, compact solid waste is placed in canyon/depression. Usually, filling begins at the canyon’s head end and concludes

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5 Disposal

Daily Cover

Cap Waste Leachate collection pipe

Impermeable liner

Fig. 5.2 Typical trench method of landfill setup

at the mouth, to prevent water gathering behind the landfill. In this method, sites are filled in multiple lifts. Landfill airspace2 determines the lifespan of a site. Efficient operations will increase the use of space. Once airspace is completely utilized the site is closed and capped with a layer of impermeable clay and layer of topsoil. Grass and other suitable vegetation types are planted on landfill sites to stabilize the soil and improve 2

Permitted height, length, and breadth, the landfill may finally occupy.

5.1 Landfill

199

its appearance. Environmental monitoring is carried out for up to 30 years after the site’s closure. The typical landfill process during operation involves: (1) waste dumping at the working face, (2) waste spreading, shredding and compaction, and (3) waste covering. Improper management of landfill can lead to disaster (Box 5.1) Between 1977 and 2005 six large-scale failures of MSW dumps and landfills have been recorded. The quantity of waste mobilized in the failures varied between 10,000 and 1.5 million m3 . Out of the six failures, four occurred in dumps that had not been subjected to any previous technical investigation of their shear stability. The other two failures occurred in engineer-designed landfills, one of which co-disposed liquid waste along with solid waste, and the other practised leachate recirculation (Blight 2008). Landslide in Shenzhen, China, on December 20, 2015, killed 73 people, damaging 33 buildings triggered by the collapse of massive pile of C&D waste (Yang et al 2017). Box 5.1 Case Study, Failure of Payatas Landfill of Quezon City, Metro Manila District, Philippines Payatas Landfill of Quezon City, Metro Manila District, Philippines, was required to be closed until 1998, but was postponed until failure occurred two years later burying 330 people due to the following reasons (Scott et al. 2005; Harirsaz 2018): 1. Placing excessive waste inside the landfill. 2. In 1999, waste in the middle of landfill was moved to the corners of landfill to create space resulting in the formation of steep gradients in the corners and depression in the middle that caused the precipitation to accumulate. 3. Excessive leachate due to heavy precipitation and increase in the weight of the waste due to the saturation. 4. A trench was created on the slope walls of the landfill to drain rain. But it eroded the walls of the landfill due to heavy rainfall in the days leading up to the collapse. 5. Increase of water pore pressure due to high degree of saturation of the waste due to rain. 6. Waste in landfill received small amount of compression. 7. People who were looking for substances inside the waste, spread, and distorted the waste arrangement.

5.1.1 Processes Within a Landfill Organic matter in MSW is composed of mainly proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and lignin which are easily degradable. Other organic matters like lignin and cellulose are recalcitrant. Some of the biodegradable portions are readily biodegradable and others are moderately biodegradable fractions. The landfill ecosystem is diverse and

200

5 Disposal

hence promotes stability; however, it is influenced by environmental conditions like temperature, pH, and moisture content. Stabilization of MSW in landfill happens in five phases (Willium and Aarne 2002). Such phases may not happen at all in landfill meant exclusively for C&D hazardous waste. The five phases occurring in MSW landfill sites are: (1) Initial Adjustment Phase: In this phase, microbes acclimatize to the landfill condition. In this phase, readily biodegradable organic matter is aerobically decomposed through hydrolysis/aerobic degradation forming H2 O and CO2 . (2) Hydrolysis and fermentation: In this phase, hydrolysis, fermentation and activity of acetogenic bacteria are predominant releasing CO2 , H2 , NH4 + , and organic acids. (3) Acid Formation Phase: The continuous hydrolysis of solid waste followed by the microbial action on biodegradable organic fraction results in the generation of intermediate volatile organic acids. In this phase, methanogenic bacteria start to grow slowly to form acetic acid, CO2 , H2 . (4) Methanogenesis: In this phase, methane is produced at a stable rate forming CH4 , CO2 . (5) Maturation Phase: During this, nutrients become low and the biological activity shifts to dormancy resulting in a drop in gas production, and leachate strength will be at lower concentrations. Slow decomposition of resistant organic matter may continue resulting in humic-like substances. In this phase, methane production rate decreases and nitrogen appears due to diffusion from the atmosphere.

5.1.2 Controlling Leachate and Gas Waste in landfill generates leachate which is defined as the water that has percolated through the waste which is a source of soil and groundwater pollution and gas produced by the fermentation of organic matter. Precipitation is the major reason for the generation of leachate. The soluble and suspended components from the biodegrading waste will combine with percolating water in landfill site through series of complicated physical and chemical reactions. Other contributors to leachate creation are groundwater inflow, surface water runoff, and biological degradation (Reinhart and Townsend 1998). The quantity of leachates depends on: (1) rainwater percolation through wastes, (2) biochemical processes in waste’s cells, (3) inherent water content of the waste, and (4) the degree of compaction of the waste. The leachate production is usually greater when the waste is less compacted as compaction reduces the filtration rate (Lema et al. 1988). Composition of leachates from landfill varies with the age of the landfill (Silva et al. 2004). As landfill age increases, concentration of organics in the leachate decreases, whereas the concentration of ammonia nitrogen increases (Kulikowska and Klimiuk 2008; Cheung et al. 1997). Recirculation of leachate may

5.1 Landfill

201

result in high concentrations of ammonia but lower concentrations of degradable carbon compounds (Cheung et al. 1997). Leachate generated in the landfill depends on moisture content and field capacity (maximum achievable moisture content without downward percolation). The moisture-holding capacity of a given landfill is influenced by the wilting point (quantity of water in the soil that roots cannot absorb this water and a plant will wilt), field capacity, and porosity. When moisture content exceeds field capacity due to decrease of voids, precipitation, etc., leachate is formed as the gravitational force overcomes the retention force resulting in flow of leachate through the landfill. The quantity depends on (El-Fadel et al. 2002; Schiopu and Gavrilescu 2010): 1. Landfill age 2. Climate a. Precipitation b. Temperature, c. Humidity, 3. Hydrogeology a. Snowmelt, b. Groundwater intrusion, 4. Site Operations and Management a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

Refuse pretreatment, Compaction Vegetation, Cover, Sidewalls, Liner material (Figs. 5.3 and 5.4), Irrigation,

Fig. 5.3 Examples of single-liner system

Waste Protective Layer Sand / Gravel Recompacted Clay

Waste Protective Layer Sand / Gravel Geomembrane Soil Layer

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5 Disposal

Fig. 5.4 Examples of composite liner system

Waste Protective Layer Geotextile Sand / Gravel Geomembrane Recompacted Clay

Waste Protective Layer Geotextile Sand / Gravel Geonet Geomembrane Recompacted Clay

h. Recirculation, i. Liquid waste co-disposal 5. Waste characteristics a. b. c. d. e. f.

Permeability, Age, Particle size, Density, Initial moisture content Composition.

6. Internal process a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k.

Waste settlement, Organic material decomposition Hydrolysis, Adsorption, Biodegradation, Speciation, Dissolution, Dilution, Ion exchange, Redox, Contact time,

5.1 Landfill

203

l. Partitioning, m. Gas and heat generation and transport. Leachate Treatment Factors to Consider Leachate generated in landfill is managed by one or more of the following strategies (Schiopu and Gavrilescu 2010): 1. Onsite treatment and discharge. 2. Onsite pretreatment followed by offsite treatment. 3. Transport and treatment offsite. The following factors are taken into account when applying technologies to treat leachate (Abbas et al. 2009; Schiopu and Gavrilescu 2010): • • • •

Leachate composition, properties, and volume, Need for leachate storage Local water standards requirement for discharge, Technical value, ease of implementation, and cost-effectiveness of technologies.

Co-Treatment with Municipal Sewage Leachate generated at the landfill can be treated at the sewage treatment plant along with municipal sewage. Leachate disposal into the sewer system has the advantage of easy maintenance and low operating costs (Ahn et al. 2002). Recycling leachate back into landfill is one of the least expensive options for treating leachate (Lema et al. 1988). Lagooning may not be an acceptable treatment option for leachate (Zaloum and Abbott 1997). Activated sludge processes found to be not adequate for treating landfill leachate treatment in recent decades (Lin et al. 2000). Flotation has been used for many years to decrease colloids, macromolecules, ions, micro-organisms, and fibres (Zoubaolis et al. 2003). Leachate Recirculation Leachate can be recirculated back to landfill to control the moisture content to improve biodegradation and waste stabilization. Constructed Wetlands In this method, leachate is treated by plants that are tolerant to stagnate water. The advantages of this method are: (1) Low/no power consumption, and (2) Low construction and operational costs.

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The disadvantages of this method are: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

High space requirement, Generation of aerosols, Presence of plant inhibitor in leachate may affect efficiency, Applicability on low volumes only, and Difficulty of control.

Biological Processes Biological processes are classified by: (1) Extent of aeration (aerobic, anaerobic, or combined), (2) Type of media (activated sludge, biofilm, or hybrid), (3) Reactor type (continuous flow stirred-tank reactor, sequencing batch reactor, or ditch). Biological treatment is used for its reliability, simplicity, high cost-effectiveness, and its efficiency in removing organic compounds. Aerobic treatment processes The aerobic processes include: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

Activated sludge process Aerobic lagoon, Biological aerated filter (BAF), Membrane bioreactor, Moving-bed biofilm reactor (MBBR), Oxidation pond, Rotating biological contactor (RBC) or biodiscs, Sequential batch reactors Trickling filter.

Rapidly changing leachate characteristics because of entry of disinfectants, sterilizing agents, and toxins aerobic treatment is not showing efficiency and causing problems due to aerosol and odour. Anaerobic treatment processes Anaerobic digestion conserves energy and generates less sludge compared to aerobic processes with suspended growth. But anaerobic digestion suffers from low reaction rates. The process is also not reliable due to rapidly changing leachate characteristics that contain sterilizing agents, disinfectants, and toxins. Physicochemical Processes Physicochemical treatment processes (Fig. 5.5) are more efficient ways to solve landfill leachate problems. Flocculation is applied to remove non-settleable colloidal solids using flocculants. Coagulation-flocculation can be utilized in treating stabilized leachates from

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Fig. 5.5 Physicochemical treatment plant with membranes

old landfill sites. Chemical precipitation can be used as leachate pretreatment to eliminate high strength of ammonium nitrogen. Chemical oxidation can be used for the treating of wastewater with soluble non-biodegradable organic/toxic substances. Ammonium stripping can be used to remove ammonia nitrogen from landfill leachate. Electrodialysis, microfiltration, nanofiltration, ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis are used if high-quality treated effluents are required. Adsorption by adsorbent like activated carbon can be used to remove both organic and inorganic contaminants. The main disadvantage of this process is the requirement and request regeneration of absorbent and associated costs. Use of hydroxide or sulphide salts to precipitate heavy metals and inorganic compounds is suitable for the removal of heavy metals from aqueous solutions (Fig. 5.6). But it can generate a large quantity of sludge (Fig. 5.7). Ions and dissolved organic matter from landfill leachate can be removed by ion exchange using synthetic resins or natural zeolites and silicate minerals. Ion exchange is having high operational cost and requires pretreatment to remove suspended solid (SS). Chemical oxidation using oxidants like chlorine, ozone, potassium permanganate, and calcium hydrochloride is effective but costly. Concentrating or drying the leachate and burning with auxiliary fuel is attractive but experience in continuously operating full-scale plants is not available. Fig. 5.6 Chemical precipitation

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Fig. 5.7 Sludge from chemical precipitation

Comparison of various leachate treatment processes is given in Table 5.4. Single-Liner Systems Single liners contain clay liner, geosynthetic clay liner, or geomembrane. Single liners are used in landfills designed for construction and demolition of debris. Composite-Liner Systems A composite liner comprises of geomembrane and clay liner. Composite-liner systems are more efficient at limiting leachate migration. Composite liners are used mostly in MSW landfills. Double-Liner Systems Double-liner systems (Fig. 5.9) are used widely in hazardous waste landfills. A double liner contains either two composite liners or two single liners or combination of a single and a composite liner. The upper liner functions to collect the leachate whereas the lower liner backs up to the primary liner and is used for leak detection. Leachate Collection Systems All liner systems are integrated with leachate collection system. A leachate collection system is composed of gravel and sand or a geonet(plastic net-like drainage blanket) along with a sequence of leachate collection conduits to drain the leachate to hold tanks for treatment. The upper drainage layer of double-liner systems acts as a leachate collection system and the lower drainage layer is used for leak detection. The leachate in the lower drainage alerts landfill management to take necessary corrective action. Components of the liner system are provided with protective layers composed of soil, sand, and gravel or a layer of soft solid waste such as paper, shredded tyres, organic refuse, and rubber. Liner Components Clay: Clay liners are laid to avoid groundwater contamination. A simple liner will comprise of 30 cm to one-metre-thick compacted clay layer. The effectiveness of

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Table 5.4 Effectiveness of leachate treatment depending on landfill age Treatment type

Landfill Age

Target of removal

Remark

Young Medium Old Leachate transfer Co-Treatment

Good

Fair

Poor

SS

Excess biomass and nutrients

Recycling

Good

Fair

Poor

Improve leachate quality

Least expensive and low efficiency

Aerobic Processes

Good

Fair

Poor

SS

Hampered by disinfectants, sterilizing agent, toxins

Anaerobic Processes

Good

Fair

Poor

SS

Biological processes

Physicochemical processes Coagulation/ Flocculation

Poor

Fair

Fair

Heavy metals, suspended solids

High sludge production and subsequent disposal

Chemical Precipitation

Poor

Fair

Poor

Heavy metals, NH3 -N

Requires further disposal due to sludge generation

Adsorption

Poor

Fair

Good Organic compounds Adsorbent fouling can be a problem and costly

Oxidation

Poor

Fair

Fair

Organic compounds Residual O3

Stripping

Poor

Fair

Fair

NH3 -N

Ion Exchange

Good

Good

Good Dissolved High cost compounds, cations/ anions

Microfiltration

Poor

–

–

SS

High cost

Ultrafiltration

Poor

–

–

High molecular weight compounds

High cost

Nanofiltration

Good

Good

Good Sulphate salts, hardness ions

High cost

Reverse Osmosis

Good

Good

Good Organic and inorganic compounds

High cost

Multiple evaporator (Fig. 5.8)

Good

Good

Good All pollutant

High cost

Leachate incineration Good

Good

Good All pollutant

High cost

Requires air pollution control

Membrane filtration

Solar evaporator

Good

Good

Good All pollutant

Require large area

Evaporator

Good

Good

Good All pollutant

High investment and operating cost

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Fig. 5.8 Multiple effect evaporator

Fig. 5.9 Examples of double-liner system

Waste Protective Layer Sand / Gravel Geomembrane Re-compacted Clay Sand / Gravel Geomembrane Re-compacted Clay

Waste Protective Layer Geotextile Sand / Gravel Geosynthetic Clay Liner Sand / Gravel Geomembrane Re-compacted Clay

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clay liners is affected by fractures stimulated by freeze–thaw cycles, presence of some chemicals, and drying out. Geomembranes: Geomembranes or flexible membrane liners (FML) are constructed from a variety of plastic materials which include polyvinyl chloride (PVC) as well as high-density polyethylene (HDPE). Figure 5.10 shows geotextile placed before placing waste in landfill and Fig. 5.11 shows geomembrane placed on landfilled waste prior to closure. Geotextiles: Geotextiles allow the movement of water and trap particles to reduce blockage in the leachate collection system. They are used to avoid the movement of minute waste and soil particles into the leachate collection system and to protect geomembranes from punctures. Improper liner and punctured geotextile (Fig. 5.12) which is sometimes practised will not serve complete purpose.

Fig. 5.10 Geotextile in landfill area

Fig. 5.11 Geomembrane placed on landfill prior to closure

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Fig. 5.12 Liner and punctured geotextile laid unscientifically over abandoned quarry

Geosynthetic Clay Liner (GCL): These liners comprise a clay layer of four to six millimetres between the layers of a geotextile. Geonet: A geonet is a net-like drainage blanket of plastic used in landfill liners in place of gravel or sand for the leachate collection layer. Geonets are more vulnerable to clogging by minute particles. Storage of solid waste in landfills contributes to the GHG due to the degradation of organic component of waste. Total European emissions are about 2% of the total GHG of 5000 Mt/year (EEA 2009). Areal emission rate of gaseous pollutants from landfills is difficult to control and meteorological factors sometimes lead to the enhancement of lateral migration of landfill gas (LFG) that causes gas explosion accident (Mohammed et al. 2009). The decomposition of biodegradable waste happens in five stages. In the first stage, aerobic bacteria produce CO2 , water, and heat. CO2 may be released as a gas or absorbed by water to form carbonic acid contributing acidity to leachate. In second stage, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids hydrolyzed by facultative bacteria to sugars. Sugars are further decomposed into CO2 , hydrogen, ammonia, and organic acids. In third stage, organic acids will be converted into acetic acid (CH3 COOH), H2 , CO2 , H2 S. In the fourth stage, methanogenic micro-organisms degrade the organic acids to CH4 , CO2 , CH4, and H2 O. In the final stage, CH4 generated will be converted to CO2 and H2 O. H2 S gas may also be formed in final stage if contains high concentration of sulphates. LFG generation is influenced by several factors: (1) the gas migration properties through the waste layers and top layer of the landfill, (2) gas collection efficiency, (3) CH4 oxidation activity, (4) pH, (5) composition of waste, (6) temperature, (7) water content, (8) shredding, (9) compaction, (10) leachate recirculation, (11) meteorological condition. (Mohammed et al. 2009; Cernuschi and Giugliano, 1996; Christensen et al. 1996; Gurijala et al. 1997; Naranjo et al. 2004; Sormunen et al. 2008; Tecle et al. 2008; Williams 2005; Zhang et al. 2008). 9% of LFG contains methane and carbon dioxide. Although most of the methane escapes into the atmosphere, they can also move laterally. If the LFG is not vented out properly, it will accumulate below buildings or other spaces as its specific gravity is less than air.

5.1 Landfill Fig. 5.13 Example of different layers in landfill cap

211

Grass Top Soil Cover soil Sand / Gravel Geotextile Geomembrane Clay Gas Venting Waste

Carbon dioxide is about 1.5 times denser than air and 2.8 times denser than methane. Hence, it will move towards the bottom of landfill and lowers the pH if enters groundwater, thereby increasing hardness and mineral contents of the water. Therefore, it is essential that movement of LFG be controlled by constructing vents, barriers, and recovery. Example of different layers in landfill cap is given in Fig. 5.13). Gases generated from a landfill are either vented to the atmosphere (Fig. 5.14) or collected for power generation (Fig. 5.15). Concentration of atmospheric methane has more than doubled over the past 150 years (Stern et al. 2007). LFG is known to be generated both in managed “landfill” and “open dump” sites because of unaerobic decomposition of organic matter in waste. It consists of 50–60% methane and 30–40% of carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amount (Wang-Yao et al. 2006). Landfill fires due to spontaneous combustion are common during hot weather. Landfill gases migrate either below ground or above contaminating soil, air, and groundwater. Accumulation of gas may create fire hazard or explosion. Management plans for landfill fire include: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

Control of deposition of waste, Good compaction as well as cover, Inspection of incoming loads, Maintenance of adequate water supply, Maintenance of fire fighting extinguishers/equipment, Preparation of comprehensive disaster management plan, Prohibition of deliberate burning, Prohibition of smoking on site, Training of staff, and Use of personal protective equipment.

As the production of methane will begin immediately after waste, “biotarp” can be used to mitigate methane from open landfill cells. These biotarps also serve as a

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Final Cover

Gas Movement

Gravel Packed Vent

Gas Movement

(a)

(b)

Packed gravel trench

Packed gravel gas well

(c) Fig. 5.14 Usual methods of venting landfill gases: a cell, b barrier, c well

substitute to daily cover during landfill operation. Multilayered biotarp comprising of alternative layers of two geotextiles can remove 16% of the methane passing through the biotarp and addition of landfill cover soil/compost/shale amendments to the biotarp would increase the methane removal up to 32% (Bryn et al. 2011). Traditional cover material reduces the storage capacity. As per the studies conducted by Zeshi et al. (2011), intermediate covering system using high-density polyethylene (HDPE) geomembrane increases gas flow by 25%. However, setting up a high permeability layer near the surface of landfill improves LFG collection efficiencies. The permeable layer would lessen the influence of cracks in the covering material on O2 intrusion and CH4 emissions promoting uniform and greater CH4 oxidation in the cover layer.

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Different layers of waste cap

Solid waste in landfills

Fig. 5.15 Gas collection system

Combustion is the common technique for controlling as well as treating LFG. The most common combustion technologies are flares, boilers, gas turbines, incinerators and internal combustion engines. Combustion will typically ensure more than 98% destruction of organic compounds. During combustion, methane is converted to carbon dioxide, thereby reducing the impact due to the release of GHG. At methane concentration of more than 20% by volume, the LFG will form a combustible mixture with air in atmosphere and only an ignition. Source is required for operation. If the methane in LFG is less than 20% methane by volume, additional fuel like natural gas will be required to operate flares. Flares can be open flame flares or enclosed flame flares. Open flame flares comprise of a pipe through which the LFG is pumped, a source of spark, and a mechanism to regulate the gas flow. The main disadvantages of open flame flares include inefficient combustion, poor aesthetics, and monitoring difficulties. In enclosed flame flares gas and air entering is controlled, making combustion more efficient and reliable. Landfill in most developing countries is not properly constructed and heaped in open dumps leading to generation of methane gas. Most developing countries receive good precipitation which makes decomposition slow leading to anaerobic conditions. Hence in the modified landfill method termed, the Fukuoka method leachate is collected through perforated surrounded in graded boulder pipe, thereby introducing

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an aerobic condition. As leachate is removed as soon as possible, the internal waste layer will have lower moisture contents leading to early stabilization of waste.

5.1.3 Monitoring of Landfills Landfill monitoring is carried out for: (1) leachate quantity and quality, (2) leakage through liner, (3) groundwater quality, (3) ambient air quality, (4) gas in the surrounding soil, (5) landfill-gas quality and quantity, and (6) stability of the final cover. Leakage through liner is usually detected using a lysimeter. Groundwater monitoring is accomplished through drilling monitoring wells around landfill. Gas extraction wells are placed to collect any landfill gas. Use of drones at waste disposal sites has increased and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) are widely used collecting data on solid waste landfills (Sliusar et al. 2022). The steepness of the waste body slopes is traditionally estimated from ground geodetic surveys, which take time and are unsafe for personnel. Aerial imagery can be carried out with minimal costs, quickly with no risk to personnel. Aerial photographs obtained can be processed in photogrammetric software to generate orthophoto3 plans, height maps, and three-dimensional polygonal models of the facility (Filkin et al. 2021). Drones can be especially useful to monitor methane leaks with no risk to personnel. A typical checklist to ensure proper operation of landfill is given in Table 5.5.

5.1.4 Closure of Landfills The landfilled waste is covered with daily covers to form cells. But in practice it may not happen in many places. The waste heap is covered with liners to protect waste from rain (Fig. 5.16). Once the landfill size attains limit of capping, the waste is usually covered with layers of geomembrane, clay, gravel, geotextile, and topsoil (Figs. 5.17 and 5.18). Examples of landfill sealants are given in Table 5.6. Landfill closure and post-closure care are necessary for 30 to 50 years after capping to ensure safety and avoid damage to the environment. A closure plan should include landscaping, runoff control, gas and leachate collection and treatment, erosion control, and environmental monitoring. Post-closure care shall include routine inspection and a plan for remedial if unacceptable levels of emissions and leachates are observed during monitoring.

3

Is aerial photograph or satellite imagery geometrically corrected such that the scale is uniform.

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Table 5.5 Checklist for operation of landfill A. Operations 1. Is facility ownership up to date? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 2. Does landfill facility accepts authorized waste only? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 3. Is landfill screened from public view? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 4. Do signs, fences, barriers clearly define waste unloading areas? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 5. Is litter controlled and picked up? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 6. Does active landfill area have minimal birds, insects, rodents? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 7. Is dust, odours, and noise controlled? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 8. Are entry roads are safe, provide all whether access and are well-maintained? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 9. Do entrance signs indicate facility name, emergency phone #, schedule, acceptable and prohibited wastes, and restrict site access? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 10. Does adequate security, prevents unauthorized entry, and dumping? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 11. Does landfill cover comply with the approved operations plan? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 12. Does facility keep all records as per statutory requirement? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 13. Whether adequate onsite fire control measures are provided? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 14. Whether personnel have been provided with separate eating place ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 15. Whether personnel have been provided sufficient toilets, bathroom, and changing room ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable B. Leachate Management 16. Does facility effectively minimize leachate generation in active and inactive cells through systematic use of daily cover, intermediate (plastic) cover, and phased final closure (close-as you-go) strategies? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 17. Does leachate seep present beyond lined cell footprints? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 18. Does facility maintain 30 cm or less hydraulic head in primary leachate collection system and continuously removes leachate from collection systems? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 19. Is all leachate collection systems and equipment in good condition and well-maintained? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 20. Is leak detection systems well-maintained? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable (continued)

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Table 5.5 (continued) C. Storm water Management 21. Does facility maintain up-to-date Storm water Pollution Control Plan (SPCP) in the Operating Record? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 22. Does SPCP reflect site-specific conditions at the landfill? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 23. Are pipes, culverts, ditches, swales, berms, dikes, straw bales, erosion control matting, riprap, and other structures are well-maintained, constructed per approved design plans and specifications? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 24. Are perimeter flood control dikes are well-maintained, structurally sound, in good condition? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable D. Landfill Gas Management 25. Is vertical gas extraction system wells and horizontal collectors are well-maintained and sufficient in number to prevent excessive odours and subsurface gas migration? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 26. Are header pipes, valves, and associated equipment are functional and well-maintained? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 27. Are landfill-wide odours not excessive? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 28. Is condensate collection system well-maintained, functional? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 29. Are condensate sumps and storage tank(s) well-maintained, no fluid leaks, odours not excessive? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 30. Does facility have records of condensate volumes and its chemical characteristics? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 31. Does facility routinely test underground condensate sumps for subsurface leakage? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 32. Is blower/flare station equipment functional and well-maintained? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 33. Is equipment installed reflects approved design? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 34. Do fluid leaks from condensate knockout tanks or other sources, and cause excessive odours? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 35. Is landfill gas system test equipment and ancillary structures being intrinsically safe and no confined spaces susceptible to landfill gas accumulation? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 36. Is onsite structures setback adequately from the landfill or have engineering controls and monitoring to prevent and detect landfill gas intrusion and explosion hazards? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 37. Is landfill gas to energy facilities are well-maintained, no excessive odours, no fluid leaks from pipes, or other equipment? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable (continued)

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Table 5.5 (continued) E. Environmental Monitoring 38. Does facility conducts groundwater monitoring program in accordance with the approved Environment Management Plan (EMP)? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 39. Is all approved detection and compliance wells are properly constructed, functional, and well maintained? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 40. Has facility established storm water monitoring stations have identifiable field markings, and are maintained for repeat monitoring events per storm water permit requirements and approved EMP? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 41. Is access risers and collection sumps and pumps are functional and well maintained? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 42. Do fluids present in the leak detection system? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 43. Does facility report to and investigate the source of any seepage into the leak detection system? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 44. Are designated monitoring stations established and maintained for streams, ponds, lakes, or other water bodies of interest per the approved EMP? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 45. Is methane gas monitored in accordance with approved EMP? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 46. Does all gas monitoring probe or sensors are properly constructed, labelled and maintained? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable F. Landfill Closure 47. Does facility have approved closure plan and implement plan appropriately and effectively? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 48. Does phased closure of facility conforms to approved plans and schedule? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable Fig. 5.16 Protection of solids filled in landfill from rain prior to capping

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Fig. 5.17 Layering of cover soil on landfill

Fig. 5.18 Covering clay with topsoil

A final cover system shall be placed after completing of landfill to: (1) minimize infiltration of rainwater, (2) avoid fugitive emission, (3) separate waste from environment, (4) minimize soil erosion, (5) minimize frost, (6) resist burrowing animals, (7) resist penetration of roots. The permeability of the final cover shall be less than the underlying liner to prevent the “bathtub effect” wherein water infiltrates through the cover system and is contained by liner system increasing the hydraulic head on the liner system. The final cover system consists of an infiltration layer of about 50 cm inches of earthen material covered by 15 cm soil capable of supporting native plant growth. An alternative cover design can be used if the cover guarantees protection against infiltration and erosion. Even though not an economical option, welded HDPE geomembrane of at least 2.5 mm thick in intimate contact with a mineral layer is generally desirable in sealers for landfill capping.

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Table 5.6 Examples of landfill sealants Sr. No.

Sealant

Example

Remarks

1

Compacted soil

Silt, black cotton Should contain cohesive property soil, sand

2

Compacted clay

Bentonite, Kaolinites

Layer must be continuous and should not be allowed to crack

3

Inorganic chemicals

Sodium silicate, pyrophosphate

Use must be decided based on availability and local soil characteristics

4

Synthetic chemicals

Polymers

May be considered after pilot studies

5

Synthetic membranes/ Geotextile

Polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene

Properties of material and available skills within operating staff need to be considered

6

Asphalt

7

Others

Layer must be continuous and should not be allowed to crack Concrete, tiles

May be considered suitable after pilot studies

Post-closure care activities involve maintaining the integrity and effectiveness of final cover system, groundwater monitoring system, LFG gas monitoring system, and leachate collection system. Landfill capping shall have the following components: Surface vegetation: Vegetation helps in erosion of capping material. It will pose danger if there is penetration of deep roots into landfill. Reclamation layer: This layer supports vegetation as well as protects the lower layers. Its thickness is determined by the depth of frost and root penetration (Rettenberger 1988; Jessberger 1990). Drainage layer: This layer must divert water penetrating through the reclamation layer. Hence, it should have sufficient permeability for the given purpose. Gravel, sand, glass ash, and incineration slag are used for the purpose. Water collection is achieved using HDPE / PVC pipes. Protective layer: Mineral layers or geotextiles are used to protect geomembranes. Sealing layer: The sealing layer is provided to prevent rainwater percolation into the landfill and escape of landfill gas into the atmosphere. This layer is made up of polymer sheeting (known as geomembranes) or clayey materials or asphaltic liners or bentonite mats. Regulating layer: This layer is used to separate the capping from the waste and provides a base for the compaction of the sealing layer. Gas drainage layer: The gas drainage layer shall collect LFG generated from landfill and is made up of material stones or gravel.

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5.1.5 Operation of Landfills Operating precautions include control of the size cells, placement of interim cover, and use of proper storm water drainage controls. The movement, positioning, and compaction of solid waste and cover in landfill need a variety of big machines like tractors, loaders, compactors, motor graders, hydraulic excavators, fire extinguishing vehicles, water trucks, and service vehicles. Specially built landfill compactors are now used in most of the landfills in developed countries. The daily cover is excavated and placed using pans or scrapers. At an active landfill, solid wastes are placed in layers on the liner and leachate-collection system. Precautions should be taken not to place any compatible material adjacent to each other in hazardous landfill sites. Waste in the lowermost layers shall be free from sharp objects to avoid puncturing of liners. The waste must be placed in such a way that equipment does not damage the leachate-collection system. Filling shall begin in a corner and move outward. The filling sequence shall be established at the design stage. Waste shall be covered at the end of every working day with soil or alternative daily cover (like textiles, geomembrane, or other proprietary materials) to (i) control vectors and rodents, (ii) reduce odour, litter, and air pollution, (iii) reduce the risk of fire, and (iv) reduce leachate production. Run-on in landfill areas can be prevented by deviating storm water from active landfill areas. The landfill sides should be sloped to achieve slope stability. Facility must be capable of handling maximum storm water generated in single day in the past 25-year. Typical measures to manage runoff include contouring the land adjacent to the landfill cell and constructing ditches, dike/culverts to divert flow. Factors to be considered during construction and operation are given in Table 5.7.

5.1.6 Use of Old Landfill Sites Closed landfill sites can be used for other purposes like golf courses, recreation parks, ski slopes, and parking lots. The closed landfill site is subjected to differential settlement, LFG generation, and leachate generation. Settlement occurs rapidly in the first 1–12 months. This primary settlement period is followed by secondary settlement, 15–20 years after primary settlement. The rate and extent of settlement depend on landfilled waste. Factors to be considered during post-closure are given in Table 5.8. Natural clay is usually fractured and cracked. Some chemicals can degrade clay. Several chemicals used in houses are capable of degrading HDPE and, thereby, permeating leachate through it, making it soft, lose its strength, or make it brittle and crack. Household chemicals, like mothballs, margarine, shoe polish, vinegar, ethyl alcohol, peppermint oil degrade HDPE.

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Table 5.7 Factors to be considered during construction and operation Factors

Remarks

Communication

Shall have comprehensive communication arrangement

Days and hours of operation

Should consider non-operating period due to holidays/calamities/climatic reason

Employee facility

Shall have proper rest house and bathroom

Environment monitoring and surveillance Shall have comprehensive environment monitoring and surveillance arrangement Equipment maintenance/repair

Shall have equipment maintenance schedule and arrangements for minor repairs

Operational records

Operational records shall include quantity of waste received and disposed, vehicles record, etc., required by statute and operation

Project specific activity

Tree sapling plantation, awareness, corporate social responsibility shall be considered

Regulatory issues

Shall take measures to fulfil all statutory requirement

Safety and security issues

Shall take measures to fulfil adequate safety and security requirement

Salvage

Need to be done or avoided depending on local condition

Table 5.8 Factors to be considered during post-closure Factors

Remarks

Environmental monitoring

Shall be done up to twenty years and beyond based on project and local regulation

Landfill gas ventilation/ leachate treatment Shall be done to avoid environmental degradation Post-closure maintenance

Arrangement shall be made for lawn/drainage/ lighting, etc.

Safety and security

Need to be done to safeguard people and animals

Leachate collection systems can clog in less than a decade due to: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Chemical reaction resulting in precipitation of minerals in the pipes, Crushed by the weight of waste, Growth of microbes in the pipes, Silt/mud, and The pipes become weakened by chemical attack.

If the landfill cover is not maintained, rainwater will enter the landfill resulting in build-up of leachate which enter the environment. Landfill covers fail due to (Centre for Health, Environment & Justice 2019):

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(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Burrowing or soil-dwelling animals damage the cover, Erosion by natural weathering (rain, hail, snow, freeze–thaw cycles, and wind), Freeze–thaw pressures, Human activities, Loss of liquids from landfilled drums can lead to cracks in clay or tears in membrane liners, (6) Sunlight will development of cracks in clay or affect membrane liners through the action of UV radiation, (7) Uneven cave-in of the landfill covers due to settling of wastes or organic decay of wastes, and (8) Vegetation, such as shrubs and trees, penetrates the cover.

5.1.7 Landfill Mining Digging up old landfills to separate the non-biodegradable material is called landfill mining. The non-biodegradable fraction can be reused, and finer fraction can be used as cover material for landfills. Opening the cap of landfill may result in the escape of landfill gas to the atmosphere and produce contaminated runoff during rains.

5.1.8 Landfilling Hazardous Waste The landfilling hazardous waste is different from the MSW as the hazardous waste will have no compatible material which may result in heat, explosion, and other undesirable reaction if not properly pretreated and stabilized. Unlike the MSW, the hazardous waste needs tracking and recording which extend to locations within the disposal site. Records shall include source of waste and characteristics of waste so that remedial action could be taken place some day in future when undesirable events occur resulting in ground/surface water contamination. The tracking of waste also helps in ensuring waste compatibility. The detailed discussion of landfilling hazardous waste is done in Chap. 7.

5.1.9 Bioreactor Landfill A bioreactor landfill is a MSW landfill in which liquids are added to help microbes break down the waste and increase waste degradation and stabilization by the addition of liquid/air to augment microbial processes. Liquids added include landfill leachate, water, wastewater, gas condensate, and wastewater treatment sludge.

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Advantages of bioreactors include the following: • • • • • •

15–30% gain in landfill space due to rise in density of waste mass, Decrease in leachate disposal costs, Increase in LFG generation which can be used, Lower waste toxicity and mobility, Reduced post-closure care, Reduction in time required for decomposition and biological stabilization

Issues that need to be addressed during design and operation of a bioreactor landfill include: • • • • • •

Augmented gas emissions Augmented odours, Instability of liner systems, Landfill fires Physical instability of waste mass due to increased moisture and density, Surface seeps.

Types of Bioreactor Landfills • Aerobic—In this type, air is injected into the waste mass. • Anaerobic—In this type, liquid is added to the waste mass without supply of air. • Hybrid—In this type, the uppermost layer of waste is aerated while the layer immediately below is supplied with liquids. As the case of bioreactor, landfill is discussed in Box 5.2. Box 5.2 Case Study—Nepean, Ontario, Canada This is a full-scale landfill site located in Nepean, Ontario, Canada. Out of four stages of developments, two are capped. Leachate recirculation was carried out in stage III of the landfill. The leachate was recirculated as primary sludge and supplemental nutrients into the landfill for 8 years, which resulted in the recovery of 25% of landfill air space (Warith 2002).

5.2 Co-processing of Solid Wastes Co-processing is the use of waste in industrial processes. 30–40% of the production cost (excluding capital cost) in an industry is spent on energy usage. The use of waste is becoming more popular to fulfil energy requirements and cut production costs. Waste stored in a cement manufacturing facility for co-processing is given in Fig. 5.19.

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Fig. 5.19 Waste stored in a cement manufacturing facility for co-processing

Co-processing waste has the following advantages in cement industry: • The alkaline conditions favour the absorption of volatile matter from the gas phase. • The reactions of clinker at 1450 °C allow chemical binding of ashes to the clinker. Co-processing will have the following disadvantages associated with it: • Concentration of hazardous substances should be done above 1450 °C and at residence time of over two seconds to avoid the formation of dioxins and furans, and • Melted plastic can hamper or block the substance flow from the preheater to the cement kiln in case high plastic materials are present in the feed.

5.3 Incineration and Waste to Energy Incineration is one of the most widely used methods used to dispose all combustible waste. Combustion process results in air pollutants and needs to be controlled. Incineration is less practised in the developing countries due to high capital/operating costs. WTE requires professional planning, construction, and operation. Many companies are inexperienced with the conditions in developing and emerging nations. Decision makers need to be aware that their objective is “sell” their product and not to resolve the local problem (GIZ 2017). In Europe where calorific values of waste and energy prices are higher, the revenue from non-subsidized sale of energy might cover operating costs but never the entire investment and capital costs. Revenues from energy sales help to cover part of the overall costs of thermal treatment but additional fees or other forms of revenues are required to cover full costs. SWM as a whole has costs and cannot be considered as a

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profitable business that could depend exclusively on the sale of energy, RDF as well as recycling materials at current prices for these products (GIZ 2017). Energy from household waste will only be able to contribute a small fraction to the overall electricity demand of a city (~ 5%). Use of heat is the most efficient application in Europe, but barely used in developing nations. Experienced international companies are currently reluctant to invest in WTE in developing and emerging countries. The legal, financial as well as reputational risks are high, and any project of the private sector needs to be bankable (GIZ 2017). The operation of highly complex MSW incineration needs well-developed technical and management skills which is much more complex than the operation of a landfill. Only managers, engineers as well as technicians with proven abilities and experiences should be assigned to key functions (GIZ 2017). MSW incineration needs (GIZ 2017): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Continuous MSW supply chain, Control and monitoring of process emissions to air and water, Control of process and emission parameters, Disposal or further use of process residues, Guaranteed energy supply to direct customers, Homogenized waste mix fed continuously to the combustion chamber, Managing fugitive emissions—mainly from waste storage Process noise and vibration, Procurement of auxiliary materials and spare parts, Quality and use potential of slag production, Scheduled maintenance, Secure disposal or recycling of hazardous fly ash residues, Storage/handling/processing risks of hazardous wastes Water and other raw material (reagent) consumption.

Incineration is a waste treatment/disposal wherein waste is burnt in a specialized engineered set-up. Incineration is also called “thermal treatment” as it involves heat to obtain a desired result. Combustion converts the waste into ash, flue gas, and heat. The flue gases must be fitted with air pollution control equipment to avoid the impact of air pollution on the environment. Combustible fraction shall be < 75%, moisture content shall be < 50% and ash content shall be < 40% for WTE from incineration (Fig. 5.20). Energy from an incinerator can be recovered for industrial purposes. Incinerators reduce the combustible material by 80–85% of the initial mass. To avoid air pollution due to possible emission of intermediate combustion, products like dioxins and furans, the air from solid combustion chamber is made to enter a secondary chamber, wherein the gas is subject to high temperature. The temperature of the primary chamber shall be maintained at 800 ± 50 o C from where the gases enter the secondary chamber maintained at 1050 ± 50 °C where gas residence time shall be at least 1 (one) second with minimum 3% (w/w) oxygen in the stack gas. Waste-to-energy combustion has recently slowed due to issues like flow control, impact on recycling, cost-effectiveness as well as political acceptability.

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Combustible fraction > 75%

Moisture < 50%

Ash < 40%

Fig. 5.20 Optimum requirement of combustible fraction, moisture, and ash content for WTE

The term refuse-derived fuel (RDF) is typically used for the segregated fraction of MSW with high-calorific value. Other terms used for MSW-derived fuels are recovered fuel (REF), paper and plastic fraction (PPF), packaging-derived fuels (PDF), and process engineered fuel (PEF). Terms ‘substitute fuel secondary fuel’ and ‘substitute liquid fuel (SLF)’ are used for processed waste from industries. The total RDF from processed MSW used for energy installations, power plants, district heating plants, and industries is more than 2 Mt/year in European Union. RDF is and co-incinerated in Scandinavian countries in district heating plants. MSW is used as RDF in cement kilns after sorting and balling in Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Italy, and Netherlands. In incineration, waste is burnt in specialized engineered set up to: (1) (2) (3) (4)

Convert combustible hazardous waste into non-hazardous material, Destroy infectious material, Recover energy, Reduce quantity of waste.

Incineration can be done in: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14)

Auger combustor, Catalytic combustion, Cement kiln, Cyclonic incinerator, Fluidized bed incinerator, Fume incinerator, Large industrial boiler, Liquid injection incinerator, Molten salt combustor, Moving belt combustor, Multiple chamber incinerator, Multiple hearth incinerator, Oxygen-enriched combustion, Recirculating fluidized bed incinerator,

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(15) Rotary kiln, (16) Two stage combustors. Combustion converts the waste into: (1) Ash, (2) Flue gas, and (3) Heat. The gas from incinerators needs to be passed through air pollution control system to control pollution. In order to avoid the formation of air pollutants like dioxins and furans, dual-chamber incinerators are used, wherein the temperature in primary chamber is maintained at 800 ± 50 °C from where the gases formed during combustion enter the secondary chamber maintained at 1050 ± 50 °C. Solid waste incinerators are categorized as: (1) (2) (3) (4)

Industrial, Commercial, Municipal, and Sludge.

Optimum control emission in incinerator is achieved by proper design/operation that includes the design of: (1) Furnace/grate system suitable to the waste, (2) Optimum under-fire/over-fire air ratios, (3) Adequate combustion gas velocity as well as detention time in the secondary combustion chamber, (4) Suitable under-fire as well as over-fire air system. Particulates may be controlled with: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

After burners, Electrostatic precipitator (ESP), Fabric filters, Mechanical collectors, Scrubbers, and Settling chambers.

Odour control can be achieved with after burners to oxidize the odour causing gases. ESP is not suitable for hazardous waste incinerators. The induced draft fan will be installed to avoid leaking gas from the kiln system.

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Some of the case studies of WTE are given in Boxs 5.3, 5.4, and 5.5. Box 5.3 WTE Case Study Timarpur, Delhi, India The India’s first WTE plant was set up in 1987 in Timarpur, Delhi, which ran for just 21 days before it was closed due to poor quality of incoming waste and later the project was scrapped in July 1990 after the government had spent huge amount of funds on maintaining and protecting the inoperative plant. Since then, half out of 14 more WTE plants of 130 MW capacities installed in India have been closed down and the remaining are under scrutiny for violations of existing regulations (Sambval et al. 2019).

Box 5.4 Case Study Baku WTE, Azerbaijan The Baku WTE project was implemented in 2006 for the utilization of the MSW in Baku City, Azerbaijan. The project covering 10 Ha of land began in 2009 and was ended in 2012. The plant has two waste combustion units of waste combustion capacity 33 t/h each capable of generating 231,500 megawatt-hour (MWh) of electricity. The plant has been functional since its commissioning and is able to meet the expected outcomes (ADB 2020).

Box 5.5 Case Study of Waste Incineration Phuket, Thailand Among the two incinerators in Phuket, Thailand, one was in operation since 1999 with a capacity of treating 250 t/d of MSW but has been suspended due to facility maintenance since 2012. A second incinerator built in 2009 with capacity of 700 t/d of MSW has been in operation since 2012 (Liu et al. 2020). A typical checklist for incinerator operation is given in Table 5.9.

5.3.1 Heat Value of Refuse The heat values of waste are necessary for making decisions about disposal options. The heat values of waste can be measured with a calorimeter. In the absence of calorimeter, the calorific value can be estimated in accordance with the example in Box 5.6.

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Table 5.9 Checklist for incinerator operation A. Records Review 1. Is incineration operation manual available? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 2. Is waste receipt log available? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 3. Is incinerator maintenance and repair log available? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 4. Are logs consistently and clearly filled in ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 5. Is quantity of waste incinerated tallies with the records of waste generator ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 6. Whether emergency numbers posted ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 7. Is SOP available ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 8. Whether injury and emergency response procedure available ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 9. Whether regulatory permits available ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 10. Whether procedures to minimize, recover, recycle and dispose of residues from the incineration plant are in place ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 11. Personnel training files up to date and available ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable (continued)

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Table 5.9 (continued) B. Physical Inspection Waste Holding Area 12. Whether storage area clean and tidy ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 13. Whether storage area accessible only to authorized personnel ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 14. Whether storage area protected from pests and insects ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 15. Whether biohazard warning sign in the waste storage area and on waste containers as well as access doors ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 16. Whether storage area is properly ventilated ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 17. Whether storage area easy to clean ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 18. Whether water supply for cleaning available ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 19. Whether adequate drainage installed ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 20. Whether rules on maximum waste storage time complied with ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 21. Whether chemical residues, genotoxic and radioactive waste, inorganic compounds, pressurized containers, halogenated plastics, and waste with high content of heavy metals are excluded from materials for incineration ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 22. Whether waste with more than 1% chlorinated or halogenated materials is excluded from materials for incineration ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable Incinerator facility 23. Whether incinerator in an appropriate location ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 24. Whether access is restricted to authorized personnel/well-trained technician ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 25. Whether odour, noise, and vibration within acceptable limits ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 26. Whether firefighting supplies and equipment available ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 27. Whether adequate water is available ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 28. Whether first aid and emergency response supplies and equipment available ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 29. Whether adequate PPE available ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable Ash disposal area 30. Whether ash transport containers covered ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 31. Whether facilities available for the treatment and final disposal of by-products ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 32. Whether ash is properly disposed of ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable (continued)

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Table 5.9 (continued) C. Incinerator operator (PPE and procedures) 33. Whether detention period of waste is sufficient? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 34. Whether PPE is in good condition ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 35. Whether waste is weighed upon receipt ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 36. Whether incinerator is operated according to the manufacturer’s manual and relevant SOPs ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 37. Whether required temperature is achieved in both chambers before waste introduced ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 38. Whether temperature in combustion chamber is managed and maintained appropriately ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 39. Whether incinerator shutdown procedure follows manufacturer’s manual and relevant SOPs ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 40. Whether operators in charge of loading waste wearing the correct PPE ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 41. Whether design and handling procedures used to avoid any dispersal of litter ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 42. Whether emissions of dioxins, mercury, and other pollutants are monitored regularly ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 43. Whether documented periodic maintenance conducted when necessary, including cleaning of combustion chambers and declogging of air inflows and fuel burners ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 44. Whether staff understand operational procedures ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 45. Whether staff understand safety procedures ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 46. Whether relevant personnel trained, including refresher training ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 47. Whether relevant personnel understand hazards and how to minimize risks ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 48. Whether injury and emergency response procedure are known and understood by all relevant personnel ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 49. Whether all operators have had medical exam ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 50. Whether all operators have been immunized against hepatitis A, hepatitis B, polio, and tetanus ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 51. Whether operators have access to post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 52. Whether personnel have been provided with separate eating place ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 53. Whether personnel have been provided sufficient toilets, bathroom, and changing room ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable (continued)

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Table 5.9 (continued) D. Incinerator performance 54. Whether there is no evidence of cracks ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 55. Whether emission monitoring performance is satisfactory ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 56. Whether combustion efficiency meets operational and safety standards ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 57. Whether emissions of dioxins, mercury, and other pollutants are within recommended limits ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 58. Whether scrubber is working properly, and effluent is treated in conformance to applicable standards ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable

Box 5.6 Combustion Chemistry of Waste As discussed earlier, carbon, hydrogen, and sulphur are major elements of most of the waste components in municipal solid waste. Even in case of hazardous waste or biomedical waste combustibility of the matter depends on availability of carbon, sulphur, and hydrogen. In the absence of this material in appreciable quantity, combustion would not take place and need to be disposed in different method other than incineration. Combustion is the process of generation of energy during the following major reactions. C + O2 → CO2 (12) (32) (44) 2H2 + O2 → 2H2 O (4) (32) (36) S + O2 → SO2 (32) (32) (64) The numbers in parenthesis are molecular mass. Considering oxygen content of air to be 23.15% by mass, Amount of air required for total oxidation of 1 kg of carbon is (32/12) × (1/0.2315) = 11.52 kg. Amount of air required for total oxidation of 1 kg of hydrogen is (32/4) × (1/0.2315) = 34.56 kg. Amount of air required for total oxidation of 1 kg of sulphur is

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(32/32) × (1/0.2315) = 4.32 kg. It is assumed that oxygen in waste will be combined with hydrogen in the waste to form water. Example of air requirement For example, after performing proximate analysis of waste if the chemical formula of waste is: C40 h100 o40 s The molecular mass = (40 × 12) + (100 × 1) + (40 × 16) + (1 × 32) = 1252 Percentage distribution of basic elements Element

Calculation of per cent by mass

Per cent by mass

Carbon

(40 × 12/1252)100

38.34

Hydrogen

(100 × 1/1252)100

7.99

Oxygen

(40 × 16/1252)100

51.12

Sulphur

(1 × 32/1252)100

2.56

Net available hydrogen = (7.99−51.12/8)% = 1.6 Air requirement Element

Calculation of air requirement

Air requirement (kg/t) 4416.77

Carbon

(0.3834 × 1000)11.52

Hydrogen

(0.0160 × 1000)34.56

552.96

Sulphur

(0. 0256 × 1000)4.32

110.59

Total

5080.32

The success of a waste incineration project depends on accurate data about the future waste quantities and characteristics. The lower calorific value (LCV) should be above a minimum level. The specific composition of waste is also important. A combination of tyres and C&D waste is not suitable even if the average LCV is high. To operate the incinerator continuously, waste availability must be stable throughout the year. Hence, the seasonal variations of characteristics and LCV must be established before launching the project. Waste composition depends on cultural differences, socio-economic conditions, and climate. Hence, the data of one place

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cannot be used at another place. The effect of recycling and rag picking which change the composition of MSW must be considered prior to finalization of waste conversion to energy. In many countries the moisture or ash content (or both) in the waste will be high. Waste from commercial (with exception like fish/meat/vegetable/fruit market) and industrial activities have a much higher LCV than domestic waste. Waste from demolition and construction activities which contain hazardous or explosive material is not suitable for incineration. The waste composition will also change in time due to additional recycling or economic growth. Such changes can alter the quantity of waste and LCV. The average LCV of the waste should be at least 6 MJ/kg during all seasons, and the annual average LCV should not be less than 7 MJ/kg (World Bank 1999).

5.3.2 Combustion and Energy Recovery The use of waste for energy is as old as the invention of fire itself. All over the world, waste material with sufficient calorific value is used as fuel either for cooking or heating. In many countries, cow dung is used as fuel after it is dried in the form of briquettes (Fig. 5.21). The waste from wood processing like wood chips and sawdust was also used as fuel. With civilization leading to increased urbanization, there was priority shift in the communities. Instead of living in single house, people chose to live in multi-storeyed buildings, wherein burning waste or solid fuel is limited due to safety reasons, thereby generating huge quantity of waste from highly populated cities. Fig. 5.21 Fuel briquette made out of waste

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5.3.3 Energy Production from Waste The waste heat boilers are used where the system is designed to recover heat. With global sucrose production of approximately 1500 Mt per annum, bagasse represents a prospective energy source of 3.8 × 109 gigajoules (Stanmore 2011). Technology used for waste energy includes incineration, pyrolysis, gasification, refuse-derived fuel, and anaerobic digestion.

5.3.4 Material and Thermal Balances It is necessary to assess the heated material and thermal balance of the combustor before the project. The material entering the system and coming out of the system is shown in Fig. 5.21. The materials entering or leaving the system can absorb or release heat and are schematically depicted in Fig. 5.22. Waste as well as subsidiary fuel material releases heat, whereas water and air entering the system will absorb the heat. Ultimately heat will be transferred to steam, ash and air coming in contact with hot surface. Hence, the heat transferred to ash and air will not be economically useful and considered as losses. The heat loss in stack emission, ash has to be considered along with heat loss due to radiation. Thermal balance in an incinerator pictorially is depicted in Fig. 5.23. Heat released during combustion of solid waste is partially stored in gases and ash. The rest of the heat will be transferred by convection, conduction, and radiation to the incinerator walls and the incoming waste. The unburnt carbon usually contains 4 to 8% unburnt carbon. The heat loss through the reactor as well as other appurtenances Fig. 5.22 Material balance in waste incineration Stack gases

Waste

Combustor

Ash

Steam

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Heat recovered

Heat losses

Thermal value of material entering the system

Fig. 5.23 Thermal balance in an incinerator

to the surroundings will be around 0.003–0.005 kJ/kg of furnace input (Howard et al. 1986). The latent heat of vaporization for water is about 2420 kJ/kg. Apart from these, there would be some heat lost with residue and stack gases. To ensure economics of the operation, it is desirable that (1) carbon, ash, moisture content in the waste be maintained properly and (2) temperature of exhaust gas in the stack be within predetermined temperature range.

5.3.5 Waste Heat Recovery The furnace walls of combustors are lined with tubes through which water is circulated to recover heat. The steam generated in this process is used for driving turbines or other industrial purposes. In the process, warm air entering the chimney carries heat which can be further recovered by passing through metal pipes carrying water that can be used for preheating the water entering the furnace or for industrial purpose.

5.4 Other Technologies A variety of thermal processes like incineration, melting, pyrolysis or vitrification have been used for disposal of waste with an aim to reuse advantageously or dispose in an inert landfill (Colombo 2003; Sabbas 2003; Kuo 2006). Nanomaterials like cellulose, chitin, and starch, often called whiskers, could be easily extracted from waste. Nano-biocomposites have the potential to substitute current petrochemical-based materials due to the high demand for green technology and represent an element waste disposal strategy in future. Waste from shellfish processing industry represents about 30 wt% in chitin. Worldwide nearly 105 Mt/ year of chitin is manufactured from shrimp and crab waste material for industrial uses (Visakh and Sabu 2010). Chitin has found applications in many areas other than food such as in biosensors (Krajewska 2004).

Steam Combustion

Flue gas

Boiler Electricty

Medium Heating Value gas

Turbine

Methenol

Synthesis

Fuel Alcohol

Engine

Hydrogen

Gasification Electricity Boiler Steam

High Heating Value Gas Synthesis

Incineration

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Gasification

5.4 Other Technologies

Ammonia

Fig. 5.24 Comparison of incineration and gasification with respect to flexibility

5.4.1 Gasification Gasification is the process of converting organic waste to low-calorific gas, which is used in furnace or internal combustion engines or gas turbines after cleaning the product gas. Comparison of incineration and gasification with respect to flexibility is given in Fig. 5.24. The process involves feeding coarsely shredded waste into a gasifier at 800– 1100 °C depending on the calorific value and chemical reactions wherein the carbonaceous fraction of the waste reacts with a gasifying agent like oxygen, steam, or carbon dioxide. There are three types of gasification technologies, fixed bed, fluidized bed, and high-temperature gasification.

5.4.2 Plasma Technology Plasma is a group of free-moving electrons and ions formed by applying a high voltage across a gas at reduced or atmospheric pressure. Incinerators usually use controlled flame for combustion, whereas plasma-arc technology uses an electric current which passes through a gas (air) to create plasma.

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Thermal plasma technology does not emit much air pollution and it will not generate much ash. Thermal plasma reactors have the following advantages during destruction of hazardous wastes: (1) fast reaction times, (2) large throughput, (3) small reactor footprint, (4) reduce formation of persistent organic pollutants (POPs), (5) can be used for a wide range of wastes, (6) rapid start-up and shutdown times, and (7) no requirement of oxidants. When plasma gas passes on waste, it causes speedy breakdown into syngas, a gas mixture containing varying quantity of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

5.4.3 Pyrolysis Pyrolysis technology is the disintegration of organic compounds in an oxygen-starved environment. Plasma pyrolysis utilizes a large fraction of electrons, ions, and excited molecules with the high energy radiation for thermal decomposing chemicals. Technology can be classified into many types. Table 5.10 gives classification of pyrolysis unit. Box 5.7 gives issues with respect to tyre pyrolysis oil units in India. Box 5.7 Tyre Pyrolysis Oil units in India Tyre pyrolysis oil (TPO) units produce fuel for use in cement, ceramic, and other industries. Out of 757 TPOs, 192 units were closed in India by the enforcing agency due to the observed non-compliance in 2022 (Upadhyay 2022).

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Table 5.10 Classification of pyrolysis unit Type

Classification

Sub-classification

Design type

Forms of the body

Vertical

Degree of mobility

Mobile

Horizontal Stationary Method of supply of oxidizer

With supply of oxidizer Without supply of oxidizer

Number of working sections

Single section

Location of heaters

Internal

Multi-section External Fuel

Electric Gaseous fuel Liquid fuel

Presence of auxiliary working bodies

With auxiliary working bodies Without auxiliary working bodies

Technology type

Pressure

Vacuum Atmospheric High

Productivity

Small Medium Large

Loading

Periodic Continuous

Thermal Type

Method of heating

Radiant Convective

Temperature

Low (< 300 °C) Medium (300–500 °C) High (> 500 °C)

References Abdulhussain AA, Jingsong G, Ping LZ, Ya PY, Al-Rekabi WS (2009) Review on landfill leachate treatments. Am J Appl Sci 6(4):672–684 ADB (2020) Waste to Energy in the age of the circular economy, Compendium of case studies and emerging technologies, ADB, Manila Ahn WY, Kang MS, Yim SK, Choi KH (2002) Advanced landfill leachate treatment using an integrated membrane process. Desalination 149:109–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-916 4(02)00740-3

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Blight G (2008) Slope failures in municipal solid waste dumps and landfills: a review. Waste Manag Res 26(5):448–463 (PMID: 18927064). https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X07087975 Bryn LA, Fabien B, Jean B, Helene H (2011) Bio-tarp alternative daily cover prototypes for methane oxidation atop open landfill cells. Waste Manage 31(5):1065–1073.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.was man.2011.01.003 Center for Health, Environment & Justice (2019) Landfill Failures the Buried Truth Center for Health, Environment & Justice FactPack—PUB 009, Center for Health, Environment & Justice, Falls Curch Cernuschi S, Giugliano M (1996) Emission and Dispersion Modelling of landfill gas. In: Christensen TH, Cossu R, Stegmann R (eds) Landfilling of Waste: Biogas. E & FN Spon, London, pp 214–233, ISBN: 0-419-19400-2 Cheung KC, Chu LM, Wong MH (1997) Ammonia stripping as a pretreatment for landfill leachate. Water Air Soil Pollut 94:209–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02407103 Christensen TH, Kjeldsen P, Lindhardt B (1996) Gas-generating processes in landfills. In: Christensen TH, Cossu R, Stegmann R (eds) Landfilling of waste: biogas, E & FN Spon, London, pp 25–50. ISBN: 0-419-19400-2 Colombo P, Brustain G, Bernardo E, Scarinci G (2003) Inertization and reuse of waste materials by vitrification and fabrication of glass-based products. Curr Opin Solid State Mater Sci 7(2003):225–239 DEPA (Danish Environmental Protection Agency) (1999) Waste in Denmark. Danish Environmental Protection Agency Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GIZ) (2017) Waste-to-energy options in municipal solid waste management, GIZ, a guide for decision makers in developing and emerging countries, GIZ, Eschborn EEA (2009) Annual European Community greenhouse gas inventory 1990–2007 and inventory report 2009, European Environment Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark El-Fadela M, Bou-Zeida E, Chahineb W, Alaylic B (2002) Temporal variation of leachate quality from pre-sorted and baled municipal solid waste with high organic and moisture content. Waste Manage 22:269–282 FAO (2021) Assessment of agricultural plastics and their sustainability. A call for action. Rome. 10.4060/cb7856en Filkin T, Sliusar N, Ritzkowski M, Huber-Humer M (2021) Unmanned aerial vehicles for operational monitoring of landfills. Drones 5(4):125. https://doi.org/10.3390/drones5040125 Guangyu Y (2009) Disposal of solid wastes point sources of pollution: local effects and its control— vol I, Yi Q (ed.) EOLSS Publisher Co. Ltd., Oxford Gurijala KR, Sa P, Robinson JA (1997) Statistical modeling of methane production from landfill samples. Appl Environ Microbiol 63:3797–3803 Harirsaz M (2018) First national conference on geo-environment, Fasa University, 3–4 Sept 2018 Howard SP, Donald RR, George T (1986) Environmental engineering, McGrawhill, New York Chicago, San Francisco, Lisbon, London, Madrid, Mexico City, Milan, New Delhi, San Juan, Seoul, Singapore, Sydney, Toronto Jessberger HL (1990) Bautechnische Sanierung von Altlasten. (Remediation techniques for contaminated land). In: Arendt F, Hin senveld M, van den Brink WJ (eds) Altlastensanierung ‘90. Drit terInternationalerKfK/TNO KongressüberAltlastensanierung, Karlsruhe. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp 1299–1306 Kaza S, Yao L, Bhada-Tata P, Van WF (2018) What a waste 2.0: a global snapshot of solid waste management to 2050. World Bank Group, Washington D C Krajewska B (2004) Application of chitin- and chitosan-based materials for enzyme immobilizations: a review. J Enzyme Microbiol Technol 35:126–139 Kulikowska D, Klimiuk E (2008) The effect of landfill age on municipal leachate composition. Bioresour Technol 99:5981–5985. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2007.10.015 Kuo YM, Lin TC, Tsai PJ (2006) Immobilization and encapsulation during vitrification of incineration ashes in a coke bed furnace. J Hazard Mater 133:75–78

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Chapter 6

Biomedical Waste

Biomedical waste (BMW) comprises of liquid as well as solid wastes generated from activities involving biological materials such as health care, clinical research, research involving animals, animal farms, dead animals, and others. The generation of BMW is not restricted to specific activities or organizations. Below are the key potential sources of BMW: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

Acupuncture centres, Animal research and testing centres, and animal quarantine stations, Blood banks, blood collection centres, and blood transfusion centres, Clinics, Dental clinics, Diagnostic facilities, Dialysis centres, Drug addiction rehabilitation centres, Emergency service facilities, Fertility centres, First-aid posts, Forensic pathology or autopsy laboratories, and crime laboratories, Funeral homes and mortuaries, Hatcheries, Health and quarantine stations in airports, ports, and immigration/customs facilities, Homes, Hospitals, Medical centres, Polyclinics, Insemination centres, Maternity centres or birthing facilities,

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6_6

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22. Medical laboratories, biomedical laboratories and research centres, biotechnology laboratories, nuclear medicine laboratories, 23. Medical camps, 24. Nursing homes, 25. Pharmacies and dispensaries, drug stores, pharmaceutical manufacturing facilities, 26. Poultry farms, 27. Primary health centres, rural health stations, basic health units, or health posts, 28. Semen bank for human/animal, 29. Slaughterhouses due to slaughtering sick animals, 30. Tattoo and cosmetic ear-piercing establishments, 31. Veterinary institutes, 32. Zoos. Many countries do not have separate regulation and mechanism to manage BMW. Among those which have adopted separate legislation have different definitions with respect to BMW. For example, as per the Biomedical Waste Management Rules 2016 of India, “biomedical waste” means: any waste, which is generated during the diagnosis, treatment or immunisation of human beings or animals or research activities pertaining thereto or in the production or testing of biological or in health camps, including the categories mentioned in Schedule I appended to these rules

The schedule I of the above rule comprises of following types of waste: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

Human anatomical waste, Animal anatomical waste, Soiled waste Expired or discarded medicines, Chemical waste Chemical liquid waste, Discarded linen, mattresses, beddings contaminated with blood or body fluid, Microbiology, biotechnology, and other clinical laboratory waste, Contaminated waste (recyclable), Waste sharps including metals, Glassware, Metallic body implants.

The legal document Order No. 242/96 dated 13 August 1996 Portugal clinical waste includes all the waste generated by healthcare establishments (HCE), research facilities, and laboratories are grouped into four classes (Pa´ssaro 2003): Group I—not subject to special treatment, Group II—not subject to special requirements in its treatment, Group III—comprises of contaminated wastes, or potentially contaminated waste, and

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Fig. 6.1 Biomedical waste stored unscientifically for recycling

Group IV—wastes that must be incinerated. Clinical waste is defined in regulation 1(2) of the Controlled Waste Regulations 1992 (SI1992/588) of the UK as follows: (a) any waste which consists wholly or partly of human or animal tissue, blood, other body fluids, excretion, drugs or other pharmaceutical products, swabs or dressings, or syringes, needles or other sharp instruments, being waste which unless rendered safe may prove hazardous to any person coming into contact with it, and (b) any other waste arising from medical, nursing, dental, veterinary, pharmaceutical or similar practice, investigation treatment, care, teaching or research, or the collection of blood for transfusion, being waste which may cause infection to any person coming into contact with it. BMW management is influenced by social, cultural, and economic circumstances. About 10–15% of waste from hospital is considered “infectious” (USC 1988). Figure 6.1 shows BMW stored unscientifically for recycling. The risky wastes comprising of infectious/toxic/radioactive substances can contaminate the non-risky wastes resulting in huge quantity of risky wastes demanding costly treatment and disposal options. Enforcement of rules pertaining to BMW in developing countries is difficult for the following reasons: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Attitude of healthcare professionals to discard as it is and where it is, Behaviour of waste throwing is deeply registered in the unconscious mind, BMW generated in farmhouse is discarded with farm waste, Business is intentionally not registered in any government organization to avoid income tax, Dead animals during accidents are left unattended, Lack of importance given for education in waste management, Mixing of BMW with domestic waste, Poor infrastructure,

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(9) Poor law enforcement, (10) Pressure to increase profits, (11) Profession being practised by numerous doctors from home and garage without formal trade license, (12) Quacks in professions. The main principles of BMW management are: (1) (2) (3) (4)

Disinfection nearest to source, Mutilation often disinfection at the earliest opportunity, Does not affect individual or environment, and Solution does not become problem.

6.1 Significance HCEs have responsibilities with respect to the wastes they generate (Pruss et al. 1999). However, the impact of BMW has not been given significant attention often (Gupta et al. 2009). Negligence in BMW management contributes to environmental pollution, sickness of humans/animals, and depletes natural as well as financial resources (Henry and Heinke 1996; Oweis et al. 2005). The evolution of BMW as a separate category of waste dates to the late 1970s, when medical waste was found on the beaches in the east coast in the USA. This followed enactment of the US Medical Waste Tracking Act (MWTA) in 1988 which expired in 1991. Improper BMW management will pose significant environmental and health impacts (discussed in detail in Chaps. 11 and 12). Figure 6.2 shows some consequences of indiscriminate BMW generation. The hazardous nature of the BMW is due to the following: (1) Genotoxicity (deleterious action on the genetic material of cell affecting its integrity), (2) Infection, (3) Injury, (4) Radioactivity, (5) Toxicity. In many countries, contaminated waste materials like cotton, syringes, and sharps re-enter the market in the same or altered form. Infected cotton may be used for making earbuds and toys. Syringes from waste are often repacked and sold as new packs. Tables 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3 give examples of pathogens that are present in some typical BMWs. Figure 6.3 shows a schematic diagram depicting infection cycle with respect to BMW. Many studies have proven that virus can survive in water for 9–10 months at 8 °C (Anthony and Elizabeth 1981). In fact, pathogen life span varies widely.

6.1 Significance

Reuse

Biomedical Waste

Impact on Ecosystem

247

Injury

Sickness

Pollution

Fig. 6.2 Consequences of indiscriminate biomedical waste disposal

For example, Feline influenza (cat influenza) caused by Herpes virus can stay in the environment for a day, whereas Calicivirus can stay alive for 8–10 days in the environment. Parvovirus, which is responsible for Feline infectious enteritis can live on for 12 months in the environment. Feline leukaemia virus and Feline immunodeficiency virus die within hours once they are outside the host. Feline infectious peritonitis can live up to seven days in cat litter.

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Table 6.1 Examples of pathogenic virus and associated disease Virus

Disease

Adenovirus

Colds

Arenavirus—Junin

Haemorrhagic fever

Arenavirus—Lassa

Lassa fever

Arenavirus—Machupo

Haemorrhagic fever

Coronavirus

Colds

Coxsackievirus

Colds

Ebola Virus

Ebola haemorrhagic fever

Echovirus

Colds

Filovirus—Marburg

Haemorrhagic fever

Guanarito virus

Venezuelan haemorrhagic fever

Hantaan virus

Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HRFS)

HHV-8

Associated with Kaposi sarcoma in AIDS patients

HTLV-II

Hairy cell leukemia

Human herpesvirus-6 (HHV-6)

Roseola subitum

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)

Monkeypox virus

Monkeypox

Morbillivirus

Measles (rubeola)

Orthomyxovirus—Influenza

Flu

Parainfluenza virus

Flu

Paramyxovirus

Mumps

Poxvirus—Vaccinia

Cowpox

Poliovirus

Poliomyelitis

Poxvirus—Variola

Smallpox (extinct)

Reovirus

Colds

Respiratory Syncytial Virus

Pneumonia

Rhinovirus

Colds

Rotavirus

Infantile diarrhoea

Sabia virus

Brazilian haemorrhagic fever

Sin Nombre virus

Adult respiratory distress syndrome

Toga virus

Rubella (German measles)

Varicella-zoster

Chickenpox

Source Chandrappa and Das (2012), Anthony and Elizabeth (1981)

6.1 Significance

249

Table 6.2 Examples of pathogenic bacteria and associated disease Bacteria

Disease

Actinomyces israelii

Actinomycosis

Bacillus anthracis

Anthrax

Bartonella henselae

Cat-scratch disease, bacillary angiomatosis

Bordetella pertussis

Whooping cough

Borrelia burgdorferi

Lyme disease

Campylobacter jejuni

Enteric pathogens distributed globally

Chlamydia pneumoniae

Pneumonia, bronchitis

Chlamydia psittaci

Psittacosis

Clostridium tetani

Non-respiratory airborne

Corynebacterium diphtheriae

Diphtheria

Coxiella burnetii

Q fever

Ehrlichia chaffeensis

Human ehrlichiosis

Enterobacter cloacae

Non-respiratory airborne

Enterococcus

Non-respiratory airborne

Francisella tularensis

Tularemia

Haemophilus influenzae

Meningitis

Helicobacter pylori

Peptic ulcer disease

Legionella parisiensis

Pneumonia

Legionella pneumophila

Pontiac fever

Legionella pneumophila

Legionnaires’ disease

Micromonospora faeni

Farmer’s lung

Micropolyspora faeni

Farmer’s lung

Mycobacterium avium

Cavitary pulmonary

Mycobacterium intracellulare

Cavitary pulmonary

Mycobacterium kansasii

Cavitary pulmonary

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Tuberculosis

Mycoplasma pneumoniae

Pneumonia

Neisseria meningitidis

Meningitis

Nocardia asteroides

Nocardiosis

Nocardia brasiliensis

Pulmonary mycetoma

Nocardia caviae

Nocardiosis

Pseudomonas cepacia

Non-respiratory airborne

Saccharomonospora viridis

Farmer’s lung

Salmonella typhi

Typhoid fever

Shigella dysenteriae

Bacterial dysentery

Streptococcus pyogenes

Scarlet fever, pharyngitis

Thermoactinomyces sacchari

Bagassosis (continued)

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Table 6.2 (continued) Bacteria

Disease

Thermoactinomyces vulgaris

Farmer’s lung, Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis

Thermomonospora viridis

Farmer’s lung, Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis

Vibrio cholerae

Cholera

Yersinia pestis

Pneumonic plague

Source Chadrappa and Das (2012), Anthony and Elizabeth (1981)

Table 6.3 Examples of pathogenic protozoa and associated diseases Protozoa

Disease

Balantidium coli

Dysentery, intestinal ulcers

Giardia lamblia

Diarrhoea

Entamoeba histolytica

Amoebic dysentery, infections of other organs

Isospora belli

Intestinal parasites, gastrointestinal infection

Isospora hominis

Intestinal parasites, gastrointestinal infection

Pneumocystis carinii

Pneumocystosis

Source Chandrappa and Das (2012), Anthony and Elizabeth (1981)

Crime scene, homicide, unattended death, or accident that has significant blood spill would generate BMW and need proper disposal of BMW. Crime scene clean-up or trauma scene clean-up is specialized activity which involves trained personnel by organizations recognized by law in many developed countries. Autopsy1 or postmortem of the deceased will also generate BMW, which needs to be disposed of scientifically.

6.1.1 Household Biomedical Waste Household biomedical waste (HBW) is a subgroup of BMW commonly found in MSW and in wastewater streams. This special class of waste originates in households and poses problems in their safe handling. They pose human health and environmental hazards. Examples of HBW include expired drugs, bandages, syringes, sanitary napkins, disposable diapers, expired cosmetics, blood-stained cloths, used bottles of syrups/tablets/eardrops/eyedrops, used ointment tubes, empty pain killer spray cans, contaminated meat, earbuds, dead animals, etc. Many of these waste materials are categorized as biomedical because they will have any or all of the following properties: (1) infection, (2) contaminated with body fluids, (3) expired or active drugs. 1

Examination to discover the cause of death or the extent of disease.

6.1 Significance

251

Infected waste

INFECTION

WASTE

Viral infections

Bacterial infections

Encephalits/meningitis (responsible virus: JC virus, LCM virus, Arbovirus) Eye infections (responsible virus: Herps simplex virus, Adenovirus, cytomegalovirus)

Bacterial meningitis (responsible bacteria: Strptococcus pneumonia, Neissenameningtidis, Haermophilusinfuenzae, Streptococcus agalactiae, Listenamonocytogens)

Parotitis (responsiblevirus : Mumps Virus)

Otitus media (responsible bacteria: Streptococcus pneumonia)

Pharyngitis (responsiblevirus: Adenovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, Cytomegalovirus,)

Eye infection (responsible bacteria: Staphylococcus aureaus, Neissena gonorrhoeae, Chlamydia trachomatis)

Pneumonea(responsible virus: Influenza virus-type A and Type B, Parainflyenza virus, Respiratory syncytial virus, Adenovirus, SARS coronavirus)

Sinusitis (responsible bacteria: Streptococcus pneumonise, Harmophilus influenza) Upper respiratory track infection (responsible bacteria: Strptococcus pyogenes, Heemophilusnfluenzae)

Hepatitis(responsible virus: Responsible virus: Hepaptits virus types A, B, C, D, E) Gastroenteritis (Adenovirus, Rotovirus, Norovirus, Astrovirus, Coronavirus) Pancreatitis (Coxsackie virus, Cytomegalovirus, Hepatitis B, Herpes simplex virus, Varicellazoster virus) Skin infections (Responsible virus: Varicella zoster virus, Human herpesvirus 6, Smallpox, Mollusum contagiosum, Human papillomavirus, Parvovirus B19, Rubella, Meassles, Coxsakie A virus)

Sexually transmitted diseases (Responsible virus: Herpes simplex type 2, Human papillomavirus, HIV)

Sexually transmitted diseases (responsible bacteria: Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Trponema pallidum, Ureaplsmaurealyticum, Haemophilus ducreyl) Urinary tract infections (responsible bacteria: Escherichia coli, Other Entrobacteriaceae, Staphylococcus sprophyticus,

Pneumonia (responsible bacteria: Streptococcus pneumonia, Haemophilus influenza, staphylococcus aureus, Mycoplasma pneumonia, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Legionella pneumophila) Tuberculosis(responsible bacteria: Mycobacterium tuberculosis) Gastritis (responsible bacteria: Helicobacter pylori) Food Poisoning (responsible bacteria: Campylobacter jenuni, Salmonella, Shigella, clostium, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli)

Fig. 6.3 Schematic diagram depicting infection cycle. Source Based on information available in Medical Air Solutions (2011), Anthony and Elizabeth (1981))

The quantities of HBW vary from country to country and house to house. The variability depends on the development of a country and income of individual. HBW emits dioxins and furans when burnt at dump sites. Storm water can pick infection from HBW.

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6.1.2 Biomedical Waste from Rural Area Bifurcation of rural and urban areas is done based on population. As the population of village grows it is merged with adjacent urban area or legally declared as urban area. The required population for declaring a settlement as urban or rural is governed by national legislation. With shortage of land in urban area many industries and Common Biomedical Waste Treatment Facility (CBWTF) are established in rural area. Besides BMW from biotechnology industry, veterinary institution and healthcare waste BMW generated in rural area includes placenta during animal birth, carcasses of dead sick animals, intentionally killed rodents, expired drugs, waste generated in veterinary hospitals, and insemination centre. The fly-tipping of BMW from urban area and illegal burying would also cause for an accumulation of BMW in the rural area.

6.2 Nosocomial Infection and Health Burden Due to Biomedical Waste Nosocomial infections are infections that spread in the healthcare service unit in hospitals. This type of infection is also known as a healthcare-associated infection or hospital-acquired infection. Infectious waste contains pathogens in significant concentration to cause sickness in susceptible hosts. Infectious waste includes stocks and cultures of infectious material from surgery/autopsies on patients with infectious sickness, laboratory work, and waste that was in contact with infected animals/patients/substances. Hospital waste acts as a reservoir for pathogenic bacteria. About 20–25% of hospital waste was high potential to cause healthcare-associated infections, and care should be given to ensure appropriate handling and disposal (Nejad et al. 2011). Major risks associated with poor waste management are: (1) nosocomial infections to patients/hospital staff/visitors due to poor waste management, (2) injuries from sharps to hospital personnel and waste handlers, (3) risk associated with hazardous chemicals to persons handling wastes, (4) risk of infection outside hospitals to general public and waste handlers, and (5) degradation of quality of water, air, and soil. Cross-transmission of infection from healthcare workers to patients has been explained in a variety of clinical settings (Malavaud et al. 2001; Munoz et al. 1999; Slinger and Dennis 2002; Weinstock et al. 2000). Examples of disease spread by hospital waste include respiratory infections, gastroenteric infections, genital infections, ocular infection, skin infections, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), meningitis, haemorrhagic fevers, anthrax, septicaemia, viral hepatitis A, bacteraemia, candidaemia, viral hepatitis B and C.

6.3 Characteristics and Quantities

253

6.3 Characteristics and Quantities The quantity of BMW differs from country to country and among individual HCEs. While establishment offering only consultancy and prescription do not generate medical waste, the highly sophisticated hospital with serious infection control policy will generate huge quantity of wastes. While some hospitals use linen on examination tables others use medical exam table paper. Since the papers used to spread on medical examination table are discarded after each use, the quantity would proportionately be higher. BMW can be categorized into the following categories: Ash of incinerated BMW: Incineration ash comprises of ash generated during incineration of biomedical waste. Animal waste: Animal waste comprises of animal tissues, body parts carcasses, organs, bleeding parts, fluid, blood/experimental animals used in research, waste generated by animal houses, and veterinary institutions. Chemical waste: Waste containing chemical substance, which includes film developer, laboratory chemicals, solvents, expired and no longer needed disinfectants, scrap amalgam, elemental mercury, undeveloped X-ray film, used X-ray fixer, condemned lead aprons lead foil, and cleaning agents. Genotoxic: Waste containing material with genotoxic properties, including antineoplastic and cytotoxic drugs, genotoxic chemicals. Genotoxic waste may have teratogenic, mutagenic, or carcinogenic properties. It leads to severe health problems inside hospitals and after disposal. Genotoxic waste includes cytostatic drugs, body fluid from patients treated with cytostatic drugs, and radioactive material. Cytotoxic (or antineoplastic) drugs are type of genotoxic waste that can kill/stop the growth of certain living cells. They are used in therapy of neoplastic (an abnormal new growth of tissue in animals or plants) conditions. Microbiology and biotechnology2 wastes: Wastes from laboratory stocks/cultures or specimens of micro-organisms, human and animal cell culture and infectious agents from research/industrial laboratories, wastes from the production of toxins, biologicals, devices, and dishes used for transfer of cultures. Pathological waste: Pathological waste comprises of human foetuses, tissues, animal carcasses, organs, blood, body parts, anatomical waste, blood, and saliva-soaked materials, extracted teeth without amalgam restorations, and body fluids. In this category, human or animal body parts are called anatomical waste. Some of the pathogens can be dangerous as they could possess high pathogenicity and are resistant to treatment (Askarian et al. 2004).

2

Technology that utilizes biological systems, living organisms, or parts of this to develop or create different products. Not all waste from biotechnology industry is BMW.

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Pharmaceutical waste: This category comprises of discarded medicines like partially used ointments, syrups, tablets, expired drugs and used massage oils. Pressurized containers: Waste containing containers with pressurized liquids, powdered materials, or gas, like gas containers and aerosol cans. Radioactive waste: Waste from radiotherapy or research laboratory which includes contaminated packages, glassware or absorbent paper, urine/excreta from patients treated/tested with radionuclides. Sharps: Sharps are substances that could cause cuts/puncture wounds. It includes needles, scalpel, knives, blades, razors, scalpels, X-Acto knives, scissors, infusion sets, bone chips, saws, nails and broken glass. These are considered high-risk waste as the injury caused by them while handling infectious waste and patient can result in deadly disease to medical or paramedical staff. Soiled waste: Soiled wastes are substance contaminated with body fluids including cotton, soiled plaster casts, lines beddings, dressings. Waste with heavy metals: Waste consists of waste contaminated with heavy metals/ derivatives such as waste thermometers, batteries, and manometers. Food waste infected by patient: Food waste which has come in contact with infected person. Physical characteristics for different categories of waste vary depending on source and content. It would also vary every day as the population of patients with different ailments vary every day. Physical characteristics of pharmaceutical waste would be different from that of anatomical waste. Health care and research involve variety of chemicals which would end up in waste streams. Range of moisture content per cent incombustible and heating value is given in Table 6.4. Tips for avoiding generation of excess medical waste include: (1) reduce the generation of waste at the point of source, (2) sterilization and reuse of instrument, and (3) digitization of all clinical records. Table 6.4 Select physical and chemical characteristics of BMW Physical and chemical characteristics

Type of BMW

Value

Moisture content

Human/animal Anatomical

60–90%

Swabs, absorbents

0–30%

Sharps

0–1

Per cent incombustibles Heating value

8–20% Human/animal Anatomical

2–15 MJ/kg

Swabs, absorbents

13–28 MJ/kg

Sharps

0–0.1 MJ/kg

Source Milburn (1989), Barton et al (1990), Diaz et al. (2008), UNEP (2012)

6.3 Characteristics and Quantities

255

Data compiled by Pruss et al. (1999) and Halbwachs (1994) indicated that highincome nations generate 1.1–12.0 kg/person/year, middle-income nations generate 0.8 to 6.0 kg/person/year, and low-income nations generate 0.5–3.0 kg/person/year. The trends published by Mol et al (2022) reveal that the median values indicated that hospital waste in North and South America was 4.42 and 1.64 kg/bed/day, respectively, whereas in Oceania, it was 0.19 kg/bed/day while in Africa hospital waste generation was 0.19 kg/bed/day. Trends reported by Pruss et al. (1999) and Johannessen (1997) waste generation rates ranged from 3 kg/bed/d for Latin American countries, 3–6 kg/bed/d for Western Europe, 2.5–4 kg/bed/d for high-income Eastern Asian nations, 7–10 kg/bed/d for North America, 1.4–2 kg/bed/d for Eastern Europe nations, 1.8–2.2 kg/bed/d middleincome Eastern Asian nations, and 1.3–3 kg/bed/d for eastern Mediterranean nations. Global average medical waste generation as published by the World Bank is 0.25 kg/capita/day (Kaza et al. 2018). As per UNEP (2012) infection healthcare waste from Hospital, clinic, and basic health unit is 0.5 kg/bed/day, 0.07 kg/patient/ day, and 0.01 kg/patient/day comparison of biomedical waste generation in various countries given in Table 6.5. Studies from Jasem and Hani (2007) revealed that the rate of waste generation in Kuwait is from 3.87 to 7.44/kg/bed/day. The waste consisted of 71.44% of domestic waste, 0.76% of sharps and 27.8% of infectious/hazardous waste. Hendra virus and Australian bat lyssavirus caused deaths of people in Australia. Veterinary personnel are at risk of infection from zoonotic pathogens. Cases of Q fever infections in small animal practice employees and research revealing a high incidence of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)3 infection in Australian veterinarians (Jordan et al. 2011). Veterinary waste is a prospective source of zoonotic pathogens if not handled properly (Brody 1989, 1993; Australian Veterinary Association 2017). In several cases, all the materials used in the isolation room will be treated as clinical waste (American Animal Hospital Association 2005; Brody 1993; Weese 2004). Reasons for variations in biomedical waste quantity 1. In operation theatres, a set of materials and surgical kits are prepared for each procedure. Some materials may no longer be used due to change in the procedure. Additionally, several materials and kits may be provided for unforeseen circumstances. For hygiene reason, any material and surgical kits not used are disposed of. This may not be the case in the developing countries or hospitals which do not have strict waste management policy. 2. In some hospitals, all materials in contact with patient of kept near patient even if not contaminated is considered as biomedical waste. 3. In some hospitals, instruments like thermometers and steam inhalers are not reused. Option is given to patient to take it with them. If patients do not wish to take them with them, they are discarded as waste. 3

A group of gram-positive bacteria responsible for several difficult-to-treat infections in humans which caused more than 100,000 deaths attributable to antimicrobial resistance in 2019.

256

6 Biomedical Waste

Table 6.5 Comparison of biomedical waste generation in various countries Region

County

BMW Generated (kg/bed/day)

Europe

Ireland

1.92 (for Acute HCE) 0.23 (for Clean Technology Centre (2014) Primary community and continuing care)

UK

3.30

Windfeld and Brooks (2015)

Bulgaria

2.00

Windfeld and Brooks (2015)

Italy

4.00

Eker and Bilgili (2011)

France

3.30

Windfeld and Brooks (2015)

Germany

3.60

Majlesi et al. (2007)

Greece

0.012 to 0.72

Komilis et al. (2012)

Netherlands 1.70

Majlesi et al. (2007)

Norway

3.90

Windfeld and Brooks (2015)

Spain

4.40

Windfeld and Brooks (2015)

Latvia

1.18

Gusca et al. (2015)

8.40

Windfeld and Brooks (2015)

Canada

8.20

Hossain et al. (2011)

Argentina

3.00

Pruss et al. (1999)

Brazil

2.94

Hossain et al. (2011)

Ecuador

2.09

Diaz et al. (2001)

El Salvador

1.85

Johnson et al. (2013)

Bangladesh

1.20

Patwary et al. (2009)

China

4.03

Yong et al. (2009)

India

0.5–2

Pruss et al. (1999)

Indonesia

0.75

Ananth et al. (2010)

Iran

3.04

Rabeie et al. (2012)

Japan

2.15

Eker and Bilgili (2011)

Jordan

0.29–1.36

Hani et al. 2007

0.26–2.6

Fayez et al. (2008)

America USA

Asia

References

2.69

Eker and Bilgili (2011)

Korea

2.40

Jang et al. (2006)

Laos

0.51

Phengxay et al. (2005)

Malaysia

1.90

Rabeie et al. (2012)

Pakistan

2.07

Windfeld and Brooks (2015)

Palestine

2.02

Eleyan et al. (2013)

Thailand

2.05

Suwannee (2002)

Turkey

4.55

Eker and Bilgili (2011)

Nepal

0.50

Rabeie et al. (2012)

Lebanon

5.70

Azmal et al.(2002) (continued)

6.3 Characteristics and Quantities

257

Table 6.5 (continued) Region

Africa

County

BMW Generated (kg/bed/day)

References

Kazakhstan

5.34

Gusca et al. (2015)

Vietnam

1.57

Rabeie et al (2012)

Algeria

0.96

Bendjoudi et al. (2009)

Cameroon

0.55

Manga et al. (2011)

Egypt

1.03

El-Salam (2010)

Ethiopia

1.10

Tesfahun et al. (2015)

Mauritius

0.44

Mohee (2005)

Morocco

0.53

Mbarki et al. (2013)

Sudan

0.87

Suhair and Gayoum (2013)

Tanzania

0.75

Eker and Bilgili (2011)

4. Some hospital with strict infection control protocol uses disposable bed cover for each patient. 5. Doctors and paramedical staff of hospitals with strict infection control protocol change hand gloves for each patient. Pruss et al. (1999) recommend the following estimates for preliminary waste management: planning: (1) 15% pathological and infectious waste, (2) 80% general healthcare waste, (3) 3% chemical/pharmaceutical waste, (4) 1% sharps waste, (5) less than 1% other waste like radioactive waste or broken thermometers. In a nutshell, BMW generated in a hospital is equal to placenta generated during childbirth and medical consumables consumed. List usual surgical consumable items are: 1. Abdominal drain kit

31. Mask oxygen, nebulizer mask, Venturi mask

2. Abdominal swabs

32. Measured volume set

3. Adhesive plaster

33. Ortho cast padding

4. Airway

34. Ortho implants like plates, screws, and nails

5. Bandages cotton rolled

35. Oxygen catheter

6. Catheter

36. Plaster of Paris Bandages

7. Condom catheter drainage set

37. Plastic Aprons

8. Conduction media

38. Ryle’s tube

9. Corrugated drains

39. Shoe cover

10. Cotton roll

40. Skin grafting blades

11. Crepe bandages

41. Skin traction kits

12. Developer and fixer for X-ray films

42. Spatula for making Pap smear

13. Disposable needles

43. Spinal needles

14. Disposable syringes

44. Spirit swabs (continued)

258

6 Biomedical Waste

(continued) 15. ECG rolls

45. Splints finger splints, crammer wire splints, Thomas splints

16. Endotracheal tubes

46. Sterilized bandages

17. Epidural anesthesia kit

47. Suction catheter

18. First-aid bandages

48. Surgeon’s blade

19. Gauze cloth

49. Surgeon’s cap

20. Gelatin sponges

50. Surgeon’s face mask

21. Gloves

51. Suture materials—catgut, Prolene, Vicryl

22. HIV protection kit

52. Suture needles

23. Hospital rubber sheeting

53. Synthetic cast for applying plasters

24. Hypothesis paper tape

54. syringe

25. Infant feeding tubes

55. Thermometer

26. Intraocular lenses

56. Urine collection bags

27. Intravenous cannula

57. Vacuum suction drainage set

28. Intravenous sets

58. Wooden spatula

29. Lab reagents and kits for various tests 59. X-ray films 30. Lint cloth

60. Yankauer suction set

Typical weight for major medical consumables is given in Table 6.6. Global pharmaceutical waste generation is not easily available. IMS Institute for Healthcare Informatics (2015) forecasted the volume of medicines used globally will reach 4.5 trillion doses (that will include 943 new active substances introduced in the past 25 years) by 2020 up 24% from 2015. Over 100,000 tonnes of pharmaceutical products are consumed every year worldwide (European Environmental Bureau 2018). Wastage of medicines through expiry is a global challenge. In the USA and Switzerland, medicine wastage rates have been estimated at 16% and 29%, respectively (Toerper et al. 2014). The U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) holds a National Prescription Drug Take Back Day twice a year in April and October, usually on the last Saturday of the month between the hours of 10 am and 2 pm. Sites are set up across the countries so that local residents can return their unwanted or expired prescription drugs for safe disposal. In March 2020, as the COVID-19 pandemic increased, the WHO warned that stern and rising disturbance to the global supply of personal protective equipment (PPE) due to rising demand, panic buying, and misuse posed a greater risk to healthcare workers, patients, and people. Healthcare workers were at greater risk of COVID19 early in the pandemic compared to the general public in part due to lack of PPE supplies, inadequate access to water/soap for hand hygiene/cleaning, limited training in infection prevention and control, and inadequate sanitation due to which at least about 115,000 healthcare workers have lost their lives of COVID-19 (WHO 2021).

6.3 Characteristics and Quantities

259

Table 6.6 Typical weight for major medical consumables Sl. No.

Consumable

Number/type

Weight (kg)

1

Infusions

1 L infusion in plastic pouch or bottle

1.3000

2

Urine bags

200 urine bags

8.0000

3

Plaster of Paris (POP)

10 POP 10 cm

1.8000

10 POP 15 cm

2.7000

10 POP 20 cm

3.6000

4

Elastic bandages

10 elastic bandages 10 cm 0.5000

5

Elastic gauze bandages

10 elastic gauze bandages 0.2000 10 cm

6

Gauze compresses

Big 100 m × 1 m

3.0000

100 sterilized gauze compresses 10 × 20 cm

0.3000

25 packs of 2 sterile compresses

0.6000

100 syringes 2 ml

0.4000

100 syringes 5 ml

0.6000

7

Syringes

100 syringes 10 ml

1.0000

8

Intravenous (IV) cannulas

50 IV cannulas

0.3000

9

Gloves, surgical

50 pairs

2.5000

10

Sutures

36 single pieces

0.2000

11

X-ray films

100 films 24 × 30 cm

2.7000

100 films 30 × 40 cm

3.7000

100 films 35 × 43 cm

5.6000

12

Surgical/exam gloves

Pair

0.0180

13

Heavy duty gloves

Pair

0.2000

14

Hair cover

1 No

0.0175

15

Body bag

1 No

1.8500

16

Coveralls

1 No

0.1100

17

Gowns

50 No

8.5000

18

3-ply mask

50 No

0.2500

19

Respirator

1 No

0.0200

20

Shoe cover

50 No

0.0124

21

Surgical cap

1 No

0.0170

22

Plastic apron

1 No

0.1800

23

Disposable face shield

1 No

0.0356 (continued)

260

6 Biomedical Waste

Table 6.6 (continued) Sl. No.

Consumable

Number/type

Weight (kg)

24

Disposable lab coat

1 No

0.0554

25

COVID-19 rapid detection kit (excluding outer packaging)

1 No

0.0111

Source WHO (2022a, b), Redcross (2022), manufacturers’ specification

Since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, more than 4 million tonnes of polypropylene Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) waste have been disposed globally. It was determined that nearly 3.4 billion single-use facemasks/face protection are dumped every day due to the COVID-19 pandemic globally (Benson et al. 2021). Individual daily productions of applied face respirators throughout the first and second waves of the pandemic within Victoria (Australia) were around 104 and 160 tonnes (Boroujeni and Saberian 2021). In Bangladesh, it was estimated that 3.4 billion parts of single-use facemask, hand sanitizer containers, hand gloves, and biodegradable polythene packets would be generated periodically, resulting growth around 472.30 tonnes of disposable plastic garbage each day (Haque et al. 2021). Use of PPE in England in the first six months of the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK alone added an additional 1% carbon burden, compared with pre-COVID-19 (Rizan et al. 2021). 3 billion items of PPE were used between February and August 2020, resulting in 591 tonnes of waste per day much of which was unnecessary it was possible to reduce environmental cost by 75% through a combination of strategies such as using reusables where possible, rational glove use, domestic manufacturing, and optimizing waste management by decontamination of contaminated PPE before waste-to-energy incineration or recycling (Rizan et al. 2021). One year after efforts in 2019 in England to reduce glove use through a campaign titled “Gloves off: safer in our hands” glove orders fell by 3.7 million (Mitchell 2019) and reducing the waste quantity by 18 tonnes over 6 months (WHO 2022a, b). Most of about 87,000 tonnes of PPE transported to support countries’ urgent COVID-19 response needs through a joint UN emergency initiative from March 2020 to November 2021 is expected to have ended up as waste (WHO 2022a, b). The COVID-19 pandemic doubled the burden of an increase in waste and reduced capacity of healthcare workers to manage waste resulting in poor management of healthcare waste. An estimated 296,496,809 confirmed COVID-19 cases have been reported from March 2020 to January 2022, many of which require the use of PPE by carers. Besides COVID-19 testing by hundreds of millions more people. Over 9 billion doses of COVID-19 vaccines were administered, covering 35% of the global population and billions more were planned which generate an enormous amount of COVID-19-related waste, a fraction of which is potentially infectious (WHO 2022a, b). According to an assessment by the UNDP of five Asian cities, COVID-19 increased the quantity of hazardous healthcare waste by 3.4 kg/bed/day (UNEP

6.3 Characteristics and Quantities

261

2021). Public use of PPE worldwide since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic increased significantly. According to one estimate, based on country mask mandates and public mask use, in 2020, up to 3.4 billion single-use masks were discarded each day (Benson et al. 2021). Worldwide, 3 out of 10 HCEs lack systems to segregate waste. In the least developed countries (LDC), less than 1 in 3 HCEs have a basic healthcare waste management service (WHO, UNCF 2020). In March 2020, as the COVID-19 pandemic increased, the WHO warned that stern and rising disturbance to the global supply of personal protective equipment (PPE) due to rising demand, panic buying, and misuse posed, a greater risk to healthcare workers, patients, and people. Healthcare workers were at greater risk of COVID-19 early in the pandemic compared to the general public, in parts due to lack of PPE supplies, inadequate access to water/soap for hand hygiene/cleaning, limited training in infection prevention and control, and inadequate sanitation due to which at least about 115,000 healthcare workers have lost their lives of COVID-19 (WHO 2021). Most of about 87,000 tonnes of PPE transported to support countries’ urgent COVID-19 response needs through a joint UN emergency initiative from March 2020 to November 2021 is expected to have ended up as waste (WHO 2022a, b). The COVID-19 pandemic doubled burden of an increase in waste and reduced capacity of healthcare workers to manage waste resulting in poor management of healthcare waste. An estimated 296,496,809 confirmed COVID-19 cases have been reported From March 2020 to January 2022, many of which require the use of PPE by carers. Besides COVID-19 testing by hundreds of millions more people, over 9 billion doses of COVID-19 vaccines were administered, covering 35% of the global population and billions more were planned which generate an enormous amount of COVID-19-related waste, a fraction of which is potentially infectious (WHO 2022a, b). According to an assessment by the UNDP of five Asian cities, COVID-19 increased the quantity of hazardous healthcare waste by 3.4 kg/bed/day (UNEP 2021). Public use of PPE worldwide since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic increased significantly. According to one estimate based on the country mask mandates and public mask use, in 2020, up to 3.4 billion single-use masks were discarded each day (Benson et al 2021). Historically, various pandemic resulted in large quantity of BMW within short period. Outbreak of Nipah virus infection in Malaysia from 1998 to 1999 and five outbreaks in Bangladesh from 2001 to 2005 emerged as a neurologic and respiratory disease in pigs, and then spread to humans. To manage the outburst in Malaysia, at least one million pigs were culled. First human cases of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) or bird flu were found in Hong Kong in 1997 re-emerging in Hong Kong in 2002, the virus spread quickly to Southeast Asian nations. More than 100 million domesticated chickens and ducks were either died of the disease or were culled to stop the outbreak in Asia (UNEP and International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) 2020).

262

6 Biomedical Waste

The 1984 outbreak of Avian Influenza (AI) required the disposal of 5700 tonnes of poultry carcass material (McClaskey 2004). The 2002 AI outbreak in central Shenandoah resulted in the destruction of 4.7 million birds and disposal of 16,920 tonnes of poultry carcass material to eradicate it (Virginia Department of Environment Quality (VDEQ) 2002). H5N1 strain of avian flu originated from China in 1996 spread rapidly across Asia, Europe, and Africa. The presence of was confirmed in birds/humans in more than 55 countries (Kumar et al. 2008). The main means of transmission to humans was through contact with infected live poultry and surfaces contaminated with secretions/ excretions of infected birds. Avian flu outbreaks during 2003 and 2004 resulted in the death/destruction of 44 million Birds and 29 million birds in Vietnam and Thailand, respectively. As of mid-2006, about 200 million domestic birds had either died or culled (FAO 2012). About 24 tonnes of poultry feed, about 28 thousand eggs, and more than 3 lakh birds were destroyed after 2007 avian flu outbreak in Manipur district of India along with contaminated material from 166 farms in the infected zone (Kumar et al. 2008). Birds during outbreak were usually killed by decapitation (cutting head) or by feeding poisons. Some farms used sedatives mixed with water prior to culling operation. The culled birds were packed in bas and disposed within farm premises. During past outbreaks of avian flu announcement were made in some countries asking owners of backyard poultry birds not to release the birds in the morning so that veterans could collect birds in the next morning making cash payment.

6.4 Storage and Transportation Segregation is the most important procedure in BMW handling. In addition to segregation at source discussed earlier HCEs also have to provide good transfer point before hauling to treatment/disposal facility. Mixing of infected waste with non-infected waste leads to increase in volume of infected waste resulting in increase in volume of infected waste (Fig. 6.4). A location for storage of BMW should be earmarked inside the establishment generating such waste. BMW, in bags/containers, should be stored in a separate room, place, or building of a size suitable to the quantities of waste generated. Unless a cold storage room is available, healthcare waste should not exceed 48 h during the winter and 24 h during the summer in warm climate regions, 72 h in cool season and 48 h in hot season in regions with temperate climate. Radioactive wastes hall be stored in containers behind lead shielding and should be labelled depicting the type of radionuclide, the date, and details of storage conditions required. Cytotoxic waste shall be stored away from other BMW in secure location. Segregation is carried out at source in BMW management mainly for the following reasons: (1) to avoid segregation at the point of treatment and disposal to avoid injury and spread of infection, (2)to treat/dispose by applicable method without opening and checking bag(inenarrable waste is directly disposed in incineration, pyrolysis, deep

6.4 Storage and Transportation

263

Fig. 6.4 Mixing of infected waste with non-infected waste leads to increase in volume of infected waste resulting in increase in volume of infected waste

burial etc., without checking for continent by opening bag) (1) to avoid contamination of non-infectious waste by infection, (2) to avoid entry of toxic waste like lead, mercury and radioactive substance, (3) entry of chlorinated waste which ultimately leads to the generation of dioxins and furans. Checklist for SWM in HCEs is given in Table 6.7. Different countries follow different coloured bin/bag for segregation based on legal requirement (Table 6.8). Figure 6.5 shows waste segregation at source. Figure 6.6 shows individual rooms with colour coding so that different categories of BMW will not be mixed with each other. Figure 6.7 shows a chute conveyor in a modern hospital to transfer waste from individual wards in different floors to a centralized storage area from where various categories of waste will be collected and transported to a CBWTF. Failure to segregate infected waste at source may lead to rise in treatment and disposal cost as all the waste needs critical treatment and disposal methods to avoid spread of infection. The entry of mercury, lead and radioactive substances will have direct implications in terms of release of these heavy metals and radioactive substance into air, water, food, and soil damaging flora and fauna and physicochemical components of environment.

1. Does waste segregation occur at the point where the waste is generated? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 2. Is the collected waste properly segregated in accordance with applicable law? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 3. Are colour-coded waste containers used in facility? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 4. Are waste containers properly marked and labelled? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 5. Do all bins for collecting waste have lids? ▢ Yes ▢ No Not Applicable 6. Are all waste containers free of leaking? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 7. Are sharps containers puncture-resistant, and leak proof? ▢ Yes ▢ No Not Applicable 8. Are the waste containers emptied at each day? ▢ Yes ▢ No Not Applicable 9. Are containers cleaned every day after waste is emptied? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 10. Are incompatible chemical wastes stored in separate containers? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 11. Are liquid waste containers are filled to 70–80% capacity? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable

A. Waste segregation and collection

Table 6.7 Checklist for SWM in HCEs

(continued)

264 6 Biomedical Waste

(continued)

12. Are lids of waste bins and containers closed properly during transportation from ward to central storage? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 13. Is waste storage area located away from the patients? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 14. Are the waste collection tanks completely enclosed? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 15. Are the waste collection tanks not overfilled? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 16. Is waste storage area kept clean, free from litter, spillages and debris? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 17. Is waste storage area free from pests and rodents? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 18. Is stored waste cleared within the prescribed periods? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 19. Is waste storage area clearly marked with warning signs? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 20. Is the waste storage area away from routes used by the general public? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 21. Is bag for storage of infectious waste identified with the source where the waste is generated—either by a written label or with bar-coded tape or labels? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 22. Is water supply available for cleaning purpose in the storage area? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable

B. Waste storage

Table 6.7 (continued)

6.4 Storage and Transportation 265

(continued)

28. Does the weight of BMW generated is approximately equal to sum of weight of placenta and biomedical consumables consumed in healthcare establishments? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 29. Whether emergency numbers posted ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 30. Is SOP available ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 31. Whether injury and emergency response procedure available ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 32. Whether regulatory permits available ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 33. Personnel training files up to date and available ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable

E. Record Keeping

27. Does the hospital have adequate procedure and check list for general waste, C&D waste, e-waste, radioactive waste hazardous waste and other waste? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable

D. Other than Biomedical Waste

23. Are storage area personnel training files up to date and available? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 24. Is refresher training available to all related staff at least yearly? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 25. Do personnel understand hazards and how to minimize risks? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 26. Is injury and emergency response procedure known and understood by all relevant personnel? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable

C. Training

Table 6.7 (continued)

266 6 Biomedical Waste

34. Does everyone who will be handling waste have the appropriate PPE? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 35. Whether adequate onsite fire control measures are provided? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 36. Whether personnel have been provided with separate eating place ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 37. Whether personnel have been provided sufficient toilets, bathroom, and changing room ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 38. Are the waste storage areas free from odours, contaminants, or signs of vermin? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 37. Do all workers wear appropriate PPE while segregating wastes? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 38. Is the first-aid kit readily available in case of emergency? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 39. Is waste storage area secure and access restricted to authorized personnel only? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 40. Is waste storage area well lit? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 41. Is waste storage area well ventilated? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 42. Is waste storage separated from food preparation area(s) and supply rooms? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable 43. Is there access to first aid and washing facilities? ▢ Yes ▢ No ▢ Not Applicable

F. Safety

Table 6.7 (continued)

6.4 Storage and Transportation 267

Infectious Clinical Used PPE, plasters, Waste bandages, dressings, and swabs

Non-Infectious Anatomical Waste

Infectious Clinical Body fluids, Waste materials contaminated with body fluids, or medicines

Orange

Red

Yellow

Glassware, metallic body implants

Animal Anatomical Waste, Soiled Waste, Expired/Discarded Medicines, Chemical Waste, Microbiology, Biotechnology and other clinical laboratory waste

Body parts, organs, Recyclable Contaminated Waste animal remains

Used lateral flow test kits

Lateral Flow

Clear

Denture drugs

Waste type

Medicinal Non-Hazardous

India

Waste Type

Example

UK

Blue

Bag colour

Human tissues, organs, body parts, and foetus below the viability period, Items contaminated with blood, Discarded disinfectants

Medicine vials and ampoules

Example

Table 6.8 Different coloured bin/bag for segregation based on legal requirement in different countries

Potentially infectious waste that needs to be incinerated

Contaminated plastic and rubber waste that can be steam-sterilized and buried or recycled

Contaminated glass waste for sterilization and recycling

Waste type

USA

(continued)

Pathological waste such as human or animal body tissues, body parts, and animal carcasses

Blood-draw syringes (without the needle), contaminated gloves, used IV tubes

Laboratory slides, pipettes, and ampules

Example

268 6 Biomedical Waste

General Waste

Dental: Amalgam and Gypsum

Black

White

Teeth with fillings, unused amalgam, containers with amalgam residue, old dental study moulds

General Waste

Offensive/Hygiene Nappies, sanitary Waste waste, colostomy bags

Yellow and lack tiger stripe

Materials contaminated with cytotoxic and cytostatic drugs

Cytotoxic and Cytostatic Waste

Waste sharps including Metals

India Waste type

Waste Type

Example

UK

Purple

Bag colour

Table 6.8 (continued)

Needles, syringes with fixed needles

Example

USA

Metal sharps waste for sterilization and mechanical treatment

Non-biological hospital waste which can be steam-sterilized and sent to landfills

Waste type

Used needles, lancets, scalpels

Disposable masks, shoe covers, caps,

Example

6.4 Storage and Transportation 269

270

6 Biomedical Waste

Fig. 6.5 A good practice of onsite segregation. The recycle waste like plastic, sharps and non-infected waste shall be segregated to avoid generation of dioxins and furans due to combustion of all the waste and avoid increase in infected waste due to contact between infected and non-infected waste

Fig. 6.6 Individual rooms with colour coding as per local legislation or protocol will increase chances of cross-contamination and reduce cost of treatment and disposal incineration

Fig. 6.7 Chute conveyor in modern hospital to transfer waste from individual wards in different floors to centralized storage area from where different categories of waste will be collected and transported to common treatment facility

Even though such practice is not observed in many countries, BMW demands special vehicle with proper labelling to identity from a distance and during accidents (Fig. 6.8). The inside of vehicles should be provided with proper racks to store

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Fig. 6.8 Even though such practice is not observed in many countries, biomedical waste demands special vehicle with proper labelling to identify from a distance and during accidents

different categories of waste. The floor shall be metallic and smooth to carry out washing and disinfection activity.

6.5 Treatment and Disposal Typical BMW management steps are shown in Fig. 6.9 which are (1) segregation into various components, (2) waste handling and storage, (3) transportation, (3) treatment and disposal. The major challenges in enforcing environmental law with respect to BMW are: 1. Action against hospital/doctor for violation of environmental law by improper treatment/disposal will affect the treatment of patients and lead to social issues 2. Payment to common facility by BMW generators is usually delayed or not made resulting in common facility to treat/dispose waste illegally or improperly. 3. Small BMW generators will make agreements with common facility to get permit from statutory body. Afterwards, they will deny services of common facility and dispose with MSW. 4. Local politicians and others may treat common facility as source of income by demanding monthly payment failing which complaint will be lodged against felicities.

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6 Biomedical Waste

Waste generation and segregation

Waste handling and storage

Waste transport

Treatment and disposal

Fig. 6.9 Elements of BMW management

5. Corruption in enforcing agency will affect overall efficiency of enforcement. 6. Abrupt closure of common facility may result in social issues as the BMW waste will be mixed with MSW or disposed by illegal dumping by generators. Rural areas and areas where service of CBWTF is not available HCE shall dispose through captive facility to avoid spreading of infection and toxicity. In the event of an animal disease outbreak, such as, foot and mouth disease, African swine fever, Lumpy skin disease, results in carcasses that require immediate safe management. Effective carcass management achieves two primary goals: (1) To contain pathogens to prevent further spread of disease; and (2) To protect drinking water, air, and soil.

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Table 6.9 Summary of treatment and disposal options for BMW Sl. No.

Waste category type

Treatment and disposal option

1

Animal waste

Incineration/burial/composting/ burning/landfill/rendering/ pyrolysis /plasma pyrolysis

2

Chemical waste

Treatment by chemical for liquids. Secured landfill for solids

3

Genotoxic

Destruction/Incineration and disposal in secured landfills

4

Incineration Ash

Disposal in municipal landfill

5

Microbiology& Biotechnology Wastes

Local autoclaving/microwaving/incineration/Pyrolysis/ plasma pyrolysis

6

Pathological waste

Incineration/deep burial/Pyrolysis /plasma pyrolysis

7

Pharmaceutical waste

Destruction/Incineration and disposal in secured landfills/ Pyrolysis/plasma pyrolysis

8

Pressurized containers

Return to suppliers/controlled destruction

9

Radioactive waste

Concentrate and contain or dilute and disperse

10

Sharps

Disinfection and mutilation/shredding

11

Soiled waste

Destruction/Incineration and disposal in secured landfills/ Pyrolysis/plasma pyrolysis

12

Waste with heavy metal

Heavy metal recovery

Carcass management options include onsite composting, burial/burning as well as offsite landfill, incineration or rendering. Disposal method for solid expired pharmaceuticals includes landfill, incineration, chemical decomposition, and immobilization. Aerosol canisters shall be encapsulated/landfilled but shall not be burnt as it may explode. Liquid pharmaceuticals can be treated in effluent treatment plant or incinerated. Antineoplastic4 drugs and controlled drugs shall be disposed by inertization, encapsulation and incineration. Table 6.9 shows a summary of the treatment and disposal options for BMW. As per Global Status Report on blood safety and availability 2021 (WHO 2022) about 118.5 million blood donations were made in the 171 countries during the reporting period. Key uses of blood components and shelf life is given in Table 6.10 blood component wastage rates commonly run from 1 to 5% (Hannan 2015). Waste blood bags can be discarded by deep burial or incineration.

4

Also called chemotherapy drugs, help kill cancer cells.

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Table 6.10 Key uses of blood components and shelf life Blood component Colour

Shelf life

Storage conditions

Key uses

Whole blood

Red

Up to 35 days5

Refrigerated

Trauma, Surgery

Red blood cells

Red

Up to 42 days6

Refrigerated

Trauma, Surgery, anemia, blood disorders

Platelets

Colourless

5 days

Room temperature with Cancer treatments, constant agitation to organ transplants, prevent clumping surgery

Plasma

Yellowish

1 year

Frozen

Burn patients, shock, bleeding disorders

Cryoprecipitated Antihemophilic Factor

White

1 year

Frozen

To treat Hemophilia, Von Willebrand disease; rich source of fibrinogen

Blood bags with contaminated contents all the liquid and the containers are sent for autoclaving to disinfect them prior to disposal. Blood bags shall be loaded in single layers in reusable, leak-proof secondary containers to ensure the steam is able to heat the liquids effectively. Where only a few bags are required to be autoclaved at any one time, these may be loaded with other infectious waste for treatment. It is best to use a “liquid cycle7 ”. Blood usually congeals in the bags, which is burst during autoclaving. Discarding autoclaved blood to drain, may cause blockages by forming a plug in the pipes. Hence, the sterilized bags can be discarded by deep burial or incineration method. Oral hygiene activity generates considerable waste across the world. 23 billion toothbrushes and their wrappings are discarded every year Globally and 8 trillion microbeads are released into aquatic environments daily from the USA (Hackley et al. 2020). Dentists generate a variety of BMW as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 5

Dental amalgam waste, Silver containing waste, Lead containing waste, Cotton/gauze contaminated with saliva/blood, Paper towels contaminated with saliva/blood, Dental wood sticks,

Shelf life of whole blood varies based on the type anticoagulant use. Shelf life of red cells varies based on the type anticoagulant used. 7 When a liquid is sterilized to high temperatures boils over the container it is heated. An Autoclave liquid cycle is used to avoid the phenomenon known as “boil-over”. This is when a liquid boils so violently it spills over the top of the container. This can occur if the pressure in your autoclave chamber is released too quickly. The exhaust phase of the cycle must therefore release pressure slowly to allow the liquid to cool off as the pressure decreases. 6

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7. Pharmaceuticals, 8. Used personal protective equipment. Waste types of major concern to environment from dental healthcare units are given in Table 6.11. Apart from lead and mercury HCEs use hazardous chemicals like Cidex, Collodion, Coumadin, Epinephrine, and Mitomycin C which are irritant and toxic (Shaner-McRae et al. 2007). Table 6.12 shows the major sources of various categories of waste within a hospital. Combustion of BMW which has chlorine in its waste is a major source of dioxins and furans.8 Increase in syringe needle has been dramatic in the past three decades prior to which needles were being reused after heat sterilization. Occupational transmission of blood-borne pathogens has been extremely well-documented (Shapiro 1995; Mitsui et al. 1992; Polish et al. 1993; Lanphear et al. 1994; Marcus 1998). Sharps from both human healthcare as well as veterinary institutes pose health risk to people handling them. Some service providers in the USA can haul the sharps placed in the prepaid postage box to the treatment facility of sharps through the US Postal Service. After receipt of sharps confirmation of destruction is made available electronically. Even though such practice is yet to catch up in developing countries it can happen in the near future. Hair is not considered an organ, and hence, it is not considered as BMW (Box 6.1). Disposal of foetus is sensitive matter and need to dispose of according to prevailing laws of the country (Box 6.1). Box 6.1 Disposal of Hair and Foetus Hair is not considered an organ, as it is not a discrete, specialized structure made up of multiple tissues for specific function in a body. Hence the hair from barber shop, beauty parlour, homes is disposed with MSW in urban setup. Foetus is unborn offspring, from the embryo stage (when the major structures have formed) until birth. Failure of pregnancy can be embryonic mortality and foetal mortality. Disposal of dead foetus of animal (other than humans) is not a sensitive issue and shall be disposed as per the prevailing law for anatomical waste. Disposal of human foetus attracts social, psychological, legal, and emotional issues.

8

Dioxins and furans are groups of toxic substances that share similar chemical structures. These chemicals are persistent and bioaccumulated. Several dioxins are highly carcinogenic and connected with immune, reproductive, endometriosis, endocrine disturbance, and behavioural problems in children.

Silver-containing waste

Lead containing waste

Cotton/gauze contaminated with saliva/blood

Sharps

2

3

4

5

Treatment

Treatment

Hand over to BMW disposer or treat it in captive facility or treat it in captive facility applicable for waste sharps

Hand over to BMW disposer or treat it in captive facility applicable for soiled waste with body fluid

Lead foil is used in intraoral films to Hand over to BMW disposer or hazardous waste disposer protect the film from backscatter and secondary irradiation Use of lead apron during fluoroscopy11

Install an in-house silver recovery unit. Hand over to BMW disposer or silver revering organization. Use digital imaging equipment to avoid generation of silver containing waste

Provide amalgam separators10

Best practice

Dental amalgam is a mixture of metals, consisting of mercury and a powdered alloy composed of silver, tin, and copper. When placing dental amalgam, the dentist drills the tooth to remove the decay and then shapes the tooth cavity for filling with dental amalgam. The dentist mixes the powdered alloy with the liquid mercury to form an amalgam putty where it rapidly hardens into a solid filling. 10 Amalgam separators are devices designed to capture amalgam particles from dental office wastewater through sedimentation, filtration, centrifugation, or a combination of these mechanisms. Some amalgam separators may also use ion exchange technology to remove mercury from wastewater. 11 Fluoroscopy is a procedure where an X-ray beam is passed through the body. The image is transmitted to a monitor so the movement of a body part or of an instrument or contrast agent (“X-ray dye”). Fluoroscopy is a type of medical imaging that shows a continuous X-ray image on a monitor.

9

Dental amalgam filling

Dental amalgam9 Waste

1

Used X-ray fixer solution and used X-ray film

Source/Activity

Major BMW of concern

Sl. No.

Table 6.11 Waste type of major concern to environment from dental healthcare units

276 6 Biomedical Waste

✓ ✓

✓

✓

Ear Nose Throat (ENT)

Gastroenterology

✓ ✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

Oncology

Ophthalmology

Orthopedic

Paediatric

✓

✓

✓

Nephrology

✓

✓

✓

✓

Neonatology

Pathology

✓

✓

Maternity and Gynecology

✓

✓

✓

Dermatology

✓

✓

✓

Dentistry

✓

✓

✓

Casualty/ Emergency/ Trauma

✓

✓

✓

Cardiology

Incinerator

✓

✓

Burn unit

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

(continued)

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Animal Ash of Chemical Genotoxic Microbiology& Pharmaceutical Pathological Pressurized Radioactive Sharps Soiled Waste Waste incinerated Waste Biotechnology waste Waste containers Waste Waste With BMW Wastes Heavy Metals

Table 6.12 Checklist depicting major sources of various categories of waste

6.5 Treatment and Disposal 277

✓ ✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

Surgery

Urology

X-ray department

Radiology

Pulmonology

✓ ✓

✓

✓

Psychiatric

Pharmacy

Postmortem

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Animal Ash of Chemical Genotoxic Microbiology& Pharmaceutical Pathological Pressurized Radioactive Sharps Soiled Waste Waste incinerated Waste Biotechnology waste Waste containers Waste Waste With BMW Wastes Heavy Metals

Table 6.12 (continued)

278 6 Biomedical Waste

6.5 Treatment and Disposal

279

As per Schedule I of the Biomedical Waste Management Rules 2016 pf India(a) Human Anatomical Waste is Human tissues, organs, body parts and foetus below the viability period (as per the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act 1971, amended from time to time). Dead foetus below the viability period (as per the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act 1971, amended from time to time) can be considered as human anatomical waste. Such waste should be handed over to the operator of CBWTF in yellow bag with a copy of the official Medical Termination of Pregnancy certificate from the Obstetrician or the Medical Superintendent of hospital or healthcare establishment. Globally about 73 million induced abortions take place each year out of which 61% is unintended pregnancies (Bearak et al. 2020). In some countries, foetus is disposed by ‘collective disposal’ where ‘collective’ is defined as a collecting number of pregnancy losses, in individual sealed containers, collected together into a bigger sealed container for disposal in a crematorium or burial. In some countries, disposal should be authorized by the woman who has experienced the loss. If women decline disposal by ‘collective disposal’ the pregnancy loss shall be made available for collection by the woman or her agent. Other practices prevailing in the world include: 1. Handing over to CBWTF, 2. Donating to medical college of preservation and education, 3. Disposal by captive (in-house) facility of hospital. As per CPCB (2016) guidelines for disposal of BMW in India, copy of an official medical termination of pregnancy certificate from the Medical Officer in charge for foetus below the vitality period must be kept with the HCE. It is mandatory for each healthcare facility that dead foetus waste should be handed over to CBWTF in yellow bag with a copy of the official MTP certificate from the Obstetrician or the Medical Superintendent/Senior Medical Officer/Chief Medical Officer of the healthcare facility. Copy of the official MTP certificate from the Medical Officer in charge for foetus below the vitality period must be kept with the healthcare facility.

6.5.1 Encapsulation Needles are often source of infection spreading and hence need extra care for avoiding re-entry into user stream. Encapsulation (Fig. 6.10) is one of the methods for the disposal of sharps. In encapsulation sharps are collected in leak-proof and puncture-proof containers and

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6 Biomedical Waste

Fig. 6.10 Needle encapsulation

when the container is three-quarter full, binding materials like bituminous sand, plastic foam, cement mortar, or clay are poured until the container is filled. Medium is then allowed to dry and the containers are sealed and disposed to landfill sites.

6.5.2 Needle Mutilation Syringes and needles are often resold to make profit. Attempts by healthcare workers to disassemble sharps waste shall be kept to a minimum. The single uses, selfsealable, and locking sharp containers made of plastic are widely used in developed country to protect hospital staff. But the developing countries continue to discard the sharps in unscientific ways. Law in France has placed the responsibility on the organizations supplying self-injection medicines for the disposal of used needles. Unsafe injections and the subsequent transmission of blood-borne pathogens take place regularly in the developing nations. As per the studies conducted by Simonsen et al. (1999) each person in developing nations receives an average of 1.5 injections/ person/annum, majority of which are not necessary and at least half of the injections in 14 of 19 countries are not safe. The risk of infection with HIV after one needle stick exposure is approximately 0.3% and ranges from 3.3 to 10% for hepatitis C (Christine et al. 1997). Needle mutilation (Fig. 6.11) is done to avoid re-entry of needles into market, but such practice is discouraged in some places considering workplace safety.

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Fig. 6.11 Needle mutilation under progress

Fig. 6.12 Sharp pits

6.5.3 Sharp Pit The pits are provided with small opening from where sharps are dumped into waterproof pit with proper lining. Figure 6.12 shows sharp pits used for storing needles and other sharps. Sharps can be disposed in a rectangular or circular pit lined with brick/masonry/ concrete. The pit should be roofed with heavy concrete slab penetrated by a narrow opening. The pit can be sealed once it is full.

6.5.4 Incineration Incineration is one of the economical ways of destructing pathogens. Figure 6.13 shows batch type double chambered incinerator. The rotary incinerators (Fig. 6.14) are available in the range of 0.5–3 tonnes/hour and hence are appropriate if the

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6 Biomedical Waste

quantity to be treated is high. But it is appropriate to carry out a feasibility study before finalizing the incinerator. Incineration is not a disposal option for pressurized containers due to the risk of explosion. Undamaged containers like ethylene oxide cartridges or cylinders, nitrous oxide cartridges, cylinders attached to the anaesthesia equipment, pressurized cylinders of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, compressed air, hydrogen, cyclopropane, acetylene, petroleum gases, etc., should be returned to the supplier. Damaged pressurized containers which are not suitable for refilling can be crushed after emptied completely and can be disposed of in landfill. Figure 6.15 shows common disposal facility where pharmaceuticals are separated from their packaging material. The metal/glass/plastic packing is usually separated to avoid load on disposal facilities. Pharmaceuticals need to be scientifically disposed of by elevated temperature (i.e., above 1200 °C) incineration. Pharmaceuticals need particular attention during disasters as large quantities of pharmaceuticals are donated as humanitarian assistance demanding safe disposal if this assistance is unused. Pharmaceuticals have increasingly been known as chemical pollutants of the environment (Daughton 2003). For proper handling of hazardous pharmaceutical waste, HCEs need to create additional waste streams (Smith 2007). Pharmaceutical wastes Fig. 6.13 Batch type incinerator

Fig. 6.14 Rotary incinerator

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283

Fig. 6.15 Expired medicine being segregated from packaging prior to incineration

are usually discarded into the trash or dumped into a sink or toilet and enter the sewer waste stream (Smith 2002; Green 2003) even though bulk of it is disposed by manufacturers/distributors (Box 6.2). Most sewage and water treatment facilities do not consider pharmaceutical contaminants; hence, these wastes are left untreated and enter surface, ground, and drinking water (Kummerer 2001). Box 6.2 Path of Expired Medicine in Supply Chain Medicine from a manufacturer is delivered to distributors by carrying and forwarding agencies (C&F agencies). The distributors then pass the medicines to wholesale dealers who in turn pass them on to retail chemists. When the medicines expire, they are passed on to backwards. The retail chemist will give it to a wholesale dealer who in turn gives it to a distributor and same shall be passed on to C&F agencies. The C&F agencies shall pass the expired drugs to manufacturer for destruction. If interprovince movement of the expired drugs within a country is restricted by governing laws, the discarded medicine is destroyed within the province where it is generated, and certificate of destruction is submitted to manufacturer and enforcing authorities. In case of hospitals managed by state governments in India, an inventory of medicine is maintained, and excess medicine nearing expiry date is passed on to the other hospitals which has shortage of such medicine. Batch type of biomedical incinerator shall have two chambers and shall have at least 99.00% combustion efficiency (C.E). The combustion efficiency is calculated using equation: Combustion efficiency = (%CO2 )(100)/(%CO2 + % CO)

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6 Biomedical Waste

When BMWs are loaded with halogenated chemicals, dioxins/furans and other toxic air pollutants may be generated. The gases generated in the primary chamber are heated to high temperatures to destroy gaseous organic compounds. The temperature at primary chamber shall be 800 ± 50 °C from where gases enter secondary chamber maintained at 1050 ± 50 °C where gas residence time should be at least one second, with at least 3% oxygen in the stack emission. Further efficient segregation of plastics at source to eliminate PVC will also help in tackling generation of dioxins and furans. The rotary kiln operates at 1200–1600 °C allowing decomposition of persistent chemicals such as PCBs. The rotary kilns have a slope of 3–5% and rotate 2–5 turns per minute. The waste is inserted at the top and ashes are emptied at the bottom of the kiln. Gases from the primary chamber are heated to elevated temperatures to destroy gaseous organic compounds and usually have a residence time of two seconds. BMW incineration is one of the main sources of dioxin and furan (Lerner 1997; Walker and Cooper 1992; Vesilind et al. 2002). Incineration is an option to dispose of pharmaceutical waste, but low-temperature incineration (< 800 °C) provides only limited treatment. Hence, dual chambered incinerators discussed above are used. Pharmaceuticals are treated in incinerators which operate at elevated temperatures (> 1200 °C). In many nations cement kilns are also used for disposal of treatment of pharmaceutical waste.

6.5.5 Autoclaving The name autoclave originates from Greek auto-, meaning self, and Latin clavis meaning key collectedly autoclave means self-locking device. An autoclave is an equipment that uses steam under pressure for sterilization. Autoclave used for waste should be dedicated for treating only waste. The two basic types of autoclaves are the gravity displacement autoclave and the high-speed prevacuum sterilizer. In gravity displacement autoclave, steam is admitted at the top or the sides of the sterilizing chamber and, since the steam is lighter than air, forces air out the bottom of the chamber through the drain vent. The high-speed prevacuum sterilizers are fitted with a vacuum pump (or ejector) to ensure air removal from the sterilizing chamber and load before the steam is admitted. Figure 6.16 shows BMW autoclave. When operating a gravity flow autoclave, BMW shall be subjected to: (i) A temperature more than 121 °C and pressure of 15 pounds per square inch (psi) for an autoclave residence time of not less than 60 min, or (ii) A temperature of more than 135° C and a pressure of 31 psi for an autoclave residence time of not less than 45 min,

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Fig. 6.16 Autoclave

or (iii) A temperature of more than 149 °C and a pressure of 52 psi for an autoclave residence time of not less than 30 min. When operating a vacuum autoclave, medical waste shall be subjected to a minimum of three prevacuum pulse to purge the autoclave of all air. The air removed during the prevacuum cycle should be decontaminated to prevent release of pathogen. The waste in vacuum autoclave shall be subjected to: (i) A temperature of more than 121 °C and pressure of 15 psi per an autoclave residence time of not less than 45 min, or (ii) A temperature of more than 135 °C and a pressure of 31 psi for an autoclave residence time of not less than 30 min. Sterilization efficiency of autoclave is monitored by strip test 12 or spore test.13 It is prudent to use more than one strip over the waste package at various locations to make sure that the entire package is adequately autoclaved.

6.5.6 Shredding Shredding are carried out to avoid re-entry of contaminated plastic and glass items to market. Figure 6.17 shows the shredding process under progress. The shredded plastic and glass can then be reprocessed for manufacture of new items. 12

A chemical indicator tape/strip that changes colour when a temperature is reached can be used to confirm that a specific temperature is achieved. 13 In spore test one ampule of spore is kept in the sterilizer, the other will be the control which will be kept outside the sterilizer. Both ampoules are then kept in the incubator for the indicated time. A failed sterilization/decontamination cycle is indicated by turbidity and/or a change in colour to or toward yellow. A test ampoule that retains its purple colour indicates an adequate sterilization cycle.

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6 Biomedical Waste

Fig. 6.17 Shredder

6.5.7 Hybrid Treatments These are the treatment units in where two or more treatment processes are carried out simultaneously. Typical examples include hydro-clave wherein shredding and autoclaving is carried out simultaneously. Another example includes microwaving and autoclaving being carried out in single equipment. Rotating-blade shredders are most widely used in shredding BMW. They consist of blades attached to wheels rotating in opposite directions.

6.5.8 Microwaving Microwave is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from about 1 mm to 1000 mm corresponding to frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz, respectively. Microwave frequencies used for disinfection are usually between (2450 ± 50) MHz and (915 ± 25) MHz (Neto et al. 1999). The microwave passing through the medium is absorbed by the medium to generate heat. The microwave disinfection technology is characterized by low environmental pollution with no residues of toxic wastes after disinfection (Ohtsu et al. 2011). Disinfected waste need further disposal.

6.5.9 Deep Burial Deep burial pits are recommended and used in rural and isolated areas where it is not prudent to invest huge amount of money. Figure 6.18 shows a typical deep burial facility. A deep burial pit/trench is dug approximately 2 m deep. The BMW shall be half-filled and covered with lime followed by soil. This method needs adequate precaution so that animals do not have access to burial sites. Proper covers of sheet metal or wire meshes may be used. When wastes are inserted to the pit, a layer of

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287

Fig. 6.18 BMW deep burial facility

approximately 10 cm of soil should be spread to cover the wastes. The deep burial site should be impermeable. No shallow well shall be close to the deep burial pit. The pits should be away from habitation, and sited in such a way that no surface water or groundwater contamination occurs. The deep burial location shall not be prone to erosion or flooding. As per DAHDR (2006), the infected birds can be disposed of by open fire or deep burial. Even though it is well known fact that uncontrolled combustion would lead to air emissions, creating such infrastructure during epidemics is not possible within few days/hours. The wood requirement will be around 500 kg per 100 kg of dead birds. Deep burial with a dimension of 2 m × 2 m × 2 m would accommodate 1800 dead birds. It is necessary to ensure the groundwater levels to avoid groundwater contamination. Apart from infected birds, infected material in poultry like meat, eggs, egg trays, used litter, manure, feather, feed, feed ingredients, manure, cloths used by farm personnel, drugs and vaccines should also be destroyed by deep burial or open burning. While it is recommended that crops grown on the farm should be uprooted and buried/burnt, it is not practised by farmers as they cannot afford financial shock.

6.5.10 Chemical Disinfection Chemical disinfection of hospital wastes is usually used in combination with crushing (Zhang 2013) or shredding. The crushed/shredded BMW are mixed with chemical disinfectants (Table 6.13) and allowed for a sufficient time.

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Table 6.13 Commonly used chemical disinfectants which can be used for disinfection of BMW Chemical

Application

Physical and chemical properties

Health hazards

Chlorine dioxide

Active against most bacteria, viruses, and spores

Reddish-yellow gas at ambient temperature reacts with water/steam to generate corrosive fumes of hydrochloric acid; explosion limit: > 10% in air

Irritant to skin, eyes, and respiratory tract; toxic

Sodium hypochlorite

Active against most viruses, bacteria, and spores; not effective for disinfection of liquids with high organic content like blood or stools

Available as aqueous solution with 2–12% of active chlorine; solutions of low concentration are more stable; decompose at ambient temperature into sodium chloride, sodium chlorate and oxygen; reacts with acids to generate hazardous chlorine gas; light will accelerate decomposition

Irritant to eyes, skin, and respiratory tract; toxic

Glutaraldehyde

Active against both Available in 25–50% aqueous Concentrated bacteria and parasite solutions; shall be used with acetate solutions are eggs buffer as 2% aqueous solution irritant to skin and eyes

Ethylene oxide

Inactivating effect against all micro-organisms

Flammable and explosive above 10 °C at concentrations of 3% and above in mixtures with air; soluble in water and many organic solvents; very reactive at ambient temperature

Extremely irritant to skin and eyes; classified as a human carcinogen

Formaldehyde

Inactivating effect against all micro-organisms; can be used for dry, solid waste, in combination with steam at 80 °C. Contact time: 45 min

Gas at ambient temperature; polymerizes at temperatures below 80 °C; flammable and explosive at concentrations of 7–73% in mixtures with air; reactive at ambient temperature. Formalin is a 37% solution of formaldehyde

Irritant to skin, eyes, and respiratory tract; toxic. Formaldehyde is classified as a probable human carcinogen

6.5.11 Frictional Heat Treatment This treatment is based on grinding and friction of the waste in a moist environment inside a chamber by means of a high-speed rotor during which the temperature increases to 150 °C and is held for the time necessary to achieve sterilization. All the liquid in the waste will evaporate during treatment. The remains of heat treatment needs to be disposed of.

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289

6.5.12 Composting Composting is done to animal waste, and it involves: 1. Providing a porous base layer of carbon material such as wood chips, 2. Mixing or layering waste with carbon material for the core of the windrow, and 3. Capping the mixture with carbon material. The process consists of two phases: an active phase followed by a curing phase. The active phase is characterized by aerobic reactions resulting in a large reduction in the volume of biodegradable solids. Core pile temperature would rise to 57– 60 °C within 15 days and then be maintained for several days. Turning the pile may be required to maintain the desired temperature. For intact large-animal carcasses, turning is not recommended. In the curing phase, aeration is not as critical. During this period, a series of slowrate reactions, such as the breakdown of lignin occur at temperatures below 41 °C (Miller and Flory 2018).

6.5.13 Burning Open burning is practised for burning carcasses of infected animals. It involves constructing a bed of combustible materials on which carcasses are placed done which more combustible material is placed, and the pile is ignited. Open burning has little opportunity for regulation of emission. The method can result in incomplete, smoke-filled, and low-temperature combustion which may not effectively inactivate all pathogens. The process can transport active pathogens by air, spreading the pathogenic agent (Miller and Flory 2018).

6.5.14 Rendering Rendering (Fig. 6.19) is usually done to inedible waste remaining after slaughtering. The rendering process is done either by “wet” or “dry” processes. In the wet rendering process, steam is injected into the rendering tank with the waste being rendered. In dry rendering, steam is confined in a jacket that surrounds the tank containing the waste being rendered. The waste is taken from storage and is usually ground and blended which is then pumped, conveyed, or placed by use of a bucket loader, into a tank in which the rendering process takes place. Live steam at 40–60 psig is introduced, and the rendering process takes place. In some cases, pH is adjusted. Sometimes, other chemicals are introduced. As the rendering process proceeds, fats and oils are drawn off the top of the tank. The remaining liquid called “stick water,” containing the protein material is usually evaporated and added to animal feed.

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Waste

Grinder

Rendering system

Centrifuge

Disintegrator

Evaporation of Protein material

Fig. 6.19 Schematic diagram of rendering process

Dry rendering involves placing the waste to be rendered in a steam-jacketed rendering system that is placed under vacuum (Ranade and Bhandari 2006).

6.5.15 Above-Ground Burial Above-ground burial is practised in farms to dispose of infected animals. It involves the disposal of animal carcasses within a trench excavated (into native soil to a depth of 60 cm) on the farm, which is much shallower than the trench for deep burial and includes a base of a carbonaceous material (about 30 cm thick layer) such as straw or wood chips to increase microbial activity and minimize groundwater contamination from carcass leachate. Excavated soils are placed back in the trench, forming a mound on which the vegetative cap is established, and the perimeter of the mound is trenched to prevent the entry of surface water into the system. After decomposition of carcass, the disposal site can be levelled and returned to its previous use (Miller and Flory 2018).

6.6 Radioactive Waste Management of radioactive waste from HCEs should follow appropriate national legislation. The waste may be suitable for release after some days to a few years. If a release is not permitted as per law, waste should be returned to the supplier/producer of the original material. Waste that can neither be returned nor released to the supplier/producer should be destined to a disposal facility or a facility for long-termstorage for future disposal after treatment or conditioning of waste. Containers of radioactive waste should be marked as ‘RADIOACTIVE WASTE’ with the radiation symbol. The container should be labelled with information required

6.6 Radioactive Waste

291

by statute such as origin of the waste, period of storage required, quantity, responsible person, etc. Storage (Fig. 6.20) facilities for radioactive waste shall have: • • • • • • • • • • • • •

A record-keeping mechanism about all the information required as per statute, Adequate capacity to store waste generated prior to treatment, or transportation, Adequate ventilation, Arrangement for air sampling and radiation alarms, Compartments to store various kinds of waste, Demarcation as required by regulatory authority, Fire control/detection equipment as required by per statute, Fire-resistance and have lockable doors, Impermeable floor constructed in a way that it can be easily decontaminated, Movable radiation shielding to protect workers from radiation, Non-flammable walls and floors, Protection to waste from weather, and Simple construction. Treatment and conditioning

Fig. 6.20 Radioactive waste storage

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6 Biomedical Waste

Treatment is carried out to enhance the characteristics of waste before storage/ disposal. The basic objectives of the treatment are: Volume reduction (for liquid waste: evaporation under controlled conditions, for solid waste: low-force compaction, shredding, and controlled incineration). Removal of radionuclides (for liquid waste: ion exchange, for solid waste: decontamination). Change of composition (for solid waste: not applicable, for liquid waste: precipitation/filtration). Treatment processes can result in the generation of secondary radioactive wastes (spent resins, contaminated filters, sludge, ash), and they should be managed appropriately. Conditioning is used for converting radioactive waste to a form which is more suitable for handling. The operations include (1) placing the waste in suitable containers, (2) immobilization of radioactive waste in concrete, (3) and providing additional packaging. Precautions for handling radioactive waste 1. Disposal of sharps containing radioactive residues shall be carried out after storing the same until radiation reaches permissible limits, 2. Radioactive solid waste should not be treated by autoclave or microwave, 3. Solid radioactive waste like bottles, glassware, and containers shall be deformed/ mutilated before disposal to avoid reuse, 4. Radioactive waste shall be stored for decay in labelled containers, under lead shielding, until radiation reaches permissible limits, 5. Spilled radioactive waste shall be retained in suitable containers until the radiation reaches permissible limits, and 6. Patient’s excreta after diagnostic procedures shall be checked frequently for radioactive contamination.

6.7 Mercury in Biomedical Waste HCEs contain an array of mercury-containing products, e.g., medical instruments, clinical laboratory chemicals (fixatives, stains, reagents, preservatives, dental amalgam, electrical equipment, mercury cells (batteries), fluorescent lamps, and cleaning solutions. Mercury-based instruments used in HCEs include: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Barometers in respiratory therapy, Esophageal dilators (bougie tubes), Feeding tubes, Gastrointestinal tubes, Intraocular pressure devices, Miller Abbott tubes and Cantor tubes (used to clear intestinal obstructions),

References

(g) (h) (i) (j) (k)

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Sphygmomanometers (used for measurement of blood pressure), Strain gauge, Thermometers (used for measurement of body temperatures), Urinometer, and X-ray machines.

Breakage of the above instruments can result in a potentially hazardous spillage affecting humans and environment. Strategies for management of mercury-containing waste in HCE include: (a) (b) (c) (d)

Separation of reusable and non-reusable mercury-containing products, Recycling mercury-containing goods, Proper handling/disposal of mercury and mercury-contaminated waste, and Using alternatives for products that contain mercury.

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Chandrappa R, Das DB (2012) Solid waste management: principles and practice. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg Christine HK, Linda SM, Robert JM (1997) Sharps disposal containers: selection evaluation and use. J Am Biol Saf Assoc 2(4):47–57 Clean Technology Centre (2014) Reducing waste in irish healthcare facilities results, guidance, and tips from a waste prevention programme. Clean Technology Centre, Cork Institute of Technology, Cork CPCB (2016) Guidelines for management of healthcare waste as per biomedical waste management rules, 2016, CPCB, Delhi DAHDR (Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries), Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India (2006) Action plan of animal husbandry for preparedness. Control and Containment of Avian Influenza Daughton CG (2003) Cradle-to-cradle stewardship of drugs for minimizing their environmental disposition while promoting human health. II. Drug disposal, waste reduction, and future directions. Environ Health Perspect 111(5):775–85. Green S (2003) Sewer disposal of pharmaceutical waste. Tri-Tac Diaz LF, Eggerth LL, Enkhtsetseg S (2001) Anejo de Residuos de Establecimientos de Salud en Guayaquil, Ecuador; Pan American Health Organization: Quito, Equador Diaz LF, Eggerth LL, Enkhtsetseg S, Savage GM (2008) Characteristics of healthcare wastes. Waste Manag 28(7):1219–1226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2007.04.010 Eker HH, Bilgili MS (2011) Statistical analysis of waste generation in healthcare services: a case study. Waste Manag Res 29:791–796 Eleyan D, Al-Khatib Issam A, Garfield J (2013) System dynamics model for hospital waste characterization and generation in developing countries. Waste Manag Res 31:986–995 El-Salam MMA 2010) Hospital waste management in El-Beheira governorate, Egypt. J Envrion Manag 91:618–629 European Environmental Bureu (2018) The problem of pharmaceutical pollution. https://eeb.org/ the-problem-of-pharmaceutical-pollution/. Accessed on 6 May 2023 FAO (2012) Avian influenza. http://www.fao.org/avianflu/en/background.html. Accessed on 1 Mar 2012 Fayez A, Hani AQ, Atallah R (2008) Site investigation on medical waste management practices in northern Jordan. Waste Manage 28:450–458 Gupta S, Boojh R, Mishra A, Chandra H (2009) Rules and management of biomedical waste at Vivekananda Polyclinic: a case study. Waste Manage 29:812–819 Gusca J, Kalnins SA, Blumberga D, Bozhko L, Khabdullina Z, Khabdullin A (2015) Assessment method of healthcare waste generation in Latvia and Kazakhstan. Energy Procedia 72:175–179 Hackley D, Ndisanze A, Mu J, Ntakirutimana T, Barrow J (2020) Brief: waste management considerations for oral health professionals in Rwanda, microsoft Word—Policy Brief Rwanda—FINAL JAN 28 2020 (1).docx (harvard.edu). Accessed on 10 May 2023 Halbwachs H (1994) Solid waste disposal in district health facilities. World Health Forum 15:363– 367 Hani AQ, Atallah R, Fayez A (2007) Characteristics of the medical waste generated at the Jordanian hospitals. Clean Technol Environ Policy 9(2):147–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098006-0077-0 Hannan T (2015) Waste not, want not. Am J Clin Pathol 143(3):318–319. https://doi.org/10.1309/ AJCPM8FACVC0RPRG Haque MS, Sharif S, Masnoon A, Rashid E (2021) SARS-CoV-2 pandemic-induced PPE and singleuse plastic waste generation scenario0734242×20980828 Waste Manag Res J Int Solid Wastes Public Clean Assoc ISWA 39 Henry G, Heinke G (1996) Environmental science and engineering. Prentice-Hall, Englewood, NJ, USA Hossain S, Santhanam A, Nik NNA, Mohd OMK (2011) Clinical solid waste management practices and its impact on human health and environment—a review. Waste Manag 31:754–766

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Chapter 7

Hazardous Waste

Hazardous waste refers to all wastes that are dangerous for any reason. Industrial revolution and development in chemical manufacturing brought with it an array of waste, which are hazardous in nature. The treatment and disposal of hazardous waste is quite challenging and expensive. If not tackled in time, the waste will lead to contamination of soil and other materials it meets, thereby increasing the quantity of hazardous waste. Hazardous waste has drawn its significance from the fact that it can damage both health and environment even in small quantity. Hence, a separate stream of waste was defined, and effort is made to track the hazardous waste so that it will not mix with other waste/substance. Major fraction of BMW and e-waste are hazardous in nature since this quantity is growing tremendously as they are defined with new nomenclature so that channelized towards proper treatment/disposal. General definition of Hazardous waste is. A solid waste that may cause, or significantly contribute to, an augment in mortality or an amplify in serious, irreversible, or incapacitating reversible, disease; or Pose a significant present or potential hazard to the environment or human health when inappropriately treated, stored, transported, or disposed.

‘Hazardous’ waste contains substances or has properties that might make it harmful to human health or the environment not necessarily immediately although some waste can be. Some illustrative examples of hazardous waste are given in Table 7.1. Hazardous waste can damage both health as well as the environment even in small quantities. While non-hazardous waste like vegetable peal and leaves decay over a period of time, hazardous waste will have its impact (Fig. 7.1) intact over centuries if not properly stored/treated/disposed. Generation of hazardous waste can be prevented in industries by: 1. Good operating practices © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6_7

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Table 7.1 Some illustrative examples of hazardous waste Sector

Source

Example of hazardous waste

Domestic

Painting walls/doors/windows

Used containers, brushes

Insect/rodent control

Used pesticide containers

Housekeeping

Used container of toilet cleaners, disinfectants

Makeup

Used cosmetics

Vehicle servicing

Waste/used oil

Diesel generators

Waste/used oil

Commerce

Dry cleaning

Dry cleaning chemicals

Agriculture

Insect/rodent control

Used pesticide containers

Small-scale industry

Electroplating, printing, dying

Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) sludge, Used chemical containers

Large-scale industry

Refineries, petrochemicals, metallurgical industry, chemical production

Spent catalyst, off specification/ discarded product, spillages, ETP sludge

Construction

Construction and demolition

Paint/varnish containers, water proofing chemicals/containers

Event/entertainment

Cracker bursting

Burnt cracker

Health care

Sanitisation, treatment, diagnosis Used sanitizers containers, expired medicine, used laboratory chemical containers

Education

Laboratory

Fig. 7.1 Soil contamination due to hazardous waste disposal

Used laboratory chemical containers

7.1 Significance

a. b. c. d. e. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

301

Management commitment, Employee training, Maintenance programmes, Inventory control, and Spill prevention and storage

Material substitution Pollution prevention research, Process modification, Recycling, recovery and reuse Waste exchanges

7.1 Significance SDG Target 12.4 calls to attain the environmentally sound management of chemicals as well as waste throughout their life cycle and significantly decrease their release to the environment. Unaccounted hazardous waste may come from small businesses, residences as well as farms. Absence of or difficulty to access hazardous waste collection services, weak enforcement, mixing with municipal waste and/or disposal through illegal dumping or open burning, diversion into the informal sector (UNEP 2021). Sustainable Development Goal 12 addresses hazardous waste issue through Target 12.4 measured by indicator reproduced below: Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns: Target 12.4: By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with the agreed international frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air, water, and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment. Indicator 12.4.2: Hazardous waste generated per capita, and the proportion of hazardous waste treated, by type of treatment. Proportion of hazardous waste treated, and total quantity of hazardous waste generated during the reporting year is calculated with following formula (UNEP 2021) Proportion of hazardous waste treated (%) Quantity of hazardous waste treated during there porting year × 100 = Total quantity of hazardous waste generated during the reporting year Total quantity of hazardous waste generated during the reporting year Quantity of hazardous waste generated in the reporting year = Domestic Material Consumption in the reporting year

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Numerous hazardous waste generating industries have relocated to the developing countries and some more in the process of relocation due to associated low management cost, absence/weak of laws as well as non-stringent enforcement of legislation. On the other hand, the developing countries invite investment to boost the economy and create employment. The end result is the generation of hazardous waste which is often mishandled leading to adverse impact on environment in addition to public health. The quantity of hazardous waste generated in industries is often erroneously reported to avoid statutory obligation. The hazardous waste is often tipped off in virgin environment including forest and sensitive water bodies. The coastal area has advantage to tip off the waste into ocean. The waste may be pumped into underground or spread on the ground and covered with a layer of soil. Some time, the waste is set fire and reported as fire accident by waste by generators/handlers cutting the waste treatment, and disposal costs. Developing nations face a numerous problem in tackling hazardous wastes that includes: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii)

Poor control over waste and pollution disposal Ignorance by generators Indiscriminate dumping of hazardous waste Disposal of hazardous waste with municipal solid waste Limited resource, Hazardous waste management is not a priority, The government administration is blogged with other socio-political issue.

Historically, several hazardous waste mismanagement practices have been documented. Dumping perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) since the 1940s, by Du Pont during the production of Teflon associated with serious health problems such as cancer and birth defects (Liu et al. 2021). But undocumented episodes are more compared to documented episodes like Bhopal gas tragedy (discussed in Chap. 13), love canal incident (discussed in Chaps. 11 and 12), valley of drums (Box 7.1), and the Baia Mare cyanide spill (Box 7.2). Box 7.1 Valley of Drum Case Study The Valley of the Drums located in Bullitt County, Kentucky, USA, is a 23-acre site. It was used as a waste disposal site from 1967 to 1977 wherein the site owner at that time excavated pits on the site and emptied the contents of waste drums into the pits before recycling the drums (Nikfar and Rahmani 2014). In January 1979, the USEPA conducted emergency response actions at the site that included segregating and organizing the drums on site. EPA recorded 17,051 remaining drums at the site, including 11,629 empty drums (USEPA 2023).

7.2 Precautions to Be Taken Storage and Transportation of Hazardous Waste

303

Box 7.2 The Baia Mare Cyanide Spill Breach in the tailing dam of the Aurul SA Baia Mare Co., on 30 January 2000, resulted in spill of around 100,000 m3 of cyanide. The metal-rich liquid waste was released into the river system near Baia Mare in northwest Romania from where pollutants flowed into the Tisza (Tisa) river and finally into the Black Sea through the Danube river resulting in death of aquatic organisms as well as animals living close to the poisoned rivers (Soldán et al. 2001).

7.2 Precautions to Be Taken Storage and Transportation of Hazardous Waste There have been many losses involving hazardous waste ranging from small to large fires to vapour cloud explosions. Some losses are localized to a drum, whereas in some cases, community evacuations may be required. Fires, explosion and release of toxic gases can happen for any of the following reasons: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

Cooling water system rupture, Disgruntled employee(s), Disaster Electrical outage, Equipment failure, Faulty equipment, Fugitive emissions from process, Improper identification of chemical combinations, Improper release of contaminated water, Inadequate system, Incorrect combination of chemicals, Incorrect identification of chemical, Incorrect identification of chemical properties, Lack of control of vapour emission, Mixed incompatible reactive and/or ignitable waste, Operator error, Poor maintenance of tank trucks, Pressure transient, Processing failure, Rail car transfer Spill from bulk container Welding on out-of-service tank, Welding sparks ignited vapour.

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Hazardous waste transport involves multiple players which include carriers, shippers, manufacturers, freight forwarders, distributors, emergency responders, government regulators, etc. Further hazardous materials demand proper tracking and safety precautions. Considering all constraints principles for hazardous materials transportation can be listed as 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Act to reduce risk, Commitment towards the risk reduction, Communicate risk reduction priorities, Improve efficiency continuously, and Interaction with those involved in hazardous materials transport chain, Promote risk reduction culture, and Share knowledge about risk.

Proper transportation should have 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Emergency management plan, Good tracking system, Safe vehicles, System to respond to emergencies, and Trained personnel/regulators,

Each personnel involved in the transportation of hazardous waste (like packaging, preparing the shipping paper or labelling the drum) must have training with respect to the applicable law and methodology. But, in reality it may not happen (Fig. 7.3) as organizations are understaffed to cut the expenditure. In many countries, the regulating agencies themselves lack the knowledge. All hazardous waste must be correctly identified, and the shipping paper shall have the following documents: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Basic description of waste, Consignee’s name and address, Details of destination, Details of weight and volume, Emergency response contact number, Emergency response information, Immediate precautions to be taken during accident/incident, Information on immediate health hazards, fire or explosion, Methods for handling spills or leaks, Preliminary first aid measures, Shipper’s name and address, and Type and kind of package.

All the information is usually incorporated in mandatory forms stipulated in legislation Fig. 7.2. The above information shall be supplemented with an MSDS and Emergency Response Guidebook. But such information does not serve the purpose if the driver

7.3 Characteristics and Quantity

Records at point of generation

Manifest for generator, regulator and waste receiver

305

Labelling the container

Material safety data sheets for transporter, regulator and waste receiver

Labelling Vehicles

Records at treatment and disposal facility

Fig. 7.2 Records and manifest used at different stages of transportation Fig. 7.3 Example of a wrong practice of hazardous waste transportation

is illiterate, which is the case in many developing countries. Hiring a literate driver some time may not be possible due to the low salary associated with the job. In a nutshell, such complexity leads to increase in hauling costs and would place greater burden on the waste generators.

7.3 Characteristics and Quantity There are four basic characteristics to look at corrosivity, ignitability, reactivity, and toxicity with respect to hazardous waste. Most countries have used a definition based on a comprehensive listing of the following factors (Batstone et al. 1989): • Particular types of hazardous wastes, • Industrial processes, and

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7 Hazardous Waste

• Presence of substances, either specific or classes which is hazard to human health and or environment. List of hazardous wastes commonly included in the list of hazardous waste globally is given in Table 7.2. The use of inclusive lists provides a simple approach. The US Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) identifies wastes likely to leach hazardous concentrations of toxic constituents into the groundwater due to improper management. In the procedure, constituents are extracted from the waste and analysed to determine if it possesses any of the toxic contaminants. If the concentrations of a particular toxic constituent exceed the level prescribed, then waste is classified as hazardous. Apart from the list of hazardous waste and concentration stipulated in TCLP results legislations stipulate characteristics (Table 7.3). As per the Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989 (as amended, May 2003) of India: “Hazardous waste” means any waste which by reason of any of its physical, chemical, reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive or corrosive characteristics causes danger or is likely to cause danger to health or environment, whether alone or when in contact with other wastes or substances, and shall include— (a) Wastes listed in column (3) of Schedule-1, (b) Wastes having constituents listed in Schedule-2 of their concentration is equal to or more than the limit indicated in the said Schedule, and (c) Wastes listed in Lists ‘A’ and ‘B’ of Schedule-3 (Part A) applicable only in case(s) of import or export of hazardous wastes in accordance with rules 12, 13, and 14 if they possess any of the hazardous characteristics listed in Part B of Schedule-3.

As per the Hazardous Wastes (Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2008 which supersede the Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989. “Hazardous Waste” means any waste, which by reason of any of its physical, chemical, reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive or corrosive characteristics causes damage or is likely to cause danger or is likely to cause danger to health or environment, whether alone or when in contact with other wastes or substances and shall include: (i) Waste specified in column (3) of Schedule I, (ii) Wastes having constituents specified in Schedule II if their concentration is equal to or more than the limit indicated in the said Schedule, and (iii) Wastes specified in Part A or Part B of the Schedule III in respect of import or export of such wastes in accordance with rules 12, 13, and 14 or the wastes other than those specified in Part A or Part B if they possess any of the hazardous characteristics specified in Part C of that Schedule.

As per the Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016:

7.3 Characteristics and Quantity

307

Table 7.2 Hazardous waste commonly included in list of hazardous waste globally Sl. No.

Process

Hazardous waste

1

Chemical processing of ores containing heavy metals

• Process residues • Spent acid

2

Cleaning, emptying as well as maintenance of petroleum oil storage tanks including ships

• Ballast water containing oil from ships • Cargo residue and sludge containing chemicals • Cargo residue, washing water, and sludge containing oil • Sludge and filters contaminated with oil

3

Production of crude oil and natural gas

• Drill cuttings excluding those from water-based mud • Drilling mud containing oil • Sludge containing oil

4

De-contamination of barrels/containers used for handling of hazardous wastes/chemicals

• Chemical-containing residue from decontamination • Sludge from treatment of wastewater arising out of cleaning/disposal of barrels/containers

5

Manufacturing electronic goods

• Process wastes/residue • Spent etching solvents/ chemicals

6

Handling of hazardous chemicals and wastes

• Empty barrels/containers/ liners contaminated with hazardous chemicals/ wastes • Contaminated cotton rags or other cleaning materials

7

Hardening of steel

• Cyanide-, nitrate-, or nitrite-containing sludge • Spent hardening salt

8

Hazardous waste treatment Processes

• Sludge from wet scrubbers • Ash from incinerator/flue gas cleaning residue • Concentration or evaporation residues

9

Industrial operations using mineral or synthetic oil as lubricant in hydraulic systems or other applications

• Used/spent oil • Waste cutting oils • Wastes/residues containing oil

10

Leather tanneries

Chromium bearing residue and sludge (continued)

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7 Hazardous Waste

Table 7.2 (continued) Sl. No.

Process

Hazardous waste

11

Manufacture of asbestos or asbestos-containing materials

• Asbestos-containing residues • Discarded asbestos • Dust/particulates from exhaust gas treatment

12

Manufacture of canvas/ textiles

Chemical residues

13

Manufacture of caustic soda and chlorine

• Brine sludge • Mercury bearing sludge generated from mercury cell process • Residue /sludge and filter cakes

14

Manufacture of iron, steel, and other ferrous alloys

• Benzol acid sludge • Decanter tank tar sludge • Residues from coke oven by product plant • Sludge from acid recovery unit • Spent pickling liquor • Tar storage tank residue

15

Manufacture of mineral acids

• Process acidic residue, filter cake, dust • Spent catalyst

16

Manufacture of nitrogenous and complex fertilizers

• Carbon residue • Chromium sludge from water cooling tower • Sludge or residue containing arsenic • Spent catalyst

17

Manufacture of organic-silicone compound

Process residues

18

Manufacture of phenol

• Residue or sludge containing phenol • Spent catalyst (continued)

7.3 Characteristics and Quantity

309

Table 7.2 (continued) Sl. No.

Process

Hazardous waste

19

Manufacture of primary and secondary aluminium

• Cathode residues including pot lining wastes • Drosses as well as waste from treatment of salt sludge • Flue gas dust as well as other particulates • Sludge from off-gas treatment • Tar containing wastes • Used anode butts • Vanadium sludge from alumina refineries

20

Manufacture or industrial use of synthetic dyes, dye-intermediates, and pigments

• Dust from air filtration system • Process waste sludge/ residues containing acid, toxic metals, organic compounds • Spent acid/catalyst/solvent

21

Manufacture/use of solvents

• Contaminated aromatic, aliphatic, or naphthenic solvents may or may not be fit for reuse • Spent solvents • Distillation residues • Process Sludge

22

Manufacture/formulation of drugs/pharmaceutical and healthcare product

• Date-expired products • Off specification products • Process Residue and wastes • Spent carbon/catalyst/ solvents

23

Manufacture/formulation of pesticides including stockpiles

• Process wastes or residues • Sludge containing residual pesticides • Date-expired and off specification pesticides • Spent solvents/catalysts/ acids

24

Manufacture/formulation of wood preservatives

• Chemical residues • Residues from wood alkali bath

25

Manufacture/use of cadmium and arsenic and their compounds

• Residues containing cadmium and arsenic (continued)

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7 Hazardous Waste

Table 7.2 (continued) Sl. No.

Process

Hazardous waste

26

Manufacture/use of paints, pigments, lacquers, varnishes, and inks

• Process wastes, residues, and sludge • Spent solvent

27

Manufacture/use of glues, organic cements, adhesive, and resins

• Wastes or residues (not made with vegetable or animal materials) • Spent solvents

28

Manufacture of plastics

• Spent catalysts • Process residues

29

Metal surface treatment

• Acidic and alkaline residues • Copper etching residues • Phosphate sludge • Plating metal sludge • Sludge from bath containing organic solvents • Sludge from staining bath • Spent acid/alkali • Spent bath/sludge containing sulphide, cyanide/ toxic metals

30

Petroleum refining or reprocessing of used oil or recycling • Oil sludge or emulsion of waste oil • Organic residue from processes • Slop oil/catalyst • Spent clay containing oil

31

Petrochemical processes and pyrolytic operations

• Furnace or reactor residue and debris • Oily sludge emulsion • Organic residues • Residues from alkali wash of fuels • Tarry residues and still bottoms from distillation

32

Primary production of zinc or lead or copper and other non-ferrous metals except aluminium

• Arsenic-bearing sludge • Flue gas dust from roasting • Non-ferrous metal bearing sludge and residue • Process residues • Sludge from scrubbers

33

Pulp and Paper Industry

• Spent chemicals • Corrosive wastes arising from use of strong acid/ bases • Process sludge containing absorbable organic halides (continued)

7.3 Characteristics and Quantity

311

Table 7.2 (continued) Sl. No.

Process

Hazardous waste

34

Purification and treatment of exhaust air/gases, water, and wastewater

• Exhaust air or gas cleaning residue • Spent ion exchange resin containing toxic metals • Chemical sludge from wastewater treatment • Oil and grease skimming • Chromium sludge from cooling water

35

Purification of organic compounds/solvents

• Any process or distillation residue • Spent carbon or filter medium

36

Secondary production of copper

• Flue gas dust as well as other particulates • Sludge and filter cakes • Spent electrolytic solutions

37

Secondary production of lead

• Lead bearing residues • Lead ash or particulate from flue gas • Acid from used batteries

38

Secondary production/ use of zinc

• Flue gas dust and other particulates • Other residues from processing of zinc ash or skimmings • Sludge and filter press cake arising out of production of Zinc Sulphate and other Zinc Compounds • Zinc fines or dust or ash or skimmings in dispersible form

39

Commercial dry cleaning processes

• Still residues from solvent distillation, • Spent filter cartridges, • Cooked powder residue, • Spent solvents, • Unused perchloroethylene

40

Furniture/Wood Manufacturing and Refinishing, wood cleaning and wax removal, refinishing/ stripping, staining, painting, finishing, brush cleaning, and spray brush cleaning

• Ignitable wastes, • Toxic wastes, • Solvent wastes, • Paint wastes (continued)

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7 Hazardous Waste

Table 7.2 (continued) Sl. No.

Process

Hazardous waste

41

Construction, Paint preparation and painting, carpentry and floor work, other specialty contracting activities, heavy construction, wrecking and demolition, vehicle and equipment maintenance for construction activities

• • • • • •

Ignitable wastes Toxic wastes Solvent wastes Paint wastes, Used oil Acids/bases

42

Diagnostic and other laboratory testing

• • • • •

Contaminated materials Reaction products Spent solvents Testing samples Unused reagents

43

Vehicle maintenance Degreasing, rust removal, paint preparation, spray booth, spray guns, brush cleaning, paint removal, tank cleanout, installing lead-acid batteries, oil and fluid replacement

• Acids/bases • Batteries • Ignitable wastes • Paint wastes • Solvents • Toxic wastes • Unused cleaning chemicals • Used oil

44

Printing and allied industries

• • • • • •

Acids/bases Heavy metal wastes Ink Solvents Toxic wastes Unused chemicals

45

Equipment repair

• • • • •

Acids/bases Ignitable wastes Paint wastes Solvents Toxic wastes

46

Pesticide end-users/application services

• Contaminated rinse water • Contaminated soil (from spills) • Empty containers • Ignitable wastes • Solvent wastes • Used/unused pesticides

Hazardous waste” means any waste which by reason of characteristics such as physical, chemical, biological, reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive or corrosive, causes danger or is likely to cause danger to health or environment, whether alone or in contact with other wastes or substances, and shall include— (i) Waste specified under column (3) of Schedule I,

7.3 Characteristics and Quantity

313

Table 7.3 Typical characterization of hazardous waste in legislations S.

Characteristics

Description of waste

Flammable

Exhibits the characteristic of flammability or ignitability if a sample of the waste gives off a flammable vapour at temperature less than 60 °C

No. 1

Under standard temperature and pressure, capable of causing fire through friction Ignitable compressed gas Oxidizer 2

Corrosive

Liquid waste with a pH less than or equal to 2 or greater than or equal to 12.5 Liquid waste that corrodes steel at a rate greater than 6.35 mm per year at a test temperature of 55 °C Solid waste when mixed with an equivalent weight of water, produces a solution having a pH 2 or pH 12.5 Solid waste when mixed with an equivalent weight of water, generates a liquid that corrodes steel at a rate more than 6.35 mm per year at a test temperature of 55 °C

3

Reactive or explosive

Usually unstable and readily undergoes violent change without detonating Reacts violently with water or forms potentially explosive mixtures with water When mixed with water, toxic gases, vapours, or fumes are formed in a quantity sufficient to present a danger to human health or the environment Cyanide or sulphide bearing waste which, when exposed to pH conditions between 2 and 12.5, can generate vapours, toxic gases or fumes in a quantity that would endanger environment or human health Capable of detonation or explosive reaction if it is subjected to a strong initiating source or if heated under confinement Readily capable of explosive decomposition or detonation or reaction at standard temperature and pressure Forbidden explosive

4

Toxic

Waste constituents listed are equal to or more than the permissible limits prescribed in the law Has an acute oral LD50 less than 2500 mg/kg Has an acute dermal LD50 less than 4300 mg/kg Has an acute inhalation LC50 less than 10,000 PPM as a gas or vapour Has acute aquatic toxicity with 50% mortality within 96 h for zebra fish (Brachidanio rerio) at a concentration of 500 mg/l in dilution water (continued)

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Table 7.3 (continued) Characteristics

S.

Description of waste

No. Has been shown through experience or by any standard reference test method to pose a hazard to human health or environment 5

Substances or wastes liable to spontaneous combustion

Liable to spontaneous heating under normal conditions encountered in transport, or to heating up on contact with air, and being then liable to catch fire

6

Substances or wastes By interaction with water, are liable to become spontaneously which in contact with flammable or to give off flammable gases in dangerous water emit flammable quantities gases

7

Oxidizing

While in themselves not necessarily combustible, may, contribute to, the combustion of other materials by yielding oxygen

8

Organic Peroxides

Contain the bivalent O–O structure, which may undergo exothermic self-accelerating decomposition

9

Poisons (acute)

Liable either to cause death or serious injury or to harm human health if swallowed or inhaled or by skin contact

10

Infectious

Containing viable micro-organisms or their toxins which are known or suspected to cause disease in animals or humans

11

Liberation of toxic gases in contact with air or water

By interaction with air or water are liable to give off toxic gases in dangerous quantities

12

Eco-toxic

If released, cause adverse impacts to the environment

13

Yields hazardous substance

After disposal of yields another material that show any of characteristics listed above

(ii) Waste having equal to, or more than the concentration limits specified for the constituents in class A and class B of Schedule II or any of the characteristics as specified in class C of Schedule II, and (iii) Wastes specified in Part A of Schedule III in respect of import or export of such wastes, or the wastes not specified in Part A but exhibit hazardous characteristics specified in Part C of Schedule III.

With the slight modification in definition and the list of waste in the rules the quantity of waste quantification would take new dimension. As per the Hazardous Waste (England and Wales) Regulations, 2005: Subject to regulation 9, a waste is a hazardous waste if it is— (a) Listed as a hazardous waste in the List of Wastes(1), (b) Listed in regulations made under section 62A(1) of the 1990 Act, or (c) A specific batch of waste which is determined pursuant to regulation 8 to be a hazardous waste.

7.3 Characteristics and Quantity

315

and the term “hazardous” and cognate expressions shall be construed accordingly.

As per Waste Management Regulation, 2006 of Kenya: waste considered as hazardous, shall be any waste specified in the Fourth Schedule or any waste having the characteristics defined in the Fifth Schedule, and any wastes which do not fit the said categories of classification will be treated as non-hazardous waste.

The quantity of hazardous waste generated in different countries depends on the major industrial activities in the country. As per Cirillo et al. (1994), 30% of hazardous waste is produced from electroplating as well as metal industries in Malaysia, whereas in Thailand the principal hazardous waste is generated from manufacturing (33%) and metal smelting (47%) industries. 11.9% more hazardous waste was generated in 2018 in the EU Compared with 2010, which is an increase in quantity terms from 90.8 to 101.7 million tonnes (Eurostat 2018). Industries responsible for the generation of most of the hazardous wastes are petrochemicals, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, paints and dyes, petroleum, inorganic chemicals, and asbestos. Considering infectious waste as hazardous waste in most of the definitions, human/ animal faeces and slaughterhouse waste need to be considered as hazardous waste. But, normally human faeces and animal dung is not considered as seriously as highly toxic hazardous waste. Furthermore, slaughterhouse waste and dead animals which are discussed in detail in Chaps. 2, 6, 11, and 12 are often neglected waste in developing countries and normally not included all over the world for statistical purpose. Hazardous wastes carry array of chemicals depending on origin. Hence, some characteristics may be required to take decisions on movement of such waste. Rationale for analysis of such character is given in Table 7.4. Usual practice with respect to disposal of hazardous waste is through a Treatment Storage Disposal Facility (TSDF) where a waste generator will make agreement to hand over the waste. The TSDF operator will collect the master samples of different type of waste and analyse the same. Table 7.5 gives some examples of waste analysis parameters. It is a usual practice to keep a master sample which is representative of the industry in TSDF facility for nearly period of five years as shown in Fig. 7.4. Waste generation in any manufacturing process depends on raw material and process. Proper mass balance and empirical study can provide Waste Generation Factors (WGF). For example, Hazardous WGF (HWGF) for manufacturing paracetamol (Fig. 7.5) and naproxen (Fig. 7.6) are given in Table 7.6 (CPCB 2005). HWGFs for manufacturing processes in the plastic industries are published to be in the range of 11.5–100 kg/t (Öncel et al. 2017). Data available with respect to global hazardous waste generation rates are insufficient beside situation across regions and income levels are heterogeneous. The most recently reported hazardous waste generation from World Bank (Kaza et al. 2018) indicates 0.32 kg/capita/day. New forms of waste referred as ‘nanowastes’ contain engineered nanomaterials, nanoparticles, or synthetic by-products of a nanoscale, either from production/

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Table 7.4 Parameters and rationale for analysis of hazardous waste Sl. No.

Parameters

Rationale

a

Appropriate Hazardous Constituent(s)

Identify constituent(s) for compliance with the permit limits and for safe handling of the waste

b

Ash content

Identify wastes with high particulate content that may compromise air emission compliance as well as incinerator performance

c

Chemical compatibility evaluations

Identify potential incompatibilities

d

Chlorine content/total chlorine

a. Identify wastes that may degrade liners/geotextile integrity b. Identify wastes that may degrade the integrity of chlorosulfonated polyethylene landfill liners c. Determine conformance with operational acceptance limits for chlorine content to ensure compliance with HCl controls during incineration

e

Electrical conductivity

Determine treatment performance effects from electrical conductivity

f

Flash point

a. Identify appropriate storage conditions b. Determine applicable requirements to treat, deactivate, or separately manage ignitable wastes

g

Free liquid content

Identify the presence/absence of free liquids

h

Heat content

Identify wastes that may inhibit incinerator combustion or require blending with high-BTU wastes

i

Ketones

Identify wastes that may degrade polyvinylchloride (PVC) its components

j

Liner compatibility tests

Identify wastes that may permeate or degrade synthetic liner materials

k

Oxidizing potential

Identify potential reactivity and requirements to treat or deactivate reactive wastes

l

Moisture content

Identify wastes with excessive moisture content

m

pH

a. Identify wastes that may compromise structural integrity of container and ancillary equipment b. Identify wastes that may require pretreatment to ensure optimum effectiveness of land treatment process c. Identify wastes that are not allowed to enter a landfill d. Identify wastes that may corrode incinerator or other treatment system components

n

Total and amenable cyanide/ Identify potential reactivity and relevant health and sulphide safety precautions

o

Total metals

Quantify metal concentrations to ensure that rates of application do not exceed limits specified (continued)

7.3 Characteristics and Quantity

317

Table 7.4 (continued) Sl. No.

Parameters

Rationale

p

Total Nitrogen

Identify wastes that may affect chlorosulfonated polyethylene liners

q

Total petroleum hydrocarbons

Identify wastes that may degrade polypropylene geotextiles

Table 7.5 Examples of waste analysis parameters Sr. No.

Rationale for selection

Waste parameter(s)

1

To identify (1) material to make waste container, (2) storage conditions, applicable regulation, (3) health and safety precautions

pH, total and amenable cyanide/sulphide, flash point, other appropriate constituent(s)

2

To identify (1) material to make tanks/ ancillary equipment, (2) applicable regulation, (3) applicable requirements to treat and dispose waste, (4) corrosion management, (5) health/ safety precautions

pH, flash point, oxidizing potential, halogens, total and amenable cyanide/ sulphide, appropriate hazardous constituent(s)

3

To identify (1) wastes that may need pretreatment to ensure optimum effectiveness, (2) relevant health/safety considerations, (3) effects from electrical conductivity, (4) applicable regulations

pH, total metals, electrical conductivity, total and amenable cyanide/sulphide, appropriate hazardous constituent(s)

4

To identify (1) the presence/absence of free liquids, (2) material that affect landfill liners, (3) relevant health/safety precautions, (4) applicable regulations

Free liquid content, pH, total chlorine, total nitrogen, liner compatibility, chemical compatibility, evaluations, total and amenable cyanide/ sulphide, appropriate hazardous constituent(s)

5

To identify (1) wastes that may inhibit combustion or require mixing with high-calorific wastes, (2) moisture content, (3) possible air pollutants, (4) acceptance limits for chlorine content, (5) corrosively, (6) affect incineratorperformance, (7) applicable regulation, (8) relevant health/safety precautions

Heat content, percent moisture, chlorine content, ash content, pH, viscosity, total metals, appropriate hazardous constituent(s)

6

To identify (1)wastes that may inhibit combustion or require mixing with high-calorific wastes, (2)moisture content, possible air pollutants, (3)acceptance limits for chlorine content, (4) corrosively, (5)affect incinerator performance, (6) applicable regulation, (7) wastes that may corrode system components, (8) wastes that may not be agreeable to normal conveyance systems, (10) applicable regulation, (11) relevant health/safety precautions

pH, viscosity, calorific value, ashcontent, total metals, chlorine content, appropriate hazardous constituent(s)

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7 Hazardous Waste

Fig. 7.4 Master samples preserved at a treatment storage disposal facility (TSDF) site

Conversion of Para Nitrochloro Benzene(PNCB) to Para Nitro Phenol(PNP)

Conversoin of PNP to Amino Phenol(PAP)

Conversoinof PAP to Paracetamol

Fig. 7.5 Flow chart for manufacturing paracetamol

storage/ distribution, or consequential from the end of lifespan of nanotechnologically enabled products and materials. Since the global statistics of nanomaterials nanoparticles are incomplete, nanowastes generated each year are also unknown. Once the sample is collected, sample shall be preserved. Sample preservation techniques include (1) preserving with appropriate chemicals (e.g., adding sodium thiosulfate to reduce organochlorine reactions; adding acid to liquids containing metals and to suppress biological activity), (2) refrigerating samples, and (3) using proper container. Abbreviated waste analysis, frequently referred to as “fingerprint analysis”is done normally for specific gravity, presence of more than one phase, colour, flash point, pH, halogen content, cyanide content, percent water that will provide information to verify that the waste received matches the expected characteristics. If there is deviation in analysis results of waste received form waste characteristics of master sample, then there would be need for detailed analysis.

7.3 Characteristics and Quantity Fig. 7.6 Flow chart of manufacturing naproxen

319

Fomation of MNP[2-(6methoxy-2-naphthy) propionaldioxine] Oxime

Fomation of DLnaproxen

Formationof Naproxen & NOG(N-Octyl-Dglucamine) salt

Formation of Naproxen Crude

Purification

7.3.1 Household Hazardous Waste and Special Waste Household hazardous waste (HHW) originates in households. Examples of HHW include roof coatings, sealants, expired drugs, adhesives, glues, epoxy resins, solvent-based paints, strippers, oven cleaners, degreasers, solvents, thinners, painter removers, spot removers, toilet cleaners, polishes, waxes, solvent cleaning fluids, strippers, chimney cleaners, wood preservatives, moss retardants, chemical removers, insecticides, fungicides, rodenticides, mollusc-cides, herbicides, fertilizers, batteries, paints, gasoline, flushes, auto repair materials, solvents, cleaners, additives, motor oil, diesel fuel, pool chemicals, glues, inks, antifreeze, photo chemicals, dyes, glazes, chemistry sets, charcoal lighter fluid, household batteries, ammunition, pressurized gas containers, white gas, asbestos, fireworks, lamps, and freon recovered from white goods. The quantities of HHW vary from country to country and house to house. The quantities have been estimated to vary between 0.01 and 3.4% of MSW by weight. Use of HHP like fuels, crackers (Fig. 7.7), combustible substance with low ignitions point has resulted in fire risks all over the world many of which will go

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7 Hazardous Waste

Table 7.6 Hazardous WGF of paracetamol and naproxen S. No.

Product

Waste stream

Waste source

WGF

1

Paracetamol

Mother liquor after Hydrolysis

Crystallization, centrifugation

2.5 m3 / ton

Mother liquor after Neutralization

Crystallization, centrifugation

2.0 m3 / ton

Iron sludge

Reduction

1.10 ton/ton

Spent carbon

Carbon treatment and filtration

0.001 ton/ton

Distillation residue during formation of DL-Naproxen

Distillation

0.62 ton/ton

Spent Toluene + Sec. Butanol generation during formation of DL-Naproxen

Hydrolysis

14.46 ton/ton

Spent PAC during purification

Carbon treatment, filtration

0.03 ton/ton

Distillation Residue during purification

Distillation

0.12 ton/ton

2

Naproxen

unreported. Toxic compounds that are heated during combustion will release in the fire. HHW in MSW would result in release of toxicity at dumpsites, landfill sites and incineration plants. Hence, HHW shall be segregated and hauled for further treatment and disposal. Special waste is defined differently in different countries, legislations, and literature. As per Howard et al., special waste includes items like street sweepings, abandoned vehicle, dead animals, etc. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Fig. 7.7 Used crackers which comprise of many toxic chemicals

7.4 Storage of Hazardous Waste

321

1978 of USA termed “special wastes” and deferred hazardous waste requirements: (1) Cement kiln dust waste, (2) Crude Oil and Natural Gas Waste, (3) Fossil Fuel Combustion Waste, (4) Fossil Fuel Combustion Waste. Solid Waste Disposal Act Amendments of 1980 of USA exempted “special wastes” from regulation under RCRA until further study and assessment of risk could be performed (USEPA 2022). The Special Waste Regulations passed in 1996 in UK, special waste is clearly listed in schedule II of the regulations excluded household waste from the definition of special waste. Special or unusual waste may include items like sludge from wastewater treatment facilities, tyres, and dead animals. These special wastes should be managed in a way to protect human health and environment.

7.3.2 Hazardous Waste from Rural and Urban Area It is often understood that the industries and urban areas are the origins of hazardous wastes. Irrespective of whether a country is underdeveloped or developed rural areas do contribute the waste which is diluted within in the rural area. Even though the impact is not visible immediately, it would harm the health and environment over period of time. The common hazardous substance used in rural area includes insecticide, pesticide, fungicide, herbicide, chemical fertilizers, chemicals used for fumigation, cleaning agents used in animal husbandry. Furthermore, the use of household hazardous chemicals discussed earlier are also become part of hazardous waste from rural area. The packaging materials are either thrown haphazardly or reused after washing sufficiently. Furthermore, as discussed in the earlier chapters’ bifurcation of rural and urban area is done based on population. As the population of village grows, it is merged with adjacent urban area or legally declared as urban area. The required population for declaring a settlement as urban or rural is governed by national legislation.

7.4 Storage of Hazardous Waste Hazardous waste is stored at the points of generation and disposal. Chemical compatibility is a crucial factor when handling chemicals and packaging chemical wastes. Unexpected reactions due to incompatibility cause serious injuries and damage people and property. A well-maintained inventory as well as labelling system is the best methods of ensuring hazardous waste are managed effectively and safely. Hazardous waste needs to be stored in containers, tanks, drip pads, waste piles, containment buildings, or surface impoundments. A lot of hazardous waste is highly corrosive. Hence, so it needs to be transported in a suitable container. Some of the commonly used hazardous waste container includes:

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7 Hazardous Waste

Plastic Tight Head Drums: These are used to store flammable liquid sludge, corrosive liquid sludge, and toxic liquids. The users should leave extra space to permit fluid expansion. Plastic Open Top Drums: These are suitable for storing corrosive, flammable, and toxic solids. Metal Tight Head Drums: These drums have a sealed top with a plug and spout for accessing the contents. These are very suitable for storing and transporting most materials. Plastic drums are more suitable for corrosive elements as steel drums may corrode. Metal Open Top Drums: These drums are suitable for toxic/flammable solids. Metal drums should not be used for storing corrosive waste. Intermediate Bulk Container (IBC): An IBC is a pallet mounted, reusable container suitable for storing and transporting bulk powder and liquids. Waste piles are non-containerized piles of solid hazardous waste. Waste piles shall have double liner as well as double leachate collection and removal systems. Hazardous waste generator shall ensure that incompatible chemicals are not stored in the same container. A few general examples are: • • • • •

Acid-reactive compounds should not be mixed with any inorganic acids, Organic acids should be segregated from inorganic acids, Water reactive materials should be kept away from any water source, Oxidizers should never be mixed with organic materials or reducing agents, Vent the chemical bottles open for 24 h before reuse or disposal.

Storage at site shall be done considering the climate and safety precautions. Photographic examples of unethical practices are as shown in Figs. 7.8, 7.10, 7.11, 7.12, 7.13, 7.15, and 7.16. Fig. 7.8 Onsite storage of hazardous waste at an industry

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Storage yard of hazardous waste should be kept away from storage yard of raw materials and finished products. A dedicated storage yard (Figs. 7.9, 7.17) with proper ventilation, firefighting system (Fig. 7.14) shall be provided with access to only trained authorized personnel. The storage containers should be properly labelled (Fig. 7.18) and care should be taken to ensure waste is compatible with material of container. Storage area or sheds shall confirm following precautionary measures to avoid hazards: 1. At least 4 m distance shall be maintained between two blocks of stacked drums to avoid spreading of fire in case of fire hazard, 2. Buildings with flammable materials shall be lightning protected, 3. Capable of withstanding the load of material stocked, 4. Construction material shall be capable of resisting the spillages, 5. Floor of the storage area shall be at least 150 mm higher than the maximum flood level, 6. Floor shall be provided with secondary containment, 7. Floors shall be clean and non-slippery, Fig. 7.9 Onsite storage of hazardous waste with closed structure

Fig. 7.10 Expired drugs dumped at disposal facility

324 Fig. 7.11 Storage of used oil in underground sump

Fig. 7.12 Used oil stored in open area exposed to sun light at a bus depot

Fig. 7.13 Liquid hazardous waste stored in disposal facility

7 Hazardous Waste

7.4 Storage of Hazardous Waste Fig. 7.14 Stacking and sprinkler arrangement at waste disposal facility

Fig. 7.15 Hazardous waste stored in plastic bags in unsecured, poorly ventilated and poor lighting

Fig. 7.16 Rusted fuel tank left on ground without precautionary measure

325

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Fig. 7.17 Storage of used container

Fig. 7.18 Labelling

8. Measures should be taken to avoid entry of rainwater and runoff in the storage area, 9. Minimum of one-metre clear space shall be maintained between two adjoining rows of drums in pair, 10. Non-compatible wastes must be stored separately preferably in separate shed, 11. Open drains shall be avoided in buildings storing toxic chemicals, 12. Operation shall be done by trained staff, 13. Precaution shall be taken to store maximum 300 MT in each block, 14. Provided with adequate firefighting systems, 15. Provided with adequate storage capacity preferably 50% of the annual capacity, 16. Provided with at least two routes to escape during fire accidents, 17. Provided with the flameproof electrical fittings, 18. Roofing shall be able to keep out rainwater and the design should allow for fumes and heat to be vented out in the event of fire,

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19. Shall have adequate openings in order escape during hazards, 20. Shall have doors and approaches with suitable sizes for movement of fork-lift and firefighting equipment, 21. Shall have proper peripheral drainage system with the sump to collect accidental spills, 22. Sheds shall be constructed at least 15 m apart, 23. Sheds should be provided with automatic smoke, heat detection system, 24. Site and building shall be adequately protected from tress passers, 25. Stocks shall be frequently inspected for leakage or mechanical damage and used on a ‘first on first out’ basis, 26. The storage building shall be unheated. Where heating is required to avoid freezing of material and acceptable working condition, indirect heating by steam, warm air/water may be employed, and 27. The exhaust of vehicles in hazardous waste storage area shall be fitted with spark arrester. The container used for storage of hazardous waste shall be compatible with the hazardous wastes planned to be stored and stacking of drums should be restricted to three (except the waste with flash point less than 65.5 °C). The container shall be stored on wooden frames and necessary measures should be taken to avoid stack collapse. Drums should be opened in designated places for sampling or otherwise outside the storage areas.

7.5 Treatment and Disposal Treatment and disposal can occur at point of generation or offsite. In many countries, TSDF sites are not established. In such countries, the disposal is carried out onsite at the locations where hazardous waste is generated. Correlation of waste analysis with treatment and disposal option is given in Fig. 7.19. Fig. 7.19 Correlation of waste analysis with treatment and disposal option

Waste Identification (by detailed /abbreviated sample analys)

Identification of Incompatible and inapproproiate waste

Selection of treatment and disposal option

Process Design consideration

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Depending on whether the hazardous substance is gas/liquid/solid, the following methods are employed for hazardous waste treatment. 1. Physical treatment processes a. Gas cleaning i. Mechanical collection ii. Electrostatic precipitation iii. Fabric filter iv. Wet scrubbing v. Dry scrubbing vi. Adsorption b. Liquids-solids separation i. Centrifugation ii. Coagulation iii. Filtration iv. Flocculation v. Flotation vi. Foaming vii. Sedimentation viii. Thickening c. Removal of specific component i. Adsorption ii. Crystallization iii. Dialysis iv. Distillation v. Electro dialysis vi. Evaporation vii. Leaching viii. Reverse osmosis ix. Microfiltration x. Solvent extraction xi. Stripping d. Thermal technologies i. Incineration (rotary kiln, liquid injection, fluidized bed, catalytic, infrared, oceanic), ii. Elevated temperature fluid wall destruction, iii. Supercritical-water oxidation iv. Plasma pyrolysis v. Vitrification, vi. Using as boiler feed and industrial process, vii. Co-incineration in cement kilns, viii. Molten glass process, ix. Deep shaft wet-air oxidation x. Molten salt system, xi. Wet-air oxidation

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xii. Plasma-arc torch, xiii. Circulating-bed combustor. e. Non-thermal technologies i. Ultraviolet (UV) photolysis. 2. Chemical treatment processes a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j.

Absorption Chemical oxidation Chemical precipitation Chemical reduction Oxidation Ion exchange Neutralization Chemical fixation and solidification Dehalogenation Enzyme treatment

3. Biological treatment processes, a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

Aerobic systems Anaerobic systems Activated sludge process Rotating biological contactors Sequential batch reactor Spray irrigation Tricking filters Waste stabilization ponds

Treatment of gases/liquids often results in solids which need further treatment and ultimate disposal. A hazardous waste can be reused as an ingredient in a process, reclaimed, or used in certain ways (Table 7.7). Contaminated barrels/containers/drums contain hazardous waste/chemicals/oil and lubricants from industrial process (except pesticide and highly toxic substance like cyanide) can be reused for industrial purpose. Plastic containers can be used for production of plastic granules. Prior to cleaning of contaminated containers/drums/ barrels, the left-over or residual material in the drums should be safely transferred into a separate container for use/treatment/disposal (Fig. 7.20). Drums contaminated with oils and lubricants shall be kept in inverted position for 2–3 h. Some vapours may liberate at the time of opening cap of container. Hence, caps shall be removed in ventilated area with exhaust suction blowers. The used container which does not react with water shall be cleaned with water using nozzled hose at sufficient pressure. Normally, number of nozzles in 1 HP pump shall not exceed three numbers. The utilization of contaminated barrels/container/drums for further reuse involves two-stage cleaning, i.e., caustic/surfactant (detergent) cleaning in hot water followed by freshwater cleaning with fixed nozzles arrangements. In case of producing plastic

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Table 7.7 Examples of waste minimization and waste management option in drug manufacturing industry Sl. No.

Waste stream

1

Spent Na2 SO4 Salt

Reuse/recovery/recycle options Offsite reuse in pulp and paper mill Offsite reuse in tannery industry

2

Spent Sodium sulphate contaminated with organic solvents

Regeneration of sodium sulphate

3

Spent toluene

Sold for reuse as solvent

4

Spent powder activated carbon

Regeneration

5

Spent solvents

Regeneration

6

Distillation bottom

Use as feed stock of another process

7

Spent pickle

Use as sludge conditioner in wastewater treatment

8

Contaminated barrels/containers

Ruse after cleaning

9

Contaminated plastic barrels/ containers

Make plastic granules for reuse

10

Phosphogypsum from phosphoric acid plant

Use as soil conditioning for alkaline soil Use as fertilizer in agriculture Use in cement manufacturing to control the setting time of cement as a retardant Use in production of plaster, gypsum fibre boards, plaster boards, and gypsum block

Fig. 7.20 Draining of chemicals from used containers

granules from plastic drums, drums used of non-toxic substances shall undergo twostage cleaning followed by shredding.

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7.5.1 Stabilization and Solidification Stabilization and solidification (Figs. 7.21 and 7.22) of hazardous waste have been widely used as pretreatment before landfills. Stabilization is a process of mixing additives to waste to minimize the rate of migration of contaminant to environment. Solidification is a technique of encapsulating the waste, to form a solid material. Fixation is often used as synonym for stabilization. Successful stabilization involves any of the following mechanisms or combination of these mechanisms: (1) absorption, (2) adsorption, (3) detoxification, (4) macroencapsulation, (5) microencapsulation, and (6) precipitation. Absorption is a process wherein contaminants are taken into sorbent and are electrochemically bonded to stabilizing agents. Detoxification is a process wherein toxicity of a substance is reduced. Macro-encapsulation is mechanism wherein Fig. 7.21 Vehicle mounted mixer at a TSDF facility for mixing stabilizers

Fig. 7.22 Mixing platforms at a TSDF site

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constituents of hazardous waste are physically entrapped in larger structural matrix. Microencapsulation is mechanism wherein constituents of hazardous waste are entrapped in the crystalline structure of solidified matrix. Precipitation is the formation of a solution or another solid during a chemical reaction or diffusion. The following paragraphs discuss some of the stabilizing and solidifying agents, which are widely used. Some proprietary mixtures available in the market can also be used after testing their properties. Cement Hydration of cement form’s crystalline structure resulting in rock like hardened mass and is best suited for inorganic waste. Due to high pH of cement, the metals are retained in the form of insoluble carbonate or hydroxide. Lime Lime is a general term for the different forms of calcium oxide/hydroxide and smaller amounts of magnesium oxide/hydroxide. Waste and soil stabilization using lime is widely established (Sherwood 1993; Chaddock and Atkinson 1997; Aggregate Advisory Service 1999). Lime forms hydrates of calcium silicate, calcium alumina, or calcium alumino-silicate depending on the constituents of hazardous waste and hence typically best suited for inorganic contaminants. Lime can also be added to acidic waste along with other stabilizing agents. Organically Modified Clay Organically modified clay is achieved by replacement of inorganic cations of the clay by organic cations. Such clay will adsorb organic molecule within the crystalline structure of clay. Thermoplastic Materials Thermoplastics include bitumen as well as sulphur polymer cement (Lin et al. 1995, 1996). Bitumen may be used on their own or in combination with cement (British Cement Association 2001). Thermosetting Organic Polymers Thermosetting polymer is mixed with hazardous waste in the presence of monomer such as urea–formaldehyde that acts as a catalyst. Pozzolanic Material Pozzolan is a material that exhibits cementitious properties when combined with calcium hydroxide. Pozzolanic materials include cement kiln dust, ground blast furnace slag, and fly ash. Natural pozzolanic materials are volcanic in origin and have cementations properties. Some natural pozzolans which are non-cementitious may become pozzolanic when heated (Taylor 1997).

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Secondary Stabilizing Agents These are materials that are not effective on their own but can be used in combination with lime or cement. The secondary stabilizing agents include pozzolans, which can react with lime and water to produce cementitious material. Silica-fume which is a by-product of smelting process for silicon metal and ferrosilicon alloy production has an amorphous structure and a high SiO2 content, coupled with a large surface area (20 m2 /g). It can be used with cement in quantities up to 5%. Ash from rice husk was found to contain pozzolanic materials for addition to cement (Ajiwe and Okeke 2000; Cisse et al. 1998; Real and Alcala. 1996; Riveros and Garza 1986).

7.5.2 Incineration and Co-incineration Improper disposal will only increase quantity of waste as the contaminated soil will also require treatment (Fig. 7.23). Incineration is a widely used method for combustible hazards. Incineration can be done in any of the following kiln or combusting devices: (1) multiple hearth, (2) fluidized bed, (3) recirculating fluidized bed, (4) liquid injection, (5) fume, (6) rotary kiln, (7) cement kiln, (8) large industrial boiler, (9) multiple chamber, (10) cyclonic, (11) auger combustor, (12) twostage combustor, (13) catalytic combustion, (14) oxygen enriched, (15) molten salt combustor, and (16) moving belt combustor. Other waste incineration devices include boilers as well as industrial furnaces which include • Aggregate kiln, • Blast furnace, Fig. 7.23 Improper disposal will only increase quantity of waste as the contaminated soil will also require treatment

334

• • • • • • • • •

7 Hazardous Waste

Cement kiln, Coke oven, Halogen acid furnace, Lime kiln, Methane reforming furnace, Phosphate kiln, Pulping liquor recovery furnace, Smelting, melting, and refining furnace, Titanium dioxide chloride process oxidation reactor.

Many industrial as well as commercial facilities are equipped with boilers fired by heating oil, coal, or natural gas. Hazardous wastes can be burnt in industrial boilers provided that the wastes are designated hazardous based exclusively on the characteristic of ignitability. Modern incinerators combine solid waste combustion with heat recovery. The heat recovery can be done to generate steam or to dry leachate and slurries. The air from incinerators will pass through air-pollution control system. The rotary kiln incinerator is widely used as it can be used for a wide variety of wastes including liquid and gaseous waste. A rotary kiln system is shown in Fig. 7.24, and close view of kiln is shown in Fig. 7.25. It includes requirements for feeding, air injection, ash collection and air pollution control. A rotary kiln system can be constructed with a waste heat boiler for the purpose of recovering energy. The waste heat boiler decreases the temperature of the gas, thereby allowing use of fabric filter, for particulate control. Apart from bag filter, other air pollution control equipment employed with incinerator include wet/dry scrubber. Electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is not suitable in presence of combustible material in hazardous waste. The induced draft fan is provided to maintain a negative pressure in the system to avoid leaking of a gas out of the kiln system. Fig. 7.24 Hazardous waste incinerator

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335

Fig. 7.25 Close-up view of a rotary kiln

In a cement kiln, combustion conditions are severe than in many waste incinerators. During cement manufacture, limestone as well as other additives are exposed to temperatures from 1375 to 1540 °C with the end-product being a solid material called clinker. The use of these kilns for destruction of hazardous waste is practised since long time. Cement kilns (Fig. 7.26) operate at a temperatures of 1400 °C to 1650 °F and provide long residence time which is sufficient to destruct Principal Organic Hazardous Constituents (POHCs). Cost of thermal energy in cement manufacturing contributes to about 30 to 40% of the cost associated with cement production, hence, co-processing of hazardous waste in the cement industry is a viable concept. Cement kiln co-incineration reached nearly 50% of the market share with respect to hazardous waste incineration in France. In some countries the plants operate with nearly 60% alternative fuel (Battelle 2002). Fig. 7.26 Cement kiln

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Around 3.98 million tonnes out of about 7.4 million tonnes of hazardous wastes generated in India annually is recyclable and can be used for resource or energy recovery (CPCB 2017). Some of the co-incinerating facilities avoid some wastes, e.g., (1) nuclear waste, (2) asbestos-containing waste, (3) wastes containing heavy metals, (4) electronic scrap, (5) explosives, (6) mineral acids, (7) medical/infectious waste, (8) chemical or biological weapons, (8) entire batteries, and (9) unknown or non-specified waste, (10) material restricted by local regulation. Such wastes are avoided usually because of one or many of the following reasons: (1) personnel in cement kilns are not sufficiently skilled to handle some type of waste, (2) kilns are not equipped with proper pollution control equipment, (3) limited knowledge about the consequences of incinerating waste, (4) sentiments of the customers (use of biomedical waste comprising body parts during manufacture of cement, (5) local legislation, (6) business risk, (7) logistics, (8) impact on quality of final product, and (9) safety issues. Waste can be introduced into cement kiln via (1) the main burner located at the outlet end of rotary kiln, (2) feed chute at inlet end (for lump fuel), (3) secondary burners to the riser duct, (4) precalciner burners, and (5) feed chute to the precalciner (CPCB 2011).

7.5.3 Landfill Even though incineration is a preferred mode of disposal, landfill (Fig. 7.27) is the best available technology as on date for disposal of non-combustible waste. Hazardous waste has to be land filled in landfills constructed and operated exclusively for the purpose. Unlike in MSW landfill (where no description is made about different waste), hazardous wastes are tracked from the source till they are placed in mapable units called cells. These cells are formed in order to avoid placing of incompatible substance adjacent to each other which could lead to hazardous reactions. Drummed wastes are usually aligned and covered with other wastes which are compatible with each other. Drums may be placed in single lifts or stacked. Use of daily cover may not be feasible in hazardous waste landfill sites as the placement of uncontaminated clean soil uses landfill space. Further, daily covers create anisotropic environment leading to seepage along daily cover. Hence, in order to overcome operational difficulties, the landfilled areas are covered with geomembranes to avoid entry of rainwater in the hazardous waste already placed in landfill.

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Fig. 7.27 Arrangement of non-compatible waste types in a hazardous waste disposal site

7.5.4 Precautions and Practices During Incineration and Land Filling Hazardous Waste The major precautions to be taken during handling hazardous waste are the compatibility, reactivity, combustibility, and explosivity of the waste. High precautions have to be taken to know what is being fed into an incinerator. Explosive chemicals may not only damage the facility but also affect its working life. Reactive and corrosive materials often affect the material of construction on incinerator and lining material of landfills. Hence, precautions have to be taken with respect to the lining materials and chemicals that react with the lining material. The poor maintenance and operation of air pollution equipment in hazardous waste incinerator would often emit toxic gases. Properties of these gases may not be fully understood yet by the scientific community. The location of disposal facility has to be considered after knowing sensitivity and disaster vulnerability of the location. The knowledge of the staff operating the facilities is also important and any accident or unsafe incidents could lead to loss of lives and property. Unlike MSW landfill site hazardous waste disposal sites are not located near each ULB. Figure 7.28 shows phases of siting. Characteristics to be considered for site selection include • • • • • • • • •

Site volume, area, and configuration, Geology of the area, Proximity to hazardous waste generation location, Climate, Soil characteristics, Slope, Drainage, Vegetation, Depth,

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Fig. 7.28 Phases of siting List candidate sites Relative ranking Preliminary environmental assessment Detailed environmental assesement Finalise site

– Bed rock – Aquifer • Degree of contamination • Direction and rate of groundwater flow, • Distance, Drinking water wells, Surface water, Ecological area, Settlement, Highways, Monuments, Historic/archaeological area, Existing land use. Preliminary data for desk top assessment for selection of hazardous waste before reconnaissance survey include a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l.

Topographic maps, Soil maps, Land use plans, Transportation maps, Water use plans, Flood plain maps, Geologic maps, Aerial photograph/satellite imagery, Ground water maps, Rainfall data, Wind map, Seismic data.

Preliminary boreholes and geophysical investigation shall be done preferably to a depth of not less than 20 m below-ground level to assess:

7.5 Treatment and Disposal

a. b. c. d. e.

339

Depth to bed rock Ground water level and quality, Permeability of each stratum, Soil type and stratification, Strength and compressibility parameters.

Hazardous landfill shall have the following essential components (CPCB, 2001). a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

A final cover system at the top of the landfill Closure and post-closure plan, Environmental monitoring system, Gas collection and treatment facility, Leachate collection and treatment facility, Liner system to prevent migration of leachate, Surface water drainage.

The lay out for landfill facility shall have following details (CPCB 2001): a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k.

Access roads, Emergency exit, Equipment shelters, Fencing and green belt, Gas management facility, Office space, Surface water drainage, Temporary waste storage facility, Waste inspection facility, Water monitoring wells and environmental monitoring facilities, Weighing scales.

In most cases, hazardous wastes are initially deposited below in natural or excavated depression. Hazardous wastes delivered to a landfill site are placed in a manner such that only compatible wastes are disposed together by placing in separate area or in individual control cells within a single larger landfill. Control-cell generally has a height of 4.9–6.1 m. Cell dimensions may vary for drums and contaminated soils (Figure 7.29). The use of mined space for hazardous waste storage and disposal is economically viable (Stone 1989). Record keeping is also important with respect to the waste disposed. The source and characteristics of hazardous waste in different cells within the landfill shall be properly recorded as it will be essential in later date if there is any damage to lining or landfill due to unavoidable circumstances. Record keeping is essential as the facility management cannot depend on institutional memory indeterminately as people do quit the job various reason besides retiring. A good facility shall maintain following records:

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7 Hazardous Waste A

B

C

D

E

F

D

E

F

G

F

G

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A

B Container Soil Clay or Flexible-membrane liner covered earth separation berm

Fig. 7.29 Conceptual diagram of control cells for hazardous waste disposal

A. Site Manual 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

All permissions/licences, Closure and post-closure plan, Construction plans, Data collected during site selection, Design details, Environmental Impact Assessment report, Environmental monitoring programme, Gas management plan, Landfill layout and its phases, Leachate management plan, Regulations, agencies, and resources, Site investigation and characterization data, Site safety plan, Topographical map.

B. Site reports 1. Environmental monitoring data a. Air, b. Water,

References

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

341

c. Soil, d. Noise, e. Meteorology, Medical check-up of employees, Weighbridge data, Waste inspection data, Materials in stores, Bills/accounts, Visitor record, Complaints records, Topographic survey at operating phase, Photographic record at operating phase, Waste filing plan and actual progress, Leachate generation and gas generation, Weather/climatic data, Accidents.

C. Vehicle inspection: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Vehicle make, size, registration numbers, Records of waste, Incoming weight, Outgoing weight, Fingerprint analysis

References Aggregate Advisory Service (1999) Improving poor ground conditions. Lime and cement stabilisation of weak clay soils. Aggregates Advisory Service Digest 058 Ajiwe VI, Okeke CA (2000) A preliminary study of manufacture of cement from rice husk ash. Biores Technol 73:37–39 Batstone R, Smith JE, Wilson D (1989) The safe disposal of hazardous wastes the special needs and problems of developing countries, vol I. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. Battelle Memorial Institute (2002) Toward a sustainable cement industry. In: An independent study commissioned by world business council for sustainable development British Cement Association (2001) Cement-Based stabilisation and solidification for the remediation of contaminated land. Findings of a Study Mission to the USA. British Cement Association Publication 46.050 Chaddock BC, Atkinson VM (1997) Stabilised sub-base in road foundations: structural assessment of benefits. Transport Research Laboratory Report 248 Cirillo RR, Chiu S, Chun KC, Cozelmann, Carpenter RA, Indriyanto SH (1994) Hazardous waste management in the pacific basin. Argonne National Laboratory and the East-West Center Cisse IJ, Temimi M, Laquerbe M (1998) Addition of rice husk ash as filler in concrete. Indian Concr J 72:241–242 CPCB (2001) Criteria for hazardous waste landfills, Hazardous waste management series: HAZWAMS/17/2000-01, CPCB, Delhi

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CPCB (2005) Identification of hazardous waste streams, their charecterissation & management option in bulk drugs & pharmaceutical Sectors. Central Pollution Control Board, Delhi CPCB (2011) Report on co-incineration of hazardous waste in cement kilns in central zone CPCB (2017) Guidelines for pre-processing and co-processing of hazardous and other wastes in cement plant as per H&OW (M & TBM) rules, 2016, CPCB, Delhi Eurostat (2018) Waste statistics. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title= Waste_statistics#Hazardous_waste_generation. Accessed on 28 July 2022 Kaza S, Yao L, Bhada-Tata P, Van WF (2018) What a Waste 2.0: a global snapshot of solid waste management to 2050. World Bank Group, Washington D.C. Lin SL, Lai JS, Chian ESK (1995) Modifications of sulfur polymer cement (SPC) stabilization XE “Stabilization” and solidification (S/S) process. Waste Manage 15:441–447 Lin SL, Cross WH, Chian ESK, Lai JS, Giabbai M, Hung CH (1996) Stabilisation and solidification of lead in contaminated soils. J Hazard Mater 48:95–110 Liu Z, Li X, Shi S (2021) An ethical analysis model to DuPont’s PFOA event based on consequentialism perspective.https://doi.org/10.2991/aebmr.k.210601.025 Nikfar S, Rahmani N (2014) Valley of the drums. In: Wexler P (ed) Encyclopedia of Toxicology, 3rd edn. Academic Press, pp 903–904. ISBN 9780123864550. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012-386454-3.00667-9 Öncel MS, Bekta¸s N, Bayar S, Engin G, Çalı¸skan Y, Salar L, Yeti¸s Ü (2017) Hazardous wastes and waste generation factors for plastic products manufacturing industries in Turkey. Sustain Environ Res 27(4):188–194. ISSN 2468-2039.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.serj.2017.03.006 Real C, Alcala MD (1996) Preparation of silica from rice husks. J Am Ceram Soc 79:2012–2016 Riveros H, Garza C (1986) Rice husks as a source of high-purity Silica. J Cryst Growth 75:126–131 Sherwood PT (1993) Soil stabilisation with cement and lime. HMSO, London Soldán P, Pavonic M, Bouˇcek J, Kokeš J (2001) Baia mare accident-brief ecotoxicological report of Czech experts. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 49:255–261. https://doi.org/10.1006/eesa.2001.2070 Stone RB (1989) Disposal in mines and salt domes. In: Freeman MH (ed) Standard handbook of hazardous waste treatment and disposal. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York Taylor HFW (1997) Cement chemistry, 2nd edn. Thomas Telford Press, London UNEP (2021) Global chemicals and waste indicator review document. Nairobi USEPA (2022) Special Wastes https://www.epa.gov/hw/special-wastes accessed on May 16 2023 USEPA (2023) A.L. Taylor (Valley of Drums) Brooks, KY Cleanup Activities https://cumulis.epa. gov/supercpad/SiteProfiles/index.cfm?fuseaction=second.Cleanup&id=0402072#bkground. Accessed on May 16 2023

Chapter 8

Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment

Waste from electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) or end-of-life electronics implies discarded electrical and electronic equipment (EEE). E-products are increasingly used in buildings, transport systems, medical monitoring and e-textile1 (Parajuly et al. 2019). While WEEE includes non-electronic goods, e-waste includes waste from only electronic goods, some literature does not make differentiation between the two. Rising levels of e-waste and their unsafe treatment/disposal pose noteworthy risks to the human health, environment, sustainable development, and to achieve SDGs. A better understanding and data on e-waste will help address the following SDGs related to environmental protection, health as well as employment and economic growth reproduced below: SDG 3—Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages, SDG 6—Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all, SGD 8—Promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all, SDG 11—Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable, SDG 12—Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns, SDG 14—Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable development. Reasons for generation of WEEE are given in Fig. 8.1. As per the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016 of India: ‘e-waste’ means electrical and electronic equipment, whole or in part discarded as waste by the consumer or bulk consumer as well as rejects from manufacturing, refurbishment and repair processes; 1

Fabrics that enable electronic components such as batteries, lights, sensors, as well as microcontrollers to be embedded in them.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6_8

343

344 Obsolete Technology

End of Life

Energy inefficiency

Damage

Discontinuing manufacturing goods, consumables and spare part

Out of fashion

8 Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment Due to fast growing technology (hardware and software) old electronic goods become obsolete, e.g., electronic storage device like floppy discs are no more in use and new computer will not have drives to insert them making many of unused floopy becoming waste. Electronic goods usually have a life time of 5 to 10 years after which it will malfunction or stop functioning. End of life of cells, printer drum and cartridge may expire within few weeks from the date of using them. Most of the old electric and electronic goods are energy inefficient and hence are discarded to save energy.

Damage to electrical and electronic goods accidentally or intentionally will result in E-waste.

Many manufacturer intentionally discontinue manufacturing some of their products and spare parts to create new market to their new products. This would result in discarding equipments even in good condition due to absence of conumables like printer cardridge. With invention and design of new equipments, old equipment looks out of fashion and out dated. Hence the user of old equipment will switchover to new equipment. Such rapid changes are seen dominantly with respect to mobile phones.

Fig. 8.1 Reasons for generation of WEEE

As per the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Regulations 2013 of the UK: “waste electrical and electronic equipment” means electrical or electronic equipment which is waste within the meaning of Article 3(1) of the Waste Directive including all components, subassemblies and consumables which are part of the product at the time of discarding;

8.1 Significance

345

WEEE includes everything from white goods (Box 8.1) to television sets, microwave ovens, computers, cell phones, hand-held digital apparatuses, and toys. Box 8.1 End-of-Life White Goods “White goods” is phrase used for refrigerators, air conditioners, stoves as well as similar durable consumer goods used to be painted with a white enamel finish in olden days which is available in many colours and finishes today. Depending on the age of white goods, many of them contain switches that are mercury containing. White goods in the 1980s were insulated with asbestos. Huge quantities in combination with the fact that waste stream contain a wide range of hazardous compounds have turned WEEE into a global environmental issue. When hazardous compounds are released, they become a threat to humans as well as the environment. In addition, hazardous compounds, such as dioxins, may be formed as the WEEE components are degraded. Hence to avoid serious impacts on human health and the environment, it is crucial to ensure that WEEE is taken care of, right from collection and handling up to recycling and disposal (The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency 2011). Although e-waste can be either hazardous or non-hazardous, based on the precautionary principles, e-waste management is measured by 12.4.2 indicator on hazardous waste (UNEP 2021). The Basel convention calls on all nations to lessen export of hazardous wastes to the least amount and tackle their waste problems within national borders. WEEE recycling sector is largely unregulated. However, WEEE recycling operations in India, China, and Ghana have been well recorded (BAN and SVTC 2002; Brigden et al. 2005, 2008). The production of EEE is the fastest-growing due to intense marketing, technological innovation, and intense replacement process. The contribution of an item to WEEE production depends on the number of units in service, the mass of the item, and its average lifespan. Presence of heavy metals (like mercury, cadmium, and lead), flame retardants (like pentabromophenol, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), tetrabromobisphenolA (TBBPA), etc.), and other harmful chemicals in WEEE is a major health and environmental concern.

8.1 Significance WEEE contains more than 1000 different substances and handling of these wastes causes pollution and affects human health, and impact of improper handling and treatment of WEEE is well documented (Box 8.2). Consequences of improper disposal of WEEE are given in Fig. 8.2.

346 Increase in quantity of hazardous waste

Biomagnifications and entry of chemicals in food chain

Increase in sharps

Contamination

8 Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment Entry of WEEE into waste will increase toxicity and hence hazardous nature of the entire waste into which it enters increasing the hazardousness of the waste

Entry of WEEE into environment will increase toxicity and will lead to biomagnification in living organisms and enters human food through dairy, polutry and meat.

Broken glass, plastic and teared metal will increase the sharp objects in waste leading to increased risk of injury.

Presence of heavy metals like residual lead in the heap of lead-acid batteries will reach surface/ground water leading to contamination of water/soil

Fig. 8.2 Consequences of improper disposal of WEEE

Many developing nations, which do not have proper SWM, often neglect the hazardousness of WEEE and throw them away along with domestic non-hazardous waste. Only 8.9 Mt (20%) of e-waste is documented to be collected and recycled worldwide. Only 41 countries have official e-waste statistics and the rate of a large majority of the e-waste unknown (Baldé 2017, b) resulting in environmental degradation. Box 8.2 The Zapallal Waste Site in Peru—Case Study The Zapallal waste site in Peru which embraces 440 Ha is used for dumping and recycling of waste wherein burning of cables and lead batteries and smelting of metals are carried out by poor people living in the absolute vicinity of the site that houses consolidated urban allotments. In total, about 30,000 people live in close proximity to the waste site. Further spreading of particles from the ash piles is very high as the climate is extremely arid (The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency 2011).

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8.2 Characteristics and Quantity The total weight (excluding photovoltaic panels) of global EEE consumption is increasing 2.5 Mt/year (Forti et al. 2020). In 2019, the world generated a striking 53.6 Mt of e-waste (excluding PV panels), an average of 7.3 kg per capita (Forti et al. 2020) is expected to surge to 74.7 Mt in 2030 and reach 110 Mt in 2050 (Balde et al. 2022). Richer nations generate more. For example, Norway generates 28.5 kg per person per year, compared less than 2 kg in African nations. The rapid increase in this e-waste is driven by increasing consumption, short product life cycles as well as minor repairs. Out of 7.3 kg/capita e-waste generated in 2019 only 1.7 kg was managed in an environmentally sound manner. E-waste collection rates are high in high-income nations, but they are much lower in low- and middle-income nations: − 1.6% in sub-Saharan Africa and 1.2% in the Caribbean and Latin America (UN 2022). Electronic equipment which is of no use to the original buyer ultimately exports some WEEE to poor nations (Puckett et al. 2005). In fact, 80% of WEEE collected is exported to poor nations according to Schmidt (2006). Old functional electronic goods are frequently transported to developing nations with electronic equipment that is not functioning (Ladou and Lovegrove 2008). A detailed discussion of transboundary movement of waste and waste mafia is done in Chap. 17. As per Baldé (2017, b) EU countries generate 20 kg/capita/year, out of which: 3.1 kg—temperature exchange equipment, 2.3 kg—screens and laptops, 0.2 kg—lamps, 6.5 kg—large household equipment, 6.1 kg—small household equipment, 1.6 kg—small IT equipment. As per information published by World Bank (Kaza et al. 2018), E-waste generation rate is − 0.05 kg/capita/day in high-income nations, − 0.02 kg/capita/day in upper middle-income nations, − 0.01 kg/capita/day in lower middle-income nations, < 0.01 in low-income nations. The rate of 82.6% of e-waste generated in 2019 was uncertain (Forti et al. 2020). In middle- and low-income countries, the e-waste management infrastructure is not fully developed or absent. Therefore, e-waste is mostly managed by the informal sector under inferior conditions, causing health effects to workers (Forti et al. 2020). Since 2014 to 2019, the number of nations that adopted a national e-waste legislation/policy/regulation has increased from 61 to 78 (Forti et al. 2020). WEEE is harmful and valuable as it contains huge quantities of environmental contaminants and valuable materials (Morf et al. 2007; Robinson 2009). The value

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of raw materials in the e-waste generated worldwide in 2019 is equal to about $57 billion USD (Forti et al. 2020). High-income counties possess an e-waste management infrastructure and import some e-waste for environmentally sound treatment whereas low- and middleincome regions also imports e-waste but have inadequate infrastructure for e-waste management (Balde et al. 2022). WEEE contains many hazardous substances including heavy metals and flame retardants. Mercury is used in switches and relays, gas discharge lamps, and batteries (NEWMOA 2008). Use of liquid crystal display (LCD) in electronic goods instead of cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors will reduce the lead in WEEE (Puckett et al. 2005) but LCD will have mercury (Mester et al. 2005), indium, zinc, and tin (Li et al. 2009). PCBs contain antimony, beryllium, cadmium, lead, copper, gold, silver, brominated flame retardants, mercury, and palladium, etc. (AEA 2004; EPS Canada 2006; OECD 2003a, b). Batteries with mercury and rechargeable batteries with cadmium, lithium, and lead are of concern from environmental point of view (EPS Canada 2006). Iron/steel, plastic, and non-ferrous metal account for about 50, 21, and 13% of WEEE (Widmer et al. 2005). An older polychrome CRT can contain 2–3 kg of lead, whereas a more recent CRT usually contains less than one kg of lead. The electron gun of the CRT contains barium and barium compounds (OECD 2003a, b). Fluorescent phosphors2 containing zinc, cadmium, and the rare earth metal are coated on the interior of CRT panel. About 250 substances are used for making about a thousand marketed liquid crystals. A notebook PC display can have nearly 0.5 g of liquid crystals, whereas mobile phone display can have nearly 0.5 mg. Past studies have not confirmed carcinogenic potential even though the materials used for liquid crystals cause acute oral toxicity and irritation to the skin (AEA 2004). Following components that are of particular concern and occur frequently in EEE: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2

Asbestos waste and components that contain asbestos, Batteries, Capacitors containing polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), Cathode ray tubes, Circuit board, Components containing radioactive substances, Components containing refractory ceramic fibres, Electrolyte capacitors containing substances of concern. External electrical cables, Freons and hydrocarbons, Gas discharge lamps, LCDs Switches or backlighting lamps, Printed circuit boards (PCB), Solid material that emits light.

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• Plastics containing brominated flame retardants (BFRs), • Toner cartridges. Some of the WEEE recycling and disposal activities in the developing world are highly polluting endangering human health. Major component of commonly used rechargeable batteries is given in Table 8.1, major components in commonly used non-rechargeable batteries are given in Table 8.2, components and materials that frequently occur in EEE and that contain hazardous compounds is given in Table 8.3, and potential hazardous e-waste exposures are given in Table 8.4. Polyvinylchloride (PVC) is the widely used plastic in electrical and electronic goods which are known to emit dioxins and furans during combustion at temperature less than 1200 °C. BFRs is used in some plastics to reduce the flammability and are found in many electronic goods (Birnbaum and Staskal 2004). The global WEEE will change with economies, and technologies are developed as the total number of computers and other electronic goods are strongly correlated with a country’s GDP. EEE contains metals and other substances that are hazardous when not properly managed. The lead is found in CRT, PCBs, and other electronic components. Cadmium occurs in SMD chip resistors, infrared detectors, semiconductors, and older CRTs where in Cadmium is used as a plastic stabilizer. The largest source of Cadmium is rechargeable nickel–cadmium (Ni–Cd) batteries. Some manufacturers use Cr(VI) as corrosion protection for untreated galvanized steel plates and as a decorative coating as well as hardener for steel housing. E-Waste is also a leading source of mercury (Hg). Approximately, 22% of the yearly global consumption of mercury is used in EEE (Realff et al. 2004) in thermostats, position sensors, relays, and switches and discharge lamps, and medical equipment, data transmission, cellular Table 8.1 Major component of commonly used rechargeable batteries Type

Major components

Uses

Nickel–Cadmium (NiCad)

Nickel, Cadmium, Potassium Hydroxide

Power tools, cordless phones, professional radios

Nickel metal hydride

Nickel, some “Rare Earth” metals, Potassium Hydroxide

Power tools, cordless phones, professional radios

Lithium ion

Lithium, cobalt oxide

Computers, cellular phones, digital cameras

Rechargeable alkaline

Zinc, Manganese Dioxide, Potassium Hydroxide

Flashlights, radios, toys, remote controls, portable radios and televisions, garage door openers

Small, sealed lead acid

Lead, sulfuric acid

Alarm systems, emergency lighting. Some toys and other miscellaneous devices

Vanadium redox

Vanadium pentoxide

Electric vehicle

Lead acid Battery

Lead, lead oxide, sulfuric acid Vehicle

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Table 8.2 Major components in commonly used non-rechargeable batteries Type

Major components

Uses

Carbon–Zinc or ZincCarbon

Zinc, carbon, ammonium chloride

Flashlights, toys, remote controls clocks, and smoke detectors

Alkaline Manganese

Zinc, Manganese Dioxide, Flashlights, radios, toys, Potassium hydroxide calculators, remote controls, portable radios and televisions

Alkaline Manganese button cells

Zinc, Manganese Dioxide, Watches, calculators, toys, some Potassium hydroxide cameras

Lithium

Lithium, Manganese Dioxide or Polycarbon Monofluoride, solvent

Cameras, pagers, keyless locks

Aluminium air

Aluminium

Military applications

Zinc air

Zinc, carbon

Hearing aids, pagers

Mercuric Oxide button batteries

Mercuric oxide, Zinc, Potassium Hydroxide

Hearing aids, watches

Mercuric oxide Battery larger

Mercuric oxide, Zinc, Potassium Hydroxide

Specialized industrial, medical, emergency equipment

Nickel oxyhydroxide battery

Nickel oxyhydroxide, manganese dioxide and graphite

Flashlights, radios, toys, calculators, remote controls, portable radios and televisions

Silver Oxide

Silver oxide, zinc, potassium hydroxide

Watches, calculators, toys, greeting cards, musical books

telephones, telecommunications, switches and housing, batteries, and printed wiring boards (Pichtel 2014). The deployment of PV technology grew noticeably in recent years, reaching a cumulative global installed capacity of 222 GW at the end of 2015 (International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) 2016). Considering total global annual e-waste as 41.8 million t (Baldé 2015) cumulative PV panel waste will account 0.6% of total e-waste in 2016 but will rise significantly over the next years (IRENA and the International Energy Agency Photovoltaic Power Systems (IEA-PVPS) 2016). In the regular-loss scenario, the PV panel waste was estimated for 43,500 t by end 2016; 1.7 million t in 2030; and about 60 million t by 2050. In the early-loss scenario, the quantity estimation stands at 250,000 t by the end of 2016; 8 million t in 2030; and 78 million t in 2050. This is because the early-loss scenario assumes a higher percentage of early PV panel failure than the regular-loss scenario. Actual future PV panel waste quantity will be somewhere between the early-loss values and regular-loss. The ratio of waste panels to newly installed panels is very low at 0.1% in 2016. The proportion of global PV panel waste to new installations is likely to reach 4–14% in 2030 and to more than 80% in 2050 (IRENA and IEA-PVPS 2016). As technology advances the composition of PV panels is expected to require fewer raw materials. As of 2016, two-thirds of PV panels manufactured worldwide are crystalline silicon (c-Si) which are normally composed of more than 90% polymer, glass,

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Table 8.3 Components and materials that frequently occur in EEE and that contain hazardous compounds Components

Applications

Compounds of concern

PCBs

Ubiquitous, from beepers to PCs

Lead, Antimony in solder Cadmium, Beryllium in contacts and switches Mercury in switches and relays Gallium arsenide in LEDs BFR in plastics

Batteries

In various portable electronic devices

Please refer Tables 8.2 and 8.3

Various Hg containing components

Thermostats, sensors, relays, switches, gas discharge lamps, medical equipment and telecom equipment

Mercury

CRTs

Old TV sets, PC monitors, oscilloscopes

Lead and Antimony in CRT glass Various metals in the glass phosphor Barium in electron gun getter

LCDs

Most devices with a screen, e.g., cell phones, laptops, etc.

Liquid crystals in the screen

Plastics and polymers

Wire insulation, plastic housing, circuit boards, etc.

PVC and Teflon as polymers

Refrigerating circuits

Refrigerators, freezers, air conditioners

Freons

Toner cartridges

Laser printers, copying machines, faxes

Toner, including carbon black

BFRs, Cadmium, Lead, Organotin and phthalates as additives

and aluminium, which are non-hazardous in nature. Thin-film panels, by comparison, are more than 98% non-hazardous polymer, glass, and aluminium, combined with about 2% hazardous materials which include copper, zinc, selenium, cadmium, indium, gallium, tellurium, and lead (IRENA and IEA-PVPS 2016).

8.3 Material Recovery, Treatment, and Disposal WEEE processing is very complex due to the huge heterogeneity of its composition and its meagre compatibility with the environment. Once WEEE is transported to a materials recovery facility (MRF), and the wastes are sorted. The sorted items can be divided into reusable or recyclable categories. The first step is usually manual

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Table 8.4 Potential hazardous e-waste exposures Pollutant

Component of EEE/Secondary emission/ Concern

Organic compounds BFR (ex: Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs))

Flame retardants for electronic equipment

Brominated compounds such as brominated phenols and benzenes

Plastics and foams of electronic equipment

Dioxins

Flame retardants for electronic equipment

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)

Dielectric fluids, lubricants and coolants in generators, capacitors and transformers, fluorescent lighting, ceiling fans, dishwashers, and electronic motors

Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) and Released as combustion by product dibenzofurans (PCDFs) Polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCN)

Used extensively in capacitors and as insulating compounds in wiring

Chlorinated benzenes, e.g., hexachlorobenzene (HCB)

May be emitted during the combustion of PVC plastics and other chlorine containing materials

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

Released as combustion by product

Freons

Refrigerating agent in cooling units and during the production of insulation foam

Nonylphenol and nonylphenol ethoxylates

Used as antioxidant in some plastics

Organophosphorus flame retardants, e.g., triphenyl phosphate

Used as a flame retardant, plasticizer in photographic films and as a component of hydraulic fluids and oils

Phthalates

Used as plasticizers (or softeners) in plastics

Fluorinated compounds originating from Teflon

Used as insulator in some high-performance cables as well as connector assemblies and as a material for PCBs used at microwave frequencies

Metals and inorganic compounds Antimony

Semiconductor, flame retardant formulations in plastics, lead acid starter batteries, electrical solders, CRT glass

Arsenic

Semiconductor use in microwave frequency integrated circuits, infrared LEDs, laser diodes and solar cells

Asbestos

Formerly used in products like coffee pots, toasters, irons, heaters as well as other items that benefit from the heat resistance of asbestos

Barium

CRTs and fluorescent lamps (continued)

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Table 8.4 (continued) Pollutant

Component of EEE/Secondary emission/ Concern

Beryllium

Power supply, computers, x-ray machines, ceramic components of electronics

Cadmium

Switches, springs, connectors, PCBs, batteries, infrared detectors, semiconductor chips, ink or toner of photocopying machines, CRTs and mobile phones

Chromium (hexavalent in particular, Cr [VI])

Anticorrosion coatings, data tapes and floppy discs

Copper

Wires, cables, switches, PCBs, relays, electromagnetic motors as well as lead free solders

Lithium

Batteries

Lead

PCBs, CRTs, light bulbs, TVs, solder and batteries

Mercury

Thermostats, sensors, monitors, cells, PCPs, cold cathode fluorescent lamps, and LCD backlights

Nickel

Batteries

Selenium

Photocopying machines, photocells, light metres, solar cells, rectifiers, x-ray cameras

Tin (Sn) and organotin

PVC plastics, certain glass coating applications

Yttrium

Phosphors in CRTs, LEDs, electrodes, electronic filters, electrolytes, lasers, superconductors

Zinc

CRTs and metal coatings

Source The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (2011), Perkins et al (2014)

disassembly, where certain components are separated. Following disassembly, the technologies used for the treatment as well as recycling of WEEE include chemical, mechanical, and thermal processes. For recovery of metals, there are four main processes: mechanical, hydrometallurgy, electrometallurgy, and pyrometallurgy (Hugo and Andrea 2015). The e-waste recycling under controlled conditions usually engages: 1. Dismantling units where WEEE is dismantled and mechanically processed so that materials can be separated and further recovered, 2. Metallurgical processes to recover metals, plastics, and other materials. In an attempt to manage e-waste countries, several countries have adopted legislation to manage e-waste. Japanese e-waste recycling is based on the Promotion of Effective Utilization of Resources and the other is the Law for the Recycling of Specified Kinds of Home Appliances. Similarly, E-Waste (Management) Rules are adopted by India besides standards published by Bureau of Indian Standards

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published “IS17862: 2022 Storage Collection Dismantling and Recycling of EWaste Guidelines” to guide stake holders. The EU WEEE Directive deals with safe and responsible collection, recycling, and recovery procedures for electronic waste. Israel’s EEE and Batteries law deals with management of electronic and battery waste. e-waste management in Kenya is governed by Environmental Management and Coordination Act and the Waste Management Regulations.

8.3.1 Manual Dismantling and Sorting Manual dismantling is the first step in the recycling process is, which allows the recovery of whole homogenous parts that may be valuable, reusable, or recyclable (Cui and Forsberg 2003; UNEP 2009) following which mercury containing components are usually sent to specialized mercury recovery facilities or hazardous waste incinerators (OECD 2003a, b). Batteries are usually sent for processing to recover cadmium, nickel, mercury, and lead. Cadmium, nickel, and mercury are usually recovered through heating of the batteries in a furnace, wherein evaporated metals can be collected through condensation (IGES 2009). Lead is recovered by smelting (Fig. 8.3), the whole batteries, or parts of them in a metallurgical process (UNEP 2003). The leaded CRT glass may be put on landfill or used in the manufacture of new leaded glass or used for the recovery of lead (ICER 2004). LCDs may be sent for destruction in incineration or glass recovery facilities (OECD 2003a, b). Fig. 8.3 Typical lead smelting plant in developing country

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355

8.3.2 Mechanical Shredding and Separation Size reduction of the recyclable materials is normally achieved by shredding after which the materials are segregated into defined fractions based on their physical characteristics. Typical sorting processes involved screening, magnetic separation, eddy current separation, density separation, optical sorting, and screening. As per the US EPA (2000), the TV repair industry in the USA employed 588,000 people in 1997. Repair, which was practised in the USA decades ago, is now uneconomical, and has declined (Hai-Yong 2005). Recycling activity contains the following main steps: (a) disassembly, (b) upgrading, and (c) refining (Cui and Forssberg 2003). Figure 8.4 shows a schematic diagram of the steps at a materials recovery facility. Some facilities may skip some steps depending on sophistication of unit. Mechanical processing of WEEE, which contains a mixture of materials include classification, comminution, and separation by particle size, density difference, magnetic, and electrical properties. The magnitude of material recovery at a MRF depends on the size of the facility as well as the target electronic products (IAER 2003). Disassembly is usually carried out manually to recover components like casings, CRTs, external cables, batteries, PCBs, etc. A CRT consists of two main parts: (1) the glass components comprising funnel glass, solder glass, panel glass, and neck and (2) the non-glass components comprising plastics, electron gun, steel, copper, phosphor coating. CRT glass consists of NaO, SiO2 , CaO, ZnO, BaO, K2 O, MgO, and PbO. Figure 8.5 shows a typical process diagram for disposing of CRTs. Figure 8.6 shows typical storage and dismantling units. Usual mechanical segregation processes involved are magnetic separation for ferrous parts, Eddy current separation for non-ferrous materials (explained in detail in Chap. 4). Fig. 8.4 Schematic diagram of steps at a materials recovery facility

Sorting

Size reduction

Screening

Density depration

Eddy Current separation

Magnetic separtion

Disposal

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Collection

Cleaning

Remove case

Depressurisation

Shresdder

Cullet

Furnace

Fig. 8.5 Process diagram for disposing of CRTs

Storage

Dismantling units

CRT dismantling units

Fig. 8.6 Typical storage and dismantling units in WEEE processing units

Wire stripping to recover metal is shown in Fig. 8.7, storage of dismantled parts of electronic goods is shown in Fig. 8.8 and different parts of dismantled electronic goods are shown in Fig. 8.9.

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357

Fig. 8.7 Wire stripping

Fig. 8.8 Storage of dismantled parts of electronic goods

Plastics are coated/mixed with additives in order to make it flame retardant. The presence of such additives acts as a barrier for recycling plastic meet such demands because each electronic good uses different types of resin/colour/additives. PCB undergoes shredding and grinding to produce dusts of the material being shredded, which includes plastics, ceramic, metals, and silica (MJC 2004). As per the studies in a US-based electronics recycling facility by Michaud et al. (2003), concentration of cadmium and lead levels in air were found to be 0.27 and 1.4 µg/ m3 , respectively. Presences of BFRs in the fine dust fraction recovered were reported by Morf et al. (2005) in the off-gas purification system in a Swiss recycling plant of WEEE. The monitoring of dioxins and furans from combustion has been well documented. Figure 8.10 shows recycling options for managing plastics from end-of-life electronics. Abrasive techniques, solvent stripping, high-temperature paint removal

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Fig. 8.9 Different parts of dismantled electronic goods

methods are the other methods employed for removing coating and paint from plastics (Biddle 1999; Plastic Technology 1994). A reverberatory furnace is usually employed for recovery of lead by charging the furnace with lead-containing materials where in lead compounds will be converted into to metallic lead and other materials are oxidized to slag. Figure 8.11 shows a

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359

Mixed Plastic

Recycling Method

Chemical

Mechanical

Thermal

Recycling Process

Refinery or metal smelter

Shedding and sepration

Power genration or cement kiln

Fig. 8.10 Recycling options for managing plastics from end-of-life electronics

process for secondary lead recovery. Slag from a reverberatory furnace is charged to blast furnace with iron and limestone as fluxing agents to enhance furnace efficiency. Copper is recovered in blast furnace wherein scrap with the copper is reduced by reducing agents like scrap iron and plastics. Figure 8.12 shows processes for secondary copper recovery. The product from the blast furnace called black copper is fed into the converter for oxidation. Blister form converter with copper purity of 95% is fed into an anode furnace, where in coke or wood or waste plastic is used as the reducing agent. The copper form anode furnace can be further purified in electrolytic refinery. Precious metals like gold, silver, palladium, and platinum are recovered in precious metal refineries. A schematic diagram of precious material recovery process is shown in Fig. 8.13. Pictorial depiction of segregation of metal and plastic during processing of WEEE is shown in Fig. 8.14. Not all WEEE processing plants will be able to

Sotf lead 99.98%

Pretreatement

Reverberatory furnace

Reductant

Fig. 8.11 Process for secondary lead recovery

Salg

Balst furnace

Reductant

Hard lead to refining

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Fig. 8.12 Processes for secondary copper recovery

Pretreatment Blast furnace

Reductant

Converter Anode furnace

Reductant

Electroic refinary

recover costly metals like gold, platinum, etc. In such scenarios, the powdered metal will be sent to sophisticated plants which have recovery facility. The anode slime from the copper electrolysis is leached by pressure and the leach residue is smelted in precious metals furnace along with fluxes. Metallurgical processes involve melting and electroplating. Hydrometallurgical treatment involves acid or caustic leaching of solid material followed by isolation and concentration. Major leaching solvents used in hydrometallurgical treatment are sulphuric acid, hydrogen peroxide, aqua regia, thiourea, cyanide leach solutions, nitric acid, sodium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid, etc. (Antrekowitsch et al. 2006).

Copper anode

Silver Leach

Smelter

slime

electorlitic refining

Silver

Fig. 8.13 Precious metals recovery process

Gold, Anode

platinum,

slime

palladium

8.3 Material Recovery, Treatment, and Disposal

361

Storage

Recovery of useful component

Pulverisation

Eddy current separation

Metal

Plastic

Fig. 8.14 Processing of WEEE

Ion plating is environmentally friendly as it avoids chemical solutions. Ion plating is sometimes employed at WEEE processing facilities. It is also called ion assisted deposition (IAD) or ion vapour deposition (IVD). Ion plating is a physical vapour deposition process where in depositing material is vaporized and films of materials is deposited.

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Fig. 8.15 Solar panel

Waste from end-of-life solar panels (Fig. 8.15) provide the opportunity to recover useful materials. Crystalline-silicon solar panel is constructed with an aluminium frame, glass, polymer layers, silicon solar cells, copper wire, and a plastic junction box. The polymer layers protect the panel from exposure to weather, and high temperatures are required to loosen the adhesive. One of the major technical challenges in PV recycling is the delamination of the encapsulant material. Many methods have been tied for effective delamination including thermal processing (Wang et al. 2012), mechanical crushing (Giachetta et al. 2013; Berger et al. 2010) pyrolysis and vacuum blasting (Berger et al. 2010; Kushiya 2003), organic solvents (Kang et al. 2012; Doi 2001), ultrasonic radiation (Kim and Lee 2012), and microemulsions (Marwede and Reller 2012). Several of these components can be recycled. Typical equipment for removing impurities like glue residues or screws from the glass cullet includes crushers, magnets, sieves, eddy current devices, inductive sorters, optical sorters, and exhaust systems. The panels usually contain minute quantity of silver and copper. Other components of a solar power system include racking, inverters, and battery backup systems, which need to be recycled. Refrigerants in refrigerators, air conditioners, freezers, and other types of appliances may contain ozone depleting substances and, hence, compressor may need to be cut open in controlled condition (Fig. 8.16).

8.4 Metallurgical Processes Refining of the metals is done by metallurgical processes. In pyrometallurgical processes metals are melted, and in hydrometallurgical processes, the metals are dissolved. The crushed scraps are burnt in a furnace or in a molten bath to remove plastics. Metals such as iron, lead, and zinc are converted into oxides that will become fixed within a silica-based slag. The melt is further refined in a converter and an anode furnace where it is cast into anodes with copper. The remaining 0.9% which contains other metals are then typically refined and recovered by electrolysis in acidic solution.

8.6 Recycling of E-Waste Under Uncontrolled Conditions

363

Fig. 8.16 Compressor cutter

Hydrometallurgical processes are usually used for the final refining of the metals, following the pyrometallurgical processes. The key steps in hydrometallurgical processing consist of a series of acid or caustic leaching of solid material. Commonly used leaching solvents are solutions of cyanide, thiourea, thiosulfate, sodium hydroxide, aqua regia, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and hydrochloric acid. The metals of interest are then isolated from the solution and concentrated solvent extraction, precipitation, ion exchange, cementation, adsorption, filtration, and distillation (Cui and Zhang 2008; Antrekowitsch et al. 2006).

8.5 Recycling of Plastics Plastics in e-waste have the potential recycling value (Kang and Schoenung 2005) but still, only a minor fraction of e-waste plastics is recycled because it consists of several polymers and additives that make the recycling complicated (Schlummer et al. 2007a, b). Non-recyclable fractions have to be removed before the recyclable plastics are recycled. In the case of plastics, which cannot be melted, they will be used in products like acoustic panels used for interior of auditorium or false ceiling. Crushed glass will be used by glass article manufacturers.

8.6 Recycling of E-Waste Under Uncontrolled Conditions The informal recycling sector in developing nations is often carried out in small workshops or outdoors using basic methods (BAN & SVTC 2002).

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The typical processes used are 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Manual disassembly and recovery of valuable materials, Acid extraction of metals, Shredding, melting, and extrusion of plastics, Burning of plastics and residual materials, Collect residual toner inside printer cartridges, Dumping of residual materials.

References AEA (AEA Technology) (2004) WEEE & Hazardous Waste. A report produced for DEFRA Antrekowitsch H, Potesser M, Spruzina W, Prior F (2006) Metallurgical recycling of electronic scrap. In: Proceedings of the EPD congress 2006, 12–16 Mar 2006, San Antonio, Texas, pp 899–908 Baldé CP, D’Angelo E, Luda V, Deubzer O, Kuehr R (2022), Global transboundary e-waste flows monitor—2022, United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), Bonn, Germany Baldé CP, Forti V, Gray V, Kuehr R, Stegmann P (2017) The global e-waste monitor—2017, United Nations University (UNU), International Telecommunication Union (ITU) & International Solid Waste Association (ISWA), Bonn/Geneva/Vienna Baldé C, Forti V, Kuehr R, Stegmann P (2017) The global e-waste monitor—2017. United Nations University (UNU), International Telecommunicati on Union (ITU) & International Solid Waste Association (ISWA), Bonn/Geneva/Vienna, 2017 Baldé CP, Wang F, Kuehr R, Huisman J (2015) the global e-waste monitor—2014: quantities, flows and resources. United Nations University, Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability, Bonn BAN & SVTC (2002) The basel action network and silicon valley toxics coalition. Exporting Harm: The High-tech Trashing of Asia. Seattle WA, USA Berger W, Simon FG, Weimann K, AlsemaE A (2010) A novel approach for the recycling of thin film photovoltaic modules. Resour Conserv Recycl 54(10):711–718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. resconrec.2009.12.001 Biddle M (1999) An overview of recycling plastics from durable goods: challenges and opportunities. Indentiplast II, Belgium Birnbaum L, Staskal D (2004) Brominated flame retardants: cause for concern? Environ Health Perspect 112(1):9–17 Brigden K, Labunska I, Santillo D, Alsopp M (2005) Recycling of electronic wastes in China and India: workplace and environmental contamination. Greenpeace Research Laboratories, University of Exeter, UK Brigden K, Labunska I, Santillo D, Johnston P (2008) Chemical contamination at e-waste recycling and disposal sites in Accra and Korforidua, Ghana. Greenpeace Research Laboratories, University of Exeter, UK Cui J, Forssberg E (2003) Mechanical recycling of waste electric and electronic equipment: a review. J Hazard Mater B99:243–263 Cui J, Zhang L (2008) Metallurgical recovery of metals from electronic waste: a review. J Hazard Mater 158:228–256

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Doi T (2001) Experimental study on PV module recycling with organic solvent method. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 67(1–4):397–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0927-0248(00)00308-1 EPS Canada (2006) Electronics product stewardship Canada: environmentally sound recycling of electronics. Guidance document Forti V, Baldé CP, Kuehr R, Bel G (2020) The global e-waste monitor 2020: quantities, flows and the circular economy potential. United Nations University (UNU)/United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR)—co-hosted SCYCLE Programme, International Telecommunication Union (ITU) & International Solid Waste Association (ISWA), Bonn/Geneva/ Rotterdam Giacchetta G, Leporini M, Marchetti B (2013) Evaluation of the environmental benefits of new high value process for the management of the end of life of thin-film photovoltaic modules. J Clean Prod 51:214–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.01.022 Hai-Yong K, Julie MS (2005) Resources. Conserv Recycl 45:368–400 Hugo MV, Andréa MB (eds) (2015) Electronic waste recycling techniques. Springer, Cham, Heidelberg, New York, Dordrecht, London ICER (2004) Materials recovery from waste cathode ray tubes (CRTs). R&D report from Industry Council for Electronic Equipment Recycling (ICER). Project code: GLA15-006. March 2004. The Waste & Resources Action Programme (WRAP), Oxon, United Kingdom IGES (2009) Environmental and Human Health Risks associated with the end-of life treatment of electrical and electronic equipment. Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), Hayama, Kanagawa, Japan International Association of Electronics Recyclers (IAER) (2003) IAER electronics recycling industry report IRENA (2016) Renewable energy capacity statistics 2015, IRENA, Abu Dhabi. IRENA and IEA-PVPS (2016) End-of-Life management: solar photovoltaic panels. Int Renew Energy Agency Int Energy Agency Photovoltaic Power Syst. https://www.irena.org/-/media/ Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2016/IRENA_IEAPVPS_End-of-Life_Solar_PV_Panels_ 2016.pdf. Accessed on Sept 4 2022 Kang HY, Schoenung JM (2005) Electronics waste recycling: a review of U.S. Infrastructure and technology options. Resour Conserv Recycl 45:368–400 Kang S, Sungyeol Y, Jina L, Bonghyun B, Hojin R (2012) Experimental investigations for recycling of silicon and glass from waste photovoltaic modules. Renew Energy 47:152–159. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.renene.2012.04.030 Kaza S, Yao L, Bhada-Tata P, Van WF (2018) What a waste 2.0: a global snapshot of solid waste management to 2050. World Bank Group, Washington D.C. Kim Y, Lee J (2012) Dissolution of ethylene vinyl acetate in crystalline silicon PV modules using ultrasonic irradiation and organic solvent. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 98:317–322. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.solmat.2011.11.022 Kushiya K (2003) Progress in Large-Area Cu (In, Ga) Se2-Based Thin-Film Modules with the Efficiency of ver 13%. In: Proceedings of the 3rd world conference on photovoltaic energy conversion, Osaka Ladou J, Lovegrove S (2008) Export of electronics equipment waste. Int J Occup Environ Health 14:1–10 Li JH, Gao S, Duan HB, Liu LL (2009) Recovery of valuable materials from waste liquid crystal display panel. Waste Manag 29:2033–2039 Marwede M, Reller A (2012) Future recycling flows of tellurium from cadmium telluride photovoltaic waste. J Res Conserv Recycl 69:35–49 Mester A, Fraunholcz N, van Schaik A, Reuter MA (2005) Characterization of the hazardous components in end-of-life notebook display. Light Met 2005:1213–1216 MJC (2004) Screening level human health and ecological risk assessment for generic e-waste processing facility. MJC & Associates for Environment Canada

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Morf LS, Tremp J, Gloor R, Huber Y, Stengele M, Zennegg M (2005) Brominated flame retardants in waste electric and electronic equipment: substance flows in a recycling plant. Environ Sci Technol 39:8691–8699 Morf LS, Tremp J, Gloor R, Schuppisser F, Stengele MRT (2007) Metals, non-metals and PCB in electrical and electronic waste—actual levels in Switzerland. Waste Manage Res 27:1306–1316 NEWMOA (2008) Northeast Waste Management Officials’ Association: IMERC fact sheets on mercury uses. Available from: http://www.newmoa.org/prevention/mercury/imerc/factsheets OECD (2003) Technical guidance for the environmentally sound management of specific waste streams: Used and Scrap Personal Computers OECD (2003) Technical guidance for the environmentally sound management of specific waste streams: used and scrap personal computers. No. 304. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Working Group on Waste Prevention and Recycling. Document: ENV/EPOC/WGWPR(2001)3/FINAL Parajuly K, Kuehr R, Awasthi AK, Fitzpatrick C, Lepawsky J, Smith E, Widmer R, Zeng X (2019) Future E-waste scenarios. StEP (Bonn), UNU ViE-SCYCLE (Bonn) & UNEP IETC (Osaka) Perkins DN, Drisse MNB, Nxele T, Sly PD (2014) E-Waste: a global hazard. Ann Glob Health 80(4):286–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aogh.2014.10.001 Peters-Michaud N, Katers J, Barry J (2003) Occupational risks associated with electronics demanufacturing and CRT glass processing operations and the impact of mitigation activities on employee health and safety. In: Proceedings of the electronics and the environment. IEEE International Symposium 2003, pp 323–328 Pichtel J (2014) Waste management practices, municipal, hazardous and industrial, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton, London, New York Plastic Technology (1994) Nissan begin recycling painted car bumpers, June 1994. p 96 Puckett J, Westervelt S, Gutierrez R, Takamiya Y (2005) The digital dump. Exporting re-use and abuse to Africa. Report from the Basel Action Network, Seattle Realff MJ, Raymond M, Ammons JC (2004) E-waste: an opportunity. Mater Today 7(1):40–45 Robinson BH (2009) (2008) E-waste: an assessment of global production and environmental impacts. Sci Total Environ 408:183–191 Schlummer M, Gruber L, Mäurer A, Wolz G, van Eldik R (2007a) Characterization of polymer fractions from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) and implications for waste management. Chemosphere 67:1866–1876 Schlummer M, Gruber L, Mäurer A, Wolz G, van Eldrik R (2007b) Characterization of polymer fractions from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) and implications for waste management. Chemosphere 67:1866–1876 Schmidt CW (2006) Unfair trade—E-waste in Africa. Environ Health Perspect 114:A232–A235 The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (2011) Recycling and disposal of electronic waste, Health hazards and environmental impacts, Report 6417, March 2011 UN (2022) The sustainable development goals report 2022. United Nations Publications, New York UNEP (2003) Technical Guidelines for the environmentally sound management of waste lead-acid batteries. Basel Convention Series/SBC No. 2003/9. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Secretariat of the Basel Convention. Châtelaine, Switzerland UNEP (2009) Guideline on material recovery and recycling of end-of-life mobile phones. Mobile Phone Partnership Initiative (MPPI)—project 3.1. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Basel Convention http://www.basel.int/Implementation/TechnicalAssistance/ Partnerships/MPPI/MPPIGuidanceDocument/tabid/3250/Default.aspx. Accessed on 27 Aug 2022 UNEP (2021) Global Chemicals and Waste Indicator Review Document. Nairobi USEPA (2000) Electronic reuse and recycling infrastructure development in Massachusetts, EPA– 901-R-00-002

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Wang TY, Du JHC (2012) Recycling of materials from silicon base solar cell module. In: Photovoltaic specialists conference, 2012 38th institute of electrical and electronics engineers, Austin, Texas, pp 002355–002358. https://doi.org/10.1109/PVSC.2012.6318071 Widmer R, Oswald-Krapf H, Sinha-Khetriwal D, Schnellmann M, Böni H (2005) Global perspectives on e-waste. Environ Impact Assess Rev 25:436–458

Chapter 9

Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

Industrial revolution was beginning of many comforts in life and so as an array of problems to the society. Rapid economic growth as well as industrial development in the latter half of the twentieth century in many OECD nations led to a rise in waste from industry. As industries started relocating to developing countries, the environmental problems associated with industry are also getting relocating. Industrializing nations have not yet developed appropriate systems to cope with waste from industries. A preventive and integrated industrial waste management plan can help industrializing nations to avoid the negative impacts and reap significant economic environmental and social benefits. Waste governed in the Waste Management and Public Cleansing Law (Waste Management Law) of 1970 in Japan classified waste into “industrial waste” or “municipal solid waste” with separate regulations and systems stipulated these categories. 20 types of waste that are generated through business activities were designated as “industrial waste” (UNEP 2013a, b). These are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Animal and plant residue, Ash, Debris, Discarded solid matter derived from animals, Dust, Livestock carcasses, Livestock excreta, Metal scraps, Paper scraps, Slag, Sludge, Waste acid, Waste alkali, Waste glass and ceramics, Waste oil,

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6_9

369

370

9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

Fig. 9.1 Sludge from chemical industry

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Waste plastics, Waste rubber, Waste textiles, Wood chips, and Matter resulting from the treatment of the above-mentioned industrial waste before disposal.

Industrial waste streams contain a wider variety and more concentrated form of hazardous materials requiring special technologies and handling procedures for them. Industrial waste generation is almost 18 times greater than MSW and rises as income level increases with following precipitate generation (Kaza 2018): • • • •

High income nations—42.62 kg/capita/day Upper middle income—5.72 kg/capita/day Lower middle income—0.36 Low income—No data.

Worldwide agricultural waste generation is more than four and a half times that of MSW and is most significant in nations with large farming industries (Kaza 2018) (Fig. 9.1). The type and quantity of solid wastes in port and harbour (Fig. 9.2) may vary considerably depending on the port operations and the types of ships. As discussed in Chap. 3 MARPOL Annex V obliges Governments to make sure the provision of adequate reception facilities at terminals as well as ports for the reception of garbage without causing unnecessary delay to ships, and according to the requirements of the ships using them. SIDS could satisfy the requirements for providing adequate port reception facilities through regional arrangements. Port waste management planning is important to reduce the impact of shipping on the environment. Ports are required to provide waste reception facilities, which are capable of receiving all types and quantities of prescribed waste from ships.

9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

371

Fig. 9.2 Ports and Harbour

In the tremendously competitive business, solid waste disposal is usually overlooked and solid waste disposal usually accounts for three percent of a manufacturing industry’s expenditures (Franchetti 2009). The major industrial solid wastes generators are: (1) thermal power plants generating coal ash, (2) the integrated iron and steel plants generating blast furnace slag and steel melting slag, (3) aluminium, zinc and copper industries producing red mud and tailings, (4) sugar industries producing press mud, (5) pulp and paper industries generating lime and fertilizer, and (5) industries producing gypsum. The wastes from many sectors are raw material for another sector. Bagasse from sugar industry from sugar can be used by paper industry as raw materials. Scrap metals from automobile industry can be used in foundries. Surplus yeast from bear manufacturing can go to bakeries. Waste meat from slaughter houses can go to kennel food factories. Storage of industrial solid waste is a neglected area in the many nations. Figure 9.3 shows stagnant liquid in crude storage generates huge quantity of contaminated soil which qualifies to be solid waste. Sources of generation of some major industrial wastes are given in Table 9.1. Characteristics and quantities of the waste depend on the efficiency of the management process. The order of preference in an industry for SWM seems to be: (1) avoid/ reduce, (2) source reduction, (3) in-process reusing/recycling, (4) on-site reusing/ recycling, (5) off-site reusing/recycling, (6) waste treatment, (7) secure disposal, and (8) direct release to the environment. Here are some ways to reduce manufacturing waste: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Upgrade process equipment Use high quality raw materials Conduct training Add quality checks

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9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

Fig. 9.3 Stagnant liquid in crude storage generates huge quantity of contaminated soil which qualifies to be solid waste

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Rigorous tracking of manufacturing process Cut waste generation at the source Audit supplier Work with suppliers for well-timed deliveries Reduce packaging materials Return packaging Redesign process flow

Examples to reuse waste include: 1. Switch to reusable absorbents 2. Reuse packaging material 3. Switch to reusable pellets (flat (usually wooden) structure used for storing goods or transporting freight) Ways to recycling in manufacturing include: 1. Use a waste exchange program 2. Send food waste to a local farm 3. Reclaim chemicals

9.1 Extractive Industries Extractive industries are the industries that take raw materials from the earth. Since the industrial revolution, natural resources have reinforced our global economic system.

9.1 Extractive Industries

373

Table 9.1 Source and quantity of generation of some major industrial waste S. No.

Waste

Source

1.

Brine mud

Caustic soda industry

2.

Coal washery dust

Coal mine

3.

Concrete, cinder blocks, gypsum, masonry, Construction, demolition activity asphalt, wood shingles, slate, metals, glass, and plaster

4.

Copper slag

By product from smelting of copper

5.

Date expired product

Cosmetics, food, medicine

6.

Fly ash, bottom ash, boiler slag, particulates, used oils, sludge

Coal based thermal power plant

7.

Iron tailing

Iron ore processing

8.

Kiln dust

Cement plants

9.

Lime sludge

Sugar, paper, fertilizer, tanneries, soda ash, calcium carbide industries

10.

Limestone wastes

Limestone quarry

11.

Mica scraper waste

Mica mining areas

12.

Phosphogypsum

Phosphoric acid plant, aluminium phosphate manufacturing facility

13.

Plastic, packaging, carton

Food and fast-moving consumer goods

14.

Red mud

Mining and extraction of alumina from bauxite

15.

Solid rock, slag, phosphogypsum, muds, tailings

Extraction, beneficiation, and processing of minerals

16.

Spent adsorbent, sludge

Water collection, treatment, and supply

17.

Spent catalyst, chemical solvents, reactive waste, acid, alkali, used oils, particulate waste, ash, sludge

Chemical manufacturing

18.

Steel and blast furnace slag

Conversion of pig iron to steel and manufacture of Iron

19.

Textile waste, pigments, peroxide, organic stabilizer, alkali, chemical solvents, sludge, heavy metals

Textile

20.

Wood waste, alkali, chemical solvents, sludge

Paper

9.1.1 Mining The mining (Fig. 9.4) is an extractive industry that extract minerals below the ground level. Proposed mining projects differ according to the type of materials extracted.

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9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

Fig. 9.4 Mining activities

Table 9.2 Types of solid waste from mining activity S. No. Type

Description

Management

1.

Waste rock or overburden Large mass of initial soil and Piling it on the nearby rock removed to get the surface and refilling mineral deposits

2.

Gangue

Rock waste mixed with the valuable mineral which needs to be processed

3.

Mine tailings

Finely ground rocks and Pumped with slurry pumps mineral waste that is a result into tailing ponds to capture of mineral processing and store waste

4.

Sludge

Produced at some mine sites Sludge with harmful or contaminated with radioactive material, require processing chemicals special handling and disposal methods depending on contaminant

Be reprocessed a few times to extract all the minerals from it

Mining could be underground, open surface (pit), ‘in-situ mining’1 or ‘placer mining’.2 Mining includes coal mining, landfill mining3 , metal, oil and gas extraction, and non-metal ore mining (Lawson 2020). The quantity of waste depends on mineral extracted and waste associated at site. Mining generates a huge quantity of waste (Table 9.2).

1

In-situ mining involve drilling a series of boreholes and use acids/bases to dissolve mineral deposits. 2 Placer mining is used when the material of interest is connected with sediment in a stream bed or floodplain. 3 Excavating waste from active or closed landfills.

9.2 Basic Industries

375

The mining industry can use its waste material by: • • • • • •

Construction of roads, Reprocessing to recover additional minerals, Using as granular base/subbase, flowable fill aggregate or fill, Using for construction of engineered fill or embankment, Using them as asphalt aggregate, Using them for internal construction purposes at mining area.

9.1.2 Quarrying The quarrying is the term used for operating that extract minerals from surface. Quarrying is used to remove rock, sand, gravel or other minerals. Compared to mining, quarrying operations generate small quantity of waste.

9.1.3 Oil and Gas Exploration Wastes generated from crude oil and natural gas exploration and production are given in Table 9.3.

9.2 Basic Industries Basic industries take raw material form extractive industry. This industry will add value to material generated from extract industry and generates raw material to conversion and fabrication industry. Table 9.3 Waste generated during oil and gas exploration S. No.

Process

Wastes generated

1.

Well drilling and completion stage

• Drilling fluids (drilling muds) • Cuttings • Produced water

2.

Well stimulation stage (hydraulic fracturing

• Fracturing fluid returns • Produced water

3.

Well production stage

Produced water

376

9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

9.2.1 Metals The main solid waste generated from metal industries will be in the form of slag. Slag is a by-product of smelting ore to separate the metal. It usually contains a mixture of metal oxides and silicon dioxide, though slag can contain metal sulphides and metal atoms in elemental form. Solid waste from primary some of the metallurgical industries is given in Table 9.4. During smelting metals and impurities are separated by subjecting ore to high temperature. The collection of impurities that is removed is the slag. Ferrous and non-ferrous smelting processes generate different slags. The smelting of lead and copper is designed to remove the iron and silica. Slag from steel mills is designed to minimize iron loss. Red mud is generated in non-ferrous metal extraction industries like copper and aluminum. Red mud can be used for making corrugated sheets.

9.2.1.1

Copper

Copper production involves three key steps: roasting, smelting and refining. Roasting is done to reduce sulphur content. Smelting is done to form copper sulphide and a siliceous slag. Electrolytic refinery will refine metal from feed material with 99.0–99.7% copper to purity of 99.95%. Roaster gases are rich in SO2 and, hence, used for manufacture of H2 SO4 . Blow down from the acid plant will be thickened and recycled for metal recovery. Overflow from the thickener as well as slurries from scrubbers, cooling of anodes, washing etc. are settled in lagoon and solids are dredged for recycling (Richard 1978). Slag from melting furnaces is reprocessed in copper smelter. Slimes from electrolytic cells are treated for metal recovery. The converter slag is crushed and ground into slurry (20% solids) and floated with xanthate and pine oil. The copper concentrate is then collected as froth and filtered on drum filters. The tails are subsequently pumped to the tailing pond. The fugitive gases generated contain SO2 and are desulphurised in multi-scrubber in the scrubbing medium of lime solution. This process results in the production of gypsum slurry which is sent to phosphorous gypsum storage pond. SO2 gas emitted from the isasmelt4 and from the converter cooled inside gas cooler dust particles are removed in an ESP. The gases from each converter are cooled and dust particles are removed in an ESP. Dust is removed in both cases in the form of slurry, which will be treated in an effluent treatment plant (ETP).

4

Energy-efficient smelting process.

9.2 Basic Industries

377

Table 9.4 Solid waste from some of the primary metallurgical industries Metal

Typical Process percent of metal in ore

Process

Iron

33.0000

Please refer Table 9.5

Please refer Table 9.5

Copper

0.6000

Reverberation Reverberatory slag

3000.00

Smelting and fire refining

Acid Plant

Lead

5.0000

waste

Acid Plant sludge 2.70 Dusts

17.00

Miscellaneous slurries

17.00

Electrolytic refining

Slurries from electrolytic refining

2.40

Blast financing

Blast furnace slag 410.00 Slag fines

Zinc

3.7000

Acid plant sludge 40.00

Sinter scrubbing

Sinter scrubber sludge

Acid plant

0.0004

19.00

Acid plant sludge 17.00 Electrolytic process

Pyrometulurgical Retorting

Gold

30.00

Acid plant

Electrolytic

Aluminum

Solid waste kg/ T of metal produced

Sludge from Electrolytic process

9.10

Retort residue

1050.00

Acid plant sludge from

122.00

Cadmium Plant residue

1.80

Bauxite beneficiation

790

Bayer process (Alumina Plant)

1000–1500.00

Aluminum Smelting

20.00–80.00

Cyanidation

1000.00 1000.00

Silver

0.0300

Cyanidation

Mercury

0.5000

Roasting Condensation

Tungsten

0.5000

Digestion

Digestion residue 50

Source Richard (1978), IFC (2007a), Sanjay et al (2006), Nicholas (2003a, b), USEPA (1985)

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9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

Table 9.5 Solid waste from secondary ferrous metallurgical industries Product

Process

Solid waste kg/T of product

Iron and steel

Coke oven sludge

2.60

Waste ammonia liquor

190.00

Blast furnace slag

200.00–400.00

Blast furnace sludge

3.00–5.00

Basic oxygen furnace slag

85.00–100.00

Basic oxygen furnace dust

145.00

Basic oxygen furnace kiln

16.00

Basic oxygen furnace sludge

0.14

Open hearth furnace slag

17.30

Open hearth furnace slag

243.00

Open hearth furnace dust

13.70

Electric furnace slag

120.00

Electric furnace dust

10.00–20.00

Electric furnace sludge

8.70

Soaking pit slag

35.20

Primary mill sludge

1.87

Primary mill scale

44.90

Continuous caster sludge

0.10

Continuous caster scale

8.70

Hot rolling mill sludge

1.74

Hot rolling mill scale

70.00–150.00

Cold rolling mill sludge

0.16

Cold rolling mill scale

0.05

Cold rolling mill pickle liquor

22.80

Tin Plating mill sludge

5.32

Galvanizing mill sludge

10.80

Galvanizing mill pickle liquor

5.17

Source Richard (1978), IFC (2007a), Sanjay et al. (2006), Nicholas (2003a, b)

9.2.1.2

Aluminium

The aluminium manufacturing process (Fig. 9.5) involves crushing of Bauxite followed by screening, beneficiation5 and alumina (aluminium oxide) production (by dissolving in sodium hydroxide). Beneficiation and ore washing generates tailings slurry with 79% solid waste. The three major stages in the aluminium production are extraction, decomposition and calcination. 5

The treatment of ore to improve physical or chemical properties.

9.2 Basic Industries

379

Bauxite

Crushing

Screening

Benificiation

Alumina production

Extraction

Calcination

Electrolytic smelting

Fig. 9.5 Schematicdiagram of aluminium production

Extraction: During extraction, hydrated alumina is selectively removed from other insoluble oxides by transferring it into a solution of sodium hydroxide, which is transferred to a heated pressure digester operated at a temperature between 200 and 240 °C and pressure about 30 atm. The liquor, containing the dissolved alumina, is separated from the insoluble bauxite residue, purified and filtered before delivering to the decomposer. The mud is thickened and washed to remove caustic soda and recycled. Decomposition: During the decomposition, crystalline alumina trihydrate is extracted from the digestion liquor by hydrolysis. Calcination: During calcination alumina trihydrate crystals are classified into size fractions and fed into rotary—or fluidized—bed calcination kiln to remove their water of crystallization and prepare the alumina for smelting. 1–1.5 tons of red mud is extracted for every ton of alumina/aluminium production. Electrolytic smelting of alumina for production of aluminium is carried out in steel pots lined with refractory bricks and carbon bricks. The life of the linings used in steel pots varies from three to five years and needs replacement afterwards. The lining, which has completed useful life in electrolysis pot, is called spent pot lining (SPL). SPL constituents have two cuts. Cut one is the upper portion (which contains up to 60 percent carbon) and cut two is the lower one-third of the total volume (which consists mainly of alumina or silica brick). The carbon portion of the SPL contains about 0.01–0.025% leachable cyanide and 2–8% of leachable fluoride. Apart from the spent pot lining aluminium smelter generates collector bars, black mud and metal plate as wastes which are reused at the time of relining the pots.

380

9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

Black mud is generated during recovery of cryolite from SPL. Specific waste generation from aluminium smelter ranges between 43 and 62 kg/tone of aluminium produced. Apart from on-site recovery for carbon, fluorides, cryolite SPL can be used as a raw material in iron and steel making and, cement, and red brick manufacturing industries (CPCB 1997). Red mud and blast furnace slag are major solid wastes generated in Indian metal industry amounting to approximately 3 and 12 Mt per year, respectively (Tamotia 2003; LCA Report 2003).

9.2.1.3

Iron and Steel

Steel manufacture involves five key activities: 1. Coking—heating coal in the absence of air to produce fuel high (about 90%) carbon 2. Sintering—agglomeration of fine ore particles into a porous mass for charging into the blast furnace 3. Iron-making—Production of molten iron by reducing iron (III) oxide in the blast furnace 4. Steelmaking—iron is converted to steel by forcing oxygen through the molten metal 5. Final rolling and finishing—Steel is heated and rolled into required shape In steelmaking can be done by: 1. Open hearth, 2. Basic oxygen furnace (BOF), and 3. Electric arc furnace (EAF). The open-hearth furnace has declined in popularity as it is relatively slow compared to other furnace types. Hence, steel is manufactured by EAF and BOF. The input materials in BOF are molten iron, scrap, and oxygen whereas the raw materials for EAF are electricity and scrap. Iron making and coke making precede steelmaking in the BOF process. Pig iron is produced from sintered, pelletized, iron ores using coke and limestone. The iron is then fed to a BOF in molten form with scrap metal, fluxes and high-purity oxygen. In some plants sintering (heating without melting) is done to agglomerate fines. Solid wastes from the BOF processes are slag and dust collected in air pollution control equipment. Solid wastes from coke oven contain benzene, PAHs, residues from coal tar recovery, and sludge from wastewater treatment plant (Nicholas 2003a, b). Wastewater treatment sludge are dewatered and charged to coke ovens or disposed in a secured landfill or incinerated. Solid hazardous wastes are recycled to a coke oven or disposed of in a secure landfill or fed to combustion unit.

9.2 Basic Industries Table 9.6 Solid waste from foundries

381

Source

Quantity kg/ton of castings

Furnace slag

55–120

Shot blasting dust

30–180

Molding sand

100–600

Details of solid waste from secondary ferrous metallurgical industries and foundries are given in Tables 9.5 and 9.6, respectively. Slags from integrated iron and steel plants are useful raw materials in cement manufacturing, road sub grade, flooring, aggregate in concrete and as a structural fill.

9.2.2 Chemicals Chemicals are an essential part of modern life and there is hardly any economic sector where chemicals are not used. Sectors of chemical industry are given in Table 9.7. Globally billions of people lead richer, productive and comfortable lives because of chemicals available in the world. The increasing complexity of mix of chemicals and intricate chemical wastes reveal varied gaps, lapses as well as inconsistencies in policies and corporate practices. Environmentally sound management of “toxic chemicals” dealt in Chap. 19 of Agenda 21 UN Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. A considerable use of chemicals is necessary to meet the social as well as economic goals of the global community. Absence of enough scientific information for the risk assessment, and data are major problems associated with Agenda 21, especially in the developing nations. Out of about more than 140,000 chemicals available in the market, new chemicals are used every year. More than 1000 different chemicals are used in electronics manufacture that include metals, solvents, polymers, rare earth metals, and flame retardants. The textile sector uses oils, starch, dyes, waxes, surfactants, flame retardants pesticides, and water repellants. Major chemical production for year indicated in parentheses in Mt is given in Fig. 9.6. It is difficult to estimate the total quantity of chemicals produced in the world as it includes metals and fertilizers which are produced in high quantity beside chemicals synthesized in laboratory. Chemicals manufactured in ammunition factory of defence establishment across the globe is national secrete. Global production of some of the chemicals is given in Fig. 9.6. Furthermore, global distribution of fertilizer consumption in 2009 was 101,664,000 Mt, 36,952, 000 Mt, 23,044,000 MT for nitrogen, phosphate and potassium fertilizers, respectively (FAO 2010a, b). Target 12.4 of SDG 12 states—“by 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle in accordance with the agreed international frameworks and, significantly, reduce their release to

382

9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

Table 9.7 Sectors of chemical industry S. No. Broad category

Description

Example

1.

Bulk chemicals (base chemicals)

Produced in first tier of production and include organic chemicals (petrochemicals) as well as basic inorganics. These chemicals are sold within the chemical and other industrial sectors, to make downstream products

Organic bulk chemicals: ethylene, propylene, butadiene, benzene, toluene, xylenes, and Methanol Inorganic bulk chemicals: Sulfuric acid, sodium hydroxide, metals

2.

Specialty chemicals

Chemical used for specific purposes

Adhesives industrial cleaners, sealants, cement, catalysts, coatings water management chemicals, electronic chemicals, plastic additives

3.

Agricultural chemicals

Chemicals used in agriculture

Pesticides and fertilizers

4.

Pharmaceuticals

Chemical used for treating ailments

5.

Biocides

Chemical used for killing living Pesticides, antimicrobials organisms chemicals

6.

Consumer products

Formulated chemical products that are sold to consumers

Personal care products and household cleaning products

air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment”. Chemical industry (Fig. 9.7) has a number of products in the market. The chemical industry converts raw materials such as oil, coal, air, water and minerals, into a vast array of products such as adhesives, catalysts, coatings, paints, varnish, acids, alkalis, plastic adhesives, pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, soap, detergents, personal care products, perfumes etc. Most of the output from chemical industries is used in other industries. Waste from chemical industry mainly comprises of raw material, intermediate compounds (Fig. 9.8), expired/discarded end products (Fig. 9.9), corroded machine components, packaging material and used containers (Fig. 9.10). Gypsum, which is a by product of many chemical industries, can be used for the manufacture of plaster boards, gypsum plaster, slotted tiles, and cement. Phosphogypsum generated from phosphoric acid, hydrofluoric acid plants and ammonium phosphate are useful in making cement, artificial marble, partition panel, ceiling tiles, fibre boards, etc. The major waste stream from chlor-alkali consists of brine muds from the brine purification process, which is likely to contain calcium, magnesium, iron, as well as other metal hydroxides. The mud is filtered or settled, dried and then land filled.

9.2 Basic Industries Mercury (2009)

383 1.92

Zinc (2021)

13.86

Lead (2021)

12.38

Fluorine (2008) Bromine (2008)

5.60 0.56

Chlorine (2010)

56.00

Phosphoric acid (2010)

46.00

Sulfur (2010)

77.00

Ammonia (2010)

134.00

Sulfuric acid (2010)

198.00

Lime/limestone (2008)

285.00

Toluene (2010)

19.80

Benzene (2010)

40.20

Xylenes (2010)

42.50

Butadiene (2010)

10.20

Propylene (2010)

74.90

Ethylene (2010)

123.30

Methanol (2010)

49.10 0.00

50.00

100.00

150.00

200.00

250.00

300.00

Fig. 9.6 Major chemical production for year indicated in parentheses in Mt. Source Davis (2011), Schlag and Funada (2009), Suresh (2009a), Suresh (2009b), Glauser and Kumamoto (2010), Schlag (2010), Beal and Linak (2011), Glauser (2009), Will (2009), International Lead and Zinc Study Group (2023), UNEP (2013a, b) Fig. 9.7 View of chemical industry

Solid wastes in the nitric acid plant and ammonia production comprises of spent catalysts whereas the fertilizer plants generate little solid waste from as dust and fertilizer spillage is returned to the process. The sludge from wastewater treatment plant will comprise of toxic sludge that must be disposed of in secured landfill.

384 Fig. 9.8 Waste from chemical industry stored crudely in plastic bags

Fig. 9.9 Date expiry medicine

Fig. 9.10 Used containers

9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

9.2 Basic Industries

385

Solid wastes from dyes and dye intermediate manufacturing plants include process and effluent treatment sludge, filtration sludge and container residues. The waste from dye and dye intermediate manufacturing is incinerated or land-filled depending on calorific value and infrastructure available in the country/region.

9.2.3 Paper The paper and associated products industry include three types of facilities: 1. Facilities that process raw wood fibre or processed fibre to make pulp; 2. Mills that manufacture paper or board; and 3. Facilities that use pulp, paper and board to manufacture products such as napkins, writing paper, tissue products, etc. Pulp mills separate the fibers of wood or other materials to create pulp and may create coproducts such as turpentine and tall oil. The majority of pulp mills bleach the pulp they manufacture and, when wastepaper is converted into secondary fibre, it is deinked. Paper mills manufacture paper from pulp beside converted paper products. Paperboard mills are engaged in manufacturing paperboard and converted paperboard products fibre pulp. Paperboard containers and boxes manufacturing establishments are engaged in the manufacture, of corrugated and solid fibre boxes and containers from paperboard. Miscellaneous converted paper products manufacturing establishment generate range of paper, paperboard, and plastic products with purchased material. The significant residual waste from pulp and paper mills includes bark, boiler and furnace ash, lime mud, lime slaker grits, wastewater treatment sludges, green liquor dregs, scrubber sludge, and wood processing residuals (Nazih 2009). Many of the pulp and paper manufacturing facilities operate their own kilns for regenerating lime after use to reconstitute caustic soda from sodium carbonate left over in the pulp-making process. Potential technologies and strategies for SWM from paper industry include source reduction, in-process and off-site recycling, land spread on cropland, daily landfill cover, and energy recovery (Matthew 2009). The major solid wastes of from pulp and paper industry are wastewater treatment sludge. The quantity of waste from wastewater treatment varies from 50 to 150 kg/ t of air-dried pulp (World Bank 1998). Other solid materials include (1) wastepaper, which can be recycled, (2) the bark, which can be used as fuel, and (3) lime sludge and ash, which needs to be disposed of in landfill.

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9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

9.2.4 Plastic Plastic consumption quadrupled over the past three decades. Worldwide plastics production grew twofold from 2000 to 2019 and reached 460 Mt and worldwide plastic waste generation increased more than two times from 2000 to 2019 to 353 Mt (OECD 2022). Plastics are manufactured from natural gas, petroleum and liquefied petroleum gases. Simple hydrocarbon monomers serve as the building blocks for conventional plastics. Newly formed polymers are converted into useful form by extrusion, blow molding, and injection molding wherein plastic pellets are subsequently subjected to heat and pressure. Plastic is derived from crude oil, natural gas, coal by the following steps: 1. Extraction of raw materials—Extraction of crude oil, natural gas, coal 2. Refining process—Transforming crude oil to “monomers”. 3. Polymerisation—(ethylene, propylene, butylene) are converted into polymers: (a) Addition polymerisation—One monomer connects to the next one by catalysis. (b) Condensation polymerisation- Joining different monomers, by the removal of small molecules such as water. It also requires a catalyst. 4. Compounding/Processing—Various blends of materials are mixed by melting to make formulations for plastics. The melted polymer is typically cooled in water bath assembly to solidify. After the solidification polymer formulation material is cut into pellets. 5. Moulding—Pellets are converted into finished or semi-finished product. Plastic waste can be categorised into (Athalye 1994; Milgrom 1972): • Industrial Plastics waste—Plastics waste generated by various industries • Postconsumer plastics waste—Plastics waste generated by a consumer • Nuisance plastics—Wastes plastics that cannot be reprocessed under the current techno-economic conditions • Scrap plastics—Waste plastics which can be reprocessed into commercially acceptable plastic products Waste from plastic manufacturing is given in Table 9.8. Industrial plastic scrap, being reprocessed by the industry and, thus, often considered an “avoidance of waste” is usually omitted by those researching the subject. Approximately 4.7% of the total plastics production is recycled by pre-processor and over 8% is recycled in plant. The amount of plastics waste generated by the manufacturers of commodity resins depends on such factors as the complexity of the polymerization process, the number of grades produced in a plant, and the number of

9.2 Basic Industries

387

Table 9.8 Waste from plastic manufacturing S. No.

Process

Waste

1.

Extraction of raw materials

Please refer Sects. 9.1.1 and 9.1.4

2.

Refining process

Please refer Sect. 9.2.9

3.

Polymerisation

Spent catalyst

4.

Compounding/processing

Industrial plastic waste

5.

Moulding

Industrial plastic waste

manufacturing steps. The least waste is generated in the manufacturing of polyethylene, the most in the manufacturing of PVC. Plastics waste is generated during the polymerization process (reactor scrapings, unsuccessful runs, etc.) and, shipment and storage (Gholampour and Ozbakkaloglu 2018). Recovery choices (Fig. 9.11) of plastic waste include material recovery (Figs. 9.12, 9.13, 9.14, 9.15 and 9.16).

Recovery Choice Material recovery

Mechanical recycling

Feedstock recycling

Advanced/chemical recycling

Fig. 9.11 Recovery choices for plastic waste

Energy recovery Alternate fuel

Energy generation

388

9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

Fig. 9.12 View of Plastic recycling plant with waste plastic

Fig. 9.13 Waste plastic being segregated based on density

Fig. 9.14 View of Plastic recycling plant with shredded plastic

9.2 Basic Industries

389

Fig. 9.15 Plastic filament making unit

Fig. 9.16 Plastic filament being cut into granules

Plastics in wastes can be categorized into following streams as classified in the European Waste Catalogue: (1) plastic packaging, (2) plastics in municipal solid waste, (3) plastics from WEEE, (4) plastics from the end of life vehicles (ELV), (5) plastics in C&D waste, and (6) plastics in agriculture. Major alternatives for the management of plastic waste are: (1) reusing, (2) land filling, (3) melting and reshaping, (4) feedstock recycling, and (5) energy recovery. Mechanical recycling is limited due to low purity of products and limited market for recycled products. Energy recovery is the option for contaminated plastic and complex mixture of plastic.

390

9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

9.2.5 Glass Glass is manufactured by liquefying by heating silica (SiO2 ), soda ash (Na2 CO3 ) (or potash (KCl)) and limestone (CaCO3 ) to about 1480–1570 °C along with recycled glass (cullet) if available followed by molding (Pichel 2014). Solid waste from glass manufacturing unit includes slag from the purifying of glass sand, miscellaneous containers, ash of the fuel, packaging material. Residues from the products used in coloring and breakage during manufacture. The recycling of glass is discussed in Chap. 4.

9.2.6 Textile Textile industry involves an array of different processes such as fabric production, cutting, sewing, yarning, dyeing, etc. (Patel et al. 2022). Worldwide textiles production nearly increased two time doubled between 2000 and 2015 (Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2017). Activity and type of waste from textile industry is given in Table 9.9. In 2014, textiles industry generated about 92 Mt globally with noteworthy quantity ending up in landfills or incinerated (Pensupa et al. 2017; Niinimamp et al. 2020) besides worldwide textiles waste is estimated to rise 60% per annum from 2015 to 2030, generating another 57 Mt waste every year (Niinimamp et al. 2020; Shirvanimoghaddam et al. 2020). Textile waste can be generated after use (Fig. 9.17) or at the manufacturing stage. Waste from the textile industry includes fibres damaged during storage or manufacturing. As per Akter et al. (2022), average material loss (kg) per 100 kg of end product is spinning, fabric manufacturing (weaving/knitting), wet processing (dyeing, printing, finishing), apparel production 63.3, 10, 33.6, 19.5, respectively, which include excess inventory, yarn leftovers, faulty fabrics, process loss, ejections due to quality issues, excess materials, fabric cut wastes during cutting, and the residues generated during the cloth sewing operation. Major solid waste from the garment industry factories comprises fabric waste from garment cutting amounting to 10–20% of fabric consumption. Garment cutting involves substantial quantities of paper and plastic. Waste reels/bobbins, thread, elastic etc., amounts to small fraction of total solid waste generated. Waste minimization options include: (1) reducing the quantity of packaging material, (2) purchasing chemicals in returnable drums, and (3) purchasing yarn on reusable cones. The solution for textile waste shall be addressed both at manufacturing and consumption level. The 2020 new circular economy action plan adopted by European union would help make production as well as consumption of textiles more sustainable that includes a proposal for a regulation on eco-design requirements for sustainable products, empowering consumers for the green transition, manufacturing

9.2 Basic Industries

391

Table 9.9 Activity and type of waste from textile industry Major activity

Sub activity

Fabric production

Mechanical operation of Yarn preparation cotton and synthetics Knitting

Dyeing and finishing

Garment manufacturing

Process

Waste Fiber and yarns Fiber and yarns

Weaving

Fiber, yarns and cloth scraps

Sizing, resizing, mercerizing, beaching, washing and chemical finishing

Cloth scraps

Mechanical finishing

Discarded containers

Dyeing/printing

Wool fabric: Dirt, wool, vegetable matter, waxes, discarded containers Carpets: Yarns and sweepings, selvage, flock, discarded containers Knitted fabrics: Cloth scraps, discarded containers

Packaging

Packing material

Effluent treatment plant

Discarded containers, sludge

Fabric store

Damaged fabric, packaging waste

Cutting room

Fabric pieces

Bundling room

Fabric pieces

Production floor

Defective fabric pieces

Aqueous systems

Discarded containers

Chemical process

Discarded containers

Effluent treatment plant

Discarded containers, sludge

largely of recycled fibres, free of hazardous substances produced in an environmentally friendly way, collection of textiles at the end of lifetime, and minimization of incineration and landfill (European Parliamentary Research Service 2022). Recycling technologies can be distinguished into four methods, (Muthu 2017; Patti et al. 2020): 1. Primary technique involves transforming the waste in the original form of the industrial recycling scraps;

392

9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

Fig. 9.17 Waste textile

2. Secondary technique involves mechanical recycling where in textile is cut and shred for the re-spinning or re-bonding into new yarns/materials by melting/ re-extruding/re-blending processes; 3. Tertiary technique, or chemical recycling, involves reconverting the products to chemicals/monomers/fuel; 4. Quaternary recycling involves waste burning for recovering energy.

9.2.7 Wood Products Wood products belong in two main groups: (i) solid-wood products (furniture, doors, windows etc. (ii) wood derived chemicals (bark products, cellulose ethers, charcoal, cellulose, cellulose esters, dimethyl sulfoxide, ethyl alcohol, hemicellulose extracts, fatty acids, furfural, kraft lignin, lignin sulfonates, sugars, tall oil, pine oil, rayon, rosin, turpentine, and vanillin.) and (iii) pulp and paper (Sect. 9.2.3) products. Global industrial round wood removals were 2028 million cubic meters in 2018 (FAO 2018). Nearly 30–40% of the wood would be converted into debris and will not have the same value as that of log. Debris if not managed properly will catch fire and augment the forest fires. The waste from logging will degrade within in the forest and may be collected by nearby villagers as fuel. Solid-wood products include lumber, plywood, oriented strand board and particle board. Major waste would a month 10–20% of original tree in the forest and includes tree bark, saw dust, shavings, splintered wood and trimmings. The wood waste can be used for making boards or as fuel. Waste from wood derived chemicals will depend on the processes. The waste from chemical industry is discussed in Sect. 9.2.2.

9.2 Basic Industries

393

9.2.8 Power Electricity is the key of essential of modern economies, its share of final energy consumption will be over 50% by 2050.Global net electricity generation increased from 18.0 trillion KWh in 2006 to 23.2 trillion KWh in 2015 and is likely to reach 31.8 trillion KWh in 2030 (Amr et al. 2010). Power can be generated by renewable resources or non-renewable resources (Table 9.10). Coal constitutes the largest share of global electric power production. Coal-fired power generation accounted for 41% of global electricity supply in 2006 and its share is projected to be 43% in 2030 (Amr et al. 2010). Fly ash trapped in electrostatic precipitator forms about 80% of the combustion residue in a pulverized coal-firedpower plant. A 1000 MW station using coal with 3500 kilo calories per kg as well as ash content in the range of 40–50% would require approximately 500 ha for disposal of fly ash in about 30 years’ operation. But, in the last decade use of fly ash has increased so much in cement industry that all the fly ash from major thermal power plants is collected by the cement manufacturers. Addition of fly ash has resulted in the reduction in use of lime stones and added profit to the cement industry. The fly ash can be reused for (1) as fine aggregate in concrete production, (2) for structural fills in embankments, (3) waste stabilization and solidification, (4) Table 9.10 Major electric power fuel/sources S. No.

Major electric power fuel/sources

Major solid waste and hazardous waste generated

1.

Wind

End of life machinery

2.

Hydropower

End of life machinery, waste/used oil

3.

Solar power

End of life solar panel

4.

Biomass

Sludge, end of life machinery

5.

Geothermal

End of life machinery

6.

Coal

Fly ash, bottom ash, end of life machinery, used container of chemical used for water purification, sludge from water purification

7.

Oil

End of life machinery, used container of chemical used for water purification, sludge from water purification

8.

Gas

End of life machinery, used container of chemical used for water purification, sludge from water purification

9.

Waste incineration

End of life machinery, used container of chemical used for water purification, sludge from water purification

10.

Waste bio-methanation

Sludge, end of life machinery

11.

Radioactive material

End of life machinery, spent fuel

394

9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

production of cement, (5) mine reclamation, (6) stabilization of soft soils, (7) subbase construction of roads, (8) brick production, (9) asphaltic concrete, (10) soil amendment, (11) application on rivers to melt ice, (12) application on roads and parking lots for ice control, (13) toothpaste, (14) kitchen counter tops, (15) floor and ceiling tiles, (16) precast structure, and (17) soil conditioner in agriculture.

9.2.9 Petroleum The petroleum industry or oil industry includes the global processes of exploration, extraction, refining, transportation (by oil tankers and pipelines), and marketing of petroleum products. The industry generates large quantity of hazardous waste due to presence of heavy metals and toxic organic chemicals, e.g., acetaldehyde, perchloroethylene, chlorobenzenes, nitrobenzene, aniline, methyl ethyl pyridine, carbon tetrachloride, toluene diisocyanate, acetonitrile, cumene, phthalic anhydride, benzyl chloride, trichloroethane, ethyl chloride, ethylene dibromide, trichloroethylene dimethyl hydrazine, toluenediamine, ethylene dichloride, epichlorohydrin, and vinyl chloride. The major solid wastes from petroleum industry are given in Table 9.11.

9.3 Conversion and Fabrication Industry Conversion refers to the process of converting something from one thing to another while fabrication is the process of making products by combining parts.

9.3.1 Packaging Packaging is enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. The key purposes of packaging are: 1. Physical protection—to protect packed material from mechanical shock, vibration, temperature, electrostatic discharge, compression, insect etc. 2. Barrier protection—to act as barrier to water vapour, microbes, oxygen, dust, etc. 3. Containment or agglomeration—to group small objects together in one package for reasons of storage and transportation. 4. Information transmission—to communicate information about the object inside the package regarding how to use, transport, statutory requirement, expiry date, precautions to be taken, recycle, or dispose of the package or product etc. 5. Marketing—to enhance marketing capability of the product packed.

Crude oil desalting

Atmospheric distillation and vacuum distillation

Thermal cracking/ Visbreaking

Coking

Catalytic cracking

Catalytic hydrocracking

Hydrotreating/ hydroprocessing

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

S. No. Process

Spent catalyst fines

Spent catalyst fines

Spent catalyst

Coke dust

Little or no residual waste generated

Little or no residual waste generated

Crude oil/desalter sludge

Residual waste generated

Table 9.11 Major solid wastes from petroleum industry

Aluminum silicate and metals

Metals from crude oil and hydrocarbons

Metals from crude oil, hydrocarbons, aluminiumsilicate and metals

Carbon particles and hydrocarbons

Iron rust, clay, sand, water, emulsified oil and wax

Major constituents

Metal Recovery, Leaching, Roasting, Chlorination, Electrochemical Dissolution, Reuse of Spent Refinery Catalysts for Other Applications, use as construction materials

Use as pulverized fuel for the kiln industry

Solvent extraction, ultra-high temperature gasification,oil sludge separation using cyclone, Oily sludge treatment by application of thermochemistry, Microwave heating method, Centrifugation, Electrokinetic method, Ultrasonic irradiation, Froth flotation,

Treatment

(continued)

Incineration, Stabilization/ solidification, Oxidation, Bioremediation

Disposal

9.3 Conversion and Fabrication Industry 395

Spent catalyst containing phosphoric acid

Spent catalyst fines from electrostatic precipitators

Polymerisation

Catalytic reforming

Solvent extraction

Dewaxing

Propane deasphalting

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

Little or no residual waste generated

Little or no residual waste generated

Little or no residual waste generated

Calcium chloride sludge from neutralized HCl gas

Isomerization

9.

Neutralised alkylation sludge

Alkylation

Residual waste generated

8.

S. No. Process

Table 9.11 (continued)

Alumina silicate and metals

Sulfuric acid or calcium fluoride, Hydrocarbons

Major constituents

Metal Recovery, Leaching, Roasting, Chlorination, Electrochemical Dissolution, Reuse of Spent Refinery Catalysts for Other Applications, use as construction materials

Treatment

(continued)

Combustion preceded by solvent extraction in some cases is considered an effective treatment technology for petrochemical organic wastes. Some solid wastes require stabilization before disposal in landfill

Disposal

396 9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

Wastewater treatment

16. Chemical coagulants, oil Metals, oil, suspended solids

Chemical precipitation sludge

Dissolved air floatation floats, biological sludges

Spent lime

Phenols, metals and oil

Major constituents

Separator sludge

Spent merox caustic solution, waste oil disulfide mixture

Residual waste generated

Treatment

6

Mercaptan oxidation. It is a proprietary catalytic chemical process to remove mercaptans.

Source Nicholas (2003a, b), IFC (2007b), USEPA (1994), Islam (2015), Boateng (2016)

Merox6 treating

15.

S. No. Process

Table 9.11 (continued)

Land fill

Disposal

9.3 Conversion and Fabrication Industry 397

398

9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

6. Security—to secure packed material from tampering during shipment. Primary packaging envelops the product and holds it. Secondary packaging is outside the primary packaging, used to prevent pilferage or to group primary packages together. Tertiary or transit packaging is used for warehouse storage, bulk handling, and transport shipping. Packaging material comprises of paper, metal, cardboard, plastic, wood, coir, thermocol and other materials. Thus, the waste from packing contains metal trimming, imperfect casting, and soiled/damaged packaging material (Figs. 9.18 and 9.19).

Fig. 9.18 Packaging roles

Fig. 9.19 Waste packaging roles being pulled for shredding packaging roles

9.3 Conversion and Fabrication Industry

399

9.3.2 Automotive Automotive industry is manufacturing of motor vehicles, including most components, but conventionally it excludes tires, batteries, and fuel. Growth of vehicles based on the data published by (Elert 2001) is given in Fig. 9.20. The materials used by the automobile industry in the USA were 33 Mt in 1993. The recycling and abandoned rate for automobiles in the USA is estimated to be 94% and 6%, respectively (AAMA 1997). The global fleet of light duty vehicles (LDVs) is likely to at least double by 2050 out of which about 90% will take place in non-OECD nations which import a huge number of used vehicles. The European Union (EU), Japan, and USA exported 14 million used LDVs between 2015 and 2018 (UNEP 2020). As per Eurostat (2022), 6.1 million passenger cars, vans and other light goods vehicles were scrapped in the EU in 2019 with the total weight 6.9 Mt; 95.1% of the parts and materials were reused and recovered, while 89.6% were reused and recycled. In certain developing nations, the majority ELVs flow into illicit markets or recycle dealers through informal channels (Li et al. 2019). In 2020 out of a total of 3.24 million ELVs that was discarded in China, only 74% is recycled (Xia et al. 2022). In the developed nations dismantling can be done by high-value parts dismantler or salvage scrap yards. Both of them will initially dismantle for high-value parts like starters, alternators for resale. Dismantled ELVs are sent to a shredder in flattened form for shredding which is then segregated into ferrous metal and nonferrous materials. Nonferrous material stream is segregated into metal and non-metal fractions. The useless non-metals referred to as automotive shredder residue (ASR) is land filled or sent for incineration. In the developing nations, dismantling is mostly backyard activity which is carried out in open air or primitive workshops. 1.4E+09

Number of Vehicles

1.2E+09 1E+09 800000000 Number of Cars 600000000

Number of Trucks and Buses

400000000

Total

200000000 0 1900

1968

1985

1996

Year

Fig. 9.20 Growth of number of vehicles in the world

2030

400

9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

ELVs are associated with the following fates: (1) recycled via the existing ELV vehicle management infrastructure, (2) abandoned, in remote or hard-to-reach locations, (3) lying in the custody of legal organizations like police of transport department as the vehicles would have been seized due to violation of law, and (4) lying in junk yard of government agency in order to dispose by tender/auction (Fig. 9.21). ELVs can be natural ELVs (vehicles that have reached end-of-life due to wear and tear) and pre-mature ELVs (vehicles that have reached end-of life due to accident, flood, fire, or vandalism damage). Typical automated ELV processing is shown in Fig. 9.22.

Fig. 9.21 End of life vehicles

Depollution

ELV

(removing hazardous components/substances such as the fuel, other fluids, battery,airbags and parts with mercury)

Shredder

Air classifier

Fig. 9.22 Typical automated ELV processing

Dismantling

Magnetic classifier

9.3 Conversion and Fabrication Industry

401

Table 9.12 Hazardous solid substance generated during ELV dismantling and processing S. No.

Hazardous solid substance

Description

1.

Lead acid batteries

One of the major sources of toxic and hazardous substances contain H2 SO4 that are corrosive. Lead plates are highly toxic

2.

Air filter

Contains ferrous parts and foam which is hazard if burnt

3.

Oil filter

Contains metallic parts, filter paper and residual oil which is toxic if burnt

4.

Hot tank solutions and sludge

Hot tank solutions as well as sludge from cleaning ELVs (and ELV parts) are contaminated

5.

Mercury switch

Contain mercury, copper and brass

6.

Brake shoe clutch plates/ discs

Contain asbestos/glass fibre

7.

Rubber parts

Have the potential to produce toxic fumes

8.

Electronic parts

Automotive electronics include: 1. Chassis electronics 2. Driver assistance 3. Electronic integrated cockpit systems 4. Engine electronics 5. Entertainment systems 6. Passenger comfort 7. Passive safety 8. Transmission electronics

9.

Airbags

Contain explosives

10.

Catalyst

Catalysts in catalytic converters contain precious and rare metals

ELV contains liquid and solid hazardous substances. Liquid hazardous substances include coolant fluid, engine oil, gear oil, hydraulic fluid, brake fluid, transmission fluid, power steering fluid. Solid hazardous substances are given in Table 9.12. Major non-hazardous components include plastic, glass and metal. Refrigerant gases present in ELVs have the potential to cause impact on environment and health. Automobile shredding residue (ASR) has a high ash content and calorific value. Modern ships have a lifespan of 25 to 30 years ship-breaking allows the materials to be recycled and made into new products. India has the world’s largest ship recycling operation. The Alang-Sosiya ship recycling yards in Gujarat are responsible for 47% of all ships recycled globally. Nearly 90% a ship’s light displacement tonnage7 (LDT) is reportedly steel, which can be sub-divided into re-rollable steel (60% of LDT) and melting steel (30% 7

Actual weight of the ship with no passengers, lube oil, ballast, fresh water, cargo, bunkers, stores, etc., on board.

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9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

of LDT). Nearly 800 s-hand sale shops are stationed in Alang which sells materials recovered from end-of-life vessels that play crucial role in attaining a circular economy (Singh 2021). The solid and liquid waste in ship building and breaking units will have asbestoses, paints, chemicals, metal pieces, plastic rubber etc. Most of the developed nations have stopped ship breaking activities due to hazards associated with them and the solid wastes which do not have economic values would be thrown into sea or fall into sea during building/breaking activities in the developed world. The number of commercial aircraft has been rising steadily with the arrival of larger aircraft and a rising number of them are retiring from service each year. Of the more than 27,000 commercial aircraft in service worldwide in 2019 more than 20% are older than 20 years and likely to be decommissioned in the next decade and more than 20,000 commercial aircraft will be retired in the next 20 years. Passenger aircraft retirement age is 25 years compared to air freighters average retirement age 32 years. The overall average age of aircraft at retirement is about 26.5 years and for technical lifetime reasons early retirement around 15 years were quite common in the 1980s, on the other hand, early retirement for economic reasons by disassembling it and selling the individual parts is for profit instead of continuing to operate it [International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO 2019)]. The overall aircraft end-of-life process has two separate phases: • Removal of parts for re-use in other aircraft, • Final dismantling and recycling

9.3.3 Electrical and Electronics Electrical and electronic industries mostly outsource manufacturing of components unless otherwise it is trade secret. Hence, waste (Fig. 9.23) may be generated at other manufacturing facility, which involves printed circuit board, components of white goods, electrical machinery. Restricted Use of Hazardous Substance (RoHS) by laws and standards is making manufacturers to continuously look out for new material. Assembly and testing many generate components which do not confirm quality requirement. Potential technologies and strategies for SWM waste from this industry include Product changes, Input-material changes, technology changes, operating practices and process changes, production-process changes, product reformulations, recycling and reuse (Matthew 2009). Detailed discussion on WEEE is deliberated in Chap. 8.

9.3.4 Paper Products Paper products include newsprint, paper napkins, towels, and toilet tissue, book kraft bag, construction, paper bag, invitation cards, decorative material, and other

9.3 Conversion and Fabrication Industry

403

Fig. 9.23 Waste in electrical and electronic industry

kraft industrial papers, paperboard, etc. Manufacturing these items involve cutting trimming, punching, gluing, and stitching operations. The waste from paper products comprises of paper trimmings besides other materials used for the manufacture of paper products.

9.3.5 Hardware Household hardware (or hardware) is equipment that can be touched by hand like locks, nuts, screws, keys, washers, hinges, handles, wire, latches, chains, belts, electrical supplies, tools, plumbing supplies, utensils, cutlery and machine parts. The solid waste in hardware industry comprise waste from trimming, drilling, milling, punching, plating, etching, painting and other activities include with reshaping metal. The major waste from hardware industry comprises of metal scrap, plastic scrap and packaging waste.

9.3.6 Soft Goods Transformation of leather, textile and plastics into finished products is called soft goods. Residues of the material processed constitutes major portion of the solid waste. Leather constitutes around 60–65% in footwear sector more than 21 billion pairs of footwear manufactured worldwide every year. 73% of the rawhide comes waste when the rawhide is converted into a finished product. Waste from processing 1000 kg leather produces 82 kg of salt from desalting, 208 kg salt form solar evaporation ponds, 108 kg of hair, 64 kg of lime sludge, 50 kg of raw trimmings, 120 kg of

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9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

fleshing, 25 kg of wet blue trimmings, 60 kg of chrome tanned unusable splits, 95 kg of chrome shaving, 65 kg of buffing dust, 40 kg of crust trimmings, 130 kg of dry sludge from ETP. Furthermore, one million pairs of footwear manufacturing will generate 134 tons of uppers, 120 tons of sole, 4.8 tons of adhesives, oils and solvents (Jadav and Jadav 2020). Chrome tanned leather, trimmings and splits are useful in making glue, gelatin, reconstituted collagen and protein flavour.

9.3.7 Food Processing Food processing is the change of agricultural products into food, or one form of food into other form. Food processing includes grinding grain to ready to eat food items. One of the consequences of industrial food production is the generation of high quantities of waste, whose disposal can be problematic, as it occupies large spaces (Moraes et al. 2014). Primary food processing converts agricultural products, such as food grains or livestock, into something that can be eaten. This type of processing includes drying, threshing, shelling nuts, slaughtering animals, winnowing and milling grain. Secondary food processing involves creating food from ingredients. Examples include baking and fermentation. Tertiary food processing is the commercial production of ready-to-eat or heat-and-serve foods. Food is wasted from agricultural production to final consumption resulting in about 1.3 billion tons of wastes food every year globally accounting for one-third of food produced (FAO 2011a). As per Target 12.3 of SDG 12 “by 2030, halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses”.

Target 12.3 has following indicators: Indicator 12.3.1—Global Food Loss and Waste. SDG target 12.3.1 has two components, Losses and Waste. Sub-Indicator 12.3.1.a—Food Loss Index. Sub-Indicator 12.3.1.b—Food Waste Index. Food Waste Index (FWI) measures food waste, which comprises of the retail and consumption levels. The Food Loss Index (FLI) focuses on food losses that occur from production up to (and not including) the retail level. It measures the changes in percentage losses for a basket of 10 main commodities within 5 big headings by country in comparison with a base period. Five commodity headings are: • Cereals and Pulses • Fruits and Vegetables, • Roots and Tubers, Oil-Bearing

9.3 Conversion and Fabrication Industry

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• Other Crops (Sugar, Stimulants, Spices), • Animals Products and Fish and Fish Products. The default process is to: • Each country shall Compile value every commodity (in the base year) • Group commodities by category and rank them • Select the top two

of

production

for

Calculating the index is complex and not discussed here. The FWI also allows nations to measure and report on food loss generated in manufacturing processes, which would not be captured under key commodity losses by the FLI. FAO is custodian of FLI whereas UNEP is the custodian of FWI. In contrast to the FLI, the FWI measures the total food waste instead of waste associated with specific commodities. The FWI also allows nations to measure and report on food loss in manufacturing processes, which would not be captured by the FLI. UNEP Food Waste Index Report 2021 published by UNEP (2021) highlighted the following key points: • • • •

About 931 Mt of food waste was generated in 2019, 61% came from households, 26% from food service, and 13% from retail.

This suggests that 17% total global food production may be wasted (11% in households, 5% in food service and 2% in retail). Waste materials can be converted into single-cell protein or ethanol. In the first case waste is converted into nutritious food for livestock or by humans. In the second case ethanol is generated for consumption or as a fuel. Microorganisms that constitute the food are strains of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae, yeast, or some other edible species. Ethanol generation involve culture of microbes which have a capability to ferment sugars to ethanol. Unsalable food waste which is fit for human consumption is donated to charity by many manufactures. Recognized food banks need recipients to sign legal documents not to sell exchange or barter food goods received through donation. The types of waste which are unsalable but suitable for consumption include incorrect/damaged labelling, end-of-season stocks, packaging with wrong weight, over-production runs, discontinued products, damaged/unattractive products. Recovering a product by modification of a process can reduce quantity of solid waste and related disposal costs. Disposal of food as animal feed is common in bread baking, vegetable processing, and dairy processing. Some of the usable products produced during food processing are given in Table 9.13. To produce 1 kg of meat it takes about 3 kg of grain (FAO 2006) and about 16,000 L of virtual water (Chapagain and Hoekstra 2008). Therefore, an increase in meat consumption and wastage results in rapid demand for water, crop and other resources

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9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

Table 9.13 Examples of usable products form waste Waste origin

Usable product

Slaughterhouse or meat processing waste

Jellies, animal feed, gelatin, collagen, sialic acid, bone meal, bone charcoal, blood charcoal

Fish and seafood processing waste

Pet food, chitin/chitosan, oils, lipids, antioxidants, flavours and pigment

Fruit and vegetable waste

Oils, flavours, starch, glucose, lycopene, colouring and pectin, cattle feed

Waste from sugar manufacturing

Press mud and bagasse

like land for grazing. Meat production is considered environmentally harmful and energy inefficient with intense use of feed crops. Some of the important food processing industry and solid generated in it is discussed in subsequent paragraphs. Diary: Major solid waste from diary includes sledges from wastewater treatment, used containers, used and damaged spare part, waste quality testing laboratory, and damaged packaging material. Rice: The rice industry is an important activity and generates large quantities of waste. The key solid wastes generated in rice production are straw, husk, ash, bran and broken rice. 1.35 t of rice straw is generated for each tone of harvested rice paddy. During processing each tone of processed paddy rice generates 100 kg of rice bran, 200 kg of rice husk, and 140 kg of broken rice. Bran and broken rice are used in the food industry. Straw can be used for animal feeding and the husk can be used for poultry farming (Moraes et al. 2014). Rice is the second most consumed food on the planet, with a global demand of 477Mt/y and an average per capita consumption of about 57 kg/y. Sugar: Global sugar production in 2021/22 was 174.6 Mt (FAO 2022). Sugar can be manufactured from sugarcane or sugar beet. Sugar cane is used for 65–70% of worldwide sugar production. Sugar cane is crushed for extraction of juice. The resulting fibrous residue of cane which accounts 28% to 30% by weight of cane is called bagasse. Bagasse can be used for paper industry, particle board or as fuel. Further chemicals are added to juice and filtered prior to crystallization resulting in solid material (termed as press mud) of around 2–3% of weight of sugarcane crushed, which is used as manure. Solid waste from beet sugar industry is lime sludge and extracted pulp. The extracted beet pulp is dried and fed to cattle. The sand, mud, etc. is removed from beet wash water. The lime sludge generated from diffusion water treatment may be settled and the precipitate used as anti-acid on land (Bartow 1932). Vegetable Oil: Vegetable oil is manufactured out of numerous raw materials, which include oil palm, ground nit, olive, coconut, sunflower, mustard seeds, almond, rice

9.4 Service Industries

407

barn, etc. Raw vegetable oil, produced from seeds by pressing, solvent extraction, contains free fatty acids and other components, which contribute to undesirable odour, and appearance. Hence, oil is refined. Vegetable oil manufacturing produces solid waste and by-products like empty fruit bunches (EFBs), waste palm kernels, fruit shells, soap stock and spent acids during chemical refining of crude oil, deodorizer distillate from steam distillations, spent bleaching earth, mucilage from degumming, spent catalysts besides filtering aid. EFBs are used as soil amendment. Spent bleaching earth can be used as feedstock for brick or block making. Bleaching earth can be utilized as fertilizer if it is not contaminated with metals. The cake produced during the pressing of raw oilseeds is used as cattle feed. Meat and Fish packing: A process flow diagram of typical meat packing unit is given in Fig. 9.24. Inedible by-products such as hair, condemned offal bone, fat and heads are sent to a rendering plant (Fornarelli et al. 2017). A process flow diagram of a typical fish packing unit is given in Fig. 9.25. Solid fish waste is disposed through landfill disposal, tilled into agriculture or silviculture land as fertilize, composted (Dubey et al. 2021) or treated through anaerobic digestion. Fruit Pulp: Fruit pulp is made out of fruits like tomato, orange, strawberry, mango, apple, pineapple, prior to further processing for manufacture of sauce, ketchup, fruit juices, jam, jelly etc. A typical flow diagram of fruit pulping industry is shown in Fig. 9.26. The major waste generated is fruit peel, peel, seed, core, pomace, pulp, rind, empty fruit bunch, seeds, and damaged/rotten fruit is easily degradable and can be used for bio-methanation or composting.

9.3.8 Construction and Demolition Waste from Construction and Demolition(C&D) activities comprise of the off specification and damaged connection material. C&D waste is dealt with detail in Chap. 15.

9.4 Service Industries The service industry offers people with immaterial products or services and completes tasks that are useful to customers. Examples of the service industry include entertainment, call centre, banking, consultancy, software development, communication etc.

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9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

Livestock reception, washing

Manure

Stunning and bleeding

Blood

Head, hoof and hide removal

Head, hoof and hide

Evisceration

Edible offal, casings, paunch manure, Inedible offal

rimming,

Product processing (Picking, Brining etc)

Freezing, cannig

Chilling

Cutting and removal of bone

Packaging Fig. 9.24 Process diagram of meat packing industry

Bones and fat

9.4 Service Industries

Fish receiving

Sorting and weighing

Scaling, Filleting, Skining & Evisceration

409

Manure, mortalities

Off specification product, rubbish

Cuttings, skins, bones, oils, viscera, spoiled material blood

Inspection and trimming,

Product processing (Picking, Brining etc)

Freezing, cannig

Packaging and Dispatch Fig. 9.25 Flow diagram of fish packing industry

9.4.1 Entertainment Entertainment includes sports, theatre, movies, aero shows, live concerts, amusement park, stand-up comedy, circus, magic shows etc. These activities produce packaging materials used for food/drinks, handout, hoardings, disposable plates, cups, flags, fruit and vegetable peel, used tickets, etc.

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9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

Reception

Pre-selection

Washing and sanitization

Fruit maturisation

Peeling, cutting, slicing

Pulp processing

Homogenisation and Packaging Fig. 9.26 Flow diagram of fruit pulping packing industry

9.4.2 Hospitality The hospitality industry comprises of hotels, motels and resorts. The major solid waste produced in this sector includes paper, packaging material and food waste. The food waste is disposed through local body or private agency or processed within the premises of hotel/motel/resort.

9.5 Commercial Activity

411

9.4.3 Software The major activity in software is developing software and support to other business needs. The software industry generates cartridges, used office consumables, computer consumables, used computers, printers and other electronic hardware and office stationery. The major waste components include WEEE and office stationaries. Large software parks will also have cafeterias resulting in substantial quantity of food waste. The generation of hazardous waste like used chemical (cleaning agents) container, used oil from diesel generators and lead acid batteries cannot be ruled out.

9.4.4 Communication Communication industry includes mass, group and individual communications which include (1) radio, (2) television, (3) print media, and (4) internet. The major waste connected with telecommunication would be WEEE and office stationery. The major waste connected with the print media would be paper soiled with ink, used/discarded containers of ink, used/waste oil, and packaging waste.

9.5 Commercial Activity Commercial activity is the activity intended for exchange in the market to earn an economic profit which involves selling goods, services, food or materials.

9.5.1 Restaurants Major wastes generated in restaurant are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Vegetable peel Packaging material Leftover food Damaged/outdated food item Waste generated during cleaning of vegetable/meat/fish Used containers of cleaning/sanitising agent WEEE Used paper and other stationary End of life utensils, tablecloth, cleaning equipment etc.,

The food waste is disposed through local body or private service provider or processed within restaurant.

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9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

9.5.2 Shops The shops generate expired goods, packaging materials and damaged goods. The food waste is handed over to local body or private service provider or processed within shops. Date expired and damaged goods are usually returned to manufacturer/ wholesale dealers as large shops procure goods on credit and make payment after few weeks from receipt of goods.

9.5.3 Warehouses Warehouse stores huge quantity of goods prior to distribution. The waste may not be produced every day. But businesses that deliver perishable goods like fruits and vegetables to customer doors may generate huge perishable goods every day.

9.6 Source Reduction Source reduction is the lessening of materials entering into the system whether it is manufacturing facility or a city or any other establishment. The innovation in electronics has resulted in decrease size of electronics goods thus resulting in less waste generation. The advance in metallurgy and material science has also resulted in material of high strength thus reducing the material required for manufacturing vehicles and machineries. The key principles of source reduction practiced by industries are: (1) use of recyclable packaging material, (2) locate the source of product/byproduct wastages and take corrective action, (2) innovate and change process, (3) create awareness among employees, transporters as well as raw material suppliers, and (4) find alternate use and market for the waste. The examples include recyclable packaging material in the case of automobile industry wherein components are packed in recyclable packaging material. Identifying the source of product/byproduct wastages can be often minimized in food industry and chemical industry by proper storage of raw material and control of intermediate steps. The potato chips industry, which uses huge amounts of potatoes in India often use loose raw materials in farm itself. Many potato growers store potatoes in field by providing temporary sheds which can be avoided by creating proper infrastructure for storage. The potatoes damaged during digging are often sorted for selling in nearby towns which is often picked by restaurants for lower prices. Any delay in sorting damaged and rotten potatoes would lead to further loss of potatoes as good potatoes will also be attacked by microbes responsible for purification. The mangoes are often plucked from trees when they are sufficiently matured but not fully ripe to avoid damage during transportation/storage as ripe fruits will

9.8 Innovative Technologies

413

be damaged in heaps due to contact with rotten fruits as well as weight of fruits above ripe fruit placed in lower level of heap. Any delay in processing fruits while preparing fruit pulp would lead to loss of raw material.

9.7 Zero Waste—Concept and Practice Zero waste is a philosophy which encourages reuse of a product so that the disposal will become minimal. The principles of zero waste are: (1) flow of resources shall be cycle with minimum input and output, (2) extended producers’ responsibility to bring back the waste into remanufacturing system, (3) optimize productive use of resources, and (3) stress on use of non-toxic materials. ‘Convert waste into a resource’ is the essence and concept of ‘zero waste’. In reality, it can be achieved in many ways. Within the defined boundary, the zero waste can be achieved via the processes: ‘reduce’, ‘recycle’, ‘recovery’, and ‘reuse’. The defined boundary can be house, institution, industry, community, city or country. Within the industry zero waste concepts can be achieved by converting waste into value added product or by product so that anything leaving the industrial boundary will fetch an economic value. The practice will be easy if one of the materials generated had ready demand. Considering example of thermal power plant, entrepreneurs will not operate thermal power plant for generating ash. But, if the ash can be sold at a value then both entrepreneur and community will be benefitted. The useless fly ash which posed great concern two decades back has been totally nullified as it can be used as raw material in cement. The buyer of fly ash for manufacturing cement will benefit as he can avoid the mining and transportation of limestone, which is a limited resource. Non-hazardous industrial wastes are diversified. Some of the treatment options for non-hazardous industrial waste are given in Table 9.14.

9.8 Innovative Technologies Several innovations are tried to manage solid waste in industrial and commercial activities. Lean manufacturing methodology focuses on minimizing waste in manufacturing systems with five principles—value, the value stream, flow, pull and perfection (Womack 1996).

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9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

Table 9.14 Some of the treatment options for non-hazardous industrial waste S. No. Industries

Prominent wastes generated

Treatment option

1.

Sugar bagasses

Combustion and Heat and Power Gasification

Press mud

Composting

Fertilizer

Sugar molasses

Fermentation

Ethanol synthesis

Sugar mills

Fermentative yeast biomass Biomethanation

Application

Biogas production & digestate

2.

Slaughter houses Organs, Tissues, Blood, Hides, Animal excreta and Carcass etc.

Biomethanation

3.

Textile/garment

Cloth trimmings

Combustion and Heat and power gasification

Packaging material

Combustion and Heat and power gasification

Pulp

Biomethanation

Biogas production and digestate

Paper shavings

Combustion

Heat and power

Wood wastes and paper boards

Combustion and Heat and power gasification

4.

Paper mills

Biogas production and digestate

5.

Dairy plants

Whey and milk cream

Biomethanation

Biogas production & digestate

6.

Sago factories

Starch materials and peels

Biomethanation

Biogas production & digestate

7.

Tanneries

Hides and skins

Acid treatments and biomethanation

Biogas production & digestate

8.

Electronic goods Packaging material (wood, thermocol)

Combustion and Heat and power gasification

Packaging material (paper board)

Combustion and Reuse/Recycle gasification

Packaging material (plastic)

Palletisation

Reuse/recycle

9.

Animal husbandries

Animal excreta and body fluids

Biomethanation

Biogas production & digestate

10.

Fruits and vegetable processing units

Pulp wastes

Biomethanation

Biogas production & digestate

11.

Vehicle/machine Packaging material (Wood, Combustion and Heat and power manufacturing Thermocol) gasification Used containers

Washing/ palletisation

Reuse/recycle

Metal scrap

Metal recovery

Reuse/recycle

Plastic scrap

Pellatization

Reuse/recycle

9.8 Innovative Technologies

415

Fig. 9.27 Lean manufacturing principles

Lean manufacturing principles (Fig. 9.27) are: 1. Define Value—what the customer is willing to pay for. 2. Map the Value Stream—use the customer’s value as a reference point and identify all the activities that contribute to these values. 3. Create Flow—After removing the wastes from the value stream, ensure flow of the remaining steps run smoothly without interruptions or delays. 4. Establish Pull—limit inventory and work in process (WIP) items while ensuring that the requisite materials and information are available for a smooth flow of work. 5. Pursue Perfection- Every employee should strive towards perfection while delivering products based on the customer needs. There are many management tools to tackle waste production. Examples are given in Table 9.15. Some of the causes for waste generation during manufacturing are given in Table 9.16.

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9 Waste from Industry and Commercial Activity

Table 9.15 Examples of management tools used in lean manufacturing Management tools used in lean manufacturing

Summary

Bottleneck analysis

Structured workflow analysis

Error proofing

Analysis based on prevention of error

Just-in-time (JIT)

On-demand system of production

Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE)

Measure of productive time

Plan-do-check-act (PDCA)

Audit and review to achieve objectives

Root cause analysis (RCA)

Method to get the cause of an issue

Value stream mapping

Optimizing and analysing and a process

Table 9.16 Some of the causes for waste generation during manufacturing S. No. Cause

Explanation

Example

1.

Transportation

Improper transportation of raw material, intermediates and end products within the factory of outside the factory can result in waste

• Spillage of ore/food grain/ vegetable/fruit due to improper vehicle, road, unskilled people • Leaky/faulty conveyor (belt bucket, pipe) system • Improper packing • Mixing rotten fruits and vegetables with fresh ones • Accidents due to absence of safety precautions

2.

Inventory

Improper inventory

• Deliberate erroneous inventory of raw material, product, waste to avoid tax/fine • Not processing perishable raw materials and goodson ‘first in first out’ may lead to generation of waste due to accumulated • Showing misplaced material as damaged and vice versa

3.

Unnecessary motion

Unnecessary motion of people, equipment or machinery

• People/equipment/machinery not available when required • Slow motion of perishable goods due to road block due to disaster or traffic jam • Slow motion of premixed concrete may become waste

4.

Idle/faulty equipment

Equipment may become idle or faulty thereby not available for manufacture due to preventive maintenance or power failure

• Faulty equipment in fracturing facility manufacturing perishable goods may turn raw material and goods into waste (continued)

References

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Table 9.16 (continued) S. No. Cause

Explanation

Example

5.

Over-production

Producing goods more than demand may lead to production of waste

• Over production of premixed concrete • Over production of perishable food item at centralised kitchen for selling at its outlet

6.

Over-processing

Over processing of material during production

• Over processing of drug intermediate may result in excess waste • Overheating sweets may become waste

7.

Defects

Defects due to unskilled labour, faulty machine, faulty raw material

• Improper mixing of raw material during chemical manufacturing • Defective electronic equipment, cells may have to be called back from market

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Nazih KS (2009) Waste management in the pulp and paper industry, advanves in hazardous industrial waste treatment. In: Lawrence KW, Nazih KS, Yung-Tse H (eds) CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, New York Nicholas PC (2003a) Handbook of solid waste XE “solid waste” management and waste minimization technologies. Butterworth-Heinemann Nicholas PC (2003b) Handbook of solid waste management and waste minimization technologies. Butterworth-Heinemann, New York Niinimamp K, Peters G, Dahlbo H, Perry P, Rissanen T, Gwilt A (2020) The environmental price of fast fashion, Nat. Rev. Earth Environ 14(2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9 OECD (2022) Global plastics outlook: economic drivers, environmental impacts and policy options. OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/de747aef-en Patel M, Sahu A, Rajak R (2022) Solid waste management in textile industry. In: Baskar C, Ramakrishna S, Baskar S, Sharma R, Chinnappan A, Sehrawat R (eds) Handbook of solid waste management. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4230-2_57 Patti A, Cicala G, Acierno D (2020) Eco-Sustainability of the textile production: waste recovery and current recycling in the composites world. Polymers (Basel) 13(1):134. https://doi.org/10. 3390/polym13010134 Pensupa N, Leu SY, Hu Y, Du C, Liu H, Jing H, Wang H, Lin CSK, Yunzi SL, Chenyu H (2017) Recent trends in sustainable textile waste recycling methods: current situation and future prospectsTop. Curr Chem 375(2017):189–228. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90653-9 Pichtel J (2014) Waste management practices—municipal, hazardous, and industrial, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton London New York Richard PL (1978) Hazardous solid waste from metallurgical industries. Environ Health Perspect 27:251–260 Sanjay K, Rakesh K, Amitava B (2006) Innovative methodologies for the utilisation of wastes from metallurgical and allied industries. Resour Conserv Recycl 48(2006):301–314 Schlag S (2010) Chemical economics handbook marketing research report: Wet-process phosphoric acid. SRI Consulting Schlag S, Funada C (2009) Chemical economics handbook marketing research report: lime/ limestone. SRI Consulting Shirvanimoghaddam K, Motamed B, Ramakrishna S, Naebe M (2020) Death by waste: fashion and textile circular economy case. Sci Total Environ. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020. 137317 Singh R (2021) Doubling ship recycling capacity by 2024: Are we ready?, Down to Earth. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/environment/doubling-ship-recycling-capacityby-2024-are-we-ready--75494. Accessed on 11 Sept 2022 Suresh B (2009a) Chemical economics handbook marketing research report: Sulfuric Acid. SRI Consulting Suresh B (2009b) Chemical economics handbook marketing research report: Sulfur. SRI Consulting Tamotia SK (2003) Processing of chemical, mining and metallurgical industries’ wastes. Keynote lecture presented in the international symposium on “processing of chemical, mining and metallurgical industries’ wastes (POCMIW- 2003)”, Bhubaneswar, India; August 27–29, 2003 UNEP (2013a) The Japanese industrial waste experience: lessons for rapidly industrializing countries, UNEP, Nairobi UNEP (2013b) Global chemicals outlook—towards sound management of chemicals, Nairobi UNEP (2021) Food waste index report 2021. Nairobi UNEP(2020) Used vehicles and the environment—a global overview of used light duty vehicles: Flow, Scale and Regulation, Kenya USEPA (1985) Report to congress wastes from the extraction and beneficiation of Metallic Ores, Phosphate Rock, Asbestos, Overburden from Uranium Mining, and Oil Shale. EPA/530-SW85–033, Washington DC USEPA (1994) Petroleum refining hazardous waste generation, USEPA, Wshington DC

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Will RK (2009). Chemical economics handbook marketing research report: fluorspar and inorganic fluorine compounds. SRI Consulting Womack JP (1996) Lean thinking: banish waste and create wealth in your corporation. Simon & Schuster, New York World Bank (1998) Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook. http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/env iro.nsf/attachmentsbytitle/gui_pulp_wb/$file/pulp_ppah.pdf downloaded on 15 Dec 2012 Xia H, Han J, Milisavljevic-Syed J (2022) Forecasting the number of end-of-life vehicles: state of the art report, international design conference—Design 2022. https://doi.org/10.1017/pds.202 2.119

Chapter 10

Radioactive Waste

Radioactive waste is the waste contaminated with radionuclides at activities or concentrations higher than the clearance levels established by individual nations. Radioactive waste arises from the production of electricity in nuclear power plants, mining, and processing of radioactive material from defence, industry, health care, agriculture, education, research, and activities in which radioactive material of natural origin becomes concentrated in waste material. Nuclear science and technology is used to contribute to and meet development objectives including energy, human health, food production, water management, and environmental protection. The use of nuclear science contributes directly to nine of the 17 SDGs. SDG 2—End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture, SDG 3—To ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at all ages, SDG 6—Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all, SDG 7—Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all, SDG 9—Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation, SDG 13—Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts, SDG 14—Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development, SDG 15—Protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss, SDG 17—Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development.

From the late 1940s to early 1970s, radioactive wastes were either dumped at sea or accumulated at nuclear sites. From the mid-1970s to the early 1990s, the international nuclear industry had a series of setbacks in terms of high expenses

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6_10

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10 Radioactive Waste

and technological problems. The safe and environmentally sound management of radioactive wastes is the subject of Chapter 22 of Agenda 21 of Rio Summit 1992. Accidents at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl added to the decline in confidence and trust in the nuclear industry (CORWM 2006). There was little public concern over radioactive waste during the initial stages of the nuclear industry. But over time, a number of organizations have voiced their concerns. The quantity of radioactive waste generated varies from nation to nation depending on the scale and range of nuclear and radioactive material used. Between 1970 and 1980s, more than 30% of the uranium generated in the USSR was from the Central Asian republics. 456 nuclear tests were done by the USSR between 1949 and 1989 on the Semipalatinsk testing ground in Kazakhstan. Even though the mining activity ceased from 1961 to 1995 at most of the mines, restoration works were done only at a few facilities. All the IAEA’s member states generate radioactive waste. In 1988, nuclear power supplied around 7% of the world’s developing countries and seven developing nations in Asia, Latin America, and Mediterranean region had 24 nuclear power plants (Thomos et al. 1989). Considering the full nuclear fuel cycle in addition to reactors, radioactive waste is generated in uranium mines, mills, enrichment facilities, spent fuel repositories, as well as decommissioning sites. As per IAEA (1995), the principles of radioactive waste management are: (1) protection of human health, (2) protection of the environment, (3) protection beyond national borders, (4) protection of future generations, (5) burdens on future generations, (6) national legal framework, (7) control of radioactive waste generation, (8) radioactive waste generation and management interdependencies, and (9) safety of facilities.

10.1 Significance Radioactive materials/wastes are potentially harmful as they emit ionizing radiation, which will damage cells in the body and high doses can cause deaths within a short time. Low doses over extended periods can induce cancer. Some nuclear materials are highly toxic too. Some radioactive materials like plutonium can start nuclear chain reactions if not managed properly. Theoretically in chemical reactions, an element behaves homogeneously, but in reality, element does not behave homogeneously as one part may diffuse more slowly than another. About six or seven years after the First World War, workers at a New Jersey, USA, factory employed for luminous painting of the dials of instruments and clocks, were suffering from radium poisoning. The material was ingested through the practice of pointing the brushes with the lips resulting in at least 40 deaths due to severe anaemia, osteogenic sarcoma, from jaw necrosis, buccal lesions, anaemia as well as chronic osteomyelitis. On the other hand, many workers did not suffer injury (Kenny 1956).

10.1 Significance

423

Due to the significant danger and risk associated with use of radioactive material without precaution, legislations have been formulated all over the world. Some of these legislations which deal with radioactive materials are given in Table 10.1. Radiation safety inspection checklist is given in Table 10.2. Three main sources from which nuclear waste arises are: (1) the nuclear fuel cycle (NFC) (Fig. 10.1) used for military uses and power generation, (2) non-NFC institutes (medical and research institutions, non-nuclear industries), and (3) accidents. Apart from nuclear power reactors, other types of reactors where radioactive substance are used are: • Research reactors, • Isotope production, • Nuclear powered ships/submarines.

Table 10.1 Some of the legislation dealing with radioactive waste throughout the world Country

Legislation

Australia

Atomic Energy Act Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Act Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation Act Nuclear Non-proliferation (Safeguards) Act

Austria

Atomic Liability Act Federal Constitutional Act for a Non-nuclear Austria

Canada

Nuclear Safety and Control Act Canadian Environmental Assessment Act Nuclear Liability Act

China

Measures on the management of urban radioactive wastes

Czech Republic

Act on the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy and Ionising Radiation

Finland

Finnish Nuclear Energy Act

France

Act on Transparency and Security in the Nuclear Field

Germany

Act on the Peaceful Utilisation of Atomic Energy and the Protection Against its Hazards

Hungary

Atomic Energy Act

India

Atomic Energy (Safe Disposal of Radioactive Wastes) Rules

Kazakhstan

Law No. 93-1 on use of nuclear energy

Kenya

Nuclear Regulatory Act

Pakistan

Pakistan Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection Ordinance

Philippines

Toxic Substances and Hazardous and Nuclear Wastes Control Act

Sri Lanka

Radioactive Minerals Act

USA

The Nuclear Waste Policy Act

UK

Radioactive Substances Act

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Table 10.2 Radiation safety inspection checklist A Radioactive Work Practices 1. Whether personnel are aware of the location of the Radiation Safety Manual and SOP. Yes

No

Not Applicable

2. Whether storage, consumption of food or drink is restricted Yes

No

Not Applicable

3. Whether applying cosmetics or insert/remove contact lenses in the laboratory is forbidden Yes

No

Not Applicable

4. Whether long hair and loose jewelleryare controlled Yes

No

Not Applicable

5. Whether open cuts, scratches and/or wounds are covered with appropriate dressings Yes

No

Not Applicable

6. Whether all radioactive waste deposited into waste containers are identified and recorded on the inventory/waste form. Yes

No

Not Applicable

7. Whether radioactive waste materials are adequately shielded or stored in a location that minimizes potential exposure to all personnel Yes

No

Not Applicable

8. Whether excessive waste containers should be disposed of by the Chemical Control Centre. Yes

No

Not Applicable

9. Whether rooms no longer used for radiation work have been satisfactorily decommissioned by the Radiation Safety Officer. Yes B

No

Not Applicable

Design, Housekeeping & Physical Requirements 10. Whether access to the laboratory is limited to authorized personnel and the laboratory is closed and lockable or access controlled. Yes

No

Not Applicable

11. Whether the laboratory is separated from public areas by a door. Yes

No

Not Applicable

12. Whether access to nuclear substances or radiation devices is restricted to authorized users listed on the permit. Yes

No

Not Applicable

(continued)

10.1 Significance

425

Table 10.2 (continued) 13. Whether only authorized users listed on the permit are allowed to be left alone in a radiation room with radioactive materials that are not locked and stored away. Yes

No

Not Applicable

14. Whether areas used to work or store radioactive materials are free of clutter, properly contained, and labelled. Yes

No

Not Applicable

15. Whether laboratory is neat and tidy, extraneous non-dedicated equipment and supplies. Yes

No

Not Applicable

16. Whether radioactive waste materials are adequately shielded or stored in a location taking the ‘As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA)’ principle in effect. Yes C

No

Not Applicable

PPE & Dose Control 17. Whether PPE are available and used Yes

No

Not Applicable

18. Whether rate at any occupied location outside the storage area or room does not exceed prescribed limit Yes

No

Not Applicable

19. Whether radiation warning and security signs are posted on entrance to the area. Yes

No

Not Applicable

20. Whether radioactive waste is clearly identified and labelled. Yes

No

Not Applicable

21. Whether list of approved personnel is listed and updated on permit. Yes

No

Not Applicable

22. Whether radiation warning signs are used appropriately. Yes D

No

Not Applicable

Contamination & Personal Monitoring 23. Whether contamination monitoring is performed and recorded in the contamination monitoring form within seven days after working with unsealed nuclear substances. Yes

No

Not Applicable

24. Whether survey locations are identified on the map and logbook including all work benches, equipment and floors. Yes

No

Not Applicable

25. Whether contaminated areas are cleaned and re-monitored. Yes

No

Not Applicable

(continued)

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Table 10.2 (continued) 26. Whether contamination monitoring techniques utilized are appropriate and adequate for unsealed nuclear substance in use.

Yes E

No

Not Applicable

Emergencies 27. Whether emergency contacts/spill procedure poster is posted. Yes

No

Not Applicable

28. Whether emergency procedures are followed in case of spill or contamination. Yes

No

Not Applicable

29. Whether all spills, accidents or exposures are reported to supervisor and the Radiation Safety Officer. Yes

No

Not Applicable

30. Whether an Emergency Plan is available to all personnel. Yes

No

Not Applicable

31. Whether concerned staffs are knowledgeable to spill response procedures, containment, decontamination and reporting procedures. Yes

No

Not Applicable

Apart from use of radioactive materials in reactors, they are used in • Military and defence activities, • Industrial, – – – –

Inspect metal parts and the integrity of weld, Sterilization of contaminated substance, Food preservation, Sterilization/decontamination of sewage/effluent sludge (Fig. 10.2),

• Medical diagnosis and therapy, • Analytical instruments, • Agriculture, – – – – –

Combat pests and diseases, Ensure food safety and authenticity, Increase crop production, Increase livestock production, and Protect land and water resources (Fig. 10.3).

10.2 Classification of Waste

427

Fuel Fabrication

Enrichment

Reactor

Conversion to UF6

Storage

Reprocessing

Mining

Disposal

Fig. 10.1 Nuclear fuel cycle

10.2 Classification of Waste Classifications are derived from different perspectives like safety, physical/chemical properties of the waste, or regulatory issues (IAEA 1970a, b, 1999). The key factors in any classification are the half-lives and radionuclide concentrations (Ojovan and

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Fig. 10.2 Metal containers for holding ground sludge for decontamination

Concentration of radio nuclides

Short Lived

Long Lived

High Level Waste

Intermediate Level Waste

Low Level Waste

Very Low Level Waste

30.2

Exempt Waste

Fig. 10.3 Classifications of radioactive wastes

Half life period (Years)

10.2 Classification of Waste

429

Lee 2005). Waste classification varies from country to country. Usual classification of radioactive waste is given in Table 10.3. In order to reduce its volume, LLW usually compacted or incinerated prior to disposal (Nirdosh 1999). ILW is stored in tanks/vaults/drums with some shielding to safeguard operators from radiation. Waste generated during rector decommissioning is termed as reactor decommissioning waste (RDW). Some of the ILW generated during reactor decommissioning is short lived with half year life less than thirty years. Low and intermediate-level wastes-short lived (LILW-SL) comprises of waste with long-lived alpha emitting radionuclides up to 4000 Bq/g in individual waste packages and to an on the whole average of 400 Bq/g per waste package. Low and intermediate-level wastes-long lived (LILW-LL) comprises of waste with long-lived radionuclide concentrations more than limitations for short-lived waste. Short-lived waste contains radionuclides with half-lives less than that of Caesium137 (i.e., 30.2 years). Long-lived waste contains radionuclides with half-lives greater than 30.2 years. Long-lived low-level waste type arises from: (1) industrial processes (like the uranium processing industry, the gas and oil industry, the phosphate industry), and (2) from the cleanup of sites contaminated with radium. This type of waste typically contains low-level radionuclide contaminants. HLW contains fission products as well as transuranic elements produced in the reactor core (Liu et al. 2007; Ahn et al. 2007; Peters et al. 2006). HLW comprises mainly fission products which generate a large amount of heat. HLW arises as a liquid form during reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel for separation of uranium and plutonium. These liquid wastes are converted to solid forms by a process called vitrification, stored for more than 50 years to let the radionuclides decay to levels suitable for long-term management. In vitrification high-level waste is calcined to evaporate the water from waste and assist the stability of the glass generated (Min et al. 2007; Sobolev et al. 2005; Sheng et al. 2001; Park and Song 1998). Some HLW may remain for thousands of years. Transuranic waste (TRUW)s are wastes contaminated with alpha emitting transuranic radionuclides whose half-lives are greater than 20 years and concentrations greater than 100 nCi/g (3.7 MBq/kg), excluding HLW (Silva, 1992). TRUW originates from nuclear weapons production. “Transuranic” refers to the atoms which have atomic number greater than uranium (e.g., plutonium). The TRUWs consist of items like rags, tools, contaminated cases, and equipment contaminated with radioactive materials. Some TRUW waste emits high penetrating radiation and hence requires protective shielding. Some TRUW waste does not emit high penetrating radiation but is dangerous to health when particles of it are inhaled/ ingested as it damages lung and other internal organs. The nuclear waste management (NWM) methodology involves a short-term management wherein the waste is treated immediately and a long-term management wherein the waste is stored, disposed, or transformed into a non-toxic form (Grill 2005; Horsley and Hallington 2005; Fritschi 2005).

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Table 10.3 Classification of waste Characteristics

Examples

Exempt waste

Radioactivity levels are below the exemption levels and are excluded from regulatory control

The clearance levels are determined based on an annual dose to members of the public of less than 0.01 mSv

Very-low-level Low and intermediate-level waste (VLLW) wastes (LILW)

0.1 m3 of material with less than 400 kBqa of beta/ gamma activity. For carbon-14 and tritium-containing wastes, the activity limit is 4000 kBq for each 0.1 m3 in total Radioactive waste up to 4 MBq per tonne (not including tritium). For tritium-containing wastes, the up to 40 MBq per tonne

Uranium mill tailings from the processing of uranium bearing ores, radioactive waste from laboratory

Wastes with radioactive materials do not exceed 4 GBq per tonne of alpha or 12 GBq per tonne of beta/gamma activity

Metals from of redundant/ decommissioned equipment/ducting/ piping/ reinforcement; discarded protective clothing, towels and plastic wrappings; and concrete, cement, and rubble from decommissioning

Radioactive waste Type

Subtype

Low-level waste (LLW),

Estimated global Cumulative disposal, (in m3 ) as on 2014

273,000

65,192,000

(continued)

10.2 Classification of Waste

431

Table 10.3 (continued) Characteristics

Radioactive waste Type

Intermediate-level Radioactivity waste (ILW) levels higher than LLW and less radioactive than HLW that do not need heating to be taken into account in the design of storage or disposal facilities High-level waste (HLW)

Examples

Subtype

Wastes in which the temperature may rise considerably as a result of their radioactivity

Estimated global Cumulative disposal, (in m3 ) as on 2014

Resins, chemical sludge, metal reactor fuel cladding, and contaminated materialsb

10,589,000

Spent waste

72,000

a Becquerel

(Bq): Quantity of radioactive material in which one nucleus decays per second. Fuel shell/element from dismantling/reprocessing of used nuclear fuel, (2) scrap from operation/maintenance of radioactive plant, (3) flocks generated during treatment of radioactive liquids/ sludges, (4) graphite from reactor cores, and (5) decommissioning metals. Source Ojovan et al. (2019), Ojovan and Steinmetz (2022), Sutherland et al. (1982) b (1)

10.2.1 Mine and Mill Tailings The initial step in the NFC is the mining of uranium or thorium ores used to produce nuclear fuel. Radioactive products such as radium may also be separated from the ores, for a variety of applications. The mined material not subjected to additional processing accumulated as waste piles, normally in proximity to the mines. Mine residues from the mining of uranium and thorium ores usually contain some radioactive components and need to be managed in order to prevent their dispersion. The quantity of mine residues depends on mining method (in situ leaching, underground mining, open pit mining) as well as geological properties of the ore deposits. In some open pit mines, the production of mine residues is very large, whereas in uranium leaching operations, almost no solid mine residues are produced (IEAE 2008). Radioactive waste generated by mining/milling of uranium/thorium ores and also through the extraction/processing of other material that happens to be rich in naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM), such as mineral sands, phosphate minerals, some gold bearing rocks, coal, hydrocarbons, etc., contains long-lived radionuclides with relatively low concentrations. Waste considered being radioactive but containing only naturally occurring radioactive material is defined as NORM

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10 Radioactive Waste

waste. The very large quantity volume NORM waste makes it difficult to dispose of it in deep geological repositories (IEAE 2008). The geologic formations that hold oil and gas also contain following naturally occurring radionuclides: • • • • •

Lead-210/Polonium-210, Potassium-40, Radium and decay products, Thorium and decay products, Uranium and its decay products.

Since extraction process concentrates naturally occurring radionuclides, these wastes are classified as Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (TENORM). As per CRCPD (1987) 30% of domestic oil and gas wells produced some TENORM. The quantities of radioactive waste increased after the Second World War (CORWM 2006). The total quantity of uranium produced till the year 2004 all over the world is about 2.2 Mt with each of the USA and Canada producing nearly onesixth of the world total. During the years 2002–2004, Australia generated about 20% of world’s total and Canada generated about 30% of world’s total uranium. The total extent of tailings accumulated in Australia in 1996 was nearly 50 Mt (IAEA 2007). The total commercial mill tailing, generated in the USA, till the end of 1996 was about 190 Mt (US DoE 1997). As per the estimations made by Makhijani et al. (1995), warheads generated about 34 Mt each of mine and mill tailing. The European Union generates nearly 35% of its electricity from nuclear energy (European Commission 2004).

10.2.2 Waste from Nuclear Power Generation Nuclear power generation generates of many kinds of radioactive waste, which includes spent reactor fuel, high-level waste (HLW) from the chemical reprocessing of spent fuel and low and intermediate-level waste (LILW) from reactor operations, reprocessing, decontamination, decommissioning, and other fuel cycle activities. Reactor fuel usually will be in the form of ceramic pellets formed from pressed uranium oxide sintered (baked) at a temperature of over 1400 °C. These pellets are encased in metal tubes and arranged into a fuel assembly. The nuclei of U-235 atoms split inside a nuclear reactor and release energy which is used to convert water into steam which is used to drive a turbine connected to generator for production of electricity. With time, the quantity of fission fragments formed in the fuel will increase and hence removed from the reactor. Used fuel is either reprocessed or shall be disposed. Solid waste is generated by during treatment of liquid waste by chemical precipitation, ion exchange, ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, and evaporation.

10.2 Classification of Waste

10.2.2.1

433

Low and Intermediate-Level Waste

LILW in nuclear power generation arise from pressurized water reactors (PWRs) and boiling water reactors (BWRs) collectively known as light water reactors (LWRs). Waste production per GWe is 177 m3 (with 112 TBq) for PWRs and 513 m3 (with 549 TBq) for BWRs (United States Department of Energy 1997).

10.2.2.2

Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level Waste

The fuel removed from the reactor core when it reaches design irradiation level is called “spent” even if it contains significant quantity of fissile material. After removal from the reactor core, spent fuel is placed in storage pools, usually located within the reactor building. Storage at the reactor site is planned to last a number of years after which spent nuclear fuel is sent for reprocessing, disposal, or long-term storage. Normally from one year of operation of 1 GWe LWR, about 30–50 t of heavy metal (MTHM) spent fuel assemblies containing are generated with initial radioactivity of around 5.0–8.3 E6 TBq (IAEA 1992).

10.2.2.3

Decommissioning Waste

Decommissioning waste is the waste generated at the end of useful lives nuclear facilities. Decommissioning a LWR with capacity of around 1 GWe can generate short-lived LILW between 5000 and 6000 t (IAEA 2001, b). The production of longlived LILW and HLW is significantly lower, generally less than 1000 MT (IAEA 2008).

10.2.2.4

Remediation Waste

Waste remediation of contaminated sites is called remediation waste. As per IAES (2008), more than 19 million m3 of LILW is generated by decommissioning/ remediation.

10.2.3 Waste from Institutional Activities Institutional uses of radioactive substance include industry research and medicine.

10.2.3.1

High-Level Waste

Significant HLW is generated by reprocessing the spent fuel by research reactors.

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10.2.3.2

Low and Intermediate-Level Waste

The major part of institutional waste is fall in the LILW category.

10.2.3.3

Decommissioning Waste

Decommissioning of faucitis that utilize radioactive substance would generate decommissioning radioactive waste.

10.2.4 Defence and Weapon Related Waste Defence and weapon-related radioactive waste are generated during development and testing of nuclear weapons.

10.3 Characterization Characterization actions are performed during different stages of the radioactive waste life cycle. The waste is characterized based on the physical, chemical and radiological properties for the purpose of management. The important stages of managing radioactive waste (Fig. 10.4) include waste characterization, pretreatment, treatment, storage, disposal, surveillance/monitoring.

Charecterisation

Pretreatment

Treatment

Storage

Disposal

Survelliance and monitoring

Fig. 10.4 Stages of managing radioactive waste

10.4 Pretreatment

435

10.4 Pretreatment Treatment of radioactive waste is usually preceded by pretreatment performed to: 1. Facilitate treatment, transport, packaging, and conditioning, 2. Segregate into active and non-active streams, 3. Recover products for recycling. Pretreatment of waste consists of collection, segregation, interim storage, chemical adjustment as well as decontamination. Pretreatment helps to enhance safety, lower radiation exposure, and decrease waste management costs. Common adjustment procedures are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Chemical adjustment, Destruction of unwanted components, Electrolytic destruction of organic acids, Evaporation, Modifying the behaviour with alkaline earth ions, and Removal of components which are not compatible with material used during treatment.

Size reduction is done to facilitate lessen packaging for transportation costs as well as facilitate subsequent treatment. Chemical adjustment is done to correct the waste characteristics to fit the requirements of following storage/treatment/immobilization processes.

10.4.1 Packaging Packaging of solid radioactive waste is an important pretreatment operation carried out for easy handling, transportation, and further processing. It has to fulfil with transport regulations and safety standards. Exempt waste, LLW and ILW in most of the cases are non-heat generating. HLW is always heat generating. Hence, the methods of conditioning, packing, storage, and disposal of LLW and ILW are different from HLW. IAEA identifies five different categories of package (Table 10.4) for radioactive waste. Excepted packaging is used for shipment of radioactive waste with extremely low levels of radioactivity they are however, required to have the letters “UN1 ” and the appropriate four-digit UN identification number marked on the outside of the package. Industrial packaging is used in transportation of certain low-activity material from industry. 1

A UN number (United Nations number) is a four-digit number that identifies hazardous materials and in the framework of international trade and transport.

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10 Radioactive Waste

Table 10.4 Packaging category of radioactive waste Packaging category

Used for transportation of

Examples

Excepted

Exempted waste with extremely low levels of radioactivity

Consumer goods such as smoke detectors

Industrial

Low-activity material and LLW transport within countries

Slightly contaminated clothing, laboratory samples, and smoke detectors

Type A

Small quantities of radioactive material

Nuclear medicines (radiopharmaceuticals), radioactive waste, and radioactive sources used in industrial applications

Type B

HLW

Spent fuel from nuclear power plants

Type C

Smaller amounts of high-activity materials transported by aircraft

Source World nuclear association (2022), FEMA (2023)

Type A packaging material is usually constructed of fibreboard/steel/wood/, with an inner containment vessel made of glass, plastic, or metal surrounded with packing material made of vermiculite/polyethylene/rubber. Type A packaging shall withstand moderate degrees of heat, cold, reduced air pressure, vibration, impact, water spray, drop, penetration, and stacking tests and designed to ensure that the package retains its containment integrity and shielding under normal transport conditions. Type A packages are not designed to withstand the forces of an accident as consequences of a release of the material in one of these packages would not be significant. Type B packaging ranges from small hand-held radiography cameras to heavily shielded steel casks that weigh up to 125 tonnes. Type B package designs must withstand all Type A tests, and tests that simulate severe or “worst-case” accident conditions.

10.4.2 Decontamination Decontamination is a removal of contamination from the surfaces of facilities/ equipment so that it can be reused or disposed as non-radioactive waste. The objectives of decontamination are (IAEA 2001): (1) reduction of radiation exposure, (2) salvage equipment and materials, (3) reduce the volume of equipment, (4) restore the site and facility, (5) remove loose radioactive contaminants, and (6) reduce the magnitude of the residual radioactive source. Decontamination activity must consider: (1) safety, (2) efficiency, (3) cost effectiveness, (4) waste minimization, and (5) feasibility of industrialization.

10.4 Pretreatment

437

Decontamination techniques include flushing with water, strippable coatings, dusting, vacuuming, wiping, scrubbing, high-pressure liquid nitrogen blasting, steam cleaning, abrasive cleaning, sponge blasting, high-pressure and ultra-highpressure water jet, CO2 blasting, Freon jetting, wet ice blasting, grinding, shaving, scarifying, milling, grouting, chipping, electrochemical polishing, thermochemical decontamination. Chemical decontamination is carried out by circulating the appropriate chemical in the system or by immersing parts in chemicals, which must then be agitated. Mild chemical decontaminants like detergent, foam, cream dilute acids/alkalis are used for decontamination of large flat pieces onsite, doors, pools, and reactor containments. Use of mild chemicals can only remove loose contamination and generate high secondary waste. Aggressive chemicals like strong acids/alkalis and oxidizing/ reducing agents are used for removing thin layer of metals from the surface. Electrochemical decontamination (electropolishing) is widely used in non-nuclear industrial applications to generate a smooth polished surface on metals/alloys. In this process, metal layers are removed from a surface. Mechanical decontamination includes as surface cleaning (e.g., sweeping, scrubbing) and surface removal (e.g., grit blasting, drilling and grit blasting). This method can be used as an alternatively/simultaneously/sequentially with chemical decontamination Fig. 10.5. Decontamination by melting completely destroys contaminated object and technique is effective if contaminants are volatile or in the slag or dross (e.g., plutonium). Melting is done in foundries and ingots are stored if necessary, till the radioactivity reaches safe limits.

Nuclear Facility

Non-radioactive components

Recycle/reuse of Nonradioactive

Radioactive components

Characterization Decontamination

Recycle/reuse

Characterization

Waste Processing

Disposal

Fig. 10.5 Schematic diagram of waste processing and disposal in a nuclear facility

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10.5 Treatment Treatment of radioactive waste is done to achieve the following main objectives: (1) volume reduction, (2) removal of radionuclides, (2) change of chemical composition and physical state. The usual methods adapted to in treatment of radioactive waste are discussed in subsequent sections.

10.5.1 Compaction and Supercompaction In compaction, solid waste is compressed into boxes or containers to reduce the volume with volume reduction factor (VRF) of 2 to 5. Supercompactors are used to achieve VRFs of about 100.

10.5.2 Incineration Combustible radioactive waste is burnt in specially designed incinerators. The incineration generates ash, soot and condensate from the off-gas pollution control systems. Usual VRF achieved in the incineration is 500–1000 in case of liquid waste and 50– 100 for solid radioactive waste. Ash contains about 90–95% radionuclides, whereas soot contains about 1–5% and the condensate contains about 0.1–2%. The radionuclide content in waste incinerated is generally limited to an alpha activity of 10–5 Ci2 / kg and beta activity of 10–4 Ci/kg (Ojovan and Lee 2005). The temperature in the combustion chamber is about 900–950 °C, and higher temperature is maintained in the post-combustion chamber. Shaft furnaces with plasma burners are efficient and can be used for both organic and inorganic wastes like glass, ceramics, and construction materials without pretreatment. Temperatures of 1400–1600 °C can be achieved with plasmatrons (plasma burners) which melt the ash residues.

10.5.3 Chemical and Thermochemical Decomposition Chemical decomposition is done by digestion of organics with acid. In thermochemical decomposition, wastes are incinerated using powder metal fuels (PMFs) to provide simultaneous decomposition of organic matter and confine hazardous radioactive and chemical substance in residue.

2

Curie (symbol Ci) is a non-SI unit of radioactivity. It refers to the amount of ionizing radiation released when a radioactive element spontaneously emits energy as a result of the radioactive decay.

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10.5.4 Partitioning and Transmutation The key objective of partitioning and transmutation (P&T) is to remove or reduce the quantity of long-lived radionuclides from radioactive waste. P&T will not totally remove all long-lived radio wastes. The complex processes will give a certain quantity of nuclear waste with long-lived radionuclides reduced with a factor of hundred or more. Hence, the time required to reduce the radiotoxicity to the level of natural uranium can be two years instead of 200 years. The transmutation of the nuclides is achieved by irradiation with neutrons. Since the process releases a huge amount of energy, it must be cooled. Transmutation is preceded by partitioning wherein the longlived radionuclide from the radioactive waste is separated. Success of transmutation depends on partitioning as the impurities can absorb neutrons.

10.5.5 Conditioning Conditioning is the operation to produce a waste package appropriate for handling, storage, transportation and disposal. Conditioning is an engineering process with large entities—packages. The conditioning of intermediate-level radioactive liquid waste is carried out depending on the following: (1) compatibility of matrix and waste, (2) mechanical and chemical durability of solidified product, (3) cost of processing, (4) throughput, and (5) disposal options. Immobilization of spent ion exchange resins is done with a polymer matrix. The conditioning of radioactive waste includes operations that change radioactive waste into solid form appropriate for handling, storage, transportation, and disposal. This conditioning comprises of (1) immobilization of radioactive waste, (2) placing the waste into containers, (3) providing additional packaging if necessary. Most common immobilization methods are solidification of ILW and LLW in cement or polymer and vitrification of high-level liquid waste. Immobilized waste may be packed in containers varying from 200 L steel drum to thick-walled containers, based on the nature and concentrations of radionuclides.

10.5.6 Immobilization Immobilization reduces the possible migration or dispersion of contaminants. It is the alteration of radioactive waste into a waste form by solidification and encapsulation for facilitating handling, transportation, storage, and disposal. Solidification is achieved by chemical incorporation of waste into structure of a matrix. Encapsulation is achieved by physically surrounding waste by material like bitumen or cement in order to retain and isolate radionuclides.

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Radioactive wastes are immobilized in a range of matrices for storage or geological disposal. Commonly used materials include borosilicate glass and bitumen. The immobilization of matrix is elected depending on: (1) nature of the waste, (2) properties of the matrix, (3) secondary effects of immobilization, (4) intended storage/disposal route, (5) costs associated, and (6) safety. The immobilization of wastes is planned to prevent/restrict the unintentional dispersion of radionuclides into the environment. Waste containment involves packaging in separate units to make easy handling, transport and inspection. Immobilization of radioactive ensures that they are safe from the following: stored energy is minimized, (2) the waste will attain low reactivity, solubility and flammability, (3) the waste is resistant to corrosion, reaction or microbial action, and (4) the waste can be cooled by natural air circulation. High-level liquid waste is concentrated by evaporation prior to storage in stainless steel tanks. This type of waste is managed by immobilization followed by interim retrievable storage and deep geological disposal. Slurry of preconcentrated waste and glass-forming substance is transferred to process vessel in a multi-zone furnace made of high Ni–Cr alloy. The calcinated the molten mass is drained into stainless steel canisters and allowed to cool slowly. Ceramic melter has advantage of higher throughput due to better product durability and continuous operation on account of greater achievable processing temperature.

10.5.6.1

Immobilization Matrix

Many immobilization matrices are being used and investigated. Commonly used and cited matrices are discussed in subsequent paragraphs.

Cementitious Materials Cementitious materials encapsulate radioactive waste in a strong, alkaline, lowpermeability, amorphous to crystalline form with long-term durability. Cementitious materials can be used for wide range of LLW and ILW. Cementation is carried out in a drum mixing system or in situ. Advantages of cementation process include low cost, higher throughput, operational simplicity, and product of acceptable quality. Cementitious materials comprise of cement mixed with granular material to achieve a pourable consistency and include (1) cement grouts, (2) mortar, and (3) concrete. Cement grouts are mixture of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and water, with or without very fine aggregate. The mixture is proportioned to generate a pourable fluid. Mortar is a mixture of cement, water, fine aggregate, and additives which are less fluid than grouts. Concrete is formed by mixing of cement, water, coarse, and fine aggregate. In order to achieve the desired grout properties, ingredients blending agents are used with cementitious immobilization matrices. Some of

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the commonly used blending agents are pulverized fly ash (PFA), blast furnace slag (BFS), and superplasticizers.

Bitumen Bitumen is generally used for immobilizing liquid and wet LLW and ILW encapsulates waste in a viscous, self-sealing, neutral, low-permeable, amorphous solid form with good long-term durability.

Organic Polymers Organic polymers are suited to beta and gamma emitting LLW as well as ILW. They are used for encapsulation of low permeable, hard, amorphous to semi-crystalline solid waste.

High-temperature Incineration and Melting This method is used for LLW and some ILW. High-temperature incineration and melting embed radionuclides in an impermeable, hard, amorphous glassy solid. The waste embedded with this method will have leaching characteristics better than or similar to borosilicate glass.

Phosphate Ceramics Phosphate ceramics are used for LLW and ILW with volatile radionuclide. The matrices incorporate radionuclides in a neutral to alkaline, high-strength, lowpermeability, and crystalline solid form.

Inorganic Polymers/Synthetic Zeolites These matrices are usually used for LLW. They encapsulate waste in a low-density, low-permeability, very strong, amorphous, neutral, solid form with leaching characteristics better than or similar to cementitious materials. ILW like radioactive concentrates as well as spent ion exchange resin are solidified using matrix such as polyester styrene. Radioactive spent resins are transferred to a resin storage tank and excess water is removed using vacuum dewatering system. A required quantity of polymer is premixed with the requisite amount of accelerator and catalyst. The usual accelerator is dimethyl aniline and catalyst is benzoyl peroxide. The polymer is then poured into a product drum.

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Glass This matrix is usually used for HLW but can also be used for LILW. Glass is used for encapsulation of waste in a very strong, impermeable, amorphous, highdensity, and acidic to neutral solid form with long-term durability. The process of integrating materials into a glass-like form or glass is called vitrification. Vitrification is frequently used for solidification of liquid HLW from the reprocessing of spent fuel. Glasses have potentially high durability, high chemical resistance. Vitrification generates small volume of waste form and can be used for incorporating large number of elements. The most durable materials need very high processing temperatures of more than 1500 o C at which waste radionuclides occur in volatile form generating large quantity of secondary wastes and diminish the immobilization efficiency. Sulphate in the waste resulting from ferrous sulphamate used for conversion of Pu+4 to Pu+3 is one of the bothersome components with respect to vitrification. Sulphate as sodium sulphate can be allowed in borosilicate matrix up to 1% maximum. At higher sulphate concentrations, alkali sulphate is formed which is not desirable as this phase has high solubility in water. Presence of this soluble phase harmfully affects homogeneous distribution of radionuclides leading to problems during pouring of vitreous material into storage canisters. Hence, in order to avoid such complications, borosilicate glass matrix is used to accommodate sulphate uniformly in the glass matrix. Hence, borosilicates and phosphates, which use lower processing temperatures of around 1000 o C, are used in vitrification of nuclear waste. Vitrification can destroy hazardous organics in the waste and chemically incorporate the waste inorganic matter into a stable glass. Vitrification involves melting of waste with glass-forming material in order to incorporate the contaminants in to macro and microstructure of vitrified solid. Waste constituents are immobilized by direct integration into glass structure or by encapsulation. In the single-stage vitrification process, glass-forming materials are mixed with wastes to form of a paste. This paste is then fed into the melter. In the two-stage vitrification process, the following stages are followed: (1) introduction of the waste concentrate into the calciner where oxysalts decompose into oxides, (2) feeding calcinated waste into melter with additives. Sugar is usually added in calcinations or melting to restrain Ruthenium volatilization. Addition of phosphate to the waste feed generates a metal phosphate which acts as a secondary containment and the product is called supercalcine.

Glass Ceramics These matrices are usually used for HLW. They encapsulate and partly incorporate waste in an impermeable, very strong, high-density, amorphous-crystalline, and acidic to neutral solid form with leaching characteristics superior to borosilicate glass.

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Synroc Synroc is portmanteau of “synthetic rock” and is usually used for HLW. This matrix incorporates radionuclides in a very strong, impermeable, very high-density, crystalline, and acidic to neutral solid form with leaching characteristics and durability superior to borosilicate glass. Natural Crystalline Phases A natural crystalline phase like Zircon embeds radionuclides in monomineralic solids with good leaching characteristics and durabilities (Bennett et al. 2001).

10.5.7 Electrochemical Treatment of Radioactive Waste The electrochemical treatment, electroremediation, or electrokinetic remediation (EKR) is physicochemical method by electrochemical destruction/transformation of radioactive waste. EKR involves application of direct current or low voltage gradient through them (Vazquez et al. 2007). Many metal oxidizing agents have been tested in pilot/commercial scale (Adenot et al. 2005; Chang 2001; Prabhakaran et al. 2009; Farmet et al. 1991).

10.6 Storage Untreated radioactive waste stored in processed and unprocessed forms during various stages of its management like: 1. To allow for the decay of short-lived radionuclides to permissible level, 2. To collect and accumulate an adequate quantity of radioactive waste prior to its further treatment/disposal, 3. To reduce the heat generation rate of HLW prior to its disposal During storage radioactive waste shall be immobile in a container that is physically and chemically stable. The storage shall ensure minimum human intervention and energy should be removed from the waste. The waste storage building shall be resistant to foreseeable hazards and ensure access during emergency. The storage waste packages should be able to be inspected (IAEA 2006). Multi-barrier system includes the natural geological barrier of the host rock as well as an engineered barrier system (EBS). The EBS comprises of numerous components like waste matrix, container, backfill, repository walls, and wall linings. Storage of radioactive waste can be done by (Jeswani and Khelurkar 2015): 1. Deep geological repository: This is provided beneath the ground level to provide storage for the HLW

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2. Spent fuel pool: Contain thermally controlled water, 3. Dry cask storage: Cooled HLW inside the spent fuel pool the radioactive waste is transferred to dry cask fabricated with steel. The fuel rods inside cask are surrounded by inert gas, 4. DUCRETE: Facility made up of depleted uranium concrete (DUCRETE) contains uranium-based aggregate and conventional concrete ingredients.

10.7 Disposal Disposal comprises of emplacement of radioactive waste with assurance for safety in a disposal facility without the intention of retrieval. The safety is achieved by placing natural/engineered barriers around the waste in order to limit the release of radiation into the environment. A system of multiple barriers is usually adopted to ensure isolation and minimization of release of radionuclides into the environment. Barriers can be metal wall of a container, or backfill or host rock with high sorption (adsorption, and absorption) capability. The radionuclides in the contained waste will undergo decay thus reducing hazard with time. Apart from radioactive waste disposal by ‘concentrate and contain’ method, radio active may be disposed by discharge of radio active waste in liquid and gaseous form within authorized limits, with adequate dispersion. HLW management and disposal are among the most difficult problems in nuclear power industry. In most nations, solid HLW is at present being stored in purpose-built stores pending disposal deep underground. In several countries, some lower activity waste with short-lived radionuclides is being disposed of in near-surface repositories. Liquid radioactive waste is usually converted to a solid form suitable for disposal, with some exceptions. In the past, some liquid radioactive waste has been pumped underground within enclosed aquifers or mixed with cement and injected as sludge in a low-permeability formation. In some cases, HLW and higher activity LILW in liquid form have been stored in near-surface underground tanks and still being kept in that form after some decades. There are sites, above/below the ground, used in the past with significant amounts of radioactive materials, which require continuing surveillance as well as monitoring to control access to the radioactive material. Increasing depth of disposal with rising hazard level of the waste is a key approach used to achieve the essential degree of safety along with properties of the host rock formation, characteristics of the radioactive waste, the engineered features of the facility, and legal requirement. Usually, three depths are considered suitable for the disposal (IAEA 2017, 2020, Ojovan and Steinmetz): • Near surface (shallow)—depth up to 30 m, • Intermediate—depth 30 to 300 m, • Deep (geological)—depth more than 300 m.

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Table 10.5 Disposal options for various radioactive waste categories Disposal option

Type of waste VLLW

LLW

ILW

HLW

Level from earth surface

Ground level

Up to 30 m

30–300 m

300–1000 m

Technology

Trenches

Surface and semi-buried vaults, near-surface silos, shallow drift/tunnels

Drift/Tunnel/ Mined deep silos/ boreholes geological repositories

Type of depositories

Near-surface depositories

Geological depositories

The different categories and methods adopted for disposal are listed in Table 10.5. Radioactive waste from mills and mines is an unsealed source. Therefore, the following exposure pathways should need to be taken into account for the protection of personnel (IAEA 2002): (a) External gamma/beta irradiation, including skin contamination, (b) Inhalation of dust, aerosols, and gases, (c) Ingestion. Releases of radionuclides from mining, milling and subsequent waste management may result in radiation exposure of the public as radionuclides may have been altered and influenced by the operation of the waste management facilities. Design consideration of a tailings management facility shall include: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Hydrogeological, hydrological, and geochemical characteristics of the site, Physical/chemical characteristics of the tailings Quantity of material retained on the site as waste, Stability of the pit, underground mine void, or surface impoundment, Use of neutralization agents, radium precipitating additives, liners, radon barriers, and evaporation circuits.

In order to control/minimize discharge through air route disposal facility shall have efficient off-gas cleaning system like venturi scrubber, packed bed scrubber, cyclone separators, and high-efficiency air filters to retain particulate radionuclides.

10.7.1 Near-Surface Disposal Facilities (NSDF) The various disposal modules adopted in NSDFs are: (i) reinforced concrete trenches (RCT), (ii) stone-lined earth trenches (SLT); and (iii) tile holes (TH). These modules are usually below the ground. But depending on the local geohydrological conditions, facilities could be partly/completely above ground as well. The disposal sites are closed by wall to restrict unauthorized access. Boreholes of 4–7 m deep are employed at appropriate locations for monitoring groundwater periodically apart from analysis

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of soil and vegetation for uptake of radioactivity. Inspection pipes are provided in RC trenches to monitor after closure of the trench. Further radiation survey of the complete site is done at predetermined intervals. Performance assessment of NSDFs is done through field investigations and mathematical models. Safety assessments are carried out for NSDFs using mathematical models considering the nature of the facility and geochemical behaviour at the site.

10.7.2 Stone-Lined Earth Trenches Stone-lined earth trenches are used for potentially active wastes. Stone-lined earth trenches are shallow excavations 1–4 m deep provided with stone lining. These trenches are backfilled and closed with a soil cover of about one metre thick after disposal. Vermiculite, bentonite, and other soil with good sorption properties are suitable for backfilling materials. Figure 10.6 shows concrete trench for disposal of radioactive waste. CRANE

MOBILE COVER

G

L

INSPECTION PIT

RCC STRCTURE

Fig. 10.6 Concrete trench for disposal of radioactive waste

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10.7.3 Reinforced Concrete Trenches These trenches are typically 2.5 m wide, 4.8 m deep, and 15 m Long with outer containment wall thickness varying from 750 mm at the bottom to 350 mm at the top (Raj 2006) are closed with precast concrete slabs with water proofing.

10.7.4 Tile Holes Conditioned waste packages are stored in tile holes (Fig. 10.7) which are circular and about 4 m below ground made of steel shell and concrete lining (Bansal et al. 1991). The concrete tile hole is formed by digging a hole, and placing precast pipe sections on a concrete base. After these precast pipe sections are attached, the hole is backfilled and paved over. Fig. 10.7 Tile hole

500 mm THICK SHIELDING PLUG L

710 mm

25 mm SPUN 6 mm CARBON STEEL 25 mm SPUN 25 mm CEMNT BASED WATER

4m

G

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10 Radioactive Waste

Seal Buffer Container Seal

Waste

Seal

Fig. 10.8 Conceptual drawing of geological disposal

10.7.5 Geological Disposal Geological disposal (Fig. 10.8) is the emplacement of solid radioactive waste in an underground facility in a stable geological formation. The purpose of geological radioactive waste disposal is to provide containment and isolation of the radionuclides in the waste from the biosphere (IEAR 2011). Concept of multiple barriers is the basis of geological disposal. Containment of radioactive waste implies designing the disposal facility to minimize or delay the release of radionuclides. Isolation of radioactive waste means keeping the associated hazard of waste away from the biosphere and making access of humans without special technical capabilities difficult besides restricting the mobility of long-lived radionuclides. The barriers include both ‘engineered’ as well as ‘natural’. The multiple barriers for geological waste disposal are a combination of the packaging of the waste, engineered barriers/features of the facility, stable geological setting in which the facility is sited. The engineered barrier components are solid waste, its container, and a backfill or buffer material placed between the rock/soil and the container. Geological disposal involves containing radioactive waste inside multiple barriers to provide protection over hundreds of thousands of years keeping radioactive waste deep inside a suitable rock to ensure that no radiation reach the surface environment. Hence, a comprehensive surveillance and monitoring programme is important. Geological disposal is done for vitrified wastes at nearly 500–5000 m depth in suitable host rocks like gneisses, granite, charnockite, basalt, etc. In deep borehole disposal, HLW is placed in boreholes located at suitable geologic strata at depths of

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449

about 2–5 kms below the land surface. Each borehole could hold around 100–200 tonnes of radioactive waste. The most widely used deep geological disposal concept mined storage area comprising tunnels or caves into which packaged waste is placed. In some cases, the waste containers are then surrounded by buffer and/or backfill by a material like cement or clay.

10.8 Surveillance and Monitoring Surveillance and monitoring programme is an important to verify that a licensed radioactive waste disposal facility meets its performance and safety requirements. Monitoring and surveillance are required for the preoperational, operational, closure, and post-closure periods for radioactive waste disposal facilities (IAEA 2014). The monitoring and surveillance of radioactive waste disposal facilities has the following broad objectives: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Demonstrate compliance with regulatory requirements, Establish information database of the disposal facility to support future decisions, Provide public information, Verify mathematical models used to assess safety with actual conditions, Verify safety requirement. Radioactive disposal systems are monitored with the following principles:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Design of a disposal system shall be assuring long-term safety, Follow conventional and radiological safety, Long-term safety should not depend on post-closure monitoring, Monitoring activities should not affect safety of a disposal system, and Monitoring shall continue in future if required. Responsibilities of operator:

1. Design a monitoring and surveillance programme, 2. Develop unforeseen event plans, 3. Perform adequate monitoring and surveillance in agreement with the regulatory body, 4. Report status and data to the regulatory body, 5. Retain, store, maintain, and administer data. Factors influencing monitoring and surveillance programme: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Characteristics of site, Stage of development of the facility, Type and design of the facility, Waste characteristics,

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5. Waste inventory. The monitoring and surveillance plan shall include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Description of the management system, Description of the site and adjacent area, Description of waste disposal facility and its environmental setting, Emergency plans or maintenance actions, Inspection procedures, Reporting requirements, Type and frequency of inspections.

The monitoring includes the monitoring of ambient radiation sampling and radiological analysis of fish, milk, sea water, groundwater, river water, shellfish, produce, sediment, soil, and vegetation.

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Peters TB, Barnes MJ, Hobbs DT, Walker D, Fondeur F, Norato M, Fink S, Pulmano R (2006) Strontium and actinide separations from high level nuclear waste solutions using monosodium titan ate 2. Actual waste testing. Separat Sci Technol 41(11):2409–2427 Prabhakaran D, Kannadasan T, Basha CA (2009) Mediated electrochemical oxidation process for destruction of TOC in a batch recirculation reactor. Int J Chem Technol Res 1(4):962–969 Raj K, Prasad KK, Bansal NK (2006) Radioactive waste management practices in India. Nucl Eng Des 236:914–930 Sheng J, Choi K, Song MJ (2001) Vitrication of liquid waste from nuclear power plants. J Nuclear Mater 297(1):7–13 Silva M (1992) An assessment of the flammability and explosion potential of defense transuranic waste. Nuclear Safety 33(2):220–228 Sobolev IA, Dmitriev SA, Lifanov FA, Kobelev AP, Stefanovsky SV, Ojovan MI (2005) Vitrification processes for low, intermediate radioactive and mixed wastes. Glass Technol 46(1):28–35 Sutherland AA, Rogers VC, Macbeth PJ (1982) Long-term monitoring of closed low-level waste and uranium mill tailings disposal sites. IEEE Trans Nuclear Sci 29(1):242–246 Thomas KT, Baehr W, Plumb GR (1989) Radioactive waste management in developing countries new activities have been initiated to address needs and problems. IAEA Bull 4(1989):32–26 United States Department of Energy (1997) Integrated data base report—1996: U.S. Spent nuclear fuel and radioactive waste inventories, projections, and characteristics, DOE/RW-0006, Rev. 13, Washington, DC USDoE (United States Department of Energy) (1997) Integrated data base report—1996: U.S. Spent Nuclear Fuel and Radioactive Waste Inventories, Projections, and Characteristics, DOE/ RW-0006, Rev. 13, Washington, DC Vázquez MV, Hernández F, Benjumea D, Grandoso D, Lemus M, Arbelo CD (2007) Electrokinetic determination of the buffer capacity of Andisols. Sci Total Environ 378(1–2):214–217 World nuclear association (2022) Transport of Radioactive Material, Updated January 2022, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/transport-of-nuclearmaterials/transport-of-radioactive-materials.aspx. Accessed on 15 Jan 2023

Chapter 11

Health and Safety Issues

Pollution is the major environmental cause of premature death and disease in the world today responsible for an about nine million premature deaths in 2015, which is 16% of all deaths globally, which is 15 times more than from all wars as well as other forms of violence and three times more deaths than from tuberculosis, AIDS, as well as malaria combined. In the most severely affected nations, pollution-related ailment is responsible for more than one fatality in four (Landrigan et al. 2018). All human activities carry some risk of injury. Effects on the health of human exposure are causes of concern during SWM. Injury and death can occur at point of waste generation, collection, transportation, recycling, reusing, and disposal. Numerous substances emitted during SWM which include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Emission of dust in construction and demolition sites, Emission of volatile substances from during waste generation/storage Vehicular emission during transportation Emission during processing, Emission due to burying of waste at street/dump sites.

The simplest way for safe living is to (1) recognize hazards, (2) evaluate hazards, and (3) control hazards. SWM is associated with large number of different substances some of which are intrinsically hazardous to health. Safety is significant because: (1) safety would affect the wages of the people who are ill or injured, (2) loss of productivity caused by disruption to business, (3) damage to products and equipment, (4) costs of investigation and correcting a problem, and (5) fines and legal costs if prosecuted. But, SWM in many nations is done by unorganized/informal sector. The efficient storing as well as handling of materials is very important to SWM. Handling and storing waste involve various operations like hoisting with a crane, driving a truck loaded with waste, carrying bags or materials, and stacking waste in drums/barrels. Wrong storing and handling of materials result in costly injuries.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6_11

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Bending, turning, twisting, falling objects, tumbling of improperly stacked materials are the more common movements are reason for injuries. Waste handlers must be aware of injuries that can occur when handling materials including the following: • • • •

Bruises as well as fractures caused while handling solid waste, Carrying solid waste that are too heavy/large. Cuts as well as bruises due to falling of improperly stored substance, and Strains as well as sprains during SWM.

Solid waste is a reservoir of disease causative agent.1 The effect of solid waste on health depends on: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

Disaster in the area, Disposal—Landfill, open dump, incineration, ocean dump, etc., Efficiency of regulators, Efficiency of waste handling. Energy usage (e.g., fuel, electricity), Extent of waste regulation, Health of individuals, Management of waste—Open burning, dumping, segregation, etc., Mode of transportation of toxins/infection—Direct contact, air, water, vector, etc., Personal hygiene practice, Personal protective equipment (PPE)s, Portal of entry, portal of exit as well as transmission of causative agent, Resistance of recipient to ailment, The climatologically/environmental setup of the location, The composition of waste (e.g., toxic substance, temperature, sharps, infectious substances and other chemical/physical properties), The methodology/technology adopted for handling/processing of waste, The products and by-products of waste decomposition/reaction. Transportation of waste—Animal driven, manual, closed vehicle, open vehicle, motor vehicle driven, etc., Treatment of waste—Baling, shredding, stabilization, etc., Type of waste—Biomedical, hazardous, electronic, radioactive, slaughter, municipal, cremation, C&D, etc., Work condition (e.g., traffic, waste handling machineries),

The waste constituents include chemical, physical, as well as biological substance which can lead to non-communicable disease, injury, as well as communicable disease. The transmission of disease causative agent can happen by radiation, direct contact water, vector, air, rodent as well as other animals. The risk associated with a waste depends upon the waste and the recipient. Wastes with sharps, debris, and allergic substances will impose more health hazards. Considerable portion of the faucal matter enters solid waste stream due to inadequate 1

Any agent like toxic chemical and biological pathogens which cause disease.

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Fig. 11.1 Rag picker picking waste without safety concerns

sanitation and sewerage system. Many waste generation/collection point is characterized by: (1) changing weather, (2) undefined workspace and exit, (3) absence of fire precautions, (4) absence of lavatories and showers, (5) absence of potable water supply, (6) absence of clean eating area, (7) absence of controlled lighting, (8) absence of safe access, (9) absence of first aid, (10) absence for oxygen supply, and (11) uncontrolled work environment temperature. With only the exception in sophisticated waste handling facilities, waste handlers would work inconspicuously like rag picker shown in Fig. 11.1. Health can be affected during SWM due to toxicity, injury or infection as detailed below: (1) injuries due to handling waste, (2) respiratory sickness due to air pollutants, (3) infections due to direct contact with infectious material (Fig. 11.2), (4) surface subsidence, fires, and slides, (5) anoxic conditions, (6) water pollution, (7) attack by stray animals, (8) augment in vector population, (9) noise, (8) fires, and (9) toxicity. In exceptional cases, radioactive waste can enter municipal solid waste making it more hazardous to the people coming in contact with them. Health of waste pickers is frequently affected. Children are more susceptible to toxins as they consume more air, water, as well as food per unit of body weight. Metabolic activities of the children are underdeveloped to excrete as well as detoxify toxins, and any disturbance during their growth can easily disturb the development of their organs (Landrigan 1998). HHW in the domestic waste is not devoid from safety issues as they contain: (1) pressurized gas containers, (2) aerosols, (3) WEEE, (4) oils, (5) asbestos, (6) paints and adhesives, (7) flammable liquids (e.g., thinners and solvents), (8) agrochemicals (pesticides, etc.), and (9) household chemicals.

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Fig. 11.2 Tubing contaminated with body fluid

The developing nations have greater safety issues for the following reasons: (1) manual collection without PPEs, (2) rag pickers are cashless, homeless, and live with no or little community help/support, (3) doctors and healthcare workers may not serve the waste handlers properly, (5) lack of specific safety regulations for waste handling in unorganized sector, and (6) absence of safety training/awareness. There are several episodes which imply the importance of safety in waste disposal. Illegal dumping of used needles and syringes on 15 September 1999, in the Western Cape Town, South Africa, resulted in the use of syringes by children for playing. 54 children, who were involved in this incident, were eventually found to be free from infection after an extended period of anxiety and noteworthy clinical intervention. Mismanagement of solid waste can encourage rodents as well as vectors. The solid waste can host snakes/scorpions/insects resulting in injury due to animal bites. The hot objects in solid waste could result in burns. Many published papers on health issues linked with solid waste are concerned with cancer, animal bite, births outcomes, and respiratory diseases besides annoyance due to inappropriate solid waste disposal (Dolk et al. 1998; Vrijheid 2000a, b; Hu and Shy 2001; Jarup et al. 2002; Rushton 2003; DEFRA 2004; Ashworth et al. 2014; WHO 2015). Examples of health hazard due to solid waste are given in Table 11.1. Health data from 1994 in Accra MSW department revealed the solid waste workers experienced a higher occurrence of sick days, work-related accidents/mortality. 47.6% of people reported sick during the year and sick days consumed 0.7 per cent of the total days besides death of 3.6% of the solid waste staff (1994). People residing close to MSW landfill site at Montreal had greater risk of cancer of kidney, liver, pancreas, as well as non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (Goldberg et al. 1995). Dwelling within a 2 km from waste incinerator situated in Mantua, Italy, was associated to upsurge in risk of soft-tissue sarcomas (Comba 2003). The chemicals within the waste can react with each other as well as pathogenic microbes can multiply enhancing the complexity of improper SWM. Biological

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457

Table 11.1 Examples of solid waste categorization and health hazard S. No. Type

Health hazard

1.

Municipal solid May cause injury, spread infection, attracts rodents cause heavy waste metal contamination, combustible material, may cause fire hazard. Combustible as well as explosive waste may lead to injury if burnt haphazardly or due to fire accident

2.

Electronic waste

Some metal and raw material are poisonous

3.

Biomedical waste

Causes infection, toxicity, radiotoxicity, injury, and infection

4.

Slaughter waste May cause injury as well as infection. May host rodents and vectors

5.

Plastic waste

Some of the constituents may be carcinogenic. Prone to release dioxins as well as furans when burnt which are known carcinogenic can result in hormone imbalance as well as birth defects

6.

Hazardous waste

Some of the constituents may be carcinogenic. Likely to release dioxins and furans when burnt which are known carcinogenic, may result in hormone imbalance, birth defect. Can result in acute or chronic toxicity. Combustible as well as explosive waste may result in injury

7.

C&D waste

Sharp object may cause injury. Some of the constituents may be carcinogenic and can lead to acute or chronic toxicity. Prone to release dioxins as well as furans when combustible components are burnt, which are known as carcinogenic, may result in hormone imbalance, birth defect. Combustible as well as explosive waste may lead to injury. May host rodents as well as vectors

8.

Agriculture waste

Combustion of agrochemicals is likely to result in air pollution-related health impact. Residual chemical in discarded container of agrochemical may lead to toxicity. May host rodents, vectors, snakes along with other wild animals

9.

ELV

10.

Disaster waste

Likely to release dioxins as well as furans when burnt which are known carcinogenic, may result in hormone imbalance, birth defect. Can result in acute or chronic toxicity. Combustible and explosive waste may lead to injury. Injury and spread infection. May host rodents as well as vectors

vectors are important to the ailment—solid waste which can ‘host’ pathogens or serve as ‘transportation agent’. Solid wastes may contain poisonous, explosive, flammables, or reactive chemicals in liquid, solid, as well as gaseous forms creating hazards to people. Airborne solids from intentional as well as accidental solid waste burning can cause impacts on health depending on the nature of the pollutants. Pathogenic soil fungi in solid waste can produce spores that enter the air. Constituents of solid waste can enter surface waters, or leach, as well as percolate into groundwater. Both toxic chemicals and biological pathogens may also contaminate food directly or through flies as well as rodents.

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11 Health and Safety Issues

Improper SWM as well as disposal can augment population of vector, stray animals resulting in animal bites as well as vector-borne diseases. Stray animals may also spread the solid waste when they carry waste with them. Some of the case studies of impact of poor SWM on health are given in Box 11.1. Contamination of food by chemicals in the solid waste that enters environment is an important food safety concern posing a serious healthiness threat. Chemicals in solid waste may contaminate crops, livestock, drinking water, as well as seafood, affecting human health. Apart from direct injury, indiscriminate disposal of solid waste would also encourage breeding of street animals. Consider the example of Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore), India. The city had 0.143 million stray dogs according to 2007 dog census. The city also suffered 12,796 dog bites during April 2008 to March 2009 out of which 45% are attributed to pets (Chitra 2011). The attack of street dogs has been course of several deaths every year. It is also a common scene in Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore) in recent years that some dogs kill and drag sleeping children of poor and/or homeless. The increase in stray dogs in the dump sites of habitats adjacent to forest areas will also attract predators of dogs like cheetah and foxes. Open burning of solid waste is likely to release emissions near ground. Burning chlorinated materials, hydrocarbons and pesticide compounds between 250 and 700 °C in oxygen-starved conditions produce toxic gases like carbon monoxide, oxides of sulphur, oxides of nitrogen, dioxins/furans, hydrogen chloride, particulate matter, volatile organic compounds and metals such as antimony, barium, chromium, cadmium, lead, arsenic, beryllium, mercury, manganese, titanium, and phosphorus (Nammari 2004). Black carbon from open burning practices poses risks of respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, and premature death (PNAS 2014). Burning tyres emit dioxins as well as benzene derivatives linked with reproductive as well as cancer impairment in humans (Adeolu 2012). Box 11.1 Case Studies: Impact of Poor SWM on Health Case: Plague-like epidemic in Surat, India, 1994 Poor SWM resulted in the obstruction of storm water drains and flooding in some areas of the city leading to poor sanitation conditions in Surat of Gujarat state, India, resulting in an outbreak of plague in the year 1994 claiming several lives (Central Pollution Control Board, 2017) resulting in 693 cases and 56 deaths. The city key activity includes diamond polishing with several diamond polishing units across the city. India suffered about USD 2 billion in economic losses, including nearly USD 420 million in lost export earnings as well as cancellation of trips to India by over 45,000 people (UNEP & International Solid Waste Association (ISWA) 2015). The latter corrective action brought back health status and stopped plague. Case: Vector-Borne Diseases in Naples, Italy, 1994–2014

11.1 Required Precautions During Manual Operation

459

Improper SWM in Naples metropolitan area of Italy resulted in pile up of waste in the streets leading to breeding of vector-borne diseases. Case: Transport of Toxic Waste in Abidjan, Cote D’Ivoire, 2006 In 2006, 500 tonnes of toxic waste transported from Amsterdam in the vessel Probo Koala were dumped in sites around Abidjan, Cote d’Ivoire resulting in 17 deaths and in more than 100 000 cases of respiratory and gastrointestinal disease due to toxic gas release from these chemical (Margai and Barry 2011, Business and Human Rights Resource Centre 2017). Case: Drains Blocked by Wastes in Accra, Ghana, 2011 Drains blocked by wastes in Accra, Ghana, resulted in floods in 2011 and with 100 incidents of cholera and death of fourteen people besides affecting 43,000, with 17,000 losing their homes. Case: Illegal and Improper Disposal of Hazardous Waste in Mysore, India, 2017 Illegal and improper disposal of hazardous waste covered by soil resulted into death of boy in Mysore during playing (Star of Mysore 2017).

11.1 Required Precautions During Manual Operation Wastes in the developing countries are often dumped in open spaces or footpaths (Fig. 11.3), and workers have to manually collect waste with shovels or by hand (Fig. 11.4). Such handling should be done with precaution and after wearing proper PPEs protective equipment. Some of the published injury and disease risks for SWM workers versus control baseline populations are given in Table 11.2. As per data from the USA, the injury and illness rate for collection workers was higher compared to disposal workers at incinerators and landfills. In 1996, the overall illness and injury rate for all workers in sanitation services was 13.0 lost workdays per 100 full-time workers, as compared to 6.4 for incineration workers (Varley and Bendahmane 1997). The scrap metal industry had worker injury and illness rates with 11.1 lost workdays per 100 full-time workers in 1996 in USA, with conveyor belts being one of the major sources of injuries (Varley and Bendahmane 1997). When moving bulky waste materials or bales of compacted/shredded manually, waste handlers should attach holders/handles to loads. Waste handlers should seek help during the following situations while handling objects: (1) when an object is too bulky to handle individually, (2) when waste handler cannot see over or around a load, or (3) when waste handler cannot handle a load safely.

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11 Health and Safety Issues

Fig. 11.3 Organized waste processing plants provide necessary personal safety equipment, training to employs in addition to proper training

Fig. 11.4 Waste stored on a roadside

Apart from physical injury, humans or animals can be injured due to toxicity. Toxicity is the capability of a chemical or combination of chemicals in a waste to injure upon contact. Toxicity can be acute or chronic. In the case of acute toxicity, effect/mortality will occur within hours/days no more than two weeks after a single or multiple brief acute exposures. In the case of chronic toxicity, adverse effects occur after a lengthy period of exposure of small quantities of the toxicant. Ingestion brings toxic substance into contact with the gastrointestinal (GI) tract tissues. The GI tract will absorb toxic chemicals if ingested with food and water. The absorption degree depends on the hydrophilic or lipophilic nature of the ingested toxic substances. Lipophilic compounds are well absorbed as the chemical will easily diffuse through the membranes of the cells. Hydrophilic compounds cannot cross the cell and will be carried across by transport systems in the cells. Absorption of toxins occurs easily in some region of the body compared to other regions. Absorption of toxicants into the bloodstream through skin is slowed down

11.1 Required Precautions During Manual Operation

461

Table 11.2 Some of the published injury and disease risks for SWM workers versus control baseline populations S. No.

Risk factor

Country

Source

1.

6 times more relative risk of infectious disease

Denmark

Poulsen et al. (1995)

2.

2.6 times more relative risk for allergic pulmonary disease and 1.4 for non-allergic pulmonary disease

Denmark

Poulsen et al. (1995)

3.

2.5 times for relative risk for chronic bronchitis

Geneva in Switzerland

Cointreau (2006)

4.

1.2 increased risk of hepatitis

Genoa in Italy

Johnson and DeRosa (1997)

5.

3 times more relative risk for parasites

India

Bhide and Sundaresan (1984)

6.

10 times more relative risk for acute diarrhoea

Romania

Croen (1998)

7.

2 times more relative risk for coronary disease

USA

Cimino (1975)

8.

1.3 times more relative risk for injury

Romania

Cucu et al. (1996)

9.

5.6 times more relative risk for accidents

Denmark

Poulsen et al. (1995)

10.

10 times more relative risk for accidents

USA

Bonnerjee (1992), Indorf (1994), Poulsen et al.(1995)

11.

1.9 times more relative risk for musculoskeletal problems

Denmark

Poulsen et al. (1995)

by the densely packed strata of rough, keratinized epidermal cells. Toxic chemicals can be categorized into irritants, central nervous system (CNS) depressants, asphyxiants and systemic toxicants based on physiological effect on the exposed species. Inhalation brings toxic substances into contact with the lungs. Gases cross the cell of the lungs by simple diffusion. Hence, the absorption in the lung is high as the surface area is high and blood vessels are adjacent to the exposed surface area. Rate of absorption depends on the solubility of the chemical in blood. Irritants are chemicals that cause pain, erythema as well as swelling of the respiratory tract, skin, eyes, or GI tract. Asphyxiants deny oxygen to cells of the organism thereby slowing/halting metabolism. CNS depressants are chemicals that cause deadening of the nervous system. Systemic toxicants are chemicals that exhibit their effect upon a specific organ and possibly away from the site of entry. Waste handler should use the following PPEs for safe operation: (1) hand and forearm protection, like gloves, for waste with rough or sharp edges, (2) eye protection, and (3) steel-toed safety boots or shoes. Waste handlers should use blocking materials to handle loads safely. Blocking materials should be (1) strong and large enough to support the object safely, (2) devoid of cracks and rots, (3) devoid of rounded corners and splintered pieces.

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11 Health and Safety Issues

Table 11.3 SWM options and associated health impacts S. No. Option

Disease causative agents and mode of disease spread

1.

Recycling

Diverse range of processes emissions from recycling process

2.

Composting Odours, vermin nuisance, noise, bioaerosols-organic dust containing bacteria or fungal spores. Emits VOCs. Potential pathway for contaminants to enter food chain

3.

Incineration

Discharges contaminated wastewater. Emits toxic pollutants, heavy metals as well as combustion products

4.

Landfill

Water pollution from leachate as well as run off. Air pollution from anaerobic decomposition of organic matter to generate CH4 , CO2 , nitrogen, sulphur as well as VOCs. Emission of known or suspected carcinogens or teratogens. Animal vectors spread some diseases. Odour, dust, and road traffic problems

Manual handling of industrial waste involves shovelling by hand into storage containers followed by manual loading into trucks. The manual salvaging is done by hand, picking out useful items. Handling waste without protective clothing is likely to cause injury and other diseases when waste is mixed with chemicals. Cuts are caused by broken glass or sharp metals and chemicals may cause skin burns. Other health risks include respiratory problems from dust inhalation and carcinogenicity from toxic chemicals present in waste. People handling waste from tanneries or hide processors will be exposed to diseases such as anthrax. Some of the health impacts of SWM options are given in Table 11.3.

11.2 Required Precautions for Moving Materials Mechanically Waste pickers in Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore), India, complained of musculoskeletal pain while sorting wastes in a sitting position and of backaches while carrying heavy loads of waste. A study of around 180 waste pickers in Calcutta, India, in main dumpsite in 1995 reported 70% chronic backache. At open dump sites of Mumbai, India, 95 solid waste workers reported experiencing wrist/knee/ankle joint pain, backache, and neck ache. From 1984 to 1992, the relative risk for musculoskeletal problems in Danish waste collectors was reported to be 1.9 (Cointreau 2006). Organized waste processing plants provide necessary personal safety equipment, training to employs in addition to proper training (Fig. 11.3). Use of mechanical equipment to store and move materials increases the chances of waste handler injuries. Waste handler must be aware of manual handling safety concerns as well as safe equipment operating techniques. Waste handler should evade overloading equipment while moving waste mechanically. The size, weight, and shape of the object being moved should be considered while choosing the type

11.2 Required Precautions for Moving Materials Mechanically

463

Table 11.4 Concerns and requirement of storage of different categories of solid waste Type of waste

Concern

Requirement

Radioactive waste

Presence of radioactive substance

Please refer Chap. 10

Hazardous waste

Non-compatible material, toxic, corrosive, combustible and explosive substances

Please refer Chap. 7

Biomedical

Infectious

Please refer Chap. 6

General waste from residential/commercial activity

Rodents, vectors, smell, fire hazard

Keep storage areas well-ventilated and free from accumulated waste to avoid fires, tripping, explosions, rodents, and vectors

Discarded containers

Falling, sliding collapsing

Secure waste by stacking, interlocking or blocking, to prevent it from falling, sliding, or collapsing

Slaughterhouse waste

Infection, rodents, vectors, smell Keep storage areas well-ventilated and free from accumulated waste to avoid fires, tripping, explosions, rodents, and vectors

of handling equipment. All material handling equipments have rated capacities that identify the maximum weight the equipment than can handle safely and the conditions under which it can handle the weight. Waste handlers must make sure that the capacity of equipment is displayed on the equipment and does not exceed except while testing. Waste handlers shall have knowledge of powered equipment, storing and stacking of material. When collecting waste with a powered truck, waste handler should do the following: (1) load should be placed at the centre on the forks as close to the mast to avoid load falling or truck tipping, (2) avoid overloading lift truck to avoid tipping over, (3) avoid extra load on the rear of a counterbalanced forklift, (4) adjust the object to the lowest position when moving, (5) follow the operational requirements of truck manufacturer, and (6) cross-tier and pile all stacked loads properly. To decrease the magnitude of an injury while working with cranes, waste handlers should take the following precautions: (1) post-load rating charts in a place clearly visible to crane operator, (2) keep hoisting ropes as well as chains free of twists or kinks, and (3) ensure timely inspection as well as maintenance.

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11 Health and Safety Issues

11.3 Safety During Storage and Transport Storage and transport are associated with workplace hazard which not only affect workers but would also affect public health. Storage and transport requirements of radioactive substances are different from that of hazardous and municipal solid waste. As discussed in Chap. 10, HLW requires highest safety standard to safeguard accidental release of radioactive substance whereas storage of small quantity of non-hazardous substance such as scrap metal does not need much safety precaution. Storage could happen onsite as well as offsite. Irrespective of where the waste is stored precaution should be taken to handlers as well as general public. Storage on roadside in developing nations often hinders traffic (Fig. 11.4). Solid waste and wastewater from slaughter house favours breeding of flies and rodents when it accumulates in the neighbourhood. The waste handling in slippery places in slaughterhouses (Fig. 11.5) will not only pose injuries but also expose to pathogens. The pathogens present in the waste may into food by flies as well as dust. The slaughterhouse waste is a source of nuisance from smell as well as unsightly appearance, and drainage from waste dumps pollutes the water causing ailments like typhoid, cholera, fever, paratyphoid, diarrhoea/dysentery, and other intestinal infections. The improper handling storage increases mosquito population beside large number of other disease causing vectors breed/feed/live in the vicinity of the slaughterhouses. Odour/stench from the slaughterhouse lowers the air quality. The work published by Singh et al. (2014) revealed the residents residing near slaughterhouses in Aligarh reported that they were unable to spend time outside their residence due to odour. They experienced severe loss of appetite, headache, loss of breath, body ache, excessive coughs, etc. Overburdening of vehicles as shown in Fig. 11.6 will not only risk the waste handling personnel but also general public. Inadvertent intermixing of corrosive, oxidizing, and reactive chemicals in waste may cause serious adverse reactions which can lead to the release of flammable/toxic Fig. 11.5 Slippery floor in a slaughterhouse

11.3 Safety During Storage and Transport

465

Fig. 11.6 Waste overloaded on stored on a truck

materials and gases resulting in fires and explosions. The following measures should be observed when handling such chemicals: • Corrosive, oxidizing, and reactive chemicals must be separated from flammable and chemicals of incompatible class (acids vs. bases, water sensitive vs. water based, oxidizers vs. reducers, etc.) to minimize intermixing during spills. • People handling corrosive, oxidizing, or reactive waste should wear, appropriate PPEs like gloves, splash suits, aprons, face shields or goggles, etc. • Where corrosive, oxidizing, or reactive waste are handled or stored, qualified first aid should be ensured at all times. • Workers who are needed to handle corrosive, oxidizing, or reactive waste should be provided with specialized training. The handling of asbestos containing materials (ACM) should only be performed by specially trained personnel. Figure 11.7 shows a good example wherein waste storage and proper workplace discipline can reduce injury and accidents. Figure 11.8 is a bad example depicting what should not be done. Poor vehicle maintenance, brake/driver failure can lead to serious vehicle accidents. An accident involving solid waste collection vehicle in Utah, USA, in 1999, injured four people as well as left the truck driver in coma. The driver of solid waste collection truck entering the weighing station of the landfill was killed as it was unable to stop in Quito, Ecuador, in 1998 (Cointreau 2006). Mixing or storing the incompatible chemical classes together would result in dangerous reaction. Some major incompatible chemicals that often lead to hazards are: (1) ammonia with hypochlorite bleach, (2) nitric acid with acetic acid, (3) nitric acid with sulphuric acid, (4) 1-butanol with strong mineral acids, (5) n-butyl amine with copper and copper alloys, (6) n-n-dimethyl form amide with halogenated hydrocarbons, (7) ethyl acetate with strong alkalies, (8) ethylene dichloride with oxidizing materials, (9) ethylene glycol with sulphuric acid, (10) MEK peroxide (hardener for

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11 Health and Safety Issues

Fig. 11.7 Waste storage and proper workplace discipline can reduce injury and accidents

Fig. 11.8 Waste being loaded on truck without safety concern

polyester casting resin) with anything flammable, (11) 1,1,1 trichloroethane with caustic soda and caustic potash. Table 11.5 shows a group of chemicals which react with each other creating hazardous situation. Table 11.6 gives some of the specific examples which result in toxic gas formation. But, it is often not possible to protect general public and environment from these chemicals which are thrown haphazardly without precaution.

11.3.1 Stacking Materials Stacking materials will be dangerous when waste handlers do not take precautions. Falling objects and collapsing waste can pin or crush workers, causing injuries or death. To avoid injuries when stacking objects, waste handler should do the following:

11.3 Safety During Storage and Transport

467

G

G

G,F

G

F,G F,G

U

G

G

G

G

U

G

G

U E

E P G,E

F

S

G,E G,E

E

F E F

G G, G

G

F

Epoxides Combustible & flammable material Explosives

P

P

P

G E

F,G E

E

Poly merisable compounds

P

P

P

Strong oxidising agents

G

Strong reducing agents Water & mixture containing water

G

G

G

F,G

F,G

E,F G

F, G

E, G

F,G

E

E

F,G

E G

P,G

G

G,E G

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

G,F E

E

E

E

G,F E

F, G E

E

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

F,E

F,E

F

G

F

F,G

E

G

G,G

P

U

P,G

P

U

E

E P

U

P

G P

E

F

G

G,F

F G, F

F, G

F, G

E

G

G

G

P

U

E

P

G

P

P F, G

E P

U

E, G

F,G

F

G

F

F

F

G

F, G

F

E

G

G

G

G

F,G

G

G

F,E

F,G

E

G

E

F

F

GF

U

P

E

E

E

F,G

F , G

P F,G

G G,G

E E E

F, G P, G

F, E G, G

Water and mixture containing water

U

G

G

F

Water reactive substance

G,E

G

E

Strong oxidising agents

G

E

Strong reducing agents

Aromatic hydrocarbons

Esters

Ethers

G

Combustible and flamable material

G,H

Epoxides

U

F,G

Polymerisable compounds

E,F, G

Inorganic sulfides

G,G

G

Explosives

U

G

G

Phenols and cresols

G

G

Aliphatic and unsaturated hydrocarbons

G

F,G

G

Aliphatic and saturated hydrocarbons

F,G

F, G

G

Nitrites

F, G

G,F

Metals and other alloys in pieces

G P,G

Heat Generation

Toxic metal and metal compounds

G,F

F,E

G G

G G, F

Extremely Reactive

Solubilization of T oxic Substance

Nitrides

G P

P

Ketones

G G

F,G G,F

F, G G, G

Cyanides

Carbamates

Caustics

Aliphatic and aromatic amines

Azo compounds, diazo compounds&hydrazines

Aldehydes

G

Alkali and alkaline earth

G, G G, F

F G F F,G F,G F

G G

Organic sulphides and mercaptans

G G

U

Halogenated organics

G

G

Inorganic sulfides

Amides

Organic acids

G G G, G

Organophospates, phospothioates, phospodithioates

Aliphatic & saturated hy drocarbons Organic peroxides & hy droperoxides Phenols & cresols Organophospates, phospothioates, phospodithioates

G,G

Organic peroxides and hydroperoxides

Nitrites Organic nitro compounds Aliphatic & unsaturated hy drocarbons

G,F F

G

Organic nitro compounds

Nitrides

G

G,G

Elemental metal and alloys in powder, vapour and sponge form

Alkali & alkaline earth Elemental metal & alloys in powder, vapour & sponge form Metals & other alloy s in pieces Toxic metal & metal compounds

G G

G,G

G G, G G, F

Isocyanates

Ethers Inorganic flourides Aromatic hy drocarbons Halogented organics Isocy anates Ketones Organic sulphides & mercaptans

P P

Inorganic fluorides

Dithiocarbamates Esters

G G

G F F G G

F : Fire E : Explosion P : Violent Polymerization G : T oxic Gas Generation G :Innocuos Nontoxic Gas Generation F : Flammable Gas Generation U : May be Hazardous Dithiocarbamates

Cy anides

P

Alcohols and glycols

Organic acids Alcohols & gly cols Aldehy des Amides Aliphatic aromatic amines Azo compounds, diazo compounds &hy drazines Carbamates Caustics

Oxidizing mineral acids

Non oxidizing mineral acids

Table 11.5 Non-compatible chemicals

Water reactive substance

Table 11.6 Example of reaction leading to toxic gas formation S. No.

Reactant A

1.

Arsenical materials Reducing agent

2.

Azides

Acids

Hydrogen Azide

3.

Cyanides

Acids

Hydrogen cyanide

4.

Hypochlorites

Acids

Chlorine or hypochlorous acid

5.

Nitrates

Sulphuric acid

Nitrogen dioxide

6.

Nitric Acid

Copper/brass/heavy metals

Nitrogen dioxide

7.

Nitrites

Acids

Nitrous fumes

8.

Phosphorus

Caustic alkalis/reducing agents Phosphine

9.

Selenides

Reducing agents

Hydrogen selenide

10.

Sulphides

Acids

Hydrogen sulphide

11.

Tellurides

Reducing agents

Hydrogen telluride

Reactant B

Product Arsine

• Stack waste only up to more than 4 m high if it is handled manually, and up to more than 6 m if using a forklift, • Remove all sharp objects stacking, • Stack and level waste on properly supported bracing, • Make sure that stacks are self-supporting and stable, • Store baled waste more than 0.5 m from walls or partitions inside a building, • Bundles and stack bags in interlocking rows,

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11 Health and Safety Issues

Fig. 11.9 Stacking of cylindrical materials

• Band boxed waste or secure them with crossties, • Block the bottom tiers of barrels, drums, and kegs to avoid rolling when stored on their sides, • Stack drums, kegs and barrels symmetrically, • Place sheets of plywood, planks, or pallets between every tier of barrels, drums, and kegs, • Stack and block cylindrical materials to prevent tilting or spreading unless they are in racks (Fig. 11.9). • Chock the bottom tier of barrels, drums, and kegs on each, • Colour the walls or posts with stripes to indicate stacking heights for quick reference, and • Observe height limitations while stacking materials. Accidents in waste yards are not only injurious to waste handling people but also to general public. Fire accident in hazardous waste storage facility can lead to reaction that could generate hazardous fumes killing thousands of people in the vicinity. Figures 11.10 and 11.11 show a sprinkler system and emergency shower along with eyewash in hazardous waste TSDF. Such systems are often ensured by regulatory authority prior to commissioning of waste handling/storage facility. But plant operators should have higher standards for safety within the establishments to safeguard employees.

11.3.2 Safety During Transportation Accidents during transportation are one of the major causes of injuries as well as deaths in the world and waste transportations not an exception. Statistics of injuries/

11.3 Safety During Storage and Transport

Fig. 11.10 Sprinkler system in hazardous waste TSDF Fig. 11.11 Emergency shower and eyewash in hazardous waste TSDF

469

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11 Health and Safety Issues

Fig. 11.12 Docks and ports are slippery posing special safety issues

fatalities during waste transportation is often combined with others. Collection activities result in noteworthy levels of airborne particulates near the hopper of the collection vehicle, as well as upon opening the collection container. Docks and ports are slippery posing special safety issues (Figs. 11.12, 11.13). Disposal of manure and slaughter waste disposal has potential of direct contact of people. Contaminated dusts from vehicle unloading and dusts from compost turning have been reason for spreading several infectious diseases. Waste transportation safety initiatives should include: (1) emphasizing importance of among drivers, (2) adopting limits for trip duration, (3) improving driving skills, (4) arranging driver rosters to avoid overtiredness, (4) avoiding dangerous times and routes of day, (5) use of speed control devices, (6) remote monitoring of driver actions, (7) avoid alcohol consumption during driving, (8) avoiding overburdening, (9) proper labelling, (10) avoid transportation of incompatible chemicals at the same time, (11) equip vehicle with fire extinguishers and train drivers to use them, (12) avoid transporting waste with sparks and fire, (13) emphasize drivers and waste handlers to use proper personal safety equipment, (14) regular maintenance of vehicles, and (15) use of genuine spare parts to reduce accidents caused by malfunction of equipment or premature failure. In addition to the above precautions, procedures for hazardous waste transportation should include: (1) labelling of containers which shall include hazards, quantity, and shipper contact information, (2) providing shipping document that describes the associated hazards, (3) ensuring that the volume, nature, integrity, and protection of packaging are suitable for the quantity and type of hazardous waste and modes of transport involved, (4) ensuring sufficient transport vehicle specifications, (5) training staff involved in the transportation about proper shipping procedures and emergency

11.3 Safety During Storage and Transport

Fig. 11.13 Personal protective equipment in Common Biomedical Waste Treatment Facility

Fig. 11.14 Positioning of garbage bins during snow fall

471

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11 Health and Safety Issues

procedures, (6) providing the means for emergency response on call, (8) providing integrated marine dangerous goods (IMDG) code for sea transport, and (7) integrated air transport association (IATA) requirements for air transport. Conveyors are one of the components of waste handling process in mechanized waste processing facilities. While using conveyors, hands of waste handler may get caught in nip points, or struck by falling object off the conveyor, or get caught and drawn into the conveyor. To avoid such scenarios waste handlers should (1) install an emergency pull cord or button to stop the conveyor, (2) provide emergency stop cables which extend the entire length conveyor belts, (3) avoid riding on a waste handling conveyor, (4) install proper guards to conveyors, and (5) cover screw conveyors except at discharging and loading points. Fly-tipping in developing countries is common scene and not taken seriously and less documented. As per the official statistics pertaining the UK (DEFRA 2023), for the year 2021/22, local authorities in England dealt with 1.09 million fly-tipping incidents. Fly-tipping (illegal deposit of waste onto land that does not have a permit to accept such waste) can pose a stern threat to the human health, environment and wildlife. Marine transfer stations in small islands and coastal area are slippery, and waste handlers are exposed to hazards involved in wet ports.

11.4 Safety During Treatment and Disposal Improper waste segregation, storage and treatment would lead to presence of hazardous substance which may impact health and safety of public as well as workers at treatment and disposal site. Presence of unexploded crackers may lead to explosion during thermal treatment. Presence of chemicals may result in toxicity by direct contact or its movement in environment. Improper SWM might have safety concerns in time frame that varies from ‘immediate to generations’ and distance limit which may extend to intercontinental. Substance in waste may not come with label, material safety datesheet ((MSDS) especially in developing countries where broken chemical containers from industry and institutions would have entered waste stream. Physical hazards of chemicals include their flammability and reactivity. Information on the health effects of chemical exposure especially from chronic exposure of different chemicals on same person is not available. Concerns and requirement of storage of different category of solid waste are given in Table 11.7.

11.4 Safety During Treatment and Disposal

473

Table 11.7 Concerns and requirement of storage of different category of solid waste Type of waste

Concern

Radioactive waste

Presence of radioactive Please refer Chap.10 substance

Hazardous waste

Non-compatible material, toxic, corrosive, combustible and explosive substances

Please refer Chap. 7

Biomedical

Infectious

Please refer Chap. 6

Biodegradable

Rodents, vectors, smell, fire hazard

Non-biodegradable

Injury, fire hazard

Keep areas well-ventilated and free from accumulated waste to avoid fires, tripping, explosions, rodents and vectors

General waste from residential/ commercial activity

Requirement

Discarded containers

Falling, sliding collapsing

Secure waste by stacking, interlocking or blocking, to prevent it from falling, sliding, or collapsing

Slaughterhouse waste

Infection, Rodents, vectors, smell

Keep storage areas well-ventilated and free from accumulated waste to avoid fires, tripping, explosions, rodents and vectors

Table 11.8 Safety concerns during solid waste treatment S. No.

Type of category

Example

Safety and concern

1.

Chemical

Chemical disinfection, conditioning, metal extraction, advanced recycling

Toxicity, Corrosive to all body tissue

2.

Physical

Size reduction, pulping, segregation,

Injury, electric shock

3.

Biological

Mechanical Thermal

Incineration, pyrolysis, rendering

Burns

Radiation

Disinfection by microwave, radioactive substance

Damage of human cells

Compositing, biomethanation

Infection

11.4.1 Safety Issues During Treatment Treatment is done by chemical, physical, and biological methods. Facilities may have combination of chemical/physical and biological methods. Use of electricity for lighting and machineries will be associated with electric shock.

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11 Health and Safety Issues

11.4.2 Safety Issues in Dumpsite Dumpsites are prone to disasters and point of pollution due to emission of air pollutants, leachate generation, insects, rodents, dogs, and other animals. Improper disposal of chemicals may cause unforeseen problems. Chemicals disposed improperly will filter down to the water table. It might take years, but they will eventually pollute the water below. Some chemicals washed down the drain produce flammable vapours, which can collect in standpipes and explode. Increased incidence of low-birth-weight births as well as occurrence of several congenital malformations has been linked to dwelling near landfill sites. Studies of cancer incidence as well as mortality in populations’ surrounding landfill sites or incinerators have been ambiguous, with varying results for different cancer sites. SWM workers have been shown to have augmented incidence of accidents as well as musculoskeletal problems (Lesley 2003). Parasitic infection among waste pickers at open dumps was: • 98% among children pickers in Manila, Philippines (Torres et al. 1991), • 97% among all pickers in Olinda, Brazil (Cuentro and Gadji 1990), • 92% among all pickers in Calcutta, India (Direct Initiative for Social & Health Action, Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health Society for Participatory Research in Asia, and Centre for Study in Man and Environment 1996), • 65% among all pickers in Bangkok, Thailand (Kungskulniti et al. 1991). Untreated oxidizers can react with organic material as oxidizers can react with organic waste and spontaneously combust. Automobile brake fluid, for example, when mixed with sodium chlorate will burst into flames. Waste dump sites are much hazardous compared to landfill site due to unrestricted access, absence of fire-fighting equipment, no control on quantity and type of waste dumped. Waste dump slides occur when side slopes at dumpsite are too steep and unstable. Even a slope of 3 to 1 may slide under vibration or high moisture saturation. In seismic areas, 5 to 1 slopes or lower might be necessary to avoid a slide. The most common injury experienced by waste recyclers and dumpsite waste pickers was puncture wound. In Bangkok, 30% of waste pickers were injured by bamboo, 88% by glass, 25% by metal, and 73% by needles (Kungskulniti et al. 1991). About 82% of the dumpsite waste pickers surveyed in Katmandu, Nepal, suffered wounds to the leg, and 70% had received wounds to the hand (German Agency for Technical Cooperation 1986). 17% of the children waste pickers in Metro Manila’s largest dumpsite had lacerations/wounds in 1991 (Tolbott 1999). Many recycling groups at dumpsites in developing countries compete over access rights to the waste, which sometimes lead to injury/death. More than 20 waste pickers killed each other during the late 1970s in fight over recyclables in the main open dump of Metro Manila while two men were found dead in a Venezuela landfill in 1994 due to revivalism between recycling groups (Indorf 1994). 250 residents evacuated and a man was killed and in O Porrino, Spain, in 1994 when 100,000 tonnes of solid waste

11.4 Safety During Treatment and Disposal

475

slid towards a coastal village due to inadequate drainage and steep slopes (Associated Press 1994). Waste pickers may be run over as trucks when they reach out for incoming recyclables. Sleeping waste pickers may also be run over during the night. On an average, one waste picker dies each year in this manner at the main disposal site in Trinidad, whereas about four runovers annually occur at the Venezuela’s Bonanza Landfill (Indorf 1994). Slide of solid waste buried two children at an open dump in Calcutta, India, in July 1992 and a similar accident occurred in Tangra, India, five years before (Bonnerjee 1992). A slide of around a million tonnes of solid waste sanitary landfill in occurred Bogota, Colombia, in 1997 with no deaths or injuries (Reuters Press 1997). In 1993, a large displacement of about 1.2 Mm3 of waste mass occurred in Umraniye-Hekimbasi in Istanbul resulting in engulfment of eleven homes and death of 39 people due to explosion of accumulated methane (Kocasoy and Curi 1995). Heavy rains from a typhoon resulted in dump slide of open dump in Metro Manila, in July 2000, known as Payatas, which was the home and livelihood for more than 20,000 families. The disaster resulted in the burial of homes and death of more than 50 people (Cointreau 2006). Records of 100 sanitary landfill workers in Liguria, Italy, revealed there were ten occupational injuries in 1994 (Kanitz and Poli 1995). In 1995, the quarterly figures for cut injuries for the 180 waste pickers at Calcutta’s main open dump were 69%, eye injury was 16%, and pinprick was 33%. Further, 49% suffered dog bites and 16% had rat bites at the dump (de Coura Cuentro and Gadji 1990). Hundreds of people were killed by the collapse of an open dump in July 2000 at the Quezon City garbage dump on the outskirts of Manila. The rag pickers intentionally put fire to separate metal from wires, and other electrical equipments and municipal authorities and their contractor would dump the waste in the outskirts to save costs of ‘disposal’. In 1995–96 at the Payatas waste dumpsite in Metro Manila, Philippines, 9–10 cases of children with cerebral palsy and three infants were born with imperforate anuses out of 600 families living within 0.5 km of the open dump (Carcellar 1996). Hazardous gases in trace quantities at MSW landfills contain benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, methylene chloride, dichloromethane, carbon tetrachloride carbon monoxide while burning of waste in open dumps releases volatilized heavy metals. Incinerators emit chlorinated and brominated dioxins and furans and volatilized heavy metals (Cointreau 2006). Waste picking children in India have 2.5 times more potential of morbidity than non-waste picking children from the same housing areas. Studies of waste pickers conducted in Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore), and New Delhi, India, revealed 38% of women pickers have lost one child and 10% have lost 3 or more due to diarrhoea, bronchitis, tetanus, smallpox, and virus infections (Henriksen et al., 1993). In 1981, the Cairo waste picker had an infant mortality rate of about 240 deaths per 1000 live births as compared to 98 per 1000 nationally (Environmental Quality International 1996).

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11 Health and Safety Issues

Individual accidents happen when the surface of the dump site collapses into a cavity created due to underground fires. Reported incidents of such death include (Talbott et al. 1999; Cointreau 2006): • • • • •

Five child deaths in Metro Manila, Philippines, 1990, One child in Casablanca, Morocco, 1995, One child in North Sumatra, Indonesia, 1996, One child death in San Salvador, El Salvador, 1998, and One mortally burned victim and two severely burned adults in Almaty, Kazakhstan, 1999.

Tradition of burying animal and poultry wastes from slaughtering, butchering, “downers” (animals that are not fit for human consumption), kitchens, and livestock holding or rearing, or put them into municipal disposal sites. Since the outbreak of mad cow disease in 1996, incineration is the preferred method of disposal for waste with suspected of contamination with mad cow disease prions (Cointreau 2006). The virus excreted in manure and remains of birds infected by H5N1 type of avian influenza are highly virulent and remain for days, sometimes weeks in the manure. The virus contaminates the flesh and eggs of infected birds, and slaughter wastes discharged to disposal sites are able to infect animals and birds. H5N1 has been the reason for infection and death of tigers and leopards fed with infected birds besides death of humans who are involved in rising, marketing or slaughtering infected birds. Some wild crow which are known scavengers of discarded meat were also found dead from H5N1(FAO 2005). Workers at open dumps usually get burned as waste at dump site sometimes set fires intentionally for the following reasons: • To reduce the nuisance of, – odours, – flies, and – rodents, • To remove coatings/wrapping on metals.

11.4.3 Safety Issues in Landfill Site Landfill sites are safer than dumpsite. But, still accidents can occur during operation of equipment, vehicles as well as LFG explosions. Sanitary landfill technology gives barriers to pollutant migration with plastic/clay base liners and to give gas/ leachate treatment/collection systems (Cointreau 2006). People at a landfill site are also exposed to toxic substance and microorganisms which are spread during the handling of waste. Impacts due to landfill include increase in risk of low birth weight, birth defects, cancers, and others (Vrijheid, 2000a, b; WHO 2007).

11.4 Safety During Treatment and Disposal

477

Landfill fires can occur above or below ground. Surface fires occur on the working face and are usually easily discovered. Underground fires also referred as deepseated fires involve materials that are months/years old capable of creating large voids in the landfill and cave-ins of the landfill surface. They produce flammable and toxic gases and damage liners and LFG collection systems (FEMA 2002). These are problematic due to the difficulty in detection, control and extinguishment. Subsurface fires start out small and localized and if unattended/undiscovered can spread and become difficult to extinguish. Deep-seated fires cannot be extinguished immediately and hence problematic. Constituents and hazardous nature of landfill the smoke depends on chemicals present in the waste. Surface fires occur in newly deposited and uncompacted waste. These fires can be fuelled by LFG. Surface fires are usually low-temperature burning of waste characterized by the emission of dense white smoke, which contains smoke, organic acids, steam, dioxins, furans, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), volatilized heavy metals, and other volatile compounds. Combustion of the volatiles may not be complete due to burning of tyres or plastics due to insufficient oxygen and temperature resulting in the emission of black smoke. Contaminants released are likely to include carcinogens such as dioxins and furans. If plastics containing chlorine, such as PVC, are involved, acidic hydrogen chloride may also be discharged. LFGs migrate from the landfill either below ground (in groundwater, voids in soil) or above (atmosphere) contaminating soil, air, as well as groundwater. Accumulation of gas may explode or create fire hazard. Flammable gases generated in landfill include CH4 , CH3 , H2 S as well as non-methane organic compound (NMOCs). The following factors or their combinations are the reasons for underground fires: (1) poorly engineered/maintained cap, (3) inadequate profiles of the capping, (4) inadequate compaction of wastes, (5) settlement of waste, landslides, cap erosion, (6) inadequate thickness/material of intermediate capping, (7) damage to LFG collection system, (8) poor maintenance of the LFG control system, (9) insufficient gas well adjustments during operation, (10) extracting more LFG than was being produced, (11) deteriorating seals on the gas wells, (12) too wide spacing of gas wells. Oxygen continuously introduced into the waste due to infiltration via the exposed edge can start oxidation processes or aerobic decomposition thereby causing spontaneous combustion of certain waste components. Hence, the signs of subsurface fire, like smoke, and smell may take long time to be detected at the surface. Hence, the deep-seated fires can be confirmed by (FEMA 2002; Margaret 2004): (1) substantial settlement within short period of time, (2) smoke or shouldering odour from the landfill or gas extraction system, (3) carbon monoxide in excess of 1,000 ppm, (4) combustion residue in extraction wells/headers, and (5) increase in temperature in the gas extraction system. Table 11.9 gives some of the examples of major fire accidents in landfills. Landfill fires are common in the summer and spring when there will be higher chance of spontaneous burning (USFA 2001) due to the higher temperatures in these months leading to spontaneous burning as well as hot, smouldering material like discarded

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11 Health and Safety Issues

matches as well as cigarettes. Apart from spontaneous burning, fire can be rekindled from previous fire, flammable material, and not enough control of open fire. SWM plans for landfill fire include (Margaret 2004): (1) prohibition of deliberate burning, (2) prohibition of smoking onsite, (3) inspection of incoming loads, (4)control of deposition of waste, (5) good compaction and cover, (6) maintenance of fire-fighting extinguishers/equipment, (7) maintenance of adequate water supply, and (8) keeping protective clothing and breathing apparatus at landfill site. Apart from health issues improper, SWM can also lead to disasters (Box 11.2). Some of the major disasters due to improper waste disposal are listed in Table 11.10. Box 11.2 Case Study: Love Canal, USA The site of a landfill Love Canal in New York used for the disposal of about 21,800 tonnes of chemical wastes was covered with soil in 1953 followed by construction of houses and an elementary school adjacent to the landfill. The area was later declared as Emergency Declaration Area (EDA) followed by evacuation of the residents in the surrounding area due to increase in visible seepage, noxious smells, and chemical contamination in 1978–80. The studies in the area revealed and confirmed birth defect (DOH 2008).

Table 11.9 Examples of major landfill fires Year

Description

References

1969

Fire accident in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA

USACE (1984) USACE (1984)

1975

Fire accident in Sheridan, Colorado, USA

1983

Destruction of residence due to explosion across USEPA (1991) the street from a landfill in Cincinnati, Ohio, USA

1984

Destruction of house due to migration of landfill USEPA (1991) gas near a landfill in Akron, Ohio, USA

1987

Explosion of a house due to gas migration in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA

1994

Fire injury to a woman by methane explosion in Charlotte Observer (1994) a park built over an old landfill in Charlotte, North Carolina, USA

1999

A girl was burned on an area was reportedly used as an illegal dumping ground in Atlanta, USA

Atlanta Journal-Constitution (1999)

2010

Fire accident in Madison County Landfill, Lincoln town, USA

cnycentral.com (2010)

USEPA (1991)

2011

Fire accident in Veolia landfill, USA

News-Sun (2011)

2011

Fire accident in Kildare, Republic of Ireland (Southern Ireland)

Belfast Telegraph (2011)

11.4 Safety During Treatment and Disposal

479

Table 11.10 Some of the major disasters due to improper waste disposals Incident

Description

Date

Country

Aberfan accident

Spillage of coal waste

1966

UK

Acerinox disaster

Contamination with radioactive substance

1998

Spain

Addis Ababa garbage landslide

Garbage landslide

2017

Ethiopia

Ajka alumina plant disaster

Spillage of caustic waste

2010

Hungary

Atari video game burial disaster Burial of electronic hardware

1983

USA

Bajzë Rail Station disaster

Contamination with chemical

1991

Albania

Buffalo creek flood

Coal slurry impound spill

1972

USA

Delhi Landfill burning

Landfill burning

2022

India

Friendly Folates

Flotsam

1992

Ocean

Ghazipur garbage landslide

Garbage landslide

2021

India

Goiânia accident

Radioactive contamination

1987

Brazil

Hansa carrier

Flotsam

1990

Ocean

Ludhiana and Khanna garbage dump fire

Garbage dump fire

2022

India

Kingston Fossil Plant disaster

Coal fly ash slurry spill

2008

USA

Koshe garbage landslide

Garbage landslide

2017

Ethiopia

Mangalore garbage landslide

Garbage landslide

2019

India

Mapua contaminated site disaster

Toxic waste

1932–88

New Zealand

Maputo

Garbage landslide

2018

Mozambique

Martin County sludge spill

Water pollution

2000

USA

Mayapuri

Radioactive contamination

1986

India

Meethotamulla

Garbage landslide

2017

Sri Lanka

Minamata Bay mercury poisoning

Cause of Minamata disease

1932–68

Japan

Pune

Garbage landslide

2014

India

Seveso disaster

Toxic pollutant

1976

Italy

Shenzhen

Construction waste dump landslide

2015

China

Source Wikipedia (2018), Pappas (2017), Petley(2017), Xinhua(2018), IndiaTimes (2014), Chandrappa and Das (2021), Bhat (2019), The Gaurdian (2017), Majid (2022), Mohan (2021), Gupta (2022), Petley (2017). The Meethotamulla garbage dump disaster in Sri Lanka Colombo, Western Province, Sri Lanka

Fire in 1999 at a construction debris landfill in North Carolina, USA, spread of about four hectares and took 6 weeks to put out (Cointreau 2006). A fire in 1999 at an Oklahoma, USA, sanitary landfill that “produced 15-foot (5 m) flames and thick smoke” and could only be controlled by digging trenches around its Cointreau (2006).

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11 Health and Safety Issues

In 1989 in the UK, the relative risk was that 80 out of 100,000 landfill site workers experienced either injury or death (Rahkonen 1992). In the UK, only four incidents of biogas explosions at disposal sites were reported from 1963 to 1976, a period when most sites were interim landfills or open dumps, whereas 47 incidents of biogas explosion were reported from 1976 to 1981 as compaction and soil cover led to more anaerobic conditions and greater generation and containment of methane. As open dumping conditions were curtailed, more organic material was available to generate methane. By 1989, a total of 9 injuries and 2 deaths and were directly attributable to insufficient control over landfill gases (Rushbrook 1990).

11.4.4 Safety Issues in Incinerator Main safety problem while operating incinerators occurs due to a presence of hazardous substances and heat. Depending on the waste incinerated, the operating location could be odorous, slippery, and dusty. The location could also be infectious if infectious wastes are being incinerated. The operators of the incinerators are continuously exposed to smoke and high temperature. The incineration locations need to have all preventative measures for the explosion, possible sparks, spread in of fire. Therefore, the precaution has to be taken to reduce/prevent the likelihood of injury, death, or property damage due to fire. Incinerator operators are exposed to chemicals, dust, acid, and microorganisms (Fleming et al. 2000). Hence, operator shall ensure proper PPE and dress. Dioxins and furans created during burning waste with chlorine like municipal solid waste and medical waste are known carcinogens and can change hormone levels in humans and animals. Metals like mercury present in waste can cause acute toxicity to flora and fauna. High doses of dioxin can lead to: • • • •

Changes in development of the foetus, Reduction in the ability to reproduce, Repress immune system, Skin ailment called chloracne.

Mercury emitted from burning of waste with mercury can result in neurological as well as behavioural disorders.

11.5 Work Permit System

481

11.5 Work Permit System Work permit system is a system within an organization, which provides identification, control and review of hazards within any work environment. Examples where safe work permits are required include: (1) entry to a confined space, (2) work in or around confined spaces, (3) working at heights, (4) excavation, and (5) hot work. Sample permit to work is given in Table 11.11. The advantages of permit to work system are: (1) ensures suitable people are authorized, (2) provides clarity about the hazard, (3) specifies the precautions, (4) ensures the person in direct charge of the facility about the work under progress, (5) provides a system of continuous control, and (6) provides formal handover and hand back procedure. Before issuing a work permit, the issuer and recipient should consider all potential hazards such as material hazards, pressure, temperature, fumes, electrical power, mechanical energy, hazardous areas, height, radioactive sources, explosive materials, Table 11.11 Sample permit to work HAZARDOUS WORK PERMIT (To be used where no other permits apply) Job Location: Building: _________ Dept: _________ Location: ___________ Job Description:

Work to be done by: _____________________________________________________ Date Work is to begin: __________ Completion Date: _______ Time: ________ Nature of Hazard: Precautions Required: Signatures of Exposed Employees: ________________________________ ________________________________ (Date)

(Date)

________________________________ ________________________________ (Date)

(Date)

Supervisor: ________________________________ Signature (date) Manager: ________________________________ Signature (date) Safety Representative: ________________________________ Signature (date)

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11 Health and Safety Issues

restricted space field vision, and any other. The work permit should also specify the precautions, such as: (1) isolation, (2) decontamination, (3) working in confined spaces, (4) hot work, (5) working at heights, (6) excavation and building work, (7) work on high voltage equipment, (8) PPE, (9) provision to notify pertinent persons when work commences/completed, and (10) any other special precautions. The procedure for obtaining a permit includes a written request followed by a duly filled safety permit by the issuing authority. Permits should be in printed forms in triplicate, serially numbered and different colour code may be adopted for different types of permits. While copy will be retained by the issuing department, yellow copy will be issued to concerned department and returned to safety department. Red copy will be issued after completion of job signed by the concerned department and returned to the issued department. Work permit systems are adopted in electrical plants, electrical transmission/ distribution/utilization system to ensure that the plant/equipment/circuit is switched off and is dead earthed before commencing the work. The work permit is withdrawn and cancelled after the completion of work. For example, a circuit breaker is switched on and supply restored only after cancellation of the work permit. The list of safety documents in industrial works is given in Table 11.12. Special work permit and safety procedures are issued for “live line maintenance work”. Tables 11.13 and 11.14 give two sample safety clearance notices. Table 11.15 gives a sample limited work permit. Table 11.16 gives a sample permit to test. The clearance procedure in general is intended to meet the following principal requirements in relation to potentially dangerous jobs: 1. Protection of men at work, 2. Protection of equipments, and Table 11.12 List of safety documents Title and description

Issue By/when?

To work

Safety clearance notice (SCN) before energizing

Site manager before energizing a plant/circuit

Contractors

Permit to work (PTW)

Site manager before carrying out electrical work: repair/ maintenance

Persons who will work/ supervisor

Limited work permit (LWP)

Site manager/station in charge Testing engineer before test

Permission to test (PFT)

Site manager/station in charge Testing engineer before test

Handing over document (HOD) Manager civil manager erection manager testing site in charge

Manager erection, manager testing manager commissioning owner’s plant manager

Safety documents for site work Manager safety or site manager

All concerned

11.5 Work Permit System

483

Table 11.13 Area/room safety clearance notice (Format I) Division:

__________________________/________________________

Project No/Description: ____________________________________________

Room No(s):

___________________________________________________

Brief Description of Project: _______________________________________ I confirm that so far as is reasonably practicable all rooms, doors, fixtures and fittings in the above areas are free from the following hazards:

▢ Biological Hazards ▢ Dangerous Substances and Substances Hazardous to Health ▢ Radiological hazards ▢ Physical Hazards

and that the appropriate checklist(s) and action sheet(s) have been completed. Name: __________________________ Tel No: _____________ Dept/Division: _______________________________________________ Date: Signed:

_______________________________________________ _______________________________________________

This form should be attached to the door of the appropriate room and the room secured. Comments:

__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________

3. Designation of abnormal. The above requirements can be achieved by providing safe working conditions, essential information and guidance to the men at work, checking arrangements to ensure reliability of the highest order, etc. through the use of the following: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Permit to work, Sanction for test, Station guarantee, Self-protection tag, and

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11 Health and Safety Issues

Table 11.14 Area/room safety clearance notice (alternate to format I) Centre contact

Room

Estates / Contractor Room No. Description of work

Ext / Phone no.

Centre contact

Room

Helpline

Estates Manager

Room Title

Chemical Biological Radiation

Hazards Access Temperature

Equipment Laser Noise

Computers Pressure Glassware

Actions

By whom

Completed

Date room ready Sketch of room including actions: (indicate usual entrance) Additional comments

Actions completed Work began Comments

by by

on on Date of work completed

5. Danger notices. A responsible person needs to be designated for issue/cancellation of clearances. The authorized person may further authorize assistants for issuing and cancelling clearance (e.g., operator for (i) making and cancelling of permits to work, sanction for test, plant guarantee, (ii) authorizing work under self-protection tag and danger notice subject to such conditions as may be necessary to ensure reliability and security of the highest order). When work is to be done on any electric apparatus which can be made live from more than one stations or sections thereof, clearances should be obtained from the senior authorized persons of each of the stations/section involved before commencing work. Before issuing clearance, each of the concerned operators should check counterparts in other sections, stations, and concerned that all precautions have been taken.

11.6 Safety Education and Training

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Table 11.15 Sample limited work permit Name of the Plant:______________________

LWP No._______________________________

Date:_____________________

LIMITED WORK PERMIT

Permission is given to carry out following work in specified zone on specified date and time

Name: Plant: Zone: Equipment:

Nature of Work:

Actions completed

by

on

Work began

by

on

Comments Date of work completed

11.6 Safety Education and Training The training and awareness can help bring down the number of accidents during SWM. Whether moving waste manually or mechanically, the concerned persons should understand the hazards connected with the work at hand and know how to minimize the associated risk. Organizations are responsible for ensuring that all personnel are properly trained before they begin work in a waste handling site and that they receive additional training when new hazards or procedures are introduced. In addition to general environment health and safety (EH&S) training, all employees should get job-specific training on the following topics: • Location as well as content of the safety manual, • Physical, chemical, biological, laser and radiation hazards in the work area, including signs, symptoms of exposure as well as allowable exposure limits,

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Table 11.16 Sample permit to test Name of Plant Permit to test No.:

Date: PERMIT TO TEST

Permission is hereby given to test following: Plant:_______________________ Zone:_______________________ Equipment:__________________ Name of Test:________________ Following plant will be withdrawn from normal operation for facilitating above test: ………………………………………………………………………. Test schedule: Start of test:___________________________________________ Planned date of completion:______________________________ Safety precautions: To ……………………. ……………………. ……………………. Signature of Site In charge Acknowledgement: Received PTT No.:……………………

Dt………………………

Name, Organization and signature

• Location of references describing hazards as well as safety practices associated with laboratory materials (e.g., MSDS, Merck index, biosafety in microbiological and biomedical laboratories, etc.), • Protective measures employees should take to avoid exposure or injury, as specified in the laboratory’s Standard Operating Procedures (SOP), • Procedures for responding to emergencies as outlined in the emergency action plan • Methods to detect the presence of contamination or the release of chemical, biological and radioactive materials, • Procedures for obtaining medical care in the event of exposure/injury, • Proper SWM and disposal procedures • Proper recordkeeping.

11.7 Safety Promotion and Publicity

487

Departments and/or supervisors must maintain safety training records for all personnel. Acceptable records include site-specific training forms, safety training history, training certificates, and/or copies of employee “training history” from the EH&S learning centre. Employee training records must be retained for at least one year after end of employment.

11.7 Safety Promotion and Publicity Safety promotion is the process applied at a local, national and international levels by individuals, communities, governments and others (including enterprises and nongovernmental organizations), to develop and sustain safety. This process includes all efforts agreed upon to modify structures, environment (physical, social, technological, political, economical, and organizational) as well as attitudes and behaviours related to safety. Safety promotion and publicity can occur during: (1) before the event, (2) the actual event, and(3) after the event. Promotion can occur at these levels: (1) group, (2) organization, (3) community, (4) nation, (5) world. An industrial plant, a trade union and a religious community are examples of what makes up the framework for co-operation in a secondary group. Here, we define the secondary group—organization—at its own level. The work method concerning health is often different compared with the primary group. In other circumstances, the boundary between the primary and secondary groups can be unclear. However, work within the group does not need to be the result of influence from outside or organized programming but it can be the product of a voluntary undertaking. An effective training programme can reduce the number of injuries, property damage, legal liability, illnesses, workers’ compensation claims, and missed time from work. Some of the common methods in safety publicity are: (1) handouts, (2) events (essay writing, skits, etc.,), (3) posters, (4) e-mails, (5) short message service (SMS), (6) stickers, and (7) training. Health and safety campaign shall educate everyone (workers and other stakeholders) about: • • • • •

Health and injury risks, Educate workers families, to create a positive support system for the workers, Educate use of PPEs and measures to minimize risks, State the requirements for use of PPEs and measures, Record keeping. Campaign shall create team spirit and provide incentives by:

• Recognition for good health and safety records, • Press releases, • Monetary rewards for good health and safety records.

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Campaign shall provide disincentives by penalties for poor health and safety records.

11.8 Hazards Encountered in Hazardous Waste Handling and Disposal Site Hazardous waste management site will have toxic and corrosive substance which will exercise toxic effects on humans by gaining way into the tissues and cells by through inhalation, skin, eyes, and ingestion. Inhaled toxic chemicals will be absorbed and distributed to other parts of body. Particles will coat the lung tissues, affecting the lung function. Absorption by epithelial tissues of skin and mucous membrane may directly injure the skin or may pass through the skin and transported to various organs. Absorption by epithelial tissues is enhanced by wounds/heat/moisture. Chemicals can dissolve in the moisture of eye and be carried through the bloodstream. Personal habits such as chewing/drinking/eating/smoking at workplace may provide additional routes for entry of toxic substances, and hence, they should be avoided. The potential causes of fire and explosions on hazardous waste sites include: (1) chemical reactions bet non-compatible material, (2) ignition of explosive/flammable material, (3) ignition of substance due to oxygen enrichment, (4) agitation of shock/ friction sensitive compounds, and (5) sudden release of substance under pressure. Oxygen deficiency in hazardous waste management site due to displacement of another gas, or due to consumption of oxygen in confined spaces pose threat to human life. Radiation exposure damages cells, tissues, organs, and organisms. The effects could be somatic or genetic. Somatic effects are those that cause damage to the exposed individual and include anaemia, fatigue, and loss of hair, cataracts, skin damage, and cancer. Genetic effects include inheritable changes resulting from mutations in reproductive cells.

11.9 Electrical Hazards Electrical wires/cables/equipment causes danger of shock or electrocution to workers if proper precautions are not taken. Low voltage equipment with ground-fault interrupters, and water-tight, corrosion-resistant connecting cables will minimize hazards. Capacitors used onsite may retain a charge and shall be earthed before handling. Weather conditions should be monitored so that work can be suspended during thunderstorms to avoid lighting hazard.

11.12 Noise and Vibration Hazard

489

11.10 Heat Stress The protective cloths that serve to shield the body from chemical exposure limit the dissipation of body heat and moisture. Depending upon the ambient conditions and the work performed, heat stress can develop rapidly and pose danger to the workers’ health by causing rashes, cramps, discomfort, and drowsiness. Continued heat stress can result in heat stroke and death. Avoiding overprotection, training, and frequent monitoring of personnel wearing protective clothing, judicious scheduling of work and rest periods, shade ventilation, and frequent replacement of fluids will provide protection against this hazard.

11.11 Cold Exposure Cold injury (frost bite and hypothermia) and weakened ability to work are dangers at low temperatures. People should wear appropriate clothing, have warm shelter available, schedule work and rest periods, as well as monitor workers physical conditions. Landfill cell building will be affected due to cold weather and moisture content will build up within landfill. Snow makes navigation difficult; local bodies usually request residents to ensure the garbage does not get covered by snow (as shown in Fig. 11.14). Keeping garbage on snowbank or behind the snowbank will make pick up difficult. Collection delays may occur during snow fall due to unsafe road conditions (Fig. 11.15). As a result, waste may be collected later than usual or next day. Local bodies request the residents of towns/cities to place waste bins in morning instead of the night before collection as waste bin can get covered by snow.

11.12 Noise and Vibration Hazard Onsite activity in closeness to heavy equipment and machinery can create a noisy environment that is hazardous. Wearing ear plugs and scheduling work during rest periods are some of the measures that can help reduce noise hazards. Providing absorbents in the walls, acoustic design, false sealing with absorbents, proper lubrication of machineries, proper maintenance of machines, and providing proper shock absorbers will also help reducing the noise hazards. Back disorder outcomes and workplace vibration exposures have positive association. Spinal injuries are experienced by landfill equipment and bull dozer operators with narrow steel seats. Noise levels from equipment at landfills can range from 70 to 80 decibels at 10 m (Rushbrrok and Pugh 1999).

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Fig. 11.15 Transportation may get affected during snow fall due to difficulties in vehicle movement

References Adeolu OA, Adebayo A (2012) Otitoloju an assessment of landfill fires and their potential health effects—a case study of a municipal solid waste landfill in Lagos, Nigeria # IJEP vol 2 no. 2 February 2012. pp 22–26. www.ij-ep.org Ashworth DC, Elliott P, Toledano MB (2014) Waste incineration and adverse birth and neonatal outcomes: a systematic review. Environ Int 69(August):120–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.env int.2014.04.003 Associated Press (1994) Avalanche of Trash Kills Spaniard, Threatens Fish. Toronto Star. October 13, 1994 Atlanta Journal-Constitution (1999) Mysterious gas blast closes park. February 9, 1999 Belfasttelegraph (2011) Irish landfill fire expected to take week to put out, 31 January 2011 http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/local-national/republic-of-ireland/irish-landfillfire-expected-to-take-week-to-put-out-15068492.html. Accessed on 12 April 2011 Bhat P (2019) Waste from landfill slides down with rainwater in Mangaluru, enters homes and farms, The New Minute, August 16, 2019, https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/waste-lan dfill-slides-down-rainwater-mangaluru-enters-homes-and-farms-107324. Accessed on 17 July 2022 Bhide AD, Sundaresan BB (1984) Street cleansing and waste storage and collection in India. In: Holmes JR (eds) Managing solid wastes in developing countries. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester, UK, pp 139–149 Bonnerjee A (1992) Death in the Dumps. The Statesman 4 Business and Human Rights Resource Centre (2017) Trafigura lawsuits (re Cote d’Ivoire). https:// business-humanrights.org/en/trafiguralawsuits-re-cote-d’ivoire (Accessed Jan 18, 2017). Carcellar N (1996) Personal communication from Vincentian Missionary working with waste pickers at the Payatas open dump in Quezon City, Metro Manila, Philippines Central pollution Control Board (2017) Guidelines on environmental management of construction and demolition (C & D) Wastes, Delhi

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of domestic waste: review of occupational health problems and their possible causes. Sci Total Environ 170:1–19 Rahkonen P (1992) Airborne contaminants at waste treatment plants. Waste manage and research. J Int Solid Waste Assoc 10(5):411–421 Reuters Press (1997) Emergencia en Bogota por Avalancha de un Million de Toneladas de Basura. Release from Bogota, Colombia Rushbrook P (1990) Risks to man and the environment from the landfill disposal of wastes. Waste Manage. Today (News J.) 3(2) Rushbrook P, Pugh M(1999) Solid waste landfills in middle-and lower-income countries—a technical guide to planning, design, and operation. World Bank Technical Paper No. 426. 1999. The World Bank, Washington DC, USA Rushton L (2003) Health hazards and waste management. Br Med Bull 68(1):183–197. https://doi. org/10.1093/bmb/ldg034 Singh AL, Jamal S, Baba SA, Islam MM (2014) Environmental and health impacts from slaughter houses located on the City outskirts: a case study. J Environ Protec 5:566–575. Published Online May 2014 in SciRes. http://www.scirp.org/journal/jep https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2014.56058 Star of Mysore (2017) Belavatha mystery fire: hazardous soil to be removed From Accident Site June 9, 2017. https://starofmysore.com/belavatha-mystery-fire-hazardous-soil-removedaccident-site/. Accessed on 8th Dec 2018 Talbott EO, Gibson LB, Burks A et al (1999) Evidence of dose-response relationship between occupational noise and blood pressure. Arch Environ Health 54(2) The Gaurdian (2017) Rubbish dump landslide kills at least 46 in Ethiopia, Sun 12 Mar 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/mar/12/rubbish-dump-landslide-kills-at-least30-in-ethiopia. Accessed on July 17, 2022 Torres EB, Subida RD, Rabuco LB (1991) University of Philippines College of Public Health. The profile of child scavengers in Smokey mountain, Balut, Tondo, Manila. pp 1–83, Plus annexes UNEP and ISWA (2015) Global waste management outlook, Vienna USACE (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers) (1984) Landfill gas control at military installations, Prepared by R.A. Shafer. Publication Number CERL-TR-N-173 USEPA (1991) U.S. Environmental protection agency. Air emissions from municipal solid waste landfills: background information for proposed standards and guidelines. EPA-450/3-90/011a USFA (U.S. Fire Administration) (2001) Landfill Fires, Topical Fire Research Series, Volume 1, Issue 18 March 2001 (Rev. December 2001) Varley RDG, Bendahmane DB (1997) WS&S “Software” and Hardware—the cost-effectiveness argument. Newsletter of the USAID Environmental Health Project. Spring Venezuela, Masters Thesis, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA Vrijheid M (2000a) Health effects of residence near hazardous waste landfill sites: a review of epidemiologic literature. Environ Health Perspect 108(Suppl):101–112 Vrijheid M (2000b) Health effects of residence near hazardous waste landfill sites: a review of epidemiologic literature. Environ Health Perspect 108(Suppl):101–112 WHO (2007) Population health and waste management: scientific data and policy options WHO (2015) Waste and human health: Evidence and needs, WHO Meeting Report 5–6 November 2015 Bonn, Germany Wikipedia (2018) Hemodynamics. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemodynamics#cite_note-14. Accessed on 13th Oct 2018 Xinhua (2018) At least 17 killed in garbage dump landslide in Mozambique, 19 Feb, 2018. http:// www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-02/19/c_136985763.htm. Accessed on 9 Dec 2018

Chapter 12

Environmental Issues

Technology is not a universal remedy and is just a factor to consider for SWM. Improper practices with respect to SWM lead to pollution, resource degradation, and health of humans/animals. The current century is generating a variety of waste the impact of which is still not fully understood. Informal practices in WEEE recycling resulted in release of toxic metals and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) into the environment (Wong et al. 2007) many of which are carcinogens. Studies have revealed environmental and health problems (Bi et al. 2007; Deng et al. 2007; Leung et al. 2006; Li et al. 2008; Luo et al. 2009; Wu et al. 2008; Zhang and Min, 2009; Zhao et al. 2009) in China and other countries due to improper SWM. Increases in pollution over the past five centuries can be directly linked to linear, take-make-use-dispose economic pattern—“the throwaway culture”(Francis 2015)—in which human capital and natural resources are viewed as plentiful as well as expendable (Raworth 2017; Whitmee et al. 2015). Cities, particularly speedily expanding cities in developing world, are severely affected by pollution and solid wastes. Cities contain 55% of the global population and account for 85% of global economic activity (Landrigan et al. 2018). They concentrate population, waste, industry, construction activity, energy consumption, and traffic on a historically unmatched scale. Normally, solid waste will have its impact at urban/rural environment where it is generated and later it affects pristine unaffected environment which is interlinked to urban sprawl. The waste generated from urban/rural dwellers from day-to-day activities will affect health of flora/fauna including humans either through food chain or through air/water/noise/soil pollution. Animals feeding on urban waste (Fig. 12.1) are likely to spread contamination and infection as they move around. Residents burnt, buried, or dumped about 361,000 tonnes of MSW in 2008, and 635,000 tonnes in 2015 in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, where the MSW management system lacks regulation (Seng et al. 2018).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6_12

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Fig. 12.1 Animals feeding on solid wastes

More than 60% of the SW’s final disposal was done in open dumping in Thailand at 425 disposal sites, out of which 330 open dumps in 2004 while only the landfills of Bangkok received around 4500 tonnes per day (Chiemchaisri et al. 2007). West Bank Palestinian territory had 133 MSW dumpsites, 116 open burning activities, and 13 burial sites in 2001 (Al-Khatib 2015). Four major disposal sites in Abuja, Nigeria, closed in 2005 due to percolation of leachate from the buried waste, air pollution, and odours (Aderoju 2018). Maputo of Mozambique with about 1.2 million population transported solid waste to dumpsite with an area is around 17 ha, and height of 15 m had open fires as well as autoignition of the waste (dos Muchangos 2015). Not all the dump and litter sites are marked, accounted for, and recorded across the world, especially to avoid reflection of inefficiency and negligence towards environmental protection. On the other hand, where hunger, economic crisis, and conflict dominate, nobody usually bothers about SWM. Demolition activity inevitably generates dust during demolition. The waste generated during demolition (Fig. 12.2) will cause of water and air pollution during transportation, treatment, and disposal. The magnitude of pollution depends on characteristics of waste which is likely to enter air/water/soil and geochemical cycle. Life cycle assessment (LCA) has become an emerging tool to measure the impacts of anthropogenic activities on environment (Pennington et al. 2004; Rebitzer et al. 2004). As per Christensen et al. (2007), LCA is the major tool for decision making used by policy makers. One of the benefits of LCA is to identify as well as quantify

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Fig. 12.2 Demolition waste

Fig. 12.3 Elephant camp

environmental impacts of various SWM technologies (Buttol et al. 2007). Only limitation of LCA or any other study for that matter is that studies have to be conducted as well as reported impartially. Waste from zoos and animal camps (Fig. 12.3) which are the sources of animal dung, food leftover is also associated with visitors/tourists generating waste at these sites. Environment impact assessment (EIA) has been the preferred tool in the past many years for mega projects including SWM. It is often the duty of an EIA preparing agency to get statutory permits and, hence, the baseline data and impact projections are usually manipulated. The EIA made by consultants is often misleading and hides facts. Consultants often prepare reports in favour of clients, and hence, obviously

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cannot give a negative report which may ultimately cause damage to the investor/ project proponent. Waste handling/disposal facilities should avoid impact on environment through a combination of: (1) selection of proper site, (2) proper design of facility, (3) energy efficiency, (4) process modification, and (5) application of emissions control techniques. The prevention and control of pollution depend on: (1) regulatory requirements, (2) magnitude of the source, (3) location of the emitting facility relative to other sources, (4) location of sensitive receptors, (5) existing ambient air quality, and (6) technical feasibility and cost effectiveness. Environmental Rule of Law—First Global Report (UNEP 2019) finds weak enforcement to be a worldwide trend that is worsening environmental threats, despite growth in environmental laws as well as agencies globally since 1972. Despite a 38fold rise in the number of environmental laws since 1972, failure to fully implement as well as enforce them is one of the greatest challenges. Although international aid helped nations to enter in to more than 1100 environmental agreements, they did not ensure establishment of strong environmental agencies capable of effective enforcements. Agencies that act as puppet in the hands of people’s representatives are often filled by people who work for salary and bribe rather than cause. The report identifies several factors contributing to poor enforcement of environmental law including the following: • • • • •

Corruption, Lack of access to information, Poor coordination across government agencies, Quiet civic engagement, and Weak institutional capacity.

Environmental laws have grown noticeably since 1972 just to show case they care by mere passing impractical and unexecuted clauses. Since the 1970s, 88 nations have adopted a constitutional right to a healthy environment, with an additional 62 nations enshrining environmental protection in their constitutions resulting in a total of 150 nations from all over the world with constitutional rights and/or provisions on the environment. As of 2017, 176 nations have environmental framework laws; and 164 nations have created cabinet-level bodies responsible for environmental protection (UNEP 2019). For the reason that of the technical nature of environmental matters, more than 350 environmental courts as well as tribunals have been established in over 50 nations across the globe (Pring and Pring 2016). But, environmental degradation continues to grow so as amendments to existing laws and notification of new laws. The law-making agencies in many countries neither bother to make neither regulatory impact assessment nor wait until the laws are already notified are understood completely by stakeholders including enforcing officers. As a result, confusion dominates and qualifies everyone in the country as environmental criminals in one way or the other. A simple, example of law requiring everyone to segregate the waste at source would make all those who do not segregate or erroneously segregate as environmental criminals.

12.1 Impact on Air, Water, and Soil

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The mounting litigation for violation of laws and their interpretation by enforcing agency would not change common man who is drowned in poverty and personal problems. The entrepreneurs and funding agency often find environmental law as hurdle for ease of business. Any number of red carpets to investor would not woo them unless environmental laws are weakly enforced. The environmental laws have become source of income for many self-declared activists who demand money from entrepreneur and enforcing agency by lodging complaints for deviations in legal compliance. Ageing and sick staff in enforcing agency led by political nominee who hardly understands the environmental law/science/administration would lead the team without commitment to objectives and goals of environmental legislation. For all practical purposes, agency responsible for enforcement of environmental laws is a wing of government and so as urban/rural local bodies. Hence, an enforcing agency will have pressure not take action against erring local bodies.

12.1 Impact on Air, Water, and Soil SWM and handling are linked with both positive and negative impact on environment. While SWM has positive impact by removing accumulated waste, it is often associated with negative impacts as depicted in Fig. 12.4. A proper study of environmental setting will be required to forecast possible impact in worst scenario as well as prepare environmental management plan. Air pollution sources can be categorized into point sources (Fig. 12.5), fugitive sources (Fig. 12.6), and mobile sources. Facilities located in ecologically sensitive

Organic matter may improve plant nutrients in soil; air pollutants trapped in air pollution equipment will improve quality of air, water pollutants separated from wastewater stream will improve water quality; recycle/reuse will reduce

Air pollution; water pollution; soil contamination; generation of GHGs; epidemics due to spread of infection; generation of dioxins, furans and other carcinogens; depletion of potable water resources; choking of drains; change in soil texture; change in chemical characteristics of soil; impact on soil micro organisam.

Fig. 12.4 Positive and negative effects of solid waste management on air/water/soil

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12 Environmental Issues

areas (like national parks, sanctuaries, monuments) should ensure low pollution by: (1) relocation of facility, (2) use of cleaner fuels/technologies, and (3) use of proper pollution control measures. Uncontrolled LFG migration from a landfill poses a threat not only by GHG emission but also to human health and local environment. LFG can cause explosion or fire due to build-up of LFG in buildings located near landfill sites as it is heavier than air and hence collects in sewers and manholes. Further gases from landfill can cause asphyxiation. Hence, proper care is required during construction and operation of landfills. Incineration and waste spillage (Fig. 12.7) can cause air/water/soil pollution as it enters air and later dissolves in rainwater which further deposits on soil. Waste incineration is likely to have cadmium, mercury, dioxins, PCBs, arsenic, chromium, CO, NOX , nickel, PAHs, PM10, and SO2 . The solid waste is associated with odours, litter, heavy traffic, noise, and flies. In 2015, the maximum deaths due to pollution occurred in the western Pacific (2.2 million deaths) as well as Southeast Asia (3.2 million deaths) (GBD 2015 Risk Factors Collaborators 2016; Landrigan et al. 2018). Emissions from waste processing and disposal often lead to disposal of POPs. Polychlorinated dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs) and, Polybrominated dioxins and furans PBDD/Fs concentrations in ambient air around Guiyu, China, varied from 64.9 to 2365 pg/m3 and from 8.1 to 461 pg/m3 , respectively, due to WEEE dismantling activities (Liet al. 2007a, b). The presence of waste pickers in disposal sites will pose major impact on the operation of the sites. Waste pickers pose safety hazard to themselves and others working in landfill reducing productivity and interfering with operations as well as tipping face and starting fires. Such activities cause serious air pollution. To overcome such problems, a landfill located in San Mateo of the Philippines employs the inhabitants of nearest squatter community for work at the site (Johannessen and Boyer 1999). Incineration and open burning will lead to emissions of water vapour, carbon oxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, silicates, ash, soot, metal elements, oxides of metals, salts, volatile organic compounds (VOC), hydrocarbons (HC),

Fig. 12.5 Point air pollution from solid waste incinerator and street combustion

12.1 Impact on Air, Water, and Soil

Fig. 12.6 Fugitive air pollution from road sweeping

Fig. 12.7 Spillage at storage yard in solid waste processing unit

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dioxins, furans, polychlorinated biphenyls, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Particles from waste combustion include particulates with an aerodynamic diameter lesser than 10, 5, 2.5 microns and ultrafine particles. Further combustion and handling of waste during combustion lead to generation of transport-related emissions, noise, odour, bottom ash, fly ash, pests, dusts, and spores. SWM emits a number of substances in small quantities at extremely low levels (Johnson and DeRosa 1997). SWM workers have been shown to have high incidence of accidents as well as musculoskeletal problems (Rushton 2003). Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that particle exposure will result in acute health effects like increased mortality, cardiovascular, and respiratory morbidity (Dockery and Pope III, 1994; Katsouyanni et al. 1997). Effects will be more severe in children, elderly, and those with preexisting cardiovascular disease or asthma (Zanobetti et al. 2000). Chemical landfill in Kaergaard, Denmark, resulted in release of 280,000 tonnes of chemicals and pharmaceuticals in pits sited in the beach dunes (WHO 2007). Emissions from solid waste disposal facilities can be avoided and controlled by: (1) proper stack height, (2) water sprinkling for dust suppression, (3) leak detection and repair (LDAR) programme, (4) collection of vapours and consequent treatment of gas stream, and (5) use of floating roofs above storage tanks in order to reduce volatilization by eliminating the space in conventional storage tanks. The leachate from landfill and dumpsite are likely to contain metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), chlorinated hydrocarbons, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), asbestos, dioxins, ammonia, pharmaceuticals, chloride, heavy metals, fluoride, chloride, asbestos, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), ozone destroying chlorofluorocarbons, neurotoxicants, endocrine disruptors, chemical herbicides, novel insecticides, pharmaceutical wastes, as well as nanomaterials beside little bit of everything soluble in water that has entered into waste in the form of lipstick, facial cream, toilet cleaners, paints, varnish, air pollutants scrubbed by rainwater, etc. Leachate is associated with chemical pollution which is a major growing global issue. The impact of chemical pollution on environment and human health is inadequately defined, and its contribution to the global burden on environment and health is almost underestimated. 5000 chemicals produced in greatest volume out of more than 140,000 new chemicals synthesized since 1950. These materials have become widely dispersed in the environment and are responsible for human exposure (Landrigan et al. 2018). Fewer than half of these high-production chemicals have undergone any testing for toxicity or safety. As a result, these chemicals are responsible for episodes of disease, death, as well as environmental degradation whose effects on environment and human health were never examined. Evidence of impact of these emerging chemical pollutants on environment and human health has started to become evident. The great concern of these emerging chemicals is heightened by the increased chemical production to low-income as well as middle-income nations where protection of environment and public health is often negligible. Since future growth in chemical production is very likely to occur in these countries, the waste dumps in these countries are likely to become global contaminated hot spots.

12.1 Impact on Air, Water, and Soil

503

Waste handling facilities should avoid, minimize, and control liquid effluents by (1) adopting recycle/reuse within the facility and (2) liquid waste treatment. Figures 12.8, 12.9, 12.10, 12.11, 12.12, 12.13, and 12.14 show photographs depicting impact on environment due to haphazard disposal of waste. Emissions from vehicles which include CO, NOX , SO2 , PM, and VOCs can be controlled by (1) using fuel-efficient vehicles, (2) engine maintenance programmes, (3) adopting safe speed limits, (4) replacing older vehicles with newer, more fuelefficient vehicles, (5) installing and maintaining emissions control devices like catalytic converters, (6) use of clean/eco-friendly fuel, and (6) implementing a regular vehicle maintenance and repair programme. Gases emitted from landfill and waste dumps which depend on waste characteristics are likely to contain methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, mercury vapour, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). In order to reduce pollution of storm water, the following principles/precautions should be applied: (1) avoiding/minimizing contact of runoff with waste and (2) collecting and treating contaminated runoff. Pollution due to indiscriminate disposal of solid waste is now a substantial problem that degrades the earth’s ecosystems, endangers the health of billions, is responsible for a huge global burden of disability/disease/death, and it undermines the economic security of nations. The soil contamination is one of the major impacts due to solid waste disposal as the wastes come in direct contact with soil. 500 metric tonnes of toxic waste dumped during 2006 in the city of Abidjan, Ivory Coast, resulting in symptoms of poisoning of thousands within few days due to presence of sodium hydroxide, phenols, hydrogen sulphide, mercaptans, hydrocarbons as well as other chemicals used in cleaning of oil

Fig. 12.8 Liquid from wet waste at storage yard in solid waste processing unit

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Fig. 12.9 Damage to vegetation due to waste dumping and transportation

Fig. 12.10 Damage to soil and vegetation due to industrial waste dumping

12.1 Impact on Air, Water, and Soil

505

Fig. 12.11 Improper storage of hazardous waste

Fig. 12.12 Damage to soil due to improper industrial waste disposal

transporters’ tanks. The episode resulted in eight deaths, hospitalization of dozens, and around 100,000 medical consultations (Bohand 2007). The lead concentration of bottom ash of WEEE recycling units of New Delhi varied between 3560 and 6450 mg/kg (Brigden et al. 2005Considering high impact processing in China and India, these countries need better monitoring (Sepúlvedaet al.

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Fig. 12.13 Waste floating on river

2010) is of the opinion that there is an urgent need for better monitoring as well as control of the informal recycling activity in India and China. Collection of waste is always associated with vehicle movement and associated maintenance which results in generation of air pollutants. On the positive impacts include possible improvement of plant nutrients in soil and recycle/reuse will reduce air/water/soil pollution. Air pollution from solid waste can occur due to. • • • • • • • •

Combustion, Emission from end-of-life refrigerator, air conditioner, etc., Emission from entrapped gases in gas containers like pesticide/perfume spray, Emission from landfill site, Internal reaction, Pollutionfrom vehicles used in SWM, Purification, and Resuspensions / fugitive dust due to wind. Air pollution can affect environment by

• Acid/Alkali rain, • Atmospheric brown cloud,

12.1 Impact on Air, Water, and Soil Fig. 12.14 Waste thrown in open drainage in dry season

• • • • • • • •

Black snow and muddy snow, Global warming and climate change, Impact on crop yield, Impact on flora fauna, Impact on material, Loss of economy and visibility. Ozone layer depletion, and Water/soil pollution.

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Methane as well as VOCs is usually released to atmosphere during composting and the screening of the manure generates particulate matter. Improper disposal of radioactive wastes will lead to huge impact on environment; they are disposed cautiously by supplier/manufacturer discussed in detail in Chap. 10. “Acid rain” is commonly used to refer the dry (acidifying gases and particles) and wet (rain, fog, cloud water, sleet, snow, and dew) deposition of acidic components. “Clean” or natural rain is slightly acidic (but normally will not be lower than 5.6) due to carbonic acid formation in atmosphere due to reaction between H2 O and CO2 . But SO2 and NOx released from solid waste combustion can lead to acid rain resulting in impact on flora/fauna and corrosion of building material. Mineral dust such as calcite or dolomite from C & D waste can be entrapped in rainwater resulting in alkali rain. Ozone depletion substances from end-of-life refrigerator, air conditioner, and other sources can lead to ozone layer depletion and subsequent consequences like skin cancer. Air pollution including solid waste combustion has resulted in transcontinental and transoceanic plumes of atmospheric brown clouds (ABCs) made up of submicron size aerosols which interrupt sunlight by reflecting. On the other hand, some organics and black carbon increase atmospheric heating resulting in global warming. Flora can be affected by (a) impact of air pollutants on crop’s health, (2) climate change, and (3) exposure of plants to UV ray penetration due ozone layer depletion. Impact of air pollution on flora can result to discolourations of the leaves due to internal cellular damage reducing the value of crops such as spinach and tobacco. Air pollution can result in preventive measures, repair, and loss of amenity. Impact of materials can happen due to material loss, discolouration, soiling, and structural failure. Air pollution can affect human health depending on quantity/type of pollutant and path of entry into body (Chandrappa and Kulshrestha 2016; Chandrappa and Das 2021). Outbreak of red-tide and black snow in lacustrine systems was observed during beginning of 1991 in the Kashmir Himalayan valley, India. The incident of muddy snowfall in May 2002 in Afarwat glaciers of Kashmir, India, is due to changing environmental scenario of the region. The “black snow” on the mountain peaks of Gund, Sonamarg in Kashmir, India, observed in March 1991 was because of the burning of oilfields during Gulf War. Air pollution can cause economic loss due to: • • • •

Cost of treatment to heal sickness, Lost productivity, Missed educational/development opportunities, and The economic loss due to climate change and disasters.

SWM creates job and livelihood making positive impact on the society. But, populations living near incinerators are significantly exposed to chemicals by inhalation of contaminated air, dermal contact with contaminated soil, consumption of contaminated water and food (Franchini et al. 2004) (Table 12.1)

12.1 Impact on Air, Water, and Soil

509

Table 12.1 Summary of impact on environment due to solid waste management Impact

Air pollution

Water pollution

Soil pollution

Noise pollution

Generation of dust

✓

✓

✓

Generation of fume

✓

✓

✓

Material recovery

✓

✓

✓

✓

Movement of bins and dropping of waste

✓

✓

✓

✓

Movement of vehicles

✓

✓

✓

✓

Material recovery

✓

✓

✓

✓

Vehicle maintenance

✓

✓

✓

✓

Degradation during collection

✓

✓

✓

Activities of waste pickers

✓

✓

✓

Operation of machine ✓

✓

✓

✓

Movement of vehicles

✓

✓

✓

✓

Material recovery

✓

✓

✓

✓

Vehicle/machine maintenance

✓

✓

✓

✓

House keeping

Activity Storage

Collection

Transfer and transport

Reuse/recycle

Disposal

✓

✓

✓

✓

Operation of machine ✓

✓

✓

✓

Movement of vehicles

✓

✓

✓

✓

Material recovery

✓

✓

✓

✓

Cleaning of recyclable material

✓

✓

✓

✓

Composting

✓

✓

✓

Material processing

✓

✓

✓

✓

Waste to energy

✓

✓

✓

✓

Waste dump

✓

✓

✓

✓

Animal feed

✓

✓

✓

✓

Thermal conversion

✓

✓

✓

✓

Landfill

✓

✓

✓

✓

Geological disposal

✓

✓

Ocean Dump

✓

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12 Environmental Issues

Stubble burning has been considered among the most important contributors of air pollution in South Asia which is significant source of CO2 , CO, NOx, SOx, CH4, PM10 , and PM2.5 . About 352 million tonnes of stubble is generated in India per annum out of which about 84 million tonnes of the stubble is burnt on-field each year after harvest during the winter season (October–November) during which cities in the National Capital Region (NCR) of India experience harsh pollution resulting in skin and eyes irritation to severe cardiovascular, neurological, respiratory diseases, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), bronchitis, emphysema, lung capacity loss, and cancer, etc. (Abdurrahman 2020). One of the most widely publicized landfill sites—LoveCanal in New York State where huge quantities of toxic materials were deposited in the 1930s and 1940s. Several houses and a school were built on and around the landfill in the 1950s. Chemicals leaking from the site were detected in sewers, soil, local streams, as well as indoor of houses by the mid-1970s. Vianna and Polan (1984) as well as Goldman et al. (1985) observed increased occurrence of low birth weight among the people in the region of the Love Canal site of the USA. A similar augmented occurrence of low birth weight babies was observed among those living in a radius of one km of the Lipari Landfill, New Jersey (Berry et al. 1997). Low birth weights and neonatal deaths were observed at a waste disposal site in California (Kharazi 1997). Collapse of Mobeni landfill (near Durban in South Africa) led to odour problem in neighbouring community. Uganda’s Mpewere landfill started in 1995 became open dump within one year (Johannessen and Boyer 1999). Similarly, landfill at Kampala city council was not operated properly due to small operational budget and deficient local managerial expertise to operate the landfill (Johannessen and Boyer 1999). Such circumstances would lead to impact on the health and environment of the community, which would have definitely not foreseen. Pollution cannot be viewed as an isolated environmental issue but is an international and intergenerational problem that affects the health and wellbeing of entire planet. Governments at all levels need to establish long-term and short-term targets for pollution preventions and control and to support the agencies and regulations to attain these goals (Landrigan et al. 2018). In order to overcome impact of pollution the key recommendations of Lancet Commission on pollution and health are (Landrigan et al. 2018): 1. Build multi-sectoral partnerships for pollution control, 2. Establish systems to monitor pollution as well as its effects on health, 3. Integrate pollution alleviation into planning processes for non-communicable diseases, and 4. Make pollution prevention a high priority internationally as well as nationally and integrate it into country as well as city planning processes, 5. Mobilize, augment, and focus the financial support and the international technical support dedicated to pollution control, 6. Research pollution as well as pollution control. Soil pollution by toxic chemicals as well as heavy metals at contaminated industrial and mining sites provide example of an important, but not yet fully quantified or

12.2 Impact on Flora and Fauna

511

characterized source of pollution-related disease (Pruss-Ustun et al. 2011, Landrigan et al. 2018). Polluted soil at contaminated sites affects the environment. Most contaminated sites are comparatively small, but the numerous people affected worldwide by the several hundreds of thousands of existing sites is large (Fuller 2013). Polluted sites are usually contaminated by small-scale, informal, unregulated local artisanal, or industrial activity (Fuller 2013; Ha et al. 2017; Sharov et al. 2016). Sites can be contaminated by present mining and industrial activity, or they can be abandoned, legacy sites contaminated by earlier operations (Caravanos et al. 2014) artisanal/ small-scale gold mining sites as well as used lead-acid battery recycling sites (Steckling et al. 2017a, b). Even though artisanal and small-scale gold mining takes place globally, it is most highly concentrated in Africa. Lead poisoning from informal battery recycling can be seen in developing nations all over the world (Pebe et al. 2008; Carrizales et al. 2006, van der Kuijp et al. 2013). About 6 to 16 million people are exposed to unsafe concentrations of lead every year at used lead-acid battery recycling sites (Pure Earth 2016). These exposures result in the loss of about 0.87 million DALYs annually. Further about 14–19 million artisanal as well as small-scale gold miners were at risk of exposure to elemental mercury (Steckling et al. 2017a) which resulted in an about 2.9 million DALYs loss every year (Steckling et al. 2017a.). Although complete records do not exist a vast magnitude of historic ocean dumping has resulted in high concentrations of harmful pollutants. The uncontrolled ocean dumping resulted in severe reduction of oxygen levels in some ocean waters.

12.2 Impact on Flora and Fauna Impact on fauna as well as flora depends on ecological sensitivity around the waste handling as well as disposal site. The improper BMW waste disposed would affect the health of fauna in urban as well as non-urban (like forest, rural, savanna, etc.) area. The major impact on fauna and flora is given in Fig. 12.15. In developing nations, consumers prefer to buy freshly slaughtered meat with high incident of informal slaughter which presents a significant problem with respect to the environment degradation as well as public health. Informal and illegal slaughtering results in dumping of slaughterhouse waste increasing the number of scavenging animals (Fig. 12.16). Animal manure as well as poultry litter, which is used as fertilizer without any composting, provides prospective routes for ailment spread. Slaughterhouses and wet market located in densely populated urban areas create traffic congestion, odours, as well as noise/air/water pollution. Slaughterhouses operating during the night can be a noteworthy problem with respect to noise pollution. Poor vehicular access due to waste dumping at wet markets and slaughterhouses with little/no parking as well as limited loading/unloading space creates severe congestion.

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Provide food to many living organisms; recycle nutrient into environment and enhance growth of plants; provides habitat to many organisms; food waste can be used as cattle feed.

Plastic covers and other nondegradable smeared with food may be eaten by animals which may ultimately choke digestive system; solid waste may spread infection to flora and fauna; chemicals in waste may hinder or kill flora/fauna.

Fig. 12.15 Positive and negative effects of solid waste management on flora and fauna

Fig. 12.16 Feathers disposed haphazardly

Inadequate security of wet markets and slaughterhouse allows access to stray animals that are directly exposed to animal wastes as well as provides vectors for livestock-related ailments. Open defecation in and around wet market and slaughterhouse would impact environment by air/water pollution and increase in vector-borne ailments.

12.2 Impact on Flora and Fauna

513

Waste from rural area has negative impact on animal species and their habitats (Huertas el al. 2019; Pawlita-Posmyk and Wzorek 2018) soil and water (Keske et al. 2018) that cause disturbance in the aquatic and onshore ecosystems of animals (Makarenko and Budak 2017) mainly due to lack of waste management (Li et al. 2016; López-Rayo 2016; Mihai and Ingrao 2018) Which can be reduced with proper management (Bel and Mur 2009). Animals often are attracted by solid waste dumped on the ground (Fig. 12.17) as MSW often comprised of food waste. Food smeared to plastic covers has been a reason for choking of digestive tract leading to death in stray animals that feed on MSW. Further, birds have been major dependents on solid waste for their food in dump sites and sanitary landfill sites. Irrespective of the developed or developing nation, the birds often feed on food waste thrown with MSW. The solid waste that enters food chain could be detrimental if the food is contaminated with toxic or infectious material. Solid waste dumps provide food resources to animals and can host several vertebrates. The detailed discussion on the subject is done in Chap. 19. Further cities near sensitive location like sanctuaries/forest would often throw waste in outskirts which may affect the health of wild animals which feed on the waste. The waste thrown into water bodies would affect the aquatic ecosystem. Composting as well as waste handling would release bioaerosols containing bacteria or fungal spores. Production of waste by the tourist is as one of the main threats to the environmental sustainability in isolated mountainous regions as well as protected areas (Steg and Vlek, 2009; Clark et al. 2003).

Fig. 12.17 Slaughterhouse waste

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With growing meat consumption, the generation of slaughterhouse waste is often determined by market forces. The meat production may generate infectious waste (Figs. 12.16 and 12.17) that requires precaution, treatment as well as disposal. Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore) in India has approximately 3000 chicken shops spread across the city wherein the birds are killed in front of consumers. Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore) with population of approximately ten million needs meat of about 600,000 birds/day and the waste generated/disposed is not tracked. In many nations, animals are slaughtered only when they are not useful for other purposes. The examples include oxen which are used for transportation and ploughing will be slaughtered when they become old and weak. The cows are slaughtered when they stop producing milk. Lack of care while transporting animals results in weight loss and cruelty to animals. Many of the animals slaughtered suffer from malnutrition, diseases as well as parasitic infestation (CPHEEO 2000). Disposal of slaughterhouse waste in many countries would end up in spreading diseases not only to domestic animals but also to wild lives. The practice may also result in transfer of disease from animal to humans. Diseases which occur normally in animals that are transmitted from animals to people (e.g., Swine flu) are called zoonoses, and there is increase in occurrence of zoonosis epidemics in the present century. Transfer of epidemic as well as endemic diseases occurs across nations as pathogens are transmitted by the environment. Interactions of zoonotic infections are illustrated in Fig. 12.17. Zoonotic pathogens cause gastrointestinal diseases like diarrhoea as well as other sickness like leptospirosis and hepatitis. Around four billion cases of diarrhoea happen every year, resulting in approximately two million deaths and intestinal worms affect more than a billion persons all over the world (Cotruvo et al. 2004). Due to a lack of data, it is difficult to determine the complete extent of the illness due to zoonotic pathogens. About more than 60% of all human infectious diseases start off from animal sources, and, in 1987–2007, about 75% of all emerging human diseases started from livestock including severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), avian influenza, mad cow disease, West Nile, Lyme disease, and Ebola (Nippon Koei and ProAnd Associates 2009) (Fig. 12.18). Fig. 12.18 Interaction between microbial pathogens, animals, and humans

Microbial Pathogens

Animals

Humans

12.2 Impact on Flora and Fauna

515

Driving forces of emerging zoonotic pathogens are significant and include: (1) changing lifestyle patterns, (2) shifting eating habits, (3) changing urban topography and demography, (4) efficiency of sanitation and SWM, (6) immunity of individuals for diseases, (7) climate change, (8) disasters, (9) increasing use of antibiotics by animals and humans, (10) density of domestic pets, (11) ecologic disturbance, and (12) international trading of animals, and animal products. As discussed, earlier waste not only affects the flora and fauna within a city it would also affect wildlife. The waste could be approached by wild animals (Figs. 12.19 and 12.20) in search of food. The animals including birds would suffer by eating plastic covers used to pack food as they are attracted by smell. One-third of 1.3 billion tonnes of food produced every year, for human consumption, is lost or wasted (FAO 2011). The food wasted by people is often accessible to wildlife (Newsome et al. 2015; Oro et al. 2013). More than 10 million tonnes of carcasses of slaughtered in Africa and Europe cattle are rejected as well as discarded every year, and 3 to 4 million tonnes of edible food are discarded in rubbish dumps in Australia and the USA every year (Oro et al. 2013). 8% of the total global catch of fish which accounts to 6.8 million tonnes are discarded every year (Kelleher 2005). Access of food waste to wildlife can alter wildlife behaviour including: 1. Augment conflict between humans and wildlife (Newsome et al. 2015; Oro et al. 2013), 2. Consuming plastic and other non-digestible waste may choke digestive system and augment ailment related to choking of digestive system.

Fig. 12.19 Interactions of wildlife and litter

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Fig. 12.20 Monkeys feeding on discarded trash by tourist in a temple

3. Interaction between domestic and wild animals can facilitate the spread of ailment. 4. May augment spread of zoonotic disease due to discarded carcass/meat of sick domestic animals. 5. May lead to more accidents by human-driven vehicle near waste dumps 6. Natural search and eat may affect population distribution as wildlife congregates as well as focus their daily activities around this food source which affects spreading of seeds of fruits, they would have consumed in the absence of waste 7. Predators may show a preference to food waste (Newsome et al. 2015). 8. Reduce fitness of a population utilizing food from waste dump, 9. Some population that come of easy food at waste dump may be eradicated through predation. 10. The toxins, antibiotics, and chemicals in food waste may lead to new ailment and thereby decrease life expectancy for wildlife. 11. Triggering population rise in opportunistic species thereby altering predator– predator as well as predator–prey dynamics (Newsome et al. 2015; Oro et al. 2013). The elimination/introduction of an anthropogenic food source can change predator–prey dynamics. The closure of waste dumps in Yellowstone National Park in the 1970s resulted in augmented grizzly bear mortality (Craighead et al. 1995). High bear death by vehicle collisions was linked with bears’ attraction to garbage (Huber et al. 1995). Collision with trains is linked to grizzly bear death in some areas of Canada (Gangadharan et al. 2017). Spotted hyenas augmented predation on domestic donkeys during fasting time when food waste was limited (Yirga et al. 2012).

12.2 Impact on Flora and Fauna

517

Overfishing as well as increasing waste in landfills changed the resource base of coastal food webs, as well as generalist seabirds shifted their diet to human trash and augmented predation pressure on a threatened species of fish (Osterback et al. 2015). Human food provisioning of macaques resulted in shorter seed dispersion ranges as well as dispersal into human-modified areas (Sengupta et al. 2015). Augmented interactions among species at food waste sources may result in increase in hybridization between wild species as well as among wild canids as well as their domestic relatives (Newsome et al. 2013). Some species of canids can interbreed and produce fertile offspring, including grey wolves, coyotes, and domestic dogs. The coyote thrived in human-modified environments, increasing their abundance as well as distribution across North America in the lack of the grey wolf (Newsome 2013). Coyotes and wolves interbreed where grey wolf populations are small and isolated resulting in distinct hybrid zones (VonHoldt et al. 2016). As in the case of dingoes (Newsome et al. 2013), access to plentiful food waste at focal locations could amplify contact between species that can interbreed (Newsome et al. 2017). Hybridization among native species as well as domestic relatives can result in behavioural as well as phenotypic changes to offspring (Vilà et al. 2003). Hybridization with domestic relatives is main danger to the conservation of species like Ethiopian wolves (Gottelli et al. 1994), Australian dingoes (Stephenset al. 2015), and Scottish wildcats (Beaumon 2001). Augmented risk of disease transmission due to rise in densities of free-ranging domestic dogs might threaten species such as African wild dogs as well as Ethiopian wolves (Laurenson et al. 1998; Woodroffe et al. 1999). High densities of wildlife can augment disease occurrence within species, as well as rise in death in urban areas for raccoons (Vilà et al. 2003). According to the FAO, more than three billion and nineteen million livestock were consumed globally in 2018 generating significant volume of slaughterhouse biowastes which are a class of biohazards that poses a huge risk of outbreak of diseases, contamination to the environment, and insecure food safety (Al-Gheethi et al. 2020). In small slaughterhouses in developing nations, the dressing of carcasses, the removal of hides, as well as evisceration (removing internal organs) are performed on the floor, and abattoirs’ solid wastes are directly disposed into lands and water bodies nearby to the abattoirs, creating pollution-related issues (Fearon et al. 2014) due to inadequate SWM as well as treatment facilities. Chemical herbicides account for about 40% of worldwide pesticide use which is increasing impacting directly and waste generated during production and use. The neonicotinoids which are neurotoxic pesticides developed in the 1980s are now the most widely in the world whose consumption was 4 million kg in 2014 in the USA. They can exist in environment for years and can have negative effects health of bees and pollinators. These chemicals are a suspected reason of bee colony collapse disorder, and very little information is available about effects of the neonicotinoid’s human health. Abundant sources of human food waste in northern India resulted in increased densities of domestic dogs which also depend on small livestock as source of food during winter (Home et al. 2017). Predation on livestock by dogs can aggravate

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human-wildlife conflict as predator species cannot be identified and hence native predators are blamed (Cozza 1996). Close encounter among humans and wildlife can stem from food waste dumps. The population of house crows introduced in Singapore augmented more than 30 times over 15–16 years due to their exploitation of food resources from human activity (Lim 2003). Likewise, rock pigeons thrive across the world, spreading pathogens fouling buildings with their excrement costing of millions of pounds per year in the UK (Bevan 1990). Rise in profusion of gulls in association with solid waste dumps has also been associated with aviation bird strikes (Horton 1983), resulting in damage to aircraft and resulted in 231 human fatalities more than an 83-year period (Thorpe 2003). In addition to other wastes, radioactive waste also sometimes finds its way to MSW. The episode that occurred in Delhi due to selling of waste with radioactive material led to death of one person (Box 12.1). If the same waste was dumped in MSW along with other waste, the impact on animals would not have come to notice at all. Box 12.1 Impact of Improper Disposal of Radioactive Material in Delhi Disposal of radioactive waste in many nations is unscientific affecting health of people. In April 2010, a scrap dealer and his employees were exposed to the radioactive Cobalt-60 present in the old Gammacell model 220 they brought from Delhi University (AERB, 2010). As a result of exposure, hair of exposed people started falling and later skin started showing signs of decay. The incident also resulted in death of one person working with scrap dealer. Several studies have been done on impact of waste on forest. Foin et al. (1977) studied the impacts of visitors on Yosemite National Park, California. Studies conducted by Jain and Kuniyal (1994) in the Himalayan region revealed that religious and recreational tourists have increased solid waste in the region. The arrival of migrant birds reduced noticeably in the past few years in Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary in India due to waste dumping. The tourism can generate great quality of wastes and associated problems. SWM has become problem in many national parks throughout the world. Solid waste generation in some tourist places of the Himalayan region is nearing that of some the metropolitan cities of India. The native villagers construct stalls every year to fulfil the requirement of visitors to Valley of Flowers as well as Hemkund Sahib. Valley of Flowers National Park is meant for the conservation and study of Himalayan flora. It became a national park in 1982 after which restrictions were imposed on livestock grazing. The valley has flora of over 600 species in an area of about 2500 hectares. Approximately, 29 tonnes of solid waste is generated during four-month tourist season every year along a distance of about 19 km. As per Kuniyal et al. (2003), nearly 288 g of waste is generated/visitor/day compared with the Indian average of 350 g capita/day. Treks (stretch between places covered by walk) and trek

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stalls are major places where waste is generated. About 51% of the waste generated in trekking region will be produced in trek stalls with glass bottles, plastic, and metal contributing to non-biodegradable waste (Kunival et al. 2003). Piles of non-biodegradable waste in 19-kms dumped over decades with an annual traffic of 600,000 visitors were cleared with local support collecting 44 tonnes of solid waste in 14,000 bags. Along with non-degradable waste, tonnes of mule dung generated by about 500 mules which helped visitors were also collected. The recyclable object in waste was transported to Delhi for recycling. Studies by Ye and Qin (2008) and Wang (2018) revealed that wastes have negative impacts on the local environment as well as decrease the quality of wildlife habitat in China. Apostol and Mihai (2012) showed implications on animals and birds due to dysfunctions of traditional SWM system in rural areas of Romania. Taghipour et al. (2015) concluded that rural communities in Iran have more effect on natural areas. Impact of land dumping on terrestrial ecosystem is given in Fig. 12.21, and impact of ocean dumping on aquatic ecosystem is given in Fig. 12.22. Proximity to forest, changing waste characteristics makes it imperative that ignoring SWM in rural area would have its impact on wildlife either directly by entanglement/ingestion/poisoning wildlife or through pollution. Apart from mountains, ocean ecosystem is also suffering due to solid waste. Marine debris/litter (deliberately or accidentally anthropogenic waste released to sea that become afloat) and ocean dumping (deliberate disposal of wastes into sea) accumulate at the centre of gyres and coastlines. Beach litter or tidewrack (marine debris washed aground) are responsible for death of several marine animals due to suffocation as a result of entanglement or drowning. Dragging nets as well as other plastic products along sea beds are responsible for damage to coral reefs (Gregory 2009). About 80 percent of marine litter is plastic which originate mainly on land are dangerous forms of ocean pollution (Krushelnytska 2018). Anthropogenic marine debris originates from: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Abandoned, lost, discarded fishing gear, Discharge from storm water drains, Dumping of waste into sea, Fishing industry activities, Industrial outfalls, Littering of beaches and coastal recreation areas, Natural disasters, Natural storm-related events, Offshore mining and extraction, Rivers and floodwaters, Ship-breaking yards, Shipping and fishing activities, Tourism and recreational use of the coasts, Untreated municipal sewerage, and Wastes from dumpsites on the riverbanks or coast.

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Bioaccumulation

Hybridization/

Biomagnification

Interbreed

Obstrution to plant root

Land dumping

Decrease in soil fertility

Entanglement

Poisoning

Ingestion

Fig. 12.21 Adverse impact of land dumping on terrestrial ecosystem

Pollution is the major environmental reason of disease in the world today and is responsible for enormous economic losses, about nine million premature deaths per year, degradation of ecosystems as well as erosion of human capital. Ocean pollution is insufficiently recognized and inadequately controlled that poses serious threats to human health with magnitude and nature of these impacts are only beginning to be understood (Landrigan et al. 2020). Ocean pollution has manifold negative impacts on marine ecosystems aggravated by climate change. Petroleum-based pollutants decrease photosynthesis in marine microbes that generate oxygen. Increase in absorption of CO2 into the seas is linked to ocean acidification that impairs shellfish development, destroys coral reefs, enhances the toxicity of some pollutants, and dissolves calcium-containing microorganisms which are at the base of the marine food web. Plastic pollution affects marine mammals, fish, as well as seabirds. Chemicals in waste enter the tissues of marine organisms resulting in biomagnification and bioaccumulation (Box 12.2). Pollution

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521

Biomagnification

Poisoning

Bioaccumuation

Ocean dumping Oxygen depletion

Entanglement

Oceana acidification

Infection

Fig. 12.22 Adverse impact of ocean dumping on marine ecosystem

and sea surface warming are causing poleward migration of dangerous pathogens and global declines in fish stocks (Landrigan et al. 2020). As per Cole and Mwanza (1991), disposed plastic causes the fatality of about two million seabirds as well as nearly hundred thousand marine animals each year. Manufactured chemicals can enter the seafood chain, significantly resulting in human exposure and ecosystem effects. About one to three billion people who depend on seafood are exposed to marine pollutants such as methylmercury, PCBs, perfluorinated substances, dioxins, brominated flame retardants, as well as pesticides. Box 12.2 Biomagnification and Bioaccumulation Bioaccumulation is augmented in the concentration of a substance inside an organism. It takes place in a single organism over the span of its life, resulting in an elevated concentration in older individuals. Biomagnification is increased in the level of a substance as it moves higher in the food chain. Movement of

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chemicals from lower trophic levels to upper trophic levels with in a food web, leads to higher concentration in top predators. A concentration of chemical pollutants in fish depends on geographic origin, fish size, fish age, as well as species. Geographic origin is a very much important and fish that live as well as are caught close to major points of pollutant discharge usually contain high concentrations of POPs and other chemicals (Stegeman 1986). Predator fish species at the top of the food web normally accumulate greater concentrations of chemical pollutants compared to fish at lower trophic levels (Landrigan et al. 2020). Marine pollution, sea surface warming, and microorganisms introduced to the sea from land-based sources are moving into bays, estuaries, as well as regions of the sea they did not previously inhabit besides moving poleward (UN 2018). Microbial infections are causing to degradation of delicate marine environments like coral reefs (Rosenberg and Flakovitz 2004; Munday et al. 2010) contributing to shellfish mortality (Dubert et al. 2017; Austin 2012) and human ailments caused by marine microorganisms (Baker-Austin et al. 2013). Anthropogenic activities have led to a major decline of the world’s biological diversity and have accelerated due to human impacts (Lovejoy 1997). Reasons for threat to marine life include human consumption, overexploitation, dumping of waste, pollution, land reclamation, dredging, and global climate change (Beatley 1991; Irish and Norse 1996; Tickel 1997; Snelgrove 1999; Chandrappa et al. 2011). Deficiencies in the implementation/enforcement of international and regional environmental laws as well as the lack of infrastructure to manage solid waste combined with absence of awareness among stakeholders are major reasons for marine litter. As per UNEP (2005), more than 13,000 pieces/square kilometres are floating on ocean surface. Seas have been used for hundreds of years, as a place to dispose radioactive waste. Packaged LLW has been disposed at more than 50 sites in Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. First, a sea disposal was done in 1946. The last known sea disposal happened in 1982. Between 1946 and 1982, about 1.7 MCi of radioactive waste were disposed into sea packaged in typically in metal drums lined with concrete/bitumen matrix. Seafloor debris of 101,000 items/km2 was recorded in European waters and 690,000 items/km2 in Indonesia. Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution (GESAMP) of UN estimated 80 percent of marine debris comes from land-based activities (Sheavly 2005). More than 5 trillion plastic particles are found drifting at sea with smallest size being the most abundant (Eriksen et al. 2014). An estimated 4.8–12.7 million MT entered the ocean out of 275 million MT of plastic waste generated in 192 coastal nations in 2010 (Jambeck et al. 2015) with 10 rivers basins responsible for 90% of land-based leakages to the ocean (Lebreton et al. 2017; Schmidt et al. 2017). The level of contribution to plastic marine litter depends on: 1. Geography,

12.2 Impact on Flora and Fauna

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

523

Environment Infrastructure, Institutional capacity, Demographics, Economy.

Marine litter causes environmental, economic, health as well as aesthetic problems by damaging marine and coastal biological diversity. Marine litter is capable of transporting invasive species. Medical and sanitary waste can create health hazard and can injure people. Marine debris can move around, remain floating, and get entangled on seabed. As per an estimation by the USA Academy of Sciences in 1997, the marine litter worldwide is about 6.4 million tonnes per year, and as per other calculations, nearly 8 million pieces/day of marine litter enter oceans and seas out of which nearly 5 million pieces are thrown or lost from ships (UNEP 2005). Debris from sea-based sources includes fishing gear, waste from shipping and recreational boats. Debris from land-based activity includes almost everything that can be identified in solid waste. Apart from being litter problem, marine debris poses threat to wildlife as many marine animals as well as seabirds are killed/ injured because they get entangled by marine debris or since they ingest it. Plastic bags, fishing gear, and nets can damage propellers and rudders of boats/ships as well as block water intakes in recreational boats. Fishing nets left/lost in the sea referred as ghost nets can enmesh many marine faunae by restricting movement thereby causing laceration, starvation, and suffocation. Further plastic pellets used for plastics manufacturing enter marine environment due to accidental spillages. Every year container ships lose more than 10,000 containers in sea usually during storms adding to the waste already entered from activities on land (Podsada 2001). As per Kusui and Noda (2003), the mean concentrations of litter along beaches studied in Russia and Japan were 1344/100 m2 and 2144 g/100 m2 , respectively. The number of pieces of litter in Russia and Japan as per the studies was 20.7/100m2 and 341/100m2 , respectively, with plastic being the most abundant among the type of stranded litter accounting 40 to 80% of the waste. Further mean concentration of buried litter in Russia and Japan was 2.70 g/m2 and 9.03 g/m2 , respectively. The debris and litter problem are not just restricted to a few countries. Studies in Ligurian Sea during 1997 suggest a debris density was between 15 and 25 objects/ km2 during the year 2000. The debris density was between 3 and 1.5 objects/km2 (Aliani et al. 2003) during 1996. Floating marine debris (FMD) comprising of 86.9% plastic materials was reported by Thiel et al. (2003) in coastal waters off the Chilean coast during 2002 with highest densities in near waters of major port cities. Oceanic circulation patterns deposit considerable debris in Hawaiian Archipelago which has led to the formation of multiagency marine debris working group (Donohue 2003). Between 1960 and 2000, production of plastic resins worldwide increased by 25-fold, whereas recovery of plastic remained below 5% (Moore 2008). Between 1970 and 2003, it became the fastest-growing fraction of the US municipal waste stream, raising ninefold, thereby making 60 to 80% of marine litter plastic, reaching 90 to 95% in some areas (Moore 2008). As per the studies made by Cadée (2002),

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80% of floating plastic debris on a Dutch coast had pockmarks made by sea birds as these birds. Studies made by Bugoni et al. (2001) in Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil, on turtles revealed plastic bags in oesophagus/stomach contents. Three juvenile Brazilian sharp nose sharks caught in southeast Brazil had plastic debris around gill or mouth that had caused abrasion on the sharks’ tissues (Sazima et al. 2002). Versatility of plastic has led to an increase in their use, and they have occupied in all aspects of life. Durability and non-degradability of plastics have become the threat to the environment. As they are buoyant, it is dispersed over long distances. In 1975, about 135,400 tonnes of fishing gear made up of plastic, and 23,600 tonnes of artificial packaging material were dumped into sea by fishing fleet (Cawthorn 1989; DOC 1990). It was also reported that about 639,000 plastic containers are dumped by merchant ships each day around the world (Horsman 1982). Recreational fishing and boats dispose about 52% of all the solid waste discarded in the USA waters (UNESCO 1994). Plastic pellets are observed in non-industrial places like Rarotonga, Tonga, and Fiji (Gregory 1989). In New Zealand, beaches over 100,000 raw plastic granules/ sq.m were reported of coast in as back as 1989 (Gregory 1989). Discarding of plastic debris in ocean is an increasing problem. Plastic debris in South African beaches increased in five years apart (Ryan and Moloney 1990), and 50% of their original trash load was regained just after three months (Garrity and Levings 1993). As per Laist (1997), the plastic debris affects minimum of 267 species out of which 44% of seabird species, 86% of sea turtle species, as well as 43% of marine mammal species. Robards et al. (1995) observed increase in ingestion of plastics by seabirds during study period. As per Schrey and Vauk (1987), 13–29% of the observed death of gannets occurs due to entanglement at Helgoland, German Bight. Thousands of tonnes of pharmaceutical waste especially from high-income and middle-income nations are released into the environment each year, and measurable concentrations of many pharmaceuticals are found in urban wastewater (Kummerer 2009; Petrie et al. 2015). Pharmaceutical waste from pharmaceutical manufacturing industries, hospitals, as well as aquaculture contains anti-inflammatory agents, anti-epileptics, oestrogens, antibiotics, caffeine, as well as cancer chemotherapy agents that affects humans and other animals. Concentrations of the anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac have been reported to surpass predicted no-effect levels in some locations (WHO 2011; KotWasik et al. 2016). Concern is growing that these compounds could damage aquatic species through a series of toxicological mechanisms, including endocrine disruption. Majority of around 76 million tonnes biowastes from marine fishing activity is generated from wholesalers and seafood processing industry (Ching-Velasquez et al. 2020) are usually discarded. Extensive use of arsenic in poultry industry has been cause of arsenic found in water bodies which affects growth of and closely related to skin diseases as well as cancer (Adesiyan et al. 2018). Other biohazard from wet markets and slaughterhouses are the discharged antibiotics present in animal waste which are used for diseases control as well as animal growth (Maizatul et al. 2017). Discharging of antibiotics directly into rivers or leachate impacts the aquatic life, resulting in

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augmented distribution of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the environment (Maizatul et al. 2017).

12.3 Greenhouse Gas Generation and Climate Change GHGs from SWM are intimately linked to global climate change. The international literature on the connection between climate change and waste is mainly focused on MSW and there is limited reference to the impact of other waste streams like slaughterhouse waste, agriculture residue, etc. The SWM sector is becoming a main contributor to reducing GHG emissions. The classification of waste varies from one country to another and makes it difficult to distinguish separate waste streams for international comparison. All SWM components generate GHG (Fig. 12.23) which include storage, collection, transfer, transportation and waste processing. Mechanism of GHG contribution from solid waste is given. Recycling reduces GHG emissions as it lowers the energy demand for production. The major GHG emissions in waste sector are landfill, incineration and open burning of waste. Data uncertainties are expected to be high in waste sector. GHG from waste sector accounts for less than 4% of global GHG output with major fraction of emissions generated from landfill (Baumert et al, 2005; Chen and Lin 2008). The generation of GHG as well as subsequent climate change can affect the life on earth as well as lively hood of millions (Box 12.3).

Putrification

Trasportation

Combustion Green house gases

Fig. 12.23 Mechanism of GHG contribution from solid waste

Escape of anthropogenic GHGs from waste

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Box 12.3 Consequences of Climate Change The term climate change means noticeable change in the earth’s global or regional climate over a longer period of time. Climate change depends on the quantity of energy entering and leaving the earth. Destabilizing influences that can alter earth’s radiative equilibrium are called climate forcings. A forcing will trigger melting of snow/glaciers/polar ice. After centuries of civilization, it is now confirmed that the GHGs generated can be capable of destroying civilization if not combated in time. Accumulation of GHG leads to absorption of energy entering earth’s atmosphere leading to global warming. Global warming will not be uniform throughout the earth. As a consequence, there will be variation in wind movement and raining patterns. The change in climate is linked to change in seasons, flowering time in plant, ecological cycles beside increase in hydrometeorological disasters, and sea level. Variability in the sea surface temperature (SST) of the Bay of Biscay as well as adjacent regions during the period 1854–2010 was studied by Carlos and Robin and observed about 25% of the interannual variability during the last 150 years. New alien species arrivals in Aegean Sea since 1929 are studied by Pancucci-Papadopoulou et al. (2011) and found that alien introduction rate parallels the increase of marine temperatures. Climate change can affect population of phytoplankton on which other sea species depend. The global warming can trigger rise in population of vectors like mosquitoes and can disrupt health of humans/animals. The change in climate can affect agriculture due to absence of rain in sowing season and raining in harvest season. The agriculture will also get affected due to increase in pests. The effect on biodiversity is well documented. There will be alteration in demography of species thus affecting food chain. The hydrometeorological disasters like storms, cyclone, and floods can activate other disasters like landslides. Such sequence of disasters can affect regional as well as global economy which may ultimately lead to loss of livelihood in addition to unemployment. GHG emissions can be controlled by landfill CH4 recovery, as well as controlled aerobic composting as well as incineration for waste-to-energy. Currently, landfill gas is being used to fuel boilers to generate electricity, and to produce a substitute natural gas. Diverting biodegradable waste from landfills will benefit climate. Waste prevention, minimization, recovery, recycling, and reuse will also add to reduction

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of GHG emissions by decline in waste production, lower raw material consumption, decline in energy demand as well as fossil fuel. A secondary control on landfill CH4 emissions is by oxidation by aeration. Field studies have proved that oxidation rates can be more than 200 g/m2 /d in thick, compost-amended ‘biocovers’ (Bogner et al. 2005; Huber-Humer 2004). Lignin is a refractory as well as the cellulosic fractions decompose slowly. Therefore, at least 50% of the organic carbon landfilled will not be converted to biogas carbon. Landfill carbon storage makes landfilling a better alternative from a climate change perspective (Micales and Skog 1997; Pingoud et al. 1996; Pipatti and Savolainen 1996; Pipatti and Wihersaari 1998). Results from landfill CH4 emissions measurements show a range of about 0.1– 1.0 t CH4 /ha/d (Nozhevnikova et al. 1993; Oonk and Boom 1995; Borjesson 1996; Czepiel et al. 1996; Hovde et al. 1995; Mosher et al. 1999; Tregoures et al. 1999; Galle et al. 2001; Morris 2001a, b; Scharf et al. 2002). Worldwide CH4 emissions from landfills is about 500–800 MtCO2 -eq/year (US EPA 2006a, b; Monniet al. 2006; Bogner and Matthews 2003). The execution of an active landfill gas withdrawal system with vertical wells or horizontal collectors is the most important mitigation method to reduce emissions (Bogner et al. 2007). Incineration for energy production, production of refuse-derived fuel (RDF), and co-combustion in industry reduces the mass of waste and can reduce use of fossil fuel. Incineration has been widely used in many nations which have limited space for landfilling. Nearly 130 million tonnes of waste are combusted annually worldwide more than 600 plants in 35 nations (Themelis 2003). The growth in emissions from landfill has decreased during the past 20 years due to increase in landfill CH4 recovery and decrease in landfilling in the EU. The recovery and the use of landfill CH4 was first commercialized in 1975 and is being implemented at more than 1150 plants worldwide emission more than 105 MtCO2 -eq/ year (Willumsen 2003; Bogner and Matthews 2003). The ozone-depleting substances (ODS) can prevail for many years in waste and occur as minute quantities in landfill gas. Release of ODS from rigid foams during use is small (Kjeldsen and Jensen 2001; Kjeldsen and Scheutz 2003; Scheutz et al. 2003b), hence, most of the ODS is still present after the end of their useful life. Many of the ODS, which are also GHGs like carbon tetrachloride (CTC), have been phased out during execution of Montreal protocol. Many nations perform composting and anaerobic digestion of waste. CH4 as well as N2 O can be formed during composting. Denmark, Germany, Belgium as well as France have installed anaerobic waste digestion systems with biogas recovery for heating, as well as onsite electrical generation. GHG emissions in controlled biological treatment are minute when compared to uncontrolled GHG emissions from landfills without GHG recovery (e.g., Petersen et al. 1998; Hellebrand 1998; Vesterinen 1996; Beck-Friis 2001a, b; Detzel et al. 2003). On the other hand, WTE reduces GHG by an estimated one tonne of CO2 per tonne of waste combusted rather than landfilled. Burning of MSW in WTE facilities of the USA reduces GHG emissions by about 26 million tonnes of CO2 (Psomopoulos 2009a, 2009b).

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Aerobic composting emits CH4 as well as N2 O. The quantity of emission from compost varies depending on the waste and process. Closed systems, like enclosed maturation bays and housed windrows, emit lesser GHG emission. GHG emissions from anaerobic digestion are limited to fugitive emissions from leakages. After waste prevention, recycling will result in the highest climate benefit (ISWA 2009; Christensen et al. 2009a, b; US EPA, 2006a, b; Pimenteira et al. 2004; Chintan 2009). But still most of the consultants who take up solid waste management in third world under aegis of international funding agencies would often recommend landfills which were never operated in the countries and lack expertise in operating landfill. As a result, within short span, the landfill would be the source of many problems along with GHG emission.

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Willumsen HC (2003) Landfill gas plants: number and type worldwide. Proceedings of the Sardinia ’05. In: International Solid and Hazardous Waste Symposium, October 2005, published by CISA, University of Cagliari, Sardinia Wong MH, Wu SC, Deng WJ, Yu XZ, Luo Q, Leung AOW, Wong CSC, Luksemburg, WJ, Wong AS (2007) Export of toxic chemicals—a review of the case of uncontrolled electronic-waste recycling. Environ Pollut 149(2):131–140 Woodroffe R, Ginsberg J R (1999) Conserving the African wild dog Lycaon pictus. I. Diagnosing and treating causes of decline. Oryx 33:132–142 Wu JP, Luo XJ, Zhang Y, Luo Y, Chen SJ, Mai BX, Yang ZY (2008) Bioaccumulation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in wild aquatic species from an electronic waste (e-waste) recycling site in South China. Environ Internat 34(8):1109–1113 Ye C, Qin P (2008) Provision of residential solid waste management service in rural China. China and World Econ 16(5):118–128. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-124X.2008.00133.x Yirga G, De Iongh HH, Leirs H, Gebrihiwot K, Deckers J, Bauer H (2012) Adaptability of large carnivores to changing anthropogenic food sources: Diet change of spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) during Christian fasting period in northern Ethiopia. J Anim Ecol 81:1052–1055 Zanobetti A, Schwartz J, Gold D (2000) Are there sensitive subgroups for the effects of airborne particles? Environ Health Perspect 108:841–845 Zhang JH, Min H (2009) Eco-toxicity and metal contamination of paddy soil in an e-wastes recycling area. J Hazard Mater 165(1–3):744–750 Zhao GF, Wang ZJ, Zhou HD, Zhao Q (2009) Burdens of PBBs, PBDEs, and PCBs in tissues of the cancer patients in the e-waste disassembly sites in Zhejiang, China. Sci Total Environ 407(17):4831–4837

Chapter 13

Issues in Disaster Affected Area

Disasters are catastrophes that cause damage, loss of life, and property. Disasters cause serious disturbance to the functioning of a community that surpasses its capacity to cope using its own resources. It is a serious problem occurring over a long or short period of time and causes widespread environmental loss. Disasters can occur due to natural or anthropogenic activities (Table 13.1). SWM has been cited as a main weakness in the recovery phase of natural disasters. The disasters could be sudden onset of events (as in case of earthquake, fire, and flood, explosion in industry, and hurricane) or prolonged onset of events (such as civil conflict or drought). They are abrupt non-routine events and would affect social, ecological, and economic stability of the affected region. Disaster synonyms include “calamity”, “catastrophe”, “emergency”, and “crisis”. Disaster waste (DW) can impede rescuers as well as emergency services reaching survivors. It will pose a public health hazard and delay the social and economic revival of the affected area. Improper clean-up effort can prove potentially risky to environment and public health (Charlotte 2010). Disasters can generate huge quantities (Table 13.2) of waste such as construction and demolition debris, unconsolidated sediment, and hazardous chemicals, which can hinder emergency response and recovery efforts (Reinhart and McCreanor 1999; Brown et al. 2011). Types of waste generated during various disasters are given in Table 13.3. Waste from damaged or collapsed buildings can hinder the site access for emergency workers beside presenting health and safety hazard (Brown et al. 2011). Disposal of hazardous chemicals should be handled with care (Brown et al. 2011). Unconsolidated materials can cover large areas disrupting transport, water supply, and electricity services (Blong 1984; Villemure et al 2012; Wilson et al 2012, 2014). Some DW has led to respiratory, skin, and eye irritations (Brown et al. 2011; Horwell and Baxter 2006). Hence, disaster waste management (DWM) is a significant aspect of response and recovery activities (Brown et al. 2011, Hatcher et al. 2012 ).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6_13

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Table 13.1 Types of disasters with examples S. No.

Type of disaster

Example

1.

Natural

Avalanches, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, dust/sand storms, epidemic diseases, floods, famines, heat waves, hurricanes, lightning storms, landslides/mudslides, tornadoes, typhoons, volcanic eruptions, and wildfires

2.

Anthropogenic

Environmental disasters, accidents (industrial, bioterrorism, nuclear, radiological, transportation), fire, explosion, spreading chemical agents, dam failures, mass hysteria, assassinations, sabotage, and vandalism

Extraordinary investments by aid agencies in waste disposal and management during post-disaster activities are usually not accompanied by awareness-raising campaigns on civic responsibility, hygiene, and the benefits of waste recycling, thereby leading to failure of the intention. The collection of DW happens in two stages: (1) to clear debris those obstructs emergency areas and eliminate/mitigate the exposure to hazardous waste and (2) to clear the debris to facilitate reconstruction. Evidence from disasters shown in the post-DW dumping has affected crop growth, fishing, ecosystem and public health. Factors that have contributed to poor SWM endeavour in prior post-disaster initiatives are (1) absence of formalized SWM system, (2) non-integration of environmental standards into SWM, (3) clearing and processing of wastes are done on an ad-hoc manner, (4) overburdened pre-existing facilities usually does not have access to the proper machinery required to demolish/ manage large-scale debris, and (5) little technical experience with most international humanitarian agencies (UNDP and ISDR, NA). Considering the experience of relief aid agencies over the years the principles to tackle DW is to (1) avoid ad-hoc approach for DWM, (2) fix proper roles and responsibilities to waste handling agencies, (3) preselect waste disposal/storage locations, and (4) sort the waste at earlier stages. It seems that 90% of demolition waste can be recycled. Trees, vegetation, and other biodegradable waste can be shredded/composted for use as manure, metals can be used for reconstruction/recycling. Wood can be used as fuel or rebuilding/ repairing buildings, boats, platforms, etc. Concrete and stone can be ground into aggregate for construction of roads/embankment/breakwaters. More than 255 million people were affected every year due to natural disasters worldwide from1994 to 2003, claiming an average of 58,000 lives per year (GuhaSapir et al. 2004). Asia leads in terms of the disaster occurrence and the number of people affected. Asian population represents nearly about 1/3rd of the total landmass and 3/5th of the global population with population of China, India, and Bangladesh being affected the highest by natural disasters. Disasters caused damage of nearly US$67 billion per year in the last decade of the twentieth century. The economic cost connected with natural disasters has risen 14-fold since the 1950s (Guha-Sapir et al. 2004).

13 Issues in Disaster Affected Area

541

Table 13.2 Quantity of waste generated in some of the disasters Year

Disaster

Country

Quantity

Data source

2016

Tropical Cyclone Winston

Fiji

23,525 t

(Ministry of Environment (MoE), Government of Japan (GoJ) (2018))

2015

Nepal earthquake

Nepal

14 Mt

MoE, GoJ (2018)

2013

Super Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda)

Philippines

19 Mt

MoE, GoJ (2018) MoE, GoJ (2018)

2011

Thailand floods

Thailand

100,000 t

2011

Earthquake and tsunami in Japan

Japan

80 Mt to 200 Mt

2010

Haiti earthquake

Haiti

23 Mt to 60 Mt

Booth (2010)

2009

L’Aquila earthquake

Italy

1.5–3 million m3 of debris

Brown et al. (2010)

2008

Sichuan earthquake

China

20 Mt

Taylor (2008)

2005

Hurricane Katrina

USA

76 million m3

Luther (2008)

2004

Hurricanes Frances USA and Jeanne, Florida,

3 million m3

Solid Waste Authority (2004)

2004

Typhoon Tokage

Japan

44,780 t

UNEP (2005a, b)

2004

Indian Ocean tsunami

Thailand

0.8 Mt

Basnayake et al. (2006)

2004

Indian Ocean tsunami

Sri Lanka

0.5 Mt

Basnayake et al. (2006)

2004

Indian Ocean tsunami

Indonesia

10 million m3

Bjerregaard (2009)

2004

Indian Ocean tsunami

Maldives

290,000 m3 of demolition waste, 50,000 m3 of other waste

Shelter Centre et al. (NA)

2004

Hurricane Charley

USA

2 m3

MSW (2006)

2004

Sumatra–Andaman earthquake (Indonesia)

Indonesia

7 million-10 million m3

Ministry of Environment (MoE), Government of Japan (GoJ) (2018)

2001

Terror attack on Twin Tower, New York

USA

1.6 Mt of debris

George Tchobanoglous (2002)

1999

Kosovo Conflict

Kosovo

100,000 tonnes

DANIDA (2004)

1999

Earthquake at Marmara

Turkey

13 Mt

Baycan (2004)

1998

Central Florida Tornadoes

USA

0.9 million m3

Reinhart and McCreanor (1999)

1995

Great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake, Kobe,

Japan

15 Mt

Hirayama et al. (2009)

(continued)

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13 Issues in Disaster Affected Area

Table 13.2 (continued) Year

Disaster

Country

Quantity

Data source

1994

Northridge earthquake, California

USA

7 million cubic yards of disaster debris

USEPA (1995),

1994

Simi Valley earthquake, California

USA

75,000 t

SARA (1995)

1993

Southern California USA fire

64,000 t

GOES (2005)

1992

Hurricane Andrew, Florida

40 Mt of debris

George Tchobanoglous (2002)

1992

Metro-Dade County USA earthquake, Florida

43 million cubic yards of disaster debris in Metro-Dade County alone

USEPA (1995)

1992

Hurricane Iniki, Kauai, Hawai

USA

3.8 million m3 of disaster debris

USEPA (1995)

1989

Hurricane Hugo, Mecklenburg County

USA

1.5 million m3 of green USEPA (1995) waste

USA

The SWM of DW is unique in the fact that a reduction of waste at its source is not possible. Reusing and recycling of waste need to be considered with the respect different types of wastes such as organic waste generated during preparing foods at camps. Food wastes need to be collected as fast as possible and treated/disposed. In high density camps, the wastes need to be collected and transported away twice daily. Treatment options for organic waste include composting and anaerobic digestion. Plastic in the form of bottles, boxes, plastic bags may pileup if not reused or disposed. Plastic together with paper may litter the camps and choke drains if not properly handled. DW can be generated during the response and recovery phases after disaster. Public health can deteriorate due to spread of infection, toxicity and injury. The presence of DW impacts can cause road blockages. Road blockages due to Great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake in Japan during 1995 prevented access to people involved post-disaster operations (Kobayashi 1995). Similar situations reoccurred in the month of March 2011 when the Japan was affected by earthquake and Tsunami. Hurricane storm surges can shift industrial wastes away from their source location, thereby impacting on the wider community (USEPA 2008b, a) tornado debris in the USA was often twisted and, hence, difficult to separate as well as recycle (Reinhart and McCreanor 1999). It was observed during Haiti earthquake in 2010 that communities were not able to contribute to the clean-up effort due to the heaviness of the collapsed masonry structure (Booth 2010). The management of DW is more challenging than the waste generated during normal period. The main reasons are as follows:

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Domestic Waste

Hazardous waste

Industrial waste

Waste from ✓ relief supplies

✓

✓

✓

✓

End-of-Life Vehicles

Vegetation

Biomedical Waste

✓

✓

✓

Damaged household goods

Soil and Sediment

✓

✓

✓

C&D Waste

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Fire

✓

Earthquake/ land slide/ Avalanche

Ash and Charred Wood

War and Conflict

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Flood

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Hurricane

Table 13.3 Types of waste generated during various disasters

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Cyclone/ Tornado

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Tsunami

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Volcanic eruption

✓

Haphazard Disposal of Hazardous Waste

Drought

✓

✓

✓

✓

Industrial Accidents

(continued)

✓

Epidemic/ Pandemic Diseases

13 Issues in Disaster Affected Area 543

✓

✓

✓

✓

Unexploded ordnance

Military vehicles

Weapon contaminates

Animal Corpse

War and Conflict

Table 13.3 (continued)

✓

Earthquake/ land slide/ Avalanche

✓

Fire

✓

Flood

✓

Hurricane

✓

Cyclone/ Tornado

✓

Tsunami

✓

Volcanic eruption

Haphazard Disposal of Hazardous Waste

✓

Drought

Industrial Accidents

✓

Epidemic/ Pandemic Diseases

544 13 Issues in Disaster Affected Area

13 Issues in Disaster Affected Area

545

1. SWM is least prioritized in the developing countries (compared to poverty alleviation, food, clothing and shelter) with no resource is left for planning and acting during disasters, 2. SWM crew would have injured or expired during disaster, 3. Vehicles used for SWM would have damaged beyond repair, 4. The transportation network would have affected, 5. There would be confusion in the disaster struck area, 6. Organic matter and stagnant water can become vector breeding grounds during disaster, 7. Epidemic outbreak would demand high quality personal safety clothing and equipment, 8. Quantity of infectious waste and hazardous waste would have increased due to contamination, and 9. Disposal sites would have also damaged making it difficult to find new sites until the existing one is repaired. Depending on the nature and severity, disasters can create large quantities of debris and waste (Charlotte et al. 2011). The major contribution for the waste comes from collapsing of building. As per studies conducted in Japan by Hirayama et al. (2009, 2010), debris generated during disaster varies between 30 and 113 t/household per event. Public health risks can increase during disaster due to (1) contact with waste accumulated in disaster affected area, (2) vectors and rodents, and (3) post-disaster collapse of unstable structures. Environmental impacts due to DW include disturbance to eco system, change in species population, and loss of agricultural crops areas. Apart from natural disaster invention and application of science has resulted in technological disasters. The unplanned and unscientific development is also cause for many disasters. A temple collapsed in the Himalayan town of Joshimath in Uttarakhand state of India on 6 January 2023, evening beside other structures in the Joshimath town and Auli village developed cracks due to the soil shifting (NDTV 2023). Joshimath situated in the foothills of the Himalayas was built on the site of an ancient landslide that experienced a rapid growth in recent years. The area is covered with old landslide boulders, gneissic rocks, and loose soil. The rocks are highly weathered, have a low cohesive value, and have a tendency for high pore pressure when saturated with water. Seepage from streams uphill loosened the soil of Joshimath. The city has a low bearing capacity and affected by erosion brought on by streams which disappear underground and arise over ground downhill. Poorly maintained drainage system, wastewater from town flows through improper drains and the streams have been blocked by sludge due to 2013 Himalayan flash flood, facilitated the erosion in the region beside the Rishi Ganga flood disaster followed by incessant rainfall between August and October in 2021 (Singh 2023). As per Reinhart and McCreanor (1999), debris volumes due to single disaster will be equivalent of 5–15 times the yearly waste generation rates by the affected community. Disaster waste during emergency response and recovery is affected by

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13 Issues in Disaster Affected Area

blocking the roads, creating fire, spreading diseases, causing injuries. The nature of disaster can change the original characteristics of waste due to contamination by chemical/pathogens. The weight of waste can be altered due to dampening during storm/rain/flood. One disaster can lead to other disasters. Natural disaster can lead to industrial accidents. Blocking of river/streams during earthquake/storm/avalanche can cause flooding. Rapid deforestation has triggered disasters like floods and landslides in the past century killing people and destroying infrastructure, housing, and harvests. Small but returning disasters can have a great impact on the development of nations. Recurrent floods in Bangladesh accounted a yearly loss of 5% of the nation’s GDP (Guha-Sapir et al. 2004). The priority after a disaster or conflict will always be to meet the survival requirements of the affected population which includes the food, water, sanitation, shelter, and medical care. But, the DW quickly becomes a major concern, adding to problems. Disaster debris is often considered as the first sources of emergency energy and shelter as they provide fuel and building material. Disasters generate huge quantities of debris especially when the disasters take place in urban area. In the past, waste from disasters was buried or burned, which is no more acceptable to many communities as citizens do not want to expose themselves to air pollutants and do not want to contaminate drinking water and soil. Waste if unattended will start decaying and contaminate surface/groundwater as well as emit flammable LFG. Conversely waste during disasters contains noteworthy quantities of recyclable/recoverable building materials which can be directly used for recovery operations. Global climate change will increase the occurrence of extreme events, creating more floods and windstorms and associated waste. Population rise, urbanization, and the inability of populations to escape from natural disasters and environmental emergencies would further pose the challenge of DWM. Urbanization as it requires a huge quantity of refined natural resource like cement is made up of mined limestone, metals form ores, wood from forest. One tone of urban debris would have consumed twenty to hundred times natural resources which include ore, fuel, mineral, and wood. The rebuilding of disaster affected urban area means further consumption of natural resources which contributes to pollution and emission of GHG. The hurricane Mitch’s impact on Honduras had set back the nation’s development by 20 years (Guha-Sapir et al. 2004). Hence, the possible solution should be the maximum utilization of the waste by reuse and recycle.

13.1 Tsunami Tsunamis occur due to earthquakes, submarine landslides and volcanic eruptions. There are three destructive factors that occur during tsunamis: inundation, wave impact on structures, and erosion. Tsunami induced currents can lead to erosion of foundations as well as the collapse of bridges and seawalls. Drag forces and flotation

13.1 Tsunami

547

can move houses and overturn railroad cars. Damage is also caused from floating debris and becomes dangerous projectiles that crash into structures, break power lines, and initiate fires. Fires from damaged ships, ruptured coastal oil storage tanks as well as refineries can add to damage (GOES 2005). Over the last 110 years, 57 tsunamis occurred resulting in the death of more than 0.26 million people and affecting more than 2.9 million people. Figure 13.1 shows tsunami affected area in Andaman and Nicobar Island of India. Depending on nature and severity, disasters can create large quantities of debris and waste as identified by Srinivas and Nakagawa (2008) in post-tsunami which struck Sri Lanka in 2004. Tsunamis can cause extensive damage to infrastructure and spread debris over large areas. Debris is usually mixed with soils and other loose objects such as leaves, litter, and rags which makes waste difficult to handle and segregate. Debris volumes from a single event can be 5–15 times the annual waste generation rates of the affected community (Basnayake et al. 2006; Reinhart and McCreanor 1999). Earthquake and tsunami during 2011 resulted in the collapse of 18,000 houses, partial damage to about 140,000. Miyagi prefecture of Japan alone, about 146,000 cars was destroyed. The disaster was responsible for 500,000 t of rotting seafood in disabled port refrigeration facilities. Most tsunami waste in Indonesia was removed by government appointed contractors. The quantity of waste generated in Kota Banda Aceh, Indonesia, was about 8,500,000 m3 (UNDP and BRR, NA). The waste collected was dumped in temporary tsunami waste dumpsites at paddy fields, fishponds, and land near residential areas. Tsunami Waste Recovery Facilities (TWRFs) located in Aceh Barat and Kota Banda

Fig. 13.1 Tsunami affected area

548

13 Issues in Disaster Affected Area

Aceh were engaged in clearing residual tsunami waste, demolish damaged buildings as well as recover recyclable objects using rented heavy equipment. TWRFs hired labour under their cash for work programme.

13.2 Earthquake About 130 million inhabitants are affected on average every year to earthquakes (UNDP 2004). The quakes will typically occur due to tectonic plate movement, but other phenomena like reservoir-triggered seismicity (RTS) can also cause earthquake where in earthquakes are triggered by the physical processes that go with the impoundment of large reservoirs. During earthquakes usually most destruction is flanking to the epicentre, even though this is not always the case (USEPA 2008a, b).Earthquake in 2015 at Nepal destroyed 800,000 buildings generating about 14 Mt of waste which is equal to 11year waste generation in normal time which was deposited randomly on roadsides as well as public places (UNEP 2019). Earthquake in 1999 at Marmara Region, Turkey, resulted in about 13 Mt of waste. SWM undertaken by the local municipalities without clear authority as well as accountability resulted in confusion of responsibilities, duplication of efforts, inefficient resource management, and poor coordination (UNDP and ISDR, NA). Most earthquakes occur along the boundaries of the tectonic plates. About 80% of the world’s major earthquakes occur along a belt encircling the Pacific Ocean, and hence, this belt often refereed as ‘Ring of Fire’. Earthquakes can further result in slope instability resulting in landslides and soil liquefaction. Earthquakes can create large quantities of that can obstruct rescuers and emergency service providers. Earthquake debris usually contains construction materials, personal properties, and sediments. Normally, earthquake debris is too heavy for individuals to handle themselves (Booth 2010). The earthquake in Kobe of Japan in January 1995 destroyed more than 192,000 buildings along with roads and railways resulting in about 15,000,000m3 of waste. The major portion of the waste was used for land recovery in Osaka bay or removed to landfill. This resulted in the use of valuable waste landfill space and affected city’s SWM systems (Shelter centre et al., NA). On 11 March 2011, massive earthquake off the Pacific coast of Japan had a magnitude of Mw 9.0, was the strongest earthquake ever to hit Japan. The earthquake triggered a massive tsunami and also damaged the Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in the Fukushima region. The triple disaster resulted in death of about 20,000 people and damaged hundreds of thousands of buildings (129,225 fully collapsed; 254,204 half collapsed; and 69,177 partially damaged) were damaged displacing more than 400,000 people. The tsunami generated about 6.15 Mt of debris in the city of Ishinomaki, which was equivalent to 103 years of solid waste generation in that city in normal circumstances. The disaster generated 4.755 Mt of waste in

13.3 Haphazard Disposal of Hazardous Waste

549

Iwate prefecture, 15.691 Mt of waste in Miyagi prefecture, and 2.28 Mt of waste in Fukushima prefecture (UNEP 2012). Stimulated by the Northridge earthquake in 1994, C&D waste made up a large fraction of the disaster waste. After one year, city created more than 10,000 t/d of privately operated processing facility for C&D waste and recycled 56% of all the waste USEPA 2008a, b.

13.3 Haphazard Disposal of Hazardous Waste Haphazard waste disposal will not be usually reported by industries or countries. The major reasons for haphazard disposal are the absence of infrastructure and legislation. Some developing countries pass legislation but do not create infra structure to dispose waste. In the absence of any expertise and experience, governments look forward for entrepreneurs or funding agencies to take their responsibility by creating disposal facility and collecting waste. During the mid-1970s, the operator of the ABM-Wade site in Chester, Pennsylvania, USA, accepted hazardous wastes; filled discarded tank trailers with hazardous waste as well as parked them on the site; filled the earlier factory pipe/building tunnels with drums of hazardous waste; and underground storage tanks and trenches were filled with wastes (William 2001). During 1964–1972, the Velsicol Chemical Company had used landfill in Hardeman County, Tennessee, USA, for shallow burial of 300,000 55-gal drums of pesticide production residues (William 2001). From 1953 until December 1977, Salsbury laboratory located in the Iowa community of Charles City, USA, disposed of 6.4 million cubic feet of arsenical sludge and organic chemical wastes in the La Bounty Dump along the Cedar River (William 2001). In addition to intentional disposal of hazardous waste, other disasters can also create chemical spills due to damage of storage tanks. Plant shutdowns in a hurry during disasters can result in spills and damage to reactors and chemicals stored. Hurricanes Katrina and Rita were responsible for 166 reportable spill events (Ruckart et al. 2008). In the early 1950s, the Union Carbide Corporation began uranium mining and milling operations on the banks of the San Miguel River at Uravan, Colorado, USA. The mill generated more than 10Mt of uranium-vanadium ore; 10 Mt of tailings; millions of gallons of raffinate crystal residue, waste liquid raffinate, as well as other milling wastes containing radioactive materials, metals, and other inorganic contaminants (William 2001). In 1973, Life Sciences Products, a small company in Hopewell, Virginia, USA, near the James River discharge waste killing aerobes in the Hopewell sewage treatment plant. The employees of Life Sciences Products were poisoned by Kepone manufactured by the company. The site was contaminated killing aquatic organisms from the James River (William 2001).

550

13 Issues in Disaster Affected Area

The site in St. Louis Park, Minnesota, of the Republic Creosote Company from 1917 until 1972 operated by Reilly Tar & Chemical Corporation after 1972 resulted in extensive soil and groundwater contamination due to discharge of contaminated wastewater over land to wetlands adjoining to Minnehaha Creek (William 2001). Haphazard disposal of hazardous wastes can considered as technological disasters. 2,242 residents were displaced after dioxin was found in soil in Missouri, USA, in 1982. Release of Methyl Isocyanate gas in Bhopal resulted in severe disaster in India during 1984 (Banerjee 2001; E&DM 2003). During 1932–1968, an acetaldehyde manufacturing facility discharged mercuryladen wastes to a river nearby Minamata Bay in Japan that became concentrated in marine organisms resulting in death of 46 died and about 3000 were poisoned due to consumption of contaminated marine organisms (William 2001). Industrie Chemiche Meda SocietaAromia (ICMSA) near Seveso in Italy operated a plant producing 2,4,5-trichlorophenoland released “dioxin” to the atmosphere and drifted towards Milan resulting in slaughter of livestock, the evacuation of residents, and condemnation of fruit/vegetable crops (William 2001). 265,354 tonnes of dioxincontaminated material and soil from several sites in eastern Missouri was incinerated in 1996–97(E&DM 2003). From 1956 until 1972, the 17-acre site in a Riverside County, California ravine, USA, resulted in overflow of evaporation ponds (William 2001).

13.4 Flooding About two-thirds of all natural disasters in the past three decades are of hydrometeorological origins affecting the agricultural sector in rural areas. The impacts include sweeping away harvests, destruction of plantations due to winds or rainfall, or floods. The Yangtze River floods in 1998 which occurred due to loss of forest in river basin in China killed more than 3000 people and affected 230 million people (Guha-Sapir et al. 2004). Salado del Norte river flood of 2003 in Argentina resulted in dispersion of 60,000 tonnes of solid waste all over the city of Santa Fe (Bordón 2003). Floods occur when waterbodies overflow submerging land leading to destruction of structures/property, uproot trees, and displace sand/soil/sediment adding to the volume of DW (USEPA 2008a, b). Floods (Figs. 13.2, 13.3, 13.4 and 13.5) usually lead to mass displacement and require shelters and camps. This type of disaster leads to large volumes wastes, which is some time contaminated with hazardous substance making all the waste hazardous. Mould may be present and degradable material like food/timber/corpse may have begun to rot. Waste is usually mixed with soils and other loose objects such as leaves, litter, and rags makes waste difficult to handle and segregate. Flooding may bring soil and debris into affected areas, making access difficult even after the floodwater recedes. Soil in flooded area becomes soft and slurry, thereby making movement of people/vehicle difficult.

13.4 Flooding

Fig. 13.2 Flood in a semi-urban area

Fig. 13.3 Flood in an urban area

551

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13 Issues in Disaster Affected Area

Fig. 13.4 Small businesses in a street of a flood affected area

Fig. 13.5 Dead animal after flood

13.5 Hurricanes, Typhoons, Cyclones, Tornados

553

Unlike in earthquake where in waste will lie at same place, flood will carry the solid waste along with water flow. The dead animals and people will increase the chances of spreading disease worsening water and sanitation problems in the area. Choking of drainage system in the urban area would worsen the situation. It is highly impossible to collect the waste during flood and waste collection will never is first priority. The flood would carry floatable matter far away while the sinkable heavy objects would be dragged along the land on which the water flows. The effect of flood on SWM depends on the extent of flood. Due to rapid urbanization, settlements in developing world occur before storm water drains are built. Further the encroachments, street vendors, improper parking would result in impoundment even during small intensity of rain. Flood would increase the density of waste on the ground due to absorption of water by waste. Improper drainage would also result in impoundment of water in low-lying area along with waste it has picked. Flood would increase breeding of mosquitoes and other vectors. The infiltration of contaminants into ground water in such situation cannot be ruled out. As soon as flood recedes, people begin to discard of flooddamaged items. Materials from demolished and dismantled houses also add to debris. After the Midwest flood during 1993, officials in Lincoln County, Missouri, managed the flood debris through drop-off centres and county collection. To comply with the solid waste regulations and recycling goals, staff of the county and contractors segregated the debris. The state of Missouri set aside its recycling policy temporarily, which prohibited land filling of compostable materials. A hazardous waste contractor disposed of household hazardous waste (USEPA 1995). Large woody debris (LWD) affects the flow in the stream by accumulating in the stream along with other debris, thereby causing morphological changes to stream (Mike et al. 2009). Debris clearing and restoration of stream is therefore necessary to avoid further damage due to erosion and increase in flood. Flooding in October 2005, in the State of New Hampshire with Town of Alstead, received about 12 inches of rainfall in a 30-h period. After the disaster materials were segregated and trees were shredded into wood chips (USEPA 2008a, b).

13.5 Hurricanes, Typhoons, Cyclones, Tornados Hurricane is large-scale closed counterclockwise circulation system in the northern hemisphere and clockwise circulation system in the southern hemisphere in the atmosphere above the western Atlantic. They are characterized by strong winds and low barometric pressure with speed of 64 knots or more. Hurricanes are extremely disastrous and would carry waste along with revolving winds. As a result, there would be destruction along the pathway of the hurricane. Seminole County, Florida, aftermath of the 2004 hurricane season, processed more vegetative waste than the quantity processed over the past decade most of which was wood waste. The County used 360 t of the ground mulch and used as a road base for heavy machinery/vehicles as the ground was saturated (USEPA 2008a, b).

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13 Issues in Disaster Affected Area

Cyclone (sometimes referred as tropical cyclones) is a large-scale closed circulation system in the atmosphere above the Indian Ocean and South Pacific characterized by low barometric pressure and heavy rain, and winds of 64 knots or more. Cyclones form and intensify above warm water of the ocean surface due to warming of the atmosphere. Typhoon is a large-scale closed circulation system in the atmosphere above the western pacific with maximum wind speed of 64 knots or more. Strong winds of hurricanes, typhoons and cyclones are likely to shear and tear the roof off buildings followed by collapse of walls. Poorly constructed buildings can fold under roof too. Waste will be spread in open land, streets, playgrounds, and marketplaces over large areas. Ships and boats are thrown aground and destroyed. Ships will sink in harbours. Hurricanes produce high-velocity winds, make oceans to surge above high tide levels, and generate waves in inland waters. Hurricanes will result in debris made up of damaged buildings, construction materials, sediments, and green waste. Hurricane debris obstructs roads and disables communication systems as well as electrical power over wide areas. The majority of the damage and debris generation will occur in the area where the hurricane first hits land and can extend many kms inland. Hurricanes are characterized by powerful storm surge, winds, and rain leading to flooding along coast lines, and resulting waste include damaged automobiles, C&D materials, furniture, boats, beside other debris. Destruction due to winds extends many kms inland, resulting in fallen trees, flying waste, and displaced sediments (USEPA 2008a, b). A tornado is a violently rotating column of air that is in contact with earth and cloud. 51 tornadoes struck 18 Oklahoma counties on 3 May 1999, generating about 1.6 million cubic yards of waste (USEPA 2008a, b). Tornado may move with a velocity from 60 kmph to more than 450 kmph. They will have narrow path of impact with length of impact stretching up to several km. The high winds of a tornado can throw vehicles several metres away, debark trees and severely damage structures. Tornadoes cause damage on structures/infrastructure resulting in projectile materials, putting C&D materials, vegetative debris, automobiles, furniture, etc., into the waste stream (USEPA 2008a, b). Table gives a summary of storms sorted by continent from 1900 to 2011. Waste generated by Hurricane Katrina costed over USD 3.2 billion to clean-up. In 1989, hurricane Hugo resulted in landfall at Charleston, South Carolina, and continued inland, causing damage in the state and North Carolina. The hurricane generated 400,000 t of green waste in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, 322 km (200 miles) from Charleston. All the debris was ground up into mulch and given to local citizens and businesses for use (USEPA 1995). The Caribbean Island of Montserrat was distressed by Hurricane Hugo, with nearly 98% of the houses being damaged or destroyed (Guha-Sapir et al. 2004). Secondary impacts due to hurricanes/typhoons/cyclones/tornados include flooding, mudslides, building collapses, erosion, downed and falling of trees.

13.6 War and Conflict

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13.6 War and Conflict Armed conflict is intrinsically destructive with devastating consequences for natural resources, people’s health, critical ecosystems, livelihoods as well security (UNEP 2022). Conflicts involve explosives like rockets, missiles, and bombs damaging infrastructure/vehicles/housing. Damaged infrastructure is often burnt with most internal furnishings and fittings. This results in non-combustible material such as metal, concrete, bricks, and stones. Bridges, roadways, railway structures, etc., are often would have destroyed/damaged making the transportation of waste a difficult task. Waste collection vehicles would have damaged or might be used for armed forces. Unexploded ordnance may be present in waste and undetonated landmines may impede waste handling. Trace elements of chemical used during conflict may still be present in waste. Lethality of the chemicals employed varies from chemical to chemical (30 min for tabun to 2 years for mustard gas). Literature on waste quantity and quality due to war and conflict is not easily available. More than 290 t of depleted uranium projectiles were fired into Iraq, more than 600 oil wells were exploded producing up to 500,000 t of pollutants per day, and 25–50 million barrels released on land and sea during the 1991 Gulf War (Hassan 2008) resulting in large quantity of waste. Solid waste generated during civil unrest and terrorist act will have similar characteristics, but they usually occur for different reasons. The civil unrests will generate solid waste that includes burning structures/cars, broken glass, and destroyed buildings. Civil unrests are usually spontaneous, which can quickly get out of hand. It will start at one location and spreads out. Emergency responders often become targets during civil unrest. Terrorist act will involve explosions, fire, and chemical/biological attack. Terrorism will occur with little or no warning and usually targets airports, bus stand, railway station, government offices, popular landmarks, utilities, nuclear plants, etc. (GOES 2005). Studies suggest that about 40% of total corruption in global transactions (Andrew 2011) occur in arms trade. Such practice would only increase waste. The 10 largest military spenders during 2010 accounted for 75% of world military spending with accounting for 43%, and China in second place (Sam 2011). As on September 2010, out of the world’s declared stockpile of 71,194t only 44,131t of chemical agent is verifiably destroyed (OPCW, NA; Mike 2011). 300,000– 400,000 abandoned chemical weapons are remaining in China from Second World War (Mike 2011). After the Second World War, Britain had more than 2 Mt of phosphorus flares, mortars, munitions—artillery shells, incendiaries and cluster bombs which were dumped at Beaufort Dyke, a 30-mile trench between Scotland and Ireland. Dumping also included 14,000 t of phosgene1 -filled rockets (Independent 1995). Damage to chemical industrial sites during war causes fires beside releasing pollutants into the air, water and soil, creating human health as well as ecological hazards with wide variety of toxic chemicals from industrial infrastructure. Damage to the 1

A colourless poison gas can cause severe lung damage.

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13 Issues in Disaster Affected Area

Pancevo industrial complex that included a nitrogen processing plant, a refinery, a petrochemical plant, and a vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) in Serbia during bombings in 1999 resulted in the release of a of hazardous chemicals into environment (Vukmirovi´c et al. 2001). Bombing of Al-Mishraq sulphur mines as well as the sulphur processing complex near Mosul in northern Iraq which was one of the world’s largest producers of fertilizers and agrochemicals in 2003 and 2016 resulted in fires that released pollutants to environment (UNEP 2005a, b; UNEP 2007; UNEP and UNOCHA 2016). During the war between Lebanon and Israel in 2006, 10,000 to 15,000 t of oil was released into the Mediterranean Sea due to bombing of the El-Jiyeh power plant in Lebanon (Tolba and Saab 2008). In eastern Ukraine, power plants, coke plants, and chemical industries experienced operational disturbance due to armed conflict between 2014 and 2017 (UNEP 2022). 25–50 million barrels of oil were spilled on land beside 6–8 million barrels of oil into the Persian Gulf due to destruction of oil tankers and terminals (Tolba and Saab 2008). Breakdown of SWM systems is further compounded by waste from conflictrelated activities. About 4.5 kg of solid waste was generated per service member per day during the military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan which were disposed by burial of hazardous waste, disposing of it into sewers and freshwater sources, and disposal through burn pits (Neuhauser 2015; UNEP 2022). 16-year civil war in Lebanon resulted in burning of solid waste and open waste dumps (ELARD 2004). Several illegal dumps were created in and around urban areas in post-war Bosnia-Herzegovina on roadsides, into riverbeds/lakes, abandoned quarries/mines (Calo and Parise 2009). Destruction due to armed conflict results in building/munition debris, military vehicles, and unexploded ordnance/landmines. Explosives/weapons contain materials that contaminate explosion sites and leach into environment. Post-conflicts environmental monitoring has shown elevated levels of heavy metals that pose potential health risks (UNEP 2022). Abandoned/destroyed military vehicles, depleted uranium/toxic substances, unexploded ordnance, and land mines pose additional risks of environmental degradation for significant periods even after end of conflict and hamper reconstruction as well as clean-up efforts besides making land unusable for agriculture. Disruption of waste management/ treatment unfractured during armed conflict can lead to environmental degradation. During the 2008–2009 conflict in Gaza, more than 2600 buildings were impacted resulting in about 600,000 t of demolition debris (UNEP 2009, 2022), and city of Mosul was left with heavily damaged buildings resulting in more than 10 million cubic metres of demolition debris during the Iraq conflict Al-Lami et al. (2019). Rapid scoping of areas retaken from Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) in Iraq in 2017 revealed generation of about 11 Mt of demolition debris in the Mosul UNEP (2017). 90% of infrastructure was destroyed in heavy bombardments in Raqqa, Syria (Malsin 2017), and about 45 to 57% of Aleppo was damaged during the war between 2011 and 2017 (Lubin and Saleem 2019).

13.7 Wildfires

557

War in Ukraine accumulated more than 325,000 t of waste from the destroyed Russian equipment beside about 15.2 billion tons of waste due to the destruction of buildings in de-occupied territories of Kyiv, Chernihiv, and Sumy regions. The war is also responsible for destruction of more than 200,000 cars and trucks.

13.7 Wildfires Wildfire is an uncontrolled fire in wildlands resulting in huge damage, health problems, and deaths to humans and other species. Fire could be caused due to anthropogenic or natural causes. Every year fires burn nearly 500 Mha of open forests, woodland, tropical, and sub-tropical savannahs; 20–40 Mha of tropical forests; and 10–15 Mha of boreal and temperate forest. Forest fires will surge due to climate change. The strength and occurrence of El Nin˜o could be escalating due to climate change (Trenberth and Hoar 1996, 1997) and may result in more forest fires. Wildfires can generate large quantity of ash, mixed waste, and charred wood waste, mixed metals, fire-damaged cars, C&D materials, furniture, and baked soil. Loss of plants can lead to mud slides (USEPA 2008a, b). Figure 13.6 shows a wildfire, while Fig. 13.7 shows the destruction after the wildfire. Anthropogenic reasons for forest fire include shooting by poachers, cooking in forests, sparks from equipment, preparation of forest land for agriculture by intentional firing, discarded cigarettes, and power line arcs. In many places, fire is a tool for changing forests to agricultural lands (Stolle et al. 2003). The main natural reasons of wildfire are spontaneous combustion, volcanic eruption, lightning, sparks from coal seam fires and rock falls. The fires of 1997/1998 in Indonesia were because of fires lit to clear and prepare land and accidental fires in forest and peat swamps (Daniel and Louis 2007). The July heat wave in 2010 resulted in intense fires across Russia. Extended periods of minimal rainfall were the reason for forest fire in Southeast Asia during Ice Age (ADB 2001). The forest fires of 1997/1998 generated massive ecological damage and human suffering. The fires destructed South-east Asia—from Papua New Guinea to Malaysia with fires in Borneo, Sulawesi, Irian Jaya, Java, and Sumatra, but Indonesia burned the most. Moscow was covered with dark smog in August 2010 because of peat fires raging around the city. Cerro Grande wildfire in May 2000 at Los Alamos County, New Mexico, in 47,000 acres destroyed more than 400 commercial/residential structures generating 162,000 cubic yards of waste out of which about 95% was reused/ recycled (USEPA 2008a, b). Even though wastes are relatively low compared to other disasters, demolished houses contribute non-combustible debris. Devegetated slopes are vulnerable to mudslides/landslides leading to generation of additional waste. The smoke can hinder the established SWM system due to low visibility as well as sickness of SWM. Burned out cars, ash, and charred wood wastes also become part of waste during wildfire. In

558

Fig. 13.6 Wildfire

Fig. 13.7 Destruction after wildfire

13 Issues in Disaster Affected Area

13.8 Industrial Accidents

559

Malibu, California coastal fires destroyed 268 houses. The city chipped some trees for mulch and left other dead trees to help prevent erosion after which it gave property owners six weeks to eliminate their own debris, and then began removing rest of household debris. During wildfire, the city collected as much quantity of solid waste it would usually be collected in an entire year (USEPA 1995). The 7 February 2009 bushfires in Victoria, Australia, fuelled by severe drought conditions affected more than 430,000 ha of land (VBRRA 2009) comprising of ash, concrete rubble/bricks, metal, Vegetation, partially burnt dimensional timber/ fence posts, trees, household hazardous wastes, Vehicles, corpses, excess in-kind donations (clothing, bedding, household goods etc.), household recyclables (food packages, water bottles, etc.) from emergency relief centres as well as temporary villages. In total about 380,000 t waste was disposed in landfill (Brown et al. 2010).

13.8 Industrial Accidents Industrial accidents are generally localized and waste types depend on chemical released during the disaster. The quantum of the waste depends on size and type of industry. Fire accident in the industry (Fig. 13.8) with combustible materials like textile will generate less waste compared to car manufacturing facility. The industrial accident in chemical industry may generate waste across the city due to spread of poisonous gas killing humans and animals throughout the city. The industrial toxic fumes may also corrode metals around the industry and contaminate food and non-food items making it a waste. Some of the major industrial accidents in World include (Tiwari 2020): 1. Gas leak on the night of 2–3 December 1984, at the Union Carbide India Limited pesticide plant in Bhopal that killed more than 3500 people, 2. The explosion at the unit 4 of Chernobyl nuclear power plant, on 26 April 1986 located 100 km from Kiev in Ukraine (at that time part of the USSR), 3. Coal mine exploded near the town of Centralia on 25 March 1947, the Centralia No. 5 killing 111 people, 4. A runaway train hauling 72 tankers full of crude oil derailed on 6 July 2013, as it approached the centre of the town of Lac-Mégantic, Quebec killing 47 people and destroying many buildings and other infrastructure, 5. Series of explosions and fire on 23 October 1989, originating at the Phillips Petroleum Company’s Houston Chemical Complex facility near the Houston Ship Channel in Pasadena, Texas, USA, 6. 140,000 cubic yards of black slurry cascaded down the hill above Aberfan village of Wales on 21 October 1966 killed 144 people, most of them children sitting in their school classrooms,

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13 Issues in Disaster Affected Area

Fig. 13.8 Industrial fire

7. Collapse of an eight-story commercial building on 24 April 2013 in the Savar Upazila of Dhaka District, Bangladesh, killed at least 1132 people and injured more than 2500, 8. Industrial accident at on 10 July 1976 in a small chemical manufacturing plant about 20 Seveso, 20 km north of Milan in the Lombardy region of Italy, 9. The tragedy on 26 April 1942 in the Honkeiko coal mine, located near Benxi in the Liaoning province of China cost 1549 lives. The explosion at the unit 4 of Chernobyl nuclear power plant, on 26 April 1986 located 100 km from Kiev in Ukraine (at that time part of the USSR), lasted for 10 days, resulting in release of radioactive material from a nuclear reactor resulting in evacuation of more than 100,000 people from the affected region during 1986 and the relocation of 200,000 people from Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine after 1986 (IAEA 2006).

13.9 Landslide

561

Construction of the shelter between May and November 1986 for environmental containment of the damaged reactor, reduction of radiation levels on the site and the prevention of further release of radionuclides off the site degraded as a result of moisture induced corrosion during the two decades that have passed since the shelter was erected (IAEA 2006). The shelter was used to store (IAEA 2006): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

190–200 t fuel-containing material, 700 t of graphite, 38,000 m3 of building material (High-level radioactive waste (HLW)), 22,240 t of metal constructions (HLW), 300,000 m3 building material and dust (Low-level radioactive waste (LLW) and intermediate level radioactive waste (ILW)), 6. 5000 m3 of non-metal (LLW and ILW). In addition, three pioneer walls where contaminated soil, concrete, and containers are stored, which contain an estimated 1700–4900 m3 of HLW and up to 72,000 m3 of LLW and ILW. The cascade wall north of the shelter 600 m3 of HLW, 117 t of reactor core elements and 53,400 m3 of LLW and ILW was stored. The industrial site around the shelter, where concrete, gravel, sand, clay, and contaminated soil are stored, contains 7000 m3 of HLW and 286,000 m3 of LLW and ILW (IAEA 2006).

13.9 Landslide A landslide is the downward and outward movement of soil/rock material on slopes and is triggered due to rock falls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flow. Landslides can occur due to natural and artificial causes. One or more of the following conditions leads to land slide: (1) fine-grained permeable rock or sediment, (2) clay or shale layers subject to lubrication, (3) jointed rocks, (4) steep slope, and (5) large quantity of water. Mountain region is affected by avalanches and landslides. Landslides bring debris with them. The quantity of waste is proportion to magnitude of landslide and development at the site. Landslide at undeveloped site would not generate waste as the soil, rock, and vegetation would rearrange to form new landscape. Landslides can block valleys and stream channels resulting in water stagnate leading to upstream flooding. Failure of the blocked material leads to downstream flooding. Slope saturation by water is one of main cause of landslides. Climate change resulting in severe rainfall, snowmelt, and flooding could favour landslides. The quantities and characteristics of waste depend on the extent of the development and landslide. The land slide will also affect transportation of waste, and associated flood can increase density due to absorption of water. A garbage landslide occurs when garbage mounds collapse. Landslide of 2.7 × 106 m3 of waste materials spread 1000 m on 21 February 2005 in the Leuwigajah dumpsite, Bandung (Java, Indonesia), buried 71 houses, killed 143 people (Lavigne

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13 Issues in Disaster Affected Area

et al. 2014). 50 t of garbage slide at east Delhi’s Ghazipur landfill site swept three two-wheelers and a car and, killing two people beside injuring five on 1 September 2017 (Bhattacharya and Yadav 2017). On 20 October 2022, a large landslide occurred at a landfill site at Novyi Svet village, in Gatchinsky, Russia, with no one killed and injured (Petley 2022).

13.10 Avalanche Like landslide, avalanche would generate waste proportionate to the magnitude of a disaster and development. Avalanche is the sudden flow of snow down a slope. It occurs due to natural triggers (like load of new snow/rain) or artificial triggers (like explosion, dumping waste). Avalanche can destroy rail, road, settlement, forest, etc. Avalanche would transfer debris, wood, and structures on its way. The waste is usually visible after snow melts. Avalanches as well as landslides set off by heavy rain and snow destroyed more than 200 homes in Pakistan-administered Kashmir as well as parts of Afghanistan (Matta and Thaker 2020).

13.11 Drought Drought is caused by the combination of climate hazard and a societal vulnerability (Barlow et al. 2006). People who are affected by drought often utilize as much resource as possible leaving behind little waste. The food is consumed completely, and money is spent prudently. There would be less luxury and lavishness in the drought prone area. The disaster would also witness people moving out of the disasterprone area in search of livelihood. Lack of food and water for wild/domestic animals along with increase in disease in animals will generate animal corpse. Communities in the Horn of Africa2 were affected by fifth consecutive failed rainy season as on 2022 resulting in 9.5Million livestock deaths as on November 2022 (OCHA 2022). More than 60,000 livestock died in Namibia including 41,949 cattle, 10,377 sheep, 25,651 goats, 584 donkeys, 312 horses between October 2018 and July 2019 (OCHA 2019).

2

Name derives from the horn-shaped land formation of the easternmost point of the African continent. composed of Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia and Djibouti; broader definitions include parts or all of Kenya, Sudan, South Sudan, and Uganda.

13.14 Volcanoes

563

13.12 Pandemic/Epidemic Disease Pandemic/epidemic disease would generate more biomedical waste than any other disaster. It could accompany other disaster like earthquake, tsunami, and flood. The spread of pathogen by water, air, food, vector, or any other means would result in sickness among large number of people. Severe outbreaks of pathogenic avian influenza in birds resulted in human deaths. More than 250 million birds were killed or culled from 1997 to 2007, compared to 23 million in the last 40 years (Capua and Alexander 2004; Peiris et al. 2007; Rao et al. 2008). Waste management of pandemic/epidemic disease has been discussed in detail in Chap. 6.

13.13 Hailstorms Hailstorms or ice-storms are storms that generate hailstones which then fall on the ground. Ice storms will result in restricted access and power outages. Ice storms and severe snowstorms often cause problems that are like that of hurricanes resulting in significant damage to vegetation. Roads may be closed due to fallen trees and branches. Power will be disrupted which are not easily repairable. Utility poles and wires will be severely damaged and become debris. Continued cold weather may hinder restoration of utilities. Thunderstorm in 14 April 1999 in Sydney, Australia, was associated with large hailstones in size of grapefruit, melons, or cricket balls damaged 24,000 homes as well as 70,000 automobiles (EMA 2007). Winter storms generate large quantity of vegetative waste. Heavy snows as well as ice accumulations on tree branches result in breaking beside collapsing roof structures (USEPA 2008a, b). More than 350,000 cubic yards of waste was processed after severe snow and ice storm in October 1997, in the City of Lincoln, Nebraska (USEPA 2008a, b).

13.14 Volcanoes The waste of volcanoes comes from diverse sources including lava flows, lahars (mudflows with volcanic debris), blasts and projectiles, and ash fallout. Mortality is low compared to other disaster types. The most lethal volcano in Colombia of 1985 killed 21,800 people in Armero due to the movement of a lahar from the del Ruiz volcano (Guha-Sapir et al. 2004). Volcanoes create ash, molten rock, landslide debris, damaged structures, downed trees, mixed metals, charred wood waste, and C&D materials (USEPA 2008a, b).

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Volcanic eruption results in rock fall or landslides. The size of debris can vary from few loose rocks from the crater rim of the volcano to large-scale landslide. Debris during volcano can be cold or hot. Hot debris is formed due to of volcanic activity, and cold debris is formed due to unstable slope. Several volcanic hazards can occur during volcanic eruptions (Hayes 2021) such as • • • • • • • • • •

Deformation, Lava flow, Pyroclastic density currents, Shockwaves, Tephra airfall, Volcanic ballistic projectiles (including lava bombs), Volcanic debris flows, lahars, and associated floods, Volcanic earthquakes, Volcanic gas, and Volcanic tsunami.

Volcanic hazards can generate waste through different damage mechanisms (Blong 1984; Hayes 2021; Mogi 1958; Kilburn 1996) such as • • • • • • • •

• • • • • • • •

Chemical alteration, Corrosion, Deposition of mud, silt, and boulders, Deposition of pyroclastic density currents products, Deposition of tephra (fragmental material generated by a volcanic eruption) deposit, Dynamic pressure, Explosions generated from gas build-up or water interaction, Ground shaking, and associated co-seismic hazards (e.g., landslide, liquefaction (transformation of a granular material from a solid to a liquefied state as a consequence of increased pore-water pressure and reduced effective stress.) etc.), Heat and fire damage, Kinetic energy of projectiles, Lava emplacement (the process or state of setting something in place or being set in place), Lava ingress, Sediment deposition, Static load, Static loading, and Transportation of debris.

13.16 Waste Management

565

Volcanic ash will be most widely distributed. It threats health and causes disruption of infrastructure and aviation. Electricity networks are vulnerable as volcanic ash tends to adhere to line and insulators causing flashover. Heavy rain will wash ash precipitated on surfaces. Dry ash is not conductive, but mist or light rain will decrease resistivity of ash layer. Wet ash will also cause collapse of structure due to increase in load on structure. Ash deposited onto roads and car parks will be washed into storm drains during heavy rain and lead to flooding problems. It can enter wastewater treatment plants and damage the treatment. Ash will reduce grip on paved surfaces and clog filters as well as brake systems of automobiles engines (Thomsan et al. 2011). Erruption of Mt. Ruapehu in 1996 for two days deposited more than 7Mt of ash on central North Island (Claire 2006). About 1100 t/km2 /month of ash was estimated to be deposited around Mt. Sakurajima (Yano et al. 1985). The eruption of Cerro Negro in the year 1992 near the city of Leon, Nicaragua, distributed about 1.7 Mt of ash in an area more than 200 km2 (Claire 2006).

13.15 Windstorms Windstorms often cover very wide areas resulting in significant deaths, injuries, and economic loss. Storm surges can tip water, oil, and chemical tanks causing spills. Debris flows during rainstorms on areas burned due to forest fire have no particular initiation source (Cannon et al. 2008). Wastes during windstorms include building materials due to destruction of flood and wind-damage. This waste comprises bricks, wood, concrete, asphalt, rocks/gravel, etc. The fatal windstorm of the in Bangladesh in 1991 killed 138,866. In many cases, flooding due to heavy rains and wind surges will have a greater impact on life and property than the wind itself. On an average, each windstorm affected nearly 300,000 people even though a windstorm in China affected 100 million in 2002. Collapsing buildings and wind-strewn debris would account for many of the injuries during windstorms. Changing climate is increasing risk of storms and sea level rise. Managing HHW is a problem during debris cleanup. Degradable wastes from dead animals as well as spoiled food can quickly rot and the result in foul odours.

13.16 Waste Management People pay less attention to DW before a disaster occurs. Once disasters break out, inadequate management of DW causes adverse effects on living environments as well as sanitary conditions instantly and could impede disaster recovery which could

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cause serious damages for society (Ministry of Environment, Government of Japan 2018). Disaster wastes are characterized by 1. Waste due to damage caused to infrastructure, raw materials in industry, and goods in shipyard, airports, warehouse, and railway stations, 2. Quantity and quality of waste depends on development of disaster affected area. Disaster affected village would generate less contaminated waste compared to industrial area. The disaster in developing country may not be same as developed country as many of people would be living in makeshift poorly built housing in developing country. Within the country, waste is characterized by development of the area, 3. Quantity and quality depend on magnitude of disaster, 4. While disasters involving huge quantity water like flood/tsunami would result in more wet waste characterized by rotting and corroding material, 5. Disaster like war and terrorism would leave behind unexploded ammunition and shells used for ammunition, and 6. Ash and coal may accumulate due to disaster involving fire and would be necessary to quench the fire before handling waste. Though people have mitigated as well as adapted to disasters, the increasing severity of disasters especially due to climate change in recent years is more and more beyond their capacity. Damage by disasters is worsened by regional vulnerability, due to land use, poverty, poor preparation, and command systems for emergency. Disaster is hard to prevent, but damage by disasters can be attenuated and prevented by appropriate countermeasures which combine governance systems, physical barriers, social dissemination, as well as financial allocations. DW is highly functionalized building materials and the raise of the quantity of furniture in each household in many Asian as well as Pacific nations increases the risk of disasters quantitatively as well as qualitatively (Ministry of Environment, Government of Japan 2018). Good planning and management for response to disaster is necessary to reduce disruption (Gordon and Dion 2008). A good DWM needs • Development of plan ahead of disaster during city planning stage itself, • Procurement and maintenance of equipment and vehicles at regional level based on the type and frequency of past disasters, and • Database of alternative collection and storage sites. Figure 13.9 shows waste sorted before dispatching for recycling, and Case Study of DWM after Tropical Cyclone (TC) Winston, February 2016, is given in Box 13.1. Case study of use of DW for recovering energy is given Box 13.2.

13.16 Waste Management

567

Fig. 13.9 Waste sorted before despatching for recycling

The waste streams generated during disasters include almost all type of waste like excessive unwanted donations, vegetative matter, emergency relief food packaging, hazardous waste, construction and demolition debris, waste from industry, waste from predisaster disposal sites, food waste, displaced rock and soil, damaged vehicles and vessels, WEEE, human and animal corpses, and biomedical waste. DWM will be carried out in three phases (Kuramoto 1995; Baycan and Petersen 2002): (1) emergency response, (2) recovery, and (3) rebuild. The phases are not distinct, and the duration of each phase varies from location to location. Box 13.1 Case Study: Tropical Cyclone (TC) Winston, February 2016 (MoE, GoJ 2018) Category Five Tropical Cyclone Winston across Fiji from 20 to 21 February 2016 resulted in an estimated 23,525 t of waste urban centres alone. Flood waste included MSW, infectious waste and industrial waste. About 575 t of green waste was chipped after this disaster. Lautoka City Council of Fiji has allocated a separate site within a landfill for the reception of disaster wastes. Resource recovery is also promoted. 127 t of disaster waste was recovered from landfills by waste pickers, and about 1800 t of green waste was recovered for biofuel by residents.

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13 Issues in Disaster Affected Area

In terms of the waste management, the emergency stage involves the elimination of immediate threats to public health and safety (Reinhart and McCreanor 1999), and they usually last between a few days, and two weeks (Haas et al. 1977). Disaster would usually be associated with looting and rioting, slow road clearance, poor coordination, public health concerns, absence of people and resource, waste dumping by frustrated disaster victims, poor communication, slow home demolition, public complaints over inappropriate waste handling, and decomposition of food and other degradable material. Box 13.2 Case Study: Waste to energy Nearly half of the vegetative waste generated in Florida by Hurricanes Charley, Frances, and Jeanne in Polk County was used to produce electricity by Progress Energy. Ridge Generating Station of the company’s received around 800,000 cubic yards of waste. Green Energy Resources purchased 1 Mt of vegetative debris from Louisiana and Mississippi in September 2005, after Hurricane Katrina beside sending to UK to fulfil an annual contract. American Biorefining, in Nacogdoches retrieved millions of tons of shattered trees, branches, as well as other forest waste left behind by Hurricane Rita in 2005 at Texas beside transporting vegetative debris to various European countries to be used for power generation (USEPA 2008a, b).

13.16.1 Emergency Response In emergency response, debris is managed to facilitate preservation of life, provision of emergency services, removing immediate public health and safety hazards. Landfill fire at Tagarades (situated at south east of Thessaloniki, Greece) during the summer of 2006 was more difficult than in the case of surface fires as the landfill fire was underground and, consequently, its extinction (Nikolaou 2008). Equipment required during emergency response can be separated into three priorities: 1. Primary—needed for initial response: a. b. c. d. e.

Barrier tape or fencing, Batteries Camera, Chainsaws, Communication equipment (cell phones, satellite phones, and/or wireless handheld devices), f. Debris/earth moving equipment, g. Dump trucks and roll-off trucks,

13.16 Waste Management

h. i. j. k. l. m. n. o. p. q. r. s.

569

First aid box, Flags, small, and brightly coloured Flares, Flashlights, Food, Fuel Generators Handheld GPS units, Notebooks, PPEs, Road signs to direct debris hauler traffic, Vehicle repair equipment.

2. Secondary—needed for debris processing: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k.

Air monitoring equipment, Cranes with cables and magnets, Dumpsters and hoppers, Forklifts, Jack hammers, Jaw crushers and/or compactors Knuckle boom pickers (elevated work platforms), Pallets, Plastic sheeting, Sealable plastic drums, Wood grinders.

3. Tertiary—required for processing large volumes: a. Air curtain incinerators b. Conveyors, c. Vibrating screen sorters. During recovery, SWM is carried out as part of restoring lifeline restoration and building demolition. Case study of DWM after flood at Bangkok, Thailand in 2011, is given in Box 13.3. Lastly in rebuild stage, wastes generated from disaster are used in reconstruction. In this stage it is very essential that waste issues be identified through media, publications, and reconnaissance surveys. After identifying the issues, waste should be quantified, characterized, and mapped before deciding priority of events for waste handling. A communication plan is recommended during recovery, for communicating with the waste management team, and other stake holders (USEPA 2008a, b). Prioritized action should include identification of temporary storage or disposal sites, optimal use of available resources, clearing transportation pathways as well as disposing infectious waste on priority.

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Ownership of waste/material especially valuables like ornaments reusable soiled material in waste heap is an important issue. During this stage people often would proactively start picking valuable items on priority. Box 13.3 Case study of Flood at Bangkok, Thailand, 2011 (MoE, GoJ 2018) The total flood waste amount in Bangkok was estimated as 152,000 t, the highest amount being 20,000 t in Don Mueang district. Lautoka City Council recycled green waste from wood chipping for mulching in gardens, fuel for sugar mill, and as a component for composting.

13.16.2 Recovery The recovery phase can be affected by numerous issues including police investigations which are outside the control of waste management authority (Ekici et al., 2009). The rebuilding phase is a much longer process. As per Haas et al. (1977), the rebuilding phase duration could be as long as 10 years. Improper temporary storage location like playgrounds and rice fields are damaging to the environment as well as people’s livelihoods, as observed in 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami (Basnayake et al. 2006; Pilapitiya et al. 2006; UNDP 2006). During this stage, assessment and allocation of resources should happen in parallel to proper decontamination of site and disinfection of infected material. 2011 nuclear accident in Japan released 100–400 petabecquerels (PBq) of iodine131 and 7–20 PBq of caesium-137 into the atmosphere, and 10–20 PBq of iodine131 and 1–6 PBq of caesium-137 went directly into the North Pacific Ocean (IAEA 2015) and over 30,000,000 workers were involved in the decontamination operations covering more than 41,000 ha of farmland, 588,000 houses, and 10,000 ha of forest (Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan, NA; Yasutaka et al. 2013). The large-scale decontamination work after 2011 nuclear accident in Japan created about 16 Mm3 of contaminated soil and other materials. The construction of interim storage facilities around the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station began in 2015 and by October 2017, about 438,000 m3 of contaminated waste was transferred there. The volume of low-level radioactive waste was being reduced by incineration with the amount of stored sewage sludge reduced from 75,700 t in September 2013 to 5600 t in April 2017 (Fukushima Prefecture 2017).

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The overall waste removal after disasters is prolonged due to the huge quantity of waste and absence of Temporary Debris Management Site (TDMS) resulting in a delay of recovery and augmenting recovery cost. TDMS reduces transportation time from collection points to the next location besides facilitating the beginning of recovery and rebuilding (FEMA 2007).

13.16.3 Rebuild At this stage, temporary storage of waste shall be moved to proper disposal site and recover the useful material for maximum extent. Disaster debris can be used as aggregate for concrete, building block, and filling the low-lying area. Large pieces of the metal component can be used by metallurgical industries. Plastic/glass waste can be recycled/reused after cleaning. Case Study of SWM at Russell Market fire is given in Box 13.4. Box 13.4 Case Study of Solid waste management at Russell Market fire Russell market Fig. 13.10 of Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore) India, which hosts 480 shops caught fire on around 3.30 a.m., on 25 February 2012 lasted till 7 a.m. of destroying 174 shops in the 85-year-old structure. The fire was believed to have been caused due to electrical short circuit did not cause any loss of life. 28 fire tenders fought the fire. The fire destroyed vegetable, fruit, flowers, toys, and knick-knack stores in first as well as ground floor. The remains were mainly partially burnt furniture, and burnt vegetable/fruits/ flowers. The partially burnt furniture was recovered by owners for reuse whereas the damaged vegetable/fruit/flowers were cleared by vehicles spatially meant to clear waste. The shops were given compensation by government to partially fulfil the damage as a result the market regained its activity within couple of days.

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Fig. 13.10 Remains after a fire at Russell Market, Bangalore, India

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Fig. 13.11 Waste spread in disaster affected area

13.16.4 Waste Storage Temporary storage sites are commonly used in the DWM (Fig. 13.11). Temporary storage areas for recycling/processing are recognized as an important element by numerous authors (Johnston et al. 2009; USEPA 2008a, b) as they provide additional time for segregating, recycling, and disposing the waste. Choice on DWM need to consider factors such as materials in existing recycling markets, the logistics involved, space requirements and associated land use issues, economics of post-disaster recycling, and impact on environment. Projects which use disaster recycled materials may not achieve the same level of environmental and structural quality control as in peacetime (Charlotte et al. 2011). Inappropriate location of temporary storage sites will be potentially damaging to the environment and people’s livelihoods.

13.16.5 Waste Transportation Waste transportation during a disaster would depend on the type of the disaster. Some disaster (like earthquake, tsunami, flood, and landslide) would destroy/block transportation network. Other disaster (like draught and epidemics) would not damage the transportation system; but the challenge of handling waste not predicted/foreseen would affect economy and budget of government. Transportation option for DW is given in Table 13.4.

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Table 13.4 Suggested transportation option for disaster waste Waste stream

Transportation options

Domestic waste and waste from Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) camps and shelters

Wheelbarrow offload into skip for truck haulage

Debris

Wheelbarrow or excavator/ bulldozer offload into truck for haulage

Hazardous materials and substances

Put in proper drums, bins, or other container before loading onto trucks for haulage

Healthcare waste

Put in proper drums, bins or other container before loading onto trucks for haulage

Commercial and industrial waste

Excavator/bulldozer offload into truck for haulage

In post-conflict areas

Under controlled measures by specialists

Nuclear/radioactive waste

Under controlled measures by specialists

13.16.6 Waste Reuse/Recycle Many components of DW can be recycled. Examples of recycling DW include soil for landfill cover, aggregate for concrete and plant material for compost (Channell et al. 2009). The benefit of recycling disaster debris is evident in many past disaster clean-ups: Marmara earthquake (Baycan and Petersen 2002; Baycan 2004), Kosovo (DANIDA 2004), Northridge Earthquake, USA, 1994 (Gulledge 1995; USEPA 2008a, b), Lebanon (Jones 1996), Great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake (Kobayashi 1995), Indian Ocean Tsunami, Thailand, and Sri Lanka (Basnayake et al. 2005; UNDP 2006). The benefits include (1) reduction of landfill space used, (2) reduction of the quantity of raw material used in rebuild, (3) revenue from recycled debris, (4) reduction in transportation for raw materials and debris, (6) easy access for post disaster recovery activities, and (5) job creation. Barriers and opportunities to recycling of construction and demolition (C&D waste) are well documented (Kartam et al. 2004; Blengini 2009; Kofoworola and Gheewala 2009; Skinner 1995; Reinhart and McCreanor 1999). Potential barriers to C&D recycling after a disaster include the time to collect and manage the materials, the unavailability of specific processing equipment (Baycan and Petersen 2002); difficulty to physically separate the materials (Lauritzen 1998; Baycan 2004); the lack of willingness to use waste materials in rebuild (Lauritzen 1998); absence of disposal sites (Lauritzen 1998); expenses relative to other disposal methods (Solis et al. 1995); and non-availability of markets to use large quantities of material (Solis et al. 1995; Lauritzen 1998). Conversion of waste to energy has been proposed by Yepsen (2008) as a DW treatment option with limitations like high shipping costs and limited markets. Smallscale waste to energy conversion was done in the USA for waste generated during the hurricanes Katrina, Rita, Charley, Frances, and Jeanne (USEPA 2008a, b).

References

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13.16.7 Waste Disposal Once reuse, recycling, and opportunities are exhausted for waste remaining debris should be disposed properly and safely. Non-hazardous waste can be disposed in MSW landfill. Open burning in Air Curtain Incinerator (ACI) is more suitable for areas with sandy soils, shallow groundwater tables, and smoke which need to be kept to a minimum (USEPA 2008a, b). Problem of waste disposal can vary from disaster to disaster. Vehicles are often moved to great distances and may block roads. Leakage of gasoline, diesel, and other hazardous chemicals can change the properties of waste there by and converting non-hazardous waste into hazardous waste. Disposal of hazardous waste has been recognized as problematic in several disasters like Indian Ocean tsunami (Pilapitiya et al. 2006) and hurricane Katrina (Dubey et al. 2007). The removal and disposal of waste are complicated due to ownership and insurance issues there by slowing down clean-up as well as recovery efforts (Mike et al. 2005). Combustible debris is intentionally burned in many parts of the world to reduce its volume. Open burning has been used after the Indian Ocean Tsunami (Basnayake et al. 2006), as well as the Great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake (Irie 1995). However, disaster debris can inadvertently catch fire due to spontaneous combustion or lightning by threatening nearby structures and forests. Waste quantities exceed permanent disposal site capacities in numerous largescale disasters (Petersen 2006; USEPA 2008a, b). Temporary waste disposal sites were used as in the case of Marmara earthquake (Baycan 2004). The Madhya Pradesh government in India plans to dispose of 337 t of hazardous waste from the erstwhile Union Carbide pesticide factory premises that killed more than 5000 people in one of the worst industrial disasters that released methyl isocyanate in December 1984 (Tomar 2021). Land reclamation was used in numerous disaster responses. Some municipalities after Marmara earthquake used the debris as levelling fill for new housing developments as well as land protection against flooding. Following the Great Hanshin Awaji earthquake, earthquake debris was used on existing land reclamation programmes. Significant quantity of waste segregation was done to ensure the debris was sufficiently clean for coastal reclamation (Irie 1995; Lauritzen 1998). Waste disposal from disaster sites might take years to dispose while animal carcass must be disposed within hours. Disposal of animal carcass during disaster includes rendering, landfill, and on-farm burial.

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Villemure M, Wilson TM, Bristow D, Gallagher M, Giovinazzi S, Brown C (2012) Liquefaction ejecta clean-up in Christchurch during the 2010–2011 earthquake sequence, 2012 NZSEE Conference, 2012 (Christchurch, New Zealand) Vukmirovi´c ZB, Unkaševi´c M, Lazi´c L, Toši´c I (2001) Regional air pollution caused by a simultaneous destruction of major industrial sources in a war zone. The case of April Serbia in 1999. Atmospheric Environ 35(15):2773–2782 Wilson G, Wilson TM, Deligne NI, Cole JW (2014) Volcanic hazard impacts to critical infrastructure: a review. J Volcanol Geoth Res 286(2014):148–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores. 2014.08.030 Wilson TM, Stewart C, Sword-Daniels V, Leonard GS, Johnston DM, Cole JW, Wardman J, Wilson G, Barnard ST (2012) Volcanic ash impacts on critical infrastructure. Phys Chem Earth Parts A/B/C 45–46 5–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2011.06.006 William CB Jr (2001) Basic hazardous waste management, Third Edition, Lewis Publishers, Washington D C Yano E, Takeuchi A, Nishii S, Koizumi A, Poole A, Brown RC, Johnson NF, Evans PH, Yukiyama Y (1985) In vitro biological effects of volcanic ash from Mount Sakurajima. J Toxicol Environ Health 16:127–135 Yasutaka T, Iwasaki Y, Hashimoto S, Naito W, Ono K, Kishimoto A, Yoshida K, Murakami M, Kawaguchi I, Oka T (2013) Nakanishi J (2013) A GIS-based evaluation of the effect of decontamination on effective doses due to long-term external exposures in Fukushima. Chemosphere 93:1222–1229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.06.083 Yepsen R (2008) Generating biomass fuel from disaster debris. Biocycle 49:51

Chapter 14

Solid Waste and Livelihood

Livelihood is nothing but the activity to sustain day to day life. Globally, employment in waste management as well as recycling will persist to rise as recycling rates increase. Only 4 million workers are in formal employment out of the 19–24 million presently in the sector. The majority work as informal waste-pickers in the developing nations. Waste-pickers have been organized into cooperatives and established enterprises, Brazil, Colombia, and Sri Lanka, reveal how formalization can generate significant opportunities for social inclusion as well as improved working conditions, health, safety as well as earnings (ILO 2013). About 861,000 jobs were directly connected MSW and C&D waste management in USA in 2008. Due to increase in the waste stream as well as modest rise in the composting as well as recycling rate (from 33 to 41%), nearly 368,000 additional jobs are created by 2030, resulting in about 1,229,000 jobs associated with MSW and C&D waste management. It was estimated that the Green Economy Scenario with a 75% diversion rate generates 2,347,000 direct jobs in 2030. Numbers of people who depend on solid waste for livelihood vary according to different social, ecological, geographical, climatic contexts. It also depends on resources, social relationships, risks, uncertainties, changing lifestyle, market risk, epidemics, inflation, and competition. In low-income countries, people are forced to take informal jobs with no protection, low pay beside high-risk exposure. Informal recyclers often originate from social groups or belong to minorities. Examples of which include the Zabbaleen(Box 14.1) in Egypt, Basuriegos, Cartoneros, Traperos and Chatarreros in Colombia, Chamberos in Ecuador, Pepenadores, Catroneros and Buscabotes in Mexico, Buzos in Costa Rica and Cirujas in Argentina. In many countries, the informal sector provides a waste collection service where there is no formal waste collection system in place with prime economic motivation being income that can be made by recycling the collected waste. Packaging products are usually discarded with their functional characteristics virtually

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6_14

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unchanged, permitting to easy reuse and recycling, but only about 9.4% of plastics was recycled in the USA. Box 14.1 Zabbaleen The Zabbaleen (means “Garbage people” in Egyptian Arabic) has served as Cairo’s informal garbage collectors since around 70 to 80 years. Spread out in seven different settlements in the Greater Cairo Urban Region with largest settlement being Mokattam village, nicknamed as “Garbage City”. Migrants from the “Wahy” oases called Waheyya came to Cairo to collect the waste at the beginning of the last century, who received remunerations for the garbage collection. During 1930–40s, new migrants from Upper Egypt came to Cairo in order to breed pigs on waste and started waste collection by signing contracts with the Waheyya. Employment linked to SWM includes green jobs (Box 14.2). Box 14.2 Green Job Green jobs (Green-collar jobs, sustainability jobs, eco jobs, or environmental jobs) contribute to preserve or restore the environment by (ILO 2016). • • • • •

Improving energy and raw materials efficiency Limit GHG emissions Protect and restore ecosystems Reduce pollution/waste, Support adaptation to the effects of climate change.

UNEP (2008) defines green jobs as positions in agriculture, manufacturing, construction, installation, and maintenance, as well as scientific and technical, administrative, and service-related activities that contribute substantially to preserving or restoring environmental quality. Conventionally managing SWM is not meant for creating jobs and livelihood but early one to two percent urban settlement in many countries depends on solid waste for livelihood.The number is increasing due to creation of green jobs because of compulsion to move on to circular economy as most of the raw materials in nature has been exploited which is now present in waste stream/dumps. Figure 14.1 shows a series of jobs created by SWM activities. The population depending on solid waste includes waste pickers (rag pickers or scavengers), scrap dealers, garbage collectors, truck drivers, waste handlers, disassembles, recyclers, merchants of finished goods. In the absence of formal employment, people often turn to selling goods and services informally. Example of livelihood include • Agriculture labours,

14 Solid Waste and Livelihood

Pre-historic

Preindustrialition

•Agriculture, mining, pottery, metalsmith

•Teaching, religious worshiping, transportation, entertaining, construction activity, weaving, jewelry making, cooking, housekeeping, accounting, guarding, gardening, brewing, and health care

585

Industrial revolution

Post industrial revolution

•Engineering, manufacturing, management, power generanation, tourism, hospitality, legal services, economic services, politics

• Waste collection/disposal reuse/recycle/repair, telecommunication, software

Fig. 14.1 History of livelihood opportunities

• • • • • •

Fishing, Animal raring, Household servants, Street vendors, Street entertainers, Collection of forest produce.

Informal sector comprises individuals or enterprises which operate in violation laws or in competition with formal authorities. The violation of laws includes • Tax laws, – Income tax, – Commercial tax, – Property tax, • Labour laws, – – – –

Laws on workplace harassment, Laws relating to child labour, Laws with respect to workplace safety, Law with respect to minimum wages,

• Laws pertaining to registration of business, • Environmental laws Theoretically, people involved in the informal sector are engaged in punishable offences but in practice usually they are not punished. Roughly informal SWM

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14 Solid Waste and Livelihood

systems generate 10–40 times additional jobs compared to systems in an industrialized nation (Ramusch and Lange 2013). Formalization of these jobs means the owner and promoters have to spare resources towards compliance besides sparing part of profit as tax which is not an attractive option considering penal provision. Production and trade activities require raw materials, capital, know-how as well as access to a market. Raw materials, if ‘free’ or at a discounted price—offer the opportunities for income generation. Historically livelihood started with settlement that developed skills and often transferred it to next generation. The early livelihood that supported agriculture is mining, pottery and metal smiths. Later onwards, the job diversion included teaching, religious worshiping, transportation, entertaining, construction activity, weaving, and jewellery making. As and when some strong men with leadership quality started ruling small habitat some people started working for them that included cooking, housekeeping, accounting, guarding, gardening, brewing, and health care. We live in world of limited natural resources. As the availability of virgin natural resource reduced in its original place due to industrial revolution and urbanization, people turned to waste collection, repair, reuse and recycling what is economically attractive. The commercially unattractive waste streams are left behind which later become burden to government and environment. Waste picking is important income stream for many across the developing world (Holt and Littlewood 2016). Waste materials, scavenged or purchased at a reduced price, became a raw material for the creation of other sellable items. Imported waste materials from richer nations also enhanced livelihood and economy in third world. Schematic diagram of history of livelihood opportunities is shown in Fig. 14.1. Series of jobs created by SWM activity is shown in Fig. 14.2. Post-industrial revolution opened an array of job opportunities in SWM creating millions of jobs both in formal as well as informal sector. As the societies are facing resource crunch and shutting many mines and quarries people across that world is now chanting new mantra—circular economy which is opening new opportunities with respect to business and employment opportunities. Informal waste recycling is characterized by low risk, small-scale, low-cost, labour-intensive enterprises. Most of the low-income nations have huge informal sectors due to high number of poor as well as unemployed population (Akiko and Mitsuo 2011). Livelihoods in urban areas can be classified as formal as well as informal. According to Becker (2004), share of informal workers varies from 40 to 60% of urban employment in Asia. The developing nations are escalating the recovery of materials from solid waste due to the advantages of recycling. Under the circular economy scenario, global employment would grow by 0.1% by 2030 in comparison with a business-as-usual scenario which is equivalent to about 6 million more jobs in an economy that adopts certain doctrine of the circular economy, like recycling and the service economy. Ramusch and Lange (2013) estimate about 12.5–56 million people work in the informal SWM sector globally. Employment growth is led by growth in services and SWM, with around 50 and 45 million jobs, respectively (ILO 2018). Figure 14.3 shows some examples of livelihood that depend on SWM.

14 Solid Waste and Livelihood

587

Collectio •Waste collectors of local bodies, waste pickers, WEEE processors , vehicle drivers, vehicle servicing crew, etc. n Transpor •Vehicle drivers, vehicle servicing crew tation Waste •Whole sale and retails waste traders, WEEE trateers, ELV traders, online trading etc. trading

Repair

•Repair, resell etc.,

Recyclin •MSW recyclres, WEEE recyclers, ELV recyclers, etc. g Regulati •Enforcing, consultation, monitoring, etc. on

Disposal

Indirect jobs

•Landfill operation, Incineration, etc,

•Waste research, Informatoin technology activity, Foundry operation, selling recycled product, finance, vehicle/dustbin manufacturing, Infomation Eduction Communication (IEC) activity, Construction of fcility, machine manufacturing etc.

Induced •Jobs created due to the re-spending of workers income like food, clothing, entertainment, etc. jobs

Fig. 14.2 Series of jobs created by waste management activity

As per Ribeiro-Broomhead and Tangri (2021), repair generates more than 200 times as many jobs as incinerators/landfills, recycling creates more than 50 times as many jobs as incinerators/landfills and remanufacturing creates about 30 times as many jobs as incinerators/landfills. As per estimation by C40,1 waste management sector has the capability to create 2.9 million jobs in its 97 member cities. Due to raise in environmental awareness and the need to lessen the expected side effects of human activity, an ever-growing number of nations are upgrading their SWM systems and attracting emerging entrepreneurs who add value—turning waste into income, at the same time as creating jobs. Examples include buy-back centres, street cleaning services, recycling stores, goods made from recycled waste. It is difficult to gather statistics of people who depend on waste for livelihood in developing countries. Informal sector shows a high ability to react to threats/ challenges. It is characterized by a presence of economically marginalized workers with low wages, absence of access to institutional credits, and dignity of labour 1

The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group is a group of 97 cities. C40 started in October 2005 in which representatives from 18 megacities agreed on cooperatively reducing climate pollution and created the ‘C20’ which later increased the number of cities in the network to 40 and at the time of writing this book the number of cities stood 97.

588 Ragpickers

Scrap dealers

Waste collectors

Sweepers

Truck drivers

Waste handlers

Fig. 14.3 Livelihood and solid waste

14 Solid Waste and Livelihood

Rag or waste pickers can be observed in almost all part of the world. In some of the developing countries they form 0.25 to 0.50% of a city’s population.

Scrap dealers mostly buy waste from waste pickers, waste collectors and generaters. In some of the developing countries they form the 0.25 to 0.50% of city population. They pay to waste generators, collectors, and waste pickers. Waste collectors are mostly employees of the local body responsible for solid waste management. Sometimes local body can outsource the task to private agency or NGO. They are usually paid by waste generators.

Sweepers are mostly employees of the local body responsible for solid waste management. Some times local body can out source the task to private agency or NGO.

Truck drivers and other crews in truck are mostly employees of the local body responsible for managing solid waste. Sometimes the local body can outsource the task to private agency or NGO.

Waste handlers are employees of organisation responsible for treatment and disposal agencies. They may also recycle the waste.

14 Solid Waste and Livelihood Dis-assemblers

Recyclers

Itinerant waste buyers

Housekeeping staff

589 Manual disassemplers are specialised waste handlers who may also act as recycler. Their specialisation vary from disassembling WEEE to old/ damaged vehicles/machineries.

Recyclers include cobblers like the one shown in picture who is mending old footware. Other recylers include metallugical industries which melt scrap metal for manufacturing metal items and plastic industry which melt plastic for manufacturing new plastic articles. Itinerant waste buyers are people who moves from place to place buying (or bartering for) recyclable and reusable waste materials. Person in this picture is trying to barter old cloths for stainless steel utensils.

Housekeeping staff like the one shown in adjacent depend solely on housekeeping and waste handling in spite of poor hygienic work condition and low pay.

Fig. 14.3 (continued)

(Pornima and Lakshmi 2009). Privatizing waste dumps would restrain access for waste pickers (Rachel and Chasca 2003). China, India, and Brazil form largest countries where informal waste activities can be observed with approximately 6–12 million people in informal waste sector (Ramusch and Lange 2013). Informal economy in Austria and Germany makes an important contribution to the wealth of developing countries. Informal collectors and recyclers handle majority of WEEE. In several developing countries, most of the recycling work is done by informal network of “scrap collectors”. China has around 1.3 million formal waste workers and 2.5 million informal workers for waste collection apart from about 10 million people engaged in recycling, reuse, and remanufacturing (UNEP 2008). WEEE in China is mostly recycled by the informal sector. Such practices expose workers to

590

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health problems (Williams 2005). In Cairo, about 70,000 Zabbaleen—independent garbage pickers and recyclers are engaged in waste sector in addition to formal sector (UNEP 2008). The number of people employed in the USA in SWM, and remediation services raised from 0.22 million to 0.37 million between 1990 and 2012 (BLS 2012). Total number of recycling jobs in the USA was more than 1 million and half a million people are involved in materials collection activities in Brazil (170,000 in aluminium can recycling alone) (UNEP 2008). The recovery/recycling by waste pickers can save energy as recycling some metals requires 3–5% of the energy required to obtain the same from ores. Nearly 353,000 tons of waste was collected by 3000 waste collectors in a year in Mexico. Brazil has nearly 500 waste picker cooperatives with about 60,000 members. In Mumbai, India, more than 30,000 rag pickers have created more than 400 microenterprises for processing waste materials. Buenos Aires in Argentina has more than 40,000 rag pickers while Jakarta in Indonesia has approximately 37,000 waste pickers (Medina 2007a, b). Activities after disaster would also create employment opportunities during recovery stage. 1000–1500 people worked with 60 dump trucks as well as other heavy equipment for more than one year during tsunami rehabilitation in Kota Banda Aceh, Indonesia. Assuming the informal sector range of 0.5–2% of the urban population ranges (2.49–2.8 billion people), about 12.5–56 million people worldwide work in the informal sector in SWM (Singh 2022). Increasing solid waste generation has led to rise in resource consumption. Studies have suggested that the quantity of waste generated in urban areas is nearly twice that in rural areas (Hoornweg and BhadaTata 2012). There are about 4 million informal waste pickers in India today engaged in recycling activities. The contribution of informal activities is difficult to estimate as informal waste workers have no inherent reason, obligations, and capabilities to keep records (Ramusch and Lange 2013), while official statistics do not reflect the bigger picture of SWM in developing. Data on informal SWM performance is important in policymaking and enforcement but in many cases contribution of the informal workers are not recognized in SWM and may lose livelihoods in modernization processes leading to socio-economic problems. Apart from direct jobs SWM sector create indirect jobs (such as foundry operation and recycled product selling) as well as induced jobs (jobs created due to the respending of workers income like food, clothing, entertainment, etc.). For every direct job created in the waste sector, 1.3 ‘induced’ jobs as well as 1.2 ‘indirect’ jobs were created in the USA (Friends of Earth 2010a, b). Steel mills, plastics converters as well as iron and steel foundries account for 50% of all recycling industry jobs (UNEP, ILO, IOE, ITUC 2008). Over the years SWM has transformed itself and responsible for formal and informal business establishments. Urban mining applications are becoming popular (Bender and Bilotta 2019; Haas et al 2015). The mounting burdens of diverse waste materials due to the economic activities across the world has resulted in demand for

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the waste recycling services and spur the market growth in SWM sector. The global waste recycling services market size was USD 57.69 billion in 2021 and is likely to surpass about USD 88.01 billion by 2030 with a forecasted Cumulative Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 4.8%. In addition to existing traditional SWM business, an array of start-ups has ventured into arena of SWM business in following key activity. 1. Product Extraction—The start-up entrepreneurs will venture to make products such as biodiesel, biochar, soap, glycerine, pigment, construction material, vegetable powder, desiccated fruit/vegetable pieces, and fruit juice from waste. 2. Information Technology for Waste Management—The enterprisers will attempt to provide technical solutions by mobile application, robotics, artificial intelligence, Internet of things (IoT), Cloud computing, distributed ledger, data analytics, neural network etc. 3. Waste Disposal—The start-ups will establish infrastructure to dispose waste. 4. Waste Treatment—The start-ups will establish infrastructure to treat waste. 5. Waste Management Equipment—The start-up enterprises will start business with respect to manufacturing new waste management like smart bins, patented waste to product conversion machines, etc. 6. Advanced Recycling—The start-up enterprises will start business with respect to chemical recycling by breaking down the molecular structure of the material. 7. Technology for Recycling Spent Nuclear Fuel—A start-up organization is capable of recycling radioactive waste in the form of spent nuclear fuel. The start-up entrepreneurs have innovated an array of uses to up-cycling2 which include 1. Up-cycled food items that are made out of ingredients which otherwise not gone to human consumption. Examples include a. Vegetable powder from vegetables damaged during cultivation, harvesting, transportation and sale, b. Dehydrated vegetable/fruit pieces damaged during cultivation, harvesting, transportation and sale, c. Fruit juice from fruits that are discarded due to aesthetics, d. Baby carrots made by carving damaged carrots, e. Edible products from coffee cherry waste f. Edible snacks from oilcakes, g. Apple butter from bruised apple, h. Vegetable stocks from vegetable scrap i. Beer from waste bread, j. Animal food from food waste k. Food from spent grain generated in breweries, l. Food colour from damaged fruits and vegetables.

2

Creative reuse of by-product and waste product to new material of greater value.

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14 Solid Waste and Livelihood

2. 3. 4. 5.

New fabrics made out of old cloth, Waste to hydrogen, Use of coffee ground to cultivate mushroom, Use of used tennis balls to make rubber crumbs for construction of tens courts, horse arenas, and dog balls, Sneakers from coffee waste Sustainable packaging as well as sound-proof wall panels from waste textile, Fabric/sneakers from waste plastic bottles, Sustainable fashion (also called green fashion or green fashion), Incense sticks made from waste flower, Solar powered compactor Recycled ceramic tiles, Battery recycling, Food waste into biodegradable plastic, Cooking oil to fuel Chemical recycling of hard to recycle plastic by breaking down the molecular structure of the material.

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

The start-up working on Waste commerce (W-commerce) tries to provide Business to Business (B2B), Business to consumers (B2C), Consumer to Consumer (C2C), Business to Administration (B2A) also called Business to Government (B2G), Administration to Business (A2B) also called Government to Business (G2B). B2B involves e-commerce between two business entities like waste generated by a business establishment may look forward to identifying and sell business dealing with SWM. B2B start-up may also attempt to complete the loop of the menstrual hygiene products to generating recyclable from soiled pads. B2C model attempts to connect business to consumers like waste processor which may connect with consumer for his refurbished/recycled product. C2B involves a consumer selling to a business-like gated community which may choose to sell waste generated to a business establishment. C2C e-Commerce includes solution of buying and selling old items. B2A (or B2G) attempts to connect business services like waste collector/recycler/ disposer which may choose to connect with ULB/RLB to render its serves by participating in competitive bidding through e-tender or e-auction. In this w-commerce, ULB/RLB can sell compost/plastic/metal to business that offer best price. A2B (or A2B) attempts to connect government agencies with business to issue permits/ permissions. W-commerce if used properly can bring more transparency and curb corruption apart from enhancing income to ULB/RLB wherein compost is usually unsold, and metals/plastic is sold by employees of ULB/RLB. Adopting same platform/software can compare waste generated per capita beside revenue generated. The IoT describes physical objects with sensors, software as well as other technologies that connect as well as exchange data with other devices and systems. IoT is a misnomer as devices need to be connected to the public Internet; they can only be connected to a network and be individually addressable. Waste bins can be fitted with

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sensors that monitors filling and temperature which can be collected by vehicle as and when bin gets filled and reaches a preset temperature. SWM is costly, inefficient, besides causing traffic build-up if not properly planned and operated. Smart SWM solutions using IoT technology monitor full waste bins and send the data to pick-up the waste that enables generation of bill for the actual service provided. Ecopreneurs operating eco-enterprises (Box 14.3) whose main motive is to make profit with concern to environment are addressing concerns of waste generated from textile industry/consumers by eco-product-design and eco-fashion-design. Box 14.3 Ecopreneurs and Eco-Enterprise The concept of ecopreneurship also referred to as enviropreneurship, green entrepreneurship, environmental entrepreneurship, sustainable entrepreneurship, and ecological entrepreneurship aims to attain safe environment, society as well as economy (Joshua et al. 2020; Obisanya et al. 2016; McEwen 2013). Ecopreneurship consists of vital elements, namely eco-innovation, ecocommitment, eco-culture, as well as eco-enterprises. Eco-culture represents coexistence as well as mutual relationship among nature and mankind. Eco-innovation deals with the creation of new services, processes, products, or market opportunities that aim at decreasing the impact of those activities on the environment (Urbaniec 2015). Eco-commitment attempts to protect environment with business commitment. The quantity of clothes purchased per person in the EU rose by 40% from 1996 to 2012 (European Environmental Agency 2014) and up to 50% of clothes not been used for at least a year, and nearly 30% of the clothes manufactured are never sold every year. Further, about 50% of discarded cloths are not recycled and sent to landfill/incinerators. In 2020, EU citizens purchased about 6.6 Mt of clothing and footwear (Šajn 2022). The impact of textiles on the environment is felt in nonEU countries, where most of manufacturing takes place due to production of raw materials, spinning, weaving, and dyeing including pesticides for growing cotton. The European Commission has proposed a regulation on eco-design requirements in its vision for the textiles sector for 2030 in March 2022 for sustainable products as well as a directive on empowering consumers for the green transition. Such effort in Europe and other countries in days to come would create array of ecopreneurs operating eco-enterprises which creates green jobs including waste sector.

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14.1 Rag Pickers Traditionally, people resort to waste picking out of economic necessity. Some scavengers self-identified as freegans live only from food items discarded by supermarkets. In many cities a specialized waste picker referred to as binners or bottle collectors search solid waste only for recyclable bottles for redeeming for deposit value. Waste pickers are ‘semi-visible entities’ Rosario (2004). Waste pickers have been scratching waste since the cities in Europe and North America first started collecting waste in the 1880s (Melosi 1981). Urban lumber jacking is a particular type of scavenging where the focus is to salvage wood. Dumpster diving (term used in the USA) is known as skipping in the UK and is the practice of sifting through solid waste to find items which will be useful for scavengers. In Cairo, the waste pickers are called “Zabbaleen” and Paris has a large number of scavengers, known as les glaneurs. In Argentine informal waste recoverers are called cartoneros. In developing nations, waste picker groups are often marginalized populations living in severe poverty (Samson 2010), and some of the most vulnerable community in society (Medina 2007a, b, 2008). Majority of waste pickers work within the informal sector preventing them from the benefits as well as social advantages of formal jobs. They suffer from absence of market organization as well as legitimization (Morais et al. 2022). They usually operate according to their own rules/ systems (O’Neill 2019), and there are many instances of waste pickers being linked to organized crime (Perez 2019). Improper law enforcement, corruption, population, immigration, and inefficient collection of waste have resulted in creation of inner-city slums third world cities. Waste pickers (or rag pickers or junk men) have been living and scavenging urban waste materials as it is considered as common property. The quantity of waste picked and sorted by them varies from 20 to 50 kg/day depending on the age, health and availability of waste. Waste picking brings a source of income for some of the vulnerable communities (Moris et al. 2022). Waste pickers collect materials from streets, on landfills as well as open dumpsites are a sand play a significant role as they recover as well as recycle valuable materials from waste streams and decrease the large quantity of MSW ending up in open dumpsites and landfills where open burning often takes place (Moris et al. 2022). Figure 14.4 shows a colony of waste pickers. The waste pickers at many places include runaway children as well as unemployed labourers. Since waste picking does not need specific skills and strengths, it is easily adopted by children and females. Women bring children along with them for rag picking due to the advantages associated with increased labour. Scavenging solid waste plays key role in contributing to the urban food basket of poor households beside job creation in Kinshasa of Congo (Simatele and Etambakonga 2015). Scavengers occur in both developing and developed nations. Waste pickers can (re)appear during war as well as severe economic crises (Anne et al. 2006). During the United Nations-sanctioned trade restriction on Haiti, waste pickers mainly looked for

14.1 Rag Pickers

595

Fig. 14.4 Colony of waste pickers

prepackaged military meals as well as metal parts discarded by the US peacekeepers (Medina 1997). Some citizens survived by searching food as well as wood in waste when the Bosnian Serbs sieged Sarajevo (Anne et al. 2006). Number of waste pickers in different cities is given in Table 14.1. While 300 tons are recycled by the waste pickers in Dhaka of Bangladesh, about 700 waste pickers engage themselves in waste picking in Vietnam (APO 2007). Case study of waste pickers at Jam Chakro disposal site in Karachi is given in Box 14.4. Box 14.4 Case Study—Jam Chakro Disposal Site in Karachi Karachi city of Pakistan generated nearly 7000 tonnes of waste per day some of which is handled by the local authorities and rest by informal sector with an annual turnover of Rs. 1.2 billion, that provide employment to more than 55,000 families (URC 2001). Construction of the Jam Chakro waste disposal site in Karachi, Pakistan, started in the early 1990s in 500 acre site with natural depression, designed for 25 years of service. The waste dumping started in 1996. The project was part-funded by an $11 million loan from an international bank where waste is brought by local authority as well as privately owned trucks which dump waste according to a complex system of plots rented by waste pickers (Rouse 2016). The person designated himself as an informal landlord—vadera lets plots of the landfill site to individual waste pickers who then pay truck drivers dump waste on their particular plot. By the time waste reaches Jam Chakro dump site, organic matter and highly soiled recyclables which is sometimes mixed

596

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Table 14.1 Number of waste pickers in different cities Sl. No.

City

Number of waste pickers

Source

1

Bogota, Colombia

30,000 to 50,000

Hardoy et al. (1992)

2

Ahmedabad, India

30,000

3

Delhi, India

100,000

Kaul (2003)

4

Pune, India

6000

Chikarmane (2001)

5

Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore)

35,000

6

Mumbai (formerly Bombay)

25,000

7

Karachi, Pakistan

20,000

Ali et al. (1993)

8

Metropolitan Region (MR) of São Paulo, Brazil

34,431

Bouvier and Dias (2021)

9

MR of Belo Horizonte

9824

Bouvier and Dias (2021)

10

MR Porto Alegre

9426

Bouvier and Dias (2021)

11

MR of Curitiba

9150

Bouvier and Dias (2021)

12

MR of Rio de Janeiro

9116

Bouvier and Dias (2021)

13

MR of Grande Vitória

2054

Bouvier and Dias (2021)

14

Greater Buenos Aires, Argentina

40,000

Medina (2000)

15

Greater Buenos Aires, Argentina

100,000

Reynals (2002)

with excreta/abattoir/clinical waste is spread out for a few days to dry. Later the dried waste is ignited to for a further 2–3 days that leaves non-combustible for easy retrieval. In 2002, approximately 1500 men, women, and children were working/living at the disposal site which grew to as many as 3000, in 350 houses (Rouse 2016). The waste pickers greatly reduce recycling cost. But, on the other hand, they usually litter around and may spread infection. Waste pickers frequently face verbal and physical abuse, false accusation, and imprisonment. They are regularly exposed to viral infections, respiratory disorders, skin infections as well as injury. Some children help their parents in segregation of waste at home, others would accompany during waste picking. Many homeless orphans who cannot take up other jobs and those who have left small jobs due to workplace violence easily take up waste picking as profession. Rag picking normally prevails in large urban body rather than rural area due to potential for waste to pick and often form slums.

14.2 Scrap Dealers

597

Key drivers of waste scavenging are poverty (71.1%) and unemployment (64.4%) (Nambuli et al. 2021). 80% of the waste pickers, scavenge mainly for metals (Nambuli et al. 2021). On-site scavenging obstructs landfill operations in many developing nations. In Accra, Ghana, rag pickers sorted through waste before and immediately after unloading. They also often prevented the operation of compactor (Lars and Gabriela 1999). In some places, no new waste pickers are allowed by established pickers and sometimes waste pickers also have to pay bribe to government officials or local politicians who control the area. Waste picking is also an option for unemployed people who migrate to urban as they will not have any qualification, reference, and recommendations to join government, multi-national, or local companies. The waste pickers walk in the streets of urban area collecting waste that can be reused. In many instances, the income earned will be more than that of wages in rural area. Even though waste pickers work independently formal networking among waste pickers gaining popularity (Box 14.5). Box 14.5 Networking Among Waste Pickers Networking and associating formally among waste pickers are attaining momentum across the World. Waste pickers have set up cooperatives and other social and solidarity economy organizations (SSEOs) across the world. The first cooperatives of collectors of recyclables (catadores in Portuguese) in Brazil started in late 1980s. In 2013, representatives from waste pickers’ organizations participated in the International Labour Conference (ILC) for the first time. The Global Alliance of Waste Pickers is a networking process supported by (Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing (WIEGO)), among thousands of waste picker organizations in more than 28 countries. 114 waste picking organizations were listed in their Waste pickers Around the World (WAW) database representing 3,934,136 members. The Global Alliance of Waste Pickers is a networking process supported by Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing (WIEGO) among thousands of waste picker organizations in more than 28 countries. 114 waste picking organizations were listed in their Waste pickers Around the World(WAW) data base representing 3,934,136 members as on 28 September 2022.

14.2 Scrap Dealers Scrap dealers buy and sell scrap from household, commercial establishment, and industries. Jurisdiction of scrap dealers varies from street level to international. Scrap dealing can happen online or offline. A typical scrap shop in India is shown in Fig. 14.5. Scrap business is still in unorganized sector in many developing nations. Figure 14.6 shows livelihood pyramid with respect to SWM in Pune, India (based

598

14 Solid Waste and Livelihood

Fig. 14.5 Scrap shop

on data presented in Poornima and Lakshmi (2009)). The average waste buyer in Bombay (now Mumbai), India, traded 39 tonnes of recyclables every month as against 382 tonnes in case of wholesaler who buy material from buyer (Pieter et al. 1996).

14.3 Waste Collectors Waste collectors are those who are hired by an authority of an agency to collect waste from definite source like hospital, residences, offices, or commercial/industrial establishments. Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore), India, which has a population of 13.09 million generates about 5200 t/d of solid waste. It has 18,500 primary collectors (for door-todoor collection), 4646 auto tipper drivers, 593 compactor truck drivers (for secondary collection assisted by one more person in each truck), and 14,300 sweepers. The city has four MSW facilities employing 50–100 persons in each plant.

14.4 Sweepers

599

Fig. 14.6 Livelihood pyramid with respect to SWM in Pune, India (based on data presented by Poornima and Lakshmi (2009))

14.4 Sweepers Sweeping is one of key functions of ULB to clean waste thrown by people, dust and leaves shed by trees. A manual sweeper can usually sweep 500 m/d, and any additional responsibility to clean extra stretch would result in inefficiency. Street sweeping by sweeping machines is becoming popular, but many governments still prefer manual labour to create jobs. As per APO (2007), number of sweepers per 1000 people in India is • 1.30–3.80 for cities with population above 10 million, • 1.57–2.11 for cities with population between 2 and 10 million, and • 0.15–3.51 for cities with population between 1 and 2 million. This means roughly 0.1–0.3% urban populations in the developing world would make living by sweeping in urban population.

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14 Solid Waste and Livelihood

Table 14.2 Number of trucks used for hauling MSW in selected cities City/country

Population (in millions)

Number of vehicles Reference used for hauling MSW

New York, USA

20.0

Nairobi, Kenya

2.0

66

Rotich et al. (2006)

Mombasa, Kenya

0.7

34

Rotich et al. (2006)

5550

Kisumu, Kenya

0.5

28

Rotich et al. (2006)

Nakuru, Kenya

0.3

25

Rotich et al. (2006)

Eldoret, Kenya

0.2

28

Rotich et al. (2006)

Chennai, India

6.0

661

Esakku et al. (2007)

Pudong, China

2.8

200

Zhu et al. (2009)

10.0

370

APO (2007)

Dhaka, Bangladesh Khon Kaen, Thailand Bengaluru, India

1.3 130.88

27

APO (2007)

4646 auto tippers, 593 compactors and 27 mechanical sweepers

BBMP (2020)

Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (Bengaluru city Corporation) employed 18,500 Powra Karmikas (waste collectors) to serve 130.88 million citizens of Bengaluru (BBMP 2020)

14.5 Truck Drivers Number of truck drivers depends on the quantity of waste generated who are employed for hauling MSW, hazardous waste, WEEE, biomedical waste and recyclables. They are part of the system in both the developed and developing world. Table 14.2 gives the number of trucks used for hauling MSW in selected cities. Each truck will have driver and usually accompanied by another staff.

14.6 Waste Handlers Waste handlers are people, who are employed (by municipalities and private agencies) or self-employed for collection treatment and disposal of waste. Their number depends on the use of mechanical equipment. The developed countries use sophisticated collection vehicles and systematic segregation/treatment facilities (Fig. 14.7) and, hence, require lesser number of people for handling waste. Waste handling has a potential of 1.8 jobs/10,000 TPY of waste handled, landfilling by itself provides 1–2.8 job/10,000 TPY that include jobs in collecting and transporting waste to landfill sites. While job creation potential of waste incineration is 1.7 jobs/10,000 TPY, the use of composting generates an average of 6.6 jobs/ 10,000 TPY (Ribeiro-Broomhead and Tangri 2021). In most developing nations MSW service involves labour-intensive techniques. Waste workers number range

14.6 Waste Handlers

601

Fig. 14.7 Waste handlers

from around 5000 per million residents (in some Central Asian cities) and 1000 per million residents (in some Latin American cities) (Cointreau-Levine 1994; Cointreau 1984; Wunsch 1991). In Kingston, Jamaica, there were 14 solid waste workers for every 10,000 people (Kiswani 2002). In the developing nations, an average collection worker will lift and load 1–3 tonnes of solid waste per day whereas in developed nations an average collection worker will lift and load two to three times this quantity, as the loading process is eased by improved designed equipment (Cointreau-Levine 1994). The job creation data in USA reveals that waste disposal creates 0.1 job per 1000 tons. The Green Economy Scenario with 75% diversion rate creates 2,347,000 total direct jobs—more than 1.1 million more jobs than in the 2030 Base Case, and nearly 1.5 million more jobs than in 2008. A total of 2.3 million jobs: roughly twice as many jobs as the projected 2030 Base Case Scenario, and around 2.7 times as many jobs as present in 2008 (James and Christi 2011).

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14 Solid Waste and Livelihood

14.7 Manual Waste Dis-assemblers Manual dis-assemblers are those employed in waste processing units like WEEE treatment facilities, ship breaking industry, old machine dis-assemblers, etc., where in the people dis-assemble useful components from waste machines/equipments. Out of many informal e-waste processing locations Guiyu and Taizhou are the prominent ones in China. With a population of 150,000, Guiyu has nearly 300 companies as well as 3000 workshops engaged in WEE recycling work (Xing et al. 2009). 460,000 jobs are supported by scrap recycling industry in the USA. Ship breaking and recycling industry (SBRI) in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan account for 70 to 80% of the international SBRI. Each country employs from 8000 to 22,000 in the ship recycling yards and about 200,000 in the shops, supply chain, and rerolling mills (Maria et al. 2010). World’s largest ship recycling operation in the Alang-Sosiya ship recycling yards responsible for 47% of all ships recycled worldwide and employs 60,000 people (Singh 2021).

14.8 Waste Recyclers Recyclers are people engaged in recycling the waste like bottles and cartoon boxes through systematic or informal setup. Waste can be categorized as non-recyclable or recyclable as shown in Fig. 14.7. The recyclers collect recyclable waste objects from scavengers and factories and sell it to recycling industries after segregating it to paper, metal, and plastic. Some larger recycling operators deposit money with small waste buyers to enable them to have funds to buy waste from the waste pickers. Repair sector, it can generate average of 404 jobs/10,000 tonnes per year (TPY), semi-mechanized recycling can create an average of 321 jobs/10,000 TPY, mechanized recycling can create an average of 17 jobs/10,000 TPY and job opportunities with remanufacturing is estimated to be an average of 51 jobs/10,000 TPY (Ribeiro-Broomhead and Tangri 2021). SWM in Australia is carried out by government enterprises and private firms. The local government is usually responsible for waste collection, transportation as well as providing landfill facilities. Recycling is usually carried out by the private sector. Based on some statistics from Australian Bureau of Statistics (2008), employment generated in Australia is depicted in Fig. 14.8. As per Environment Victoria (2009), jobs are created for incinerating, landfilling, and recycling 10,000 tonnes of waste are 1, 6, and 36, respectively. In Europe, if a target of 70% for recycling of key materials was met, up to 322,000 direct jobs could be created across EU27 and the wider economy and could create 160,900 new indirect jobs along with 80,400 induced jobs.70% recycling target for municipal waste by 2025, across the UK could create 29,400 new direct jobs in recycling, 14,700 indirect jobs in supply chains and 7300 induced jobs in the wider economy relative to 2006.

14.9 Itinerant Waste Buyers

603

Fig. 14.8 Waste categorization based on destination

Waste dump

Non-recycleble

Landfill

Incineration

Waste gerating activities

Energy recovery Recycleble Material recovery

14.9 Itinerant Waste Buyers In addition to the stationary buyers many cities have itinerant waste buyer (IWB) (Figs. 14.9, 14.10) who move around streets buying (or bartering for) reusable and recyclable waste materials. The items purchased by IWB are of relatively better quality and market value compared to waste collected by waste pickers (Chikarmane and Narayan 2000). These IWBs are usually mobile and go from doors to doors to buy wastes from shops, houses, or offices. The materials they barter vary from candies, sweat meats to plastic articles, and metal utensils. The IWBs form an important part of the waste recycling system in the cities and rural area. The items collected by IWBs mainly comprise Fig. 14.9 Role of IWB in waste collection

Waste Generator

Waste collection by ULB Disposal Waste Picker Scrap Shop Waste processor End user

Waste collection by IWB

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14 Solid Waste and Livelihood

Fig. 14.10 Itinerant waste buyers

of metal scraps, papers, plastics, and glass bottles which are sold to scrap buyers/ dealers. The IWBs obtain waste before it is contaminated. IWBs do not compete with waste pickers and are independent operators or employees of the scrap dealers. Presence of IWBs in an area with high rise building is minimal as they are not usually allowed in these buildings due to security reasons.

References Akiko S, Mitsuo Y (2011) Internalization of informal sector into formal urban waste management in low-income countries. In: Proceedings of 2011 World congress of international solid waste association (ISWA), October 17–20, 2011. EXCO Daegu, Korea Ali SM, Cotton A, Coad A (1993) Informal sector waste recycling. Paper presented at the 19th WEDC conference on water, sanitation, environment and development. Accra, Ghana, pp 153– 155 Anne S, Justine A, Arnold vdK (2006) Waste pickers: poor victims or waste management professionals? Solid waste, health and the millennium development goals, CWG—WASH Workshop 2006, 1–5 February in Kolkata, India

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APO (Asian Productivity Organisation) (2007) Solid waste management: issues and challenges in Asia. Environmental Management Centre, Mumbai, India, Asian Productivity Organization BBMP (2020) City statistics. https://site.bbmp.gov.in/departmentwebsites/swm/. Accessed on 18 Sep 2022 Becker KF (2004) Fact finding study—the informal economy. SIDA Bender AP, Bilotta P (2019) Circular economy and urban mining: resource efficiency in the construction sector for sustainable cities. In: Leal W et al (eds) Sustainable cities and communities, Encyclopaedia of the UN sustainable development goals. Springer Nature Switzerland AG, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71061-7_40-1 BLS (Bureau of Labour Statistics) (2012) Waste management and remediation services: NAICS 562, industry at a glance. http://www.bls.gov/iag/tgs/iag562.htm. Accessed on 17 Feb 2012 Bouvier M, Dias S (2021) Waste pickers in Brazil: a statistical profile, women in informal employment: globalizing and organizing, Statistical Brief No 29. https://www.wiego.org/sites/ default/files/publications/file/WIEGO_Statistical_Brief_N29_Brazil_WPs.pdf. Accessed on 28 Sep 2022 Chikarmane P, Deshpande M, Narayan L (2001) Report of scrap collectors. Scrap Traders and Recycling Enterprises in Pune City, ILO, Geneva Chikarmane P, Narayan L (2000) Formalising livelihood: case of waste pickers in Pune. Econ Pol Wkly 35(41):3639–3642 Cointreau SJ (1984) Solid waste collection practice and planning in developing countries. In: Holmes JR (ed) Managing solid wastes in developing countries. Wiley Cointreau-Levine S (1994) Private sector participation in solid waste management: the formal sector. World Bank, Washington, DC Environment Victoria (2009) Victoria—the green jobs state: seizing the opportunities. As cited in Access economics, 2009: Employment in waste management and recycling, http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/waste/publications/pubs/waste-and-rec ycling-employment.pdf. Accessed on 15 Feb 2012 Esakku S, Swaminathan A, Parthiba Karhtikeyan O, Kurian J, Palanivelu K (2007) Municipal solid waste management in Chennai City, India. In: Proceedings Sardinia 2007, Eleventh International waste management and landfill symposium, 1–5 Oct 2007. S. Margherita Di Pula, Cagliari, Italy European Environment Agency (2014) Environmental indicator report 2014. European Environment Agency, Brussels, p 107 Friends of Earth (2010) More jobs less waste potential for job creation through higher rate of recycling in the UK and EU. Friends of Earth (2010) More jobs, less waste: potential for job creation through higher rates of recycling in the UK and EU. Report, Friends of Earth, London Haas W, Krausmann F, Wiedenhofer D, Heinz M (2015) How circular is the global economy? An assessment of material flows, waste production, and recycling in the European Union and the world in 2005. J Ind Ecol 19(5):765–777 Hardoy JE, Mitlin D, Satterwaite D (1992) Environmental problems in third world cities. Earthscan, London Holt D, Littlewood D (2016) Waste livelihoods amongst the poor—through the lens of bricolage, business strategy and the environment. Bus Strat Env. Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.1914 Hoornweg D, Bhada-Tata P (2012) What a waste: a global review of solid waste management. Urban development series; Knowledge papers No 15. World Bank, Washington, DC ILO (2013) Sustainable development, decent work and green jobs, International labour conference 102nd session, 2013. ILO, Genva ILO (2016) What is a green job? https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/green-jobs/news/WCMS_2 20248/lang--en/index.htm. Accessed on 26 Nov 2022 ILO (2018) World employment and social outlook 2018: greening with jobs. International Labour Office, Geneva

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James G, Christi E (2011) More jobs, less pollution: growing the recycling economy in the U.S. Tellus Institute with Sound Resource Management. https://www.tellus.org/pub/More%20J obs,%20Less%20Pollution%20-%20Growing%20the%20Recycling%20Economy%20in% 20the%20US.pdf. Accessed on 21 Sep 2022 Joshua FO, Temitope FJ, Folashade OA (2020) Afr J Sci Policy Innov Manage 1:27–37 Kaul (2003) A study of Ragpicker children in Delhi. ILO Kiswani M (2002) Solid waste management in Kingston. PhD Dissertation. The University of the West Indies Lars M J, Gabriela B (1999) Observations of Solid Waste Landfills in Developing Countries:Africa, Asia, and Latin America, World Bank Maria S, Frank S, Milen D, Robin B, Susan W, Roy W (2010) Ship breaking and recycling industry in Bangladesh and Pakistan. World Bank McEwen T (2013) Ecopreneurship as a solution to environmental problems: implications for college level entrepreneurship education. Int J Acad Res Bus Soc Sci 3(5):264 Medina M (2000) Scavenger cooperatives in Asia and Latin America. Resources 31:51–69 Medina M (2007a) The world’s scavengers: salvaging for sustainable consumption and production. AltaMira Press, Lanham, MD Medina M (2007b) The world’s scavengers: salvaging for sustainable consumption and production. AltaMira Press, Plymouth Medina M (1997) Informal recycling and collection of solid wastes in developing countries: issues and opportunities. UNU/IAS working paper No. 24. The United Nations University/Institute of Advanced Studies, Tokyo, Japan Medina M (2008) The informal recycling sector in developing countries: organizing waste pickers to enhance their impact Gridlines No. 44. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/ 10586. Accessed on 25 Sep 2022 Melosi M (1981) Garbage in the cities, refuse, reform and environment, 1880–1980. Texas A&M Press, College Station, Texas (USA) Morais J, Corder G, Golev A, Lawson L, Ali S (2022) Global review of human waste-picking and its contribution to poverty alleviation and a circular economy. Environ Res Lett 17(6):063002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac6b49 Nambuli F, Togarepi C, Shikongo A (2021) Waste scavenging a problem or an opportunity for integrated waste management in Namibia: A case of Keetmanshoop Municipality, Namibia. Environ Pollution 10. https://doi.org/10.5539/ep.v10n2p47 O’Neill K (2019) Waste. Polity Press, Cambridge Obisanya JF, Adegbite SA, Abereijo IO, Oke SO (2016) A structure to promote ecopreneurship in Nigeria. IFE J Entrepreneur Bus Manage 2(1) Perez TS (2019) In support of situated ethics: ways of building trust with stigmatised ‘waste pickers’ in Cape Town. Qual Res 19:148–163 Pieter vB, Edwin S, Ajit M (1996) The informal sector and waste paper recovery in Bombay. International Institute for Environment and Development, London, Institute for Environmental Studies, Amsterdam Poornima C, Lakshmi N (2009) Rising from the Waste–Organising waste pickers in India, Thailand and the Philippines. Committee for Asian Women Rachel S, Chasca T (2003) Hidden livelihoods? Natural Resource-Dependent Livelihoods and Urban Development Policy, Overseas Development Institute Ramusch R, Lange U (2013) Role and size of informal sector in waste management—a review. Proc ICE Waste Resour Manage 166:69–83. https://doi.org/10.1680/warm.12.00012 Reynals C (2002) De Cartoneros a Recuperadores Urbanos. Respuestas de la Sociedad Civil a la Emegencia Social, Brasil y Argentina Ribeiro-Broomhead J, Tangri N (2021) Zero waste and economic recovery: the job reation potential of zero waste solutions. Global Alliance Incinerator Alternatives. https://doi.org/10.46556/GFW E6885

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Rosario A (2004) Reduction of child labour in the waste picking sector, India: review and findings of an evaluative field study in Bangalore and Kolkata Rotich KH, Zhao Y, Dong J (2006) Municipal solid waste management challenges in developing countries—Kenyan case study. Waste Manage 26(2006):92–100 Rouse JR (2016) Seeking common ground for people: Livelihoods, governance and waste. Habitat Int 30(2006):741–753 Šajn N (2022) Textiles and the environment. European Parliamentary Research Service, Brussels Samson M (2010) Reclaiming reusable and recyclable materials in Africa. A critical review of English language literature. Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing (WIEGO), Cambridge, MA. www.wiego.org/sites/default/files/publications/files/Sam son_WIEGO_WP16.pdf. Accessed on 25 Sep 2022 Simatele D, Etambakonga CL (2015) Scavenging for solid waste in Kinshasa: a livelihood strategy for the urban poor in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Habitat Int 49:266–274. ISSN 01973975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.05.029 Singh R (2021) Doubling ship recycling capacity by 2024: are we ready? Down to Earth. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/environment/doubling-ship-recycling-capacityby-2024-are-we-ready--75494. Accessed on 11 Sep 2022 Singh R (2022) Solid waste management: why integrating informal sector is a must. Down to Earth. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/waste/solid-waste-management-why-integratinginformal-sector-is-a-must-83841. 25 July 2022 UNEP (2008) Green jobs: towards decent work in a sustainable, low-carbon world. UNEP/ILO/ IOE/ITUC. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/8825/UNEPGreenJobs_r eport08.pdf. Accessed on 26 Nov 2022 UNEP, ILO, IOE, ITUC (2008) Green jobs: towards decent work in a sustainable, low carbon world Urbaniec M (2015) Towards sustainable development through eco-innovations: drivers and barriers in Poland. Econ Sociol 8(4):179 URC (2001) A pre-feasibility study prepared with the support of the Urban Resources Centre for the Sindh Governor’s task force for the improvement of municipal services. Urban Resources Centre, Karachi, Pakistan Williams E (2005) International activities on e-waste and guidelines for future work. In: Proceedings of the third workshop on material cycles and waste management in Asia, December, 2004. Tsukuba, Japan Wunsch JS (1991) Institutional analysis and decentralization: developing and analytical framework for effective third world administrative report. In: Volume II of public administration and development. Wiley, New York, pp 431–451 Xing GH, Chan JKY, Leung AOW, Wu SC, Wong MH (2009) Environmental impact and human exposure to PCBs in Guiyu, an electronic waste recycling site in China. Environ Int 35(1):76–82 Zhu M, Fan X, Alberto R, He Q, Federico V, Liu B, Alessandro G, Liu Y (2009) Municipal solid waste management in Pudong New Area, China. Waste Manage 29:1227–1233

Chapter 15

Construction and Demolition Waste

C&D waste generated from construction, deconstruction, and demolition activity has attracted more attention of waste managers and urban local bodies. Deconstruction is the selective dismantling of building components. It differs from demolition where a building or structure is cleared by the most convenient means. Deconstruction requires a higher degree skilled labour compared to demolition. In the last decade, most of the cities either dumped it in low-lying area or disposed it along with municipal solid waste to landfill or waste dump site. Rapid urbanization and creation of new infrastructure saw tremendous increase in generation of C&D waste. Further, innovation in material science introduced several new materials which often need maintenance or replacement frequently. C&D waste excludes waste contaminated with nuclear waste as such the waste will qualify to be nuclear or radioactive waste and needs to be handled and disposed as per applicable protocol and procedure. Waste contaminated with hazardous substance may also demand protocol and procedure required for hazardous waste. Historically, waste from construction activity was not significant in past. The invention of cement and steel became boon for the civil engineers who changed the landscape of the world with durable buildings and infrastructure for the benefit of society. But, within a couple of generations, humankind realized the building and infrastructure created by earlier generation needed modification or replacement as the old one did not cater the requirements of new generation due to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Change in lifestyle, Demand for larger infrastructure to cater increased population, Demand for new infrastructure, Safety issues with old and large buildings, Impress the rest of the world with structures like stadiums and highly sophisticated airports even when many of the country’s people do not have water and sanitation, 6. Yield pressure from business/political groups to build something to spend public fund, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6_15

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15 Construction and Demolition Waste

7. Replace low-quality construction due to corrupt practices, 8. Redevelopment of disaster-affected area, 9. Demand for recreation/entertainment in developed society which has fulfilled basic human requirements (food, cloth, and shelter), 10. Construction of religious structure to attract new pilgrims/tourists/visitors, 11. Spend the fund allocated in budget 12. To accommodate new people/machine by growing business organizations. Many constructions happen even when it is not required. Corporate corruption in some architecture/civil consulting firms whose consultancy charges are usually percentage of total construction charges might intentionally increase cost of the project by including unnecessary construction. Similarly, corruption in government may also generate waste during construction rather than beneficial structure. As per Van Damme (2018) concrete and mortar is used in construction twice as much as the sum of all other industrial construction materials. The quantity of cement produced since 1950 increased nearly 34 times while the population augmented thrice (Scrivener et al. 2018). Demolition of existing structures includes: 1. End of life of the existing structure, 2. To expand/upgrade the existing infrastructure (upgrading asphalt road to concrete road), 3. Increase in property value, 4. Foundation is faulty, 5. Buildings that have faced natural/anthropogenic calamity, 6. Building with poor maintenance. Most of the time the funding agencies hardly have any control on unnecessary expenditure, and no cross-check on structural design and specification is done which may not be required to fulfil the usefulness structure. Examples include: • Use of highly priced granite for flooring where mere low-cost tiles or mortar flooring is required, • Use of 40 mm dia. steel bars where 32 mm dia. steel bar is sufficient to enhance estimation cost, • Use of more sand to save cost on cement, • Use of sulphate-resistant cement for water tanks where Portland cement is sufficient, • Use of 40 mm cover for reinforcement where 20 mm is sufficient. Increased construction of material would eventually increase in generation of more waste at the time of construction and at the end of life. Further humans used and exploited the resources available without thinking of future generations. Railway constructions used wood for sleepers cutting most of the trees without realizing its importance. Later as the wood became scarce metal, sleepers were used wooden sleepers instead. Metal sleepers were then substituted

15 Construction and Demolition Waste

611

Fig. 15.1 Concrete sleepers placed adjacent to railway track for replacement

Table 15.1 Advantages of concrete sleepers Characteristics

Wooden sleeper

Steel sleepers

Cast iron sleepers Concrete sleepers

Service life (years) 12–15

40–50

40–50

50–60

Cost of maintenance

High

Medium

Medium

Low

Gauge adjustment

Difficult

Easy

Easy

Not required

Damage by white Can be damaged ants and corrosion by white ants

Can be damaged by corrosion

Can be damaged by corrosion

No damage by white ants or corrosion

Creep

Less

Less

Minimum

Excessive

by concrete sleepers (Fig. 15.1) as latter was cheaper and had other advantages (Table 15.1). C&D waste is now a priority for several policies at international level due to its high quantity generated and its insufficient management which has led to grave environmental effects linked with manufacturing of building materials and low product recovery rates. Successful societies understand the significance of finite resources, understand the complexity of the environment and use resources sustainably. As per Seadon (2010), the ‘mine-build-discard’ is far from sustainable and unsustainable societies will eventually fail. The overexploited depleting resources include limestone (used in cement), aggregates (sand and stone), and iron ore (used in steel). The construction industry has used large portion of natural resources (Yeheyis et al. 2013; Rees 1999). With the raise in the awareness around resource management and sustainability, several nations have initiated to explore new models to reduce the use of limited resources which are at present quickly depleting, mismanaged, or overused (Purchase et al. 2022).

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15 Construction and Demolition Waste

Hence, concept of circular economy (CE) has become new mantra for efficient use of resources and energy and reduces the impact on environment (Ruiz et al. 2020).

15.1 Sources C&D waste can be classified based on its source or nature. The term ‘construction’ may involve new developments and repair/alterations that can be classified in different ways: • • • •

Construction technique (modular, kit, prefabricated, in situ, etc.), Element (wall, roof, tunnel, foundation, etc.), Purpose (new building, rebuilding, alterations or additions, etc.), Sector (industrial, commercial, irrigation, water supply, transport, residential, health care, etc.), • Structure (masonry, timber frame, fabric structure, etc.), • Type of building (office, dwelling, skyscraper, etc.), and • Type of contractor (management contractor, self-build, construction manager, etc.). Demolition can happen due to various reasons including: • Disaster – Natural (earthquake, tsunami, flood, landslide, etc.), – Anthropogenic (war, terrorism, mutiny, etc.), • • • •

To make way for new project/building (Figs. 15.2, 15.3, 15.4, and 15.5), Demolition of illegal structure, Demolition of weak structure which is not suitable for safe leaving. Up-gradation of existing infrastructure.

Source of C&D is not restricted to urban area. It is not restricted to and can arise from: • Construction of dams and canals in rural area, • Construction, and upgradation of roads in forest area, and • Construction and demolition of defence infrastructure.

15.2 Characteristics Characteristics of C&D waste depend on characteristics of constriction materials. While brick, mortar, steel, rubble, and concrete make up most of C&D waste, other materials in minimal quantity cannot be neglected. Some of the construction materials as on date are:

15.2 Characteristics

Fig. 15.2 C&D waste generated from demolition of buildings for road expansion Fig. 15.3 C&D waste generated from repairing road

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15 Construction and Demolition Waste

Fig. 15.4 Demolition of a building for reconstruction

Fig. 15.5 Building site without any plan to manage C&D waste

15.2 Characteristics

Adhesives Adobe Acrylic Aggregate Alkali-activated binder Aluminium Architectural fabrics Asphalt Brick Bulk filling materials Carbon fibre Cast iron Cavity wall insulation Cement Ceramics Chert Clay Coal ash Concrete Concrete fibre Copper Daub Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene Fibre cement Glass for buildings Glass reinforced concrete Glass reinforced plastic Glulam

615

Graphene in civil engineering Gravel Gypsum Hempcrete High alumina cement Icynene spray foam insulation Laminated veneer lumber Lead in construction Limecrete Masonry Mastic sealant Metal Mortar Mycelium Nylon Oil Paints and coatings Pebbledash Phase change materials Phenolic foam insulation Plastic Plywood Polyamide intermediates Polyethylene Polystyrene Polyurethane spray foam Polyvinyl chloride Precast concrete

Prestressed concrete Hydrochlorofluorocarbons Recyclable construction materials Refrigerants in buildings Reinforced concrete Render Renewable chemicals Sand Solid wall insulation Stainless steel in construction Steel Stone Straw bale construction Structural steelwork Stucco Terracotta Thermoplastic materials in buildings Timber TradicalHemcrete Transparent insulation Steel Wattle and daub Wrought iron Zinc

The composition of C&D waste depends onsite, e.g., road construction produces a large quantity of excavated materials that would become waste if it not used further, while a building demolition site will produce a large quantity of waste concrete (Galvez et al. 2018). Characteristic of C&D waste depends on but not restricted to construction material. The C&D waste can consist of packaging material (cement bags, cardboard boxes of electrical wires and fixtures, etc.), containers of raw material (paints, varnish, glue, oil, etc.), plant/tree parts generated during site clearance, machine parts and toxic substance from industrial demolition plant. Site clearance during new construction can result in variety of waste depending on the site. If the construction site is in the middle of forest, the site needs to be cleared from shrubs (Fig. 15.6) and trees. Problematic features include large steel structures, plant and equipment, chimneys, huge foundations, and cooling towers. The contractor should know the procedures to be adopted while handling contaminated (Fig. 15.7) or toxic substances. Where required, works should be done to decontaminate plant as well as buildings before demolition to reduce the spread of

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15 Construction and Demolition Waste

Fig. 15.6 Waste from site clearance activity in a river valley project site

contamination during demolition (Richards et al. 1993). Asbestos-containing materials (ACM) must be removed and disposed-off prior to the demolition of buildings to avoid human exposure. Road construction and upgradation can result in water pipes (Fig. 15.8) and removed payment coated with asphalt. Removed and/or reprocessed pavement materials with asphalt as well as aggregates produced when asphalt pavements are removed for resurfacing, reconstruction, or to obtain access to buried utilities often referred as Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) (Fig. 15.9). When properly crushed and screened, RAP comprises of high-quality, well-graded aggregates coated with asphalt.

Fig. 15.7 Contaminated site due to oil spillage in a river valley project site

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Fig. 15.8 Unearthed pipes during road construction

Fig. 15.9 Asphalt-coated aggregates removed while reconstruction

15.3 Quantities The composition of C&D waste varies depending on the type of construction. While road constructions generate a large quantity of excavated materials (Fig. 15.10) which will become waste if not used, building demolitions will produce huge quantity of concrete as well as ceramic materials. Hence, it is hard to establish reliable waste production rates per work, per capita, or per m2 floor area (Gálvez-Martos et al. 2018). The linear economic model, “take, make, and dispose” pattern has burdened the anthroposphere with resource supply risks as well as waste generation pressure (Zhang et al. 2022) with global resource extraction 13-fold higher in 2015 compared to 1900, raising from 7 to 89 Gt. (Aguilar-Hernandez et al. 2021). Generation of solid waste worldwide increased from less than 0.3 MT/day in 1900 to more than

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15 Construction and Demolition Waste

Fig. 15.10 Excavated and levelled site for new road construction

3.5 MT/day in 2010 which would double in 2025 and triple by 2100 (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata 2012). Global per capita generation was reported to be 1.68 kg/capita/ day (Kaza et al. 2018) and made up 10–30% of the waste received at numerous landfill sites across the world (Fishbein 1998). China, the USA, and the European Union are top three C&D waste generators (Kabirifar et al. 2020). C&D waste produced in the Republic of Korea is nearly about half of the yearly waste, and construction waste is anticipated to raise gradually (Kim 2021). UK generated 67.8 Mt of non-hazardous C&D waste in 2018 as against 222.2 Mt of total waste. It was estimated that from 2002 to 2005, about 1.1 Mt per year of C&D waste was produced in Thailand constituting around 7.7% of the total waste disposed (Kofowrola and Gheewala 2009). About 600 Mt of C&D debris were generated in the USA in 2018, which is more than double the quantity of MSW produced (USEPA 2018). Further, it is estimated that about 41 Mt of RAP may be produced each year in the USA (FHWA 1995). Ageing infrastructure and growing interest in river restoration resulted in increase in dam removal with more than 1200 dams which have been removed in the USA (Bellmore 2016). India generated about 25–30 Mt per year of C&D waste compared to 1,43,449 Mt/ day of MSW (CPHEEP & GIZ 2006). From 1998 to 2004, about one million tonnes of C&D waste was disposed of to landfill every year in the Sydney Metropolitan Area (DECC 2007). The quantity of waste from C&D activity depends on type and quality of material as well as technology adopted. Modular construction (Fig. 15.11) is resource-efficient and finished modular units arriving at the construction site can significantly limit C&D waste generated. Precast and prefabricated structures produce less construction waste compared conventional construction (Figs. 15.12, 15.13). Life span of building depends on whether, raw materials, and to some extent pollution. Concrete made up of poor-quality aggregate and water would not have same life span as that of good quality material. The building made up of poor-quality

15.3 Quantities

619

Fig. 15.11 Modular construction for Metro train project

Fig. 15.12 Construction site of multi-storey building

materials and constructions that are subject to extreme wet weather will become waste early compared to superior quality construction in moderate weather. The life span of different parts of building also does vary. Life span of outer surface of building is lesser compared to inner parts. Similarly, life span of corroding materials is lesser and will soon become waste compared to non-corroding material. Considering all the above factors, a reinforced concrete structure made up of good quality material with proper workmanship for up to 100 years, whereas quality paint

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15 Construction and Demolition Waste

Fig. 15.13 Construction site of individual house

will fade away within 15 years. But, all the paint manufactured in current year will not become part of solid waste stream in coming year as most of it will be lost due to wear and tear. C&D waste constitutes major part of disaster waste. Depending on the nature of the built environment as well as the magnitude of the earthquake waste quantity can be the several times the yearly waste produced by an affected community (Brown 2014). 40–60 kg/m3 of C&D waste is produced during construction and minor repair or renovation. Demolition of masonry and concrete buildings generates about 500 kg/ m3 of C&D waste. 300 kg/m3 is produced from structures with partial masonry and concreting (CPHEEP & GIZ 2006). Existence of excavated material may change this composition. Some of the notes worthy examples are (Baycan and Petersen 2002; Earland 1995; Pasche and Kelly 2005): • Earthquake in Marmara, Turkey, in the year 1999 generated 13 Mt of disaster waste, • Earthquake in Kobe, Japan in the year 1995 generated 15 Mt, • Earthquake in the year 551 in Beirut, Lebanon generated 4 Mt, • Earthquake in 2002 in Kosovo generated 10 Mt. Considering the facts and figures from published information discussed in this section, C&D waste quantity depends on (Fig. 15.14):

15.3 Quantities

621

Fig. 15.14 World heritage site in Hampi, India

• • • •

Age of the building, Congestion of the site, Damage caused by subsequent trades, Damage caused by workers due to lack of experience, • Damage during transportation to site/ onsite, • Damages caused by third parties, • Delays in passing information on sizes as well as types of materials to be used, • Design as well as construction detail errors (Gul et al 2017), • Design and detailing complexity, • Disaster, • Errors in contract documents, • Frequent design changes as well as change orders, • Importance of the building (Fig. 15.12) (Historic and heritage sites may not be demolished as they are preserved), • Improper storing methods, • Improper/lack of environmental awareness, • Improper/lack of onsite material control, • Improper/lack of supervision, • Improper/lack of waste management plans, • Inappropriate construction methods,

• Inappropriate site storage area resulting in damage and/or deterioration of material, • Materials supplied in loose form, • Mistakes in quantity take-offs, • Nature of the building/infrastructure/built environment, • Over allowances (difficulties to order small quantities), • Poor lighting of the site, • Poor-quality control of construction, • Poor quality of construction material, • Poor quantum of construction/demolition/ alteration activity, • Scarcity of equipment, • Suppliers’ and/or shipping errors, • Time pressure for workers, • Unnecessary material handling onsite, • Unpredictable local conditions, • Unused/leftover materials as well as products onsite, • Use of improper materials resulting in their disposal, • Waste from cutting uneconomical shapes, • Weather, and • Workers’ mistakes during construction

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15 Construction and Demolition Waste

15.4 Management C&D waste management has multiple dimensions varying from project site to global context. Plan for a specific C&D site, the following aspects have to be covered: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Identify of the materials to be used, Define objectives, Identify a waste management plan coordinator, Develop a set of procedures, Estimate the total quantity of waste, Identify hazardous and non-hazardous waste, Identify storage spaces, Document all activity, Audit the site, Review, and Take corrective/preventive action.

Landfilling of C&D waste was practised in the past in most of developing countries even though it continues for some extent. On the other hand, in developing countries, C&D waste is duped in low-lying area to make it even so that the land can be used for development. Many lakes, water bodies, wetlands, and drains have been filled with C&D wastes to build new infrastructure on them. Some of the case studies are given in Box 15.1, 15.2, and 15.3. Box 15.1 Case Study of Hungry in 2011 (BIO Intelligence Service 2011) Hungary with an area of about 93,000 km2 and population of around 10 million people generated more than 240 Mt/year of solid waste out of which about 10 Mt was C&D waste in The C&D waste recovery rate during the period was around 30–35%(in addition to the quantity of excavated soil) with the investor’s acceptance to use demolition waste being comparatively low. Construction permission procedures are not stringent; furthermore, authorities rarely have the capability to check C&D waste. Demolition practices during period methods resulted in mixed debris. The processing costs are more than the dumping charges and secondary raw materials are not attractive in the market. Large quantities of C&D waste are illegally disposed of. In a linear economy, C&D waste was recognized as zero value materials, and hence, most C&D waste materials ended up in landfills (Purchase et al. 2022). Since most of the construction elements cannot be deconstructed after their lifetime, they are usually disposed into an incinerator/landfill (Mangialardo 2017). The CE ensures the value of materials throughout their life cycle and ensures in optimizing the consumption of raw materials (Bilal et al. 2020) besides preventing production

15.4 Management

623

of excess waste thereby preserving natural resources (Hossain et al. 2020; Kabirifar et al. 2020; Huang 2018; Silva 2017). Box 15.2 Case Study of Spain in 2011 (BIO Intelligence Service 2011) Integrated National Plan of Waste 2008–2015 in Spain has not been able to quantify C&D waste generated in Spain but the plan estimates that C&D waste production in 2005 reached about 35 million tonnes. The generation production of C&D waste in the country grew over the period between 2001 and 2006 at the average rate of 8.7% per year which was reversed in 2007, with negative waste growth rates subsequent to 2008 due to reduction in the construction activity. About 62.5% of C&D waste has been subject to uncontrolled disposal without treatment, about 30 of C&D waste is sent to authorized landfills directly, and 7.5% treated as recycled aggregate. About 33% of waste generation can be linked to designers failing to implement waste prevention measures at the time of design phase (Osmani et al. 2008). Excavated materials as well as soils may be considered as wastes if they are contaminated or need to be managed as wastes for administrative reason. Box 15.3 Case study of Finland in 2011 (BIO Intelligence Service 2011) In 2005, Finland generated 21,870.4 kt of C&D waste which increased to 23,145.7 kt in 2006. House C&D sites produced 1.6 million tonnes waste in 2007. Out of total C&D waste, quantity of wood waste was 40%, mineral waste was 31%, and metal waste was 14%. Renovation building accounted for 57%, demolitions sites accounted for 27%, and new building site accounted for 16%. In 2005, about 38% of all construction waste was recovered. From C&D waste generated from housing construction, around 33% was recovered as a material, about 27% was used through energy recovery, and remaining 40% was disposed in landfills. At the time of construction waste is generated but not limited due to: 1. Contamination of clean materials, design changes, 2. Damage of construction material during transportation, handling, and construction, 3. Demolition of the earlier construction onsite damage of materials, 4. Disposal of packaging material like cement bags, pant container, boxes of electrical wire/switches, 5. Disposal of pieces of wood, stone, tiles, pipe, glass, etc., due to chipping, cutting, and shaping, 6. Excavation, blasting at construction site,

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15 Construction and Demolition Waste

7. Mixing excess of concrete of mortar which will not be used before closure of days’ work thereby wasting excess concrete/mortar, 8. Poor-quality materials such as broken bricks, partially burnt bricks, damaged tiles would reduce overall life span of the building or lead to poor aesthetics, 9. Solidification of cement due to dampness or exposure to water during storage, 10. Temporary works materials, off-cuts, and 11. Using steel scaffolding (which has long life and can be reused several times more than wooden scaffolding) instead of wooden scaffolding. Basic principles for adoption of the CE in construction value chain are: 1. Optimize resource yields by practising repair, reuse, recycle, and refurbish, 2. Preserve and enhance natural capital by minimizing dependence on virgin materials like clay, minerals, sand, stone, tree, and 3. Promote system effectiveness by material/energy recovery. Source reduction can be achieved by: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Adopting panelised building systems for staircases, basements, roofing, etc., Modern methods of construction that generate less waste, Proper planning and supervision of construction activity, Selecting undamaged quality construction martial, Storing construction material properly, Use of composite panels, Use of quality material and proper super vision, Use of steel frames instead of concrete frames, and Using precast construction blocks, prefabricated roof systems, etc.

Use of prefabricated modules avoids more than 80% of total construction waste. Construction of a new house with prefabricated structure would save about 80–100 kg of waste per 100 m2 floor area (Mália et al. 2013). Minimizing the quantity of raw materials stored onsite avoids double handling of material and waste generation due to damage. Material use efficiency can also reduce fuel consumption. Reusing the C&D waste for same purpose or difference purpose can be done depending on the quality of component in the waste. Reusing C&D waste has several benefits that include: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Saving natural resources, Decreasing the needs on landfill spaces, Saving energy and reducing GHG emissions Reducing health-related risks connected with C&D wastes disposed.

Many items in C&D waste may be reused. Examples include but not restricted to: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Reuse of broken concrete block and bricks for flooring and as fill material, Reuse of broken bricks for waterproofing terrace, Reuse of doors and windows from old building in new building (Fig. 15.15), Reuse of pipe, commode, wash basin, taps, and other fixtures in new building.

15.4 Management

625

Fig. 15.15 Doors and windows of old building

Some European countries have already achieved 70% recycling for C&D waste. Recycling “clean” crushed concrete waste usually produces downgraded product as recovery of original aggregate and initial constituents from cement is not feasible. Recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) are usable for unbound applications such as road sub-base fillings or as secondary materials in the production of new concrete (Galvez 2018). Cultural misunderstanding is that RCA have much lower operational performance compared to natural aggregates (Adams et al. 2016) but with proper waste separation, RCA can substitute 100% natural aggregates (Adams et al. 2016; McGinnis et al. 2017; Silva et al. 2014; Wijayasundara et al. 2017). Reuse may be attractive word for waste managers. But reuse with caution is necessary due to the possible presence of toxic substance in waste. Railway sleepers are made of pine, oak, and beech after being impregnated with creosote oil to impart increased durability of wood and antirotting and bactericidal properties. But impregnated chemical will neither vanish nor change its properties under the influence of ground elements. Due to high content of polyphenolic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in wooden railway sleepers, thermal decomposition of the sleepers or alternate usage in a limited frame shall be done after removal from the track bed (Mayer 2010, Andrzej 2018). C&D waste arrives at the C&D waste plants in variety of characteristics, shapes and sizes (Figs. 15.16, 15.17, 15.18). A typical C&D waste processing plants for processing concrete debris will have the following activities: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Storing and segregation of raw material, Feeding and crushing, Screening, Aggregate scrubbing, Contaminant removal, Metals removal, Sand washing,

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15 Construction and Demolition Waste

Fig. 15.16 Waste generated during tunnelling activity at storage yard

Fig. 15.17 Mixed C&D waste at storage yard

Fig. 15.18 Large blocks of C&D waste generated from up-gradation of airport

15.4 Management

627

Fig. 15.19 Feeding machine

8. 9. 10. 11.

Aggregate sizing, Primary stage water treatment, Sludge Management, and Storing end products.

Depending on the characteristics of waste, it is stored at site before feeding into crusher. Manual or machine braking of large-sized waste may be necessary depending on the crusher used to crush the waste. Extraction of steel bars embedded in Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) may be required to safeguard the crusher. Segregation/storing of waste with brick and waste with large fraction of fine particles (Fig. 15.19) is necessary so as to feed the material into crusher keeping in mind specification of final product required. Feeding of waste into crusher is done based on the specification of boulder size required to be fed in. The crushers designed and used for mining and stone crushing are usually employed at time of preparing book as C&D waste recycling is at very infant stage. Things may change in future as the large quantity of waste is likely to be generated and the C&D recycling activity is likely increase rapidly. Crushing machines (Figs. 15.20, 15.21, 15.22, and 15.23) and screening machines can be fixed or mobile type. The latter can be used conveniently in places which are subject to disasters like earthquake or war from where transportation to C&D waste processing site is not feasible or such facility does not exist. C&D waste often contains steel rods (Fig. 15.24), binding wires (Fig. 15.25), and plastic pipes (Fig. 15.26) embedded in RCC or plain cement concrete. The crushed and screened aggregates are finally filled into trucks (Fig. 15.27) and transported to storage area (Fig. 15.28). The common reuse option for C&D wood waste is as fuel in co-generation/coincineration plants or industrial boilers in developed countries. It can be used as fuel for cooking or heating water bathing in developing countries. Where wood that has been treated with preservatives, the ash is likely to contain toxic residue and needs to be considered as hazardous waste. C&D wood waste can be cycled

628

Fig. 15.20 Crusher feeder

Fig. 15.21 Stationary crusher

Fig. 15.22 Mobile crusher

15 Construction and Demolition Waste

15.4 Management

629

Fig. 15.23 Mobile screening machine capable of screening crushed aggregate into to three sizes

Fig. 15.24 Steel bars extracted from C&D waste

Fig. 15.25 Binding wire extracted from C&D waste

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15 Construction and Demolition Waste

Fig. 15.26 Plastic pipes extracted from C&D waste

Fig. 15.27 Crushed and screened C&D waste being filled into trucks

to make wooden furniture, plywood, wood I-beams, oriented strand board, compost and animal bedding, and horticultural mulch. Asphalt waste is generated when the existing asphalt layer is removed and can be 100% recycled depending on the technique. Recycling asphalt waste can be achieved by adding the reclaimed asphalt to new asphalt mixes. Asphalt shingles can be recycled into new shingles, or as a primary material for roads, or as base material for

15.4 Management

631

Fig. 15.28 Crushed and screened C&D waste being stockpiled

concrete flatwork like sidewalks and driveways. Asphalt recycling processes can be done by hot or cold mix recycling techniques by offsite or in situ recycling. While “offsite recycling” involves transporting the material from the site to a plant located in another place, in situ recycling allows the processed material to be integrated back into the new asphalt pavement. Reclaimed asphalt can also be used as road base course material (BIO Intelligence Service 2011). Gypsum board can be ground up and used as soil amendment, animal bedding, raw material for manufacture of Portland cement, bulking agent in composting or recycled into new drywall. As a C&D waste stream, its reversible hydration chemical process of gypsum makes it indefinitely recyclable and appropriate for closing the loop in a CE. Although gypsum forms quite a small percentage, inadequate management of gypsum may result in decomposition into hydrogen sulphide in landfills or contamination of concrete for recycling (Barbudo et al. 2012, Jiménez-Rivero and García-Navarro 2020). Concrete can be recycled as a base product for buildings and roads. Metal in wiring, siding, fasteners, and roof flashing are recycled. Cardboard from building packaging material is usually processed and recycled into new cardboard. Some of the recycled products from C&D waste are given in Table 15.2. At present, recycling aggregates is hindered by numerous barriers like cultural, legislative, and economical. Challenges in recycling include (Chung and Lo 2003; Fatta et al. 2003; Rao et al. 2007; Melo et al. 2011; Domingo and Luo 2017; Jia et al. 2017): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Absence/shortage of waste processing facilities, Absence of laws regarding C&D waste, Poor enforcement of laws, Cultural resistance, Abundance and cheaply available virgin construction material.

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15 Construction and Demolition Waste

Table 15.2 Some of the recycled products from C&D waste Sr. No.

C&D Waste

Recycled product

1

Asphalt

• Recycled asphalt • Asphalt aggregate

2

Brick

• Slime burnt ash • Filling material • Hardcore

3

Concrete

• • • • •

4

Ferrous metal

• Recycled steel scrap

5

Glass

• • • • •

6

Masonry

Masonry Brick

7

Non-ferrous metal

Recycled metal

8

Paper and cardboard

Recycled paper

9

Plastic

• Recycled plastic • Plastic lumber • Asphalt road

10

Timber

• • • • • •

Recycled aggregate Cement replacement Protection of levee Backfilling Filler Recycled window unit Glass fibre Filling material Tile Paving block

Whole timber Furniture and kitchen utensils Fuel Chemical production Wood-based panel Insulation board

The recycling has been promoted by many (Zhao et al. 2008; Zhao et al. 2010; Marzouk and Azab 2014; Wang et al. 2014; Jia et al. 2017) for the purpose of: 1. Providing economic instruments (tax incentive, subsidy, penalty, etc.), 2. Enactment or making rules to manage C&D waste, 3. Effective enforcement of laws to manage C&D waste where it exists.

15.5 Specifications for Recovered C&D Debris Several standards across globe exist for recovered C&D waste. IS 383: 2016 entitled COARSE AND FINE AGGREGATE FOR CONCRETE—SPECIFICATION (Third Revision) published by Bureau of Indian Standards permits use of recycled

15.5 Specifications for Recovered C&D Debris

633

aggregates (RA) up to 100% in lean concretes of grade less than M-15,1 20% in reinforced concrete of M-252 or lower grade and up to 25% in plain concrete. Specification NBR 15.116 “Recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste” in Brazil allows the utilization of RA only in non-structural concrete. German Standard DIN 4226-100 “Aggregates for mortar and concrete—recycled aggregates” specifies requirements for RA. Specification Works Bureau Technical Circular No.12/2002—“Specification facilitating the use of recycled aggregates” in Honk Kong has provides specification to use RA in concrete production. The Building Contractors Society of Japan has issued “Proposed standard for the use of recycled aggregates and recycled aggregate concrete”. British standard BS 8500:2 “Concrete—Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1—Part 2: Specification for constituent materials and concrete” provides specification for the use of RCA in concrete. National Laboratory of Civil Engineering in the Netherlands has developed specification E 471 “Guideline for the use of recycled coarse aggregates in hydraulic binders concrete” which establishes the RA requirements. Standard PTV 406: Technical Prescription: “Recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste” regulates the composition of the recycled aggregates in Belgium. Swiss documents published in 2006, Ot (Objectif technique) 70,085 “Instruction technique Utilisation de matériaux de construction minéraux secondaires dans la construction d’abris”, create a wide range of applications for RA. Qualities of recycled gypsum consider the particle size as well as the quantity of residual paper which may vary based on technology and the type of the waste (Jiménez-Rivero and García-Navarro 2020). The majority of the RAP generated in the USA is recycled and used. Recycled RAP is almost always returned back into the roadway structure by means of: (1) hot/ cold recycling, (2) aggregate in base or sub-base construction. About 33 Mt (80–85% of the excess asphalt concrete generated) is reportedly being used for the following purpose FHWA (1993): 1. Hot mix asphalt, 2. Cold mixes, and 3. Aggregate in granular or stabilized base materials.

1

M15—M represents mix and 15 N/mm2 is the characteristic compressive strength of concrete cube at 28 days. M15 concrete mix has a mix proportion of 1:2:4 of cement, fine aggregate, and coarse aggregate, respectively. 2 M25—M represents mix and 25 N/mm2 is the characteristic compressive strength of concrete cube at 28 days. M25 concrete mix has a mix proportion of 1:1:2 of cement, fine aggregate, and coarse aggregate, respectively.

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15 Construction and Demolition Waste

The properties of RAP are depending on the properties of the constituent materials and the type of asphalt concrete mix. Crushing and milling can cause aggregate degradation. The gradation of milled RAP is usually finer and denser compared to the virgin aggregates. Gradation of crushed RAP is normally not as fine as milled RAP but finer than virgin aggregates crushed with the similar type of equipment. Photos of aggregates extracted from C&D waste are given in Figs. 15.29, 15.30, 15.31, and 15.32.

Fig. 15.29 Aggregate (40 mm size) extracted from demolition waste

Fig. 15.30 Aggregate (20 mm size) extracted from demolition waste

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Fig. 15.31 Aggregate (12 mm size) extracted from demolition waste

Fig. 15.32 Fine aggregate extracted from demolition waste

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Bellmore J, Jeffrey D, Laura C, Samantha G, Christian T, Mathias C, Katherine V (2016) Status and trends of dam removal research in the United States. Wiley Interdisc Rev Water 4. https:// doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1164 Bilal M, Khan KIA, Thaheem MJ, Nasir AR (2020) Current state and barriers to the circular economy in the building sector: Towards a mitigation framework. J Clean Prod 2020(276):123250 BIO Intelligence Service (2011) Service contract on management of construction and demolition waste—sr1, Final Report Task 2, A project under the Framework contract ENV.G.4/FRA/2008/ 0112. European Commission, Brussels Brown C (2014) Waste management following earthquake disaster. In: Beer M, Kougioumtzoglou I, Patelli E, Au IK (eds) Encyclopedia of earthquake engineering. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-36197-5_359-1 Chung SS, Lo CWH (2003) Evaluating sustainability in waste management: the case of construction and demolition, chemical and clinical wastes in Hong Kong. Resour Conserv Recy 37(2):119– 145 CPHEEO & GIZ (2006) Municipal Solid Waste Management Manual, Part II, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, New Delhi DEEC (Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW) (2007) Report into the Construction and Demolition Waste Stream Audit 2000–2005, Sydney Metropolitan Area, ISBN 978 1 74122 492 4, Aug 2007 Domingo N, Luo H (2017) Canterbury earthquake construction and demolition waste management: issues and improvement suggestions. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct 22:130–138 Eerland DW (1995) Experience with the construction and demolition waste recycling in the Netherlands—its application to earthquake waste recycling in Kobe. In: IETC (ed) International symposium on earthquake waste, 12–13 June Osaka. Shiga: UNEP, pp 72–85 Fatta D, Papadopoulos A, Avramikos E, Sgourou E, Moustakas K, Kourmoussis F, MentzisA, Loizidou M (2003) Generation and management of construction and demolition waste in Greece—an existing challenge. Resour Conserv Recy 40(1):81–91 FHWA (1993) Engineering and environmental aspects of recycling materials for highway construction, federal highway administration and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Report No. FHWA-RD-93-008, Washington, DC FHWA (1995) Pavement recycling executive summary and report, federal highway administration, Report No. FHWA-SA-95-060, Washington, DC Fishbein BK (1998) Building for the future: strategies to reduce construction and demolition waste in municipal projects. INFORM, New York, p 1998 Galvez MJL, Styles D, Schoenberger H, Zeschmar-Lahl B (2018) Construction and demolition waste best management practice in Europe. Resour Conserv Recyc 136:166–178. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.04.016 Gálvez-Martos JL, Styles D, Schoenberger H, Zeschmar-Lahl B (2018) Construction and demolition waste best management practice in Europe. Resour Conserv Recycl 136:166–178 Gul P, Atilla D, Harun T, Asli PG (2017) Identification of root causes of construction and demolition (C&D) waste: the case of Turkey. Creative Constr Conf Primosten, Croatia Procedia Eng 196:948–955 Hoornweg D, Bhada-Tata P (2012) What a Waste: a global review of solid waste management. https://doi.org/10.1111/febs.13058 Hossain MU, Ng ST, Antwi-Afari P, Amor B (2020) Circular economy and the construction industry: existing trends, challenges and prospective framework for sustainable construction. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 130:109948 Huang B, Wang X, Kua H, Geng Y, Bleischwitz R, Ren J (2018) Construction and demolition waste management in China through the 3R principle. Resour Conserv Recycl 2018(129):36–44 Jia S, Yan G, Shen A, Zheng J (2017) Dynamic simulation analysis of a construction 826 and demolition waste management model under penalty and subsidy mechanisms. J Clean Prod 827(147):531–545

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Silva RV, de Brito J, Dhir RK (2014) Properties and composition of recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste suitable for concrete production. Constr Build Mater 65:201– 217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.04.117 Silva A, Rosano M, Stocker L, Gorissen L (2017) From waste to sustainable materials management: three case studies of the transition journey. Waste Manag 2017(61):547–557 USEPA (2018) Construction and demolition debris generation in the United States, 2015, U.S. Environmental protection agency office of resource conservation and recovery, September 2018, https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2018-09/documents/constr uction_and_demolition_debris_generation_in_the_united_states_2015_final.pdf. Accessed on 27 Jan 2022 Van Damme H (2018) Concrete material science: past, present, and future innovations. Cem Concr Res 112:5–24 Wang J, Li Z, Tam V (2014) Critical factors in effective construction waste minimization at thedesign stage: a Shenzhen case study China. Resour Conserv Recy 82:1–7 Wijayasundara M, Mendis P, Crawford RH (2017) Methodology for the integrated assessment on the use of recycled concrete aggregate replacing natural aggregate in structural concrete. J Cleaner Prod 166:321–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.08.001 Yeheyis M, Hewage K, Alam M S, Eskicioglu C, Sadiq R (2013) An overview of construction and demolition waste management in Canada: a lifecycle analysis approach to sustainability. Clean Technol Environ Policy 15:81–91 Zhang C, Hu M, Maio FD, Sprecher B, Yang X, Tukker A (2022) An overview of the waste hierarchy framework for analyzing the circularity in construction and demolition waste management in Europe. Sci Total Environ 803:149892. ISSN 0048-9697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv. 2021.149892 Zhao W, Leeftink RB, Rotter S (2008) Construction and demolition waste management in China: analysis of economic instruments for solving a growing problem. WIT Trans Ecol Environ 109:471–480 Zhao W, Leeftink RB, Rotter S (2010) Evaluation of the economic feasibility for the recycling of construction and demolition waste in China—the case of Chongqing. Resour Conserv Recy 54:377–389

Chapter 16

Legacy Waste

The word legacy means something that is a result of events in the past. Waste dump and landfill contain many resources with high value. For example, the concentration of aluminium in landfill in many developed countries is higher than the concentration of aluminium in bauxite. Legacy wastes (Fig. 16.1) are the wastes that are a result of events in the past. Instead of looking at the earlier period by examining inscriptions left in caves by early people or by viewing the remains of ancient settlements, future generations will collect information regarding present times by the imprint that neoliberal entrepreneurship is leaving on everything (Alonso and Traseira 2019). Legacy waste is a term often used to explain waste that has been generated from historic activities and stored for a long time. The Hiriya landfill, next to the city of Tel Aviv, Israel, introduced the concept of Landfill Mining (LFM) as early as 1953 (Van et al. 2004). Ariel Sharon Park an environmental park along the Ayalon River in Israel is spread over about 8.5 sq. km established on the former Hiriya waste dump. After accumulating 25 Mt of waste, the Hiriya facility was closed in August 1998. Earmarked as a dump in 1952, the site grew to be more than half a mile long and over 80 m above sea level (New York Times 2007) with an estimated waste quantity of around 16 million m3 resulting in calls to shut down by public, environmental pollution, and hazard for airliners at Ben Gurion Airport by birds (Wikipedia 2022). LFM has been carried all over the world during the since last seven decades with the main purposes have been (Rosendal 2009): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Decrease landfill area, Decrease management costs, Energy recovery Increasing landfill lifetime Mitigation of an existing contaminated source, Protection of landfill space, Recycling of recovered materials, Removal of a potential source of contamination

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6_16

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Fig. 16.1 A view of legacy waste

9. Site redevelopment. Legacy waste can be MSW, radioactive waste, or hazardous waste. Legacy wastes can be grouped into the following categories (Brose and Heimberg 2014): 1. 2. 3. 4.

Buried waste, Contained and/or stored waste, Contaminated building materials and structures, and Contaminated soil and groundwater.

As of 2014 many of the largest and most complex legacy sites connected with the government-led development of nuclear weapons as well as nuclear energy in the USA have not been fully remediated (Brose and Heimberg 2014). Globally, nuclear legacy sites will be under the control of government and usually kept confidential due to security issues about the status and threat to environment. But, the US Department of Energy (DOE) is managing its responsibilities linked with the legacy of World War II and the Cold War including environmental contamination,radioactive waste, chemical waste, and hazardous material at more than 100 sites across the USA. A case study of Hanford site is given in Box 16.1. Europe has between 150,000 and 500,000 landfill sites, with around 90% of them being “non-sanitary” landfills that tend to be filled with MSW and often any environmental protection technology. To avoid future health and environmental problems, many of these landfills need remediation measures with an opportunity for a combined resource recovery and remediation strategy (Newmine 2023). Over 190 Mt of legacy irons as well as steel slag are present in the UK (Riley et al. 2020). The Antarctic Treaty officially entered forces in 1961 requires that all present and past work and waste disposal sites are cleaned except cleaning would cause more environmental damage or the site is considered as monument of significant historical importance. In spite of this requirement, legacy waste in parts of Antarctica remains unresolved (Camenzuli 2015).

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From the data of USEPA in 2011 in the USA had 1908 lawful MSW grounds where 134.3 Mt of wastes were buried (Orlova et al. 2017). In the EU, around 30,000 closed and about to close, large/medium MSW landfills, with 4.5 billion tonnes of wastes were present (Orlova et al. 2017). In Russia, according to Russian Nature Surveillance, there are 2620 landfills for burial of municipal waste, 11,193 large unlawful dumps are recorded, which pose a particular danger to the environment due to the need for the required technology of waste storage, environmental measures as well as control over the state of the dumps(Lihach et al. 2016). While the data on global number of dumpsites are not easily and readily available, approximately such number will be equal to number of towns and cities in the world even though some cities will have more than one dumpsite. Historically as the villages turned into towns and cities the ULB that took responsibility to clean town/city hauled the waste outside and dumped. The introduction of new consumables like cosmetics, cleaning chemicals, paints/varnish, laboratory chemical, industrial waste, plastic/paper packaging material entered into waste streams and ultimately became part of chemical reactors where the chemical reacted to generate new chemicals that polluted air, water, and soil. Later many developed countries adopted sanitary landfills other continued dumping. Some cities choose to dump all the waste at a few dumpsites, others scattered waste across the city to avoid accumulation of waste. To make space for future waste, the dumpsite was intentionally burned openly wherever waste was dumped. Box 16.1 Case Study: Hanford Site, USA The Hanford site in south-eastern Washington, USA, with an area of around 580 square miles was established in 1943 by the US government to perform research and produce plutonium which generated several hundred thousand metric tonnes of chemical and radioactive waste which is contained in large underground storage tanks (Department of Energy, USA (DOE) 2001). The tanks stored about 56 million gallons of HLW and await final remediation (DOE 2013). This waste is stored in 28 double-shell tanks and 149 singleshell. The acidic HLW was neutralized with sodium hydroxide segregated into thick hydroxide sludge as well as a liquid salt solution. The salt solution is rich in sodium nitrite-nitrate, and sodium hydroxide contains radioactive elements. Additional tank wastes and wastes from chemical processing operations were accidentally/intentionally discharged into the subsurface. The drainable salt solution was pumped into the double-shell tanks from the single-shell tanks since 1980s to reduce the risk of further leaks. An estimated 25 million cubic feet of solid waste was buried in 175 trenches (Brockman 2010). More than 350 billion gallons of liquid were discharged to the ground resulting in an estimated 32,000 cubic metres of contaminated soil (DOE 2000). A large number of buildings containing chemical or radioactive substances were located throughout the Hanford site at the beginning of cleanup activities (DOE 2001).

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Many nations with nuclear energy and related programmes are facing challenges with legacy sites which includes land, water, buildings, and structures along with decommissioning materials. A radiological or nuclear legacy site is one that has not completed remediation or eliminated radioactivity concern to the regulator. An audit of the radioactive waste management in Australia became the basis for an Integrated Waste Management Action Plan which addressed the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO)’s legacy radioactive waste issues (Dimitrovski 2002). Producing nuclear weapons during World War II produced widespread contamination of the environment with toxic chemicals and radionuclides in the USA in the 1990s, resulting in environmental contamination, public health threats (Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Complex Cleanup (1991). A long industrial heritage has left a legacy of about 2.8 million contaminated sites across Europe where polluting activities have taken or are taking place as of 2016 in the 28 nations of the EU. Further, approximately 694,000 sites have been formally registered in national and/or regional inventories in 29 European nations. About 240,000 of those sites are already being investigated or in need of investigation to assess the risk posed to environment and human health (Payá Pérez and Rodríguez Eugenio 2018). A common issue in hazardous waste management in Low- and Middle-Income countries (LMICs) is the lack of information regarding present as well as previous contaminated sites. Since 2008 Toxic Sites Identification Program (TSIP) has identified above 3,100 toxic sites around the earth (ADB 2014). About 60 abandoned uranium production sites throughout rural Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan as well as Uzbekistan pose a challenge for local and national governments that require technical expertise as well as resources for remediation. These now-abandoned sites in Central Asia were used to generate uranium until the 1990s with 36 waste piles as well as mill tailings have been partially remediated as well as cultivated, in addition to several landslide-prone spots near tailings have been improved as well as re-engineered to decrease the likelihood of seismic impact (Green 2016). In 2005, Blacksmith Institute initiated the Toxic Sites Identification Program (TSIP) that was implemented in 47 countries. More than 3200 contaminated sites have been identified in 2016 (Sharov 2016). Legacy sediment contamination is an important cause of ecological worsening in surface waters (O’Shea et al. 2018). Legacy contaminants in subsurface as well as surface sediments can be released into the water (Spencer et al. 2003). Apart from bioremediation and biomining discussed in Sect. 16.1 contaminated sites can be remediated by electrokinetic remediation,1 photocatalyticdegradation,2 solidification and stabilization, soil vapour extraction, soil washing, air-sparging, thermal-desorption,3 incineration, nanotechnology remediation, steam

1

Use of direct current electric potential through electrodes placed into the contaminated soil. Application of photocatalysts to promote reactions in the presence of light. 3 Use of heat to remove volatile and semi-volatile organics from contaminated site. 2

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stripping, dehalogenation, chemical reduction/oxidation, ultraviolet (UV) oxidation, supercritical fluids4 extraction. India added 31 Mt of waste to the legacy waste in 2016 to its 3,159 operational dumpsites and dumped 23.35 Mt of waste in the existing dumpsites in 2019. The Deonar dumpsite in Mumbai in India is the oldest, and the largest dumpsite set up in 1927 spreads over 131.92 ha. Mulund dumpsite is the second largest dumpsite of Mumbai and has been operational since 1967 spread over 23.87 hectares. Started in 2004 Kunjumarg dumpsite stretches, 118.16 Ha receives 5,500 tonnes of mixed waste per day (Centre for Science and Environment 2020). In 2014–15, Australia generated about 5.6 Mt of hazardous waste. Due to technology, infrastructure, regulatory, or market-economic shortcomings ‘legacy wastes’ remain present in very huge volumes that include approximately: • • • •

0.7 Mt of spent potliner (SPL) waste from the aluminium industries, 7.5 Mt of dewatered contaminated biosolids at Melbourne’s Western STP, 225 Mt of fly ash 500 Mt of red mud from alumina refining.

Overall hazardous waste arising continues to increase and range of wastes that are not neatly captured in annual generation estimates present complex challenges for the hazardous waste market, regulators, and the community. These wastes include: • • • • •

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) waste, Potentially contaminated biosolids, Coal seam gas (CSG) wastes, End-of-life lithium-ion batteries, Legacy wastes, such as – Fly ash – Red mud wastes. – SPL waste.

Missing legacy wastes from tracking data can be present in very large quantity. Contaminated soils are the largest hazardous waste in country data, making up 26% of the quantity in 2014–15. Contaminated soils from construction and development require the excavation of contaminated material (Blue Environment Pvt. Ltd. 2017). The level of recovery from LFM depends on the chemical and physical conditions of landfill and the efficiency of the equipment used (Cossu et al. 1996).

4

Materials at high temperature and pressure with properties between gas and a liquid.

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16.1 Bioremediation and Biomining of Old Municipal Dumpsites Bioremediation is the process of biological degradation of organic wastes under the controlled conditions to harmless state, or to levels less than concentration limits stipulated by regulatory authorities (Mueller et al. 1996). It can be carried out in situ or ex situ. Old, dumped wastes across the globe are consequence of poor SWM. Case study of Bhalswa Landfill—India is given in Box 16.2. Developing countries are still adding waste to existing dumpsite and forming new dump site. Non-remediation of these sites will add to the burden on economy and public health of nation in the short term. If not addressed in time, it may become an issue of international importance as the pollution may travel across borders. Advantages of bioremediation (Vidali 2001): • It is a natural process and end products are usually harmless. • It is useful for the complete degradation of variety of contaminants. • It can often be carried out on site without major disturbance of normal activities eliminating the need to transport waste off site. • It can prove less costly than other technologies. Disadvantages of bioremediation (Vidali 2001): • It is restricted to biodegradable compounds. • Its products may be more toxic or persistent compared to the parent compound. • Biological processes are highly specific, and success depends on the metabolic capability of microbial populations; appropriate levels of nutrients and contaminants; and environmental growth conditions. • It is difficult to extrapolate from pilot and bench scale studies to full-scale field operations. • Research is required for complex mixtures of contaminants. • It takes longer than other treatment options like incineration/pyrolysis. In Situ Bioremediation These techniques are advantageous options due to the less disturbance and lower cost as they provide the treatment in situ evading excavation and transport of waste. Some of the noteworthy in situ bioremediation are: Bioventing: This treatment involves supplying air and nutrients through wells to contaminated soil. In situ biodegradation: This treatment involves circulating nutrients and oxygen in the form of aqueous solutions through contaminated soils. Biosparging: This treatment involves the injection of air under the water table to enhance the concentration of oxygen in groundwater to increase the rate of biological degradation of contaminants.

16.1 Bioremediation and Biomining of Old Municipal Dumpsites

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Bioaugmentation: This treatment involves the addition of microorganisms. Box 16.2 Case Study: Bhalswa Landfill—India The Bhalswa landfill located in north-west Delhi, India, that received around 2,400 t/d of waste has been operational since 1994 and reached a height of about 62 m in 2019. The dumpsites stretched 28.3 Ha with around 8 million m3 of waste above ground level and 0.8 million m3 below-ground level. The biomining operations started on 1 October 2019 engaging 17 trommels at the dumpsite. As of 18 August 2020 around 661,454 t of legacy waste were processed by biomining out of which around 85,631 t of inert material was segregated and dumped at the eco-park site of National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) at Badarpur as well as other low-lying areas. Around 97,075 t of combustible waste or refuse-derived fuel was sent for co-processing in Jabalpur and the waste-to-energy plant in Bawana. The biomining process recovered 10,129 t of C&D waste. Legacy waste of around 52,700 sq. m area and 11 m height from the first mound and about 6,100 sq. m area and 12 m height from the second mound were cleared and about 4,200 t/d of legacy waste was being processed as of 2020 (Centre for Science and Environment 2020). Ex situ bioremediation These techniques involve the removal or excavation of contaminated soil from ground. Land farming: In this method, contaminated soil is excavated and periodically tilled until contaminants are degraded. Composting: In this method, contaminated soil and non-hazardous organic amendments (like manure or agricultural wastes) are combined to attain rich microbial population and elevated temperature suitable for composting. Biopiles: In this method, engineered cells are constructed and aerated. Bioreactors: In this method, aqueous/slurry reactors are used for treatment of contaminated water and soil. Phytoremediation Vegetation-based remediation can be achieved by phytoextraction, phytodegradation, phytotransformation, phytostabilization, and rhizofiltration. Phytoextraction or phytoaccumulation is the process to accumulate pollutants by the plants. Phytotransformation or phytodegradation is the degradation of organic pollutants into more stable, less toxic by plants. Phytostabilization is a method in which plants decrease the mobility as well as migration of contaminated soil.

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Phytodegradation or rhizodegradation is the degradation of pollutants by rhizosphere. Rhizofiltration is a technique of uptake of pollutants by plant roots.

16.1.1 Processing Bioremediation and Biomining Processing Forming window of legacy waste followed by stabilization through bioremediation by exposure of waste to air with use of composting biocultures is one of the solutions that may reclaim waste dump for useful purpose. The process involves excavating legacy waste and loosens it to make windrows so that leachate would dry, and entrapped methane would escape from the heap. The addition of composting biocultures would speed up decomposition. Screening of such stabilized waste would result in humus-rich organics, inert substance, and combustible material (CPCB 2019).

16.1.2 Equipments for Processing Legacy Waste The remediation of a legacy landfill needs suitable plants and equipment. Machinery that would typically be used for remediation of legacy MSW site is given in Table 16.1. Hazardous waste and nuclear waste legacy waste processing require sophisticated equipment and PPEs besides this equipment, which depend on site to site and hazard involved.

16.2 Treatment Process After excavation, the materials should be dried first for effective separation. Screening is done to separate soil-like particles from the larger components. Trommel and shaker or vibratory screens are usually used in LFM mining operations (Stessel and Murphy 1992). Transporting screened materials can be done by dump trucks or conveyor belts (Jain et al. 2023). Processing of in situ bioremediation is usually done in the following manner: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Determine volume of waste through contour survey, Perform initial baseline survey of soil, waters, and leachate Loosen the waste into windrows Sprinkle the exposed surfaces with composting bioculture solution, Rake garbage layers to pull out large rags, rubber, plastic, textiles, etc., Turn the windrow heaps once a day until no more heat is generated, If the garbage is stabilized, material shall be sieved and hauled away.

16.2 Treatment Process

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Table 16.1 Equipment for processing legacy waste Sl. No

Equipment

Use

1

Handling/Hauling equipment (backhoe front-end loaders, front loader tractors, sorting belts, bucket loaders, open-top transfer trailers, grapples, conveyors, forklifts, dumpers, articulated dump truck, dump trucks, dozers, conveyors, tractor-drawn scrapers, dredgers, motor scrapers, bull dozers)

• Applying cover/ cap • Loading waste • Minor pit/cell construction • Waste compaction • Waste movement

2

Steel wheel compactor

• Major waste consolidation • Major waste compaction

3

Excavator (cactus grab crane, hydraulic excavator, JCB excavator, toothed digging-type bucket excavator)

• • • •

Apply cover/cap Construct pit/cell Form cap Load waste/cover material • Waste movement

4

Tipper

• Move waste/cover

5

Roller

• Compact waste/ cover/cap

6

Screening machine (trommel, vibrating, drum sieve, disc/star, ballistic separator, grizzly/trommel separator, coarse sieve, shaker screens star sieve)

• Trommel, • Vibrating screen

7

Drilling machine (hydraulic piling rig, drilling rig, bucket auger, augers/drillers)

Drilling

8

Shredders (hammer mills-horizontal and vertical shaft, shear shredder, rotary shredder, grinders-roller, disc-mill, scissors-type and guillotine shears, ball mill, knife mill, flail mill, wet pulper)

Shredding

9

Ferrous metal separators (overbend magnets, head pulley magnets, Separating ferrous magnetic separators, drum magnets, tail-rotor magnets, belt metals magnets)

10

Non-ferrous metal separators (Eddy current separators)

Separating non-ferrous metals

11

Air separation technologies (wind shifter, drum separators, air classifiers, air knife, air knife/de-stoner)

Separating lighter material

The site characterization or baseline survey should assess geological features, stability of the surrounding area, fractions of usable soil, proximity of groundwater, combustible waste, recyclable material, and hazardous waste at the site.

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16.3 Use of Screened Fraction Screened larger fraction from biomined MSW site can be used for solid fuel and road making. Finest fraction can be tested for heavy metals and other toxics and used for: • Soil conditioner in farmland, and • Restoration of mining overburden areas. The mining of old landfill results in combustibles, inert fractions, soil-like fractions, and other fractions. Combustible fraction and soil-like fraction make up for about 70% of the mined waste (Jain et al. 2023). In the Edinburg landfill, USA reclaimed soil that constituted 75% of the reclaimed material that was approved for offsite use as construction fill-in non-surface applications. The remaining 25% recovered non-soil materials were hand-sorted. Cleaning of 50% of the non-soil materials to market standards were not feasible. Hence, such material was sent to a nearby landfill (USEPA 1997). The combustible fraction from LFM will have low energy value, high ash content, and high concentration of heavy metals and chlorine. These fractions require precleaning techniques before using combustible fractions. High heavy metal content also poses to use soil-like fraction as compost. Hence, soil-like fraction can be utilized as compost for the non-edible crop after the removal of plastic, metal, and other inert material (Jain et al. 2023).

16.4 Process Management The radiological characterization of nuclear legacy sites is broadly unknown as site ownership has changed several times, former site operators with understanding of the sites are not available and/or records have been lost (Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA), Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) 2019). Poorly characterized hazards, as well as other challenges, may also exist. The characteristics of municipal and industrial legacy sites are also usually not documented especially in developing countries where waste management was not a priority. The waste accumulated due to inaction and corruption of old generation has to be borne by new generation. Many times, remediation of legacy waste site in developing countries would be international concern especially when it is located in coastal area or near international borders. Landfill reclamation is used to expand MSW landfill capacity and evade the high cost of acquiring additional land. Other benefits of landfill reclamation are avoided liability through site remediation, sale or use of recovered materials, reductions in closure, and reclamation costs of land for other uses (USEPA 1997). A case study of landfill reclamation at a Florida landfill site is given in Box 16.3 (Jain et al. 2012).

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Box 16.3 Case Study: Landfill Reclamation at a Florida Landfill Site (Jain et al. 2012) Based on the results of phased approach to evaluate the economic and technical feasibility evaluations, about 6.8 Ha of the unlined cells were reclaimed by mining about 371,000 m3 of waste was mined from 6.8 Ha in a landfill site of Florida, thereby recovering around 230,600 m3 of net airspace. Schematic diagram of framework for a logical sequence of legacy site remediation/ reclamation is given in Fig. 16.2. A large gap exists between theory and practice and, hence, to ensure success, it is important to consult stakeholders to know their expectations and knowledge including a proposed change of land use and public health concerns. Managing hazardous wastes uncovered during reclamation/remediation operations, are subject to special handling/disposal requirements with high management costs. Controlling releases of landfill gases raises a many problems like explosions, fires, and toxic effects on human health. Controlling subsidence/collapse during excavation of landfill area can affect integrity of neighbouring cells, which can collapse/ sink into the excavated area. Reclamation/remediation activities may shorten the useful life of equipment.

Fig. 16.2 Schematic diagram of framework for a logical sequence of legacy site remediation

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Fig. 16.3 Legacy waste spread over large area

16.4.1 Space Management Usually, legacy waste is spread over area (Fig. 16.3). Aeration, stabilizing as well as screening needs to be done within the boundaries of dumpsite or landfill site. Every dump/landfill site poses a case-by-case challenge, and needs to be worked downward from the top surface with a safe slope of 25–30°. Vertical wall of waste can cause a landslide of waste. A 5-acre MSW landfill in Edinburg, New York, USA, that received waste from 1969 to 1991 was reclaimed in four phases starting from December 1990 completely eliminating the footprint (USEPA 1997).

16.4.2 Leachate Management Moisture in the waste leaches out in legacy waste dump site dissolving a wide range of chemicals present in the waste (Figs. 16.4 and 16.5). Water-logged dumpsite can possess leachate even in topmost layers and all the way to the bottom. Channels need to be created to lead the leachate to a lined depression (Fig. 16.6) for leachate recirculation onto windows or for treatment. It is highly recommended to analyse that waste for radioactive and toxic substances. The Capriano del Colle special waste dump situated on the eastern slopes of Monte Netto, in Italy, used only for the disposal of foundry wastes in around three hectares with total disposable volume 370,000 m3 structured in seven tanks of about out of which the contaminated substance is collocated in tank 3, 4, 5, and 6 with a volume of 200,000 m3 .In the latter half of 1990, three sites were investigated for radioactive contaminants, possibly due to a melted radioactive source in aluminium scrap metal from Eastern Europe. Periodic monitoring was carried out to know the

16.4 Process Management Fig. 16.4 Leachate flow from legacy waste site waste

Fig. 16.5 Leachate collected in pond

Fig. 16.6 Leachate generated in dump site

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quantity of Cs-137 in the water leaching into the landfill as well as the groundwater (NEA, OECD 2019).

16.4.3 Fire Control and Safety Safety must be addressed during the reclamation/remediation of legacy sites, to build trust, and create credibility with stakeholders. Typical safety issues in legacy site include fire, drown, fall, insect bite, animal (dog, snake, rat, etc.) bite, infection, radiation exposure, toxic fume exposure, waste slide, injury from sharp objects, slippery floor, and explosion. Most large dumpsites will have smoke due to hidden fires due to the presence of methane, combustible material. Combustible industrial waste in dumpsites may aggravate the problem. Chemical reaction between noncompatible materials can result in dangerous reaction posing danger to workforce and machinery. In the case of dumpsites adding water increases the methane and leachate generation. Most fires within heaps have a point source which has to be plucked out and laid nearby. Wet soil may be used to plug the excavated hole. It is important to do the risk assessment as well as an onsite emergency plan prior to the commencement of dumpsite bioremediation and biomining. Historical disposal of industrial and domestic waste often took place with little regard for public health and environmental impacts. Such ‘legacy landfill’ and ‘legacy dumpsites’ in coastal areas are likely to be affected by extreme cycles of wetting and drying, greater erosion, and increased flooding.

16.4.4 Use of Recovered Space Cleared dumps should not be permitted for habitation immediately as leachate and landfill gases may be present at ground which has to be monitored prior to taking decision for further use. Permissible options for reuse of dumpsite are open stadia, parks and gardens, sports grounds, parking lots, warehouses of non-flammables, container yards and similar facilities where people do not live or work all day and night.

16.5 Biomining Below-Ground Waste Many dumpsites in abandoned quarry pits or mines have resulted in leachate discharged out at the bottom of the pit entering into shallow and deep groundwater. In such cases, the waste needs to be excavated in downward layers and unloaded

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on the surface in conical heaps or windrows, which can be turned frequently before screening.

16.6 Clearing Versus Capping of Legacy Waste Clearing a dumpsite to ground level is a better option for the following reasons: • Clearing by biomining recovers the whole base area of a dump at ground level, • Capping gives only partial area as usable area at a not convenient height for future use, • Capping requires about 15 years of leachate pump-out and treatment whereas cleared sites do not require aftercare. Pune Municipal Corporation (PMC) in India disposed about 750 TPD of MSW at used stone quarry since 2002 in Uruli Dewachi, about 5–6 km away from the PMC limits. The waste heap was very unstable as the face angle of the waste was more than the stable angle of repose. Hence, the waste was evenly spread out and compacted covered by Very Flexible Polyethylene (VFPE), geotextile, 300 mm thick soil layer, and layer of sweet earth, respectively. Drains and gas vents were provided to allow draining of rainwater and for the release of gases. Since the PMC had not acquired land for a new landfill facility a smaller landfill was planned over the capped waste (Anna University, Asian Institute of Technology, University of Kalmar 2022). Poor capping of the 35-acre Gorai dumpsite, Mumbai, India, resulted in refund of Rs 150 million of advance carbon credits. A gas leak at Malad dumpsite, Mumbai, India, resulted in a failure of electronic equipment in the Mindspace IT Park, located adjacent to the dumpsite. Sulphur in hydrogen sulphide gas released from the capped landfill made the circuit board non-conducting. The filled pit was capped with green vegetation and lawn sprinklers added moisture to the waste through tears in the plastic layer covering the legacy waste. Landfill gas robustly bubbling up in every unemptied leachate extraction well is observed in Bagalur dumpsite, Bengaluru, where leachate extraction wells were built in a partially lined pit (Centre for Science and Environment 2020). When a solid waste “dump” or a “landfill”, reaches the end of its capacity or is scheduled for closure, care must be taken to ensure garbage does not pose an impact on environment. Properly restored landfill sites can be used to the benefit of communities which can be used for sports as well as recreational purposes. Construction of structures on closed landfills cannot be done until complete stabilization takes place, which may take many years due to ongoing settlement as well as the generation of landfill gas. Examples of afterlife use include: • Animal breading, • Community business/service, • Open space,

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Other public amenity appropriate for the land use, Parkland, Plant nursery, Recycling centre, Solar farm, Sport fields, Storage for recyclables, Tourism, and Transfer station.

Closure Plan The typical table of content of closure plan is given in Box 16.4. Box 16.4 Typical Table of Content I. Brief history • • • • • • • •

Site location (maps and GIS coordinates), Site ownership and occupiers details, Locations of waste deposition, Depth and volume of waste disposal Procedure for disposal Type of waste disposal Operational timeframe, Method of construction (e.g., cells, engineering).

II. Site Information Summary: • • • • •

Geology, Groundwater, Topography Surface waters, Surrounding land use including sensitive receptors.

III. Post-closure Monitoring Plan • Air, • Water, • Soil. IV. Storm Water Management. V. Leachate/Gas Management. VI. Termination of Waste Disposal.

References

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References ADB (2014) Final report: mitigation of hazardous waste contamination in urban areas: supporting inclusive growth: 47144 001. Regional Capacity Development Technical Assistance (R-CDTA 8458) Alonso MA, Traseira MJC (2019) A legacy of waste: reflections on literature and the environment. J Postcolonial Writing 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/17449855.2019.1590565 Anna University, Asian Institute of Technology, University of Kalmar (2022) Dumpsite rehabilitation manual. Centre for Environmental Studies, Anna University, Chennai. https://www.elaw. org/system/files/Dumpsite%20Rehabilitation%20Manual.pdf. Accessed on 23 Jan 2022 Blue Environment Pvt. Ltd. (2017) Hazardous waste in Australia 2017. Prepared for Department of the Environment and Energy, 30 May 2017. https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/doc uments/hazardous-waste-australia-2017.pdf. Accessed on 4 Aug 2022 Brockman DN, Brosee J, Lehaw F, Figeroa (2010) Congressional nuclear cleanup caucus DOE’s Hanford site, Washington State. Presentation to 2010 Congressional nuclear cleanup caucus. Prepared by U.S. Department of Energy, March 4. Available at http://ww.orau.gov/DDSC/pro jects/DOE/congressional-caucus-briefings/2010-RichlandNuclear-Cleanup.pdf Brose D, Heimberg JA (2014) Best practices for risk-informed decision making regarding contaminated sites summary of a workshop series. National Academic Press, Washington DC Camenzuli D, Fryirs K, Gore D, Freidman B (2015) Managing waste in the presence of cultural heritage at Wilkes Station, East Antarctica. Polar Rec 51(2):151–159. https://doi.org/10.1017/ S0032247413000740 Centre for Science and Environment (2020) Clean it right-dumpsite management in India, Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi Cossu R, Hogland W, Salerni E (1996) Landfill mining in Europe and USA. ISWA Yearbook. International Solid Waste Association, pp 107–114 CPCB (2019) Guidelines for disposal of legacy waste (Old municipal solid waste). Delhi Davis M (2016) Guidelines for the Closure of Legacy Waste Sites 2016, The Local Government Association of the Northern Territory, Parap, Australia Dimitrovski L (2002) Management of legacy radioactive waste. In: International conference on issues and trends in radioactive waste management. Vienna (Austria), pp 237–242, 9–13 Dec 2002 DOE (2001) A report to congress on long-term stewardship, volume II—site summaries. Office of Long-Term Stewardship, Office of Environmental Management. U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC DOE (2013) Hanford tank waste retrieval, treatment, and disposition framework. Office of Environmental Management. September 24. DOE, Washington DC. Available at http://energy.gov/ sites/prod/files/2013/09/f3/DOE%20Hanford%20Framework%20final.pdf Green A (2016) Cleaning up a toxic legacy: environmental remediation of former uranium production sites, Sep 27, 2016. https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/cleaning-up-a-toxic-legacy-env ironmental-remediation-of-former-uranium-production-sites. Accessed on 1 Aug 2022 Jain P, Townsend TG, Johnson P (2012) Case study of landfill reclamation at a Florida landfill site. Waste Manage 33(1):109–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.09.011 Jain M, Kumar A, Kumar A (2023) Landfill mining: a review on material recovery and its utilization challenges. Process Saf Environ Protect 169:948–958. ISSN 0957-5820. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.psep.2022.11.049 Lihach SA, Ilyasova AS, Kulesh RN, Nikolaeva VI (2016) Utilization direction of industrial raw products built-up in power station ash dumps. MATEC Web Conf 92:01074 Mueller JG, Cerniglia CE, Pritchard PH (1996) Bioremediation of environments contaminated by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Bioremediation: principles and applications. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 125–194

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NEA, OECD (2019) Challenges in nuclear and radiological legacy site management, towards a common regulatory framework, NEA No. 7419. https://www.oecd-nea.org/upload/docs/applic ation/pdf/2020-09/7419-eglm.pdf. Accessed on 22 Jan 2022 New York Times (2007) Recycling in Israel, not just trash, but the whole dump, 24 October 2007. https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/24/world/middleeast/24dump.html?pagewa nted=2. Accessed on 9 Jan 2023 Newmine (2023) EU training network for resource recovery through enhanced landfill mining. http://new-mine.eu/project/. Accessed on 9 Jan 2023 Office of Legacy Management (NA) About us. https://www.energy.gov/lm/about-us. Accessed on 31 July 2022 Orlova T, Melnichuk A , Klimenko K, Vitvitskaya V, Popovych V, Dunaieva I, Terleev V, Nikonorov A , Togo I, Volkova Y, Mirschel W, Garmanov V (2017) IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci 012110. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/90/1/012110 O’Shea FT, Cundy AB, Spencer KL (2018) The contaminant legacy from historic coastal landfills and their potential as sources of diffuse pollution. Mar Pollut Bull 128:446–455. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.12.047 Payá Pérez A, Rodríguez Eugenio N (2018). Status of local soil contamination in Europe: revision of the indicator “Progress in the management contaminated sites in Europe”. European Commission Joint Research Centre, Ispra. https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/statuslocal-soil-con tamination-europe-revision-indicator-progress-management-contaminatedsites. Accessed on 3 Aug 2022 Riley AL, MacDonald JM, Burke IT, Renforth P, Jarvis AP, Hudson-Edwards KA, McKie J, Mayes WM (2020) Legacy iron and steel wastes in the UK: extent, resource potential, and management futures. J Geochem Explor 219:106630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2020.106630 Rosendal R (2009). Landfill mining—process, feasibility, economy, benefits and limitations. RenoSam, København Sharov P, Dowling R, Gogishvili M, Jones B, Caravanos J, McCartor A, Kashdan Z, Fuller R (2016) The prevalence of toxic hotspots in former Soviet countries. Environ Pollut 211:346–353. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.01.019 Spencer KL, Cundy AB, Croudace IW (2003) Heavy metal distribution and early-diagenesis in salt marsh sediments from the Medway Estuary, Kent, UK. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 57(2003):43–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7714(02)00324-4 Stessel RI, Murphy RJ (1992) Processing of material mined from landfills. In: Proceedings of National waste processing conference, pp 101–111 US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Complex Cleanup (1991) The environmental legacy of nuclear weapons production, OTA-O-484. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC USEPA (1997) Landfill reclamation, solid waste and emergency response (5306W). EPA530-F-97001 July 1997. Washington DC van der Zee DJ, Achterkamp MC, De Visser BJ (2004) Assessing the market opportunities of landfill mining. Waste Manage 24:795–804 Vidali M (2001) Bioremediation. An overview. Pure Appl Chem 73(7):1163–1172 Wikipedia (2022) Ariel Sharon Park. Last edited on 4 Dec 2022. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Ariel_Sharon_Park#cite_note-9. Accessed on 9 Jan 2023

Chapter 17

Waste Mafia

The word ‘mafia’ is derived from the Sicilian adjective mafiusu meaning ‘swagger’ (behave in a very arrogant and confident or self-important manner)’, or ‘boldness’. While some definitions define mafia as an international criminal organization of Sicilian origin other definition defines it as organized crime group operating internationally organized crime. Ecomafia is a neologism for organized crime that cases damage to the environment. Over the years, regulators, law enforcement officials as well as lawmakers have taken aim at organized crime in some countries while and in other, they flourish as governments have either neglected the crime or are part of crime. Garbage mobsters in some countries have been prosecuted and jailed beside their waste-hauling cartels have been dismantled, as well as special licensing needs have been established to prevent convicted criminal and other deceitful individuals from systematically infiltrating in addition to weakening the health as well as quality of life of the citizens. Illicit disposals and trades of hazardous wastes are international issues and is an environmental crime (Fig. 17.1) which is difficult to understand and study as information on these trends is scarce. Legal and illegal waste trades and disposals in both domestic and global dimensions add to their complexities (Tompson and Chainey 2011). As per the State of New Jersey Commission of Investigation (2011), despite legal actions, the integrity of these waste management industries remains a threat. The commission uncovered noteworthy criminal intrusion into solid waste in the late 1960s and observed that the industry remained open to abuse and manipulation by criminal elements that evade the existing regulatory system. The convicted felons, profit heavily from commercial recycling, have remained largely unregulated. Usually, the people performing environmental crime will not consider it as a crime. Environmental crime is on the increase. A yearly growth rate of 5 to 7 per cent in the number of crimes in recent years has turned this into one of the important areas of crime (Colantoni and Bianchi 2020) whether it is throwing trash on street or not segregating the waste in accordance with law. People are ignorant of waste

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6_17

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Fig. 17.1 Classification of Environmental Crime

management legislation, and they continue to violate the same while governments keep on amending the laws without knowing the implications of the amendments. In fact, mere passing of legislation will not solve the environmental problem. It will create more confusion and corruption (Fig. 17.2) if environmental legislations are passed discriminately without performing regulatory impact assessment. The waste mafia uses several disposal strategies (Fig. 17.3) such as (Scalia 2000; Barbieri and Paglionica 2007; Chandrappa and Das 2021): (a) Burning special waste in the countryside, (b) Dumping hazardous waste in illegal quarries as well as construction sites of infrastructural public works, (c) Dumping hazardous waste in the countryside/ocean/river/lake/estuary/forest/ wetland, (d) Forging document, (e) Illegal import/export, and (f) Mixing toxic with domestic waste. The New Jersey Commission of Investigation (2011) has revealed that individuals who were barred from the solid waste industry in New Jersey due to ties to organized

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Fig. 17.2 Type of corruption

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Illegal import/ export Dumping in quary/cave/ infrastructural public works

Forging doument

Waste Mafia

Mixing toxic waste with domestic waste

Burning waste in countryside Dumping in cuntryside/ ocean/river/ lake/estuary/fo rest/wetland

Fig. 17.3 Disposal strategy of waste mafia

crime or other illegal activities have found ways to do business in waste transporting/ recycling. In some cases, they operate in the guise of apparently legitimate front companies and in others they make money as the proprietors of real estate and/or equipment rented to licensed waste companies. In others, their business interests are secretly entrenched in organizations owned and operated by relatives whose credentials as well as clean criminal records fulfil solid waste licensing requirements. Not all countries will check the criminal background of those who want to do business in SWM especially when mammoth part of SWM is done by informal sector in the third world. Environmental crime is one of the most gainful forms of criminal activity (Banks et al. 2008). The industrialisation of civilization continues to create ineffaceable human footprint long-term and immediate environmental consequences (Walters 2013; White 2010). In 2016, Interpol as well as UNEP projected that environmental crime is the fourth most lucrative illegal business worldwide with an annual turnover between 91 and 258 billion USD/annum (Nellemann et al 2016). Environmental crime is estimated to be among the most profit-generating crimes on the earth, generating about USD 110–281 billion in criminal gains each year (Nellmann et al. 2018).

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Political unrest as well as armed conflict gives both the conditions and momentum for organized environmental crime that ends in human dislocation besides species decline. During this inquiry by the New Jersey Commission of Investigation (2011) identified more than 30 individuals debarred by New York were engaged in solid waste and/or recycling in New Jersey. Compared to conventional criminal laws which remain the same for past decades and are hardly amended, environmental laws are amended even before the original law is fully understood enforcing authority. The reason for this could be international pressure and lobbying of wealthy entrepreneurs. Sometimes the law and practice will be very different as the enforcing agencies struggle with inherent weakness such as low staff, poor understanding of issues/law, corruption, political pressure, lack of motivation to name few. Organized crime can take many forms in SWM. Some waste collectors use violent gangs to be in command of lucrative neighbourhood. At waste temporary dumps or holding skips conflict arises from waste scavengers claim sole rights on waste to recover materials. During transportation, cartels pay for sole rights to high-value loads from the airport and high-end hotels. At the dumpsites, several groups of waste scavengers are controlled by violent cartels, linked with criminal activities with explicit areas of functioning not accessible to other groups (Muindi et al. 2020).

17.1 Illegal Trafficking and Unsustainable Waste Management Illegal Waste Trafficking (IWT) is one of the choices to save money required for scientific treatment and disposal. Waste trafficking is one of the widespread offenses due to the complexity of regulations, the possibility of international trade, and the growing desire by many businesses to save money on disposal, which is becoming more and more costly due to strict environmental regulations (Eropol 2022). Organized environmental crime groups, motivated by considerable financial rewards, carry on thriving and expanding in disadvantaged societies with porous borders where regulation poor and corruption is extensive (UNODC 2009). Illegal waste activities that include illegal management and trafficking may occur domestically and internationally (Fig. 17.4) (Calderoni et al. 2014; Liddick 2010; Tompson and Chainey 2011). While the waste is moved from one region to another at domestic level (Massari and Monzini 2004a, b), at a global level, it normally trafficked from developed to developing nations where waste can be sold as a fake secondary raw material (Bisschop 2012a, b; Rucevska et al. 2015a, b). Unlawful trafficking of waste is one of the fast-growing lucrative industries in Italy (Filippo et al. 2015). IWT poses threat to the sustainable development of poor nations (Serena and Alberto 2020).

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Domestic

Illegal Trafficking

International (Developed country to developing country)

International (Developed country to developed country)

Fig. 17.4 Common models of illegal trafficking

Crime-proofing analysis conducted to recognize vulnerabilities in the selected European Union and Italian government waste legislation revealed three macrocategories of loopholes: the supply chain, the legal framework, and the justice response system (Margaux et al 2020). Illicit hazardous waste disposal is estimated to be a multi-billion-dollar industry (Derica and Michael 2016). During the late 1980s, out of around 300 Mt of waste generated per year from the developed countries nearly 50 Mt was exported to African and about 15 African nations were targeted for toxic waste dumping countries (Massari and Monzini 2004a, b). Illegal waste trafficking produces about $10–12 billion every year, the clean-up costs from such crimes are more for governments besides threats to public health (the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) 2021). Western Europe and North America are the major sources as well as transit nations for illegal waste trafficking while Central/ South America, sub-Saharan Africa, and Southeast Asia are the major destinations. In some instances, trafficked waste is disposed of in sea or locally. Many studies have highlighted some of the major reasons of waste crime (Dorn et al. 2007; Bisschop 2012a, b; Massari and Monzini 2004a, b; Van Erp and Huisman 2010). 1980s saw many waste brokers sending ships across the world in search of new dumping places for their hazardous cargoes. Number of European chemical industries tried to export hazardous wastes to developing nations. Almost every nation in the Caribbean area has been besieged as a dumpsite by waste brokers functioning from the USA (Greenpeace 1991). Main destinations for significant shipments of hazardous

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wastes include Asia and Africa. In Africa, a major recipient is Ghana and Nigeria, apart from the Republic of the Congo and Cote D’Ivoire. In Asia destination for such shipments include China, Pakistan, Hong Kong, Bangladesh, India, and Vietnam.

17.1.1 Significance of Organized Environmental Crime Organized environmental crime will not affect only few people. The effect would be transboundary and affect law abiding citizens. By definition crime is ‘an illegal act punishable by law’. If there is no law in place to properly dispose of waste, then improper disposal is not punishable but still affects the health of flora/fauna including humans who are part of improper waste disposal. Driving forces of organized environmental crime are given in Fig. 17.5. Environmental crime is primarily driven by high-reward, low-risk business model, where criminals make use of labour costs, enforcement capacity and weak environmental legislation. These global inequalities create opportunities for illegal trafficking between countries beside illegally dispose on land/rivers/sea. Environmental crime should not be misunderstood that such crime is performed only by private person/ organization. Urban local bodies and government institutes also perform such crime all over the world. Increased number of government and government organizations pulled to court by civic society itself is a proof and the number is still increasing. Organized crime has been observed to be involved in numerous cases of pollution crime, converging with other crime types like human trafficking, fraud, theft, drugs and firearms trafficking, and money laundering. Transnational as well as cross-over Fig. 17.5 Driving forces of organized environmental crime

Corruption, week law/enforce ment

High reward/ Low risk Cheap labour, nonpatriat ism

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offences are also linked to pollution crimes, requiring a coordinated law enforcement response, both at the national and international levels. In 1957, the New York City’s municipal authorities insisted commercial establishments to hire private companies collect waste and stopped collecting commercial waste. As per the Congress report, the racketeers charged precipitous fees to dispose of toxic/hazardous waste, and then blend them with regular garbage before dumping them into landfills (Gupta 2015). As per Interpol (2009) Malaysia is the largest export destination for US e-waste. Operation 30 days by Interpol at Sea between 1 and 31 October 2019 exposed 3789 marine pollution-related offences resulting in 1318 arrests, the issuance of more than half a million USD in fines, the disturbance of 90 criminal networks, and the exposing of 401 suspect companies beside 50 suspect vessels (Interpol 2020). Number of deals was offered to Caribbean nations to accept ash generated by municipal waste incinerators or garbage from major cities of USA. There are plenty of laboratory studies that of the ash has dangerous levels of heavy metals in addition to dioxins (Greenpeace 1991). The International Court of Justice gave its first decision on 2 February 2018 on environmental damage and compensation in the case Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) Compensation Owed by The Republic of Nicaragua to the Republic of Costa Rica. The case started from a territory dispute between Costa Rica as well as Nicaragua over a 3-km area of wetland in Isla Portillas (IUCN 2018). Mustapha Aroui and several ministry officials of Tunisia were arrested and sentenced to jail for the importation of plastic wastes from Italy (rfi 2023; France24 2023; Arabnews 2023). During 1984–1985, Swedish company Boliden Mineral AB dumped nearly 20,000 tonnes of toxic waste, in Arica paying a local company, Promel Ltda., to receive the waste (OHCHR 2021). Millions of tonnes of waste were illegally dumped near Derry, in Northern Ireland (Wray 2023).

17.1.2 Market Situation and Complexity The four different types of market conditions are perfect competition, imperfect competition, oligopoly, and monopoly. Word ‘oligos’, from the Greek means just a few or scanty. Oligopoly arises when small number firms have all/most of the market. A monopoly is situation where one company dominates and exists excluding all other viable competitors. Hence, single/few corporate may influence lawmakers and policymakers to formulate law, policy, and guidelines to eliminate others from competition. The demand for illicit waste management as well as disposal services come from legal businesses. Waste producers seek low-priced services to minimize costs as well as maximize revenues as the prices in the illegal market are about one-fifth to one-third of the legal ones.

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Market complexities of demand, players, profit margins, trade routes are often poorly understood by enforcement authorities. Market complexity (Fig. 17.6) in waste management industry arises due to corruption in government, behaviour of waste generator, competition, profit margin, collection and transportation management, pricing intricacies, and corporate corruption. The corrupt system may also leave vendors of waste management machine to mint money by selling faulty product (Box 17.1). Toxic waste follows the pathway of slightest resistance. The hazardous byproducts tend to travel towards those locales with the least political as well as economic power to refuse them. The economic “gradient” defined by the dissimilarity in disposal costs in different places causes wastes to move which is determined by labour costs, land value, comparative environmental protection legislation, as well as liability obligations (Greenpeace 1991). Almer and Goeschl (2010) reported that 65% of all environmental crime related to illegal activities linked with waste in a study of environmental crime in southwest Germany. In Scotland about half of all enforcement measures are related to waste-related crime (SEPA 2012). Of the 21,670 shipments physically inspected in European Union 18% of violations were waste-related (IMPEL 2011). One of the major challenges for law enforcement against environmental criminals is identification of the organized crime groups that carry out environmental crime by

High cost for legal disposal

Corruption, behaviour, weak law/ enforcement

Competation

Waste mafia/scam Fig. 17.6 Market situation/complexity which leads to waste mafia/scam

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legal businesses that make these crimes less visible which often open and dissolve rapidly besides changing commercial routes (Europol 2022a). Most of environmental criminals are opportunistic owners/operators of legal business who decide to augment their chances of profit by establishing a criminal venture. Criminal networks are mostly composed of low-level associates who operate as per the command of few leaders which may include enforcing officers, politicians and religious leaders. Specialized service providers provide technical, legal, financial, and professional money laundering.Criminals mainly use legal businesses such as waste management businesses, fishing companies, and others. In the past years, more than 78 less industrialized countries have been asked to accept huge quantities of industrial waste from the USA as well as Europe. From 1986 to 1988, more than 3Mt of wastes were exported from the OECD nations to non-OECD nations (Greenpeace 1991). Corruption in government may compel waste generator to provide business to one or few organizations thereby such organization try to make extra margin by not scientifically processing waste. Behaviour of waste generator to declare low waste quantity or choose the lowest bidder might alter market. The reason from massive transfer of toxic waste to Africa in 1980 is at that time, average disposal cost for one tonne of hazardous waste in western nation was between US$ 2000, while in Africa was between US$ 2.5 and US$50 (Royal Institute of International Affairs 2002). A major development in the waste trade is deals as reuse/recycling proposals. For example, numerous nations in the Caribbean region experience from acute shortages of roads and electricity. As a result, waste traders have tried to convince them to build toxic waste incinerators to generate electricity (along with ash and toxic air pollution) or use incinerator ash to make roads (along with its dioxin and heavy metals) (Greenpeace 1991). EU criminal networks are more and more targeting central as well as eastern Europe to traffic illicit waste generated in western Europe. EU waste traffickers mainly target South-East Asia for end-of-life vessels and illicit plastic waste, besides Africa for WEEE (Europol 2022a). Box 17.1 Organic Waste Convertor Organic waste convertors promoted in India claimed to convert waste to compost within a day in which wet waste is to be fed into instant composting machine. In case, bigger and harder chunks, the waste has to be a shredded and dewatering machine is required if waste has excess moisture. The company that promised to buy back the output at Rs 1 per kg stopped purchasing after the initial procurement of 2000 kg without giving any explanation. The machine required to be fed by bacteria supplied by manufacturer. The machine which are energy-intensive required 32–38 units of electricity a day, costing Rs.25,000– 30,000 a month equivalent to cost of monthly rent of flat. Companies promoted the output as compost but in reality the output needs to be required to undergo

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further mixed with soil, dung, and leaf compost and needs to be left for 15– 20 days which company claimed curing period (Varshney and Ramanathan 2019). The citizens realizes that they were duped by companies which sold “instant compost-making machines”, claiming the machine capable of breaking down garbage to compost within 24 h (Shruthi 2018). The machine which costed Rs 0.85 million to one million (which is cost of car) broke down within few days and were started malfunctioning. 13 waste-to-compost plants owned by the Pune Municipal Corporation (PMC), India, to convert organic waste into compost within 24 h failed causing a financial loss worth over Rs 40 crore to PMC and, hence, Pune bench of Hon’ble National Green Tribunal issued the directive to the Maharashtra Pollution Control Board to take suitable action against agencies concerned by initiating prosecution in addition to recovery of compensation on the basis of ‘polluter pays’ principle (Chavan 2022). Market fluctuations define the modi operandi used by waste criminals who recycle and reintroduce into the economy offering low-price services by removal of residues followed by transferring to recycling plants. When the illicit waste cannot be resold as a secondary raw material, modus operandi to make it include • • • • •

Burning waste, Burying it underground, Dumping in nature, Illegal storage in warehouses, Mixing waste with other types of waste/material, turning it into raw materials, and • Using it as fuel. In one case, the amount of loss incurred in legal market by resale of stolen paper waste amounted to EUR 10 million and a criminal network gained EUR 3 million by dumping animal blood into rivers and wells (Europol 2022a).

17.1.3 Non-reliable Data and Greatly Varying Data Waste trafficking modus operandi includes deliberately classifying waste as other items to mislead law enforcement authorities by using product codes or nonhazardous waste codes for hazardous wastes. Shipments of e-waste are often camouflaged as second-hand goods. Insufficient resources for enforcement, monitoring

668 Fig. 17.7 Nonreliable data and greatly varying data often leads to mismatch

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Waste e Quantity generated d/accumulated

Waste Quantity processed/disposed

as well as low penalties provide opportunities for transnational organized crime. Non-reliable data and greatly varying data often lead to mismatch (Fig. 17.7). Small- and large-scale smuggling techniques are observed across the globe in the form of truck transport across Europe as well as North America to extensive container transport by sea. Numerous abandoned waste containers with unidentified contents are stored in many parts of the world. In 2000, the generation of hazardous waste worldwide was 400 Mt, most of which is originating from developed countries. However, estimation of ‘illegal transboundary moment of hazardous waste is difficult (Sirleaf 2019) as waste traders can ship variety of dangerous material misrepresented as “road oil, fertilizer, building materials”, etc. (Greenpeace 1991). In 2007, about 32 Mt of the 132 Mt urban waste in Italy (Pasotti 2010), and as per the National Observatory of Waste’s 2009 report, there was no increase in urban waste generation. While urban waste is generated proportion to population differences existed in how urban waste was disposed. Out of nearly nine million tonnes of waste recycled, more than six million are recycled in the north, whereas only 2.7 Mt in the centre and south combined (Osservatorio Nazionale deiRifiuti 2009). Illegal disposal of waste is not only a problem in Italy (Organized environmental crime in the EU Member States 2003). The European Environment Agency (EEA) stress “the lack of sound, reliable, comparable and available data” in its third environmental assessment report of 2003 which hinders the assessment of the extent of illicit waste disposal as well as its prevention (EEA 2003).

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The average cost of hazardous waste disposal in an OECD nation in the beginning of 1990s was around 85 and 1700 Euro/t (Brack 2002) whereas it is much cheaper to sell to a third-world country by using forged documents or mix it with other materials as identifying the extent of illegal activities is difficult. The mode of operation of illegally shipping toxic waste resembles those of trafficking in other goods like alcohol, cigarettes, contraband besides false declarations, diluting the material so it falls within legal limits, document falsification, and bribery (United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute 2000). The extent of illegal international shipment of waste can only be estimated. French customs listed 348 infractions in 2001 in their annual report in context of imports or transit consignments, representing a 15% raise compared to the previous year with main origin from Germany, followed by Luxembourg as well as Belgium (Ministère de l’Économie des Finances et de l’Industrie 2002). Used tyre dumping scam targets tyre retailers and vehicle wrecking yards in Perth, Australia with the offender promising to dispose of worn-out tyres considerably cheaper than legitimate tyre recyclers and dumps the scrap tyres at properties they have leased that include vacant land lots, storage lockers, besides back yards of rented homes. The offender then abandons the property, leaving the owner with the problem of disposing of the tyres (Moffat 2020). Studies published by Basel Action Network (BAN)’s e-Trash Transparency Project large-scale e-waste flow study by observing actual e-waste movement from the USA into the global marketplace using trackers revealed 34% of the 205 tracker deployments move offshore with 31% of the going to developing nations (Hopson and Puckett 2016). As per report by the Comptroller and Auditor General of the UK waste crime is a serious problem with estimated to cost more than £900 million per year to the English economy, but the Environment Agency (EA) and the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) do not currently have the data to understand the full scale of waste crime due to its nature and complexity (NAO 2022).

17.1.4 Lack of Expert Knowledge For a country to have proper SWM it should have strong technical, ethical, financial, and management skills (Fig. 17.8). Among the issues that inhibit the move towards proper SWM, and which have received minute research interest is the role of conflict as well as criminal activities in the sector (Muindi et al. 2016). About 500 tonnes of chemical waste was disposed in 2006 by Greek-owned ship Probo Koala near Abidjan in Côte d’Ivoire resulting in the need for medical treatment to thousands of people for various ailments (Ognibene 2007). Developing countries favour economic development over environmental protection. In the late 1990s and early 2000s Kenya’s economy was at its least with poverty levels rising from 48.8% in 1990 to above 56% at the end of 2002 (Ndung’u et al. 2009) besides witnessing substantive ‘informalization’ of the economy and loss of

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Fig. 17.8 Knowledge base required for proper solid waste management

Technical

Ethical

Financial

Management

employment (Gertz 2008). The period was marked by thinning SWM service by the City Council of Nairobi (CCN).The entry of private service providers which became the dominant service providers (UNEP and CCN 2010) marked by criminal groups of unemployed men, entering into the informal SWM sector in several cities of Kenya. This brought competition to control of the business, that implicated in the use of armed cartels (Gumbihi 2013). In the early 2000s, the Dandoradumpsite in Keenya was controlled by street children who identified themselves as jeshi (armies) divided into 12 bases with intense rivalry against each other and was common among them resulting in someone was beaten or killed, with the deceased buried in the garbage (Parselelo 2000). Since the 1950s organized crime has been in environmental crime and since then there has been cooperation among the organized crime groups and corporations through curtailed competition and price-fixing (Carter 1999). The US government made use of the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (RICO) Act when organized criminals involved in hazardous waste disposal, but no such law prevails when corporations are involved in organized crime. In 2006, about 500 tonnes of chemical waste was dumped by Greek-owned ship called Probo Koala, in the neighbourhood of Abidjan, in Côte d’Ivoire that posed a serious human security threat, with thousands of people requiring medical treatment for sicknesses (Ognibene 2007). In 1987 an Italian company dumped highly toxic material in Koko resulting in impact on resident’s health in the area (Cheyne 1994). In some nations, the awareness of organized environmental crime is low thereby resulting in low enforcement compared to other crime sectors. Several gangs fought for control of the Dandora dumpsite in Kenya using guns (Koross2013) and cartels levying security fees to all vehicles delivering waste (Wiens 2011). Ocean incineration a process of incineration in shipboard as well as dispersing the residual matter into the atmosphere is designed to burn wastes from the plastic, pharmaceutical, pesticide and wood preservatives industries. No incineration process can function at 100% efficiency and, hence, some portions toxins are released into marine environment along with “products of incomplete combustion” are generated

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during incineration adversely affecting living organisms. Ocean incineration requires the long-distance transportation on land and at sea which may result in chemicals’ spills (Greenpeace 1991). As per NAO (2022), there are gaps in the EA’s understanding of the scale of waste that is exported unlawfully and producer responsibility offences. The EA intercepts between about 200 and 450 containers per annum with waste that does not comply with waste export regulations and the scale of waste that is exported unlawfully without interception is not known. Unlawfully exported waste can lead to lost income for legal waste operators. Furthermore, because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the number of illicit waste sites reported is unrepresentative for the year 2020–21 and the EA’s officers were less able to substantiate them.

17.1.5 Inadequate Resources for Enforcement Law enforcement is act of discovering, discouraging, recovering, or punishing people who violate the law. The efficient enforcement needs sufficient resources (Fig. 17.9)otherwise the law will be only on paper and remain a showpiece. Effective enforcement of environmental laws is important to protect the environment. Inadequate resources for monitoring, enforcement as well as low penalties provide an environment of key opportunity for transnational organized criminal actors to commit large-scale breaches of environmental laws (Rucevska et al. 2015a, b). Inadequate resources to enforce environmental crime have been reported in several publications (Ferronato and Torretta 2019; Chandrappa and Das 2021). Resource crunch can be in the form of human, capital, or machine. Human resources lack in the developing countries both in terms of quality and quantity. Among other reasons the decision to keep it that way is include complex bureaucracy and financial inadequacy to take up the burden of wages and expenditure of non-revenue generating department. In spite of ‘polluter pay’ principle insists that enforcement to curb pollution should come from polluter, it hardly happens in developing countries due to poor enforcement couples with corruption. Machineries include vehicles, computers, and field/laboratory equipment for monitoring parameters. In spite of the clear impact of environmental crimes on Europe as well as the several political declarations action against environmental crime in the EU still remains hindered by numerous issues related to the legislative as well as operative frameworks. Low visibility of the heavy damage imposed to territories and to public health undermines the efforts by law enforcement authorities (LEAs) and by the judiciary across Europe (Colantoni and Bianchi 2020). Even though not documented the situation is not different in several places of earth. A key role for criminal organizations in controlled the illegal disposal and tracking of both urban and hazardous wastes (D’Alisa et al. 2010). The Italian NGO, Legambiente, estimated that the illegal waste business in Italy has reached a turnover of 16.7 billion euros in 2013 while millions of tonnes of hazardous waste disposed illegally with 135 investigations between January 2010 to May 2013 relating to environmental

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Fig. 17.9 Types of resources required for SWM Man (Human)

Money (Financial)

Resource

Machine (Infrastucture)

corruption, zoning variations and landfill waste (Legambiente 2013). The quantities of material seized at Italian harbours in 2012 doubled compared to 2011, increasing from 7 000 to 14 000 tonne that provided huge profits for traffickers. During the ‘80s the global awareness of the harmful effects of the waste trafficking forced many developed nations to tighten their domestic regulation (La Rocca 2014). In the ‘90s, the illegal waste business in Italy thrived (Iacuelli 2007), which is worth more than e7.5 billion per annum beside causing a loss for the treasury of e1 billion every year (Scalia 2000). Campania region concentrated several waste treatment and disposal facilities (D’Alisa and Zoli 2012), and more than 2500 Potentially Contaminated Sites (PCSs) (ARPAC 2005) has been affected by illegal disposal of toxic waste since the ‘80s and area between the north of Naples and the south of Caserta, was called “Land of Fires” (Legambiente 2013; Saviano 2006). About 200 Mt of waste is generated in the UK, each year as exceeded growth in the UK economy as a whole, and in 2015, the sector generated £6.6 billion in GVA (DEFRA 2017, Eunomia 2017). ‘Waste crime’ has cost more than £600 million in 2015 in England (DEFRA 2018). From 2011 to 2017, the Environment Agency (EA) stopped the functioning of more than 1800 illegal waste sites securing 37 prison sentences, 947 successful prosecutions, and 71 confiscation orders worth £5 million. Usually, EA terminates 800 illicit sites per year (DEFRA 2018).

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An organized crime network began dumping illegal waste across the northern England in 2015. Even though mobile phone information was available that would prove the links among the groups responsible, the EA was unable to access it due to which investigation took around two years during which time the criminals were able to get away with dumping hundreds more tonnes of illegal waste. The EA recently completed an investigation into the waste transportation from a major, mixed-use development on a brownfield site in South London, which was contaminated with heavy metals and hydrocarbons. Illegal disposal of contaminated waste was done in sites outside of London driven by the savings from mis-describing the waste. 48,000 tonnes left the site as inert waste and only 832 tonnes were described as contaminated. Polish authorities required 1000 tonnes of waste from the UK in August 2018, unlawfully labelled as recycling, to be returned when they intercepted it at the port of Gdynia. The EA has borne the cost as the exporter could not be traced.

17.1.6 Corporate Crime For at least the last four decades, organized illegal dumping of toxic waste has been recognized internationally as a serious problem. Even though greater attention has been focused on Europe, some nations have been spared from the operations of criminal organizations in this wide spread endeavour that are the financially rewarding compared to, or exceeding those of the drug trade, with no violence or threat of long-term imprisonment (Boyanowsky 2020). Three waste disposal companies that served San Francisco, were charged in federal court of USA with plot to commit honest services fraud as well as agreed to pay $36 million in criminal penalties (United States Attorney’s Office 2021). Several people were imprisoned for receiving substantial cash kickbacks (News 24 2020; Etheridge 2019) from a refuse removal contractor in the Durban Solid Waste contract (Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime 2022) at eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality created including Durban and surrounding towns in South Africa. South Africa legally processes waste from other nations that have provided an opportunity for a growing illicit waste trade. Containers of unlawful plastic waste that area misdescribed as legal waste were reported entering South Africa from many European countries (Kgosana 2019). Organized crime actors, including lawful waste management companies engaged in illicit activity, involved in illegal movement of waste in and out of South Africa (Comolli 2021). More than 300 tonnes of medical waste, dumped unlawfully in pits at a brick factory in South Africa (Evans and South African Press Association 2010). The South African authorities have also investigated many shipments from South Africa to Pakistan, Malaysia, Italy, Hong Kong SAR, as well as Portugal (Comolli 2021). Corporate fraud in many cases involves creating multiple companies (Fig. 17.10) wherein promoters and family members draw high salary apart from accommodation, transportation and living expenses paid by company. The internal transactions

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Parent company

Operating Companies (Business involve collection, hauling and recycle/reuse/disposal of waste)

Non operating companies (Business involve waste equipment Transaction sale/lease, administrative, accou nting, finance etc.)

Fig. 17.10 Corporate structure to evade tax, enhance profit, siphon investors’ money

between parent company and its subsidiaries are often done to show less profit on books to evade tax and misguide investors. As per NAO (2022) EA found that about 30% of sites examined were significantly breaching exemptions and the number of grave breaches of the environmental permit conditions by waste operators investigated by the EA has been rising since 2017. Augmenting the rate of landfill tax has raised the significant financial return from illegal actions that avoid landfill tax that includes disposal at illegal waste sites, misdescription of waste, and fly-tipping. The quantity of illicit hazardous waste dumping still remains mostly uncertain. As per estimation majority of about 180 Mt of hazardous as well as household waste generated every year is exported unlawfully and dumped in developing nations (Gosling, 2014). Even though organized criminal groups are not concerned in all of these cases they know how to corrupt a system for such as waste disposal (Szasz 1986). Non-operating companies lease equipment, supply manpower, accounting, etc., so that the profit will be low and within low tax slab. These subsidiaries will be owned by family members and friends of promoter of a bigger company established by borrowing money from lending agency and public shareholding. Waste haulers/recyclers/managers earning may be used to lobbying and changing laws. Waste hauler lobbyists have made certain that California do not accept advanced EPR bottle deposit models. In 2020, the biggest haulers in the USA and their associations/coalitions spent more than $1.3 million on lobbying (Tucker 2021). Criminal syndicates play a key role in waste trafficking owning or operating legal front companies in SWM, which usually use sub-standard storage/disposal processes and may engage in securing contracts for waste disposal as well as illegal dumping (FATF 2021). Wide network of people is involved in exchange of financial flows on prepaid cards for withdrawal of cash. The metal powder/component with high noble

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metal like gold extracted from e-waste is often exported to foreign countries wherein the recovered gold and other noble metals are sold, and proceedings are received by sister organizations evading tax by parent organizations which is responsible for e-waste-disposal. Intermediaries like accountants, lawyers, trust and corporate service providers, freight forwarders, insurers, in addition to customs brokers play an important role in trade-based money laundering (TBML) as well as trade-based scam in environmental crime. Criminals rely on shell companies in addition to the front companies, to imitate legitimate services and payment with no evident legitimate business activities to move funds under the guise of invoices to process waste. Waste normally has a negative value if it is not reusable, recyclable, and repairable. Waste costs money to treat and make it safe to public health and environment. On the other hand, waste is viewed as a resource to be traded worldwide. Augmented regulatory control on waste across Europe has resulted in waste crime which operates alongside a legal waste sector. Waste crime exploits the intricacy of the collection, characteristics of waste, infrastructure as well as the market opportunities for profit. Waste crime is usually considered as ‘victimless’ or unknown crime (Daele et al. 2007). Waste management expenses include treatment, technology as well as labour costs. Hence, it is an incentive for corporate whether it is the government or private to avoid these costs. Due to the significant profits, low-risk crime, rare detection, investigations, rare prosecutions, low penalties, lack the specialist knowledge as well as technical capability make it easy for performing environmental crime in waste sector. Nonperforming ULBs and RLBs qualify for biggest criminals in any country where waste is not managed in accordance with law. The list of government criminals includes hospitals, offices besides education institutes which dispose a variety of waste that include, e-waste, biomedical waste, and hazardous waste. Waste scams are poorly documented as service rules of government often prohibit their employees disseminating against decision/action taken by government so as private organizations. Even though whistleblowing laws exist theoretically, in practice they are poorly enforced. Paper published by Starch et al. (2019) makes an effort to document corruption with respect to SWM in four cities of USA—Pittsburgh, Charleston, New Orleans, and St. Louis (Box 17.2). Box 17.2 Case Study of Pittsburgh, Charleston, New Orleans, St. Louis, and Columbus SWM in late nineteenth century in American cities was not in order. When cities were small, residents burnt their waste and sent to farms for pig consumption, or collected by scavengers. As cities became large solid waste became a public problem which was both political as well as technical challenge. Even though corruption sometimes encourages capacity and innovation, at other times, corruption slowed down them.

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Pittsburgh, Charleston, New Orleans, and St. Louis were ruled by different forms of corruption. By contrast, Columbus provided a good service in accordance with recommendations of expert (Starch et al. 2019). The formal documentation as well as the operation of a business that appears legal makes it difficult to identify illegal activity beside producer may not be aware that waste generated by them is processed illegally. Major causes of waste crime are given in Fig. 17.11. A close look at prevailing cost for scientific and legal requirement depends on fuel cost, loan repayment, machine maintenance, tax and other statutory fees. Illegal waste collections are often done to by offering competitive rate to waste generators ultimately disposing the waste illegally. Noteworthy quantities of WEEE were not collected/treated in Europe in 2012 with 28% of collectors as well as exporters exporting WEEE illegally to non-OECD nations as second-hand goods (European Environmental Agency (EEA) 2012). The German Federal Environment Agency and estimated that between 93,000 and 216,000 tonnes of used EEE were exported from Germany to non-EU nations inferring between 0.5 and 1.3 Mt of WEEE and used EEE was shipped out of the EU every year, representing 16–38% of WEEE collected (EEA 2012). Organized fly-tipping modus operandi is advertising ‘waste clearing services’ to local households and businesses, followed by dumped at illegal sites after collection of user fee, which are accessed using force, threats, and violence. Once a site has been cleared, criminals repeat the waste dumping. Landlords can become involved in waste crime. Another modus operandi includes criminals approaching landowners Fig. 17.11 Causes of waste crime

Weak legislation/ enforcement

Causes for waste crime Complexity of business

Higher cost of legal compliance

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to rent premises to store clean plastic waste but in reality, the rented sites are filled with mixed municipal waste. Disused poultry farm in Newark, UK was filled with about 60,000 to 70,000 tonnes of waste (DEFRA 2018). In 2017, organized crime group made an illicit profit of more than £1 million by pretending as waste brokers offering to dispose of about 28,000 tonnes of baled waste at a reduced cost, but illegally dumped the waste at farms as well as industrial units across UK (DEFRA 2018). The infiltration of criminals into the environmental sector globally is worrying as it causes environmental damage besides affecting public health, with consequent noteworthy social costs. During 2015–19 period, environmental crimes in the waste cycle increased by 90%, with turnover of about e19.9 billion in 2019 (Legambiente 2020). In this MSW management sector, criminal associations have extended activities from collection to transport as well as treatment to public procurement (Legambiente 2020). The criminal infiltration in the SWM sector has been influenced by an absence of disposal capabilities as well as and deficiencies in waste collection, mainly due to policy failures (Mazzanti and Montini 2014). Italy which does not have adequate and homogeneously distributed disposal as well as treatment plants all over the national territory (DIA 2019). In this scenario, the penetration of crime has been facilitated by the corruption who entrusted MSW service to be entrusted organizations linked to crime, or permitted the start-up or expansion of non-complying plants (Francesca et al. 2022). Usually, criminal organizations operate behind the front of legal companies that fulfil requirement to participate in public tenders (DIA 2019). Ecomania requires the organizations awarded the contracts for the MSW management to hire extra-labour by subcontracting to organizations linked to criminal organizations (DIA 2019). Many investigations have found the presence of fake documents that over-certified the disposed waste quantities to make the municipality to pay unjustified payment to the disposal organization. Fake invoicing is made easy by the corruption. Hence, the influence of criminal company on the MSW management which could lead to augment in the total service cost (Francesca et al. 2022). Launch of INTERPOL call for case studies of pollution crimes1 in August 2018 resulted in the collection of 27 cases submitted by eleven member nations out of which a third of the cases showed figures related to the proceeds2 with profits in each case ranging from $1,75,000 to $58 million indicating that pollution crime can be remarkably lucrative representing a multi-million dollar illegal business (Interpol 2022).

1

Criminal activities involving the illegal management and/or trafficking of potential contaminants resulting in environmental pollution that include marine pollution crime; waste crime; illegal use and trade in chemicals and plastic; fuel, oil and gas smuggling and illegal refineries; and carbon trading crime. 2 “Proceeds of crime” means any property derived from or obtained through the commission of an offence.

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Waste criminals often exploit emerging business opportunities as a result of a new regulation banning a commodity like asbestos, mercury, pesticides, nonbiodegradable plastic bags. A commodity gains value in the market due to its ban as there are not immediate substitutes available. Banning SUP in many countries was not effective as there were no immediate substitutes available, and its trafficking became profitable. A commodity’s value drops in the market where it is phased out and hence producers look for illicit business opportunities - to export the phased out substance where use and sale of such product is legal. Pollution crime flourish due to legislative gaps, especially to diverting environmentally sensitive material from places where they are banned or costly to dispose of, to places where they are unregulated or poorly regulated. The ban of SUP in some countries permitted manufacture of banned item in Special Economic Zones and 100% Export Oriented Units. One of the modus operandi is to get rid of hazardous waste cheaply is concealing or mixing with clean waste then shipped abroad, making its detection difficult. Tax evasion is often part of the environmental crime which in turn fuels money laundering to invest illicit profits into legal businesses and properties or to bribe government or corporate body. Many corporate bodies auction scrap for cash which will never enter into accounting books and money thus earned is spent by promoters to bribe government or their business associates or promoters. Environmental criminals are often experts with knowledge of their business sector. Hence as soon as their illicit activities are detected by enforcing authorities, they often shift to another activity alternating legal and illegal activities, as well as grab opportunities to defraud. Crime convergence of environment crime can occur in several ways: • Facilitate another crime when a crime is committed, • Multiple crimes are committed by the same criminal group, and • One crime trigger another. Environmental crimes are converged with other criminal activities: • Intersection with financial crimes, – – – – –

Divert illegal profits into legal expenditure, businesses and properties, Extortion and fraudulent bankruptcy, Fraudulent insurance claim by preplanned fire-emergency, Money laundering, Tax evasion,

• Fraud and document forgery, – – – – –

Charging fees for waste management, services never delivered, Falsification of contracts and subcontract, Falsification of customs declarations, Falsification of employee’ salary, Falsification of expenditure documents like creation false business travel and payment of rent,

17.1 Illegal Trafficking and Unsustainable Waste Management

– – – –

679

Falsification of waste disposal invoices, Frauds in CO2 emissions allowances, Sale of falsely declared goods, and Visa frauds.

• Corruption, – Corporate to government, and – Corporate to corporate. • Additional Crime – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

Abuse of office, Crimes against consumer rights, Drug trafficking, Human trafficking, Honey trapping Illegal employment, Illicit trade of explosives and forest product, Immigration offences, Insider trading, Intimidation and threat, Manipulation of administrative paperwork, Racketeering, Receiving and selling stolen and illicit goods, and Vehicle theft.

Challenges in tackling environmental crime and other crime are: • Absence of legal mandates to investigate organized crime to pollution control/ prevention agency, • Absence requisite manpower, • Deviation of enforcing officers work for election, protocol, meeting, administrative work, • Limited inter agency coordination, • Presence of private sector and powerful companies’ representatives in government, and • Staff with under-capacity to perform duty. Corporate crime is a type of white-collar crime for the benefit of employing organization. Such corporate usually do not think such acts as crime and people who are involved such acts do not consider their activities criminal. Profit motivation and weak law/enforcement are the key reasons (Fig. 17.12) for corporate crime. Corporate crimes committed either by a corporation’s employees or promoter or proprietor or board of director or consultant on behalf of the corporation. Examples of corporate crimes include violations of environmental laws, false claims, antitrust violations, bribery and corporate fraud.

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Weak law/ enforcement

Profit motivation

Corporate crime

Fig. 17.12 Reasons for corporate crime

About 73% of the researched cases show participation of corporations or corporate-like bodies (Betreuungsgesellschaft für Umweltfragen 2003). The thought that stringent action on environmental crime may lead to job losses, fall in economy, etc., that usually result in weakening of enforcement agency by not sanctioning required manpower, finance, and training. Corporate crime can happen in several dimensions within the country – from burying toxic waste within their premises to overnight hauling to inhabited area of fragile forest. Corporate houses may choose to improperly store hazardous waste at their site (Fig. 17.13). Incinerator operators may operate at lower temperature and not operate air pollution equipment to cut down cost (Fig. 17.14). Corporate corruption within corporate houses may end up in decision-makers in corporate house favouring agencies that give bribe to them. Waste Management, Inc. founded in 1894 in North America went public in 1971 and by 1972, was

Fig. 17.13 Unscientific hazardous waste storage

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Fig. 17.14 Emission from Waste Incinerator Due to Non-operation of Scrubber

generating around $82 million in revenue and had made 133 acquisitions. In the years of the 1980s, the company acquired Service Corporation of America. Waste Management’s founder and his associates were charged with cooking the books and falsified company results between 1992 and 1997 to inflate profits by $1.7 billion (ENSSCPA 2017). The Lahore Waste Management Company (LWMC) which has the responsibility of cleaning up the city and disposing of the waste have more than 600 vehicles, which have become outdated spent more than Rs. 3.24 billion for the maintaining these vehicles and instead of allowing the procurement of new vehicles (Talib 2020). Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd., agreed to pay $18 million criminal fine and agreed to a 21 federal felony count plea agreement for dumping waste oil as well as hazardous chemicals and lying to the U.S. Coast Guard (USEPA 2019). Even though organized crime in trafficking radioactive waste is almost impossible some radioactive waste may be declared as “lost” or “decomposed”. According to a study, the number of lost sources excluded from observation in the EU was about 70 per year compared to about 1500 “orphaned radioactive sources” in the US since 1996 (IAEA 2002; Betreuungsgesellschaft für Umweltfragen 2003). Illicit trafficking of radioactive waste amounts to more than seven billion Euro per year in Italy alone and every shipload of radioactive waste costing about five million Euro in profits wherein the radioactive waste is either dumped into sea or shipped to African countries resulting in more than 600,000 tonnes of radioactive waste on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean along the coast of the western Sahara (Betreuungsgesellschaft für Umweltfragen 2003). Corporate scam can take several dimensions. Scam of artificially increasing garbage quantity by waste collection agency by mixing mud in it was exposed in Nagpur, India (Chkraborthy 2020). Construction debris was transported as MSW to

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increase tonnage without actually clearing solid waste on streets of Chennai, India (Lopez 2017). Between 2016 and 2018, plastic waste imports grew by 171% from 836,529 tonnes to 2,265,962 tonnes in the ASEAN region due to China’s decision to ban import of recyclable plastic, including textile, unsorted scrap paper, scrap metals (Green peace, NA).

17.1.7 Insufficient Cross-Border/Inter-department Cooperation Nations measure export and import flows with international trade statistics based on trade from customs that use the global Harmonized Trade System (HS) codes. But, the HS codes do not distinguish among the used and new electronics. Countries are providing the Basel Convention Secretariat with statistics on e-waste export and imports do not cover the complete scope of e-waste (Baldé et al 2017). The lack of a shared definition hinders the coordination of efforts against environmental crimes.The heterogeneity of Member States of EU and offenses is one of the key obstacles in finding common ground (Colantoni and Bianchi 2020). At the time of writing this book, a universally accepted definition of environmental crimes does not seem to exist. What is acceptable with one state may not be acceptable with other state and, hence, the same saga may continue. Waste management as a business worth billions of euros has given criminal networks the opportunity to diversify their activities. Schematic diagram of common mode of IWT is given in Fig. 17.15. The large quantity of waste from industry generation processes in Europe is feeding increasing demand for waste disposal services. Stricter regulations and price raise to legally dispose of waste are tempting industries to opt for criminals who legally register companies and present themselves as ‘facilitators’ for waste (Europol 2022b). Often “e-waste” is classified as “used electronics”. Considering interest in reusable CRT is declining globally at a fast rate, it may be too difficult to have countries assess their imports and exports are “e-waste” (Baldé et al 2017). From 1992 to 2018, China imported a cumulative 45%of the global plastic waste, but in January 2018 it implemented restrictions on plastic waste due to which plastic waste exports are being rerouted in large scale, especially towards alternative SouthEast and South Asian countries beside increase in shipments of plastic waste among European countries especially towards Eastern and Central Europe (Interpol 2020). Rerouting of plastic waste since January 2018 has resulted in (Interpol 2020): 1. Noteworthy augment in waste disposal in illegal landfills besides irregular waste fire in export countries 2. Considerable raise in plastic waste imports, in emerging Asian import nations coupled with a lack of enforcement capabilities has allowed illegal recycling facilities to thrive,

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Rerouting

False Documentation

Not claiming

683

Within the country •Within •Transnational

Declaring waste as raw material or •Declaring finished product Declaring waste as second hand •Declaring good Flase doumentation of •Flase importer/exporter

Not claimig imported goods •Not Not claiming lost/damaged •Not consignment

Fig. 17.15 Common mode of mode of IWT

3. There has been a boost in deliberate and accidental waste fires, in certain export countries, beside import countries. 4. Fraudulent documents as well as mis-declaration of waste have increased. At present available statistics are not able to track the quantity of e-waste or Used Electric and Electronic Equipment (UEEE) shipped. One case study in 2015/ 2016, showed EU member states were the origin of about 77% of UEEE imported into Nigeria which were sometimes, broken upon arrival and hence need to be considered as e-waste.Around 69% of about 71,000 t of UEEE imported into Nigeria through two main ports in Lagos were stuffed in cars, buses, and trucks imported via roll-on/ roll-off mode. UEEE imported in containers, with and without vehicles, contributed around 18,300 t of UEEE per year (Baldé et al 2017). 111 containers filled with carpets, used mattresses, plant parts in addition to some hospital waste was found in the Colombo harbour in May 2019 by Sri Lanka Customs Department which have been imported in mid-2017. Further investigation revealed another 130 containers unloaded in the Katunayake Free trade zone, in the vicinity of the Colombo International airport. This waste has been exported by Vengaads Ltd, London and final receiver in Sri Lanka is Ceylon Metal Processing Corporation Ltd. The two companies are owned by two brothers. More than 1000 other containers being lying in the Colombo harbour without anyone claiming the ownership was exposed during the court hearing (Withanage 2019). Criminals blend illicit waste with other types of waste to convert it into raw materials or by-products and reintegrating it into new product. Another modus operandi followed by waste criminals is labelling the waste as ‘for recovery’ and transferring it to colluding facilities for illegal disposal. Criminals also illegally sell waste as a secondary raw material forging documents beside exporting. In some cases, electric

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and electronic waste components from EU are sold in black markets in Asia and Africa. Hazardous waste is frequently trafficked by bleeding it with normal waste and then dumping it. Criminal networks often use trans-shipment points to obscure the route (Europol 2022a). Modi operandi of waste trafficking on land are: • Store several tyres inside one another, • Transporting with other goods, and • Transporting in built-in compartments of vehicles.

17.1.8 Poor Administrative Performance Regulatory controls are usually applied to organizations involved in physical waste management. The role of waste brokers in illegal activities is difficult to ascertain (Baird et al. 2014). SWM is a policy area normally overlooked in the social sciences, but the crisis in Naples has drawn the attention of citizens as well as experts around the globe. SWM is crucial to the functioning of society, public health, economic livelihood, environmental legacy, public order, and equity among people living in areas and bordering towns. It is not by chance that even the most client list (exchange of goods and services for political support) of regimes is concerned when waste is not picked up: a government that is not capable to keep the streets free of waste is seen as failing in the most fundamental dimension of ‘housekeeping’ (Pasotti 2010). As per the State of New Jersey Commission of Investigation (2011) vulnerability to corruption in recycling/disposal of contaminated soil as well as demolition debris in New Jersey occurred because the system established in the state to keep the industry clean did not work. This is because the system grounded in a statute was constrained by loopholes administered by government agencies that sometimes work at cross purposes as well as whose assigned staff have not uniformly or consistently shared/ communicated information with each other. Under-staffed, under-equipped as well as under-funded regulatory spectrum and systemic oversight are some of the key reasons for criminals entering SWM business for performing waste crime. While people take trash removal for granted and focus on other issues such as traffic or security, local governments give contracts with profit margins that make it clear that ‘trash is gold’ (Pasotti 2010) and, hence, special interests—including organized crime—are predominantly keen to gain influence over this area. This demands an alert in deciding the extent to which waste is managed by private/public agencies, in selecting the method, including landfills, a broad range of industrial treatments, recycling as well as waste reduction. Industrial disposal presents technical challenges, which people and politicians are often unprepared to handle. Absence of transparency and efficiency can lead to a dual disaster, political and ecological. Illegal disposal of toxic waste was concentrated in five Campania, Basilicata, Apulia, Calabria and Sicily due to dominance of organized crime. In addition to landfills, in Campania, the Camorra (Italian Mafia-type criminal organization originating in the region of Campania) disposed of toxic waste in the countryside, generating

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a countless micro-landfill in north of Naples nicknamed the Land of Fires. It also reported waste disposal in farmland and foundations in the construction. In Sicily, toxic waste was disposed in abandoned mines, and caves excavated to extract materials and then filled back with waste (Pasotti 2010). In 2008, the extraction and the disposal of construction materials supported the building of 28,000 illegal housing units (Legambiente 2009b). The number of caves stood over 16,000 (Legambiente 2009c). Organized crime plays, a key role in the SWM industry, but, this sector needs huge investments as well as has to face an enormous bureaucratic machine, hampering the competition and creating oligopolistic forces, where the strength of mafia turns out to be effective. Since 2015, Lebanon’s streets and beaches covered with waste bags resulting in extreme stink and water contamination due to Beirut and Mount Lebanon’s key waste disposal company, Sukleen, stopped collecting solid waste. Waste removal was done through private companies rather than municipal councils. The company, which had a monopoly from 1990s was forced to close overflowing landfill used for more than 12 years than scheduled. Trash piled up in the streets of Beirut, Lebanon as the landfill of Naameh opened in 1997 stopped accepting the waste of the capital and residents of Naameh and nearby villages, south of Beirut, have stopped trucks from reaching it to unload waste. Further the contract of the company in charge of Lebanon’s sanitation, also expired (Marlmal, 2015). Corruption can be an issue in all nations, irrespective of how developed their institutions are (Welsch 2003). Several studies show that improving governance that is resistant and resilient to corruption results in higher per capita income (UNEP 2019). A failure to have healthy environmental institutions can create a system of larger institutional weakness which can result in corruption (Kaufmann 2015). The scandal motivated a popular movement called “You Stink”, which called the government to clean-up its corruption problems and its streets (Nakhoul 2015). Observations during audit often enlist poor administrative performance by responsible agency across the globe. Report No. PA 14 of 2008 of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India for the year ended March 2007 with respect to results of the Performance Audit on “Management of Waste in India” prepared for submission to the President of India under Article 151 of the Constitution had following observations (CAG 2008) highlighted Waste was regularly collected only in 22% of the sampled municipalities. As per the State of New Jersey Commission of Investigation (2011) in 1969 it exposed that organized crime rooted in New York was spreading into garbage collection business in New Jersey and warned that the industry was at risk of becoming common with bribery, price-fixing, extortion, collusive bidding as well as other types of corruption, in response to which legislation was enacted setting forth explicit prohibitions alongside restraints of trade in that industry. The recommendation of Commission for vetting and licensing of all solid waste haulers, was not mandated by law until 1983. In spite of similar phenomena observed across the globe, developing countries have hardly adopted any restrictions to keep waste criminals away from the SWM trade.

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Volume 5 Value for Money Audit, Annual Report of The Auditor General For The Year Ended 3oth June 2013, Office of Auditor General, Government of Uganda (OAGGOU) reported (OAGGOU 2013)—The current practices are likely to expose the Albertine Graben to potential environmental risks….At Ngara Waste Consolidation Area (WCA), one of the solid waste holding pits was left uncovered and some rainwater had collected in it… It was established long ago that the SWM industry is uniquely prone to infiltration by organized crime in addition to other evil elements who view it as easy money for personal gain as well as in furtherance of manifold criminal activities. As per the State of New Jersey Commission of Investigation (2011) it noted in its 1989 report, “There is too much history of, and opportunity for, midnight dumping, mixing of hazardous and solid waste materials, waste flow violations, customer-allocation and bid-rigging schemes, and union manipulations to warrant an overly tolerant attitude.” Performance Audit Report on The National Solid Waste Management Authority (NSWMA) By Office of The Director of Audit, Antigua and Barbuda (ODAAB) revealed the following observations (ODAAB 2013): • The NSWMA has transformed the earlier Cooks Dump to function as a sanitary landfill site which is almost at capacity and a new landfill needs to be set. • There are more than one million tyres at the entrance to the landfill on private land that represents a serious fire hazard. • The NSWMA has many pieces of equipment not in working order. Performance Audit Report of the Auditor General of Ghana on Solid Waste Management, Ghana 2006 (AGG 2006) observed that a national framework only partially exists with regards to waste management. New South Wales Auditor General’s Report entitled Regulation of water pollution in drinking water catchments and illegal disposal of solid waste dated 28 June 2018 observed that EPA does not have consistent practices that identify breaches as well as non-compliances that limit their effectiveness to consistently apply regulatory action which has not achieved targets to reduce large-scale dumping and does limited monitoring of its performance to protect the environment (Audit Office of New South Wales 2018). Several studies focused on the effect of human health on illegal waste disposal in “triangle of death” in eastern area of the Campania Region of Southern Italy, which has illegal waste dumping practices (Trissai et al. 2015). The waste problem in southern Italy has been linked to augmented rates of cancer with protestors blocking the rail links between southern and northern Italy at the end of June 2004, complaining about the re-opening of condemned solid waste dump. The region around Naples and Salerno generates solid waste more than the capacity of the landfills and incinerators in the region, and resulting in organized crime turning illegal waste dumping into a rewarding business (Senior and Mazza 2004). Illegal dumping and related health issue are not restricted to Italy. Several such incidents have been reported (Chandrappa and Das 2021). But, not all episodes are reported because waste dumping is daily affair in many developing countries in which

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peoples’ representatives of government have stake. Waste dumping is perfectly legal in several countries, which do not have laws that specify dumping as an act of crime. The Honb’le Nation Green Tribunal (NGT) slapped thousands of crores3 of fines on seven states (out of total 28 states) on Supreme Court of India directions, totalling about INR 28,180 crore and about Rs 2000 crore in other cases. Maharashtra state alone has to pay up INR 12,000 crore, while Rajasthan, West Bengal, and Telangana states have to pay over INR 10,000 crore in total. The NGT has equated the amount of penalty fixed on the states based on the “polluter pays principle” to environmental compensation and the cost of restoration. The tribunal has penalized Punjab state with a cost of Rs 2080 crore, Rs 900 crore to Delhi State Rs 2900 crore to Karnataka state, Rs 3000 crore to Rajasthan state, Rs 3500 crore on West Bengal state and Rs 3800 crore on Telangana state (Mishra 2022). Over 2.9 billion yuan in punitive compensation for environmental damages has been collected across China in 945 cases since 2015(Liqiang 2020).

17.2 Consequences of Waste Mafia Consequences of waste mafia (Fig. 17.16) have several folds of impact including environment/finance/health of a country which may take dimension of transnational or transcontinental. Waste trafficking has extremely negative effects on resource management, environment, and human health. Plastic waste trafficking ultimately just gets burned/ landfilled in an uncontrolled at their final destination. Such plastic is non-recyclable and carries a wide range of hazardous chemicals which leak into the local environment due to unacceptable storage as well as treatment (Dermatas and GeorgantiNtaliape 2020). Organized environmental crime is an important factor in the poverty, displacement as well as violent conflicts of people, especially in developing societies (UNODC 2009). This crime is one of the reasons for economic and social instability (Diana 2018). From monarchy wherein single family enjoy unchallenged power to rule piece of land to democracy where people elect people to represent them in decision-making money has played major role in global economy. Corruption in waste management can be major source of political party fund as it is easy to siphon the public money by erroneous billing and malpractices. Some of files will be intentionally burnt along with office to avoid audit enquiry. It is often concluded that officers are inefficient if the complete budget is not spent. Hence, public money will be siphoned by officer by the following means: 1. Multiple billing: Two or more bills be made for same purpose and processed in different files. 2. Ghost billing: Billing will be made for the work not done. The practice often done to pay salaries for the people who never turn up to job. 3

1 Crore = 10 million.

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Environment

Finance

Health

Air

Missuse of tax payers money

Human

Water

Loss due to noncollection of fines Flora

Land

Money laundering

Biological

Create demad for for environmental recovery/reclamation

Fauna

Fig. 17.16 Consequences of waste mafia

3. Declaring under performance of machine: Vehicles owned by government are often reported as underperforming and shown as if it is giving low mileage so that fuel saved can sold unofficially. Similarly frequent repair, upgradation of equipment is done to get kickback from servicing agency. Reporting overconsumption of consumables is other way to take away public money from government account. 4. Over budgeting/estimating: Often more amounts will be estimated in the beginning of the financial year which would be more than actual amount required to get more funding so that more amounts can be taken away by corrupt officers and politicians to pass the bill for payment. 5. Issue work contract without competitive bidding: Competitive bidding is done across the world to purchase goods and service at lower price. But procedure may be bypassed, and work/supply order may be issued to known agency/person to get kickback. 6. Transporting soil with/instead of waste: This mode if often used when the payment of billing is done based on number of vehicles and weight of waste it has hauled. The contractor fills the waste vehicles with soil and dumps it in dumpsite for sake of documentation. Anticorruption departments across the globe might work inefficiently and may not take action against culprits.

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689

About 800, people were arrested while disposing of waste on the roads of Campania, Italy with crimes against the environment declining by 14.5% in 2008 from 30,124 to 25,776 with the increased number of arrests by 13.3% between 2007 and 2008 (Legambiente 2009b). On 31 March 2009, Mario Chiesa, was again arrested in Milan in the context of the investigation of 2700 tonnes of special waste illegally disposed of by the ’Ndrangheta (Italian Mafia-type organized crime syndicate and criminal society) just north of Milan. In Palermo, Italy the ex-municipal company Amia, responsible for waste collection, faced a severe financial crisis resulting in financial crisis was causing 150 million euros in debt to suppliers and 34 million euros in interest and penalties. As a result, employees were not paid in months and were striking (Pasotti 2010). The case of Campania region, Italy the failure in SWM has reshaped the local political landscape with Governor Antonio Bassolino not only losing his political support but also being one among the 29 remanded for trial on the basis of fraud against the state in SWM (Pasotti 2010). The European Court of Justice charged Italy for the existence of 4866 unmonitored or illegal landfills in fifteen regions (Ansa News Agency 2007). While landfills were reaching capacity throughout Italy incinerators were concentrated in the north (Legambiente 2009a). The illegal trade continued to spread within Italy, and 4800 tonnes of unlawful waste was confiscated in 2008 in Italian ports, a vivid augment from the 800 tonnes the previous year (Legambiente 2009b). The early generations of solar panels, in many EU Member States about 20 years ago, are dismantled shipped to them to Africa and Asia by waste criminals (Europol 2022a). Similar trafficking of goods and spare parts of electronic goods, machine, and vehicles would result in money laundering and affect legitimate business and circulation of white money of public interest projects. Illegal waste trafficking would snowball with other crimes mentioned and explained in earlier paragraphs would end up in law and order across the world. Illegal collection transportation and trafficking of phased out fluorinated gases with heavy global warming potentials, aggravate global warming and related disasters. Fuel fraud by fuel adulteration would result in air pollution liked to impact on health and environment. In a nutshell some of the consequences of waste mafia are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Drop in ecological value of environment Economic instability Environmental degradation at destination site Fund diversion through ghost waste management staff (neologism for creating records of fictitious staff who do not exist/work, but wages will be drawn by contractor from government or urban local body) 5. Impact on public health at destination site 6. Law and order problems 7. Poverty, displacement, as well as violent conflicts of people, especially in developing societies.

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Interdepartme ntal/ International cooperation

Insuffient/ absence of traning

Recruitment of wrong people

Insuffient resources (human/ monitory/ machinery) for enforcement

Varying law among differenet nations

Fig. 17.17 Major missing legal links and enforcement leading to eco-mafia/eco-scam

17.2.1 Missing Legal Links and Enforcement IWT and waste management have become an attractive business for criminal networks due to light sentences, low risk of prosecution, as well as the-guarantee of high-profits. Organized crime groups earn, globally, between US$ 20–30 billion, per year, from environmental crimes (Diana 2018; OCTA 2011). Among environmental crimes, illegal dumping and trafficking of waste has become an important source of revenue, attracting increasing interest of unprincipled brokers in addition to criminal networks which pose not only a grave threat to the environment, health, social and economic instability (Valentina and Elise 2014). Major missing legal links and enforcement leading to eco-mafia/eco-scam are given in Fig. 17.17. Illegal transnational flow of hazardous, radioactive, toxic, and e-waste, is the one of the most significant forms of international operated by criminal organizations which is likely to happen in the presence of weak environmental law and enforcement, where local populations uninformed on the effects of the exposure to toxic material. Organized environmental crime groups, motivated by considerable financial rewards, carry on thriving and expanding in disadvantaged societies with porous borders where regulation poor and corruption is widespread (UNODC 2009). Due to enormous and widespread corruption in the chain of waste handling, ecomafia more and more cooperates with several stakeholders, including public officials, and politicians, who can easily solve of bureaucratic issues related to issue of permits, document falsification Terekhova. Brokers and facilitators sometimes in the disguise of consultants will help eco-mafia. In the countries where dumping as an act of crime action on criminals would not happen for several administrative reasons that include: 1. Head of enforcing agency and department responsible for dumping waste report to the same head of state. 2. Head of department responsible for dumping waste may also head enforcing agency. 3. Head of department responsible dumping waste may be more powerful and have good rapport with head of state. 4. Waste dumping could have been done by company owned by peoples’ representative or funding agency of ruling party.

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5. There would be pressure on head/staff of enforcing agency not to take action on waste dumping organizations as it would embarrass the government. Action may be taken on head/staff of enforcing agency who try to take action against waste dumping agency/people.

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Interpol (2009) Electronic waste and organized crime assessing the links. In: Phase II report for the Interpol pollution crime working group Interpol (2022) Strategic report—The nexus between organized crime and pollution crime, June 2022. Interpol, Lyon Interpol (2020) Interpol strategic analysis report: emerging criminal trends in the global plastic waste market since January 2018. https://www.interpol.int/en/News-and-Events/News/2020/ INTERPOL-report-alerts-to-sharp-rise-in-plastic-waste-crime. Accessed on 12 Dec 2021 Interpol (2020) Key findings report: operation 30 days at sea 2.0. https://www.interpol.int/en/Cri mes/Environmental-crime/Pollution-crime. Accessed on 2 Nov 2021 IUCN (2018) ICJ renders first environmental compensation decision: a summary of the judgment, 09 Apr 2018. https://www.iucn.org/news/world-commission-environmental-law/201804/icjrenders-first-environmental-compensation-decision-summary-judgment#:~:text=The%20C ourt%20stated%20its%20view,next%20important%20principle%20concerned%20causation. Accessed on 10 Nov 2022 Kaufmann D (2015) Evidence-based reflections on natural resource governance and corruption in Africa. In: Zedillo E, Cattaneo O, Wheeler H (eds) Africa at a fork in the road: taking off or disappointment once again. Yale Center for the Study of Globalization, New Haven, pp 239–260. Kgosana R (2019) Syndicate unlawfully dumps containers of waste in SA. The Citizen, 23 May 2019. https://www.citizen.co.za/news/2134135/syndicateunlawfully-dumps-containersof-waste-in-sa/. Accessed on 5 Nov 2022 Koross K (2013) Allure of Dandora’s mega bucks garbage collection business. The Standard 2013. Standard Media, Nairobi La Rocca S (2014) Trafficoillecito dei rifiuti: normative e politiche poste a confronto. GazzettaAmabiente N 4:41–59 Legambiente (2009a) Ambiente Italia 2009. Rifiuti made in Italy, Rome Legambiente (2009b) RapportoEcomafia 2009. Le storie e i numeridellacriminalita‘ ambientale, Rome. Legambiente (2009c) ‘Cave: 500milioni di Euro (ognianno) per uscire dalla crisi’. Rome Legambiente (2013) RapportoEcomafia. Rome Legambiente (2020) Ecomafia 2020. Le storieeinumeridellacriminalitàambientale in Italia. Ambiente Liddick D (2010) The traffic in garbage and hazardous wastes: an overview. Trends Organ Crime 13(2–3):134–146 Liqiang H (2020) Environmental compensation surges. China Daily, 1 July 2020. https://www.chi nadaily.com.cn/a/202007/01/WS5efbe5f9a310834817256579.html. Accessed on 10 November 2022 Lopez AX (2017) Chennai’s garbage scam: making wealth out of waste. The Hindu, 10 June 2017. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/ill-gotten-gains-making-wealth-ofwaste/article18957348.ece. Accessed on 13 July 2022 Margaux M, Serena F, Daniela A (2020) Illicit waste trafficking and loopholes in the European and Italian legislation. Eur J Crim Policy Res 26:105–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-0189405-2 Marlmal I (2015) The garbage scandal in Lebanon: another catastrophe of a failed system. The Arab American News, 23 July 2015. https://www.arabamericannews.com/2015/07/23/the-gar bage-scandal-in-lebanon-another-catastrophe-of-a-failed-system/ Massari M, Monzini P (2004a) Dirty businesses in Italy: a case-study of illegal trafficking in hazardous waste. Global Crime 6:285–304 Massari M, Monzini P (2004b) Dirty businesses in Italy: a case-study of illegal trafficking in hazardous waste. Global Crime 6(3–4):285–304 Mazzanti M, Montini A (2014) Waste management beyond the Italian North-South divide: spatial analyses of geographical, economic and institutional dimensions. In: Kinnaman TC, Takeuchi K (eds) Handbook on waste management. Edward Elgar, pp 256–284

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Chapter 18

Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects

Institution and financial aspects are important components of SWM. The challenges in orienting an institution for proper SWM are many as there will be internal and external resistance in a ULB to adopt a new way of life. The internal resistance will be to accept new responsibility in addition to existing workload. The key external resistance will be paying user fees without which stakeholders would not mind adapting to improved quality of life. But every service will come with a cost. Most of the time, SWM is not provided by philanthropic institutions/individuals as it is not acknowledged in long term and sustainable. Even though loans and grants are provided by international agencies, it will not be provided for ever. SWM is a responsibility of local bodies with involvement of central/federal government in waste services will be usually restricted to regulatory oversight or subsidies. Around 70% of waste services around the world are overseen directly by local bodies, with other 30% dealt with other levels of government, private agencies, mixed public–private entities, or intermunicipal arrangements. Around 50% of services are operated by public entities while one-third of services, from collection to treatment and disposal are operated by mixed public–private partnerships. The private sector is usually engaged for collection, treatment, and disposal, which usually lasts less than 10 years. Nearly two-thirds of the nations across the globe have created laws for SWM, though enforcement may show a discrepancy. Nearly 70% of the countries have established institutions with responsibilities for policy development in addition to regulatory oversight in the waste sector. Systematic reporting on waste policies data is mostly limited to high-income nations and some middle-income nations (Kaza et al. 2018). As deliberated in earlier chapter solid waste just does not arise from urban local bodies. It comes from an array of other sources including forest, rural area, defence establishment, disasters, healthcare establishment, and industries. Limited knowledge of local bodies with respect to hazardous waste, radioactive waste would often lead to consider all solid waste in similar way, wherein carrying and dumping are way of life.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6_18

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Improper SWM planning may lead to an array of consequences. In Phnom Penh City of Cambodia, where the MSW management require regulation, households buried, burned, or dumped about 635,000 tonnes in 2015 and 361,000 tonnes of MSW in 2008 (Seng et al. 2018). Final disposal of more than 60% of the SW was done by open dumping in Thailand with 425 disposal sites in 2004 of which 330 open dumps (Chiemchaisri et al. 2007). In the West Bank Palestinian territory, there were 133 MSW dumpsites, burial at 13 sites and open burning activities at 116 sites in 2001 (Al-Khatib et al. 2015). In Abuja City of Nigeria, four major disposal sites closed in 2005 due to odours, air pollution and pollution due to leachates (Aderoju et al. 2018). In Maputo, Mozambique, the MSW disposed at dumpsite of the city was in operation for more than 40 years with an area is about 17 ha and 15 m high resulted in open fires (dos Muchangos et al. 2015). It is obvious therefore that SWM issues are common globally with environmental burdens as well as hazards for the population (Ferronato and Torretta 2019). SWM planning is not a one-time activity. The efficient, reliable, and cost-effective SWM service requires the preparation of a long-range plan (David 1985). It has to be done periodically or as and when there is drastic change in solid waste-related scenario. The first SWM plan of the New York State was prepared in financial year 1987/1988 followed by an updated plan in the fiscal year 1999/2000. The 2001/2002 draft update was not finalized. Later the stakeholder meetings in February and March of 2008 helped formulate a draft plan that was released public comment on May 5, 2010, which was approved for the fiscal year 2009/10 after public consultation. In addition to SWM plan for New York State local SWM plans (LSWMPs) were developed and implemented (New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) 2010). SWM is required at all stages of waste life cycle. Promoting coordination among agencies involved in SWM is a key aim of waste planning (SPREP and UNEP1999). A SWM plan is a means of: • Communicating to external agencies that the state is seriously attempting to address solid waste issues, • Coordinating the different stakeholders, • Identifying budget, • Identifying waste management requirements, • Modifying priorities, • Monitoring SWM plan, • Setting priorities, and • Understanding the consequences of current SWM practices. Factors to be considered in SWM include: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Climate and climate change, Collection, storage, processing, and disposal methods, Geologic, hydrologic, and the protection of waters bodies, Markets for recovered materials and energy,

18.1 The Regulatory Framework: Key Requirements

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

701

Methods for closing disposal facility, Political, economic, financial, organizational, and management issues, Profile of waste generators (residential, commercial, and industrial), Regulatory issues, Transportation, Types of waste management systems, Vulnerability to disasters, and Waste composition and quantity.

Each urban/rural agglomeration is unique with respect to the above factors. Hence, the solution should also be unique. Further, the waste management may need special attention during short period as high number people may gather for a short duration in occasions such as 1. Sports events (e.g., Olympic, national/international cricket football events, etc.), 2. Religious events (e.g., Kumbh mela where millions of people would gather only for few days to take holy bath in river in specific location), 3. Election/political campaign, and 4. Public agitation against government.

18.1 The Regulatory Framework: Key Requirements Changes in administrations and political leadership can result in SWM projects being shut down or drastically altered by new officials as well as key staff reassignments. As a result, several SWM projects with technical expertise will not be available to see project their completion. SWM legislation can help overcome this barrier. Regulatory framework with respect to protecting investment and human rights of SWM workers are essential to achieve investors to show interest and workers to join the SWM system. Law differs from country to country with respect to SWM. Some countries may not have any law pertaining to solid waste at all. Normally, law pertaining to solid waste covers the following aspects: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Annual reporting, Authorities and their corresponding duties, Levy of service fees, Penalty for violation, Plans to be prepared, Policy as well as strategy to be prepared, Requirement of regulatory clearances, Requirements for landfill sites, Specific requirements for the waste management, and Standards for compost, treated leachate, emission from incinerators.

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The absence of effective legislation for SWM in most developing countries is partly responsible for the failure of SWM. SWM legislations are usually fragmented enforced by several agencies. Due to the low preference given to the SWM sector, the institutional capacity involved in SWM is usually weak. Local by-laws on SWM are not also well developed. Regulatory requirements need not just concentrate on the waste generated within the ULB. It can also address transboundary movement especially if the local body is costal urban body with port/harbour. Marine waste can be generated through accidental pollution from ships during navigation or lawful operations besides unlawful operational discharges from ships. Marine waste is regulated by international as well as national laws which need to be considered while assessing regulatory requirements. In the UK, the Environment agency regulates the shutting down of permitted waste operating facilities through surrender applications and notifications (DEFRA 2021). While many developing countries are struggling to put SWM in place, developing countries are planning for closure of conventional disposal facility to transfer them self to circular economy. France adopted a law in the year 2020 Loi n° 2020–105 relative à la luttecentre le gaspillage et à l’économiecirculaire (Law No. 2020–105 Regarding a Circular Economy and the Fight Against Waste) to help transform the French society from a linear economy to a circular economy. As per the law Regarding a Circular Economy as well as the Fight Against Waste establishes (Library of Congress (LOC) 2020): • 15% decline in household waste per occupier by 2030, • 5% decline in waste from economic activity, • Ban of many items were banned starting in 2021, including disposable straws, silverware, and polystyrene foam boxes in fast-food restaurants, • Ban on use disposable plates as well as cups for on-premises consumption of food and beverages from 2023 in fast-food restaurants, • Buildings open to the public will be required to have water fountains, • Display of “reparability rating” from 2021 and “durability rating” from 2024 on certain electric and electronic products, • End of single-use plastic packaging by 2040, • Improvement in the collection of recyclable plastics, including refund systems, • Incentives for manufacturers to design their products to be more easily recyclable, • Informing buyers, the time frame during which their devices are subject to operating software updates, • Prohibition on the destruction of unsold non-food inventory, • Punishment to illegal waste dumping, • Recycling 100% of plastics by 2025, • Selling vegetables and fruits in plastic packaging for portions under 1.5 kg will be illegal from 2022. The Circular Economy Promotion Law of the PRC, adopted on 29 August 2008, came into force on 1 January 2009 (World Bank 2020).

18.2 Modern Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Management: Concepts …

703

Other countries, which have laws/policy/strategy on circular economy, are (FitchRoy et al. 2021): • Circular Economy Programme adopted by Netherlands in 2016, • Framework Act on Resource Circulation 2016 amended in 2018 adopted by Government of South Korea, 2018, • Green Growth Commitment adopted by Government of Portugal, 2015, • Green Growth Mission adopted by Government of Colombia in 2018, • Finnish roadmap to a circular economy 2016–2025 and Finland’s roadmap to the circular economy, • 2.0 adopted by Finland, • National Circular Economy Strategy and National Action Plan on Circular Economy adopted by Government of Greece in 2018, • National Strategy for the Circular Economy adopted by Government of Denmark, 2018, • Roadmap towards the Circular Economy in Slovenia adopted by Government of Slovenia, 2018. India adopted six rules for six categories of waste in 2016, namely 1. 2. 3. 4.

Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016, The Biomedical Waste Management Rules, 2016, The E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016, The Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016, 5. The Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016, 6. The Construction and Demolition waste Management Rules, 2016. Mere enacting/passing/adopting law does not solve the problems. It creates basis for enforcing agencies to take action against defaulters. In the absence of law, everything will be fair/correct and not a crime. Further, enacting/passing/adopting law will not ensure enforcement by responsible officers in which case the public will have basis to approach judiciary.

18.2 Modern Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Management: Concepts and Benefits SWM systems are designed to improve living conditions and protect the environment. Key benefits of effective SWM systems include improved public health. Inadequate SWM can impact public health by decomposing organic matter that attracts insects, rodents, and stray animals. Human faces matter, contaminated hospital waste, personal hygiene products like sanitary napkin in waste can spread array of disease. Mismanaged solid waste can lead to contamination of drinking water sources. Uncontrolled waste burning can result in air pollution.

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Apart from protecting public health, the ISWM system aims to reduce the quantity of waste being disposed and at the same time maximize resource recovery. ISWM assess local needs and conditions to the select appropriate processes and technologies. ISWM shall just not focus on MSW municipal solid waste, it should look into radioactive waste, hazardous waste, disaster waste, infections waste, rural waste, and forest waste. SWM planning should embrace the following four concepts by those developing the plan (McDowell 1986). 1. 2. 3. 4.

Commitment to SWM, Leadership, Public involvement, and Understanding needs. The preferred SWM strategies include:

• • • • •

Source reduction and reuse, Recycling, Composting, Waste to energy, and Disposal.

As the world is progressing towards circular economy, ISWM shall emphasize to shift from conventional liner an economy model, which is “take, make, and dispose” pattern (Fig. 18.1) towards circular economy pattern (Fig. 18.2). The ISWM is close to the reduce, reuse, and recycle (3R) approach and aims optimizing SWM from all the waste-generating sectors and involve all the stakeholders. While circular economy looks attractive as on date, the concept has some disadvantages like • Lack technical skills and abilities, Fig. 18.1 Linear economy model

Dispose Use Make Take

Pollute

18.2 Modern Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Management: Concepts … Fig. 18.2 Circular economy model

Recylce

705

Make

Use

Remake

Reuse • The presence of waste component that is difficult to reuse, recycle and transform (e.g., waste contaminated with pathogens, radioactive substance and hazardous material), and • Consumer acceptance problems. The key output of planning should include: • Review of local, regional, national, and international laws/policy/strategy and its relevance to SWM plan, • Identify roles and responsibilities for SWM at all levels, • Provide forecast of waste, • Provide recommendations for SWM strategies. A case study of SWM planning in Mazatenago City of Guatemala is given in Box 18.1. Box 18.1 Case Study: Mazatenango City, Guatemala (Yousif and Scott 2007) Six major problems were identified with respect to SWM Mazatenango city of Guatemala—(1) limited funding, (2) lack of a large-scale formal recycling at the domestic level, (3) lack of sanitary landfill, (4) lack of public awareness of proper SWM, (5) raise in illegal dumping, and (6) littering in the street. The city of Mazatenango had no policies or by-laws or relating to SWM. The plan involved reducing generation of solid waste, considering waste as a resource, enhancing the efficiency of waste collection as well as disposal services and training of waste picker, microenterprises to improve the working conditions of informal waste workers.

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18.3 Preparation of a Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan Geographic, climatic, topographic conditions, and cultural preferences can complicate SWM efforts. ULBs in tropical zones with higher temperatures can decompose organic waste faster than ULBs in cooler climates. Islands due to limited space may face challenge for waste disposal and recycling. ULBs in hilly areas need to consider slope failure while designing disposal site. Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle (Fig. 18.3) which is the essence of quality/ safety/environment management systems holds good for all the management including SWM. Setting goals and objectives shall become essential part of waste management plan. Planning is not the end of game by itself. Only after implantation, one will come to know lacunas in the system which has to be reviewed periodically and the plan has to change accordingly. Examples of goals and objectives at different level are given in Table 18.1. Challenges, Key Performance Indicators (KPI), scope for mismanagement and key responsibility are given in Table 18.2. As per Tchobanoglous and Kreith (2002), SWM planning can be accomplished by following six steps. 1. Goals and objectives—Identify and prioritize goals as well as objectives for SWM in the planning service area, 2. Inventory and assessment—Assess resources available and adequacy of these resources to meet goals, 3. Identifying needs—Determine needs goals and objectives, 4. Evaluating management options—Identify and evaluate management options, 5. Defining the recommended management system—Select options to form the basis of the SWM system, 6. Developing an implementation strategy—Develop implementation strategy. As per Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO) (2016) municipal SWM of ULB typically involves seven steps depicted in Fig. 18.4. Even though SWM is done to protect the environment and enhance public health, poor SWM can have severe impact on environment and public health. Environmental Fig. 18.3 PDCA cycle

Act

Plan

Check

Do

18.3 Preparation of a Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan

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Table 18.1 Examples of goals and objectives at different levels S. No. Level

Goals

Objectives

1

Quantify waste in the country

Identify different types of waste sources within three months

National

Quantify consumables assets that are likely to become waste within six months Quantify different type of waste within one year Prepare national plan to reduce waste

Quantify legal framework, financial instrument, resource (land, man, machine and money) required within one and half year Identify location and source of resources required within two years

Prepare national plan to reuse/recycle waste

Prepare draft plan Call for public/expert opinion Finalize plan

Prepare national plan to dispose waste

Call for public/expert opinion

Prepare draft plan

Quantify waste in the state/region

Identify different types of waste sources within three months

Finalize plan 2

State/Regional

Quantify consumables assets that are likely to become waste within six months Quantify different type of waste within one year Prepare state plan to reduce waste

Quantify resource (land, man, machine, and money) required within one and half year Identify location and source of resources (land, man, machine, and money) required within two years

Prepare state plan to reuse/recycle waste

Prepare draft plan within one year Call for public/expert opinion within one and half year Finalize plan within two years

Prepare state plan to dispose waste

Prepare draft plan within one year Call for public/expert opinion within one and half year Finalize plan within two years (continued)

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18 Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects

Table 18.1 (continued) S. No. Level

Goals

Objectives

3

District/county

Prepare waste management plan for district

Merge plans prepared for urban/ rural area in the district years

4

ULBs / Rural Local Bodies (RLB)

Prepare waste management plan for ULBs/RLBs

Merge plans prepared for wards/ zones in ULB/RLBs within two years

5

Zones

Prepare waste management plan for Zones

Merge plans prepared for wards in ULBs/RLBs within two years

6

Ward

Prepare waste management plan for blocks

Merge plans prepared for blocks within two years

7

Block

Quantify waste in the block

Prepare list-wise waste generators within one year Quantify quantity and type of waste from each generator within two years

Quantify transportation mechanism

Prepare transportation network plan (road/pipe/ channel) within one year Quantify transportation machine (vehicle, boat, machineries for pneumatic waste conveyor) within two years

Locate decentralized Identify location within one year waste management facility Establish decentralized waste management facility within two years 8

Gated community

Comply law within time frame stipulated in the applicable law

Comply law within time frame stipulated in the applicable law

9

Waste Generator

Comply law within time frame stipulated in the applicable law

Comply law within time frame stipulated in the applicable law

Impact Assessment (EIA) as well as Health Impact Assessment (HIA) should become part of SWM plan not to protect environment and health but also to protect investment made on management which otherwise would become waste if public were protected against the SWM processing plant and end up in complaint/litigation. HIA evaluates the health impacts of projects, policies, and plants quantitatively as well as qualitatively helps the decision-makers to make decisions regarding alternatives. On the other hand, EIA will ensure early and sufficient information on the likely impact on environment due to the development activities (Chandrappa and Das 2021).

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Table 18.2 Challenges, KPI, scope for mismanagement, and key responsibility S.

Level

Challenges

Key performance indicators (KPI)

Scope for Key mismanagement responsibility

1

National

Absence of fund, absence of treatment/ storage facility, absence of law, low priority

Number of treatment/ disposal facility/ capacity, ability to manage disaster waste, fraction of waste collected, fraction of waste processed, fraction of waste disposed, per capita expenditure, per capita user fee collection, ratio of income (fine and user fee) to expenditure

Erroneous statistics, lack of funds, lower priority, vested interest and corruption

Enact/notify waste management law. Create market to recycled product, make legislation, provide budgetary allocation, incorporate in school syllabus, verify statistics, estimate waste quantity, make national waste management plan clearly mentioning scopes for mismanagement and strategy to overcome the same

2

Regional

Absence of fund, absence of treatment/ storage facility, low priority

Fraction of waste collected, fraction of waste processed, fraction of waste disposed, per capita expenditure, per capita user fee collection, ratio of income (fine and user fee) to expenditure

Erroneous statistics, lack of funds, lower priority, vested interest and corruption

Verify statistics, estimate waste quantity, Timely review of waste management and create coordination with line departments

3

District/ county

Absence of fund, absence of treatment/ storage facility, low priority

Fraction of waste collected, fraction of waste processed, fraction of waste disposed, per capita expenditure, per capita user fee collection, ratio of income (fine and user fee) to expenditure

Erroneous statistics, lack of funds, lower priority, vested interest and corruption

Timely review of waste management and create coordination with line departments

No.

(continued)

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18 Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects

Table 18.2 (continued) S.

Level

Challenges

Key performance indicators (KPI)

Scope for Key mismanagement responsibility

4

City/town/ village

Absence of fund, absence of treatment/ storage facility, insufficient transportation vehicles, insufficient staff, low priority

Fraction of waste collected, fraction of waste processed, fraction of waste disposed, per capita expenditure, per capita user fee collection, ratio of income (sale of recycled product and recyclables. Collection of fine and user fee) to expenditure

Absence/poor data maintenance, lower priority, corruption

5

Ward

Insufficient transportation vehicles, insufficient staff, low priority

Timely waste Corruption, lack collection, of supervision fraction of waste collected

Have checks and balance on expenditure and improve performance with reference to KPI. Make sure expenditure is within the revenue generated from waste management

6

Block

Insufficient transportation vehicles, insufficient staff, low priority

Timely waste Corruption, lack collection, of supervision fraction of waste collected

Have checks and balance on expenditure and improve performance with reference to KPI. Make sure expenditure is within the revenue generated from waste management

No.

Make proper bylaws suitable for the city/town/ village. Enforce waste generators. Make sure expenditure is within the revenue generated from waste management. Create infrastructure or engage private organizations to manage waste

(continued)

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Table 18.2 (continued) S.

Level

Challenges

Key performance indicators (KPI)

Scope for Key mismanagement responsibility

7

Gated Non-co-ordination/ community awareness among members residing, Insufficient transportation vehicles, insufficient staff, low priority, absence/ insufficient in situ management facility

Segregation, storage, in situ processing and timely waste handing over

Corruption, absence of awareness/ facility/ leadership

Comply with applicable law

8

Waste Generator

Segregation, storage, in situ processing and timely waste handing over

Corruption, absence of motivation

Comply with applicable law

No.

Absence of fear to law, nonexistence of law, lack of awareness about consequences of poor waste management

Step 1

• Identify policies, programmes and legal framework

Step 2

• Assess current situation and gap analysis

Step 3

• Stakeholder consultation

Step 4

• Preparation of draft plan

Step 5

• Schedule for implementation

Step 6

• Stakeholder consultation for plan validation

Setp 7

• Approval and implementation

Fig. 18.4 Schematic diagram for preparation of MSW management plan by ULB

SWM will impact environment and health during collection, transportation, storage, processing and disposal. Impact needs not always be negative. It can be positive as well. Further impact could be long/short term. Environment in the context of EIA considers socio-economic environment in addition to physicochemical and biological environments. EIA usually involves the following steps: 1. Baseline data collection, 2. Impact prediction, 3. Preparation of environmental management plan.

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18 Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects

Baseline data collection involves collection of data of proposed site with respect to 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Meteorology, Geology (with special emphasis on hydrogeology), Water quality, Air quality, Noise quality, Socio-economic. a. b. c. d.

Demography, Economy, Education, Religious and cultural (with special emphasis on monuments and places of historic importance).

7. Biological (with special emphasis on biodiversity). a. Flora, b. Fauna. Examples of environmental impact are summarized in Table 18.3. All impact need not have to be present at all sites, and the checklist can be further modified and elaborated to avoid leaving out of any impact which may adversely affect the execution of plan. Impact of landfill is different from that of incineration or co-incineration. Further the impact will also be site specific. Hence, the impact assessment involves use of mathematical models to predict impact of proposed activity on air/water/noise quality. Further, the EIA activity will assess impact during construction and operation phases. The impacts during construction phase usually will be short term limited to duration of construction. The disposal facilities like landfill will have life span, and hence, EIA should also address the impact of disposal site after life span. Identification and quantification shall follow environmental management plan, which should be site specific. HIA usually involves the following steps: 1. Baseline data collection, 2. Impact prediction, 3. Preparation of health management plan. Baseline data collection involves collection of data of proposed site with respect to: 1. Demography, 2. Prevailing diseases, 3. Existing health infrastructure. Human health is linked to—determinants, which are an array of cultural, personal, institutional, social, economic as well as environmental factors that establish the health of individuals or population.

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Table 18.3 Examples of environmental impact due to SWM during operation phase S. No..

1

Management component

Collection

Impact Positive

Negative

Long term

Short term

Long term

Short term

Employment

Avoid insect/ rodent/ odour menace

May increase corruption

Improper/ incomplete collection may lead to insect/ rodent/odour menace

Traffic jam

Waste/leachate spillage may lead to insect/rodent/ odour menace

Improved health Improved aesthetics Increase in property value Increase in GDP due to financial turnover 2

Transportation

Employment Increase in GDP due to financial turnover

3

4

Storage

Processing

Employment

Avoid insect/ rodent/ odour menace Avoid insect/ rodent/ odour menace

Air pollution May increase corruption

Water pollution Improper/ incomplete storage may lead to insect/rodent/ May affect odour menace property value in the vicinity of site Rodent nuisance

Increase in GDP due to financial turnover

May increase in corruption

Employment

Water pollution Noise during construction phase

Green belt development in the processing plant would improve biological environment and act as carbon sink

Rodent nuisance

Reuse/Recycling and energy recovery will help in resource conservation and subsequent saving in import of new material

May affect local flora and fauna

Odour nuisance

Air pollution due to dust during operation phase

Cutting trees may be required

(continued)

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18 Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects

Table 18.3 (continued) S. No..

Management component

Impact Positive Long term Increase in GDP due to financial turnover

5

Disposal

Employment Increase in GDP due to financial turnover

Negative Short term

Long term

Short term

Fly nuisance May affect property value in the vicinity of site Water pollution Noise and dust emission during construction phase Odour nuisance Rodent nuisance

Fly nuisance Bird menace May affect property value May affect property value in the vicinity of site

Cutting trees may be required which will reduce carbon sink

Air pollution due to operation of incinerator May affect flora and fauna

Besides SWM environmental health concerns in a region include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Quality of physicochemical environment (air, water, noise, weather), Biosafety, Climate change, Disaster, Food, Housing, Land use planning, Occupational health, Vector, Animal-human conflict, Alcoholism, Ignorance of hygiene, Congested roads.

18.3 Preparation of a Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan

715

Hence, HIA of SWM project should take cumulative effects of all the health concerns, so that the health planning can be done to reduce impact on health due to SWM. Each city is unique and, hence, SWM plan should consider financial, social, cultural, legal, institutional capability of ULB. A case study of SWM planning in Msheireb Downtown, Doha, Qatar, is given in Box 18.2. Box 18.2 Case Study: Msheireb Downtown, Doha, Qatar (Ove Arup & Partners Ltd. (2017) The AWCS in Doha, Qatar, was planned as part of the Msheireb—Heart of Doha project, wherein three-stream waste source-segregation strategy adopted for servicing commercial and residential land uses. AWCS consists of vacuum system, with a capacity of 25 tonnes/day with 16,621 fixed users, to serve an area of 760,000 m2 , and approximately 50,000 daily visitors. AWCS includes three vertical chutes for mixed recyclables, dry waste, and organic waste installed in all residential building, with three waste inlets in each floor. The inlet doors are equipped with a weighing mechanism for weighing and recording waste disposal transactions with use of access card readers. The waste is transported pneumatically from the inlets to the central waste collection terminal.

18.3.1 Policies, Programmes, and Legal Framework Political commitment is essential for change and must be reflected in policies and laws. Therefore, if a nation is to effectively tackle SWM, its policies need to factor in environment protection and resource conservation outcomes. This step involves a detailed review as well as analysis of legal framework at national, state, and ULB levels, wherein the ULB shall list out all provisions applicable to them along with relevant policy and guidelines. Policies guide to the development of laws designed to achieve policy goals. Good law for sustainable waste management recognizes and acknowledges international norms. 86% of countries as well as economies reported the presence of an official national law or guidelines that govern SWM (Kaza 2018). Identifying the policies programmes and legal framework is not one time task. Environmental laws change very rapidly, and ULBs shall keep track of every change in law and document it and if required municipal SWM Plan should be tackled, accordingly. Low-income nations are most likely to be deficient in specific laws on SWM and often primarily dealt by municipalities/communities. The number of nations that have specific SWM legislation raises significantly in middle-income nations with around 88%ofmiddle-income nations have guiding SWM legislations or frameworks. The enormous most of nations without data on law related to SWM are in sub-Saharan

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18 Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects

Africa. SWM laws range from broad targeted interventions to environmental rules (Kaza 2018). Apart from environmental laws, this step should ensure that all other applicable laws such as labour law, financial laws, procurement laws, contract laws, and urban planning laws. Ignorance of laws may lead to wrong decisions thereby loss of resources in terms of money and manpower. Apart from the loss of resource, head of the department/organization may get punished apart from heavy financial penalty in terms so fine and compensation. A case study of SWM planning in Yokohama City in Japan is given in Box 18.3. Box 18.3 Case Study: Yokohama’s G30 plan (Jones 2015) Yokohama City in Japan witnessed rapid population growth and expansion of industrial output in post-war period. Increase in land prices as well as groundwater contamination and air pollution due to incineration necessitated a fundamental development of SWM policy-making. Yokohama’s G30 plan targeted a 30% decrease in the solid waste volume produced in 2010 as compared to 2001. The plan included increase in number of separation sub-categories up to 15, increase in quality checks, mandatory purchase of transparent rubbish bags, labelling with a thick felt-tip pen to making. In 2009, about 10,900 items/day were discarded and a system of “Garbage Guardians” was set-up to employ local volunteers who were empowered to leave reminder notes for defaulter and deliver back the trash bags to the owners. As a result, the volume of generated waste decreased from 1.6 Mt of waste in 2001 to 0.9 Mt in 2009, surpassing initial objective of 30% and achieving a reduction of 42%.

18.3.2 Assessment of Current Situation and Gap Analysis The ULB should carry out an assessment of the current status of SWM in its jurisdiction and compliance to applicable laws. The assessment should bring out the deficiencies and focus on the waste quantification as well as characterization. A sample checklist is given in Table 18.4. A number of strategic planning (SP) models exist for business development which can be fine-tuned to ISWM (UNEP 2009). One of the models is the SWOT model. This model is based on recognizing strengths, weaknesses, threats, and opportunities. Figure 18.5 gives sample strengths, weaknesses, threats, and opportunities in SWM. Assessment of current situation and gap analysis will provide basis for fixing target to achieve (Box 18.4).

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Table 18.4 Sample checklist for gap analysis for solid waste planning S. No.

Issue

Sub issue

1

Legal compliance

National law

Remarks

State law Local law Waste quantification

2

Generation Collection Segregation Recycling Reusing Processing

3

Human resource

4

Machinery

Required Available Vehicles Segregation Machine Shredder Baler

Land available

5

Storage Processing Transfer stations Vehicle depot

6

Funding

Salary Investment towards new infrastructure Maintenance User fee Fines Licensing fee

7

Administration

Population and demography Property information

Box 18.4 Case Study: Waste Management Plan for England (DEFRA 2013) The WMP for England consolidates several policies that are relevant to the management of: 1. 2. 3. 4.

MSW, Commercial and industrial (C&I) waste, C & D waste, and Hazardous waste.

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18 Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects

Strength: 1. Land available for solid waste disposal 2. Cheap labour available for collecting waste 3. Elected representatives support proper solid waste mangment in ULB

Weekness: 1. Sufficient funds not available for developing sanitary lanfill 2. Corruption among officers in ULB 3. Waste do not comprise reusable material 4. Public do not segregate waste

Threats: 1. Resistance to pay use fee by public 2. Legal threats of unforeseen changes in law 3. Frequent disasters in the area 4. Recruitment scam 5. Tendering scam

Opportunities: 1. Invite private entreprainer to invest in SWM 2. Creat awareness among stake holders about benifit of SWM 3. Generate revenuw by user fee, fine, licence fee from event orgnisers, selling products from waste like compost, biogas etc.,

Fig. 18.5 Sample strengths, weaknesses, threats, and opportunities in SWM

The plan adopts key targets such that, by 2020: 1. At least 50% household waste is prepared for recycling and reuse. 2. At least 70% of C&D waste is subjected to material recovery. SWM has also volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity (VUCA). Understanding VUCA can address finding solution in a given scenario to great extent. Sample VUCA analysis with respect to SWM is given in Table 18.5.

18.3.3 Stakeholder Consultation for Municipal Solid Waste Management Planning Due to the number of institutions as well as stakeholders involved in MSWM, it is important to carry consultative process. The consultative process can be achieved by: • • • •

Survey with structured questionnaire, Consultative meeting, Call for written opinion through advertisement, Call for opinion through social media.

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Table 18.5 Sample VUCA analysis for SWM Term

Example

Volatility

Political volatility in city XYZ may affect decision about budgetary allocation. Volatility in currency exchange that affects procurement cost equipment to be imported

Uncertainty Uncertainty in daily waste quantification can make the decision-maker confused to take decision. But uncertainty value can be predicted by calculating standard deviation and subsequent calculation. The uncertainty will be some per cent of constant quantity, e.g., waste generation in city XYZ = 5 TPD ± 10%. Here, 10% is uncertainty for which city xyz has to be ready Other uncertainties include: 1. death/sickness of decision-maker 2. political turmoil resulting in delay in major decisions 3. imprisonment of decision-makers or contractors due to recruitment/tender/ other scams 4. strike of waste collection workers 5. public agitation against operation/establishment of waste management facility adjacent to their homes 6. fire/flood in waste management facility may complicate management due to public agitation and political opposition Complexity Complexity is SWM issue that arises due to poor understanding of subject. The organization dealing with SWM needs to list out all the affecting issues such as legal requirement (with respect to finance, labour, procurement, environment, vehicle, land procurement, changing land use, civil service, insurance, etc.), culture (resistance to change, finding fault with everything, etc.), labour issues (bullying by supporter of political leaders, sick/weak workforce, frequent demand for tips from waste generators, frequent strikes, being absent to work, frequent transfers, constant demand for salary hike, etc.), vehicle issue (Frequent repairs, non-availability of spare part, etc.), knowledge (poor understanding of working knowledge, resistance to work, etc.) Ambiguity

Ambiguity in legal interpretation of laws. Ambiguity in SWM issues in recovery phase after pandemic. Issues related to climate change

Each of the process will have its own advantage and disadvantages. Rag pickers may not participate in sharing opinion through social media while participants of structured questionnaire need not always answer truth. Hence, it is better to adopt several consultative processes and list out issues. Stakeholders differ from country to country and place to place. Some of the examples of stakeholders are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Concerned government departments, Elected representatives, Nnon-government organizations (NGOs), Rag pickers, Resident welfare association, Self-help groups, Trade (hotels, restaurant, shops) associations, Waste collectors, and

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18 Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects

9. Waste processors. Experts of solid waste may have knowledge to provide macrolevel solutions. But, the experts will not have any knowledge on local socio-political issues like resistance to new waste facility in their surroundings. The influential people will somehow make sure that the waste management facility will not come around their properties. Usually, influential political people buy land and later develop infrastructure like ring road, highway, airport adjacent to their property while waste management facility away from their property. People participation and consultation in Indore-Case Study (India) are given in Box 18.5. Box 18.5 People Participation and Consultation in Indore, India—Case Study Inadequate infrastructure, operational inefficiencies, as well as poor services for collection and transportation can have a bearing on waste segregation behaviour. Individuals are the key to source segregation of waste. Citizen willingness to segregate waste at source is habitually not backed up by the required institutional mechanism for collection, transportation, treatment, recycling and disposal which falls within the purview of ULBs. Indore which bagged first prize continuously for five years in India as cleanest city in the country achieved it by people participation and consultation through constant education through group of NGOs.

18.3.4 Preparation of Draft Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan This step is one the important stage in preparing municipal SWM plan. Draft municipal SWM plan should consider: • • • • • • • • • •

Identified gaps, Future population projections, Future waste generation rates, Current and future quality of waste, Current and future quantity of waste, Changing lifestyles and economic status, Inputs from stakeholders, Financial situation of ULB, Technical capabilities of the ULBs, and Shortterm and long-term plans. Examples of short-term plan include:

18.3 Preparation of a Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan

• • • • • • • • • •

721

Increasing technical capabilities, Optimizing infrastructure utilization, Optimizing human resource utilization, Creating awareness to stakeholder, Reducing black spots (Fig. 18.6), Reducing waste littering (Fig. 18.7), Removing waste generated during festival (Fig. 18.8) within a day, Removing trees removed from ULB (Fig. 18.9) within a day, Resolving stakeholder issues, Increasing revenue to meet the expenditure towards solid waste through: – Marketing the product produced from solid waste, – Collecting user fee,

Fig. 18.6 Black spot in the context of SWM is place where people throw waste at undesignated place

Fig. 18.7 Waste littering

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18 Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects

Fig. 18.8 Waste generated during festival

Fig. 18.9 Trees removed from ULB

– Collecting licensing fee from event organizers, and – Collecting fine from defaulters. Examples of long-term plan include: • • • • •

Biomining legacy waste, Establishing waste-to-energy plant, Reducing waste generation in ULB, Remediating and reclaiming contaminated sites, and Selling reclaimed contaminated sites. A typical table of content of SWM plan is given in Table 18.6.

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Table 18.6 Typical table of content for SWM plan 1. Introduction 1.1 Overview 1.2 Scope 2. Policy and Regulatory Framework 2.1 Overview 3. Existing Waste Management Arrangements 3.1 Overview 3.2 Local authority collected waste 3.3 Commercial and industrial waste management 3.4 Construction, demolition and excavation waste 4. Lessons Learned 4.1 Waste prevention and reuse 4.2 Waste storage 4.3 Waste collection 4.4 Waste treatment and disposal 5. Objectives and Targets 5.1 Guiding principles 5.2 Objectives 5.3 Targets 6. Waste Forecast 6.1 Overview 6.2 Past trends 6.3 Future forecast 7. Resource and Waste Management Options 7.1 Overview 7.2 Waste prevention and reuse 7.3 Waste segregation 7.4 Waste storage, collection and transfer 7.5 Resource recovery 7.6 Waste monitoring 8. Proposed Resource and Waste Management Strategy 8.1 Overview 8.2 Construction phase 8.3 Operational phase 9. Finance 9.1 Capital expenditure 9.1.1 Investment made till date 9.1.2 Investment required for next 10 years (continued)

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Table 18.6 (continued) 1. Introduction 9.2 Operational expenditure 9.2.1 Past trends 9.2.2 Future forecast for next 10 years 9.3 Sources of finance 10. Organizational Strengthening 10.1 Current organizational structure and roles and responsibilities 10.2 Future plan 10.3 Training needs assessment 10.4 Training plan

18.3.5 Schedule for Implementation In this step, the ULB should specify needs for institutional strengthening as well as financing followed by an operational plan indicating allocation of resources as well as stipulating timelines. Sample implementation schedule is given in Table 18.7.

18.3.6 Stakeholder Consultation for Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan Validation Adequate SWM services are difficult to achieve in low- and middle-income nations due to lack of planning, funding, operational management, institutional skills for planning, and oversight. In low- and middle-income countries SWM competes with other development priorities. Typical challenges that are identified in World Bank (Kaza 2018) with respect to SWM are: • Ambiguity around organizational structure as well as responsibility, • Be deficient in of land and resistance from local residents to develop waste facilities, • Complexity of designing as well as managing decentralized SWM system, • Coordination between national, regional, as well as local governments, • Coordination within government, • Limited institutional capacity, and • Shortage of financial resources. Once the draft plan and schedule for implementation are ready, stakeholders should be consulted before finalization of municipal SWM plan. As fee, fine and other timeline recommended by experts and executives of ULB may not be agreeable to stakeholders and hence need to refixed before finalizing.

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Table 18.7 Sample schedule for implementation of municipal SWM plan S. No.

Task

Number of months from the date of approval of plan

1

Training all stakeholders about their responsibility

1

3

2

Training the staff with respect to new skills

2

4

3

Information, education, and communication activity

3

5

4

Identification of sites for solid waste processing facilities

4

6

5

Hiring new staff

3

7

6

Allocation/procurement of suitable sites

3

8

7

Fixing user fee, licence fee, fine

3

6

8

Enforcing responsibilities of waste generators stipulated in the law

3

6

9

Preparation of tender documents

3

6

10

Tender procedure and issue of work orders

3

6

11

Completing environmental impact assessment

6

12

12

Procurement of vehicles

6

13

13

Ensure door-to-door collection

6

14

14

Setting up of transfer station

6

15

15

Ensure separate collection and transportation of C & D Waste

6

16

16

Setting up solid waste processing facilities

6

17

17

Eliminate black spots

6

18

18

Bioremediation or capping of old and abandoned dump sites

6

24

Start

End

NYSDEC released draft SWM plan for public comment on 5 May 2010, and accepted comments until 16 August 2010. NYSDEC conducted five public hearings at which 55 people gave testimony. Totally more than 1300 individual comments were received in the form of signed form letters, written comments, calls, email during the comment period which were presented in the Responsiveness Summary (NYSDEC 2010). Stakeholder consultation is an important step in EIA and HIA processes. The public consultation is a legal requirement in many countries for EIA.

18.3.7 Approval by Concerned Authority Approval of municipal SWM plan from competitive authority is important as it would be binding for release of finance and implementation.

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18 Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects

The operational costs of SWM create a noteworthy financial burden for many ULBs in developing countries. In some instances, SWM accounts for 20% of local budgets in low-income nations (Kaza et al. 2018). Securing funds for SWM may require accessing financing from external sources. Even when ULBs are able to get initial investments, projects may fail due to improper plan for the operational expenses. Since every ULB’s economic and regulatory conditions are unique, financial challenges associated with SWM cannot be resolved with simple solution. Common forms of financing project costs are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Bonds, Charity from philanthropic institution/individuals, Grants, Loans, User fee.

Identifying and procuring finance form external funding agency is resource intensive and complicated process. It is necessary to consider following factors before approving: • Knowledge capacity of ULBs for drafting proposals, tenders, contracts; procuring services; and managing finances, • Political context including project is at a risk of cancellation by administration, • Legal and regulatory context with respect to protecting potential investors, • Funding source, • Technical capability of ULB.

18.4 Role of State and Regional Level Authorities Common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR) was one of the principles of the Rio Declaration at Rio Earth Summit in 1992. The principle can extend within national legal framework at different hierarchy. With respect to solid waste state usually takes responsibility of initial funding, framing legislation, international collaboration, enforcement of law at regional level. The term regional level in the context of this section is referred to part of national/state territory. Municipalities normally are responsible for the SWM at urban settlement level often face problems beyond the capability to handle the MSW due to the need of organization, financial resources, and complexity (Sujauddin et al 2008; Burtley 2007; Hussein and Mona 2018). The regional level authority normally enforces law on waste generators by framing bylaws at ULB level besides collecting user fee to make SWM more sustainable on long run. Any absence of clear predefined roles through law or policy would often lead to confusion and blame game.

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18.5 Understanding Local Solid Waste Management Needs SWM needs differ widely across the globe. Copying anything from elsewhere could be disastrous. Primary and ultimate aim is to improve public health. But financial, social, and environmental needs at local level have to understand to achieve ultimate aim. Some of the issues with respect to financial, social, as well as environmental needs are given in Table 18.8. New York State’s WMP set forth a new approach from “end-of-the-pipe” waste management to “upstream” to reduce dependence on disposal, reduce demand for energy, minimize GHG emission and create green jobs by influencing product and packaging design that minimizes waste besides maximizing the use of recyclable substances. The Plan sought a progressive reduction in disposal facilities from 1.86 kg/person/day to 0.27 kg/person/day between 2008 and 2030.This requires involvement of product manufacturers, retailers, distributors, consumers, and government (NYSDEC 2010). SWM at Indore Municipal Corporation—Case Study Indore Municipal Corporation (IMC), which was awarded the cleanest city in India five consecutive years, was managing the solid waste poorly. The city which has an Table 18.8 Some of the issues with respect to financial, social, and environmental needs in SWM S.

Type of issues Issues

Needs

1

Financial

• Resistance for user fee, fine, licence fee • Absence of fund within the local body to new solid WMP

• Zero user fee • No fine • No licence to generate waste during organizing event

2

Social

• Loss of lively hood to rag pickers, informal waste collectors and recyclers • Absence of waste segregation culture in the society • Resistance to new requirement of law • Absence of new skills to process emerging new type of waste (e-waste, contaminated waste during pandemic)

• Existing waste management practices need to be continued • Law enforcement should not be stringent • Waste management should not become hindrance to religious practices like throwing waste, cremated ash, idols into water body • Waste management should not be insisted upon segregation at source

3

Environmental • Absence of suitable site for • Send waste elsewhere waste processing • Law enforcement should not be • Absence of skills to operate stringent facility to comply with statutory requirement • Ignorance of legal requirement by officials of local body • NIMBY syndrome

No.

728

18 Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects

area of about 275 km2 had population of 2.705 million in 2017 with floating population of 0.3–0.5 million. The city has about 0.62 million household and commercial establishments and about 27% were urban poor with 85 wards grouped into 19 zones (Centre for Science and Environment, NA). MSW quantity was 617 MT/day in 2001, 50 MT/day in 2011 and 1115 MT/d in 2017. The four challenges of SWM identified by IMC are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Infrastructure, Waste management system and process, Staff management, Support from citizens. Scenario of SWM in IMC in 2015:

a. Condition of garbage containers, i. 1380 MS garbage container, old, and dilapidated, ii. 480 open spots, iii. Onsite burning of waste was very common. b. In-disciplined sweeping staff, i. ii. iii. iv. v.

High absenteeism of staff, Inefficient supervision and monitoring, Manual attendance system, Random allocation of work, Scattering of waste,

c. Non-functional workshop. i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi

Inefficient workshop staff, Insufficient vehicles, Lack of tools as well as machinery, No motor body building and absence of paint shop, Outsourced working practice on high cost, Poor infrastructure.

d. High court intervention due to PIL (Status as on 2015), i. CPCB issued notice to IMC to improve SWM. ii. Union Ministry of Environment had placed Indore among 43 critically polluted areas (CPA) of the India. iii. Municipal commissioner was directed to set up sewage and SWM facilities in two months. iv. Solid waste was piling up with every passing day. v. 3.5 lakh MT of garbage was dumped at trenching ground. Solid waste burnt at trenching ground caused air pollution. e. Unscientific disposal site,

18.5 Understanding Local Solid Waste Management Needs

729

i. The disposal site was at Devguradia (Nemawar road) and is at a distance of 12 kms from the city core area. ii. The area of landfill site is 146.32 acres. iii. Landfill site was not used. iv. All waste was disposed of by crude method of dumping. f. Challenges and dead lock, i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

Demotivated staff, Insufficient infrastructure and machinery, Lack of trust for IMC, Negligible public participation, No door-to-door waste collection, No plastic waste management system.

SWM Initiative of Indore: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m.

Biometric attendance and GPS monitoring of vehicles, Collection of C&D waste, Door-to-door waste collection and segregation, Engineered landfill, Establishment and operation of organic waste converter composting system, Establishment and operation of small composting units, Establishment of modern transfer station and scientific waste processing, Evening cleaning and waste collection from commercial areas, Extensive Information Education Communication (IEC), Behaviour change communication (BCC) activities, Mechanized road sweeping, Other allied activities such as drainage cleaning, footpath, rotaries and left turns, and green belts, Plastic waste collection and processing unit, Waste collection from bulk generators by a separate system litter picking along roads, and open area/plots. Pilot project for door-to-door collection:

a. Due to less political acceptance, pilot project was started door-to-door MSW collection cycle rickshaw was deployed and only b. Efficiency of infrastructure and financial feasibility was worked out. c. In ward 71 and 42 cycle rickshaw and 80 safaimitra1 were deployed. d. One motorized garbage tipper was used. e. Pilot Project for Effective door-to-door collection in Ward 71 and 42 Using Cycle Rickshaw done from December 2015 to January 2016 using 40 tricycle and 01 garbage tipper. f. Learning from Pilot Project. 1

Safai in hindi means cleaning, mitra in many Indian languages means friend.Staff engaged in cleaning activity is given designation such as cleaning friend to rise their respect/morale.

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18 Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects

i. Efficient door-to-door waste collection services, created confidence in citizens. ii. Political acceptance and ownership for door-to-door collection system. iii. 40 cycle rickshaw and 80 staff deployed in every ward. iv. This led to high collection and transportation cost Rs. 2886/t. v. One small tipper covered one thousand household in a single trip. vi. Cost-effective door-to-door collection using 4–5 small tipper can be done in every ward. vii. From February to November 2016 IMC procured 425 garbage tippers. Scenario after initiative: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i.

Bringing waste to dustbins was stopped. Tricycle deployed for narrow lanes. Door-to-door waste collection with small tipper reduced the collection cost. Door-to-door collection attained in all 85 wards. Dustbin location points were cleaned, if required/ paving and concreting was done. Public awareness created for door-to-door collection. Municipal staff was appointed on major problematic bin locations to verify garbage dumping. Provision for Segregation in all vehicles. Spot fine was done aggressively, if any person was found littering. Additional tools and equipment for drain silt and narrow lane:

a. 05 handcart in each ward for collection of drain silt, b. 05 cycle rickshaw in each ward for narrow lanes. IMC designed separate mechanism of collection of waste from bulk waste generator. Effective management of sweeping staff: a. ICT intervention to capture field staff attendance, b. Implementation of biometric attendance system, c. Micro planning of road sweeping deployment of “Safaimitra” on beat system basis, d. Evening and morning deployment of Safaimitra. Disciplinary action against Sweeping staff. a. Surprise inspection at field was done by Mayor, Commissioner and Additional commissioner, Deputy Commissioners on daily basis. b. About 650 temporary sanitary workers were terminated. c. About 90 permanent sanitary workers were suspended. d. Some inefficient and non-working staff were transferred e. Effective control on posting of staff f. Vehicles were given to chief sanitary inspectors (CSI) heading the zones Assistant CSI were also given to each CSIs due to heavy work pressure on CSIs.

18.5 Understanding Local Solid Waste Management Needs

731

IMC did extensive litter picking in Nov–Dec 2016 to make the city litter free. Mechanized road sweeping and jet washing. a. 12 ultra-modern road sweeping machines used daily, b. 400 km per day mechanical sweeping is done during night between 10.00 pm to 6.00 am, c. Washing of squares, footpath, and roundabout monuments with water mist pressure jet machine, d. Advantages: i. ii. iii. iv.

Approx. 850 dumpers of dust removed. RSPM level of cities reduced from 145 to 75–80 mg/Nm3. Respiratory air-borne diseases are reduced by 70%. All monuments/central divider, rotaries washed.

Besides above measures IMC installed 2000 twin litterbins in Commercial Area and distributed more than 1,00,000 dustbins were on minimal cost through Corporate Social Responsibilities (CSR) initiative. Further IMC revamped existing workshop, which was in poor condition and procured new vehicles for Zonal Officers and Chief Sanitary Officer to enable them for timely inspection. IMC Provided transfer stations for solid waste and established two centres for storage and transfer of C &D waste. Citizen can call on help line use mobile app for lifting of C&D waste on payment basis. Initially IMC has banned use of polythene carry bags of less than 50-micron thickness in entire municipal limits. This was followed by extensive drive against use of polybags. IMC held series of meeting and created awareness about ban on polybags with poly-bag manufacturer and traders’ associations. IMC seized of polythene carry bag from manufacturers and distributors. All the rag pickers were given ID cards and have been oriented for proper SWM. They are working with help of NGO besides ten roads have been constructed by IMC utilizing polythene. IMC established composting units in ten schools, ten marriage gardens and hotels, three vegetable markets besides composting flowers offered in temples. Additional initiatives: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. xi. x.

Back lane/concreting of lane and effective sewer system, Construction of central divider for greenery and dust prevention/security, Dustbins in all city bus transport, Improvement of foot path to reduce dust and also help pedestrian movement, Improvement of roads and foot paths, Removal of encroachments on footpath/roads such, Removal of illegal and dangerous hoardings, Removal of stray cattle/pig removal, River cleaning and cleaning of major canal, Road square improvement and widening of left turn.

732

18 Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects

IMC removed around 22,000–25,000 stray cattle and 50,000 pigs from the city besides stray dogs. The corporation took strict action and demolition of all illegal structures who were directly or indirectly involved in illegal cattle breading. The wine shops in IMC were handled very strictly to prevent littering. Demolition notices given to all wine shops where littering found. State excise department also issued notices to Wine shops to maintain cleanliness. Initially all marriage processions and marriage pandals2 in IMC were made aware of non-littering physically by officer’s and through media that was followed by spot fine of minor amount if littering was found. Besides the above measure IMC ensured dustbins in all passenger buses and removed encroachments on footpath/roads besides removal of illegal and dangerous hoardings. IMC installed Aadhar3 linked biometric attendance for all waste cleaning workers and all waste carrying vehicles are enabled with GPS system. Swachhata4 APP: Indore 311, mayor Helpline and Citizen Cop is used for waste management complaint redressal. 100% complaints are attended within time limit of 24 h. The corporation used Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter used for information, publicity, and awareness. IEC activities in IMC for SWM included gifting of bins to newly wedded couples to Promote Segregation. The corporation engaged brand ambassadors that included an Air Marshal, Radio jokey, Renowned Singer, Major General. The IMC empanelled NGO for SWM activities and conducted following IEC Activities for behaviour change: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2

188 roads rallies, 408 street plays, 476 meetings with resident welfare association, Route mapping done to all the vehicles, Dustbin distribution, Meetings with total 628 hotels, 225 oath taking ceremonies with 15,860 school children and staff, Thematic drives, Training to Safaimitras—567 meetings including 6,200 participants, 108 meetings with business associations including 1,247 shop owners, Awareness on open defecation free with the help of “swachh rath5 , Door-to-door visit to communicate segregation message, Walkathon, Talk shows, Radio jingles, Advertisement on bus panels and buses,

A large open-sided temporary pavilion often used for large meetings. Aadhaar is a 12-digit unique identity number that can be obtained voluntarily by the citizens of India based on their biometric and demographic data. 4 Swachchta (Hindi word) means cleanliness. 5 Rath (hindi word) means chariot. 3

18.7 Establish Appropriate Institutional Mechanisms

• • • •

733

Hoardings, Wall paintings, Thematic drive with sports clubs, Spot fine for spitting.

18.6 Role of Stakeholders in Municipal Solid Waste Management Planning Stakeholder engagement is the process of building relationships with residents, interest groups. ULBs have found it necessary to engage impacted entities and public in order to gain support for creating a robust SWM policies, programmes, and system (USEPA 2020). Working with stakeholders helps to create a robust SWM and long-term support for its operation besides enhancing efficiency. Usual stakeholders for a municipal SWM system include households, informal sector, Community Based Organizations (CBO), NGOs, Self-Help Group (SHG), students, peoples representatives, formal sector, academic institutions, ULBs, Government agencies (Fig. 18.10). Stakeholders’ consultation is important during the MSWM plan preparation to avoid complication such as complaints and litigations. The ULB may form a stakeholder committee or invite opinions in writing. Compilation of written opinion will be easy if a structure form is prepared and circulated. Other way of consultation is through online polls and social media. Stakeholder involvement in the SWM should follow common principles of stakeholder consultation: • • • •

Integrity (clear and transparent), Inclusiveness (accessible to all concerned stakeholders), Dialogue (open and genuine discussion), Influence (input reflected in outcomes).

18.7 Establish Appropriate Institutional Mechanisms Adequate SWM are difficult to achieve in low- and middle-income nations due to poor planning and lack of funding. SWM is expensive and requires institutional skills. SWM competes with other development priorities and capacity building for SWM need strong political support. A typical SWM system in a developing nation displays numerous problems with respect to technical, financial, institutional, finical and social constraints. Challenges repeatedly identified in World Bank studies (Kaza et al. 2018) include: • Scarcity of financial resources, due to scarcity of revenues from generators or budget,/ funding in local governments

734

18 Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects

Household Informal sector

Governmen t agency

CBO/NGO

Typical Stakeholders in SWM

ULB

Peoples representati ves

Academic institutions Formal sector

Fig. 18.10 Typical stakeholders in SWM

• • • •

Complexity of SWM, Scarcity of land as well as resistance from local people, Inadequate institutional capacity for monitoring, planning, and enforcement, Ambiguity in responsibility, and coordination at various levels of government.

Planning should include formulating an institutional structure capable of guiding and executing the municipal SWM. In the short-term existing personnel can be given responsibility but in the long term ULBs needs to plan requirement of expertise and skills to execute SWM in changing trends in consumer preference, legislation, and business trends. Many ULBS across the world are witnessing dramatic change in delivering goods to home with huge packaging. The fast-growing environmental laws is including responsibility on manufacturers of goods by EPR. It is essential that the team in ULB to update its services considering changing scenario. Very limited

18.8 Ensure Sustainable Financing for Municipal Solid Waste Management

735

funds are allotted for the SWM by the governments. Absence of clear roles/functions often leads to duplication of efforts. In the most developing nations lack of human resources with technical expertise required for SWM planning and operation. Research and development activities in SWM are often a low priority in many countries.

18.8 Ensure Sustainable Financing for Municipal Solid Waste Management Sustaining financing is very important for SWM. Dependency on funding from other sources like loans and grants are not sustainable in the long term. Pay as you throw (PAYT) (also called unit variable rate pricing, pricing, trash metering, or user-pay) is a usage-pricing model for disposing of MSW. Users are charged a rate based on the quantity of waste generator handover to the ULB. Numerous models exist across globe depending on the region as well as municipality. Waste can be measured by size/weight/unit-counts. There are three main types of PAYT programmes: 1. Full-unit pricing: users pay for all the solid waste they want collected in advance by procuring custom bag, a tag, or selected size container. 2. Partial-unit pricing: the ULB decides on a maximum number of bags/containers of solid waste. Additional containers/bags are available for procure should the user exceed the allowable amount. 3. Variable-rate pricing: users can rent a container of different sizes, with the price corresponding to the quantity of waste produced. The two most traditional ways to disposing of MSW are a flat-rate system or ULB taxes, wherein all users pay the same tax. PAYT is based following principles of environmental policy: 1. the polluter-pays principle, and 2. the shared responsibility concept. The rationale for PAYT can be divided into following categories: Economic Under a PAYT scheme, some or all of the costs of SWM are removed from property tax bills, giving independence in the management and financial of SWM system. SWM services are then charged by unit of consumption. Environmental The PAYT programmes are an effective tool in augmenting waste separation, recycling, and waste minimization due to which significant energy savings from transportation, enhancement in material recovery from recycling, as well as reduction in pollution from incinerators/landfills. Besides PAYT programmes also persuade

736

18 Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects

producers to develop more efficient designs as well as environmentally friendly product life cycles. Social Waste collections costs are distributed more fairly among the population, and in proportion to the quantity of waste each user produces. Free riders are no longer able to have their behaviour subsidized. Since lower-income families/establishments generate less waste, they pay lower waste collection fees. Charging for MSW may result in illegal dumping or the waste being passed to informal/illegal disposal. Public resistance is common when there is a change to any established municipal service. PAYT programmes need to be revenue-neutral by reducing existing taxes at besides introducing SWM fees so that citizens don’t feel financial burden.

18.8.1 Basis for Calculation Services do not come free of cost and so as SWM. Since ULBs are not profit-making organizations expenses towards SWM should be equal to revenue from SWM, i.e., Expenditure for SWM = Income from SWM. Where, Expenditure for SWM = collection cost + transportation cost + treatment cost. + disposal cost Income from SWM = revenue from selling compost + revenue from selling methane + revenue from selling recyclables+ finical assistance from brand owners + revenue from C&D waste generators + fine A sample table calculating establishment expenditure is given in Table 18.9. A sample PAYT structure is given in Table 18.10. A case study of financial sustainability in Argentinean municipalities is given in Box 18.6. Box 18.6 Case Study: Financial Sustainability in Argentinean Municipalities (Kaza et al. 2018) Argentina quantified the price of its waste system and set the following goals for municipalities: • Development of novel cost-recovery schemes as well as estimating of the associated fees, • Estimating integrated SWM costs and identifying connected revenues, • Execution of the polluter-pays principle.

18.8 Ensure Sustainable Financing for Municipal Solid Waste Management

737

Table 18.9 Sample table for calculating establishment expenses Office expenses Printing, stationery and photocopying charges Telephone/mobile expenses Revenue/postal stamp expenses Electricity charges—BBMP offices Medical reimbursement BBMP employees Other general or contingency expenses Functions and ceremonies Operation and maintenance expenses Consultancy charges Vehicle fuel expenses Vehicle allowances to officials Honorariums expenses Security service expenses Push carts and bins Consumption SWM-related consumables Repairs and maintenance of SWM vehicles Repairs and maintenance of SWM plant and machinery Repairs and maintenance of cars and other office vehicles Repairs and maintenance of computers and computer peripherals Maintenance of landfills/waste dumping yards/quarries Hire charges of SWM vehicles Operation and maintenance expense of biometric attendance system Operating costs outsourced SWM expense Tipping charges Decentralized composting expenses Maintenance of mustering centres for waste collection staff Repairs and maintenance Design, establishment and operation of scientific landfills Village improvement works for villages surrounding landfills Campaigns, rallies, and IEC programmes Capital expenses Computers and computer peripherals Office furniture and fitting, and office equipment SWM equipment

Amount

User fee (Per bin)

Smart card

Smart card

Commercial establishment (online/ offline) other With 100% than slaughterhouse, wet market, meat shops, composting/ restaurants serving dishes made of meat Biomethanation and 100% disposal of sanitary waste With less than 100% composting/ biomethanation

3

Smart card

Smart card

With 100% composting/ Biomethanation and 100% disposal of sanitary waste With less than 100% composting/ biomethanation

Gated communities (Government/ Private) (include hostels, quarters, residential complex, township)

5

(continued)

Smart card is required even if slum dweller is exempted to pay use fee. Exemption of user fee to slum dwellers need to be restricted to one bin per day to avoid other routing their waste through slum to avoid user fee.

6

Smart card

Slaughterhouse, wet market, meat shops (online/ offline), restaurants serving dishes made of meat*

4

Smart card

Smart card Smart card

Developed Highly affluent

Street vendor

Smart card Smart card

Implementation

Semi-developed

Biodegradable Non-biodegradable Hazardous Slum6

Category

2

Main category

Household

No.

1

S.

Table 18.10 Sample PAYT structure

738 18 Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects

Smart card

Paid (Sports, stand-up comedy)

Smart card

Separate demand based on Goods and Service Tax (GST)/turnover

Implementation

Smart card

Biodegradable Non-biodegradable Hazardous

User fee (Per bin)

Free (Birthday, marriage, school day, etc.)

Category

Indiscriminate disposal and mixing with other waste will end up in spreading of Zoonosis (infectious disease caused by a pathogen in animal to a human). Livestock is also major source of carbon emission. Examples of zoonosis include AIDS, COVID-19, Anthrax, Avian flu, and Swine flu. Hence deserves proper disposal without mixing with other wet waste and hence higher user fee need to be levied in the interest of public health. Zoonotic pandemic leads to loss of economy due to lockdown, treatment to sick people and death of people who are not responsible for generation of waste with zoonotic pathogens. The quantities of waste generated as per guidelines are 110–125 kg/tonnes live weight killed (TLWK) of poultry slaughtering 30–50 kg/TLWK of pig killed, 167–173 kg/ TLWK of goat and sheep killed and 250–320 kg/TKLD of bovine killed (CPCB 1992). The meat is costly item and mainly consumed by affluent people who can afford to pay four to twenty time of vegetable cost. Hence ethically, they should pay to manage waste generated by them which is costlier than other waste

a

C&D waste generators

Event organizers

7

8

Main category

Brand owners

No.

6

S.

Table 18.10 (continued)

18.8 Ensure Sustainable Financing for Municipal Solid Waste Management 739

740

18 Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects

18.9 Public–Private Partnership The term public–private partnership (PPP) is a tool of governance or management (Hodge and Greve 2005). It is partnership that involves several partners (such as international agency, NGOs, self-help groups, welfare associations, private enterprises, ULBs, state/federal government) out of which at least one of which is public and at least one of them is private. Massoud & El-Fadel (2002) defined PPPs as “the transfer and control of a good or a service currently provided by the public sector, either in whole or in part, to the private sector”. PPP is a business association among a public agency partner as well as private sector partner for the purpose of serving the public. PPP may be used to fund, construct, operate, and maintain projects. PPP can take numerous forms, including operation of transfer stations, household/commercial collection, material separation/recycling, compaction/transport to treatment/disposal facilities, and treatment/disposal through design–build–finance– operate (DBFO) contracts or build–operate–transfer (BOT) (World Bank 2005). There are several different legal forms of PPPs (UNECE 2008) major ones are described in Table 18.11. ULBs can engage private agencies/contractors for performing various works with respect to SWM including: 1. Supplying manpower for SWM, 2. Supplying vehicles/machineries on rent for SWM, 3. Providing complete service of door-to-door collection, storage, and transportation to treatment/disposal site, 4. Road sweeping. The rising cost of MSW management has resulted in local governments and several nations adopting PPP. In Lebanon, many ULBs are changing SWM services from a publicly provided public service into a privately contracted public service (Massoud and El-Fadel 2002). PPP needs not necessarily success by just entering into a partnership deed (Yeboah-Assiamah et al. 2017). Entering into partnership deeds with private companies without paying attention to details will not serve the purpose. Common issues that affect PPP in SWM are: 1. Lack of competency of avoiding competitive tender, 2. Not mentioning prior experience clause in tender document, thereby accepting inexperienced service providers into competition, 3. Choosing inexperienced service provider, 4. Choosing wrong process/technology for MSW processing, 5. Intentionally not including penalty clause in agreement/tender document, 6. Not registering agreement with competent authority, 7. Selecting private partner without sufficient financial capability.

18.9 Public–Private Partnership

741

Table 18.11 Different legal forms of PPP Legal form

Abbreviation Description

1

Buy-Build-Operate

BBO

Transfer of a public assets to a quasi-public or private entity

2

Build-Own-Operate

BOO

The private sector builds, owns, and operates a facility

3

Build-Own-Operate-Transfer

BOOT

A private entity builds, owns, and operates a facility for a specified period, after which ownership is transferred to the public sector

4

Build-Operate-Transfer

BOT

The private sector constructs a new facility and operates the same for agreed period after which ownership is transferred to the public sector

5

Build-Lease-Operate-Transfer

BLOT

A private entity builds and operates for the lease period, against payment of a rent and transfer to public sector

6

Design-Build-Finance-Operate

DBFO

The private sector designs, finances, and operates the facility prior to transfer the facility to public sector

7

Finance only

A private entity finances the public utility project

8

Operation & Maintenance Contract O & M

A private entity will perform operation and maintenance of public-owned project/utility

9

Design-Build

DB

Private sector designs and builds public utility/infrastructure

10

Operation Licence

OL

A private operator gets a license to operate a public service

S. No.

Since PPPs introduced in the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) in the late 1970s, such projects faced a several of constraints. Laws that govern PPP activities are not always consistent with one another. Revision of government policies gives little consideration of its impact on private partners. Deregulation of tax for public services may impact profitability for the private investor (ADB 2010). PPP projects usually have contract periods of 25–30 years. Private partners usually try to get finance in the form of loan from banks or other financial institutions by submitting agreement the firm has made with government agency.

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18 Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects

18.10 Centralized Versus Decentralized Municipal Solid Waste Management Systems Usually, SWM systems are planned and implemented with centralized systems for the entire ULB. Decentralized Waste Management Systems (DWMS) reduce the burden of management of large quantity of MSW at a centralized location, thereby reducing the cost if the ULB is very large. The decision of whether to choose centralized or decentralized can be made based considering following legal, technical, and financial feasibility. Usually, laws prescribe requirement of obtaining statutory permits and stipulate several restrictions like declaring buffer zone around for facility above certain size/ capacity. In such cases, if the city does not have location which can comply with legal requirement, then it is feasible to setup small facility at different places within or at outskirt of city. Technical feasibility needs to consider several factors which usually includes: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Technology and machines required, Land availability, Waste quantity and characteristics, Market for the end product of waste processed, and Collection and transportation logics.

Financial feasibility can be assessed by estimating costs for centralized facility and decentralized facility. Advantages of centralized systems include economies of scale, high-end technology and environmental controls, and single monitoring point. Limitations of centralized systems include fund restrictions, high potential for environmental failure of systems, limited experience of ULBs to manage large contracts, and requirement of larger area of land (CPHEEO 2016). DWMS allow for lower level of mechanization compared to centralized solutions. They provide job opportunity for informal workers as well as small entrepreneurs. They can be tailored to the local waste stream besides the climatic, social, and economic conditions. They decrease the cost of collection, transportation as well as disposal of waste. DWMS are suitable where suitable land for waste management facilities is available in the neighbourhood with no local resistance against the siting of the plant (CPHEEO 2016). Limitations to implementation of DWMS include (CPHEEO 2016): (i) Availability of land in most urban neighbourhoods, (ii) Availability of technically qualified staff to ensure scientific as well as hygienic operations, (iii) Ensuring periodic check on service quality, and (iv) Ensuring financial viability of decentralized projects, when qualified staffing is required.

18.11 Role of the Informal Sector

743

Case studies of decentralized waste treatment are given in Box 18.7. Box 18.7 Case Studies: Decentralized Waste Treatment (Storey et al 2015) Matale City, Sri Lanka generated 21 TPD waste out of which the 17 tonnes of waste were collected and transported to dump site by municipality. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) set up, a pilot 2-ton Integrated Resource Recovery Centres (IRRC) in 2007 in partnership with a local NGO. Further, two more IRCC facilities were commissioned with in 2011 and 2013. These IRRCs have capacity to nine tonnes of organic waste, and store three tonnes of recyclables. In Quy Nhon City, Vietnam a pilot IRRC of 1 TPD capacity was commissioned in 2007 through community participation by collecting user fee from two small markets and 700 households besides generating revenue from the sale of compost and recyclables. Kampot City, Cambodia, generated 18 TPD tonnes of waste which was collected by a private company. The company collected about 11 TPD of waste and transported to the dumpsite in partnership with a local NGO, commissioned in 2013 with a capacity to process four TPD of organic waste.

18.11 Role of the Informal Sector Informal private sector in SWM includes unregistered, unregulated activities carried out by families, groups’ individuals, or small-scale business waste pickers (Fig. 18.11), traders in waste materials, itinerant buyers (Fig. 18.12), and small-scale enterprises. Informal waste collectors are not controlled or regulated by government (Ahmed and Ali 2004). Informal sector enterprises/entrepreneurs have no trading licence, do not pay taxes, as well as they are not included in government insurance or social welfare schemes (Wilson et al. 2006). In the context of MSWM, the informal recycling sector refers to those concerned in picking up the reusable and recyclable materials from communal bins or from mixed waste. These activities are labourintensive, low-paid, low technology, unrecorded and unregulated work (Wilson et al. 2006). Usually, informal waste workers face health hazards, economic problems, and difficulties to access social services as well as social security (Schübeler 1996). The informal sector plays significant role in the municipal SWM value chain by recovering material from waste. The combination of the informal sector into the formal SWM system will reduce the overall system costs besides creating new job opportunities. On the other hand, informal sector will only collect/process what will benefit them leaving behind other waste (Fig. 18.13).

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18 Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects

Fig. 18.11 An informal waste collector collecting C&D waste Fig. 18.12 An informal waste collector collecting C&D waste

Since the informal sector is unregistered and not bound by law, they can collect waste at competitive price and dispose it at a place convenient to them without bothering subsequent consequences. Case study of informal sector in SWM is given in Box 18.6. Problems in informal sector include (Scheinberg et al. 2010): • • • •

Health and safety of people engaged in informal activity related to SMW, Involvement of children, Monopoly structures in value chains, etc., Negative impact on negative environment from informal recovery and recycling processes, and

18.11 Role of the Informal Sector

745

Fig. 18.13 Waste picker collecting valuable waste

• The transaction costs in terms of bribery, harassment, and the effects of criminalization. Some published case studies are given in Box 18.8. Box 18.8 Case Study: informal sector in SWM (Scheinberg et al. 2010) : • The “Swach model” in Pune City, India, is characterized by: – – – – – –

A standard for calculating service tariffs. Creating microcollection as well as recycling zones for informal workers, Minimal form contract, Payment of service fees by the households, Providing health insurance, Source separation protocol designed by union.

• The “Lima model” in Lima City, Peru, is characterized by: – Providing tricycles or pushcarts, – Providing uniforms, gloves, and transport equipment, – Rights to the access of the materials, • The “Quezon model” in Quezon City, Philippines, is characterized by: – Authorized to pick and valorize materials, – Accept a sub-minimum wage salary, – Authorization to informal junk shops to function as materials recovery facilities (MRFs). Scheinberg et al. (2010): Economic Aspects of the Informal Sector in Solid Waste Management GTZ (German Technical Cooperation) and the Collaborative Working

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18 Management Aspects: Planning, Institutional, and Financial Aspects

Group on Solid Waste Management in Low- and Middle-Income Countries (CWG), Eschborn, Germany.

References ADB (2010) Sustainable urban development in the People’s Republic of China. Municipal solid waste treatment: case study of public–private partnerships (PPPs) in Wenzhou urban innovations and best practices, Nov 2010. https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/27864/ urbandev-prc-nov2010-waste.pdf. Accessed on 2 Jan 2022 Aderoju OM, Dias GA, Gonçalves AJ (2018) A GIS-based analysis for sanitary landfill sites in Abuja, Nigeria. Environ Dev Sustain 2018:1–24 Ahmed SA, Ali M (2004) Partnerships for solid waste management in developing countries: linking theories to realities. Habitat Int 28:467–479 Al-Khatib IA, Abu HA, Sharkas OA, Sato C (2015) Public concerns about and perceptions of solid waste dump sites and selection of sanitary landfill sites in the West Bank, Palestinian territory. Environ Monit Assess 2015:186–187 Burntley SJ (2007) A review of municipal solid waste composition in the United Kingdom. J Waste Manage 27:1274–1285 Centre for Science and Environment (NA) Swachh Bharat Mission. https://cdn.cseindia.org/docs/ photogallery/slideshows/06_20171212_IMC-SWM-Final-Indore.pdf. Accessed on 22 Aug 2022 Chandrappa R, Das DB (2021) Environmental health—Theory and practice, vol 2: coping with environmental health. Springer, Cham Chiemchaisri C, Juanga JP, Visvanathan C (2007) Municipal solid waste management in Thailand and disposal emission inventory. Environ Monit Assess 135:13–20 CPCB (1992) Comprehensive industry document on slaughter house, meat and sea food processing. Comprehensive Industry Document series CPHEEO (2016) Municipal solid waste management manual, Part I: an overview. Ministry of urban Development, Government of India, New Delhi David CW (1985) Long-term planning for solid waste management. Waste Manage Res 3(3):203– 216. https://doi.org/10.1016/0734-242X(85)90111-9 DEFRA (2021) Waste management plan for England, Jan 2021, London DEFRA (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) (2013) Waste management plan for England, Dec 2013, London dos Muchangos LS, Tokai A, Hanashima A (2015) Analysing the structure of barriers to municipal solid waste management policy planning in Maputo city, Mozambique. Environ Dev 16:76–89 Ferronato N, Torretta V (2019) Waste Mismanagement in developing countries: a review of global issues. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16(6):1060. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16061060 Fitch-Roy O, Benson D, Monciardini D (2021) All around the world: assessing optimality in comparative circular economy policy packages. J Clean Prod 286:125493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcl epro.2020.125493. ISSN 0959-6526 Hodge G, Greve C (2005) Public-private partnerships: governance scheme or language game? Austr J Public Admin 69(S1):S8–S22 Hussein IA, Mona SMM (2018) Solid waste issue: sources, composition, disposal, recycling, and valorization. Egypt J Pet 27(4):1275–1290 Jones T (2015) Japanese solid waste management (SWM): a case study of Yokohama’s G30 waste policy. an international journal of engineering sciences, Special Issue ICTMS-15, 29–30 Dec 2015 ISSN 2229-6913 (Print), ISSN 2320-0332 (Online) Kaza S, Yao L, Bhada-Tata P, Van WF (2018) What a waste 2.0: a global snapshot of solid waste management to 2050. World Bank Group, Washington, DC

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LOC (2020) France: new anti-waste law adopted. https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/ 2020-03-20/france-new-anti-waste-law-adopted/Mar.20,2020. Accessed on 9 Feb 2022 Massoud M, El-Fadel M (2002) Public-private partnerships for solid waste management services. Environ Manage 30:621–630. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-002-2715-6 McDowell BD (1986) “Approaches to Planning,”. In: So FS, Hand I, McDowell BD (eds) The practice of state and regional planning. American Planning Association, pp 3–22 New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (2010) Beyond waste a sustainable materials management strategy for New York, Dec 2010, New York Ove Arup & Partners Ltd. (2017) Resource and waste management strategy. Old Oak and Park Royal Development Corporation, REP01, ISSUE 1, April 2017, London Scheinberg A, Simpson M, Gupta Y (2010): Economic aspects of the informal sector in solid waste management. GTZ (German Technical Cooperation) and the collaborative working group on solid waste management in low and middle income countries (CWG), Eschborn, Germany Schübeler P (1996) Conceptual framework for municipal solid waste management in low-income countries. SKAT (Swiss Centre for Development Cooperation in Technology and Management), Switzerland Seng B, Fujiwara T, Sponn V (2018) Households’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices toward solid waste management in suburbs of Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Waste Manage Res 36:993–1000 SPREP, UNEP(1999) Guidelines for municipal solid waste management planning in small island developing states in the Pacific region, Apia. SPREP, Samoa Storey D, Santucci L, Aleluia J, Varghese T (2015) Decentralized and integrated resource recovery centers in developing countries: lessons learnt from Asia–Pacific. Report 25 Feb 2015. https://www.unescap.org/resources/decentralized-and-integrated-resource-recovery-cen ters-developing-countries-lessons-learnt. Accessed on 15 Jan 2022 Sujauddin M, Huda MS, Rafiqul ATM (2008) Household solid waste characteristics and management in Chittagong, Bangladesh. J Waste Manage 28(9):1688–1695 Tchobanoglous G, Kreith F (2002) Handbook of solid waste management, 2nd edn. McGraw Hill Handbooks, New York UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe) (2008) Guidebook on promoting good governance in Public–Private partnerships. United Nations, New York UNEP (2009) Developing integrated solid waste management plan training manual, vol 4. ISWM Plan, Osaka, Shiga USEPA (2020) Best practices for solid waste management: a guide for decision-makers in developing countries. United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Resource Conservation and Recovery. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2020-10/documents/master_swmg_ 10-20-20_0.pdf. Accessed on 6 Jan 2022 World Bank (2005) Waste management in China: issues and recommendations. Urban development working papers 9. East Asia Infrastructure Department World Bank (2020) China circular economy promotion law. 25 Aug 2020. https://ppp.worldbank. org/public-private-partnership/library/china-circular-economy-promotion-law. Accessed on 9 Feb 2022 Yeboah-Assiamah E, Asamoah K, Kyeremeh TA (2017) Decades of public-private partnership in solid waste management: a literature analysis of key lessons drawn from Ghana and India. Manag Environ Qual 28(1):78–93. https://doi.org/10.1108/MEQ-05-2015-0098 Yousif D, Scott S (2007) Governing solid waste management in Mazatenango, Guatemala: problems and prospects. Int Dev Plan Rev 29:433–450. https://doi.org/10.3828/idpr.29.4.2

Chapter 19

Siting of Municipal Solid Waste Facilities

The siting of SWM such facilities is part of a process of building consensus on SWM goals, and public opposition can result into long delays/rejection of proposed facilities thereby compromising ability to meet requirement of environmental protection. People neighbouring to the site resist sitting efforts since they are afraid of decline in property values and quality of life. Local business leaders, environmental groups, and other groups are likely to oppose the decision to locate MSW processing site at a specific location. Waste management facility is one of the Locally Unwanted Land Uses (LULU) apart from low-cost housing, energy supply lines, motor ways, cemeteries, liquor shops, etc. A possible environmental impact due to wrong sitting has been dealt in detail in Chap. 12. In a nutshell, the impacts include • • • • • • • •

Air pollution, Destruction of natural habitat, Ground/surface water contamination, Impact on aesthetics, Impact on agriculture and fisheries, Impact on historic/archaeological/cultural/tourist site, Odours, Traffic congestion. Examples of possible economic impacts include

• • • • • • • •

Effect on property value, Emergency response, Employment and income, Goods and services, Legal and technical review cost, Loss of human resources due to impact on their health, Monitoring and inspection, Payment to local government,

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6_19

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• Public service demand, and • Treatment of sick people. Examples of possible administrative impacts include • • • •

Diversion of manpower to attend increased public complaint, Downgrade of public trust on government due to repeated media coverage, Repeated questions and discussions in assembly and parliament, and Increase in litigations against government.

The location of a MSW incineration plant needs to be determined with respect to both economic and environmental issues like • Proximity to energy consumers in case of steam producing incinerator, • Proximity to well-operated landfill to disposing residues, and • Sufficient distance away from residential zones which can be ascertained with mathematical modelling studies. The sitting of RDF plant shall take proximity to end users like cement plants. A ‘buffer zone of no development’ is compulsorily provided with well-reasoned logic like legal requirement, scientific evidence, and precautionary principle failing which new residents adjacent to MSW processing site may lodge complaint and litigation resulting in closure of facilities. Resistance characterized NIMBYism, a ‘not in my back yard’ attitude is quite common and natural and hence it is desirable to locate the waste treatment and disposal site as far as possible away from settlements considering other aspects like: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

Air quality, Airport, Available land area, Climatological conditions, Coastal regulation, Critical habitat areas, Earthquake zone, Existing land use patterns, Flood prone area, Geologic and hydrogeologic conditions, Groundwater quality, Groundwater table, Habitation, Haul distance, Highway or railway line, Land use, Local environmental conditions, Location restrictions, Potential ultimate uses for the completed site, Sensitive eco-fragile areas, Sensitive sites like wildlife sanctuary, monuments, religions place, tourist spots,

19 Siting of Municipal Solid Waste Facilities

22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31.

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Settlement, Site access, Soil conditions and topography, Surface-water hydrology, Terrain, Transportation, Water bodies, Water supply wells, Water table (highest level), and Wetland.

Apart from LULU and NIMBY new acronym—Not on Planet Earth (NOPE) and build absolutely nothing Anywhere Near Anybody (BANANA) “not in my terms of office” (NIMTO) and willingness and ability to pay (WATP) for improved SWM services. has also appeared in literature to explain resistance of project which is opposed by public. Construction of hazardous incinerator on Dorog, Hungary, several protest (Faragó et al. 1989) similarly other projects that faced protest in Hungary are The North-east Pest County Waste Management Programme, North-Balaton Region landfill (Richard 2011). Public resistance in Mzuzu, Malawi, had led to first relocate the solid waste site from Mchengautuwa and close the new site at Msilo (Holm et al. 2021). Siting guide should consider analysis of SWM like 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Costs benefit analysis, Impact and mitigation analysis, Risk assessment, Site suitability analysis, and Solid waste generation forecast.

Everyone wants consumer goods, but not a waste disposal facility nearby. From the common people to the highest level of politics, massive public opposition is witnessed to incinerators, siting landfills, transfer stations or any other waste management facility. As political as well as judicial systems empower the people, opposition groups delay or halt new waste management facilities. The SWM facility goes far beyond technical issues and involves human behaviour and political decisions. In New Jersey, the number of landfills has dropped from more than 300 to about a dozen from 1980 to 2000 due to which more than half of New Jersey’s MSW was sent to other states. 298 landfills in New York state were shut down and only six new ones opened in the decade since 1982. The number of landfills in the USA decreased from 20,000 in 1979 to about 5300 in 1993 (Hans 2000). A typical siting process should begin with tabletop analysis which shortlists suitable sites. This should be followed by rapid preliminary environmental assessment. If the preliminary environments demand that a site should not be selected due to serious irreversible long term environmental impact, then it should be deleted from the list. Finally, the candidature sites shall be subject to detailed environmental assessment to prepare an environmental management plan.

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Public opposition to the siting of waste management facilities at Gunnedah, Australia, received 86 public submissions within the allocated development application exhibition period with respect to location, human health, environmental, financial, and process risks (Ghafoor et al. 2022). Siting is multidimensional and complex; approaches will vary from country to country and place to place. No single successful siting process exists, and several steps may occur simultaneously. Successful site identification shall take the following issues in consideration: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Determine the service area, Identify environment/health impact, Identify facility need, Identify legal requirement, Identify political issues, and Public consultation.

The selected site may become political issue against which people may seek political support. The majority politicians take the path of least resistance as voters are more likely to favour a candidate who loudly says “no” to waste than a candidate who says,“ we need disposal facilities because we all make garbage” (Miller 2000). Solid waste was being dumped along roadsides Rawalpindi, Pakistan, where hazardous waste as well as hospital waste were treated as ordinary waste. Open dumps are responsible for the breeding of flies, blockage of drains, as well as spread of epidemic ailments. Due to lack of appropriate funding and equipment, the SWM was insufficient (Ejaz et al 2010). Opposition to some development is abbreviated by many acronyms—not in anyone’s backyard (NIABY), Citizens Against Virtually Everything (CAVE), Not in my election year (NIMEY), Not in my district (NIMD), Not in my field of sight (NIMFOS), Not in my term of office (NIMTO), Not in my front yard either (NIMFYE), Not in this lifetime (NITL), No observable redeeming features (NORF), Not on planet earth(NOPE), None of that (NOT), Not under my backyard (NUMBY), Not over there either (NOTE), and Put it in their backyard (PIITBY). Siting and starting SWM facility may result in public and political resistance even after commissioning plant with all legal permits. Elements of siting process include • • • • •

Community consultation, Environmental impact assessment, Fact finding, Health impact assessment, and Technical assessment.

19.1 Ground and Surface Water Protection

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19.1 Ground and Surface Water Protection Depending on physical, chemical, and biological properties, contaminants from SWM facility can alter ground and surface water quality. The contaminant released into the environment may move within an aquifer in the same manner that groundwater moves while some contaminants, due to their physical/chemical properties, may not follow ground water flow. Contaminants flow. Contaminants tend to remain concentrated in the form of a plume that flows in the path of groundwater. The size and speed of the plume depends on following characteristics of contaminant: • • • •

Density, Quantity, Solubility, and Type. Besides the characteristic of waste contaminant plume path and behaviours depend

on • Porosity of soil and • Velocity of the surrounding ground water. Ground water and pollutants can move speedily through fractures in rocks. Fractured rock presents problem in locating and controlling contaminants as fractures are randomly spaced and do not follow the hydraulic gradient. Pollutants can also find their way into the groundwater system through macropores, abandoned wells, root systems, animal burrows, and other systems of holes and cracks. The potential for pollution increases in areas surrounding pumping wells. Since groundwater usually moves slowly, contaminants usually undergo less dilution than surface water. Human health risks due to groundwater pollution caused by leachate leakage have received increased attention. Hence, setting the isolation distance between landfill sites and groundwater is important. The study on the intensity model of pollutant leakage source and solute transport model for the isolation of pathogenic Escherichia coli suggested that the isolation distance differ widely from 106 m–5.46 km in sand aquifers, 292 m–13.5 km in gravel aquifers and 2.4–58.7 km in coarse gravel aquifers (Xiang et al. 2019).

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19.2 Presence of Threatened and Endangered Species Solid waste dumps provide food resources to animals. Consideration animals. Consideration of impact on regional fauna especially with respect to threatened and endangered species is essential to safeguard the population of such species from adverse impact of indiscriminate disposal. Review of 159 articles studying 98 vertebrate species that were present in rubbish dumps by Plaza and Lambertucci (2017) all over the world (including Antarctica) revealed the impact to be considered positive (72.6%) but about a quarter showed negative impacts. However, these places augment the risk of pathogen infections and poisoning, and favour human-animal conflicts (Plaza and Lambertucci2017).. Hence, it is necessary to consider presence of endangered and threatened species in and around prospective waste disposal site. In Ethiopia, spotted hyenas source their food from waste, and shift to donkey predation when availability of waste decreases (Yirga et al. 2012). Wolves eat food from waste dump when ungulates are not/rarely available (Meriggi and Lovari 1996), grizzly bears and Malayan sun bears use rubbish dumps during low availability of quality natural food (Peirce and Van Daele 2006; Te Wong et al. 2004a, b). Solid waste dumps contains abundant fish, meat, eggs, seeds, chicken, offal, cheese, and fruits, which are renewed daily and used by some species. Rooks form the highest congregations in rubbish dumps during time of lowest natural food availability (Olea and Baglione 2008). Rubbish dumps may serve as significant scavenging sites for Bald eagles for hatchyear as well as second-year eagles, as older birds are more likely to be successful in obtaining higher quality items in other places (places (Turrin et al. 2015). Waste dumps are first used by male grizzly bears, followed by females with cubs (Peirce and Van Daele 2006). Males of herring gulls are likely to be dominant over females in a waste dump after the starting of an incinerator that changed the availability of food (Pons 1994). Many species gather near waste dumps to exploit food sources like insects, small mammals, and little birds. Fighting and stealing food is frequently seen (Annorbah and Holbech 2012). Young glaucous gulls (Weiser and Powell 2011) and white storks (Blanco 1996) predominate in rubbish dumps. Polar bears feed in waste sites are primarily sub adults and family groups (Lunn and Stirling 1985). Foxes and cats visit waste dumps to eat micromammals like rats (Hutchings 2003; Martina and Gallarati 1997).

19.2.1 Pathogens Infection Risk Mammals that aggregate at rubbish dumps can acquire pathogens and transmit zoonotic diseases. The presence of pathogens in waste dumps is common (Collins and Kennedy 1992; Flores-Tena et al. 2007; Matejczyk et al. 2011) and risk to the animals using them (Ortiz and Smith 1994).Gulls from waste tips were responsible

19.2 Presence of Threatened and Endangered Species

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for a Salmonella outbreak in cattle and sheep in Scotland (Coulson et al. 1983). Further influenza virus infection in black headed gulls might have been produced during gathering in large numbers on waste dumps (Jurinovic et al. 2014). Ingestion of cow meat from rubbish dumps caused a tuberculosis outbreak in olive baboons (Sapolsky and Else 1987; Tarara et al. 1985) and dogs predominated in dumps in India increased the risk of Leptospirosis and Rabies infection to humans (Markandya et al. 2008; Ogada et al. 2012).

19.2.2 Toxics and Foreign Body Ingestion Exposures to toxic substances in waste dumps pose high risk of poisoning to animals (García-Munoz et al. 2010; Reeves et al. 2008). The toxicity of the water from landfills will result in mortality, growth inhibition in embryos, malformations, and decreased pathogen resistance and (and (Bruner et al. 1998; Gibble and Baer 2011; De Lapuente et al. 2014). Higher lead concentrations were reported in Chicks and eggs from nests of black kites closer to the solid-waste incinerator (Blanco et al. 2003). Eating euthanized (the act or practice of killing or permitting the death of animals) animals in waste dumps resulted in poisoning with barbiturates (drugs that cause relaxation and sleepiness) Bald eagles (Millsap et al. 2004) and death of polar bear was linked to contamination by a discarded battery (Lunn and Stirling 1985). Plastic and foreign bodies in birds, commonly appear in pellets or stomach contents (Ballejo and De Santis 2013; Henry et al. 2011; Houston et al. 2007), produce toxicity or intestinal obstruction. Plastic ingestion was observed in white storks (Peris 2003), turkey, and black vultures (lnigo Elías 1987; Sazima 2013; Torres-Mura et al. 2015), especially when roosting close to rubbish dumps (Ballejo and De Santis 2013).

19.2.3 Impacts on Invasive and Threatened Species Food in waste dumps may lead to population expansion of invasive species (species (Mirmovitch 1995; Clergeau and Yesou 2006; Tennent and Downs 2008; Calle and Gawlik 2011). Threatened species in waste dumps can find an alternative as well as predictable food resource to sustain their populations. Egyptian vulture takes advantage of food discards in Socotra, Yemen (Gangoso et al. 2013). Hooded vulture and the endangered crowed crane depend on waste in dump in Africa (Annorbah and Holbech 2012; Pomeroy 1975). California condor, Andean condor, Malayan sun bear, and polar bear use rubbish dumps as a food resource (Finkelstein et al. 2015; Pavez 2014; Lunn and Stirling 1985; Te Wong et al. 2004a, b).

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19.2.4 Indirect Impacts of Rubbish Dumps on Wildlife The gathering of animals in waste dumps near human settlements may augment human-animal conflicts like livestock depredation, animal attacks to people and aircraft collision. Hamadryas baboons associated to dumps near cities, create high conflicts with people as they encroach crops in agricultural areas (Biquand et al. 1994). Dingoes, using organic waste in Australia, attack people, and responsible for death of a person (Thompson et al. 2003). The intensity of livestock predation in Ethiopia by hyenas is higher near rubbish dumps (Girmay et al. 2015). Birds’ abundances ear waste dumps increase risk of aircraft collision (Burger 2001; Francoeur and Lowney 1997; Novaes and Cintra 2013). Sacred ibis in Africa that benefits from dump sites predates on eggs of a cape cormorants which is a threatened species (Williams and Ward 2006). The population growth of kelp gulls can be negative for Magellanic penguins and other sea birds due to their predation on eggs/immatures (Yorio et al. 1998) beside attacking whales and possibly death of calves (Maron et al. 2015; Sironi et al. 2009). The increase in crows and ravens’ population due to food in waste dump may elevate predation risk in other birds (Marzluff and Neatherlin 2006). Further predator abundance and increase in group size in waste dumps can increase competition and predation (Newsome et al. 2015).

19.3 Land Use Compatibility Compatibility means ‘a state in which two things are able to exist or occur together without problems or conflict’. An existing urban agglomeration in many countries never though solid waste as an issue considering the population, lifestyle, and characteristics of waste in the past. Low population had an opportunity to use most of the degradable waste to be used within house for garden and combustible waste as fuel for cooking and heating water for bathing. Increased agglomeration and vertical development have posed new challenge to transfer the solid waste outside the city. But larger cities do need waste transfer station to transfer waste collected by small vehicles from individual houses to waste treatment/disposal facility by larger vehicle for economic reasons. A site for waste transfer station needs to be large enough to accommodate required functions and possibly future expansion beside ideal sites that include effective natural buffers may not be available (USEPA 2002).

19.5 Hauling Distance to the Facility

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19.4 Water, Sewer, and Electric Utility Availability Water, sewer, and electricity are important for any industry. Most of the civilization were established, developed, and flourished next to water bodies. Even though sewer and electricity may not be required for all solid waste processing facility it is prudent to consider access/availability of power supply and sewer to choose the type of processing and plan the activity for establishing facility. The distance from water bodies needs to be considered for two reasons: 1. To source the water for waste processing and 2. To plan managing environment to avoid water pollution. Solid waste processing like cardboard/paper recycling demand water to make pulp from which recycled cardboard/paper manufactured. In the absence of sufficient water, the planner may have altered the plant to bring water from elsewhere or send shredded/baled paper to recycling plant located elsewhere. Absence of sewer may not be constraint in most of the cases as such facility can opt for septic tank and soak pit or own STP to dispose the sewage. In the absence of electricity, the planner can opt to in install renewable energy source or diesel generator if the facility operation demands electricity. Alternatively, arrangement shall be made to get power from power distribution/supply network.

19.5 Hauling Distance to the Facility Hauling distance is an important factor in establishing waste processing facility. The waste processing/disposal cannot be located very near to human settlement and on the other hand it can be located for a way, which results in escalation of transportation costs. Design capacity of transfer stations is determined by the distance from which waste can be economically delivered. In situations where sufficient queuing space cannot be provided on the transfer station site, a supplementary offsite area needs to be provided for waiting trucks. Another transfer station may be necessary beyond a certain distance, or it might become just as cost-effective to directly haul waste to the disposal facility. Further different waste streams will have different designations depending on type of waste such as • • • • • • • •

Animal waste, Biodegradable waste, Biomedical waste, C&D waste, E-waste, Hazardous waste, Plastic waste, and Scrap metal.

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The biodegradable waste constitutes the large portion of urban agglomeration. Due to high land price and consequences such as fly/odour nuisance associated with such waste it has be hauled every day. The infectious biomedical waste shall be hauled as early as possible preferably within a day to avoid infection spreading. The non-biodegradable waste like metal, plastic, paper can be stored if the generation point has sufficient space.

19.6 Proximity to Waste Generators as Well as Schools, Churches, Hospitals, and Other Public Facilities The facility needs to be as far as possible near to waste generators but not very near due to which public would risk their mental/physical health. The presence of toxic and infectious material and fly nuisance might affect most sensitive community – children, sick, and aged people. While it is possible to build and operate MRF near residential and industrial developments, care must be taken to ensure they are sited in a location where the operation is environmentally and aesthetically acceptable. In order to reduce the impact of the MRFs during operation, they should be sited in remote places where sufficient buffer zones surrounding the facility can be maintained. In many urban area, MRFs are sited at the landfill site. Incinerator and landfill site cannot be located within the city for the obvious reason, the operation would affect the environment beside incinerator/landfill is not compatible with land use where schools, hospitals, and religious building dominate (Tchobanoglous and Kreith 2002).

19.7 Existence of Natural Buffers Between the Public and the Facility Rapidly growing cities would engulf sites with waste processing facilities. Improper planning and political pressure would often convert the area around waste disposal facility for residential and commercial activity where in people come and settle. If no buffer (no development zone) is legally notified and implemented adjacent to waste processing facility, the new migrants would complain or approach judiciary for relief on various ground. If the area is relatively plain with access to urban area, the area can be occupied by poor forming slums. Sites with natural buffers around the site like trees, hillocks, shrubs, cactus, deep pits, boulders, and uninhabited wasteland will b beneficial but not always available. It is prudent to make choices to locate waste management facility which has natural buffer.

19.9 Cultural and Historic Impact

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19.8 Present and Future Population Density and the Need to Relocate Residents In the developing countries, the SWM is worsened by the open dumping, open burning and the mismanagement of the leachate from disposal sites (Madak et al. 2015). The per-capita material footprint of developing nations grew from 5 t in 2000 to 9 t in 2017, representing a noteworthy enhancement in material standard of living (UN 2018). In Banjul (city in Gambia), the dump site is sited in a densely populated area and the households around the dump site use well water contaminated with coliforms attributed to the dump site (Sanneh et al. 2011). Households in Phnom Penh,1 burned/ buried/dumped around 635,000 tons of MSW in 2015 and 361,000 tons of MSW in 2008 (Seng et al. 2018). In Thailand, there were more than 425 disposal sites in 2004. Of these sites, 330 were open dump sites, the majority of which received about 25 t/ d while landfills of Bangkok received around 4500 t/d (Chiemchaisri et al. 2007). Situations are grim across the fast-growing urban agglomeration in developing countries where people do not want to spare parcel of land owned by then even beside waste dumps even if it is slum. Planner has to take the residents and political parties to which they are affiliated with. Modernization of waste management systems in large Indian cities to protect public health and the environment by up-gradation from open dumpsites to controlled waste disposal sites, or by building modern waste facilities and rehabilitate dumpsites as they are now encapsulated by the city (Rodic-Wiersma and Gupta 2012).

19.9 Cultural and Historic Impact The issue of waste, that was limited to developed nations until the 1960s, spreads worldwide. Chronic poverty, weak regulations, and inefficient management structures lead to the explosion. of solid waste in developing nations that made waste a social, sanitary, environmental as well as economic issue (Barles 2014; Ngnikam and Tanawa 2006; UN-Habitat 2010). Preserving such sites does not require money but requires motivation and interest. Photos of culturally important sites being cleaned is shown in Figs. 19.1 and 19.2. The siting of MSW facilities mirror the societies that produced it and the importance it gives to protect culture for its next generation. Often much urban settlement chose marsh land to dump their waste without knowing its importance. Similarly, many culturally important sites have been neglected across the world. Photo of waste thrown at historic site is shown in Fig. 19.3. A photo of clean heritage site is shown in Figs. 19.4, 19.5, and 19.6.

1

Capital of Cambodia.

760 Fig. 19.1 Waste thrown at historic site being cleaned by volunteers in Srirangapattana, India

Fig. 19.2 Waste thrown at historic site being cleaned by volunteers in Srirangapatna, India

Fig. 19.3 Waste thrown at historic Site in Srirangapatna, India

Fig. 19.4 World heritage site at Hampi, India

19 Siting of Municipal Solid Waste Facilities

19.10 Transportation and Traffic Problems

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Fig. 19.5 World heritage site at Hampi, India

Fig. 19.6 World heritage site at Hampi, India

19.10 Transportation and Traffic Problems Traffic patterns at SWM facilities must take into accommodate a wide variety of vehicles ranging from large transfer trailers to small pickup trucks. The selection of site to waste facility shall ensure a smooth logical pattern as vehicles move in and out of the facility and enhance the safety of the facility as well as user and operating crew of the facility. The planner shall take into additional requirement like snow fall (Fig. 19.7) and animals (Fig. 19.8) on the street where necessary. Landfills, waste deposition centres, transfer stations, as well as recycling centres can be visited by hundreds of vehicles establishing unique traffic patterns. Siting waste facility shall consider existing traffic flow/problems/infrastructure like public roadways, tarping (covering with tarpaulin) and untarping area, points of ingress and egress, buildings, weighing bridge, tip floors, parking lots, as well as utilities.

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Fig. 19.7 Bottle bank, UK

Fig. 19.8 Animal on street feeding on waste at Bengaluru (Formerly Bangalore), India

19.11 Perceived Impact on Property Values Historically poor collection as well as storage conditions contributed to urban unwholesomeness. Undersized (not enough vehicles, insufficiently large storage areas) and partial collection lead to streets and gutters filled with trash. The nonappropriation and the absence of monitoring of industrial activities increased the health risk of waste. Negative public/political perception on waste management facility includes (Stinnett 1996): • Environmental and health risks—water/air/nose pollution, and transportation concerns, • Economic issues—effect on property values, impact on local industry, • Social issues—equity in site choice, community image, aesthetics, and future land uses, • Political issues—local elections, vested interests, and • Additional issues may surface, depending upon local and regional conditions.

19.12 Noise and Visual Impact

763

Property value adjacent to waste management facility declines drastically and hence people may often complain about environmental degradation violation of environmental laws to shift/relocate/close the facility.

19.12 Noise and Visual Impact Solid waste processing plant can pose high visual impact on aesthetics and noise. An unprofessionally managed solid waste processing plants and SWM reflects on importance a country shows to protect environment and health of citizens through its officers who are not capable of managing solid waste enforcement. Figures 19.9, 19.11, and 19.12 provides glimpse of poor SWM within city and waste processing plants. The noise linked to traffic congestion, operation on machineries can create nuisance and health issues in and around the processing site. Hence, siting of processing plants shall consider it impact prior to finalization. Fig. 19.9 Waste floating on storm water drain

Fig. 19.10 View of waste dump

764 Fig. 19.11 Abandoned waste processing plant

Fig. 19.12 Screened inert in solid waste processing plant

19 Siting of Municipal Solid Waste Facilities

19.14 Environmental Equity (Not Concentrating MSW Site in Low Income …

765

19.13 Perceived Risk The word ‘perceived’ means ‘to attain awareness or understanding of’. Different people will have different perception of same issue. Many nations in sub-Saharan Africa have poor SWM systems but around 27% of the study population in Nairobi and about 42% of the study population in Mombasa perceive that they have little or no health risk from the nearby dumpsites (Amugsi et al. 2019). Apart from safety and health issues, the perceived risk of siting waste treatment facility includes drop in property value and other social issues. Mandur the village which is just one kilometre away from the dumping yard near Bengaluru, India, had issue of difficulty to find a bride for residents of the village (Newsable 2018). Negative public perception against landfills and WTE facilities makes it difficult to site such facility. Even though composting centres, transfer stations, and MRF have minimal effect on the heath/environment, they still face opposition in many communities. Hence, it’s essential to involve interested parties throughout the siting process.

19.14 Environmental Equity (Not Concentrating MSW Site in Low Income and Minority Area) Environmental equity means access to environmental benefits and protection from environmental hazards regardless of race, income, and other characteristics. The characteristics. The siting of SWM facilities raises ethical questions of various kinds. Disproportionate burdens on poor or a disadvantaged person by siting dump yards and solid waste treatment facility is a global phenomenon. Available data provide reliable indications that waste facilities are often located in areas with more deprived residents, or ethnical minorities (Martuzzi et al. 2010). Identifying a suitable site for a waste management facility depends on technical, environmental, social, economic, and political issues. A powerful politician and his supporters would not allow their property or region near their property to setup waste management facility. The people in power usually purchase land at chap rate and propose a project (like airport, ring road, medical college, and industrial area), which would shoot their property value. Figure 19.13 shows river being used for washing cloths and garbage dump in an area where poor and minority live. The poor and marginalized sections of people will not the only sufferers of siting SWM facility in placed with low income and minority the impact will spill over and affect affluent and well as the environment linked between marginalized society and affluent society.

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Fig. 19.13 River being used for washing cloths and garbage dump

References Amugsi DA, Haregu A, Haregu TN, Mberu BU (2019) Levels and determinants of perceived health risk from solid wastes among communities living near to dumpsites in Kenya. Int J Environ Health Res 30:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2019.1597834 Annorbah NN, Holbech LH (2012) Relative abundance, agonistic behaviour, and resource partitioning among three scavenging bird species in Ghana. Malimbus 34:1–8 Ballejo F, De Santis LJ (2013) Dietaestacionaldel Jote CabezaNegra (Coragypsatratus) en un _area rural y unaurbana en el noroestepatag_onico. El Hornero 28:07–14 Barles S (2014) History of waste management and the social and cultural representations of waste. In: Agnoletti M, Neri Serneri S (eds) The basic environmental history. environmental history, vol 4. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09180-8_7

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Hans T (2000) ‘The all-powerful NIMBY’ the waste crisis: landfills, incinerators, and the search for a sustainable future, New York (online edn). Oxford Academic, 12 Nov 2020. https://doi. org/10.1093/oso/9780195128987.003.0015. Accessed 20 Jan 2023 Henry PY, Wey G, Balança G (2011) Rubber band ingestion by a rubbish dump dweller, the White Stork (Ciconia ciconia). Waterbirds 34:504–508 Holm RH, Chunga BA, Mallory A, Hutchings P, Parker A (2021) A qualitative study of NIMBYism for waste in smaller urban areas of a low-income Country, Mzuzu, Malawi. Environ Health Insights 2021:15. https://doi.org/10.1177/1178630220984147 Houston DC, Mee A, Mc Grady M, Warkentin IG (2007) Why do condors and vultures eat junk? The implications for conservation. J Raptor Res 41:235–238 Hutchings S (2003) The diet of feral house cats (Felis catus) at a regional rubbish tip, Victoria. Wildl Res 30:103–110 lnigo Elías EE (1987) Feeding habits and ingestion of synthetic products in a black vulture population from chiapas, Mexico. Acta Zool Mex Nueva Ser 22:1–16 Jurinovic L, Savic V, Balenovic M, Lisicic D, Lucic V (2014) Virological and serological investigation of avian influenza in black headed gulls captured on a rubbish dump in Zagreb, Croatia. Vet Arh 84:521–528 Lunn NJ, Stirling I (1985) The significance of supplemental food to polar bears during the ice-free period of Hudson Bay. Can J Zool 63:2291–2297 Markandya A, Taylor T, Longo A, Murty MN, Murty S, Dhavala K (2008) Counting the cost of vulture decline -an appraisal of the human health and other benefits of vultures in India. Ecol Econ Spec Sect Biodivers Policy 67:194–204 Maron CF, Beltramino L, Di Martino M, Chirife A, Seger J, Uhart M, Sironi M, Rowntree VJ (2015) Increased wounding of southern right whale (Eubalaena australis) calves by kelp gulls (Larus dominicanus) at PenínsulaVald_es, Argentina. PLoS ONE 10:e0139291 Martina A, Gallarati M (1997) Use of a garbage dump by some mammal species in the Majella massif (Abruzzo, Italy). Hystrix Ital J Mammal 9:23–29 Martuzzi M, Mitis F, Forastiere F (2010) Inequalities, inequities, environmental justice in waste management and health. Eur J Pub Health 20(1):21–26. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckp216 Marzluff JM, Neatherlin E (2006) Corvid response to human settlements and campgrounds: causes, consequences, and challenges for conservation. Biol Conserv 130:301–314 Matejczyk M, Plaza G A, Nale cz-Jawecki G, Ulfig K, Markowska-Szczupak A (2011) Estimation of the environmental risk posed by landfills using chemical, microbiological and ecotoxicological testing of leachates. Chemosphere 82:1017–1023 Meriggi A, Lovari S (1996) A review of wolf predation in southern Europe: does the wolf prefer wild prey to livestock? J Appl Ecol 1561–1571 Miller C (2000) Politics of Garbage, The, waste 360. https://www.waste360.com/mag/waste_pol itics_garbage. Accessed on 21 Jan 2023 Millsap B, Breen T, McConnell E, Steffer T, Phillips L, Douglass N, Taylor S (2004) Comparative fecundity and survival of bald eagles fledged from suburban and rural natal areas in Florida. J Wildl Manag 68:1018–1031 Mirmovitch V (1995) Spatial organisation of urban feral cats (Felis catus) in Jerusalem. Wildl Res 22:299–310 Modak P, Wilson DC, Velis C (2015) Global Waste Management Outlook. UNEP; Athens, Greece: Waste management: Global status, pp 51–79 Newsable (2018) Bengaluru’s garbage turns men into bachelors. https://newsable.asianetnews.com/ south/bengalurus-garbage-turns-men-into-bachelors. 31 Mar 2018. Accessed on 26 Feb 2022 Newsome TM, Dellinger JA, Pavey CR, Ripple WJ, Shores CR, Wirsing AJ, Dickman CR (2015) The ecological effects of providing resource subsidies to predators. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 24:1–11 Ngnikam E, Tanawa É (2006) Les villes d’Afrique face à leurs déchets. Presses de l’UTBM, Belfort Novaes WG, Cintra R (2013) Factors influencing the selection of communal roost sites by the black vulture Coragyps atratus (Aves: Cathartidae) in an urban area in Central Amazon. Zool Curitiba 30:607–614

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Thompson J, Shirreffs L, McPhail I (2003) Dingoes on Fraser Island-tourism dream or management nightmare. Hum Dimens Wildl 8:37–47 Torres-Mura JC, Lemus ML, Hertel F (2015) Plastic material in the diet of the Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) in the Atacama Desert. Chile. Wilson J. Ornithol. 127:134–138 Turrin C, Watts BD, Mojica EK (2015) Landfill use by bald eagles in the chesapeake Bay region. J. Raptor Res 49:239–249 UN (2018) The sustainable development goals report. UN; New York, NY, USA UN-Habitat (2010) Solid waste management in the World’s Cities 2010. Earthscan, London USEPA (2002) Waste transfer stations: a manual for decision-making united states environmental protection agency solid waste and emergency response (5306W) EPA530-R-02-002 June 2002 Weiser EL, Powell AN (2011) Reduction of garbage in the diet of non breeding glaucous gulls corresponding to a change in waste management. Arctic 64:220–226 Williams AJ, Ward VL (2006) Sacred ibis and gray heron predation of Cape cormorant eggs and chicks; and a review of ciconiiform birds as seabird predators. Waterbirds 29:321–327 Xiang R, Xu Y, Liu YQ, Lei G, Liu J, Huang Q (2019) Isolation distance between municipal solid waste landfills and drinking water wells for bacteria attenuation and safe drinking. Sci Rep 9:17881. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-54506-2 Yirga G, De Iongh HH, Leirs H, Gebrihiwot K, Deckers J, Bauer H (2012) Adaptability of large carnivores to changing anthropogenic food sources: diet change of spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) during Christian fasting period in northern Ethiopia. J Anim Ecol 81:1052–1055 Yorio P, Bertellotti M, Gandini P, Frere E (1998) Kelp Gulls Larus dominicanus breeding on the Argentine coast: population status and relationship with coastal management and conservation. Mar Ornithol 26:11–18

Chapter 20

Mathematical Modelling for Solid Waste Management

Model A model is a representation of a system that permits for investigation of the effects of it properties as well as the prediction of future outcomes as various conditions may change. Physical models are used to capture the behaviour of a proposed machine/structure. A basic physical model is fabricated to visualize information about the context that the model represents like multistory building, bridge, car to test aspects of a product at the design development stage to ensure that a suitable product is developed. A mathematical model uses mathematical equations to describe a system. It system. It uses a set of equations and logics which are used for forecasting situations wherein physical models cannot be fabricated like weather, climate change, population growth, market behaviour, etc. Models can play a significant role in informing policies by: • Providing understanding of causes for a complex phenomenon, • Predicting the future, and • Predicting the impact of interventions. Sustainable SWM system can be achieved through System Analysis Techniques (SAT) among which System Dynamics Modeling (SDM) approach is most often used for SWM that considers sectors like environment, socio-economic systems, recycling, business, GDP, ecology, population, generation rate, legal issues, and sorted waste (Pai et al. 2014; Bufoni 2017; Zhao et al. 2017; Karavezyris et al. 2002; Dyson and Chang 2005; Kollikkathara et al. 2010; Sukholthaman and Sharp 2016; Kanchan et al. 2017, 2021). Developing an exhaustive SWM model is a very complex system process as it is characterized by an inherent uncertainty in estimates of costs as well as environmental impacts. Developing a comprehensive model also demands knowledge and an ample analysis of possible solid waste treatment processes apart from knowledge of the governing mathematical equations.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6_20

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Table 20.1 Mathematical models useful in SWM S. No. Typical mathematical Uses models that are useful in SWM

Refs.

1.

Air quality model

• Prediction of air quality from waste incineration, waste dumps, waste processing plants • Fixing buffer zones (no development zone) around waste processing/disposal facility

Hussain et al. (2020)

2.

Surface water quality model

• Prediction of surface water quality deterioration due to accidental entry of leachate from waste dump/processing/ disposal sites

Islam et al. (2023)

3.

Ground water quality model

• Prediction of ground water quality deterioration due to accidental entry of leachate from waste dump/processing/ disposal sites

Nagarajan et al. (2012), Abd El-Salam and I Abu-Zuid (2015)

4.

Fire risk model

• Prediction of fire risk in waste dump/ processing/disposal sites

Masalegooyan et al. (2022)

5.

Waste generation prediction model

• Prediction of waste generation

Kolekar et al. (2016)

6.

Facility Planning and Operation Scheduling Model

• Selection of waste processing/disposal sites • Processing/disposal facility capacity expansion models, • Forecasting waste processing/disposal facility characteristics • Scheduling waste collection/processing/ disposal operation

Jess et al. (1993)

7.

Manpower assignment model

• Predicting manpower requirement for waste collection/processing/disposal

Anthony (1974)

8.

Vehicle management model

• Predicting type/route of waste for SWM • Waste collection scheduling

Sarmah et al. (2019)

9.

Noise model

• Prediction of noise due to operation of waste management facility

Zannin et al. (2018)

10.

Life cycle model of SWM system

• Predicts series of stages regulated by a set Solano et al. of management decisions which confirm (2002) that the system is mature enough to leave one stage and enter another

SWM is associated with pollution of air, water and noise. Waste amendment is also associated with safety issues. Some of the uses of mathematical models in decision taking in SWM are given in Table 20.1. Since pollution prediction models are discussed in pollution related books, the authors would like to discuss the approaches to develop model during SWM. Many of the operations which involve science and management theories can be expressed

20.1 Introduction to Mathematical Modeling

773

by single mathematical equation or group of equations. When a model developer chooses to use several equations and couple them to one another, output of one equation shall act as input to other equation.

20.1 Introduction to Mathematical Modeling Mathematics allows us to formulate ideas and apply assumptions in an unambiguous way. It can also be applied over an array of scales. Mathematics is also the language that computers understand best, and it can produce results from many computational experiments. In the present context, mathematical models can assist with decision making by exploring ‘what if’ scenarios. Modeling of waste management in the 1970s, 1980s as well as early 1990s is discussed by Gottinger (1988), MacDonald (1996), Berger et al. (1999) and Tanskanen (2000). Most of the municipal waste models in the literature can be divided into three categories: cost benefit analysis, life cycle assessment and multi-criteria decision making (Morrissey and Browne 2004). Some of the advantages and disadvantages of mathematical models are listed in Table 20.2. The model should aim to reduce limitation rather than totally doing away with mathematical model. For example, with the development of science and technology, scientists can predict weather and climate with high confidence and low uncertainty despite that result of the mathematical models will have some uncertainty. Mathematical model developer should aim to validate the model outcomes and strive to reduce the value of uncertainty. For example, a mathematical model with 10% uncertainty is preferred over a model with 50% uncertainty. If a SWM system needs 100 people and a model predicts human power requirement as 110 or 90, such model is likely to be more useful compared to model which predicts 50 or 150 people. It is always cheaper to use a good mathematical model to make decisions rather than making arbitrary decision without scientific evidence and logic. Managing simple problems such as garbage as garbage management in a farmhouse may not Table 20.2 Advantage and disadvantage of mathematical modeling S. No.

Advantages

Disadvantages

1.

Simplify complex situations

Provide partial descriptions if the model is too simplified

2.

Improve understanding of various situations

Often work only for restricted range of values

3.

Cheaper, easier and quicker compared creating actual scenario and see the outcome (trial and error)

Models are based on current data and understanding of the subject by the model developers

4.

Allow us to make predications

Oversimplification may result in misleading results

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20 Mathematical Modelling for Solid Waste Management

demand mathematical modeling. But complex situations like SWM in a metropolitan city would save resources if the decision maker makes made decision by developing a validated model. It would also help unnecessary problems due to over procurement of machinery or under recruitment of personnel.

20.1.1 Types of Mathematical Model There are numerous types of mathematical models. Typical distinctions in the types of mathematical model are: • Empirical v/s mechanistic; and • Deterministic v/s stochastic All mathematical models are made up of variables and a mathematical representation of the relationships among them. Empirical versus mechanistic models Empirical means ‘based on experiments and practical experience’. Empirical models are formed based on a series of experiments or field observations whereas mechanistic models are derived from hypothesis. Suppose someone wants to derive an empirical waste generation model for city xyz given in Table 20.3. The data in Table 20.3 do not represent any specific pattern. Hence, a model can be proposed with several options including following data fitting formats: 1. Linear (Fig. 20.1) 2. Exponential (Fig. 20.2) 3. Logarithmic (Fig. 20.3) Table 20.3 Average waste generated per day in city xyz

Year

Waste generated (t/d)

2010

2.7

2011

2.8

2012

2.7

2013

2.6

2014

2.9

2015

2.9

2016

3.1

2017

3.2

2018

3.3

2019

3.3

2020

3.4

20.1 Introduction to Mathematical Modeling

775

4. Polynomial (Fig. 20.4) 5. Power (Fig. 20.5). Example for hypothesis for mechanistic models are: Quantity of wet waste generated in a city = 50% of total fruits and vegetable sold in the city per day. Quantity of dry waste generated in a country = Total packaging material sold in the country.

20.1.1.1

Deterministic Model

Deterministic model calculates a future event, without considering randomness. The deterministic model can be mechanistic (i.e., relationship based on underlying theory), or phenomenological (i.e., relationship based on the observations), or simulation model. A simple example would be—if a city with 100 people in waste management cell can manage 100 t of waste per day, then a city with 200 t of waste need 200 people 4

Waste generated in t/day (x)

Fig. 20.1 Linier equation for waste generated in city xyz

y = 0.0791x - 156.38

3 2 1 0 2005

2010

2015

2020

2025

Year (y)

4

Waste generated in t/day (x)

Fig. 20.2 Exponential equation for waste generated in city xyz

y = 3E-23e0.0263x

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 2008

2010

2012

2014

2016

Year (y)

2018

2020

2022

Fig. 20.3 Logarithmic equation for waste generated in city xyz

20 Mathematical Modelling for Solid Waste Management

Waste generated in t/day (x)

776

4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 2005

y = 159.35ln(x) - 1209.4

2010

2015

2020

2025

2020

2025

2020

2025

Year (y) 4

Waste generated in t/day (x)

Fig. 20.4 Second order polynomial equation for waste generated in city xyz

3.5

y = 0.005x2 - 20.118x + 20192

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 2005

2010

2015

Year (y) 4

Waste generated in t/day (x)

Fig. 20.5 Power equation for waste generated in city xyz

3.5

y = 2E - 175x 53.003

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 2005

2010

2015

Year (y)

20.1 Introduction to Mathematical Modeling

777

if the decision maker thinks ‘x’ tons of waste need ‘x’ number of people to manage the waste. But in reality, same number drivers required to transport 100 tons of waste may be sufficient to cater transportation of 200 tons of waste if they are engaged for more time by paying overtime. Similarly, there is no need to increase clerical staff every time there is increase in garbage. So good model developer should spend more time in understanding the issue and come out with a model with optimum results. Suppose the purpose of SWM is to create jobs, then model developer should eliminate machines as for as possible and reduce working hours of prospective staff.

20.1.1.2

Stochastic Model

A stochastic (word derived from Greek word stokhazesthai which means to guess or aim) model represents a circumstance where uncertainty/randomness is present. A stochastic model represents circumstances where uncertainty is present. It is a model for a process with randomness. In the real word there is always some uncertainty in all the events due to several reasons. Deterministic models assume that the outcome is exactly determined by the model inputs as well as relationships. It ignores all random variation and a given input always produces the same output. Stochastic models incorporate inherent randomness. It uses a variety of values for the model variables in the form of probability distributions. The same input generates a collection of outputs. The detailed discussions follow in subsequent section. Hybrid models are those models that combine different types of models. In a deterministic model, once all parameters as well as initial conditions are set, multiple iterations of the model produce exactly the same outcome. In stochastic models, each iteration of the model may produce a different outcome. Stochastic models are very important but much more difficult to analyze than deterministic models. Uncertainty refers to situations involving imperfect or unknown information with respect to future predictions as well as measurements/analysis. Uncertainty in analysis/measurement depends on environment (temperature, humidity, light intensity etc. at the place), skills of person measuring, instrument/devise used, quality of chemicals (if used in analysis) etc. Hence a systematic laboratory will always provide uncertainty value in analysis/measurement results written/printed as ‘ ± uncertainty value’. Ex: A laboratory receives a sample for which PH was analyzed and result was declared as given below: pH = 7.66 ± 0.05. In this example the laboratory has calculated uncertainty as ± 0.051 through series of calculation for an analyst, in a laboratory, in an instrument, at a temperature

778 Table 20.4 Result of ai+1 in different iteration

20 Mathematical Modelling for Solid Waste Management −3ai

ai+1 a0

1

a1

−3

a2

9

a3

−27

a4

81

and humidity declared by laboratory during uncertainty calculation which is not discussed here. The uncertainty value will be different if analyst, temperature, humidity, instrument, is changed. When a sample was analyzed the result was 7.66 ± 0.05. This means the sample has pH value 7.61 or 7.71. If the same sample is submitted to different laboratory for inter laboratory comparison the value should be in the same range at, or else further investigation is required to know correct value. In stochastic models, the variables are random numbers and therefore each iteration of the model produces a different outcome. Now look at following simple equation of discrete-time models in one variable. { ai+1 = f (ai )

f (ai ) if i ≥ 1 1 if i < 1

For each iteration a will give different value depending on value of i. For example If ai+1 = −3ai . The result will be calculated as given in Table 20.4. Continuous-time models usually take the shape of differential equations. Stochastic models in which the variables change randomly are difficult to analyse mathematically and also difficult to simulate them on a computer since it is necessary to run the model several times and then study the results. Examples of stochastic process include branching process, Markov chain, Poisson process, Wiener process which are discussed in advanced mathematics books and reader is encouraged to read the same. Developer of mathematical model can use these process which is close the issue he/she trying to resolve. Stochastic neural networks are a type of artificial neural networks (ANN) built by introducing random variations into the network. ANNs named after the neurons in the human brain are a set of algorithms modelled like the human nervous system. They are designed to recognize patterns as well as relationships in data (Gershenson 2003). A typical ANN comprises different layers (Fig. 20.6): • Input layer—It receive input data from the outside on which the network will learn, recognize about, or otherwise process.

20.1 Introduction to Mathematical Modeling Input layer INPUT 1

779 Hidden layer

Output layer

W11 W12 W13 W14 W21

INPUT 2

W22 W23 W24 W32

W31

W33

INPUT 3

WN2 W34

. . . .

OUTPUT

WN3

WN1

INPUT N

WN4

Fig. 20.6 Conceptual diagram for ANN

• Output layer—It receives information from hidden layer. • Hidden layer—These units between input and output layers transform the input data into information that the output unit can use somehow. Learning Techniques in Neural Networks • Supervised Learning—in this learning the input data is presented to the ANN which will produce an output result which is compared with the desired output. An error signal is generated if the actual output and the desired output are different. Based on error signal, the weights would be changed until the desired output and the actual output are matched with. In the study by Rathod et al. (2020) supervised learning was used wherein researchers used solid waste generated, population density, number of households/ Hospitals/Schools and average Income per household. In this study the performance of the supervised machine learning models on a regression problem is calculated with the help of metrics that compare the actual quantities of solid waste with that of the forecasted. • Unsupervised Learning-in this learning input data is used to train the network whose output is known. Susanth et al. (2021) used machine learning to segregate the waste materials by using pre-trained architectures and six waste classification categories- Cardboard, Glass, Metal, Paper, Plastic, and Trash. The most misunderstood of the six categories is ‘glass’. Thereby concluding there is necessary to add more and clear ‘glass’ images to enhance the model.

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20 Mathematical Modelling for Solid Waste Management

20.1.2 Steps in Mathematical Modelling Typically, modelling involves following steps: • • • • • •

Choosing variables, Making assumption, Formulation, Solution, Interpretation, and Validation.

Subsequent sections elaborate each step in modeling. It is very much essential to be clear about objective of mathematical model. Mathematical model can be used for climate prediction as well weather prediction. Uses of climate prediction and weather prediction are different. Similarly, use of waste quantification at global level, national level and local level are different. Determining the appropriate level and key model components are essential to know level of simplification is required.

20.1.2.1

Choosing Variables

The most fundamental component of mathematical model is variables. Variables of model depends on: (1) Quantities that change in the proposed model, (2) Whether the process is discrete or continuous, and (3) Whether the model is deterministic or stochastic. Finding the right of variables is important part of the mathematical model development. Considering example of solid waste itself the management depends on several variables not limited to listed below: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Available skill in the community, Capacity development, Capacity to reuse and recycle, Climate change trend, Climate of the region, Competition among waste pickers/recyclers, Competition within waste management system, Correctness of available data, Corruption in the system, Crime rate, Data availability, Data gaps, Data transparency,

20.1 Introduction to Mathematical Modeling

14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

781

Economic growth, Environmental laws, GDP, Informal solid waste management, Knowledge to use data collection system, Labor laws, Legal framework, Level of technology expertise, Migration trends, Minimum wages, Motivation to collect data, Need for waste collectors, Need of waste collectors, Occupational health, Population, Population density, Population of waste picker, Record keeping, Tax avoidance, Topography of the area, Trend in consumerism, Trend in packaging, Trend in waste segregation, Trends in natural in natural/anthropogenic disaster, Unemployment rate, Waste mafia, and Willingness to pay by waste producer for management.

All the above listed parameters are inter-linked and have influence on SWM. But it is not possible to include all the above in to the proposed mathematical model and it is difficult to establish mathematical relationship. Hence developer may list all the variables he/she can think and prepare a shortlist based on: 1. Measurability—Population can be easily measured. But corruption cannot be measured to include in the model. 2. Data availability—GDP data are easily available at national/state level but may be easily available at local level. 3. Ability to include variables in mathematical relation—Trend in packaging can be incorporated into SWM model based on market survey data with respect to packaging industry. 4. Importance—low quantity toxic waste are important as it may lead to public health issue, and it may contaminate nontoxic waste and convert into toxic waste. On the other hand, quantity of bus ticket generated need not be considered in a mathematical model as it would not serve any significant purpose.

782

20.1.2.2

20 Mathematical Modelling for Solid Waste Management

Making Assumptions

Assumptions are very much important to arrive at model output which has significant use for decision making. The model results depend on assumptions and various assumptions can lead to fundamental differences. Suppose the purpose of model is to predict quantity of bio-medical waste within a defined boundary, the assumptions should complement the end use of the model. Some of the suggested assumption and argument for adopting such assumption are: 1. The biomedical consumables sold within the jurisdiction will be consumed within the defined boundary and no consumables will be purchased outside the defined boundary for consumption within the boundary. This assumption is made to be practical as it will be easy to get sales data from commercial tax department or drug control department. Biomedical consumables can be brought by users outside the boundary also. But making provision for feeding data of consumables that are brought outside defined boundary to model would make the model complicated and user of the model would have to put more resources to gather data which is not justified if the output of model is just to establish decision whether a new disposal facility is required within the boundary. 2. All biomedical consumables consumed will become biomedical waste except tablet, syrups and injectable medicine. This assumption is essential as tablet, syrup and injectable medicine will enter the body and come out with faeces, urine and sweat. 3. Container of biomedical consumable shall be considered as biomedical waste, but packaging containers are considered as General waste which can be disposed in par with similar house hold waste. This assumption will help in quantifying the waste as accurate as possible otherwise carob box and plastic covers may also be quantified as biomedical waste which demands costly disposal methods. 4. All the consumables are consumed within expiry date once it is sold. This may not be case in real life as some of the syrup purchase may be stored in houses of patients and may be retained even after expiry date. But it is not practical to gather the data of consumables which are not consumed within expiry date. 5. Radioactive consumable consumed by healthcare establishment is not considered as biomedical waste as radioactive wastes are disposed in accordance with different set of legislation and protocols. 20.1.2.3

Formulation

Formulation or creating model involves interlinking various mathematical entities. The mathematical entity can be: 1. A mathematical equation, 2. Output of another mathematical model, 3. Constant, and

20.1 Introduction to Mathematical Modeling

783

4. Variable. Consider a waste management system with two management options—waste recycling and disposal at a landfill. The mathematical equation to explain this scenario is: Qg = Qr + Ql where, Qg = Quantity of waste generated, Qr = Quantity of waste recycled, and Ql = Quantity of waste disposed in landfill. Suppose there is another mathematical model which has an output for Qr then the value of Qr generated from that model can be used in above equation. The specific gravity of various components of waste such as glass, aluminium, paper remains constant throughout the world. Hence value of such constants if required by model can be incorporated by model developer instead of making end user to search the values and feed it to model. Examples of variables in a mathematical model related to solid waste include number of routes, number of households, number of people, number of shops etc. as value of these variables vary from place to place. Interlinking can be done by: 1. Mathematical operations (e.g.: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) 2. Mathematical logic (e.g.: Conjunction (AND); Disjunction (OR); Negation (NOT)). In the equation already discussed Qr and Ql and interlinked by addition. If there is a waste generator producing waste at the rate Y t for year t. Management decides on the recycling share t d , with a logic 0 < δ min < t d < δ max < 1. Where, δ min = minimum recycling δ min = maximum recycling. The model developer should use following logic in the model: 0 < δmin and δmin < td and δmax < 1

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20 Mathematical Modelling for Solid Waste Management

The recycling share can be as low as zero, but can never exceed one, as it is not logical to recycle something which does not exist. Suppose the user of model feeds a number which does not fit into above logic then the model will give erroneous results which are unacceptable in real scenario. If the model is incorporated in to into software the developer of software may opt to show an error message whenever a user tries to feed illogical numbers to modeling software.

20.1.2.4

Solution

Mathematical equations can be solved analytically and numerically. Analytical solution uses mathematical principles and provides exact solutions. It is usually only used for very simple systems (e.g., one equation or system of linear equations). Example consider simple hypothetical solid waste generation model: Waste generated in the city = Population size of city × 0.5 kg/person The above model is very simple. At any point of time if anyone has to know the waste generated in city, he/she has to multiply population of city with 0.5 kg/person. Numerical solution applies to most mathematical models. It needs the use of numerical algorithms implemented in computational routines (e.g.: Euler method, Runge–Kutta, Monte-Carlo, Riemann sum). It gives approximate solutions. Suppose in a three hour three-hour waste collection system the speed of the waste collection vehicle is measured at three times and recorded in the Table 20.5.A discretization would be to say that the speed of the vehicle was constant from 0:00 to 0:40, then from 0:40 to 1:20 and finally from 1:20 to 2:00. In this example, The total distance approximately travelled in the first 40 min = (2/3 h × 40 km/h) = 26.67 km. ∴ total distance traveled = 26.67 km + 33.33 km + 53.33 km = 113.33 km. If more accurate result is required, the measurement can be made every minute and arrive at nearest true value. Table 20.5 Chart of time and speed for calculating waste collection vehicle

Time

0:20

1:00

1:40

Speed (km/h)

40

50

80

20.2 Waste Generation Prediction Model

20.1.2.5

785

Interpretation

Model interpretation helps decision makers to make better decision. This is to enable fairness, accountability as well as transparency. Interpretation can be done in the form of exploratory analysis and visualization techniques. Model output should act as spring board for better decision to cut expenditure and enhance safety of workers/ citizens. Usually, models do not provide 100% accurate result. But it is always possible to express results with confidence level and uncertainty so that decision maker will make better decision. Suppose a project like waste collection preparedness during cyclone has to be performed based on model output of climate prediction model over next decade, decision maker will have various choices before him. The climate prediction models can provide high/medium/low probability of occurrence of cyclone at different parts of country with high/medium/low confidence. The decision maker can select location with high probability with high confidence for investment in first year of planning implementation and give last priority to places with low probability with low confidence. Such decision is far more prudential and optimal compared to random decisions without basis.

20.1.2.6

Validation

Validation of a model is important because over the time it can be replaced with better model or fine tunes to give higher accuracy and higher confidence. Validation of model can be done by comparing the output of model by past data. For example, suppose several waste generation model output is compared with actual data as presented in Fig. 20.7, prediction of Model 3 is near to actual data but it is under predicting over a period. But even though Model 4 is over predicting actual waste generation it is possibly better choice as it is always safe to be prepared to higher waste generation rather than under predicting and providing lower capacity infrastructure which may result in inconvenience to stakeholders over the time.

20.2 Waste Generation Prediction Model Waste generation can be predicted in different ways (Shahabi et al. 2012). Some of prominent method for waste generation estimation is weight-volume analysis, loadcount analysis, materials-balance analysis (Chang et al. 1993). These methods have some disadvantages. Load-count analysis method establishes the rate of collection, not the rate of production whereas materials-balance analysis method suffers from several errors if the source of waste generation is too large (Hockett et al. 1995). Traditional methods for predicting waste generation are established on the basis of some elements in solid waste disposal like population and social-economic factors of

786

20 Mathematical Modelling for Solid Waste Management 5

Waste genrated in t/d

4.5 4 3.5 Model 1

3

Model 2 2.5

Model 3

2

Model 4 Acutal Scenario

1.5 1 0.5 0 Year 1

Year 2

Year 3

Year 4

Fig. 20.7 Hypothetical comparison of waste generation model output with actual data

a society and calculated based on the generation coefficient per person which varies over the time. Hence employing advanced techniques considering dynamic and nonlinear system likes ANN and time series methods (methods (Beck and Arnold 1977; Bruvoll and Ibenholt 1997; Niessen 1977) will be more useful. Calculation of Sub-Indicator 12.3.1.b—Food Waste Index of SDG 12.3 is done by use of modeling to date, generating estimate of global food waste. Modeling to estimate food waste, for countries that have not yet undertaken their own measurement involves extrapolating data from other countries to estimate food waste for a given nation. The estimates for these nations are approximate but sufficient to provide insight into the scale of the problem and to make a case for action and are intended as a short-term support while governments develop capacity for national measurement (UNEP 2021). Simplest waste generation model developed by Rao et al. (1971) wherein the quantity of waste from residential, commercial, and industrial was product of sector size and generation rate. The waste generation model was sub-model of larger waste management model developed by Chang (1991) used econometric analysis to predict the quantity of waste generated over a planning period of two decades. Two models developed by Daskalopoulos et al. (1998) for predicting total waste generation, and the waste composition, at the national level, using observations on the MSW of industrialized nations wherein total waste produced was found to be a non- linear function of population size and per capita GDP per capita. Linear regression model of Hocket et al. (1995) identify and measures the variables that influence MSW generation. Bruvoll and Ibreholt (1997) model in the manufacturing sector was based on the sector’s use of raw material as well as intermediate inputs. Chapman-Wardy et al. (2021) adopted Levenberg–Marquardt and Bayesian regularization for solving the nonlinear equations that resulted in the forecasting of solid waste generation using ANN.

20.2 Waste Generation Prediction Model

787

Waste generation prediction can be done at various levels: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Institution, Factory, Household, Sports stadium, Place of worship, Street, Ward, Zone, City, Sub district, District, State, and National level.

Modeling of WEEE/e-waste generation prediction can be explained in terms of three elements. These are: 1. Material Flow, 2. Life Cycle, and Cycle, and 3. Geographical Boundary. “Material Flow” along the “Life Cycle” of EEE including the phase of obsolescence within a “Geographical Boundary” forms the starting point of WEEE/ E-waste generation in cities/ nations. Conceptual life cycle of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) is shown in Fig. 20.8. The establishment of material flow in a geographical boundary helps in identifying, networks connecting networks connecting different phases of life cycle of EEE and related stakeholders. Once the chain gets established, “material flow balance” in each phase forms the basis of quantification of WEEE/ E-waste in the LCA of electrical and electronic equipment. Usually, laws expect the stake holder to register with the regulatory agency and submit annual returns with respect waste generated. Several countries do not have such laws and wherever it exists stakeholder may be reporting higher or lower quantity for several reasons.

Lifespan

EEE Sales

WEEE Storage

Refurbishing

Fig. 20.8 Conceptual life cycle of EEE

Dismantling /Recycling

Landfill

788

20 Mathematical Modelling for Solid Waste Management

Some of the reasons for under/over reporting are: 1. Week enforcement, 2. Nonexistence of any system to measure the waste generated, and 3. Ignorance/negligence among stake holder/enforcing agency. Hence is always better to have a model in place to compare the annual returns and take appropriate decision. The waste generation follows theory of mass balance that is the mass that enters a system either accumulate within the system or leave the system. Mathematically, Input = Output + accumulation. Modeling of municipal waste management system based on the mass balance of individual waste streams allow us to understand how the system will react to organizational changes (Wielgosi´nski et al. 2021). Total quantity of waste in Poland was calculated using following model (Wielgosi´nski et al. 2021). Qi =

14 Σ

(M1 w1 xi + M2 w2 xi + M3 w3 X i )

i=1

Q=

14 Σ

Qi

i=1

Qi = quantity of waste of each fraction, Q = total quantity of waste in Poland, M 1 = Amount of waste generated from large city, M 2 = Amount of waste generated from small town, M 3 = Amount of waste generated from village, w1 , w2 and w3 = Type of residences, and x i = share of individual fraction of MSW (paper, glass, plastics, metals, multimaterial waste, garden waste, mineral waste, kitchen waste, fraction < 10 mm, textile, wood, hazardous waste, other waste). Another common method used for solid waste generation forecast is regression analysis which is a statistical process for wherein the relationships among a dependent variable as well as one or more independent variables are established. The usual form of regression analysis is linear regression (Fig. 20.9), in which a straight line that most closely fits the data according to mathematical criteria is established. Yi = f (X i , β) + ei

20.2 Waste Generation Prediction Model

789

90

Percentage waste collected

80

y = 80217x + 14.099 R² = 0.5822

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0

0.0001

0.0002

0.0003

0.0004

0.0005

0.0006

0.0007

0.0008

0.0009

Household/waste collectors

Fig. 20.9 Example of linear regression analysis using percentage waste collected and ration of household to waste collectors

R2 , used in regression analysis is the square of the correlation which is measure of the proportion of variation in the dependent variable which depends on independent variable. The R-squared value R2 is always varied from 0 to 1 inclusive and the correlation R is always between −1 and 1, inclusive. In a perfect positive linear association, the points will be exactly on the trend line with correlation R = 1 and R2 = 1.00. Correlation R is defined by following equation ( ) R(σx ) × σ y where, σx = standard deviation of parameters in x-axis. σ y = standard deviation of parameters in y-axis. Correlation will be meaningful depending on the discipline. Some rough guidelines are given in Table 20.6. In the work, published by Al-Salem six independent variables were used as inputs for the development regression models for SW generation rates in Kuwait from domestic, commercial, construction, and agricultural. The variables included total Table 20.6 Guidelines for meaningfulness of correlation

Discipline

r meaningful if

R2 meaningful if

Physics

r < −0.95 or 0.95 < r

0.9 < R2

Chemistry

r < −0.9 or 0.9 < r

0.8 < R2

Biology

r < −0.7 or 0.7 < r

0.5 < R2

Social sciences

r < −0.6 or 0.6 < r

0.35 < R2

790

20 Mathematical Modelling for Solid Waste Management

population, GDP, construction area, cost of utilized constructed agricultural area besides total agricultural production requirements. Estimation of the type and quantity of disaster waste like floods, earthquakes, and severe weather events and use approaches like earth observation techniques, empirical equation, and damage forecast modeling (Chen et al. 2007; Hirayama et al. 2010a, b; Tanikawa et al. 2014; García-Torres et al. 2017; Tabata et al. 2018). Empirical approaches developed based on statistical analysis of previous events comparing hazard intensity and exposed elements (Chen et al. 2007; Hirayama et al 2010a, b; FEMA 2013). Impact modeling to heuristically(heuristically (problem-solving by trial-and-error methods) quantify and classify the waste has been used in a few geographical contexts (Tanikawa et al. 2014; García-Torres et al. 2017; Tabata et al. 2018). Kaza et al. (2018) projected global waste generation to 2016, 2030, and 2050 using waste per capita regression model by assuming—per capita waste generation rates of country increase with Economic growth and as population of country grows, quantity of total waste generated will increase accordingly. As per the prediction global waste is likely to grow to 3.40 billion tonnes by 2050 with waste generation in high-income nations is projected to rise by 19% by 2050, compared increase by more than three times in low-income countries. Total waste generation in Sub-Saharan Africa; South Asia; and the Middle East and North Africa is expected to nearly triple, double, and double, respectively by 2050. A regression model was used to capture the relationship between GDPGDPs per capita (2011 PPP International $/year) and Waste per capita (kg/person/year) by using country-level baseline information associated with year. Proxy1 waste generation rates per year were modeled for each country for the base (2011) and target years (2016, 2030, and 2035) using following formula Proxy Waste Generation RateTarget Year Proxy Waste Generation RateBase Year × Actual Waste Generation RateBase Year

Projected Waste Generation RateTarget Year =

If waste generation data were already reported for 2016, the original data were used. The damage modeling approach uses a damage ratio for each affected building. Further the model assumes the damage ratio is equal to the fraction of the building that will become waste subsequent a disaster (Tanikawa et al. 2014; García-Torres et al. 2017; Lemieux et al. 2010). Damage ratios are typically an indicator of repair or replacement costs, and assumption may not necessary hold true.

1

Proxy variable is a variable that is not in itself directly relevant, but that serves in place of an unobservable or immeasurable variable.

20.3 Facility Planning and Operation Scheduling Model

791

20.3 Facility Planning and Operation Scheduling Model Facility planning models are of four types: (1) (2) (3) (4)

Capacity expansion models, Models of facility characteristics, and Models of scheduling operation. Site selection models.

SWM is something that every citizen in urban settlement expects from urban local body. But considering odour/insect/fly/bird nuisance apartment from noise related to traffic and operation people often resist the location in their vicinity. NIMBY or NIMBYism or NIMBY syndrome which is an acronym for acronym for “Not In My Back Yard” often make site selection difficult for solid waste treatment/disposal facility. The resistance from people is expressed by mere complaint to legal litigation to violent protest. Siting of a new SWM facility could be challenging considering legal, social, cultural and environmental consideration. Siting of SWM facility by Multi Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) along with geographic information system (GIS) would be very useful for decision making. MCDA analysis consider following factors to shortlist location: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Water bodies, Groundwater table, Groundwater quality, Air quality, Terrain, Land use, Settlement, Transportation, and Sensitive sites like wild life wildlife sanctuary, monuments, religions place, tourist spots.

One of the challenges in waste management facility operations is keeping operation on time and efficient. Operation is a production event, and its scheduling involves the processes of assigning operations to the right labor resources and machines. To ensure that operation is completed on time, the timing as well as utilization of available resources is crucial for optimum resource utilization. Planning considers resources as well as materials allocated for each work. Scheduling adds the timing component for the operation which deals with optimizing the series of operations to attain most efficient operation schedule is created and executed. Objectives of operations scheduling are: • Increasing profits and output, • Inventory minimization, • Maximize resource utilization,

792

20 Mathematical Modelling for Solid Waste Management

• Operation time reduction, and • Optimizing efficiency of labor. • Service level improvement. Functions of operations scheduling are: • • • • • •

Information on machines, Maximum utilization of plant, Resource allocation, Sequence of jobs, Shop floor control, and Start and end time of job. With proper mathematical one should be able to achieve:

• • • •

Optimized schedules that balance production efficiency, Make the most of throughput on bottleneck resources, Harmonize supply with demand, and Scenario data-driven decision making.

The first step in creating an operation scheduling model involves setting up the resources to use. Resources are crew, place, or thing used to perform an operation. Table 20.7 provides category of resource in waste processing facility. Crew includes clerical staff, housekeeping staff, operator of shredding machine, operator of screening machine. Usual types of shifts as well as working hours associated are: 1. Day shift: This shift usually runs from around 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. with one hour for lunch. 2. Afternoon shift: This shift normally runs from around 4 p.m. to midnight. 3. Night shift: This shift usually is from 12 a.m. to 8 a.m. 4. Split shift: While working a split shift, worker agrees to work during two major blocks of time, e.g., worker may work two different four-hour shifts in one day. 5. Weekend shift: This shift occurs at the end of week. 6. Fixed shift: Crew work in the same type of shift every day. 7. Rotating shift Crew works a different shift on different day. Apart from category of resource property of resource (Table 20.8) need to be considering in operation scheduling. The mathematical model for production schedule should consider throughput to complete operation in a given interval. Speed of an operation on a daily or weekly basis can be increased or decreased to achieve desired output after considering resource property/constraint. Production Scheduling should consider throughput percentages on a given resource.

20.3 Facility Planning and Operation Scheduling Model

793

Table 20.7 Resource category S. No.

Resource category

Description

1

Crews

An individual or group of people who work together to carry out an operation. Crew works according to a specific working hours specific working hour, down time (time during which a machine is unavailable for use), or vacation time. Maintaining calendars in Production Scheduling ensure resource is accurately represented

2

Items

Items include product produced and consumed in an operation. Example in a solid waste processing plant include lubricant used, spare part, raw waste, compost produced. Operation scheduling shall consider information about item used by the system, storage locations, inventory levels, and costs associated. Objects can be identified as they are produced, purchased, saleable, reusable and recyclable Purchased items need to be associated with suppliers Storage spaces comprise space required for raw waste and processed end product

3

Machines

Machines required in a waste processing plant include computer, pumps, sorting machine, bailing machine, shredder, etc. Machines shall be affiliated to a calendar that defines down time

4

Storage Spaces

Storage space is important because in the absence of any storage for processed waste operation may have to be halted. If there is constraint for storing raw material then raw waste, then waste collection team need to be informed to stop supply

5

Suppliers

Suppliers in the context of SWM facility are waste as well as consumable supplier

6

Time

Time is important resource. The time required for production of compost depends on optimum condition like temperature, humidity, pH, seed microbes inoculated, aeration etc., Similarly every operation demands time to generate output of desired quality

Table 20.8 Resource properties S. No.

Resource property

Description

1

Batchable

Batchable resources (crew/machine/space/item/supplier) are used simultaneously and share one or more similar attribute like production shift

2

Minimum

The minimum resource is minimum crew/item/space/machine/suppler required to carry out operation

3

Maximum

Maximum crew/item/space/machine/suppler required to carry out operation is termed as maximum resource

794

20 Mathematical Modelling for Solid Waste Management 1000 kg • Degradable Waste

40 days • Operation Process Windrow 1

150 kg • Compost

Fig. 20.10 Schematic diagram to illustrate throughput

Example of Throughput Rate If a waste processing plant takes 40 days to make a batch of 150 kg of compost with 100% throughput rate, the Fig. 20.10 demonstrate this process with an output rate of 100%. Suppose Windrow 1is running at a 75% throughput rate and an additional waste is supplied due to some festival the model should consider accepting additional waste in the processing plant. Apart from resource category and property resource constraint play important role in production scheduling. Some of the resource constraints are given in Table 20.9. Solid waste processing operations establish associations to form routings to generate specific end product. An operation can have several inputs and outputs, depending on the complexity of process. Model shall consider all process of interest in the process in order to produce an operation schedule. Operations transform materials to produce one or several end products. Operations use resources and time. SWM facility operations have the characteristics given Table 20.10. After setting up resources and operations, operation diagram is often drawn which is a graphic representation of your operation to see relationships and make modification where required. An operation diagram (Figs. 20.11 and 20.12) shall reflect detail all of the resources needed to complete the operation and define duration. The model shall include capacity and quantities of resources consumed/produced. Every operation should have a defined duration. If an operation uses a crew and a machine with duration of two-hour, provision should be made in the model for production scheduling for allotting two hour for the crew. All operations need to be identified within operation scheduling in detail to get feasible schedules. Routings A routing is a series of operations that are linked collectively to represent the production of an item. For example, to produce bales of different component of waste, it should pass thorough Shredder and separator.

20.3 Facility Planning and Operation Scheduling Model

795

Table 20.9 Resource constraints S. No. Resource constraint

Description

1

Crew

The plant is designed to operate with predetermined requirement of crew. System will not work efficiently it there is shortage in crew. Suppose a plant require 100 people and 50 people (50%) come%) come to work on a specific days and out of which 10 people are security guard, 10 people are housekeeping staff, 10 people are office staff and then operation cannot give 100% through put

2

Machine

Similar to crew the operation schedule model should have provision to consider machinery constraints. Suppose if computers do not work operation may not be affected. Suppose screening machine is not functional in a composting facility then unscreened compost will add to space constraint by occupying all the space reserved for unscreened compost

3

Storage Space

The assigned storage space in a facility has the capability to store raw waste and processed waste apart from other consumable

4

Environmental

May waste processing demand optimum environmental condition like temperature and humidity. Any change in weather my affect the operational schedule

5

Raw material

Operational schedule depends on supply of raw material. Shortage of desired raw material would also affect operational schedule

6

Time

All operation demands minimum and maximum time linked to environment, supply of raw material, storage space, crew, machines. Suppose a batch of compost has taken more time for production due to change in whether and absence of crew, then next production of next batch will also be affected

7

Money

This is a major constraint to run any operation. Without money nobody will work for charity forever and all items used costs money

Figure 20.13 illustrates a basic process through routing diagram. Operation scheduling in a model shall consider following precedence relationships (Table 20.11).

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20 Mathematical Modelling for Solid Waste Management

Table 20.10 Operational characteristic with respect waste processing plant S. No.

Operational characteristic

Description

1

Resource requirements

Resource in the context of waste processing plant includes waste received by the plant, crew, machine, space, item, and supplier

2

Item consumption

Item consumed depends on the purpose of waste processing plant. If the purpose of waste processing plant to is to dismantle old electronic goods of e-waste and segregate components for secondary use major item consumed would be electricity, e-waste, tools, water, waste containers If the purpose of waste processing plant is to generate electricity out of mixed waste, then item consumed will include array of goods – fuel used to start boiler, consumables, spare parts, water treatment chemicals, water, etc.,

3

Item production

Item produced in a waste production plant depends on purpose of the plant for which it is established. A biomedical waste disposal facility incinerator generates ash (during incineration), plastic items (segregated from biomedical waste and autoclaved), sharps (like needles segregated from biomedical waste), (glass segregated from biomedical waste), waste water from scrubber and floor/vehicle wash

4

Costs

Costs include wages, expenses towards electricity/water/fuel, consumable cost at normal time. Other costs include legal/statutory fee to obtain various consent/license/authorizations, insurance, medical reimbursements, safety measures, audit fees, repair and maintenance, and taxes

Time Hosekeeping: ___ hours/shift, Segration machine: ___ hours /shift, Shredding : ___ hours/shift, Baling: ___ hours,

Space Raw waste: __Sq. m Baled waste: __ Sq. m Inerts: __ Sq.m Machineries : __Sq.m

Crew

Input Items

Hosekeeping: ___No./Shift, Operator waste separator: ___No./Shift, Operator of shredder: ___No./Shift, Operator of baler: ___No./Shift

Raw waste: ___ t/d Electicity: ___ MW/d Water: ___ Kl/d Nuts: ___No. /year Bolts: __No./year Lubriacant: ____ L/month

Fig. 20.11 Simple operation diagram

Output Items Baled paper: ___ t/d Baled plastic: ___ t/d Baled cardboard: ___ t/d Baled metal scrap: ___ t/d Interts : ___ t/d

20.3 Facility Planning and Operation Scheduling Model

Raw Waste

Crew

Machine

Consumables

797

Space

End product

____Sq.m

Separated waste (___t/d)

____Sq.m

Shredded waste (___t/d)

House keeping (__No./shift)

Lubricant(__No./m), Operator of waste separator(__No./shift)

Waste Separator

Nuts(___No./yr), Bolts(___No./yr)

Mixed municipal solid waste (x t/d)

Lubricant(__No./m), Operator of shredder(__No./shift)

Nuts(___No./yr),

Shredder

Bolts(___No./yr) Baled paper (__bales/d), Blaed plastic

Lubricant(__No./m), Operator of baler(__No./shift)

Nuts(___No./yr),

Baler

Bolts(___No./yr).

(__bales/d) , ____Sq.m

Baled cardboard (__bales/d),

Baler wire(___kg/d)

Blaed metal (__bales/d)

Fig. 20.12 Detailed operation diagram

Raw waste

Shredder

Separator

Baler

Waste bales

Fig. 20.13 Routing diagram Table 20.11 Precedence relationships S. No.

Precedence relationships

Description

1

Starts after end

One process begins after the end of the preceding process, according to the time intervals shown in the Minimum and Maximum separation fields

2

Starts at end

One process starts at the exact end of the preceding process

3

Starts after start

One process starts after the start of the preceding process, according to the time intervals shown in the Minimum and Maximum separation fields

4

Starts at start

One process starts at the same time as the other process

5

Ends at end

One process ends at the same time as the end of the other process

798

20 Mathematical Modelling for Solid Waste Management

Residue1 Operation 1

Residue 2

Operation 2

Fig. 20.14 Residue generation in waste processing plant

20.4 Operation Yield and Residue Waste processing may generate residue (Fig. 20.14) which may not find any value in a particular plant. For example, brick pieces may be useful C&D waste processing plant but not in waste processing plant established for baling paper, plastic, cardboard and metal. So, when waste is processed, some residue may be generated which may need to send to some other waste processing plant or landfill. Several models have been proposed, developed and published for operation of SWM facility. Christensen and Haddix (1974) developed model through a computer aided design process for sanitary landfill design and management. Jess et al. (1993) developed optimal scheduling of composting, recycling as well as landfill operations in an ISWM system.

20.5 Manpower Assignments Model Manpower models deal with the process of estimating the quantity and quality of people required. The human resource requirement can be long term (for next 20 years) or sort term (next day). In an ELV / e-waste dismantling organization, the profit is key basis to assess the skill and number and type of crew required. In a small organization the crew size will be fixed based on trial and error and does not need sophisticated mathematical model. For an ULB where the motto of SWM is not profit, basis of the human resource depends on. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Annual budget, Quantity of solid waste, Replacement needs, Productivity, Absenteeism, and Expansion and growth. Human Resource (HR) forecasting can help ULBs in following ways:

20.6 Vehicle Management Model

799

• Assess appropriate staffing pattern in different parts of the organization to evade needless costs, • It determines what staff-mix is desirable in the future, • Monitor fulfillment with of legal requirements. • Prevent lack of people when they are required most, and • Quantify the staff pattern managing given quantity of number of solid waste, HR Forecasting techniques vary and follow more than one technique. The common techniques in HR forecasting are: • • • • •

Delphi technique, Flow models, Ratio-trend analysis, Regression analysis, and Work study techniques.

Ratio-trend analysis study past ratios. eg.: Quantity of waste generated, and workers required for collecting the waste from a stadium after tournament. Theory of regression analysis is already explained in previous the previous section. The technique can be used for forecasting human requirement for waste management. Work-study techniques are used when it is possible to measure work to calculate length of operations and the number of people required. ex.: Number of human hours required to dismantle 100 computers. Delphi Technique solicits forecast of personnel needs from a group of experts. The human resource planning experts sum up a range of responses and provide feedback to the experts. The experts will again give their opinion considering feedback. The process repeated is repeated until the experts’ opinions start to agree. Flow models are associated with predicting personnel needs. The simplest one is called the Markov model which is a stochastic model used for pseudo-randomly varying systems which assumes that upcoming states depend only on the present state, not on the events that happen before it.

20.6 Vehicle Management Model Vehicle management models are used for: (1) Fleet selection and replacement, (2) The operation and routing of vehicles, and (3) Vehicle selection and replacement. The use of the GIS allows the user to make, arrange, treat and analyze the information by graphic as well as alphanumeric data (Richards 1986). GIS and Global Positioning System (GPS) tracking are very practically useful in real time vehicle movement monitoring. Thus, the daily data can be useful for prediction of time required for completion of daily routing waste collection.

800

20 Mathematical Modelling for Solid Waste Management

Due to limitations in assigning human resources, machines, and financial resources, Rodrigo et al. (2021) used a mixed-integer linear model for monthly customer scheduling as well as route assignment considering truck capacity, customers’ collection frequency, as well as customer geographical location. For medical SWM during the COVID-19 outbreak Govindan et al. (2021) developed bi-objective mixed-integer linear programming model in the process of waste collection. The waste collection can happen by dragging the waste (Fig. 20.15) on road the road by waste collector or with trucks are tracked by sophisticated fleet management system (Fig. 20.16). Optimization of vehicle routes Range of functions in fleet management are related to each other and integrated for optimal performance. Vehicle tracking systems can capture data on engine diagnostics, driving behaviors, as well as geo-location, fuel transaction information, maintenance repair information, vehicle registrations, titles, and travel permits, vehicle/ equipment specifications and warranties. Fig. 20.15 Waste collector dragging bag to transport waste

Fig. 20.16 Front end view of fleet management system

20.6 Vehicle Management Model

801

Vehicle tracking component is components are typically GPS-based, or Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) or a cellular triangulation (use of multiple towers to track the phone’s location) platform. Methods for data transmission can be terrestrial or satellite. Many ULBs in developing nations do not have defined routes for waste collection. Usually, collection vehicles are assigned to areas as well as the routes to be followed are left to the discretion of the drivers resulting in routing that is convenient to the collection crew which may not be optimum in terms of technical as well as financial efficiency of collection UNEP (2005). The approaches to optimize collection routes include: (1) Deterministic, and (2) Heuristic, (3) Heuristic-deterministic. In the heuristic method routes are assigned routes based on the service provider and, may not be optimum. In the deterministic method, a mathematical model is developed using a deterministic approach and the routing is calculated. In the heuristic-deterministic method, numerous possible alternatives are identified and then, the optimum solution is determined for a set of defined constraints. Despite the spending substantial amount of their budgets on street cleaning as well as sweeping, the process is not usually optimised. There are many types of tools, equipment, and methods adopted for street cleaning. The street cleaning should aim: (1) (2) (3) (4)

Efficient, cost-effective waste collection, Reduction of street litter by enforcement and public education, High labour productivity, and Use of effective tools/equipment. Street wastes can be classified into waste generated by (Flintoff 1976):

(1) Natural causes, (2) Road traffic, and (3) Public (behavioral wastes). Waste generated by natural causes include dusts from unpaved areas, leaf/flower/ branches from trees/plants. Waste generated by traffic include oil/rubber generated by vehicles, particulate matter from vehicular emissions, spillage from uncovered, vehicle, and animal dung. Waste generated by the public include: (1) Waste thrown public while travelling on road, and (2) Wastes discarded from residential/commercial activity. Manual street cleaning Conventional street includes:

802

20 Mathematical Modelling for Solid Waste Management

(1) Roadway for vehicular traffic (2) Storm water drain/gutter, and (3) Sidewalk (footpath). Waste on sidewalks comprise C&D waste, leaf litter, paper, matches, plastic, and cigarette butts. High density materials accumulate in the gutters. Equipment used for manual street-cleaning includes shovels, brooms, and handcarts. Most of mechanical sweepers are mobile units with vacuum system. The operating speed of the small mechanical cleaner is about 2–3 km/h, that of the larger is more than 10 km/h. An advanced fleet management systems can be used to capture mileage and fuel consumption data. Sophisticated systems can also be used to form a profile for any given driver with respect to average speed, breaks, frequency of detours, and choice of gears severity of maneuvers. Fleet management software can be integrated with use geo-fencing to set up a virtual boundary around waste storage location.

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Glossary

3Rs Reduce, reuse, recycle. Abandoned An act of leaving a thing permanently and completely. Absorption Incorporation of molecules of a material into the physical structure of a solid without chemical reaction. Absorption capacity A measure of the extent of a substance that can be absorbed by another substance. Accumulated speculatively (in the context of solid waste) Storage of a waste material in lieu of recycling. Acid A substance which releases hydrogen ions in water Actinide n element with an atomic number between 89 and 103 inclusive. All are radioactive. Action plan A detailed programme of implementation of an activity over a time frame Activated carbon Highly adsorbent form of carbon. Activated sludge Bacteria-laden sludge generated during aerobic treatment of wastewater called activated sludge process. Activation (In the context of radio activity) It activity) It is a process of inducing radioactivity. Activation product (In the context of radio activity) A radionuclide produced by activation. Active effect Adverse effect on a receptor organism with symptoms of severity coming rapidly to a crisis. Active extraction systems(systems (In the context of landfill) The controlled extraction of leachate or gas from a landfill Active landfills Landfills that are accepting solid waste Acute toxicity A level of toxicity by which an effect or mortality will occur within hours/days which is no more than two weeks after a single or multiple brief acute exposures. Acute toxicity Toxic effects which can lead to rapid detrimental effects on biological on biological systems. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6

807

808

Glossary

Adhesion Molecular attraction which holds the surfaces of materials made up of different molecules. Adsorption Attachment of the molecules of a gaseous or liquid substance to the surface of a solid Aerobic A processes carried out in the presence of oxygen. Aerobic composting Composting carried out in aerobic condition. Aerobic decomposition Decomposition occurring in aerobic condition. Aerobic treatment Treatment carried out in aerobic condition. Aerosol Particle of liquid/solid that can remain suspended in the air. Affordability (in the context of solid waste) Ability to avail Solid Waste Management (SWM)services. Agricultural waste Waste from agricultural waste Air classification Process in which an air stream is used to separate materials. Air classifiers Classifier are used to separate the less dense material from denser fraction, using air. Air emissions Emission of air pollutants Air injection system (in the context of landfill) Injection of air into virgin soil usually adjoining the landfill in order to protect areas adjacent to a landfill due to movement landfill gas. Airline waste (in the contest of airport waste) waste) Waste from airplanes and airline offices Air pollution Presence of unwanted material in the air in excess of standards ALARA (ALARA) (In the context of radioactivity) Acronym of the phrase “as low as reasonably achievable” which means that an exposure to sources of radioactivity should be kept as low as possible. Algorithm Set of rules to be followed in problem-solving operations or calculations by a computer. Alpha particle A positively charged particle released by atoms undergoing radioactive decay. Anaerobic Processes carried out in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic decomposition Decomposition carried out in anaerobic condition. Anaerobic digestion Digestion carried out in anaerobic condition. Annex 1 countries These are the industrialised countries which have carbon reduction targets to reach under the Kyoto protocol. Anthropogenic Anything resulting from human activity. Aquifer A geological formation, capable of yielding significant amount of groundwater to wells or springs. Artesian The occurrence of groundwater at a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure Artificial recharge Increasing water in the groundwater by activities of man. Ash The non-combustible, solid by product in combustion process Asphyxiant Chemical capable of deny oxygen to cells in the host organism, resulting in slowing or halting metabolism. Atmosphere The gaseous layer surrounding the Earth.

Glossary

809

At-site time Time spent unloading/waiting to unload the contents of a collection vehicle at a site Audit A documented activity to determine adherence to, established procedures and other applicable documents. Authorization The granting by a regulatory body Autoclaving Sterilisation by high-temperature, pressurised steam process Automated Waste Collection System Waste collection system using piped network. Avalanche Snow ice that slides down a mountainside due to natural/anthropogenic causes Avoided cost of disposal The amount that would have been paid per unit quantity of waste for disposing of materials in a landfill. Back blading A levelling method wherein, the cutting edge of a blade of earthmoving equipment is drawn backwards over cover material or waste. Backfill The material used for refilling excavated portions of a repository duringandduring and after emplacement of waste. Bacteria A type of microscopic unicellular living organisms Balefill Land filling by stacking bales of solid waste. Baler Machine used for baling. Baling Compaction of solid waste into blocks to lessen volume. Ballistic separator A machine that segregates light fraction and large material Basal Convention An international agreement to control transboundary movement of hazardous and other wastes. Bagasse Dry residue of sugar cane/beets after extraction of juice Baghouse Air pollution abatement device made up of fabric bags. Baler Machine used to compress waste material into bundles. Basel convention An international treaty which established standards for international movement of hazardous waste Beach litter The debris washed aground on coastline. It is also called tidewrack. Bearing capacity Maximum load, a landfill can support per unit area without damage. Bed rock Solid rock under loose material within the crust of a planet Best practice Practice which is the most politically/technically/environmentally/ economically sustainable and socially sensitive Beta particle Electrons emitted by during the process of radioactive decay. Bio-accumulation Accumulation of certain chemicals in tissues of plants/animals Biodegradable Capable of decomposing by microorganisms Biodiversity Overall diversity of organisms in an ecosystem Biogas Gas formed by digestion of organic materials. Biogas potential Cumulative volume of biogas generated in fixed time (usually 21 days) per kg of dry matter feed. Biological methane production Cumulative volume of methane generated per kg of dry matter feed. Biochemical methane potential Methane generated from the substrate expressed as per mass of volatile solids added or Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)added

810

Glossary

after the material is stored at a stable temperature of either 35 °C or 55 °C, and constantly mixed for a period of 30–60 days. The unit is usually expressed as m3 CH4 /tVolatile Solidsor m3 CH4 /tCOD. Biological treatment A treatment method that uses micro-organism to treat waste. Biomedical waste Infectious waste, generated during the activities like research, health research, health care activities. Biopiles Engineered piles constructed and composted. Bio-reclamation Treating contaminated sites by increasing the microbial degradation of organic contaminants. Bio-remidiation Process in which organic waste in contaminated site or other media may be seeded with microorganisms to alter/destroy the waste. BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) Parameter used to measure organic contamination in in water. It is difference in oxygen concentration before and after certain period (usually three or five days) Borehole A hole drilled in the ground. Bottom ashThe ash that falls to the bottom of combustion chamber Brownfields Abandoned or under-used industrial/commercial facilities where expansion where expansion/redevelopment is difficult due to contamination. BTEX An acronym for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene. They are the chief volatile aromatic compounds present in fuel hydrocarbons. Budget Estimate of expenditure and revenue of an organisation Buyback centre a facility where people may exchange recycle ables for payment. Buy-Build-Operate Type of public private partnership wherein a public asset is transferred to a quasi-public or private entity. Build-Own-Operate Type of public private partnership wherein the private sector builds, owns and operates a facility. Build-Own-Operate-Transfer Type of public private partnership wherein a private entity builds, own and operate a facility for a specified period, after which ownership is transferred to the public sector. Build-Operate-Transfer Type of public private partnership wherein the private sector constructs a new facility and operates the same for agreed period after which ownership is transferred to the public sector. Build-Lease-Operate-Transfer Type of public private partnership wherein a private entity builds and operate for the lease period against payment of a rent and transfer to public sector. Bulk density The ratio of mass to volume Bulky waste Large objects of solid waste which cannot be handled by usual municipal SWM practices Bund (in the context of solid waste) An embankment used to prevent the movement of wastes. By-laws Subordinate legislation which is applicable and enforced within the legal borders. Canister A closed/sealed container for radioactive material. Calcinations Method for evaporating residues from of liquid wastes

Glossary

811

Calorific Value The amount of heat produced during combustion of unit mass of substance. Cap (in the context of land fill) Impermeable material placed over the top of closed landfill. Capacity building Improving managerial and technical skills of an organisation. Capital cost Cost incurred towards investment. Carbon regeneration unit Treatment device used for regenerating spent activated carbon. Carcinogen An agent capable of causing cancer. Cardboard shredder Shredder that shreds cardboard into strips or a mesh pallet Cargo waste (in the contest of airport waste) Waste from cargo operations Carrosivity Having a quality of corroding. Cask A vessel used for the transport and/or storage of radioactive materials. Cathodic protection A form of corrosion protection used for underground storage tanks that use anodes or a direct current source to protect tank material by stopping the naturally occurring electrochemical process which will result in corrosion. Cells (in the context of land fill) A compartment within a landfill with defined Boundaries Centralised composting Centralised facility for the purpose of composting Ceramic material A solid crystalline material, containing silicon dioxide and other and other inorganic oxides. Certification A statement of professional opinion based on knowledge and belief CFCs Chloroflouro carbon compounds. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Measure of quantity of oxygen needed to chemically oxidize a given material. Chemical treatment Treatment method that uses chemicals. Chronic effect Adverse effect on an organism, with symptoms that occur slowly or recuror recur frequently. Chronic toxicity Toxicitywherein adverse effects occur after a lengthy period of exposure of small quantities of the toxicant. Circular Economy Economy based on reuse and recycle of material. Climatological disasters Events caused due to variation in climate. Clinical waste Waste from healthcare activities Clean closure Means removal/treatment of contaminated soils/liquids/equipment/ structures for a TSDF. Closed portion Portion of a facility closed in accordance with approved facility closure plan. Closed-loop recycling Recycling where recycled substance is recycled again. Ex.: Metal recycling Coastline Place where land meets the ocean or sea. Co-disposal The disposal of various types of wastes in one disposal facility Co-processing Use of waste materials in processes for energy/resource recovery Cogeneration Production of electricity and heat from same fuel source Collection/disposal interface The interface between disposal and collection ofwasteof waste

812

Glossary

Collection timing The time period when solid waste is collected from a collection point Collection vehicle Vehicle used to collect waste. Commercial waste Solid waste generated from commercial activities. Commingled recyclables Mixture of many recyclable substances in one container Commingled waste Mixture of all waste material in one container Commissioning Starting an operation at a constructed facility. Communal collection A system in which individuals bring waste to a predetermined collection point, from which it is collected for further processing and disposal. Community consultation Activity that seeks feedback from members of community inform decision-makers. Community composting Composting activity by a community Compaction Operation used to enhance the density of waste materials. Compactor Any power-driven mechanical equipment designed to compress and thereby reduce the volume of wastes. Compactor collection vehicle Large vehicle with enclosed body having special power-driven equipment for loading, compressing, and distributing wastes within the body Composition (in the context of solid waste) Quantitative depiction of the materials found in a waste stream. Compound Annual Growth Rate The annualized average revenue growth rate between two years Compatibility A state in which two things exist together without reaction. Compost Humus material produced from composting process. Compostable plastics Plastic that can be converted into compost by biological degradation. Composting Process of generating compost Compressibility Degree of physical changes of the material when subjected to pressure. Corruption Dishonesty undertaken by a person/organization which is entrusted of authority, in order to acquire illegal benefits for one’s personal gain. Construction and demolition waste Waste generated from construction and demolition and demolition activities. Container Receptacle used for storage of substance. Contaminant Substance that has an adverse affect adverse effect on water, air or soil Contamination The degradation of environment quality due to anthropogenic activity to the extent that its usefulness is damaged. Contingency plan Document setting out an organized, planned, and coordinated course coordinated course of action to be followed in case of a fire/explosion/ release of hazardous waste constituents that could threaten human health/life or the environment. Conservation The management of natural resource to avoid exploitation/ destruction. Consumer waste Materials discarded by a consumer.

Glossary

813

Carbohydrates Biomolecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atom Corporate crime Crime performed by corporate bodies Cost-effective alternative An alternative method which is cheaper than other methods Cost effectiveness analysis (CEA) Evaluation of costs of an activity Covering Spreading of a layer of cover material on the top of the waste mass to minimize adverse effects on the environment. Cover material Material used for covering waste materials. Crusher Mechanical device used to break secondary materials such as glass bottles into smaller pieces. Cullet Clean, colour-sorted, crushed glass which is used in manufacture of new glass products. Curb-side collection Method of collecting waste on curb side. Cyclone cyclone Large-scale closed circulation of air in the atmosphere above the South Pacific and Indian Oceans Cyclone separator Particle separator that uses swirling airflow along with mass and density of the particles to separate particles in an air-particle stream. Daily cover (in the context of land fill) It is a cover of about 15 cm thick compacted layer of soil laid on top of solid waste cell at the end of every day. Sometimes day. Sometimes’artificial cover’ such as foam, geotextiles and plastic sheets may be used in place of compacted soil. Decentralized Waste Management Systems SWM wherein each community manages their waste in their locality. Decomposition The breakdown of complex organic material by microorganismsinto simple elements or compounds De-inking Process of removing ink from printed matter prior to recycling of paper. Densification Process of lowering density of waste Densified refuse-derived fuel Fuel derived through compaction of solid waste to produce briquettes, pellets, or cubes. Digestion The biochemical degradation of organic material of solid waste, resulting waste, resulting in its partial liquefaction, gasification, and mineralisation. Dingoes A type of wild dog found in Australia. Deplaned waste (in the contest of airport waste) Waste from passenger aircraft Design-Build-Finance-Operate Public private partnership wherein the private sector designs, finances and operates the facility prior to transfer the facility to public sector. Design for Environment Design approach to decrease the impact on environment by a product, process or service, during its life cycle. Deterministic Model Mathematical model where outcomes are accurately predicted through a known relationship among states and events. Direct charges (in the context of SWM) The charges levied on SWM service user. Disaster An extreme hazard event causing significant damage, disruption and casualties. Disk screen Screen wherein a series of disks mounted on shafts will separate material based on size.

814

Glossary

Disaster management Systematic implementation of policies/strategies/measures to lessen the impacts of disasters. Disaster preparedness Preplanned activities to reduce the impact of disasters. Disaster recovery Actions taken after a disaster to restore the disaster stricken community. Disaster waste Generated due to a disaster. Disposables Consumer products and other items that are discarded after usingonce or a few times. Disposal (in the context of solid waste) The process of finally disposing a solidwastesolid waste. Domestic waste Waste generated from household activities. Donor agency An international or national agency which donates funds for developmental activity Door to door collection (In the context of waste management) Collection of solid waste from the door of residential and non-residential premises Double composite liner (in the context of land fill) A landfill liner system of artificial and natural soil liners to prevent groundwater contamination. Double-liner system System wherein two layers of either synthetic or natural lines are used in landfill to avoid groundwater contamination Drop-off (in the context of solid waste) Collection waste Collection methods wherein individuals bring wastes to a designated collection site. Drop-off centre (in the context of solid waste) Centre used for dropping off waste. Drop-off centers Place where people deliver their solid waste. Dross Scum on the molten metal surface Drought Situation that arises when precipitation is drastically below normal levels. Dry Waste Collection Centre Place where dry waste is collected. Dump A site used to dispose solid wastewithout environmental controls. Dustmen People engaged in collecting ash in England in the early 1800s and later engaged in collecting waste from London. Earthquake Shaking of the earth due to seismic activities. Earthworks Engineering activity connected with the movement of soils. Eco-mafia Eco-mafia is a neologism for organized crime that cases damage to the environment. Economic evaluation The evaluation of a proposed activity with respect to economic aspect Ecosystem Interactive system of living things and their abiotic environment Eddy current separators Mechanical separator used for non-ferrous metals from non-metallic fraction by creation of eddy currents in nonferrous metal by using magnets Effectiveness The extent to which the objective has been met in practice. Efficiency Utilisation of resource in the best possible way by obtaining maximum possible output Egress The action of leaving a place Emission A material released in the air Empirical Based on experiments and practical experience

Glossary

815

Empirical model Representation of system by mathematical equations based on experiments and practical experience. Energy recovery (in the context of solid waste) Obtaining energy from solid waste. Encapsulation Placement of a toxic material into an inert material to protect the environment. End of life vehicle Vehicle which has completed its useful period Environment Abiotic and biotic components surrounding subject of interest. Environmental audit An assessment of a system for the compliance with respect practices, policies and controls Environmental Crime Illicit act which directly harms the environment. Environmental impact assessment (EIA) An analysis of proposed project with respect to impact on the environment. Environmental law Law to protect the environment. Environmental monitoring A continuous or regular periodic sampling, analysis and direct measurement of environmental attributes Erosion The removal of weathered land surfaces Evisceration Removing internal organs. E-Waste Waste electronic goods Extended Producers Responsibility Strategy to achieve the minimize/recover/ recycle waste generated by the product produced by a person/organisation. Fact Finding The discovery as well as establishment of the particulars of an issue. Feasibility study Study of the practicability of a proposal Fermentation Chemical reactions carried out by microbes. Ferrous metals Iron and its alloys Field capacity Total quantity of moisture which can be retained in a waste sample subject to gravitational pull. Filtration Separation of solid present in a fluid by mechanical straining Final cover (in the context of landfill) Cover provided with consolidated soil to landfill after filling with waste. Financial evaluation Evaluation of financial aspect of a project Fingerprint analysis (In the context of waste analysis) Shortened waste analysis done for few select parameters. Flood Overflow of water that inundate land that is usually dry. Fly ash Non-combustible residual particles (ash) generated during combustion expelled combustion expelled along with flue gas. Fly-tipping Illegal deposit of waste onto land that does not have a permit to accept such waste. Food waste Waste arising due to leftover of food. Forced aeration Process of exposing bulk material to air forcibly by use of blowers. Forest waste Waste from forest Forgery False documentation with malafide intention Freegans Scavenger living exclusively from food items discarded by supermarkets. Fuel cycle (in the context of nuclear energy) All operations connected with the production of nuclear energy. Fungi A type of eukaryotic(organisms whose cells have a nucleus) organisms.

816

Glossary

Galley waste (in the contest of airport waste) Waste collected by airline caterers as part of the de-catering process Garbage Domestic solid waste Garbology study Garbology study of Solid waste Garbage Management Plan(Plan (in the context of ship waste management) Complete guideline which encompass of a written procedure for managing of garbage generated onboard ship. Garbage record book (in the context of ship waste management) Record book that contains all entries pertaining to garbage discharge and disposal. Gas control and recovery system It is a system of wells and trenches with permeable materials as well as perforated piping in landfill to collect gases for treatment or for use as an energy source. Gas migration Movement of gas from one area to another Gated community A form of residential community containing strictly controlled entrances. Generation rates The quantity of waste that is generated over a period of time Generator Any person or organisation that generates waste. Geo fence Virtual perimeter for a geographic area Geo tag Process of adding geographical identification mechanism to variousmediavarious media like Small Message Service (SMS) Geotextiles Fabrics used in geotechnical applications. Geomembrane Very low permeability synthetic membrane liner used to control fluid migration in the soil. Global positioning system System which determines latitude and longitude of a point on the earth Ghost billing Billing made for the work not done. Ghost employees Employees who never turn up for job, but salary is paid as per records Ghost nets Fishing nets left or lost in the sea/ocean. Green House Gas Gases in the atmosphere that trap heat. Green waste All types of organic yard and landscaping waste Grinding (in the context of waste) Grinding of waste to reduce the size of waste components. Groundwater Water present in the pores of underground soil Groundwater monitoring well A well drilled for monitoring ground water quality and quantity. Gyres Circular Ocean current Half-life The period taken for the quantity of a specified material to decrease by half. Hammer-mill Machine that uses hammers to grind, crush, shred or chip, waste. Haul distance (in the context of solid waste) The distance over which waste mustbemust be transported from last pick-up point or transfer station to the disposal point Hauler (in the context of solid waste) Company/person responsible for transportingwastetransporting waste

Glossary

817

Hazardous waste Waste that possesses corrosivity, ignitability, toxicity or reactivity Hazardous and industrial waste (in the context of airport waste) Waste oils/ solvents/chemical waste from aircraft/ground-vehicle washing/cleaning/fuelling/ maintenance operations, as well as abandoned aircraft. Health Impact Assessment (HIA) An analysis to evaluate the health impacts of plans, policies as well as projects. Heavy metals Metallic elements having high atomic weights, (e.g., mercury, cadmium, chromium, arsenic, and lead) High efficiency particulate air filter High efficiency filters used for removing particles from a gaseous stream. Household waste (Domestic Waste) Waste generated due to household activities. Ignitability The quality of being burnable Ignitable Capable of burning. Illegal Waste Trafficking Illegal transboundary movement of waste Immobilization Converting of waste into a waste form by means of solidification embedding or encapsulation. Impervious Material which does not allow other substance to penetrate through. Inactive landfill Landfills which have stopped accepting wastes. Incineration Waste destruction by controlled combustion at high temperatures Intermediate Processing Center (IPC) Place where waste is processed into new recyclable material feedstock. Industrial waste Waste generated from industries. Inert Material that does not react with other material Infectious waste Waste with infectious characteristics Ingress Action or fact of going in or entering. International waste (in the contest of airport waste) Waste from international flights, and terminals that provide international flights service Institutional waste Waste from schools, prisons, hospitals, public buildings and universities Integrated waste management It is a practise of using numerous waste management methods to manage and dispose of solid waste. International Waste Trafficking Illicit transboundary movement of waste across two nations International NGO An organisation with branches in many countries In-vessel composting A type of composting process wherein the compost is continuously and mechanically mixed Itinerant waste buyer A person who moves from place to place for buying (or exchanging some other item) reusable and recyclable waste products. Key Performance Indicators Critical indicators of improvement toward an intended result Key stakeholders People, groups or institutions that influence a project/programme Landfill fire Burning of waste in a landfill Landfill gases They are gases generated from the degradation of the organic matter from landfill Landfills Controlled, designed and managed waste disposal sites.

818

Glossary

Land farming Bioremediation method wherein contaminated soil is excavated and periodically tilled until contaminants are degraded. Land raising Type of landfilling wherein waste is spread in horizontal layers. Lavatory waste (in the contest of airport waste) Waste from lavatory on flight and airport Leachate Wastewater that trickles in waste dumps or landfill Leachate collection system An engineered system for collecting leachate Leachate management Management of leachate, which includes monitoring, collection and disposal. Leachate treatment Treatment of leachate to safeguard environment. Legacy wastes Wastes that are result of events in the past Linear Economy Economy based on material use which later discarded and not reused/recycled. Life cycle assessment Assessment of environmental impact associated with a product from manufacturing till it becomes waste. Lifetime (Life span) Period from when a product is released for use after manufacture till it becomes obsolete beyond recovery Lift The completed layer of waste in a cell of landfill. Liner A relatively impermeable layer of natural or artificial material designed to contain leachate within a landfill. Litter Windblown solid wastes which predominantly comprise light materials like plastics and papers Livelihood Means of securing the basic requirements of life. Macro-routing reating collection routes by dividing a collection area into small areas. Mafia Some definitions define mafia as an international criminal organization of Sicilian origin other definition defines it as organized crime group operating international organized crime. Magnetic separation A method of separation using magnets to separate ferrous objects from solid waste. Mandatory recycling Mandatory stipulated by law requiring consumers to segregate waste so that recyclable objects are recovered for recycling. Manifest Transporting document prepared and signed by the waste sender in accordance with applicable law. Manual separation Separation of various components of waste manually Marine debris Anthropogenic waste which is released deliberately or accidentally into the sea. It is also called as marine litter. Marine life The pollution by plastic debris Marine litter See marine debris. Market wastes Waste generated in market place Mass burn system A system wherein solid waste is burnt in a controlled system without prior segregation or processing. Material Flow Analysis Methodology that quantifies the ways in which the materials are used, reused, lost and disposed.

Glossary

819

Material recovery Recovery of useful components like plastic, paper etc., for the purpose of recycle/reuse. Materials recovery facility (MRF) Facility that processes waste to recover useful material. Mathematical model Representation of system by mathematical equations Mechanical separation Separating waste into various components mechanically. Medical waste Waste generated during health care activities of human beings or animals. Metropolitan area A politically defined urban area set up for planning or administrative purposes which may contain several municipalities or cities. Micro-organism Organisms which can only be seen by a microscope Mineralisation Process of microbial decomposition of organic matters to release inorganic compounds. Model Representation of a system that allows for investigation of the properties. Moisture content Ratio of the weight of water in substance to the total wet weight of the substance Monitoring A process of examination, sampling, analysing and recording over span of time. Money laundering Act of hiding the source of money, obtained from illegal activities. Mud-larks People engaged in cleaning services of England in the 1800s Municipal solid waste (MSW) Waste from households, commercial and business establishments, institutions generated in urban settlement. Municipal wastewater The spent or used water from any activity in urban settlement Mustering point (In the context of SWM) Location where waste collection crew assemble Nano waste Waste with engineered nanoparticles, nanomaterials or by-products of a nanoscale Natural liner A landfill liner made up of low permeabilitysoil Neural Network Series of algorithms that recognize relationships in a set of data that imitate human brain functioning. NIMBY Acronym of the phrase “Not in My Back yard” which means that do not establish polluting activity near our settlement. Night soil Human excreta Nitrogenous wastes Animal/vegetable waste that contains significant quantity of nitrogen. Non-governmental organization Non-profit organization for social or humanitarian mission Non-point source Pollution sources that cannot be traced back to single point(point (e.g., agriculture, forestry, urban, mining and city streets) Nuclear Waste Vault Reinforced concrete structure with storage cavities capable of holding radioactive waste packages. Open burning Burning of solid waste in open site without control on air pollution Open dump Disposal of waste without environmental controls

820

Glossary

Optical sorter Machine sorter Machine capable of sorting predetermined components of waste Ocean dumping Deliberate discarding of wastes into sea Operating cost It is day to day expenditure of an operation Operation & Maintenance Contract Type of public private partnership wherein a private entity will perform operation and maintenance of public owned project/ utility. Operation Scheduling Establishing of timing and use of resources within an organization. Organic Any compound containing carbon and hydrogen. Orphan site Site contaminated by hazardous waste which is not capable of remediation and no responsible party can be identified. Orphan waste Waste generated by unidentified generator Packaging The material used in stores to carry or display a product. Packaging waste Packaging material disposed after the product in the packagehaspackage has been taken out for use. Particle-cut shredder Paper shredder that cut paper into tiny pieces. Passive venting A venting technique which makes use of pressure for migrationofmigration of gases Pathogenic Capable of causing disease. Pathogens Microbes capable of causing disease. Pay As You Throw Usage-pricing model for disposing of MSW. Persistent Organic Pollutants Organic compounds that do not degrade easily Percolate To trickle through a permeable material Permeability A measure of movement of fluids through the holes/voids of a solid Permeable Having pores that permit fluids to pass through. Pest An organism that is injurious to environment or health P-F curve Graphical depiction of an equipment/asset’s condition or behaviour before it has reached a failed state. pH Measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a substance Phosphor Substance that exhibits the phenomenon of luminescence Phyto extraction or phyto accumulation Process to accumulate pollutants by the plants. Phytotrans formation or phyto degradation Degradation of organic pollutants from into more stable, less toxic by plants Phyto stabilization Method in which plants decrease the mobility as well as migration of contaminated soil. Phytodegradation or rhizo degradation Degradation of pollutants by rhizosphere Pierce and tear shredder Shredder wherein rotating blades pierce and then tear the paper. Pilot programme A trial run of project/equipment/structure on a small scale Plasma Ionised gas Plasma gasification Extreme thermal process to convert organic matter into synthetic gas. Plasma pyrolysis Pyrolysis using plasma torch.

Glossary

821

Plasma torch Device for producing a directed flow of plasma. Pneumatic Operated by air/gas under pressure Pneumatic Waste Collection (PWC) System Waste collection system using pneumatic pressure. Point source A stationary single identifiable source of pollution Porosity Quantity of voids per unit total volume of material Pollution Presence of matter or energy in quantities that create undesired environmental effects. Pollution monitoring Sampling as well as measuring of pollutants Pollution Prediction Models Mathematical models used for predicting pollution concentration, direction and speed of movement of pollution in environment. Porous Containing holes or voids Pozzolan A material that exhibits cementitious properties when combined with calium hydroxide. Pretreatment (In the context of SWM) Operation prior to water treatment (like collection, segregation etc.) Primary air inlet (In the context of PWC) Air inlet into the PWC system used to convey waste. Primary stakeholders Institutions/people directly affected, by a proposed plan/ action. Proteins Large biomolecules made up of single or multiple long chains of amino acid residues. Proximate analysis Analysis of substance to determine moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon Public cleansing services Services pertaining to waste collection. Public good Refers to commodities or services for the benefit of public. Public hearing A meeting of governmental officials with public to hear the concerns of an action or proposal. Public Private Partnership Business association among a public agency partner and private sector partner for the purpose of serving the public. Putrescible Decomposable Putrefaction Biodegradation in which foul smelling compounds are formed. Pyrolysis Combustion of an organic substance in the absence of oxygen to convert solid wastes to liquid and gaseous fuel. Quality assurance A system of procedures, audits, checks, and corrective actions to ensure quality. Radiation Pollution(Pollution (Radioactive Pollution or Nuclear pollution) Pollution caused by radioactive materials. Reclamation Restoration of objects found in the waste to a useful purpose. Recyclables Waste fractions that still have usefulness and which could be recycled. Recycled concrete aggregates Aggregates derived from C&D waste. Recycling Rate Target The target set to recycling a product manufactured. Refuse (in the context of solid waste) Another word for municipal solid waste Rejects Residual waste. Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) Fuel derived from solid waste.

822

Glossary

Refurbish Return a manufactured goods to good working order. Refuse reclamation Converting solid waste into useful products. Remanufacture Re-engineer products/components to same/improved, level of performance. Remediation Removing or containing hazardous spills/materials from a site. Renewable energy Energy derived from resources that are not exhausted on timescales significant to the economy. Renewable Materials Substance those are constantly replenished at a rate equal to or more than the rate of reduction. Residential waste Waste produce from residents Residual waste The discarded materials in the waste stream which are not recyclable or compostable Residue Residual waste Resource recovery The process of obtaining material or energy from waste Reuse Using a waste material in its original form more than once Rhizofiltration Technique of uptake of pollutants by plant roots Risk Assessment Process of evaluating the risks involved in a proposed activity. Rural Local Bodies Self governing body of village Sacred ibis A species of ibis, a wading(wading (walking in water) bird of the family Threskiornithidae Salvage (in the context of waste management) Controlled separation of reusable and recyclable materials Sampling Collecting a small quantity of material out of a large quantity of material. Sanitary landfill A term for landfill used in the USA. Sanitation Residues Human excreta residues from latrins Scam Deceptive or fraudulent act or operation Scrap Materials discarded from manufacturing process that may be suitable for reuse/recycle. Scrubber Air pollution control device that removes particulate and gaseous impurities by spraying solid or liquid. Screen Device used for separating different sized material. Secondary collection The collection of waste from collective collection points to a recycling centre, transfer station, intermediate treatment facilities or disposal site Secondary raw materials Materials that are reused as raw material in any manufacturing process Secondary treatment The wastewater treatment which follows primary treatment Seepage See leachate. Sewage sludge Sludge generated from sewage treatment facility Sharps Sharp waste objects such as needles, syringes, broken glassware, etc. Shredder A mechanical device used for breaking large sized materials into smaller fragments by tearing and impact action Sink-float separator Separator used to separate heavy fraction from lighter fraction in which a fluid is used as media for separation. Single Use Plastic Plastic items used only once before they are disposed or recycled but not reused

Glossary

823

Siting Siting is the process of selecting a location for a facility. Sludge A semi-solid residue from water/wastewater treatment processes Slum Urban residential area with densely packed houses associated with poverty. Socioeconomic Assessment Analysis of social, economic cultural and political conditions due to proposed activity Soil conditioner An organic material that helps to enhance quality of soil for agricultural purpose Soil liner See liner Solid waste Solid material which does not have immediate use for a generator. Solid Waste Management Storing, collecting, treating, reuse, repair, recycle and disposing of solid waste. Solid Waste Management Plan Evaluating the present SWM and preparing plan for future SWM. Solidification Conversion of gaseous and liquid materials into a solid waste form Solubility Maximum quantity of a substance that will dissolve in a given quantity of solvent. Solvent Substance in which another materials dissolve to form a solution Source reduction Reducing the quantity of waste. Source separation Segregating wastes into various components at the point of generation Spent Oil See used oil Stakeholders People, groups or institutions with interests in a programme or project Standards (in the context of pollution) Norms that impose limits on quantity of pollutants or emissions generated. Standard deviation Measure of how dispersed the data is in relation to the average. Steering committee High-level committee to oversee a project. Sterilisation The killing of all living organisms in a given material. Stochastic Property of being described by a random probability distribution. Storage Temporary holding of material Storage containers Vessels used to contain material for storage. Strategic Environmental Assessment Process to ensure environmental and other sustainability aspects are considered effectively in policy, plan as well as program making. Strip-cut shredder Paper shredder which uses rotating knives for generating narrow strips. Superabsorbent polymer Water-absorbing polymer that can absorb as well as retain extremely large quantities of a liquid relative to its own mass. Sustainable Assessment Methodology to help decision making to make society more sustainable. Syngas It is the name given to a mixture of gases synthesized from waste materials. Tailings Residues from ore processing Tarping Covering with tarpaulin Technical Assessment Evaluation of the technical adequacy/progress of program’s measured against the planned/expected performance for that period of time.

824

Glossary

Temporary storage (in the context of solid waste) Temporary holding of waste for further collection, transportation, treatment and disposal Tenant waste (in the contest of airport waste) Waste from terminal retail and concessions Terminal waste (in the contest of airport waste Waste from public areas and airport administrative offices Tertiary collection system Waste collection system wherein waste is collected after secondary collection system from recycling facilities and transfer stations and hauled to treatment facilities and/or disposal points. Thermal treatment Use of elevated temperatures to treat waste. Tidewrack See Beach litter. Tipping fee A fee for unloading waste at transfer station, a landfill or recycling facility. Tipping floor Unloading place for vehicles that are delivering waste to a waste treatment facility or transfer station. Topography The physical features of a surface of ground Toshers People engaged in cleaning sewers of England in 1800 Toxic Poisonous Toxicity The quality of being toxic. Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) A test to determine the leaching potential of hazardous contaminants. Trash Waste material Tromel A rotating cylindrical sieve Transfer (in the context of solid waste) The movement of waste between various stages in the collection, handling and transportation process Transfer point A place designed for transfer waste to larger vehicles from collection vehicles for transport to transfer station, recycling centre and/or disposal sites. Transfer station A facility in which solid waste from collection vehicles is transferred to larger trucks for further long-distance transportation to final disposal Transportation The physical process of moving material/passengers/animals Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facility (in the context of hazardous waste) A facility for treat, store and dispose hazardous wastes. Trench method (in the context of landfill) A method in which solid waste is disposed in trenches of a landfill. Ultimate Analysis Analysis to determine percent of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur and ash Urban agglomeration Heavily populated surroundings around a city Urbanisation Migration people from rural to urban area that increase urban population. Urban Local Body Self governing body of urban settlement Used Oil (Spent oil) Refined crude/synthetic oil that has been used and contaminated. User charges (User fee) Charges paid by the users for a service. Validation (in the context of mathematical modelling) The action of proving/ checking the accuracy/validity of mathematical model.

Glossary

825

Valorization A process of extracting a value-added stream in order to recover and conserve economic value. Vermi-compost Composting process that uses earthworms. Vertical Well (in the context of waste management) The drilled well for land fill gas collection in landfill Vibrating screen Screening machine with flat screen which undergoes reciprocating or gyrating motion to separate material falling on it. Virgin material Raw material that has not been formerly used Virus A type of micro-organism Vitrification The process of integrating materials into a glass or glass-like form. Void ratio (in the context of waste) Ratio between the voids and consolidated waste Volume reduction Processing waste to decrease the volume by process such shredding, compacting, or incineration. Waste Unwanted materials remaining after an activity. Waste categories Group of wastes with similar properties Waste collection The process of collecting wastes from point of generation Waste collected The quantity of waste collected from collection points Waste collector A person employed to collect waste. Waste crime Crime related to waste management. Waste dump Indiscriminate deposition of solid waste Waste dealer Individual or organisation purchasing waste for recycling or reusing. Waste exchange Exchange of wastes which would benefit of both parties. Waste Generation Factor (In the context of waste generation in industry) Ratio of waste quantity generated to product quantity produced/manufactured Waste hauled The quantity of waste transported Waste oil Petroleum based or synthetic oil that has not been used but unsuitable for originally intended for due to contamination. Waste minimisation Measures that reduce the quantity of wastes generated during the process of generation of waste. Waste picker A person who selectively chooses out recyclable/reusable materials from waste Waste picking A process of picking of recyclable/reusable materials from waste Waste prevention Strategies or activities undertaken to reduce the quantity of waste. It is also referred as waste avoidance, waste minimization, pre-cycling. Waste-to-energy plant Burning of waste to heat or generate electrical energy. Waste recovery facility Facility employed for recovering. Waste treatment and disposal facility A facility meant for waste treatment and disposal. Waste Trafficking Illicite movement of waste Waste type Types of waste like commercial waste, household waste, institutional waste, construction debris, sanitation residues, street sweepings and industrial waste Wastewater Water from community, home, farm, institution or industry after use Wastewater treatment plant A facility for treating wastewater to bring down concentration of pollutants to desired level

826

Glossary

Water table The upper surface of zone of ground water saturation Wet/dry collection systems A collection system wherein wet and dry solid wastes are collected separately. Wet scrubber Air pollution control equipment use to scrub air pollutants by scrubbing fluids like waster, basic solution etc. Wheel cleansing Cleaning of dirt sticking to the wheels of vehicle. White goods Large household appliances like microwave oven, refrigerators, washing refrigerators, washing and/or machines stoves Windrow Lengthy elongated pile of material Windrow composting A method in which composting is done by placing piles of solid waste and turning it occasionally. Working group (in the context of SWM) Team responsible for preparing the strategic SWM plan Yard waste (yard trimmings) Waste from garden which contain grass clippings, leaves clippings, leaves, twigs, branches, etc. Zabbaleen Informal garbage collectors in Cairo’s Zeolite Generic term for a group of hydrated aluminosilicates of Na, Ca, Ba, Sr and K Zero Waste Set of principles focused on waste prevention by reduce/reuse/recycle and other management practices. Zone, saturated A subsurface zone in which all pores are filled with water. Zone, unsaturated A subsurface zone in which at least come pores contain gas. Zoonosis Ailment that occurs normally in animals that are transmitted to people Zoonotic Able to spread from animals to people.

Index

A Absorption, 224, 329, 331, 444, 460, 461, 488, 520, 526, 553, 561, 807 Activated carbon, 168, 807 Activated sludge, 203, 204, 807 Activated sludge process, 204, 329, 807 Activation, 807 Activation product, 807 Active effect, 807 Active extraction systems, 807 Active landfills, 215, 220, 527, 807 Acute toxicity, 460, 480, 807 Adhesion, 160, 808 Adsorption, 202, 205, 207, 328, 331, 363, 444, 808 Aerobic, 78, 168, 170, 179, 204, 210, 214, 223, 289, 808 Aerobic composting, 528, 808 Aerobic decomposition, 211, 477, 808 Aerobic systems, 329 Aerobic treatment, 168, 204, 807, 808 Aerosol, 204, 254, 273, 445, 455, 462, 508, 513, 808 Affordability, 119, 808 Agricultural waste, 52, 370, 645, 808 Air classification process, 808 Air classifiers, 151, 153, 158, 159, 647, 808 Air emissions, 287, 316, 808 Air knife classifier, 158 Air pollution, 1, 4, 89, 106, 131, 133, 207, 220, 225, 238, 334, 337, 380, 457, 462, 496, 499–501, 506, 508, 510, 666, 680, 689, 700, 703, 713, 714, 716, 728, 749, 808, 809, 819, 822, 826 Algorithm, 778, 784, 808, 819

Alpha particle, 808 Anaerobic, 80, 168, 172, 176, 179, 186, 204, 213, 223, 480, 527, 808 Anaerobic decomposition, 462, 808 Anaerobic digestion, 80, 176, 178, 186, 204, 235, 407, 527, 528, 542, 808 Anaerobic systems, 329 Animal waste, 65, 253, 273, 277, 278, 289, 524, 757 Anthropogenic, 59, 92, 496, 516, 519, 522, 539, 540, 557, 610, 612, 781, 808, 809, 818 Aquifer, 338, 444, 753, 808 Artesian, 808 Artificial recharge, 808 Ash, 2, 14, 69, 70, 74, 76–78, 129, 178, 180, 181, 219, 224–227, 230, 234–236, 238, 253, 273, 277, 278, 284, 292, 307, 311, 316, 317, 332–334, 346, 369, 371, 373, 385, 390, 393, 401, 406, 413, 438, 441, 500, 543, 557, 559, 563, 565, 566, 615, 627, 632, 648, 664, 666, 727, 796, 808, 810, 814, 815, 821, 824 Asphyxiant, 461, 808 Atmosphere, 98, 210, 211, 213, 219, 222, 477, 508, 526, 550, 553, 554, 570, 670, 808, 813, 816 At-site time, 809 Audit, 127, 372, 416, 622, 642, 685–687, 796, 809, 821 Authorization, 796, 809 Autoclave, 274, 284, 285, 292 Autoclaving, 273, 274, 284, 286, 809 Automated Waste Collection System, 129, 131, 809

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 R. Chandrappa and D. B. Das, Solid Waste Management, Environmental Science and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50442-6

827

828 Avalanche, 540, 543, 544, 546, 561, 562, 809

B Backfill, 443, 444, 448, 449, 809 Bacteria, 78–80, 172, 173, 176, 187, 210, 249, 250, 252, 255, 288, 462, 513, 525, 666, 807, 809 Bagasse, 167, 235, 371, 406, 414, 809 Baghouse, 809 Balefill, 809 Balers, 166, 717, 809 Baling, 166, 186, 454, 798, 809 Ballistic separator, 166, 167, 647, 809 Basal convention, 809 Basuriegos, 583 Beach litter, 519, 809, 824 Bearing capacity, 545, 809 Bed rock, 338, 339 Best practice, 276, 809 Beta particle, 809 Bio-accumulation, 520, 521, 809 Biochemical Methane Potential, 80, 83, 186, 809 Biodegradable, 70, 80, 81, 99–103, 105, 109, 112, 119, 169, 175, 185, 194, 199, 210, 260, 289, 473, 526, 540, 592, 738, 739, 757, 758, 809 Biodiversity, 421, 526, 712, 809 Biogas, 83, 176, 186, 414, 480, 527, 809 Biogas potential, 80, 83, 809 Biological methane production, 80, 83, 809 Biological treatment, 179, 204, 329, 527, 810 Biomedical waste, 15, 29, 66, 71, 78, 90, 97, 99–103, 120, 193, 232, 243, 244, 246, 247, 252, 255, 256, 266, 271, 284, 292, 336, 457, 471, 543, 563, 567, 600, 675, 757, 758, 782, 796, 810 Biopiles, 645, 810 Bio-reclamation, 810 Bio-remediation, 395, 642, 644, 646, 652, 725, 818 Biotechnology wastes, 253, 273, 277, 278 Borehole, 338, 374, 445, 448, 449, 810 Bottom ash, 97, 373, 393, 502, 505 Brownfields, 673, 810 BTEX, 810 Budget, 37, 89, 108, 110, 113, 510, 573, 610, 687, 700, 726, 733, 798, 801, 810

Index Build-Lease-Operate-Transfer, 741, 810 Build-Operate-Transfer, 741, 810 Build-Own-Operate, 741, 810 Build-Own-Operate-Transfer, 741, 810 Bulk density, 810 Bulky waste, 129, 132, 133, 459, 810 Buscabotes, 583 Buyback centre, 810 Buy-Build-Operate, 741, 810 Buzos, 583 By-laws, 11, 22, 28, 250, 402, 663, 671, 685, 702, 726, 744, 810, 818

C Calcinations, 180, 378, 379, 442, 810 Calorific value, 66, 68–72, 224, 226, 228, 233, 234, 237, 317, 385, 401, 811 Canister, 273, 440, 442, 810 Capacity building, 733, 811 Capital cost, 133, 223, 224, 811 Capping, 214, 217–219, 289, 477, 653, 725 Carbon regeneration unit, 811 Carcinogen, 288, 462, 477, 480, 495, 811 Cardboard shredders, 164, 811 Cargo waste, 120, 811 Cartoneros, 583 Cask, 436, 444, 811 Cathodic protection, 811 Centralised composting, 811 Centrifugation, 178, 276, 320, 328, 395 Ceramic material, 10, 131, 617, 811 Certification, 18, 811 Chamberos, 583 Characterisation, 340, 434 Chatarreros, 583 Chemical treatment, 811 Chemical waste, 120, 244, 253, 264, 268, 273, 277, 278, 321, 381, 478, 549, 640, 669, 670, 817 Cholera, 9, 107, 250, 459, 464 Chronic effect, 811 Chronic toxicity, 457, 460, 811 Circular economy, 18, 29, 51, 54, 58, 62, 145, 390, 402, 584, 586, 612, 702–705 Cirujas, 583 Clean closure, 811 Climatological disasters, 811 Clinical waste, 244, 245, 255, 268, 596 Closed-loop recycling, 811 Closed portion, 811 Coagulation, 204, 207, 328

Index Coastline, 126, 519, 809, 811 Co-disposal, 202, 811 Cogeneration, 811 Collection, 11, 13, 14, 19, 22, 33, 34, 37, 38, 42, 52, 65, 68, 89–93, 95, 97, 98, 101–103, 105–109, 111, 113–117, 124, 126, 128–132, 134, 136, 138, 139, 142, 143, 145, 149, 196, 206, 209, 210, 212–217, 219, 220, 243, 245, 258, 279, 322, 328, 334, 339, 345, 354, 373, 376, 391, 435, 453, 455, 456, 459, 470, 476, 477, 489, 502, 506, 509, 525, 540, 553, 566, 571, 583–585, 590, 594, 598, 600–602, 665, 675–677, 685, 689, 699, 700, 702, 709–713, 717, 720, 723, 725, 729, 730, 736, 740, 742, 745, 762, 777, 781, 785, 800, 801, 811, 812, 814, 818, 821, 822, 824–826 Collection/disposal interface, 586 Collection timing, 812 Collection vehicle, 38, 97, 102, 106, 109–116, 125, 126, 128, 133, 134, 139, 140, 465, 470, 555, 600, 801, 809, 812, 824 Commercial waste, 664, 812, 825 Commingled recyclables, 812 Commingled waste, 98, 812 Commissioning, 228, 429, 468, 482, 752, 812 Communal collection, 812 Community composting, 812 Community consultation, 752, 812 Compaction, 67, 95, 102, 134, 173, 197, 199–201, 210, 211, 219, 220, 292, 438, 477, 478, 480, 647, 740, 809, 812, 813 Compactor, 92, 95, 97, 103, 106, 124, 129, 130, 142, 220, 438, 569, 592, 597, 598, 600, 647, 812 Compactor collection vehicle, 812 Compatibility, 222, 316, 321, 337, 351, 439, 756 Composite liners, 202, 206 Compost, 52, 80, 101, 113, 148, 167, 169, 170, 172, 173, 175, 193, 212, 527, 574, 592, 630, 648, 793–795, 812, 817 Compostable plastics, 812 Composting, 10, 11, 48, 67, 80, 89, 167–173, 273, 289, 407, 414, 462, 508, 509, 511, 513, 527, 542, 570,

829 583, 600, 631, 645, 646, 666, 704, 729, 731, 737, 738, 765, 795, 798, 808, 811, 812, 817, 825, 826 Compressibility, 69, 339, 812 Conservation, 29, 32, 51, 65, 183, 320, 517, 518, 713, 715, 812 Construction/Demolition (C&D), 61, 66, 69, 114, 119–122, 129, 132, 133, 160, 199, 200, 233, 266, 389, 407, 454, 457, 543, 549, 554, 557, 563, 574, 609, 612–615, 617, 618, 620–627, 629–632, 645, 718, 729, 731, 736, 757, 798, 802, 821 Construction and demolition waste, 78, 97, 633, 703, 812 Consumer waste, 812 Container, 2, 42, 55, 79, 93, 94, 97, 99–104, 108–110, 113–115, 124, 126, 128, 129, 136, 137, 166, 168, 181, 194, 230, 254, 260, 262, 264, 265, 269, 274, 279, 280, 282, 290, 292, 300, 303, 307, 312, 316–319, 321–323, 326, 327, 329, 330, 382, 384, 385, 390, 391, 393, 406, 411, 414, 428, 438, 439, 443, 444, 448, 449, 455, 457, 463, 470, 472, 473, 506, 523, 524, 561, 574, 615, 623, 652, 668, 671, 673, 683, 728, 735, 782, 796, 810, 812 Contaminant, 104, 121, 205, 267, 283, 306, 331, 332, 347, 374, 429, 436, 437, 439, 442, 462, 477, 549, 553, 625, 642, 644, 645, 650, 677, 753, 810, 812, 818, 824 Contamination, 3, 60, 78, 79, 98, 156, 206, 222, 263, 270, 287, 290, 292, 299, 300, 307, 338, 436, 437, 445, 457, 458, 476, 478, 479, 486, 495, 503, 517, 545, 546, 550, 616, 623, 631, 639, 640, 642, 685, 703, 716, 749, 755, 810, 812, 814, 825 Contingency plan, 812 Co-processing, 223, 224, 335, 811 Corporate crime, 673, 679, 680, 813 Corrosivity, 817 Corruption, 28, 30, 32, 62, 102, 113, 272, 498, 555, 592, 594, 610, 648, 658, 659, 661, 665, 666, 671, 672, 675–677, 679, 680, 684, 685, 687, 690, 709–711, 713, 780, 781, 812 Cost-effective alternative, 813 Cost effectiveness analysis, 813

830 Covering, 53, 175, 199, 212, 218, 228, 260, 261, 570, 653, 761, 813, 823 Cover material, 196, 197, 212, 222, 647, 809, 813 Cross-cut shredders, 164 Crusher, 160, 161, 166, 362, 569, 627, 628, 813 Crystallization, 328, 379, 406 Cullet, 181, 362, 390, 813 Curb-side collection, 113, 115, 813 Cyclone, 157, 196, 395, 540, 554, 785 Cyclone cyclone, 813 Cyclone separator, 131, 445, 813

D Daily cover, 212, 214, 215, 220, 336, 813 Deactivation, 179 Decentralized Waste Management Systems, 742, 813 Decomposition, 68, 70, 80, 170, 172, 175, 186, 202, 210, 213, 223, 273, 284, 288, 290, 313, 314, 378, 379, 438, 454, 568, 625, 631, 646, 808, 813, 819 Decontamination, 181, 185, 260, 285, 292, 307, 426, 428, 432, 435–437, 482, 570 Deep burial, 263, 273, 274, 286, 287, 290 Dehalogenation, 329, 643 De-inking, 813 Densification, 813 Densified refuse-derived fuel, 813 Deplaned waste, 120, 813 Design-Build-Finance-Operate, 740, 741, 813 Design for Environment, 22, 813 Deterministic model, 775, 777, 813 Dialysis, 243, 328 Digestion, 377, 379, 438, 527, 808, 809, 813 Dingoes, 517, 756, 813 Disaster, 2, 3, 18, 19, 53, 59, 65, 92, 126, 132, 196, 197, 199, 282, 303, 337, 416, 454, 474, 475, 478, 479, 508, 515, 539–542, 545–550, 553, 557, 559, 562, 563, 565–569, 571, 573–575, 590, 610, 612, 621, 627, 684, 689, 699, 701, 714, 781, 790, 813, 814 Disaster management, 814 Disaster preparedness, 814 Disaster recovery, 565, 574, 814

Index Disaster waste, 65, 114, 457, 539, 549, 566, 567, 574, 620, 704, 709, 790, 814 Disc screen, 155 Disintegrators, 164 Disk screen, 151 Disposables, 14, 41, 55, 58, 63, 93, 250, 257, 259, 260, 269, 409, 650, 702, 814 Disposal, 3, 4, 8, 11, 13–15, 19, 22, 25, 28–30, 33, 34, 37, 39, 43, 52, 59, 61, 64, 66, 67, 90–92, 98–100, 105, 108, 111, 113, 117, 121, 124, 127, 129, 131, 133, 134, 136, 149, 168, 178, 179, 193, 195, 203, 207, 214, 222, 223, 225, 228, 230, 236, 245, 247, 250, 252, 253, 258, 262, 263, 270, 271, 273–275, 279, 280, 282, 284, 286, 290, 292, 293, 299–302, 307, 314, 315, 320–325, 327, 329, 333, 336, 337, 339, 340, 343, 345, 346, 349, 351, 370, 371, 374, 393, 395–397, 404, 405, 407, 413, 423, 429–431, 433–435, 437, 439, 440, 443–446, 448–450, 453, 454, 456, 458, 459, 470, 472, 474–476, 478–480, 486, 495, 496, 498, 500, 502, 503, 505, 508–511, 513, 514, 518, 519, 522, 539, 540, 543–545, 549, 550, 556, 567, 569, 571, 574, 575, 591, 595, 596, 600, 601, 621, 623, 640, 649, 650, 652, 654, 657, 660–666, 668–675, 677, 679, 682, 684–686, 699–702, 704–706, 709, 711, 712, 714, 715, 720, 723, 727–729, 736, 738–740, 742, 750–752, 754, 756–759, 772, 782, 783, 785, 791, 796, 809, 811, 812, 814, 816–819, 822, 824, 825 Distillation, 178, 186, 309–311, 320, 328, 330, 363, 395, 407 Domestic waste, 9, 234, 245, 255, 455, 543, 574, 652, 658, 814, 817 Donor agency, 37, 814 Door to door collection, 109, 110, 112–114, 725, 729, 730, 814 Double composite liner, 814 Double-liner system, 206, 208, 814 Drop-off, 143, 814 Drop-off centre, 143, 553, 814 Dross, 309, 437, 814 Drought, 539, 540, 543, 544, 559, 562, 814 Dry scrubbing, 328

Index Dry Waste Collection Centre, 90, 95, 96, 148, 814 Dump, 4, 9, 10, 15, 38, 80, 103, 128, 138, 139, 193, 199, 251, 453, 454, 458, 475, 476, 479, 509, 513, 515, 518, 549, 556, 568, 584, 590, 595, 639, 641, 644, 647, 650–653, 661, 669, 686, 688, 725, 743, 754–756, 759, 765, 766, 814 Dustmen, 14, 814

E Earthquake, 18, 132, 196, 539–544, 546–549, 553, 563, 564, 573–575, 612, 620, 627, 750, 790, 814 Earthworks, 814 Earthworms, 175 Ecomafia, 657, 690, 814 Economic evaluation, 814 Ecosystem, 199, 421, 503, 513, 519–521, 540, 555, 584, 809, 814 Eddy current separators, 161, 180, 647, 814 Effectiveness, 32, 203, 204, 206, 207, 219, 225, 316, 317, 436, 498, 624, 686, 814 Efficiency, 18, 32, 80, 89, 148, 179, 204, 207, 210, 232, 272, 285, 304, 359, 371, 436, 442, 498, 515, 584, 624, 643, 670, 705, 729, 733, 792, 801, 814, 817 Egress, 761 Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE), 343, 345, 347–349, 351–354, 676, 787 Electro dialysis, 328 Electrostatic precipitation, 328 Electrostatic separators, 162 Emission, 64, 73, 129, 169, 195, 210, 212, 214, 218, 223, 225, 227, 231, 232, 235, 284, 289, 303, 352, 353, 453, 458, 462, 474, 477, 498, 500, 502, 503, 506, 525, 527, 528, 546, 584, 624, 679, 681, 701, 714, 727, 739, 801, 808, 814, 823 Empirical, 774, 790, 814 Empirical model, 774, 815 Encapsulation, 273, 279, 280, 331, 439, 441, 442, 815, 817 End of Life Vehicle, 389, 399–401, 457, 543, 798, 815 Energy recovery, 70, 234, 336, 385, 389, 623, 624, 639, 713, 815

831 Environment, 3–5, 9, 15, 25, 27, 29, 31, 33, 37, 38, 51, 54, 65, 78, 127, 175, 178, 193, 197, 214, 218, 221, 225, 238, 246, 247, 263, 274–276, 282, 288, 293, 299, 301, 302, 306, 312–314, 321, 331, 336, 343, 345, 351, 370, 371, 382, 401, 422, 440, 444, 448, 455, 458, 466, 472, 481, 487, 489, 495–500, 502, 503, 506, 508–511, 513, 514, 517, 519, 522–525, 539, 556, 565, 570, 573, 586, 593, 602, 611, 612, 620, 621, 640–642, 653, 657, 670, 671, 675, 686, 687, 689, 690, 702, 703, 706, 708, 711, 713–715, 719, 728, 744, 751–753, 757–759, 763, 765, 771, 777, 795, 812–815, 818, 820, 821 Environmental audit, 815 Environmental crime, 19, 26, 32, 33, 657, 658, 660, 661, 663, 665, 668, 670, 671, 675, 677–680, 682, 687, 690, 815 Environmental Impact Assessment, 21, 29, 340, 708, 725, 752, 815 Environmental law, 25, 26, 28, 271, 498, 499, 522, 585, 661, 671, 679, 690, 715, 716, 734, 763, 781, 815 Environmental monitoring, 37, 199, 214, 221, 339, 340, 556, 815 Epidemics, 2, 11, 18, 287, 458, 514, 540, 543–545, 563, 573, 583, 752 Erosion, 4, 129, 214, 216, 218, 219, 222, 287, 477, 520, 545, 546, 553, 554, 559, 652, 815 Evaporation, 156, 172, 178, 292, 307, 328, 403, 432, 435, 440, 445, 550 Evisceration, 517, 815 E-waste, 29, 103, 120, 193, 266, 299, 343, 345–350, 352–354, 363, 602, 664, 669, 675, 682, 683, 703, 727, 757, 787, 796, 798, 815 Excavated cell, 197 Exempt waste, 430, 435 Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), 22, 674, 734, 815 F Fabric filter, 227, 328, 334 Fact finding, 752, 815 Feasibility study, 282, 815 Fermentation, 184, 186, 187, 200, 404, 414, 815 Ferrous metals, 399, 632, 647, 815

832 Field capacity, 68, 201, 815 Filtration, 130, 178, 200, 207, 276, 292, 309, 320, 328, 363, 385, 815 Final cover, 197, 214, 218, 219, 339, 815 Financial evaluation, 815 Fingerprint analysis, 73, 318, 341, 815 Fixed carbon, 69, 70 Flocculation, 156, 204, 328 Flood, 107, 132, 196, 216, 323, 338, 400, 459, 479, 526, 539, 540, 543, 544, 546, 550–553, 561, 563–567, 569, 570, 573, 612, 719, 750, 790, 815 Flotation, 203, 328 Fly ash, 97, 167, 225, 373, 393, 413, 479, 502, 643, 815 Fly-tipping, 252, 472, 674, 676, 815 Foaming, 328 Food waste, 10, 17, 27, 41, 61, 64, 71, 73, 75, 78, 99–102, 145, 164, 165, 168, 186, 254, 372, 404, 405, 410–412, 513, 515–518, 542, 567, 591, 592, 786, 815 Forced aeration, 815 Forest waste, 52, 568, 704, 815 Forgery, 678, 815 Freegans, 594, 815 Fuel, 15, 37, 114, 124, 167–169, 182–186, 194, 205, 213, 226, 231, 234, 235, 238, 239, 310, 319, 325, 335, 336, 380, 385, 390, 392, 393, 395, 399, 405, 406, 422, 429, 431–433, 436, 438, 442, 444, 454, 500, 503, 526, 527, 540, 546, 561, 569, 570, 591, 592, 624, 627, 632, 645, 648, 667, 676–678, 688, 689, 737, 756, 796, 800, 802, 810, 811, 813, 821 Fuel cycle, 422, 432, 815 Fungi, 78, 80, 172, 457, 815

G Galley waste, 120, 816 Garbage, 3, 11, 13, 14, 24, 29, 43, 107, 118, 123, 124, 127, 128, 260, 370, 475, 479, 489, 561, 562, 584, 590, 646, 653, 657, 664, 670, 681, 685, 728–730, 752, 765, 773, 777, 816 Garbage Management Plan, 124, 816 Garbage record book, 816 Garbology, vii, 816 Gas control and recovery system, 816 Gasification, 186, 235, 237, 395, 414, 813 Gas migration, 210, 216, 478, 816

Index Gated community, 592, 708, 711, 738, 816 Generation rates, 9, 47, 48, 255, 315, 347, 443, 545, 547, 720, 771, 786, 789, 790 Generator, 1, 13, 17, 34, 35, 37, 93, 114, 127, 131, 139, 184, 229, 271, 272, 300, 302, 305, 315, 322, 352, 371, 411, 432, 569, 593, 618, 665, 666, 676, 701, 708, 710, 711, 719, 725, 726, 729, 730, 733, 735, 736, 739, 757, 758, 783, 816, 820, 823 Genotoxic, 230, 253, 273, 277, 278 Geo fence, 816 Geomembrane, 206, 209, 212, 214, 218–220, 336, 816 Geonet, 206, 210 Geo tag, 816 Geotextiles, 209, 210, 212, 214, 219, 316, 317, 653, 813, 816 Ghost billing, 687, 816 Ghost employees, 816 Ghost nets, 523, 816 Global positioning system, 114, 126, 569, 729, 732, 799, 801, 816 Granulating, 181 Granulators, 164 Green House Gases (GHG), 4, 210, 213, 500, 525, 527, 528, 546, 624, 727 Green waste, 542, 554, 567, 570, 816 Grinding, 163, 164, 193, 288, 357, 404, 437, 816 Groundwater, 196, 200, 211, 214, 217, 219, 287, 290, 306, 338, 445, 517, 546, 550, 575, 640, 644, 652, 753, 808, 814, 816 Groundwater monitoring well, 816 Gyres, 519, 816

H Hailstorms, 563 Half-life, 816 Hammer mill, 163, 164, 647 Haul distance, 196, 750, 816 Hauler, 569, 674, 685, 816 Hazardous and industrial waste, 120, 817 Hazardous waste, 25–27, 29, 78, 90, 97, 99, 100, 102–104, 110, 112, 120, 127, 129, 132, 133, 139–141, 178, 193, 197, 200, 206, 222, 225–227, 232, 238, 255, 266, 276, 299–316, 321–325, 327–329, 332, 334–340, 345, 354, 380, 393, 394, 411, 457,

Index 459, 463, 468–470, 473, 488, 505, 540, 543–545, 549, 550, 553, 556, 559, 567, 575, 600, 609, 627, 640, 642, 643, 646, 647, 649, 658, 662–664, 666–671, 674, 675, 678, 680, 684, 699, 704, 717, 752, 757, 788, 809, 817, 820, 824 Health Impact Assessment, 708, 752 Heavy metals, 70, 179, 205, 207, 230, 254, 263, 273, 277, 278, 307, 312, 336, 345, 348, 373, 394, 433, 457, 467, 475, 477, 502, 510, 556, 648, 664, 666, 673, 817 High efficiency particulate air filter, 817 High-Level Wastes (HLW), 429, 431–433, 435, 436, 442–445, 448, 464, 561 Household Hazardous Waste (HHW), 319, 320, 455, 565 Household waste, 225, 321, 674, 702, 718, 817, 825 Hurricane, 196, 539–544, 546, 549, 553, 554, 563, 568, 574, 575

I Ignitability, 305, 313, 334, 817 Ignitable, 303, 311–313, 316, 817 Illegal Waste Trafficking, 661, 662, 689, 817 Immobilization, 292, 435, 439, 440, 442, 817 Impervious, 817 Inactive landfill, 817 Incineration, 68, 70, 74, 193, 195, 207, 219, 224–226, 229, 230, 232–237, 253, 260, 262, 270, 273, 274, 281–284, 292, 316, 320, 328, 333, 335, 336, 354, 391, 393, 395, 399, 438, 441, 454, 459, 462, 473, 476, 480, 500, 525–527, 570, 600, 642, 644, 670, 671, 712, 716, 750, 772, 796, 817, 825 Incinerator, 14, 96, 124, 129, 178, 213, 225–231, 233, 235–237, 277, 281–284, 307, 316, 317, 334, 335, 337, 354, 438, 456, 459, 474, 475, 480, 500, 508, 569, 587, 593, 622, 664, 666, 680, 681, 686, 689, 701, 714, 735, 750, 751, 754, 755, 758, 796 Inclined tables, 157 Industrial waste, 3, 29, 52, 167, 176, 184, 369–371, 373, 413, 414, 462, 504,

833 505, 542, 543, 567, 574, 641, 652, 666, 723, 817, 825 Inert, 71, 72, 236, 444, 645, 646, 648, 673, 764, 815 Infectious waste, 33, 92, 132, 133, 252, 254, 257, 263, 265, 268, 274, 315, 336, 480, 513, 545, 567, 569, 810, 817 Ingress, 564, 761, 817 Institutional waste, 434, 817, 825 Integrated waste management, 642, 817 Intermediate Level Waste (ILW), 439–441 Intermediate Processing Center, 817 International NGO, 817 International waste, 25, 37, 120, 121, 817 International Waste Trafficking, 817 In-vessel composting, 170, 817 Ion exchange, 180, 202, 205, 207, 276, 292, 311, 329, 363, 432, 439, 441 Itinerant Waste Buyer (IWB), 603, 604, 817

K Key Performance Indicators, 706, 709–711, 817 Key stakeholders, 817 Knife shredder, 163, 164

L Land farming, 818 Landfill, 4, 10, 14, 22, 57, 58, 90, 126, 128, 129, 179, 193, 195–201, 203–207, 209–223, 225, 236, 269, 273, 280, 282, 316, 317, 320, 331, 336, 337, 339, 340, 354, 374, 380, 383, 385, 390, 391, 396, 397, 407, 454, 456, 459, 462, 465, 474–480, 489, 496, 500, 502, 503, 506, 509, 510, 513, 516, 525–528, 548, 549, 559, 562, 567, 574, 575, 587, 593, 594, 597, 600, 602, 609, 618, 622–624, 631, 639–641, 643–646, 648–650, 652, 653, 664, 672, 674, 682, 684–686, 689, 701, 712, 729, 735, 737, 750, 751, 753, 755, 758, 759, 761, 765, 783, 798, 807–809, 811, 813–819, 822, 824, 825 Landfill closure, 214, 217 Landfill fire, 211, 223, 477, 478, 568, 817 Landfill gases, 197, 210, 211, 214, 216, 219, 221, 222, 478, 480, 526, 527, 649, 652, 653, 808, 817 Land raising, 818

834 Landslide, 199, 477, 479, 526, 540, 545, 546, 548, 557, 561–564, 573, 642, 650 Lavatory waste, 120, 818 Leachate, 67–70, 103, 117, 169, 178, 193, 196, 197, 199–201, 203–207, 210, 213–215, 220–223, 290, 322, 334, 339, 341, 462, 474, 496, 502, 524, 646, 650–654, 700, 701, 713, 753, 759, 772, 807, 818, 822 Leachate collection system, 206, 209, 215, 221 Leachate management, 340, 650, 818 Leachate treatment, 203, 206, 207, 221, 476, 818 Leaching, 70, 179, 180, 328, 360, 363, 395, 396, 431, 441–443, 652, 824 Legacy wastes, 19, 639, 640, 643, 645–648, 650, 651, 653, 722, 818 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), 21, 22, 380, 496, 497, 773, 787, 818 Lifetime, 56, 61, 196, 391, 402, 622, 639, 818 Lift, 119, 128, 198, 327, 336, 463, 601, 818 Linear economy, 54, 145, 148, 622, 702, 704, 818 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD), 348, 351, 353, 354 Litter, 66, 108, 117, 133, 139, 197, 215, 220, 231, 247, 265, 287, 496, 500, 511, 515, 519, 523, 542, 547, 550, 596, 729, 731, 801, 802, 818 Livelihood, 34, 168, 197, 475, 508, 526, 555, 562, 570, 573, 583–587, 590, 597, 599, 684, 818 Logging, 170, 174, 392 Low and Intermediate Level Wastes (LILW), 429, 430, 432–434, 442, 444 Low Level Waste (LLW), 429–431, 435, 436, 439–441, 445, 522, 561

M Macro-routing, 818 Mafia, 347, 657, 658, 660, 665, 684, 685, 687–689, 781, 818 Magnetic separation, 180, 186, 355, 818 Magnetic separator, 67, 160, 161, 180, 647 Mandatory recycling, 818 Manifest, 127, 305, 818 Manual separation, 818 Marine debris, 519, 522, 523, 818

Index Marine life, 522 Marine litter, 519, 522, 523, 818 Market wastes, 818 Mass burn system, 818 Material Flow Analysis, 21, 818 Material recovery, 193, 351, 355, 359, 387, 509, 735, 819 Materials recovery facility, 168, 351, 355, 758, 765, 819 Mathematical model, 446, 449, 712, 771–774, 778, 780–784, 792, 798, 801, 813, 821, 824 Mechanical separation, 819 Medical waste, 29, 127, 246, 253–255, 285, 480, 673, 819 Metropolitan area, 106, 459, 618, 819 Microbiology, 244, 253, 268, 273, 277, 278 Microfiltration, 205, 207, 328 Micro-organism, 78, 80, 168, 169, 172, 185, 203, 210, 253, 288, 314, 405, 476, 480, 520, 522, 645, 809, 810, 813, 819, 825 Microwave, 286, 292, 345, 352, 395, 473, 826 Mineralisation, 813, 819 Mining, 1, 3, 19, 89, 222, 373–375, 413, 421, 422, 431, 445, 510, 511, 519, 549, 586, 590, 627, 639, 645, 646, 648, 649, 819 Model, 18, 31, 38, 42, 148, 214, 518, 592, 611, 617, 662, 663, 674, 704, 716, 735, 745, 753, 771–775, 777–786, 788–792, 794, 795, 798–800, 819, 820 Moisture, 61, 66, 68–70, 74, 76, 77, 81, 82, 124, 164, 170, 172, 175, 186, 200, 201, 214, 223, 226, 234, 236, 317, 474, 488, 489, 561, 650, 653, 666, 815, 821 Moisture content, 67, 68, 71, 72, 74, 77, 173, 201–203, 225, 254, 316, 489, 819 Money laundering, 663, 666, 678, 689 Monitoring, 37, 110, 126, 196, 213, 214, 216, 217, 219, 221, 225, 232, 339, 343, 357, 434, 444, 445, 448–450, 470, 489, 506, 569, 650, 654, 671, 686, 700, 723, 728, 729, 734, 742, 749, 762, 799, 816, 818, 819 Mud-larks, 819 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), 14, 26, 51, 52, 61, 65, 67, 69, 71, 78, 80, 89, 92, 93, 96–98, 101, 102, 106, 120, 132,

Index 145, 151, 163, 168–170, 183, 184, 185, 187, 193, 199, 200, 206, 222, 225, 226, 232, 234, 250, 271, 272, 302, 319, 320, 336, 337, 370, 456, 457, 464, 475, 480, 495, 513, 518, 525, 527, 541, 575, 583, 594, 598, 600, 609, 618, 640, 641, 646, 648, 650, 653, 677, 681, 700, 703, 704, 706, 711, 718, 720, 724, 726, 728, 729, 733, 735, 736, 740, 742, 749–751, 759, 786, 788, 819–821 Municipal wastewater, 819 Mustering point, 90, 114, 819 Mutilation, 246, 273, 280, 281 N Nanofiltration, 205, 207 Nano waste, 819 Natural liner, 819 Neural network, 591, 779, 819 Neutralization, 329, 445 Night soil, 819 Nitrogenous wastes, 819 Non-governmental organization, 487, 819 Non-point source, 819 Not in My Back Yard (NIMBY), 727, 751, 791, 819 Nuclear waste vault, 819 O Ocean dumping, 511, 519, 521, 820 Open burning, 15, 193, 195, 287, 289, 301, 454, 458, 496, 500, 525, 575, 594, 700, 759, 819 Open dump, 126, 211, 213, 454, 462, 474–476, 480, 496, 510, 700, 752, 759, 819 Operating cost, 106, 114, 133, 207, 224, 737, 820 Operation & Maintenance Contract, 741, 820 Operation scheduling, 772, 791–795, 820 Optical sorter, 159, 160, 362, 820 Optical sorting, 159, 355 Organic, 9, 61, 70, 80–82, 131, 151, 170, 175, 176, 178, 184, 187, 199, 200, 202, 204–207, 210, 211, 213, 222, 237, 238, 284, 288, 308–311, 314, 322, 330, 332, 352, 362, 373, 382, 394, 396, 435, 438, 441, 442, 458, 462, 474, 477, 480, 508, 527, 542, 545, 549, 595, 642, 644, 646, 666,

835 667, 703, 706, 715, 729, 743, 756, 809, 810, 813, 816, 817, 819–821, 823 Orphan site, 820 Orphan waste, 820 Oxidation, 179, 187, 204, 205, 207, 210, 212, 232, 328, 329, 334, 359, 395, 397, 477, 527, 643

P Packaging, 2, 12, 15, 47, 54, 55, 57, 58, 60–62, 105, 127, 167, 168, 194, 260, 282, 292, 304, 321, 373, 382, 390, 391, 394, 398, 405, 406, 409, 410, 412, 414, 435, 436, 439, 440, 448, 470, 524, 567, 583, 592, 615, 623, 631, 641, 702, 727, 734, 775, 781, 782, 820 Packaging waste, 22, 391, 403, 411, 820 Particle-cut shredders, 164, 820 Passive venting, 820 Pathalogical waste, 277, 278 Pathogenic, 78, 248, 250, 252, 261, 289, 456, 457, 563, 753, 820 Pathogens, 77, 79, 172, 246, 249, 252, 253, 255, 272, 275, 280, 281, 285, 289, 454, 457, 464, 514, 518, 521, 546, 563, 705, 739, 754, 755, 820 Pathological waste, 253 Pay As You Throw, 735, 820 Pepenadores, 583 Percolate, 457, 820 Permeability, 69, 196, 202, 212, 218, 219, 339, 440, 441, 816, 820 Permeable, 212, 441, 561, 816, 820 Persistent organic pollutants, 238, 495, 643, 820 Pest, 4, 18, 65, 117, 121, 165, 230, 265, 426, 502, 526, 751, 820 P-F curve, 55, 820 pH, 70, 73, 131, 170, 172–176, 200, 210, 211, 289, 313, 316–318, 332, 777, 778, 793, 820 Pharmaceutical waste, 254, 257, 258, 273, 277, 278, 282, 284, 502, 524 Phosphor, 348, 351, 353, 355, 820 Phytoaccumulation, 820 Phytodegradation, 645, 646, 820 Phytoextraction, 645, 820 Phytostabilization, 645, 820 Phytotransformation, 645, 820 Pierce and tear shredder, 820

836 Pilot programme, 820 Plague, 2, 9, 11, 12, 15, 129, 250, 458 Plasma, 237, 238, 274, 329, 438, 820, 821 Plasma gasification, 820 Plasma pyrolysis, 238, 273, 328, 820 Plasma torch, 820, 821 Pneumatic, 107, 118, 128–132, 180, 708, 715, 821 Pneumatic Waste Collection (PWC) system, 107, 130, 131, 133, 821 Point source, 499, 652, 821 Pollution, 12, 23, 25, 27–29, 32, 33, 37, 40, 62, 123, 145, 193, 200, 227, 246, 286, 301, 302, 336, 345, 438, 453, 458, 474, 495, 496, 498, 500, 502, 503, 506, 509–511, 517, 519, 520, 522, 546, 584, 587, 618, 639, 644, 663, 664, 667, 671, 677–679, 686, 700, 702, 713, 714, 735, 753, 762, 772, 818, 819, 821, 823 Pollution monitoring, 821 Pollution prediction models, 772, 821 Porosity, 69, 201, 753, 821 Porous, 289, 380, 661, 690, 821 Pozzolan, 332, 333, 821 Precipitation, 179, 180, 199–201, 205–207, 213, 221, 292, 329, 331, 332, 363, 397, 432, 814 Pressurized containers, 230, 254, 273, 277, 278, 282 Pretreatment, 201, 203, 331, 821 Primary air inlet, 130, 821 Primary stakeholders, 821 Proteins, 70, 80, 175, 176, 199, 210, 289, 404, 405, 821 Proximate analysis, 70, 233, 821 Public cleansing services, 821 Public good, 821 Public hearing, 725, 821 Public Private Partnership, 821 Pulpers, 164, 647 Putrefaction, 821 Putrescible, 96, 821 Pyrolysis, 186, 187, 235, 236, 238, 239, 262, 273, 362, 473, 644, 820, 821 Q Quality assurance, 821 Quarrying, 375 R Radiation pollution, 821

Index Radioactive waste, 15, 26, 78, 90, 92, 97, 100–103, 114, 132, 133, 193, 230, 254, 257, 262, 266, 273, 277, 278, 290–292, 421–423, 428–432, 434–436, 438–440, 443–446, 448, 449, 455, 463, 473, 508, 518, 522, 570, 574, 591, 609, 640–642, 681, 699, 704, 782, 819 Radionuclide, 127, 254, 262, 292, 421, 427, 429, 431, 432, 438–445, 448, 561, 807 Ragpickers, 588 Reclamation, 219, 394, 522, 575, 648, 649, 652, 821 Recover, 22, 136, 147, 226, 229, 235, 236, 353–356, 360, 362, 375, 435, 548, 571, 594, 653, 661, 815, 825 Recyclables, 38, 48, 63, 97, 99–102, 107, 113, 119, 136, 166, 168, 181, 244, 268, 336, 351, 354, 355, 363, 412, 474, 475, 509, 519, 546, 548, 559, 592, 594, 595, 597, 598, 600, 602, 603, 615, 631, 647, 654, 675, 682, 702, 710, 715, 727, 736, 743, 793, 812, 817, 818, 821, 822, 825 Recycle, 5, 22, 147, 167, 179, 193, 229, 330, 394, 399, 413, 414, 503, 506, 542, 546, 574, 591, 592, 594, 624, 667, 704, 705, 707, 780, 784, 807, 815, 819, 822, 823, 826 Recycled concrete aggregates, 625, 821 Recycling rate target, 22, 821 Reduction, 4, 14, 27, 38, 67, 95, 133, 163, 165, 179, 223, 289, 292, 304, 320, 329, 355, 371, 385, 393, 412, 435, 436, 438, 473, 480, 511, 526, 542, 561, 574, 623, 643, 648, 684, 716, 727, 735, 792, 801, 808, 822 Refurbish, 147, 624, 822 Refuse, 3, 97, 107, 127–129, 168, 206, 228, 665, 673, 821 Refuse-derived fuel, 52, 186, 225, 226, 235, 527, 750, 821 Refuse reclamation, 822 Rejects, 159, 343, 821 Remanufacture, 147, 822 Remediation, 433, 590, 640–642, 645, 646, 648, 649, 652, 820, 822 Renewable energy, 182, 757, 822 Renewable materials, 822 Residential waste, 124, 822 Residual waste residue, 822

Index Resource recovery, 29, 38, 51, 567, 704, 723, 743, 811 Reuse, 3, 5, 27, 54, 129, 145, 147, 167, 236, 254, 292, 301, 309, 330, 372, 395, 396, 402, 413, 414, 503, 506, 509, 546, 571, 574, 575, 586, 589, 591, 624, 625, 627, 652, 666, 704, 705, 707, 713, 718, 723, 780, 807, 811, 819, 822, 823, 826 Reverse osmosis, 205, 207, 328, 432 Rhizodegradation, 646 Rhizofiltration, 822 Risk assessment, 21, 381, 652, 751, 822 Rotating biological contactors, 204, 329 Rural Local Bodies, 48, 97, 499, 708, 822 S Sacred ibis, 756 Salvage sampling, 221, 436, 594 Sanitary landfill, 15, 193, 195, 196, 475, 476, 479, 641, 686, 705, 798, 822 Sanitation residues, 822, 825 Scam, 19, 665, 669, 675, 681, 719, 822 Scrap, 10, 25, 37, 52, 61, 97, 101, 102, 163, 164, 178, 179, 253, 359, 362, 371, 380, 386, 391, 399, 459, 464, 589, 591, 597, 602, 604, 650, 669, 678, 822 Scrap dealers, 37, 518, 584, 597, 604 Screen, 151, 347, 351, 647, 813, 822, 825 Screening, 17, 151, 181, 186, 355, 378, 508, 625, 627, 629, 646, 647, 650, 653, 792, 795, 825 Scrubber, 227, 232, 310, 334, 376, 377, 385, 445, 681, 796, 822 Secondary collection, 107, 598, 824 Secondary raw materials, 622, 667, 683, 822 Secondary treatment, 822 Sedimentation, 276, 328 Seepage, 217, 336, 478, 545, 822 Segregation, 14, 42, 67, 89, 93, 104, 105, 115, 139, 149, 169, 183, 262–264, 268, 270, 271, 284, 355, 359, 435, 454, 472, 473, 575, 596, 600, 625, 627, 711, 715, 717, 720, 723, 727, 729, 730, 732, 781, 818, 821 Sequential batch reactor, 204, 329 Sewage sludge, 173, 570, 822 Shaking tables, 158, 180 Sharp pits, 281 Sharps, 220, 244–246, 252, 254, 255, 257, 264, 269, 270, 273, 275–281, 292,

837 454, 457, 461, 462, 467, 524, 652, 771, 796, 822 Shredder, 68, 163, 164, 286, 399, 647, 717, 793, 794, 811, 820, 822 Shredding, 134, 139, 163, 186, 199, 210, 273, 285–287, 292, 330, 355, 357, 364, 399, 454, 647, 792, 825 Shredding truck, 164 Single use plastic, 55, 822 Sink-float separator, 153, 822 Siting, 337, 338, 742, 749, 751, 752, 759, 761, 763, 765, 791, 823 Slag, 10, 97, 167, 178, 219, 225, 332, 358, 359, 362, 369, 371, 373, 376–378, 380, 381, 390, 437, 441, 640 Sludge, 3, 67, 151, 176, 177, 179, 204–207, 222, 227, 292, 300, 307–311, 320–322, 330, 369, 373, 374, 377, 378, 380, 383, 385, 391, 393, 395–397, 401, 403, 404, 406, 426, 428, 431, 444, 479, 545, 549, 627, 641, 807, 822, 823 Slum, 92, 99, 115, 118, 126, 132, 596, 738, 758, 759, 823 Socioeconomic assessment, 21, 823 Soil conditioner, 394, 648, 823 Soiled waste, 244, 254, 268, 273, 276–278 Soil liner, 814, 823 Solidification, 178, 329, 331, 386, 393, 395, 439, 624, 642, 823 Solid waste, 1–5, 9–16, 19, 21, 23, 26–29, 33, 34, 38, 40, 48, 49, 51, 52, 54, 61, 62, 64–71, 73, 74, 76–80, 89, 91, 92, 94, 98–103, 105, 106, 108, 111, 113–116, 119, 120, 127–129, 134, 149, 150, 160, 169, 186, 193, 195, 197, 199, 206, 210, 214, 220, 223, 227, 235, 243, 288, 292, 299, 313, 321, 370–372, 374, 376–378, 380, 381, 383, 385, 389, 390, 393–396, 402, 403, 405–407, 413, 432, 441, 448, 453–458, 462–465, 472–475, 495, 496, 499–503, 506, 508, 512–514, 517–519, 522–525, 528, 541, 542, 548, 550, 553, 555, 556, 559, 583, 584, 586, 588, 590, 594, 598, 601, 617, 620, 622, 641, 653, 657, 658, 660, 661, 673, 675, 682, 685, 686, 699–701, 703, 705, 716, 717, 720, 721, 725–728, 731, 735, 751, 752, 754, 756, 757, 759, 763–765, 771, 779, 780, 783–786,

838 788, 791, 793, 794, 798, 807–810, 812–819, 821–826 Solid Waste Management, 1, 3, 5, 24, 29, 34, 39, 93, 509, 670, 686, 727, 745, 746, 781, 808, 823 Solid Waste Management Plan, 478, 700, 705, 708, 715, 720, 722–725, 823, 826 Solubility, 440, 442, 461, 753, 823 Solvent, 120, 160, 178, 180, 184, 253, 288, 307, 309–312, 319, 330, 350, 357, 360, 362, 363, 373, 381, 404, 455, 817, 823 Solvent extraction, 180, 328, 363, 395, 396, 407 Source reduction, 412, 624, 704, 823 Source separation, 168, 745, 823 Spent oil, 307, 823, 824 Spray irrigation, 329 Stabilization, 200, 203, 214, 222, 223, 331, 332, 394–396, 642, 646, 653 Stakeholders, 24, 27, 28, 34, 37, 487, 498, 522, 649, 652, 690, 700, 704, 718–721, 724, 733, 734, 785, 787, 823 Sterilisation, 275, 284, 285, 426, 809, 823 Stochastic, 774, 777, 778, 780, 799, 823 Storage, 61, 67, 89–93, 96–98, 100, 101, 103–106, 109, 115, 117, 126, 129, 134, 135, 166, 194, 203, 210, 212, 216, 225, 230, 262, 263, 265, 267, 271, 274, 289–292, 301, 303, 307, 316–318, 321–323, 326, 327, 339, 354–356, 371, 376, 387, 390, 394, 398, 412, 431, 433–435, 439–443, 449, 453, 463–465, 468, 472, 473, 502, 525, 527, 540, 547, 549, 566, 570, 621, 622, 624, 627, 641, 654, 667, 669, 674, 687, 700, 711, 713, 717, 731, 740, 762, 793, 802, 807, 811, 812, 819, 823 Storage containers, 97, 98, 106, 323, 462, 823 Strategic Environmental Assessment, 21, 823 Strip-cut shredder, 164, 823 Stripping, 178, 205, 207, 311, 328, 356, 357, 643 Superabsorbent polymer, 58, 823 Sustainable Assessment, 21, 823 Sweeper, 111, 114, 598–600, 802 Syngas, 186, 238, 823

Index T Tailings, 303, 371, 373, 374, 376, 378, 430–432, 445, 549, 642, 823 Tarping, 761, 823 Technical assessment, 752, 823 Temporary storage, 130, 569–571, 573, 824 Tenant waste, 120, 122, 824 Terminal waste, 120, 122, 824 Tertiary collection system, 107, 824 Thermal treatment, 224, 225, 472, 824 Thickening, 328 Tidewrack, 519, 809, 824 Tipping fee, 824 Tipping floor, 136, 138, 824 Topography, 34, 196, 514, 654, 751, 781, 824 Tornado, 540, 542–544, 554 Toshers, 824 Toxic, 1, 3, 78, 89, 103, 105, 133, 169, 172, 174, 195, 205, 245, 263, 275, 284, 286, 288, 303, 306, 309–315, 320, 322, 326, 329, 337, 383, 394, 401, 422, 454, 457, 458, 460, 462–464, 466, 473, 476, 488, 495, 503, 510, 513, 555, 556, 559, 615, 627, 642, 644, 645, 648–650, 652, 658, 662, 664–666, 669, 670, 672, 673, 680, 684, 690, 755, 758, 781, 807, 815, 820, 824 Toxicity, 223, 246, 272, 305, 306, 313, 320, 331, 348, 455, 457, 460, 472, 473, 502, 520, 542, 755, 807, 811, 817, 824 Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP), 70, 306, 824 Transfer, 28, 31, 90–92, 98, 104, 111, 113, 115, 117, 134, 137, 139, 195, 207, 253, 263, 270, 303, 509, 514, 525, 562, 647, 666, 702, 719, 723, 731, 740, 741, 756, 761, 810, 813, 824 Transfer point, 262, 824 Transfer station, 15, 90, 92, 97, 108, 116, 117, 134–140, 142, 143, 196, 472, 654, 717, 725, 729, 731, 740, 751, 756, 757, 761, 765, 816, 822, 824 Transportation, 16, 17, 33, 34, 37, 38, 41, 60, 64, 67, 89, 93, 96, 98, 100, 101, 105, 111, 124, 128, 133, 134, 149, 164, 166, 168, 169, 265, 271, 291, 303–305, 338, 394, 412, 413, 416, 435, 436, 439, 453, 454, 457, 468, 470, 490, 496, 504, 514, 525, 540, 545, 555, 561, 564, 569, 571, 573,

Index 574, 586, 591, 602, 621, 623, 627, 661, 665, 671, 673, 689, 701, 708, 710, 711, 713, 720, 725, 730, 735, 736, 740, 742, 751, 757, 761, 762, 777, 791, 824 Traperos, 583 Trash, 10, 79, 80, 118, 119, 128–130, 168, 169, 283, 516, 524, 657, 669, 684, 685, 716, 735, 762, 779, 824 Treks, 92, 518 Trek stalls, 519 Trench, 197, 199, 286, 290, 445–447, 479, 549, 555, 641, 816, 824 Trench method, 197, 198, 824 Tricking filters, 329 Trommel, 151, 154, 645–647, 824 Tsunami, 18, 132, 196, 541–544, 546–548, 563, 564, 566, 570, 573, 590, 612 Typhoid, 9, 464

U Ultimate analysis, 70, 71, 74, 76, 824 Ultra filtration, 205, 432 Uranium, 146, 422, 429–432, 439, 444, 549, 555, 556, 642 Urban agglomeration, 756, 758, 759, 824 Urbanization, 11, 14, 113, 234, 546, 553, 824 Urban Local Body, 28, 48, 96, 115, 609, 663, 689, 699, 791, 824 Used oil, 300, 310, 312, 324, 373, 393, 411, 823, 824 User charges, 824

V Validation, 780, 785, 824 Valorization, 825 Vermi-compost, 151, 172, 175, 825 Vermicomposting, 172, 174, 175 Vertical well, 527, 825 Very Low Level Waste (VLLW), 430, 445 Vibrating screen, 151, 569, 647, 825 Vibratory screen, 155, 156 Virgin material, 178, 624, 825 Virus, 246, 248, 255, 261, 475, 476, 825 Vitrification, 236, 429, 439, 442, 825 Void ratio, 825 Volatile matter, 69, 70, 224, 821 Volcano, 18, 563, 564 Volume reduction, 825

839 W Waste, 1–3, 6, 8–19, 21–25, 27, 28, 30, 32–35, 37, 40–42, 47, 48, 51, 52, 55–58, 61–70, 73, 74, 78, 80, 89, 90, 92–104, 106–117, 119–121, 123, 124, 126–134, 136–139, 143, 145, 148, 149, 151, 157, 159, 161, 162, 164, 165, 167–170, 172–176, 178, 179, 181–186, 193, 195–197, 199, 200, 203, 209–211, 214, 215, 218–232, 234–238, 244–246, 250, 252–255, 257, 260–269, 271, 275–277, 280, 284–286, 288–293, 299, 301, 302, 304–306, 309, 312–315, 317, 318, 320–323, 327, 330–334, 336, 337, 339, 343, 345, 346, 350, 354, 359, 369–372, 374, 375, 377, 382, 385–387, 390–392, 396, 398, 402–407, 411–413, 415–417, 421, 423, 427, 429, 431–434, 437–445, 447, 448, 453–468, 470, 472–477, 479, 480, 485, 489, 495–497, 499, 500, 502, 503, 506, 508, 509, 511–520, 522, 523, 525–528, 539–542, 545–550, 553–557, 559, 561–564, 566–571, 573–575, 583, 586, 587, 589–594, 596, 597, 599–602, 657, 660–664, 666, 669, 672, 674, 676, 677, 682, 683, 685, 686, 689, 690, 705, 708, 711, 716, 720, 723, 727, 729, 731, 735, 739, 742, 743, 754, 756–759, 763, 777, 779, 782, 785–787, 790, 793, 795, 796, 798–800, 802, 810, 812–818, 820, 822–824 Waste categories, 78, 273, 825 Waste collected, 73, 107, 113, 114, 117, 120, 131, 547, 603, 709, 710, 756, 789, 816, 825 Waste collection, 11, 13, 19, 38, 39, 58, 92, 93, 98, 101, 102, 106, 107, 110–117, 123, 124, 128–134, 143, 183, 265, 301, 465, 553, 555, 583, 584, 586, 589, 602, 603, 676, 677, 681, 689, 705, 710, 715, 719, 723, 729, 730, 736, 737, 772, 784, 785, 793, 799–801, 809, 819, 821, 824, 825 Waste collector, 106, 107, 112, 114, 115, 462, 590, 592, 598, 600, 661, 719, 727, 744, 781, 789, 800, 825 Waste crime, 662, 669, 672, 675–677, 684, 825 Waste dealer, 96, 825

840 Waste dump, 3, 4, 80, 90, 464, 474, 479, 502, 503, 509, 516, 556, 589, 609, 639, 646, 650, 754–756, 759, 763, 772, 818, 825 Waste exchange, 301, 372, 825 Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), 17, 78, 114, 179, 343–349, 351, 353–357, 359, 361, 389, 402, 411, 455, 495, 500, 505, 567, 589, 600, 602, 666, 676, 787 Waste management, 4, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 19, 24, 26–31, 33–38, 43, 48, 51, 93, 110, 111, 113, 134, 167, 168, 195, 245, 246, 252, 255, 257, 260–262, 271, 272, 302, 315, 330, 370, 422, 429, 435, 445, 453, 485, 486, 495, 497, 499, 508, 515, 525, 540, 545, 546, 553, 556, 563, 565, 566, 569–571, 573, 583, 584, 586, 587, 591, 621, 622, 648, 657, 658, 661, 664–666, 675, 678, 680–682, 684, 686, 687, 689, 700, 701, 706, 708–711, 715, 717, 719, 720, 723, 727–729, 732, 742, 749, 751, 752, 758, 759, 762, 763, 765, 772, 773, 775, 780, 783, 786, 788, 791, 799, 814, 816, 822, 825 Waste picker, 19, 37, 40, 115, 455, 462, 474, 475, 500, 509, 584, 589, 590, 594–597, 602–604, 705, 743, 745, 780, 781, 825 Waste picking, 475, 586, 594–597, 825 Waste prevention, 3, 526, 528, 623, 723, 825, 826

Index Waste recovery facility, 825 Waste stabilization ponds, 329 Waste-to-energy plant, 645, 722, 825 Waste to Energy (WTE), 224–226, 228, 509, 527, 568, 574, 704, 765 Waste trafficking, 25, 667, 672, 674, 684, 687, 825 Waste treatment and disposal facility, 672, 825 Waste type, 173, 268, 269, 275, 276, 337, 559, 825 Wastewater, 156, 187, 205, 222, 250, 276, 307, 311, 321, 330, 380, 385, 397, 406, 462, 464, 524, 545, 550, 807, 818, 822, 823, 825 Wastewater treatment plant, 380, 383, 565, 825 Water table, 197, 474, 644, 751 Wet scrubber, 307, 826 Wet scrubbing, 328 Wheel cleansing, 826 White goods, 15, 319, 345, 402 Wild fire, 540, 557, 558 Windrow, 170, 289, 528, 646, 653, 794, 826 Windstorms, 546, 565

Y Yard waste, 826

Z Zabbaleen, 583, 584, 826