Soils in Urban Ecosystem 9789811689130, 9789811689147, 981168913X

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Amitava Rakshit · Subhadip Ghosh · Viacheslav Vasenev · H. Pathak · Vishnu D. Rajput   Editors

Soils in Urban Ecosystem

Soils in Urban Ecosystem

Amitava Rakshit • Subhadip Ghosh • Viacheslav Vasenev • H. Pathak • Vishnu D. Rajput Editors

Soils in Urban Ecosystem

Editors Amitava Rakshit Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry Banaras Hindu University Varanasi, India

Subhadip Ghosh Centre for Urban Greenery and Ecology National Parks Board Singapore, Singapore

Viacheslav Vasenev Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia Moscow, Russia

H. Pathak ICAR-National Institute of Abiotic Stres Pune, India

Vishnu D. Rajput Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry Southern Federal University Rostov-on-Don, Russia

ISBN 978-981-16-8913-0 ISBN 978-981-16-8914-7 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8914-7

(eBook)

# The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Dedicated to our parents who inspired us to succeed

Preface

Soil is an invaluable natural resource in terrestrial ecosystems, responsible for supply of important ecosystem services. The majority of soil research has focussed on natural or agricultural areas, whereas urban soils remain an overlooked and likely underestimated resource, ignored so far while formulating the urban ecosystem framework. Urban soil study is a new frontier of soil science. Urban soils research is challenging due to a complex classification, spatial-temporal variability, exposure to pollution, and the predominant effect of the anthropogenic factor on soil formation. But it is worth taking the challenge considering the important role of urban soils for sustainable environmental management. Due to the multifaceted character and heterogeneity of urban soils it is difficult to employ a holistic approach in describing their properties. On the other hand, management in urban greenspaces also has a greater impact on its condition. Increasingly urban soils research draws the attention of scientists in recent times. There are studies around the globe assessing the effect of urbanization on soils of cities and neighbourhood, which will help to develop a conceptual framework to incorporate this vital resource in urban management template. However, there is a lack of consolidated effort in documenting these studies carried out elsewhere. Therefore, this book would provide an important document for students, researchers, landscape architects, and management in order to understand and maximize the benefits of soils in urban ecosystems. A holistic overview on different aspects of urban soils has been presented that could be implemented in the long-term management of urban agriculture. It is sincerely hoped that the information compiled in this book will be useful to environmental/agricultural scientists, consultants, site owners, industrial stakeholders, regulators, policy makers, land managers, and students. Varanasi, India Singapore, Singapore Moscow, Russia Pune, India Rostov-on-Don, Russia

Amitava Rakshit Subhadip Ghosh Viacheslav Vasenev H. Pathak Vishnu D. Rajput

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Acknowledgements

The success of any book project depends on systematic planning and design followed by dedicated process of execution. We gratefully acknowledge and thank the many enthusiastic contributors, worldwide, whose knowledge has helped lay the foundations for this book. Special thanks are due to Dr. R Lal, distinguished University Professor of Soil Science, The Ohio State University in this endeavour. His thoughtful comments and suggestions are deeply appreciated. We place on record our sincere thanks to Ms. Aakanksha Tyagi and Ms. M. Janani and her production team who steadfastly prepared and reproduced the final manuscript. Finally, we sincerely thank and extend our appreciation to all our family members for their support. Amitava Rakshit Subhadip Ghosh Viacheslav Vasenev H. Pathak Vishnu D. Rajput

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Contents

Part I

Urban Soils-Basics

1

Urban Soil: A Review on Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Asik Dutta, Abhik Patra, Subhadip Ghosh, and Amitava Rakshit

3

2

Classification and Functional Characteristics of Urban Soil . . . . . . Subhadip Paul and Amitava Rakshit

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3

Characteristics and Functions of Urban Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. B. Foldal, E. Leitgeb, and K. Michel

25

4

Urban Soil Microbiome Functions and Their Linkages with Ecosystem Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Qi En Ooi, Canh Tien Trinh Nguyen, Andrew Laloo, Aditya Bandla, and Sanjay Swarup

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5

Urban Soil Carbon: Processes and Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tae Kyung Yoon

6

Nitrogen Cycling Processes in Urban Soils: Stocks, Fluxes, and Microbial Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Elizaveta P. Pulikova and Andrey V. Gorovtsov

7

Urban Soils and Their Management: A Multidisciplinary Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Muhammad Mumtaz Khan, Muhammad Tahir Akram, Muhammad Azam Khan, Rashid Al-Yahyai, Rashad Waseem Khan Qadri, and Rhonda Janke

Part II 8

65

Concepts and Technologies of Soil Quality and Functional Monitoring

Soil Quality: Concepts, Importance, Indicators, and Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Atoosa Gholamhosseinian, Mahvan Hassanzadeh Bashtian, and Adel Sepehr

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Contents

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Digital Soil Map: An Applied Tool to Determine Land-Use Alterations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Mahvan Hassanzadeh Bashtian, Atoosa Gholamhosseinian, and Adel Sepehr

10

Soil Conservation Using Mechanical and Non-mechanical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Yasin Salehi, Nader Khadem Moghadam, Behnam Asgari Lajayer, and Tess Astatkie

11

Proximal Sensing of Soil Pollution by Heavy Metals Using a Portable X-ray Fluorescence Analyzer in Subarctic Industrial Barren: Limitations and Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Anna Paltseva, Marina Slukovskaya, Olga Romzaykina, Dmitry Sarzhanov, Svetlana Drogobuzhskaya, Yury Dvornikov, and Viacheslav Vasenev

Part III

Urban Soil Case Studies

12

Urban Smart Sustainability in Tehran: LIPSOR Approach for Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Afshar Hatami, Haniyeh Asadzadeh, and Firouz Jafari

13

Soil Mapping System and Assessment of Ecologically Sensitive Areas in Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Jaroslava Sobocká and Martin Saksa

14

Heterotrophic and Autotrophic Components of Soil Respiration in Russian Subtaiga and Forest-steppe Zones Measured by Substrate-induced Respiration Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Sofia Sushko, Nadezhda Ananyeva, Kristina Ivashchenko, and Viacheslav Vasenev

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Unsaturated Properties of Singapore Urban Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Yangyang Li, Alfrendo Satyanaga, Saranya Rangarajan, Harianto Rahardjo, and Daryl Tsen-Tieng Lee

About the Editors

Amitava Rakshit an IIT Kharagpur alumnus, is presently the faculty member in the Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry at the Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University. Dr. Rakshit worked in the Department of Agriculture, Government of West Bengal, in administration and extension roles. He has visited Scandinavia, Europe, and Africa pertaining to his research work and presentation. He was awarded with TWAS Nxt Fellow (Italy), Biovision Nxt Fellow (France), Darwin Now Bursary (British Council), Young achiever award, and Best Teacher’s Award at UG and PG level. He serves as a review college member of British Ecological Society, London, since 2011. He is an active member of the Global Forum on Food Security and Nutrition of FAO, Rome, and Commission on Ecosystem Management of International Union for Conservation of Nature. He has published more than 70 research papers, 35 book chapters, 28 popular articles, one manual, and co-authored 20 books. Subhadip Ghosh is presently a Senior Researcher (Urban Ecosystems) at the Centre for Urban Greenery and Ecology (Research), National Parks Board, Singapore. He holds his Bachelor of Science in Agriculture with Honours from BCKV, India, and Master’s in Soil Science from PAU, Punjab, India, with national scholarship. He completed his Ph.D. and postdoctoral research from the University of New England (UNE), Armidale, New South Wales (NSW), Australia. Dr. Ghosh has published more than 80 scientific articles and several book chapters. He is an Adjunct Lecturer at the UNE, Australia. He has implemented several xiii

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About the Editors

collaborative research, development, and outreach projects in various countries including India, Australia, USA, Austria, and Finland. Viacheslav Vasenev Soil Scientist and environmental scientist, obtained a Ph.D. degree in Lomonosov Moscow State University (2011) and Wageningen University (2015). Dr. Vasenev is associate professor in the Department of Landscape Design and Sustainable Ecosystems at RUDN University (Russia), co-founder and coordinator of the international summer school “Monitoring, modelling and management of urban green infrastructure and soils (3MUGIS)” and a double-diploma master programme “Management and design of urban green infrastructure”, provided by RUDN University in cooperation with Tuscia University (Italy). The main research interests and scientific expertise relate to urban soils, their functions and services, including soil organic carbon stocks, microbiological activity, and greenhouse gases emissions. Most of the research projects led by Dr. Vasenev link urban soils to sustainable development of urban green infrastructure. H. Pathak is presently the Director of ICAR-National Institute of Abiotic Stress Management (NIASM), Baramati, Pune, Maharashtra. He was former director of ICAR-National Rice Research Institute (NRRI), Cuttack, Odisha, and former Professor of ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi. He has contributed significantly to the quantification of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission from soil, evaluation of the effects of management practices and biotic and abiotic factors on GHG emission, and development of inventories of methane and nitrous oxide emission from Indian agriculture. His research has helped in rationalizing the estimates of GHG emission from Indian agriculture. He has developed simulation models such as InfoSoil, InfoFert, InfoCrop, TechnoGAS, and InfoRCT for predicting the impacts of management and climate on crop yield and optimizing resource use for increasing production and minimizing environmental pollution Dr. Pathak is Fellow of the Indian National Science Academy (FNA), National Academy of

About the Editors

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Agricultural Sciences (FNAAS), and West Bengal Academy of Science and Technology (FWAST). He is the recipient of the Alexander von Humboldt Fellowship of Germany, Dr. B.C. Deb Memorial Award of the Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA), Golden Jubilee Commemoration Young Scientist Award of the Indian Society of Soil Science, BOYSCAST Fellowship of Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India, Young Scientist Award, and Prof. S.K. Mukherjee Commemoration Award of ISCA. He was the President of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences Section of Indian Science Congress. He has published more than 150 research papers and nine books and has an h-index of 41 and an i10-index of 90 with more than 5000 citations in international literature. Visnu D. Rajput is presently working as Leading Researcher (Highly Qualified Specialist) at Southern Federal University, Rostov-on-Don, Russia. He is working on soil contaminations, i.e. PAHs, Benzo[a]pyrene, priority heavy metals and metallic nanoparticles, and their impacts on plant performance and soil microbial functionalities. The modern tools and techniques such as AAS, ICP-MS, μ-XRF and μ-XANES, FT-IR, HRTEM, Tornado, PAM fluorometer, GC, GLPC, DLS, ZETA potential, XRD, EDX, UV-Vis spectroscopy, TEM, SEM optical microscopes, and COMET assay are applied to observe the accumulation, transformations, uptake, translocation of pollutants, and impact on soil microbial communities, microbe-plant interaction, plant physiology, morphology, anatomy, and ultrastructure of cellular organelles. He has also initiated work on urban soil recently. He has published more than 50 research papers and has an h-index of 14 and a research gate index of 32 in international literature.

Part I Urban Soils-Basics

1

Urban Soil: A Review on Historical Perspective Asik Dutta, Abhik Patra, Subhadip Ghosh, and Amitava Rakshit

1.1

Introduction and History of the Urban Soil Terminology

By the end of the twenty-first century, the global population is likely to touch 11 billion and the importance of soils in catering ecosystem services, particularly in densely packed areas, will likely be more felt. Soils have been used as a cultivating ground for centuries, giving food to all living creatures either directly or indirectly, but urbanisation and other anthropogenic activities possess manifold dramatic influence in its properties. In 1847, Ferdinand Senft first mentioned the term ‘anthropogenic urban soils’ in his soil science book, and from this, the concept of urban soil or anthropogenic urban soil came into existence (Lehmann and Stahr 2007). Before going deep into the historical perspectives concerning urban soils, we must first know its definition. From the start, pedologists or different schools of people have come out with different definitions of urban soil, depending on its influencing factors and taxonomical characteristics, but confusions exist up to now. The concept of urban soil evolves significantly over time with the inclusion of all regulating factors such as transportation (road, railway networks), site disturbances (surface sealing), constructional works (building), intensity of use (trampling, hydraulic pressure), engineering interventions (green roofing, avenue plantations), and major environmental changes (pollution, climatic anomalies) on a spatio-temporal basis. Studies on urban soil have been started long back, but most of them are just basic research A. Dutta Crop Production Division, ICAR-Indian Institute of Pulse Research, Kanpur, India A. Patra (*) · A. Rakshit Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Ghosh Centre for Urban Greenery and Ecology (Research), National Parks Board, Singapore, Singapore # The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Rakshit et al. (eds.), Soils in Urban Ecosystem, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8914-7_1

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Table 1.1 Popular terms used over the years to describe urban soils Terms Mine dumps

References Patton (1959)

Strip-mine spoils

Davis (1971)

Highly disturbed urban soils Man-influenced soils Damaged soils

Maechling et al. (1974) Stein (1978) Antonovic (1982) Lebedeva et al. (1993) Strain and Evans (1994)

Anthropogenically changed soils Sand-pit soils

Terms Humanly modified and humantransported soils Relict soils Anthropogenically impacted soils Necrosols Human-altered and humantransported soils Paleotechnosols Embryonic soils (protohorizons)

References ICOMANTH (1997) Simpson et al. (1998) Wilding and Ahrens (2001) Sobocká (2004) Galbraith and Ditzler (2006) Markiewicz et al. (2013) Capra et al. (2015)

and are based on an ecological point of view. The concept of urban soil was started in the 1960s by Zemlyanitskiy (1963) when he referred to highly disturbed soils of the urban areas as urban soils. Later, Bockheim (1974) described urban soil as ‘[s]oil material having a non-agricultural, manmade surface layer more than 50 cm thick that has been produced by mixing, filling, or by contamination of land surface in urban and suburban areas’. This concept was supported by future pedologists (Craul and Klein 1980; Craul 1992). By the end of the twentieth century, Effland and Pouyat (1997) suggested a new definition, where they explained that urban soils are relatively unaltered soils but subjected to urban environmental factors like atmospheric depositions. This concept has been immensely accepted by contemporary pedologists up to present (Lehmann and Stahr 2007; Morel et al. 2017). Lehmann and Stahr (2007) further classified anthropogenic soil into inner urban and extraurban, depending on its administrative boundaries. According to another school of thought, the word ‘urban soil’ is rather ambiguous, and the phrase ‘anthropogenic soil’ was coined to widen the notion of human-influenced soils beyond the prior definition of just highly human-inhabited places (Evans et al. 2000; Capra et al. 2015). The International Committee on Anthropogenic Soils (ICOMANTH), on different periods, introduced and modified terminologies related to anthropogenic soils. But they did not acknowledge any eroded (physical or chemical) soil to be anthropogenic soil (ICOMANTH 2011). However, because anthropogenic soils preserve all historical knowledge about cultural activities, artifacts, and properties, anthropogenic soils might be referred to be “golden spikes” of the Anthropocene (Certini and Scalenghe 2011). The terminologies used over the years to describe anthropogenic soils are specified in Table 1.1 (Capra et al. 2015). To avoid confusion, it is worth mentioning that in this chapter, we are using urban or anthropogenic terms synonymously. So, in a nutshell, any soil influenced by human activities, regardless of urbanisation, city limits, or protective measures, may be referred to as urban soil,

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and words emphasized the technological effect of people on soil formation and development.

1.2

Historical Overview of Research and Development of Urban Soil Across the Globe

As mentioned in the previous section, with the advent of modern-day pedological studies, the concept of urban soil emerged. Scientific and technological improvements helped mankind understand the importance of urban soil in maintaining a sustainable urban environment and combatting climate change. Achievements in the sector of urban soil management over the years are briefly described in Table 1.2. Globally, more than 3/4th of urban soils studies are highly concentrated on just two continents, namely North America (24.9%) and Europe (59.5%), with the share of other continents being minor (Asia 6.1%, South America 4.3%, Africa 3.9% and Oceania 1%) (Capra et al. 2015). Although, since ancient times countries in Asia (China, India), Africa (Egypt) faced severe consequences of human civilisation like migration, human settlements, war, soil manipulation for agricultural activities etc. According to Capra et al. (2015), from 1945 to 2014 a total 925 references have been collected for studies related to urban soils and the share of different countries were shown in Fig. 1.1. As per data, 66% of references are concentrated on nine countries only. But in the present scenario, state-of-the art tools and infrastructures, like remote sensing, aerial surveys, and imaging software, are enabling developing countries like India to achieve progressive growth in the domain of anthropogenic soil survey and operation planning. Some of the important characteristics of urban soil have been described in Table 1.3.

1.3

Future Prospects in Urban/Anthropogenic Soil Research

Over the years, tremendous progress globally has been made in this field, but science has no limitation. Human interference has both positive and negative impacts on natural soil systems; henceforth, succeeding research should focus on reducing these fatalistic impacts and harness the productive side of Mother Nature’s precious gift ever – the soil. Among others, two of the most cardinal points to ponder are as follows: 1. Urban soils serve as reservoirs for many antibiotic-resistant soil bacteria, which include both widespread resistance mechanisms and transferrable resistance genes (Popowska et al. 2012). So research on the utilisation of these resources to combat pathogens is the need of the hour. 2. Regional and international planning should be carried out to classify soils according to their capability and suitability. In urban areas, the creation of

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Table 1.2 Achievements made across the world in urban soil research from the nineteenth century to date Year 1847 1890 1945– 1950 1951 1963 1970– 1971 1974– 1975 1977 1978 1980 1982 1987 1988

1990s 1991 1995 1997 1998 2000 2001– 2007 2006

Achievements First book where information about soils in mines, industrial areas and urban areas is provided Early research in urban soil pedology Characterisation of spoil materials First urban soil mapping according to land-use planning done in Bottrop, Germany First definition of urban soil Pedologists started research on plaggen soils and began examining soils of mine areas German and American soil scientists started examining anthropogenic urban soils Interest in studies on mine soils started for mapping and taxonomical purposes Same studies continue in multi-locations First proposal for introducing the new order ‘Anthrosol’ First international symposium on urban soils in Berlin, Germany Working group on urban soils (ArbeitskreisStadtböden) under the German Pedological Society International Committee on Anthropogenic Soils (ICOMANTH) commissioned under the USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) More research on urban soils was carried out, especially on the pollution of such soils First publication on a pedological compendium of urban soils around the world Taxonomical classification of urban soils Manual for characterising urban soils brought in by the German Pedological Society Founding of the working group Soils of Urban, Industrial, Traffic and Mining Areas (SUITMA) First international conference of SUITMA held in Essen, Germany Studied the process of the formation of urban soil (interurban group in Germany) • First manual for the evaluation of urban soils based on soil description (TUSEC-manual) • Taxonomical classification and introduction of ‘Technosols’ by the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRBSR) • Hydrological research on urban soils by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)

References Senft (1847) Darwin (1892) Tyner and Smith (1946) and Tyner et al. (1948) Mückenhausen and Müller (1951) Zemlyanitskiy (1963) Pape (1970) and Smith et al. (1971) Maechling et al. (1974) Sencindiver (1977) Blume and Runge (1978) Kosse (1980) Blume and Schlichting (1982) Lehmann and Stahr (2007) Capra et al. (2015)

Lehmann and Stahr (2007) Bullock and Gregory (1991) Baize and Girard (1998) Blume et al. (2000) Lehmann and Stahr (2007) Burghardt and Dornauf (2000) Braun et al. (2006) Norra (2006) and Capra et al. (2015)

(continued)

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Table 1.2 (continued) Year

2014 2015 to date

Achievements

References

• Special emphasis has been given to urban soils in the 18th World Congress of Soil Science, Philadelphia (USA) WRBSR classified urban soils at the highest taxonomical level • Inclusion of proto-horizon for urban soil • Advanced pedological and pollution studies on urban soils are conducted worldwide

IUSS Working Group WRB (2014) Capra et al. (2015)

1945-54

1995-2004

1955-64

1965-74

1975-84

1985-94

2005-14

Number of samples analysed

60 50 40 30 20 10 0

USA Germany Great Russia Britain

Poland

France

Italy

China

Brazil

Fig. 1.1 Temporal distribution of work references on urban soils across the globe

recreational spaces like parks and lawns should be taken into account so that people can take a break from their monotonous life. Furthermore, additional studies may assist city planners in assigning less productive locations with other anthropic activities while still preserving archaeological heritage sites with their intrinsic specificity and diversity.

1.4

Conclusion

The protection and creation of suitable living conditions in the cities are very important for a healthy life, and to achieve this, urban soils should play a vital role. Since ancient times, humans have been significantly transforming, manipulating and damaging soil systems, resulting in deadly consequences. However, there are silver linings, too. Research by different pedological organisations across the globe made noteworthy achievements in this sector, but still there are a lot of things to do. Nonetheless, with the exponential growth in world population and

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Table 1.3 Characteristics of urban soil Characteristics Artefacts/fragments

pH

Organic carbon and nutrients

Contaminants

Bulk density Soil temperature

Common in urban soils • Construction residues and other large artefacts causing high water permeability • Surface or underground sealing • Alkalinity because of construction residues like plaster and concrete • Acidity because of sulphur from coal or technically produced sulphuric acid • High inorganic Cassoils are affected by the accumulation of organic waste, dust and combustion residues • Low inorganic Cassoils with regularly swept topsoil to keep it free from vegetation • Low in nutrients • Soils from parent material poor in nutrients • Combustion residues and other residues from production processes in highly industrialised cities • Soils only affected by the entry of contaminants via dust deposition and rain caused by the urban environment • Topsoil: affected by mechanical forces on the surface • Subsoil: affected by compaction through construction activities • City areas with increased air temperature • Soils affected by heating facilities or warmed technical cavities

demand for food, fibre and feed, more scientific effort should be devoted to this field in order to confirm nutritional security and maintain our cultural heritage.

References Antonovic GM (1982) Classification of damaged soils. Soil Plant 31:365–375 Baize D, Girard MC (1998) A sound reference base for soils: the “Référentiel Pédologique”. INRA Editions, Versailles Blume HP, Runge M (1978) Genesis and ecology of inner-city soils from rubble. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 141:727–740 Blume H-P, Schlichting E (1982) Soil problems in urban areas. Mitt Deutsch Bodenkundliche Ges 33:1–280 Blume HP, Deller B, Leschber R, Paetz A, Schmidt S, Wilke BM, AKS (ArbeitskreisStadtböden) (2000) HandbuchBodenuntersuchung. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim Bockheim JG (1974) Nature and properties of highly disturbed urban soils. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Div. S-5, Soil Science Society of America, Chicago, Illinois Braun B, Böckelmann U, Grohmann E, Szewzyk U (2006) Polyphasic characterization of the bacterial community in an urban soil profile with in situ and culture-dependent methods. Appl Soil Ecol 31:267–279 Bullock P, Gregory PJ (1991) Soils: a neglected resource in urban areas. In: Soils in the urban environment. Wiley, Weinheim, pp 1–4 Burghardt W, Dornauf C (2000) First international conference on soils of urban, industrial, traffic and mining areas, vol 1–4. University of Essen, Essen Capra GF, Ganga A, Grilli E, Vacca S, Buondonno A (2015) A review on anthropogenic soils from a worldwide perspective. J Soils Sediments 15:1602–1618

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Certini G, Scalenghe R (2011) Anthropogenic soils are the golden spikes for the Anthropocene. The Holocene 21:1269–1274 Craul PJ (1992) Urban soil in landscape design. Wiley, Hoboken Craul PJ, Klein CJ (1980) Characterization of street side soils of Syracuse, New York. Metria 3:88– 101 Darwin C (1892) The formation of vegetable mould, through the action of worms: with observations on their habits. J. Murray, London Davis G (1971) Guide for revegetating bituminous strip-mine spoils in Pennsylvania Effland WR, Pouyat RV (1997) The genesis, classification, and mapping of soils in urban areas. Urban Ecosyst 1:217–228 Evans CV, Fanning DS, Short JR (2000) Human-influenced soils. Managing soils. Urban Environ 39:33–67 Galbraith JM, Ditzler C (2006) New terms for describing human-altered and-transported soils. In 18th World Congress of Soil Science, pp 9–15 ICOMANTH (1997) Circular letter, vol. 2. International Committee for Anthropogenic Soils. http:// clic.cses.vt.edu/icomanth/03-AS_Circulars.pdf ICOMANTH (2011) Circular letter, Vol. 7. International Committee for Anthropogenic Soils. http://clic.cses.vt.edu/icomanth/2011Summary_Proposed_Revisions_to_Soil_Taxonomy.pdf IUSS Working Group WRB (2014) World reference base for soil resources 2014. International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. World soil resources reports No. 106. FAO, Rome Kosse A (1980) Anthrosols: proposals for a new soil order. In: Agronomy abstracts. ASA, CSSA, and SSSA, Madison Lebedeva II, Tonkonogov VD, Shishov LL (1993) Classification and systematics of anthropogenically transformed soils. Pochvovedenie 9:98–104 Lehmann A, Stahr K (2007) Nature and significance of anthropogenic urban soils. J Soils Sediments 7:247–260 Maechling P, Cooke H, Bockheim JG (1974) Nature and properties of highly disturbed urban soils. In: Agronomy abstracts. ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, WI, p 151 Markiewicz M, Bednarek R, Jankowski M, Świtoniak M (2013) Paleotechnosols’ of ancient settlements in Grodno and Kałdus. Technogenic soils of Poland. Polish Society of Soil Science, Toruń, pp 111–122 Morel JL, Burghardt W, Kim KHJ (2017) The challenges for soils in the urban environment. Soils within cities. Catena Soil Sciences, Schweizerbart, pp 1–6 Mückenhausen E, Müller EH (1951) Geologisch-bodenkundliche Kartierung des Stadtkreises Bottrop i.W. für Zwecke der Stadtplanung Norra S (2006) Urban soil science on the 18th WCSS. J Soils Sediments 6:189 Pape JC (1970) Plaggen soils in the Netherlands. Geoderma 4:229–255 Patton BJ (1959) Soil survey, Preston County, West Virginia. US Government Printing Office Popowska M, Rzeczycka M, Miernik A, Krawczyk-Balska A, Walsh F, Duffy B (2012) Influence of soil use on prevalence of tetracycline, streptomycin, and erythromycin resistance and associated resistance genes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 56:1434–1443 Sencindiver JC (1977) Classification and genesis of minesoils. Ph.D. Diss. West Virginia University, Morgantown Senft F (1847) Lehrbuch der Gebirgs-und Bodenkunde. Zunächst für Forst- und Landwirthe, Mauke Simpson IA, Bryant RG, Tveraabak U (1998) Relict soils and early arable land management in Lofoten, Norway. J Archaeol Sci 25:1185–1198 Smith RM, Tryon EH, Tyner EH (1971) Soil development on mine spoil. Bulletin 604 T. West Virginia Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station, Morgantown Sobocká J (2004) Necrosol as a new anthropogenic soil type. Soil Anthropization VII, pp 107–112 Stein CE (1978) Mapping, classification and characterization of highly man-influenced soils in the District of Columbia (Doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park)

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Strain MR, Evans CV (1994) Map unit development for sand-and gravel-pit soils in New Hampshire. Soil Sci Soc Am J 58:147–155 Tyner EH, Smith RM (1946) The reclamation of the strip-mined coal lands of West Virginia with forage species. Soil Sci Soc Am J 10:429–436 Tyner EH, Smith RM, Galpin SL (1948) Reclamation of strip-mined areas in West Virginia. J Am Soc Agron. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj1948.00021962004000040003x Wilding LP, Ahrens RJ (2001) Soil Taxonomy: provisions for anthropogenically impacted soils. Soil Classif:34–46 Zemlyanitskiy LT (1963) Characteristics of the soils in the cities. Soviet Soil Sci J 5:468–475

2

Classification and Functional Characteristics of Urban Soil Subhadip Paul

and Amitava Rakshit

Abstract

Rapid urbanization in developed as well as developing countries has put much impact on their soil properties. Urban soils are very diverse in nature, depending on the complexity of human interventions. The properties of these uncharacterized altered soils are the result of purposeful and intensive anthropogenic activities. Classification of these soils was initiated for generating the soil morphogenetic information, mapping, and its ecosystem functioning. At first, the alteration of soil properties was considered a deviation from natural soil formation processes, but later on, anthropogenic factor (a) was introduced into Jenny’s existing five-factor model to commence the urban soil classification framework. With the objective of urban soil mapping, the International Committee on Anthropogenic Soils (ICOMANTH) grouped these soils at the Subgroup and Family levels under Soil Taxonomy. By taking into consideration Soil Taxonomy and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) map legends, the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) categorized urban soils into two reference soil groups: Anthrosols and Technosols. Later on, the Soils of Urban, Industrial, Traffic, Mining, and Military Areas (SUITMAs) generalized the functional characteristics of these soils to correlate their role with urban ecosystem functioning. These classifications and altered characteristics can help city planners formulate urban agricultural policies.

S. Paul (*) Division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India A. Rakshit Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India # The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Rakshit et al. (eds.), Soils in Urban Ecosystem, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8914-7_2

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2.1

S. Paul and A. Rakshit

Introduction

The urban population relies on urban soil resources and its ecosystem services. Soils of urban areas have been heavily managed and intensively used by humans for decades. Urban soil can be defined as a soil material having a non-agricultural, man-made surface layer more than 50cm thick, that has been produced by mixing, filling, or contamination of land surfaces in urban and suburban areas (Craul 1992). Complex human interventions on a regional and temporal scale have converted the naturally formed soil system into a disturbed one (Yaalon and Yaron 1966). The processes involved in urban soil formation are totally different from natural soil formation processes. Continuous deposition of persistent artifacts, industrial wastes, toxic metals, chemicals, and soil sealing have distinguished these soils as contaminated ones (Jim 2003; Scalenghe and Marsan 2009; Kazlauskaitė-Jadzevičė et al. 2014; Wang and Chen 2015). However, many observations have reported that these soils retain their functional characteristics despite complex changes in urban land-use patterns (Pouyat and Effland 1999; Scharenbroch et al. 2005; Pouyat et al. 2010; Wei et al. 2013; Yang and Zhang 2015; Qin et al. 2019; Trammell et al. 2020). Such soils can act as a potential medium for plant growth and for the activity of soil biota, which can be used for urban agricultural planning. The layout of the urban landscape within natural forested terrains also necessitates the inclusion of anthropogenic soil forming factors in the existing model (Cline 1961; Bidwell and Hole 1965). The classification of soils is a globally adapted procedure for grouping individual pedons into different homogeneous units, highlighting the differences in their characteristics and functions (Soil Survey Staff 1975). Recently, the genetic peculiarity of urban soils has been studied extensively, including their genesis and altered properties under a man-made environment, for mapping purposes (Yaalon and Yaron 1966; Pouyat 1991; Effland and Pouyat 1997; Scharenbroch et al. 2005; Pouyat et al. 2010; Zhao et al. 2012; Wei et al. 2013; Yang and Zhang 2015; Rai et al. 2018; Qin et al. 2019). Thus, for evaluating soil ecosystem services as a result of anthropogenic activities, urban soil classification becomes necessary.

2.2

Urban Soil Formation Frameworks

Jenny’s five factors of soil formation, i.e., climate (cl), relief (r), parent materials (pm), organisms (o), and time (t) has failed to separate rapid human pursuits from the organisms factor (Jenny 1941). In the mid-eighteen century and onwards, the industrial revolution has brought about a swift growth in trade, followed by urbanization worldwide. Thus, encroached human activities cannot be separated from natural soil-forming processes. Hence, a rush for changing Jenny’s five factors of soil formation model became necessary to include human interventions on soil polygenesis (Cline 1961). Bidwell and Hole (1965) emphasized the necessity to include human influences as the growing population of men has been interfering with natural soil formation processes. However, the altering of soil properties was considered a deviation from natural soil formation processes, and the term

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Classification and Functional Characteristics of Urban Soil

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metapedogenesis was introduced to differentiate human interventions from natural soil forming factors (Yaalon and Yaron 1966). The recurring impacts of anthropogenic non-agronomic activities (surface mining, various constructions, material deposition, dredging, etc.) have led to the formulation of the “energy model” (Runge 1973). The model was governed by the changes in energy flux and entropy of soil biogeochemical cycle and water cycle. On the other hand, Soil Survey Staff (1975) only included agronomic human activities (ploughing, organic matter deposition, liming, irrigation, etc.) in differentiating soil horizons, for example agric endopedon, plaggen, and anthropic epipedon, but neglected non-agronomic human practices. Over time, both agronomic and non-agronomic anthropogenic activities were considered to have a gross effect on soil genesis. Thus, the modification of Jenny’s five-factor soil formation model became necessary to incorporate humaninduced alteration during soil profile development (Smeck et al. 1983). Fanning and Fanning (1989) emphasized anthropedogenesis, which considered both agronomic and non-agronomic human activities, resulting in anthropedoturbation (mixing of soil horizons within a profile). The prefix anthro- is used before pedoturbation to differentiate it from faunal pedoturbation and put some weight on unrestricted human activities. In 1991, sixth soil forming factor a (anthropogenic factor) was introduced into the existing five-factor model of soil development (S) (Amundson and Jenny 1991; Pouyat 1991), such that S ¼ f ða, cl, o, pm, r, t Þ

ð2:1Þ

The model has been operated over different temporal scales, i.e. long (>100 years), medium (>30 years but 100-year-old), mixed tree-grass cover, and deeper sampling depth. Significant differences in SOC density were not observed between soil order, population density, and land cover (Scharenbroch et al. 2018). Based on 100 studies, Vasenev and Kuzyakov (2018) expanded the analysis range of soil carbon pool into SOC and non-SOC fractions (SIC and BC). The effects of environmental factors (e.g., latitude and land cover) and urban-related information (e.g., city size, age, and population) were tested as to the content and density of each carbon pool. The meta-analysis

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revealed that urban soils are a potential hotspot for global carbon sequestration based on the higher carbon stock and accumulation rate present therein than in natural soils. In addition, SIC and BC remarkably contributed to the STC density of topsoils in arid and temperate climates, respectively (Vasenev and Kuzyakov 2018). In this research, a meta-analysis of 63 studies was conducted to share knowledge advances on urban SOC stocks, accumulation rates, and urbanization effects (Table 5.3). The literature was searched from Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar using the search term “urban soil carbon.” In addition, cited literature in previous urban soil carbon meta-analysis studies was referenced (e.g., Lorenz and Lal 2015, Pouyat et al. 2006, Scharenbroch et al. 2018, and Vasenev and Kuzyakov 2018). All literature that reported SOC density (kg C m
2 or Mg C ha
1) in green spaces, parks, urban forests, residential lawns, and so on was included in the analysis. For each literature, the study location, soil cover type, SOC density, deepest sampling depth, SOC accumulation rate, and key findings were retrieved. Due to differing terminologies used in urban soil studies, soil covers stated in each literature were reclassified into five categories: (1) lawn (e.g., residential lawn, institutional lawn, and golf courses), (2) urban forest (i.e., remnant forest patches), (3) impervious (i.e., sealed and paved soils), (4) mixed green space (e.g., parks and tree-covered open space), and (5) unspecified urban soils. When available, the mean SOC density value of all studied urban soils was collected from each literature. If SOC densities significantly differed by soil cover type (e.g., lawn vs. tree cover), the values were collected separately. When different SOC densities by management practices (e.g., compost amended vs. control) under the same soil cover were observed, a single value that could cover the variation by categorizing them as management practices was obtained. When a median value was the only option presented without a mean value (probably due to a skewed distribution of samples by an extraordinarily high value), the median value was exceptionally obtained. Similarly, when a SOC range was reported without an accompanying mean value, the midpoint of the range was used. When STC values instead of SOC were reported (assuming STC would be nearly equivalent to SOC with the absence of SIC for given soils), STC values were adopted. When pieces of literature insufficiently presented analytical procedures of SOC, they were excluded from the metaanalysis. As a result of the above mining of literature, a total of 83 observations on SOC density was analyzed. Over two-fifths (43%) of literature were conducted in the USA, the second most reported country being China (21%). Others were conducted in Europe (EU, Russia, and UK), Asia (Japan, Singapore, and South Korea), and Oceania (Australia and New Zealand). The relationship between the deepest sampling depth and SOC density was tested using simple linear regression as the main analysis tool and using locally estimated scatterplot smoothing (LOESS) as well as nonlinear regressions in the preliminary analysis. Differences in SOC density by soil cover type were tested using the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) method, in which the deepest sampling depth was set to covariate.

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A total of 22 literature pieces that investigated the change of SOC stocks by urbanization was integrated into the meta-analysis. A response ratio of SOC density change by urbanization was calculated as follows: Response ratio ¼ ln

SOC density of urbanzied soils SOC density of rural or native soils

A positive and negative response ratio value indicated an increase and decrease of SOC density by urbanization, respectively. Three of 22 literature pieces tested urbanization effects on SOC density using an urban-rural gradient design in which a representative rural SOC density was not presented; therefore, a response ratio was not able to be calculated. All data analysis and visualization were done using R (R Core Team 2020) with a “ggplot2” package (Wickham 2016).

5.3.2

SOC Density of Urban Soils

The overall mean and median of SOC density was measured at 8.6 and 7.1 kg C m
2, respectively, in the range of 1.2–36.0 kg C m
2. Unsurprisingly, SOC density increased with the deepest sampling depth taken for each study; the mean SOC density at 10, 20, 30, 60, and 100 cm of the deepest sampling depth was 3.5, 4.7, 6.1, 9.4, and 14.3 kg C m
2, respectively (Fig. 5.2). The increase of SOC density with the deepest sampling depth was best fitted using linear regression (P < 0.001, R2 ¼ 0.30) rather than a nonlinear regression, while the LOESS curve reduced the increase of SOC density at the deepest sampling depth above 60 cm (Fig. 5.2). In general, when samples are taken from deeper locations, more SOC is included. This aligns with the observation that SOC density is dependent on the deepest sampling depth of each study. The sampling depth dependency of SOC density determination makes it difficult to compare and integrate SOC densities of different studies when these studies have different deepest sampling depths (e.g., 30 cm vs. 1 m). In natural soils, decreasing SOC density linked to soil depth is generally modeled with a negative exponential function (e.g., Camino-Serrano et al. 2018; Hilinski 2001; Murphy et al. 2019). Therefore, total SOC density, which is the cumulative sum of SOC density from the surface to the deepest soil profile in a sampling point, would increase with the deepest sampling depth as aligned with an exponential-rise-to-maximum or logarithmic pattern. Notwithstanding the above, SOC density increase with the deepest sampling depth was best fitted using linear regression in the data set of urban SOC densities in this meta-analysis (Fig. 5.2). Urban soils are not fully dependent on natural soil processes, which form exponentially decaying vertical patterns of SOC density; rather, there are various direct and indirect drivers on urban soils (Fig. 5.1), resulting in site-specific, management-dependent, and inconsistent vertical profiles of SOC density. For example, SOC densities at 0–20, 20–50, 50–80, and 80–100 cm of soil depth were not significantly different in various urban land covers of Chicago

Urban Soil Carbon: Processes and Patterns

Fig. 5.2 Soil organic carbon (SOC) density of urban soils along the deepest sampling depth of each study. Each box represents a distribution of SOC density at the given deepest sampling depth, and the numbers at the upper end indicate the number of observations (left). LOESS (locally estimated scatterplot smoothing) and linear regression (P < 0.001, R2 ¼ 0.29) fittings are made using all observations (N ¼ 83). A scatterplot of SOC density with soil cover type is additionally presented (right). Different letters in the legend indicate significant differences in SOC density between soil cover types using an analysis of covariance test with Tukey’s HSD post hoc test (P < 0.05)

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Metropolitan Region, Illinois, USA, indicating a vertically homogeneous profile of SOC content (Scharenbroch et al. 2017). In particular, urban soils may have an unexpected peak in vertical SOC content patterns representing OM deposited by residential activities in history, known as a cultural layer (Lorenz and Lal 2009; Vasenev et al. 2013). SOC density significantly differed by soil cover type (P < 0.05) when covariate effect was accounted in ANCOVA (Fig. 5.2). Unspecified (14.1  12.6 kg C m
2, N ¼ 6) was the highest, with mixed green space (9.6  7.8 kg C m
2, N ¼ 34), lawn (7.9  5.1 kg C m
2, N ¼ 25), urban forest (7.0  3.0 kg C m
2, N ¼ 8), and impervious cover (3.7  2.7 kg C m
2, N ¼ 8) next in line. According to a post hoc analysis, a significant difference was only observed between impervious and unspecified (Tukey’s HSD; P < 0.05). Applying linear regression, urban soil SOC density up to a 1-m depth was estimated at 14.1 kg C m
2. This value is higher than the range of mean SOC densities of 25 FAO’s soil grouping orders (5.5–13.7 kg C m
2), excluding three orders which have exceptionally high SOC densities (Histosols; 27.8 kg C m
2, Andosols; 21.4 kg C m
2, and Chernozems; 16.6 kg C m
2), estimated using the Harmonized World Soil Database v.1.21 (Latham et al. 2017). The rough estimate of urban soil SOC density could still have high uncertainty due to the lack of stratified, systematic sampling as well as harmonization. Data frequency by soil cover type indicates that SOC densities of lawns could be oversampled (N ¼ 25), especially at the topsoil level ( 6 (Trifonova et al. 2014; Domracheva et al. 2018). Studies show that N mineralization is positively correlated with soil moisture and C/N ratio (Cabrera et al. 2005) but negatively with pH. For this reason, mineralization is stronger in suburban soils than in urban soils (Zhang et al. 2010). However, for the meadow soils, such a dependence of soil acidity and mineralization activity is not always observed (Simard and N’dayegamiye 1993). It is well known that nitrification is relatively slow at pH < 5.5. Soils with high pH, especially above 8.0, contain carbonates, which can provide CO2 for the growth of autotrophic organisms. The process positively correlates with pH (Zhang et al. 2010; Zhao et al. 2012; Wan et al. 2020). Therefore, in urban soils, the nitrate cycle prevails over the ammonium cycle (Zhang et al. 2010). Urban soils can be acidified as a result of prolonged use of fertilizers, such as ammonium sulfate, sodium nitrate, urea, and others (Zhou et al. 2014; Thompson and Kao-Kniffin 2019). The N2O:N2 ratio increases with a decrease in soil pH, and denitrification in an acidic environment is due to the activity and spread of nirKrather than nirS-containing denitrifiers (Bowen et al. 2020). In this regard, it can be assumed that this contributes to an increase in nitrous oxide emissions (Simek and Cooper 2002). There is also evidence that low pH negatively correlates with

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Table 6.1 The influence of physical factors on nitrogen conversion processes in urban soils Soil Compacted soils

Sealed soils

Physical factors in urban soil Decreased aeration

Reduced aeration, total nitrogen and organic matter concentration

Permanently or intermittently waterlogged soils

Reduced aeration

All soils, except for soils of parks, urban forests

Heat island

Influence on the nitrogen cycle Decrease in net and potential mineralization and nitrification of soils relative to the same processes in the forest Increased activity of denitrification, which can be a cause of increasing N2O emissions The activities of nitrification and nitrogen fixation decrease, but the introduction of anthropogenic artifacts can improve the conditions for nitrification The activity of denitrifiers decreases due to the lower availability of carbon and nitrogen Mineralization decreases High mineralization rates during wet months as moisture can stimulate ammonification Denitrification process is getting more intense Emission of nitrous oxide increases In permanently waterlogged soils, less N2O is released An increase in N mineralization, but the opposite is also observed since high air temperatures reduce soil moisture Increased nitrification Increase in N2O emission by denitrifiers

References White and McDonnell (1988), Zhao et al. (2012)

Li et al. (2014)

Zabelina and Zlyvko (2015), O’Riordan et al. (2021)

Nawaz et al. (2013)

Pereira et al. (2021) Zhang et al. (2010)

Zabelina and Zlyvko (2015) Bijoor et al. (2008), Hall et al. (2008) McPhillips et al. (2016) Pavao-Zuckerman and Coleman (2005), Wan et al. (2020), Zhang et al. (2010) Livesley et al. (2010) Bijoor et al. (2008), Hall et al. (2008)

potential denitrification (Xiong et al. 2015). This may not be a direct effect of pH on denitrification enzymes but due to the decrease of organic carbon and mineral nitrogen amount available for denitrifiers in acidic soils (Simek and Cooper 2002). The above statement primarily applies to soils outside cities. However, given that denitrification in the urban environment was significantly higher than in the forest, it

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can be assumed that this is due to the presence of neutral and alkaline soils, which provide optimal conditions for denitrification in the urban environment. The (nirK + nirS)/nosZ ratio in urban soils was the highest relative to the soils of other land-use types (Hui-Juan et al. 2018). Nevertheless, the expression “optimal pH for denitrification” has little or no meaning if it is not specified which sign of denitrification is affected by acidity (Simek and Cooper 2002).

6.3.2.2 Changes in C/N Ratio Since N fixation is an energetically expensive process that requires the use of carbon sources, organic carbon content is also one of the limiting factors in the urban environment, in addition to the presence/absence of available nitrogen. Soil fertility is another important factor (Bhattacharyya et al. 1984; Lenart 2012; Regan et al. 2017). Thus, even with low ammonia concentrations, the number of nitrogen fixers can be reduced due to the low C/N ratio (Regan et al. 2017), which is typical for urban soils. Since urban soils are characterized by high spatial variability of chemical properties and different levels of carbon content, this can lead to significant differences in the composition of diazotrophic communities throughout the urban landscape (Park 2009). The rate of mineralization of nitrogen-containing compounds depends not only on the total content of nitrogen and organic carbon or on particle size distribution (Simard and N’dayegamiye 1993) but also on the quality of the organic material (Zhang et al. 2010). It is positively correlated with the С/N ratio. Nitrification values negatively correlate with the C/N ratio; therefore, it proceeds more actively in the soils of cities (Zhang et al. 2010; Zhao et al. 2012). In addition, the urban soil has a high content of nitrates, the presence of which is explained by the active process of nitrification. At the same time, in the soils of urban areas, there is a high availability of carbon; on the contrary, ammonia is immobilized into cells, bypassing nitrification (Boulware and Groffman 2001; Wang et al. 2017). Therefore, in urban and suburban areas, the main form of available nitrogen is nitrate nitrogen, while in rural areas it is ammonia nitrogen (Yu et al. 2009; Fang et al. 2011). 6.3.2.3 The Entering of Additional Sources of Nitrogen and Fertilization In soils with high concentrations of available nitrogen, there is a decrease in the rate of nitrogen fixation by the Nif enzyme since the mechanisms that prevent unjustified energy consumption for the synthesis of Mo-dependent nitrogenases are activated. Instead, the synthesis of Mo-dependent nitrate reductase is promoted (Umarov et al. 2007). Therefore, it can be assumed that the repeated application of nitrogen fertilizers to urban lawns, the deposition of nitrogen, and other artificial addition of N can hinder the natural replenishment of the available nitrogen pool by inhibiting nitrogenase. In addition, the use of mineral N fertilizers can cause soil acidification, especially when such fertilizers are used in large doses without restrictions and for a long period (Lenart 2012; Schroder et al. 2011), which can also affect nitrifying activity. Conversely, the use of fertilizers with a high C/N ratio provides favorable conditions for diazotrophs (Park 2009).

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The application of fertilizers to the soils of urban lawns leads to a manifold increase in the potential mineralization of nitrogen and carbon, as well as nitrification rates, relative to the same processes in natural soils (Kaye et al. 2005; Raciti et al. 2008). In addition, nitrous oxide can be released during the oxidation of ammonia to nitrate, which can occur at a higher rate in urban lawns (Raciti et al. 2008). Mineralization is enhanced by fertilizers with high total nitrogen content, such as compost and biosolids, but the indicator can be reduced due to the structure of the soil (Scharenbroch et al. 2013). The introduction of biosolids obtained through thermal drying and the Cambi process (BLOOM), mixing BLOOM with wood mulch, leads to a significant increase in N mineralization in urban clay soils (Alvarez-Campos and Evanylo 2019). Charcoal has a positive effect on nitrification, but only as a softener of factors inhibiting this process. For example, the application of coal to forest soils, where the pH is below the optimum required for nitrification, significantly increased the nitrifying activity. At the same time, application to lawns, where the nitrification values were already high, had no effect (DeLuca et al. 2006). The addition of mineral N as NH4NO3 leads to an increase in the number of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria and archaea (Marusenko et al. 2015; Yang et al. 2020). The addition of urea to the soil increases the nitrifying activity more strongly than ammonium sulfate, which, in contrast to urea, acidifies the soil (Pakale and Alagawadi 1993). If fertilizers containing nitrates are applied, then, accordingly, an increase in denitrification will be observed since the concentration of NO3 is positively correlated with the abundance of denitrifiers (Andreiuk and Valagurova 1992). Therefore, fertilizing and moistening urban lawns has a positive effect on the activity of denitrifiers. Denitrification rates were high in saturated, fertilized soils but low in all other conditions. In addition, fertilizers stimulate the abundant growth of microorganisms, resulting in oxygen concentration decrease during the respiration of microbial communities, which contributes to denitrification (Raciti et al. 2011). Fertilizing urban lawns can increase N2O emissions into the atmosphere (Bijoor et al. 2008; van Delden et al. 2016; McPhillips et al. 2016). Urbanization has increased N2O emissions compared to local landscapes, mainly due to the expansion of fertilized and irrigated lawns (Kaye et al. 2004). The presence of high NO3 concentrations appeared to inhibit the conversion of N2O to N2, resulting in lower N2/N2O ratios (Weier et al. 1993; Xu et al. 2019). It is necessary to take into account which fertilizers are used; for example, the application of urea increases the emissions of nitrous oxide more strongly, in contrast to fertilizers without urea (Dutt and Tanwar 2020). The introduction of biochar into acidified soil leads to a significant increase in nosZ transcription, which contributes to a decrease in N2O emissions (Xu et al. 2014; Namoi et al. 2019). Some studies have shown that urban soils emit N2O at the same rate as or even less than their agricultural counterparts; the same is true for the overall denitrification activity (Wang et al. 2017; Xu et al. 2019). However, the deposition of nitrogen compounds from the atmosphere within cities contributes to the increase in nitrogen content (Fang et al. 2011). In addition to changing the denitrification activity, fertilizers also affect the structure of communities. Lower Nir/Nos values in urban

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soddy soils indicate more competitive denitrification and lower N2O emissions. The ratio of NirK/ NirS genes is higher in urban lawns than that in soils of suburban soils (Wang et al. 2017). The total nitrogen and NO3ˉ content is a unique selection factor for the nirS community but not for the nirK community. Regularly fertilized soils are likely to have more denitrifiers with the nirS gene; therefore, bacteria with cytochrome nitrite reductase (nirS) predominated in well-fertilized agricultural soil. The short-term application of nitrogen fertilization did not change the composition of the bacterial community or the content of denitrifiers in the soil. Therefore, nitrite reducers with copper-containing nitrite reductase (nirK) were relatively common in urban soils (Xu et al. 2019). Some studies on the N2O flux of urban fertilized lawns indicate that the differences between forest and urban grass areas were small and that more intensively fertilized lawns emitted less of this gas than a lawn that was fertilized occasionally (Groffman et al. 2009). Fertilization increased the release of N2O in the first week after application, while moisture led to a significant, long-term increase in N2O (Livesley et al. 2010), and the long-term use of organic fertilizers helps reduce N2O emissions (Tatti et al. 2013). Therefore, when assessing the impact of urban land development on greenhouse gas emissions, the history and management of soil disturbances should be considered (Chen et al. 2014). Since the soils of urban landfills contain more total nitrogen than in regular urban soils (Anikwe and Nwobodo 2002), the concentrations of ammonia nitrogen and nitrite also prevail. The content of these ions decreases only at 42 m from the landfill (Liu et al. 2007). Therefore, such microbiological processes as mineralization, nitrification, and denitrification are actively taking place in this soil. As a result of denitrification (under sufficiently anaerobic conditions), landfills can be a source of nitrogen gas emissions. In addition, nitrogen entering the soil from leachate from landfills and settling pits is washed out further into groundwater (Firmansyah et al. 2017). Even soil-like materials from old municipal solid waste dumps contain an increased concentration of ammonia nitrogen relative to local soils (Somani et al. 2019).

6.3.2.4 Contamination with Heavy Metals Metals have a detrimental effect on the number, diversity, and activity of soil organisms (involved in the decomposition of organic matter, nitrogen mineralization) (White and McDonnell 1988; Papa et al. 2010). However, some studies show the opposite trend: when approaching the city center, the number of bacteria increased significantly and the bacterial diversity increased (Naylo et al. 2019). Opinions about the influence of metals on nitrogen mineralization are diverse since cadmium can both inhibit and stimulate mineralization, while copper concentrations from 50 to 500 μg g 1 did not affect this process at all. Such a variety of results can be explained by the fact that the metals were not in toxic concentrations in the soil or by the presence of microbial adaptations to the intake of copper (Khan 2000). For example, large doses of Cu stimulated the activity of nitrification and ammonification in soils at 100 μg g 1 Cu, while doses with 10,000 μg g 1 Cu already clearly inhibited these processes (El-Ghamry et al.

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2000). In addition, low copper concentrations can have negative effects also as copper deficiency inhibits nitrogen mineralization. The different effects can also depend on the soil itself, which determines the bioavailability of the metal (Khan 2000). Thus, it is important to indicate the granulometric composition of the soil in your studies. Bioavailability can be determined by soil structure, organic matter content, and more. For example, in the soils where the sandy fraction predominates, the solubility of Zn, Cu, Ni, and Cd turned out to be higher than the solubility of these elements in clayey, silty soils. Accordingly, the detrimental effect of HMs in clay soils was less for N mineralization and nitrification (Kandeler et al. 1996). The acidic sandy soil showed a lower ability to recover from Cu stress compared to the neutral sandy loam soil (higher content of clay and loam) (Kostov and Van Cleemput 2001). In addition, there is evidence that the mobility of aluminum, manganese, and iron compounds can increase in acidified soils, which have a toxic effect on the number and species composition of microorganisms (Menyailo et al. 2018). There was a decrease in the activity of nitrogen fixation, the number of Azotobacter, and the diameter of their colonies as a result of the soil’s contamination with heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, zinc, and copper. In terms of toxicity, Cd and Pb are the most toxic metals (El-Ghamry et al. 2000; Mynbaeva et al. 2011; Semenova and Suyundukov 2013). In urban soils, the dependence of the content of Azotobacter on the type and level of anthropogenic load was clearly manifested. Thus, the negative impact increases in the transport zone, which leads to reduced fertility, dehumidification, and loss of the ecological functions of urban soils (Svistova and Istomina 2019). However, in some studies, the presence of hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and deicing salts did not significantly affect the activity of nitrogen fixers inhabiting soils at different distances from the road (Nikolaeva et al. 2019). Trace elements at a concentration of 5 μmol g 1 soil Ag (I), Hg (II), Cd (II), Ni (II), As (III), Cr (III), B (III), Al (III), Se (IV), and Mo (VI) are the most effective inhibitors of nitrification (Liang and Tabatabai 1978). It was found that Pb2+ also inhibits nitrification in the soil (Yan et al. 2013); therefore, high concentrations of NH4+ are found in soils contaminated with metals (Khan 2000). The nitrification activity is more sensitive to copper, in relation to mineralization processes (Kostov and Van Cleemput 2001); therefore, even low concentrations of Cu (10–100 μg g 1) added to sandy and alluvial soils show a noticeable harmful effect on the growth of nitrifiers in both soils (El-Ghamry et al. 2000). Model experiments demonstrate a clear negative effect of metals on the nitrification process, but at the moment there are few publications proving an inhibitory effect in urban soils. Heavy metals have been identified as an important factor influencing denitrification. Trace elements, such as iron, copper, and molybdenum, make a significant contribution to changes in the number of microorganisms and enzymatic activity (Hui-Juan et al. 2018). For example, Cu is a structural component of the enzymes encoded by the nirK and nosZ genes, and molybdate ion is a component for the Mo cofactor of nitrate reductase. Iron is required for the cytochrome subunits of nitrate and nitrite reductases. The absence of these metals can lead to a decrease in the

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denitrification rate and an increase in nitrous oxide emissions—in the absence of copper ions (Saggar et al. 2013). The impact of heavy metals (HM) is diverse, and the nature of the impact (increase/decrease in denitrifying activity, abundance of microbes, N2O emissions) depends on many factors. These factors are the availability and sorption of metals, which may differ depending on the specific metal and soil acidity (MarkiewiczPatkowska et al. 2005); granulometric composition (nitrate reductase is less inhibited by heavy metals in clay soil than in sandy soil) (Kandeler et al. 1996 ); and the composition of the microbial community formed in different urban soils (Shun et al. 2018). It was assumed that denitrifying enzymes are very sensitive to heavy metals since denitrifying enzymes are usually located in the cell membrane or periplasmic space. Therefore, it has been suggested that denitrifiers have adapted by selecting metal-resistant forms of enzymes. The composition of the microbial community in a metal-contaminated environment can change towards an increase in metal-tolerant bacteria share. Thus, the denitrifying microbial community adapts to elevated Pb levels by selecting metal-resistant forms of nitrite reductases (Sobolev and Begonia 2008). N2O reductase isolated from denitrifiers from contaminated soils showed greater resistance to Cd, Cu, and Zn compared to the enzymes reducing nitrate to nitrous oxide (Holtan-Hartwig et al. 2002). Zn, Pb, and Cd have a significant effect on the total denitrified nitrogen (NO, N2O and N2). These metals can enhance the release of N2O (Hui-Juan et al. 2018). Even at low copper concentrations, denitrifiers were inhibited. A sharp decrease in the number of denitrifiers with nirK, nirS, and nosZ from 79 to 81% was observed in intertidal sandy sediments. This decrease led to the accumulation of both N2O and NO2, as well as to a slowdown in the rate of NO3 absorption (Magalhães et al. 2011). The nitrous oxide reductase is more sensitive to HM (Cd, Cu, Zn). Therefore, it takes longer to restore its activity, compared to nitrate/nitrite reductases, which are completely restored after 2 months (Holtan-Hartwig et al. 2002). The activity of denitrifiers is strongly negatively correlated with the increasing concentrations of copper, zinc, and deicing salts toward the highway (Nikolaeva et al. 2019). However, there are some data showing an inverse influence of heavy metals on nitrite-reducing bacteria. The reduction of nitrite to N2O can be sensitive to heavy metal contamination, potentially resulting in reduced N2O emissions. Denitrifiers containing nirK and nosZ in rice fields are especially sensitive to significant Cu contamination (Liu et al. 2016, 2018). Thus, Cu in the soil of the Chinese city of Samyn (the background concentration is high—9.7 mg Cu g 1) significantly inhibited the potential denitrification activity and the release of N2O, even at the lowest concentration (10 mg Cu g 1 soil). Denitrifiers with nitrous oxide reductase were observed in an overwhelming minority (Shun et al. 2018). Concentrations of 25 and 50 mg Hg kg 1 of dry soil, on the contrary, demonstrated a short-term stimulating effect on the denitrifying activity (Zhou et al. 2012).

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6.3.2.5 Contamination with Hydrocarbons Oil products and their decomposition products are an additional and readily available source of carbon; therefore, in polluted urban soils, the growth of Azotobacter can be stimulated more strongly than in unpolluted or slightly polluted soils. The content of nitrogen-fixing microorganism A. chroococcum can serve as an indicator of pollution in soils with increased anthropogenic load (Trifonova et al. 2014; Domracheva et al. 2018). At the same time, it is noted that the physiological traits of the nitrogenfixing bacteria are altered. The colonies of Azotobacter from contaminated soils are characterized by pronounced mucus formation and are capable of producing various pigments and releasing them into an agar medium (Simakova et al. 2019). For example, anaerobic nitrogen-fixing microorganisms such as Clostridium increase in soils contaminated by motor oils, resulting in higher nitrogen content in contaminated soils compared to uncontaminated soils (Vazquez-Duhalt 1989). It has been found that hydrocarbons, in particular toluene and trichlorethylene, which are sourced from coke plants, road traffic, etc., adversely affect the nitrification process (Fuller and Scow 1997; Christensen et al. 2001). Hydrocarbons (organic matter, gasoline, soot, fats, and oils) deposited on the urban soil contribute to an increase in the soil’s hydrophobicity. This leads to a decrease in the mineralizing and nitrifying activities of the microorganisms (White and McDonnell 1988). The main source of PAHs is fuel combustion (i.e., vehicle emissions), compared to petrogenic, biogenic, or other combustion sources (coal, wood combustion) (Marusenko et al. 2011). Ammonium-oxidizing microorganisms are highly sensitive to the presence of hydrocarbons; in addition, hydrocarbons also have a direct toxic effect (Bissett et al. 2013). However, in the soils with a long-term presence of hydrocarbons, an increase in the activity and reproduction of nitrite-oxidizing bacteria is noted (Deni and Penninckx 1999, 2004). If petroleum carbons are the main components of soil organic matter, then stable populations of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AHB) are formed (Kurola et al. 2005). In addition, there is evidence that nitrifying bacteria, mainly NH4 oxidizers, can utilize PAHs (Vannelli et al. 1990). Thus, the AOB population develops a certain degree of tolerance to oil and PAHs (Kurola et al. 2005). PAH contamination had no significant effect on nitrogen mineralization (Contreras-Ramos et al. 2007). Contrarily, contamination with crude oil inhibits the protease activity of the soil. This is partially compensated by an increase in the number of ammonifying microorganisms, releasing proteases into the environment (Vazquez-Duhalt 1989). Some denitrifiers are known to be able to use pollutants as additional carbon sources (Throbäck 2006); for example, some Pseudomonas stutzeri strains can degrade naphthalene, phenanthrene, β-ketoadipate, and benzoate (Galmés 2016). In addition, denitrifiers are one of the most diverse functional groups, having members from almost all phylogenetic groups of bacteria (Throbäck 2006). Therefore, the niche of denitrifiers is less limited in relation to ammonium-oxidizing microorganisms. However, the sensitivity of nitrification to hydrocarbons can negatively affect denitrification activity (Bissett et al. 2013). The ability of denitrifiers to use hydrocarbons as an energy source determines their use in the bioremediation of

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groundwater and soils contaminated with monoaromatic hydrocarbons. However, in urban and industrial areas, the level of PAHs in soils and sediments can be extremely high (MacRae and Hall 1998). The PAHs did not have a prominent harmful effect on denitrifying bacteria. However, a negative correlation was observed between denitrification activity and the number of petroleum hydrocarbons, depending on the distance from the highway (Nikolaeva et al. 2019). Due to the presence of hydrocarbons, an increase in the number of denitrifying microorganisms can occur, although an increase in their number does not affect the intensity of the denitrification process, which is the same in polluted and unpolluted soils. The decrease in nitrate reductase activity is compensated by an increase in the number of denitrifying microorganisms (Vazquez-Duhalt 1989). The influence of hydrocarbons was investigated not only on the total nitrite reductase but also on the different forms of this enzyme. The nirS genotype is more sensitive to hydrocarbons than the nirK genotype (Bissett et al. 2013). Nevertheless, in the soil with an increased concentration of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), there were more nirS denitrifiers in comparison with nirK denitrifiers. This is due to the fact that denitrifiers with cytochrome-containing nitrite reductase are capable of degrading TNT (Throbäck 2006). Since nirK denitrifiers are more resistant to hydrocarbons, an increase in nitrous oxide emissions can thus be expected (Table 6.2).

6.3.3

The Influence of Biological Factors on Nitrogen Transformations

6.3.3.1 Vegetation Cover The presence of plants can affect the processes of the nitrogen cycle since their presence strongly affects the soil’s physicochemical properties. The microbial communities of the soil are also affected. The amount and quality of carbon in root exudates and litter vary significantly throughout the season, and these differences have a significant influence on the soil’s microbial activity (Lata et al. 2004). Plants compete with microorganisms for mineral nitrogen-containing substances (NO3 , NH4+), thereby affecting the content of some ammonium-oxidizing bacteria (Lata et al. 2004). Therefore, during the periods of intensive plant growth, the number of nitrifiers decreases (Regan et al. 2017). Vegetation can determine the C/N ratio, which is negatively correlated with nitrification activity. Thus, urban forests and lawns have different effects on nitrogen transformation. The soil under tree crowns has a significantly higher C content and C/N ratio than under lawn vegetation. In addition, the soil C/N ratio increases significantly with the age of the green space (Livesley et al. 2016). This is due to the fact that young plants contain more nitrogen than old ones and the C/N ratio decreases (Andreiuk and Valagurova 1992). A higher C/N ratio in the soil is an indicator that the soil is better able to withstand nitrogen pollution (Livesley et al. 2016).

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Table 6.2 Influence of chemical factors on nitrogen conversion processes in urban soils

Soil All soils of the city, except for soils in green space

Chemical factors in urban soil Weakly alkaline and alkaline reaction of the medium

Low C/N

Green space, fertilized soils

All soils, especially industrial soils

Additional nitrogen source

Heavy metal contamination

Influence on the nitrogen cycle In slightly alkaline soils, the abundance of Azotobacter is higher than in soils with low pH In some studies, mineralization negatively correlates with pH Nitrification correlates positively with pH In neutral and alkaline soils, denitrification is more active; in acidic soils, the emission of nitrous oxide increases At high C/N, expression of the nitrogenase gene (nifH) increases C/N correlates positively with mineralization C/N correlates negatively with nitrification

Fertilizers with a high C/N ratio can provide media favorable for N-fixing bacteria Fertilization increases mineralization

Nonacidic fertilizers such as charcoal can enhance nitrification by softening inhibitory conditions Often, fertilization increases denitrification, including nitrous oxide emissions (biochar reduces emissions) Decrease in the number and activity of Azotobacter

References Lenart (2012), Trifonova et al. (2014), Domracheva et al. (2018) Zhang et al. (2010)

Zhang et al. (2010), Zhao et al. (2012), Wan et al. (2020) Hui-Juan et al. (2018)

Park (2009)

Zhang et al. (2010) Boulware and Groffman (2001), Zhang et al. (2010), Zhao et al. (2012), Wang et al. (2017) Park (2009)

Kaye et al. (2005), Raciti et al. (2008), Scharenbroch et al. (2013), AlvarezCampos and Evanylo (2019) DeLuca et al. (2006)

Raciti et al. (2011), van Delden et al. (2016), McPhillips et al. (2016) Mynbaeva et al. (2011), Semenova and Suyundukov (2013), Svistova and Istomina (2019) (continued)

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Table 6.2 (continued)

Soil

All soils, especially industrial soils

Chemical factors in urban soil

Hydrocarbon contamination

Influence on the nitrogen cycle Negative correlation between protease activity and Cd The activity of denitrifiers is strongly negatively correlated with the concentrations of copper and zinc. Zn, Pb, and Cd have a significant effect on the total nitrogen released in denitrification, moreover, the release of N2O can be enhanced However, at high copper concentrations, not only nitrous oxide reductase is inhibited but also nitrite reductases, so N2O emission is reduced Some nitrogen fixers are capable of using organic substances, such as petroleum products, motor oils, etc. as an additional source of carbon, so their numbers increase Hydrophobic organic substances increase the hydrophobicity of the soil, resulting in a decrease in mineralization and nitrification; however, tolerant populations can be formed among nitrifiers that can utilize PAHs and petroleum products The inhibition of protease activity is compensated by an increase in the number of ammonifiers No harmful effect of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on denitrifying bacteria was found, but their activity gradually decreased with an increase in petroleum hydrocarbons

References Papa et al. (2010)

Hui-Juan et al. (2018), Nikolaeva et al. (2019), Shun et al. (2018)

Trifonova et al. (2014), Domracheva et al. (2018), Kalinkina et al. (2015)

White and McDonnell (1988)

Vazquez-Duhalt (1989)

Nikolaeva et al. (2019)

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Urban soils are deprived of organic matter due to the collection of deciduous litter and mowed lawn grass (Templer et al. 2015). Studies show that the introduction of grass clippings into lawns leads to an increase in microbiological processes. The age of the turf is also important. Young turf increases nitrification, while old turf, with the existing high values of nitrification, does not significantly affect this process. Also, age has little effect on decomposition and net N mineralization (Shi et al. 2006). Avoiding cut-grass collection from lawns can increase potential mineralization. This reduces the need for nitrogen fertilization by up to 50% without compromising the quality of turfgrass (Thompson and Kao-Kniffin 2019). In addition to competing for ammonia and increasing the C/N ratio, plants have a direct inhibitory effect on nitrifiers. Plant tannins have been found to reduce the rate of nitrification. In addition, in the course of studies on the influence of vegetation cover at different stages of succession, it was found that during the climax stage, nitrifying activity decreased, with a consequent increase in ammonia concentration. At the same time, nitrate content was decreased (Rice and Pancholy 1972). It was also revealed that phenolic acids released by vegetation are inhibitors of nitrification, but there are works that refute this effect (Abeliovich 1992). It is assumed that phenolic compounds prevent nitrification in an indirect way, mainly by interacting with NH4+ and NO2 , and not directly by interacting with nitrifying bacteria (Kholdebarin and Oertli 1994). Root secretions were investigated for the presence of biological inhibitors of nitrification. It was found that the secretions of some plants almost completely suppressed nitrification (Subbarao et al. 2007a, b). In forest soils, monoterpenes have a special inhibitory role. Monoterpenes increase N immobilization, bypassing nitrification by increasing the respiratory activity of soils (Paavolainen et al. 1998; Sahrawat 2008). Inhibitors also include aromatic compounds and alkaloids secreted by plants. In addition, a decrease in nitrate concentrations cannot be regarded only as suppression of the ammonia oxidation process; it is also possible that the absence of NO3 is the result of the absorption of the ion by the plants (Woldendorp 1975). Thus, on urban soils devoid of vegetation, nitrification will be more active than on soils with abundant vegetation in suburban and rural areas. The influence of vegetation on denitrification is opposite to what is observed for nitrification since a stimulating effect of plant roots on denitrification is possible. This is due to the fact that low oxygen concentrations can occur in the rhizosphere, caused by the respiration of the root system and microflora. Root exudates can also serve as sources of hydrogen donors during denitrification (Woldendorp 1975). The addition of artificial root exudates did not have a strong effect on the structure or abundance of nitrate reducers and nitrite reducer communities, whereas the potential activity of nitrate reductase and nitrite reductase was stimulated by the addition of root exudates (Henry et al. 2008).

6.3.3.2 Earthworms It is indicated that nitrification (namely autotrophic) and net N-mineralization rates in suburban and urban soils in New York City are higher than in rural soils (Zhu and Carreiro 1999, 2004). This may be due to the presence of earthworms, which

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contribute to an increase in the availability of ammonia in the soil (Steinberg et al. 1997; Pouyat and Turechek 2001; Carreiro et al. 2009). The number and biomass of earthworms are more prevalent under urban vegetation as compared to the rural areas. In addition, net mineralization values were higher when earthworms were present in the soil (Steinberg et al. 1997). The fragmentation of debris by earthworms and increased soil temperatures in urban forests are potential causes of high litter decomposition and N-mineralization rates compared to rural areas (Pouyat et al. 1997; Burtelow et al. 1998). The presence of earthworms, creating conditions favorable for N2O emissions, can indirectly contribute to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions (Lubbers et al. 2013). The negative and positive influences of all the mentioned factors on the nitrogen cycle processes are summarized below (Fig. 6.2).

6.3.4

The Influence of Nitrogen Cycle Alteration on the Urban Environment

Thus, under the influence of an aggregate of physical, chemical, and biological factors associated with anthropogenic impacts on the ecosystem, a number of negative consequences of disturbed nitrogen cycle arise in urban soils. In cities, in the process of denitrification, nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas, is released (Skiba and Smith 1993; Stevens et al. 1997; Anderson and Levine 1986), the potential of which is 298 times greater than that of carbon dioxide (CO2) and which is also the main ozone-depleting gas (Townsend-Small et al. 2011). Its emission is the result of active denitrification, which does not end with the release of molecular nitrogen. As described earlier in the chapter, the cause is fertilization, abrupt changes in soil moisture, acidic soil reactions, and elevated metal concentrations that inhibit the more sensitive nitrous oxide reductase. In addition, it is worth noting that nitrogen deposition in cities is mainly in the form of nitrates (Pickett et al. 2011), which gives greater potential for denitrification. It is difficult to say what percentage of nitrous oxide is formed during denitrification and nitrification in the soil from the total emission of this gas since N2O emissions from soils are episodic in nature. Therefore, to account for the mean suspended nitrous oxide flux, it is necessary to include multiple measurements taken over a long period of time (Snider et al. 2015). There is also evidence that nitrous oxide is formed not only as a result of incomplete denitrification but also in the process of autotrophic nitrification. This occurs in a low oxygen environment combined with low organic carbon and low pH (Wrage et al. 2001). According to some estimates, nitrifiers can produce even more nitrous oxide than denitrifiers (Klemedtsson et al. 1988). Emission is possible because some autotrophic nitrifiers, for example, Nitrosomonas europaea, which have denitrification enzymes (Prosser 2005), are capable of nitrifier denitrification, and many heterotrophic nitrifiers are denitrifiers (Wrage et al. 2001). The addition of ammonia fertilizers stimulates this process (Bremner and Blackmer 1978).

Fig. 6.2 The influence of anthropogenic factors on the nitrogen cycle in the urban environment

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Since the nitrate cycle in the city prevails over the ammonium cycle (nitrification over mineralization), there is a loss of available forms of mineral nitrogen from the soil since nitrate and nitrite ions are better washed out of the soil due to a negative charge (Rice and Pancholy 1972). Leaching is not only a nitrogen depletion of the soil but also water pollution with nitrates and nitrites (Groffman et al. 2009). The leaching rate of the lawn soil depends on the water content, fertilizers, soil texture and type of sod grass, and the age of the lawn (Cook et al. 2012). There are even biogeochemical budgets of whole cities or of urban watersheds that aim to retain nitrogen in the terrestrial environment; for example, one way is to repair infrastructure and create open-space greening projects associated with water retention gardens (Pickett et al. 2011). Water polluting nitrites and nitrates are formed in the soil not only during nitrification but also as a result of the deposition of gaseous nitrogencontaining substances from the atmosphere (Ayres et al. 1993). The soil is depleted not only due to the washing out of nitrogen by water but also simply due to the low activity of nitrogen fixation and mineralization, which are inhibited by high concentrations of pollutants, low carbon content, and changes in soil acidity. It can be concluded that the altered biogeochemical cycle of nitrogen has a prominent impact not only on the urban soil but also on its adjacent environments. The main nitrogen fluxes in the soil, hydrosphere, and atmosphere are depicted in Fig. 6.3.

6.4

Conclusion

At the moment, there is a large number of work aimed at studying the influence of urban environmental factors, both individually and in a complex way, on the nitrogen cycle in soils. Nevertheless, the impact of low C/N ratio and vegetation in urban soils on denitrification and nitrous oxide emissions and the effect of heavy metals on mineralization and nitrification in urban soils remain poorly understood, although there is a large number of work with model systems. Compared to mineralization, nitrification, and denitrification, nitrogen fixation is rather rarely studied in urban soils, which is most likely due to the lack of a universal genetic marker that makes it possible to characterize the entire process and the total amount of nitrogen fixers. The nifH gene, which encodes the nifH subunit of nitrogenase, is one of the most frequently used markers. However, the presence of the nifH gene does not indicate that N fixation actually occurs, and the abundance of nifH does not reflect the rate of N fixation in the system. The same problem arises with the assessment of heterotrophic nitrification since the diversity of biochemical pathways actually impedes progress in molecular research. In terms of nitrification, very little is known about the role of the archaeal part of the nitrifying community, particularly in urban environments. Another literally “dark” side of nitrogen transformation in urban conditions is the conservation of nitrogen in soil organic matter and changes in humic substance formation and decomposition and how it is coupled with other processes of the

Fig. 6.3 Nitrogen fluxes in urban soils and adjacent environments

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nitrogen cycle in urban soils. Very little data are available on this subject despite its crucial importance for urban soils’ stability and proper functioning. It is also necessary to study seasonal influence since, depending on the season, urban factors can make a greater contribution to the course of the process and the species diversity of microorganisms that carry out these processes. Land-use types should be always considered as there is a completely different situation in urban forests, residential area lawns, and industrial zones in terms of nitrogen transformation. Finally, the studies of microbial community structure, especially those including metagenomic data, could be very fruitful if they are coupled with a comprehensive analysis of the actual activity of nitrogen cycle processes by means of chemical analysis (including detailed soil analysis and gas chromatography). The studies of the nitrogen cycle in urban soils are the basis for our understanding of man-made ecosystem functioning. With rapid urbanization on the way, the global role of the urban environments will increase. Even now, urban ecosystems have become the main habitat for humans, especially in developed countries. Thus, the efforts of microbiologists, soil scientists, and ecologists should be focused on revealing the yet unknown or controversial aspects in this area. Acknowledgments The research was financially supported by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation project on the development of the Young Scientist Laboratory (no. LabNOTs-21-01AB).

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Urban Soils and Their Management: A Multidisciplinary Approach Muhammad Mumtaz Khan, Muhammad Tahir Akram, Muhammad Azam Khan, Rashid Al-Yahyai, Rashad Waseem Khan Qadri, and Rhonda Janke

Abstract

Urbanization is currently expanding worldwide and causing land degradation. As the world population continues to increase, there is a growing challenge for food production to meet people’s dietary needs. The current agriculture technologies have increased crop production, but they also have endangered the agricultural ecosystem. The excessive use of synthetic chemicals, intensive agricultural practices, and heavy machinery has disturbed the physical, biochemical, and ecological balance of the soil. The sustainable and efficient management of soil has the potential to enhance crop productivity, restore soil fertility, and conservation of flora and fauna for future generations. In urban spaces, green spaces are the source of recreation and soil conservation. Therefore, effective planning and the use of the Global Information System (GIS) in urban green spaces management may avoid soil degradation and environmental pollution. In cities, efficient use of green spaces helps in maintaining the microclimate and species conservation. The sustainable agroecosystems (zero tillage, crop rotations, and cover crops) and agricultural conservation techniques (conservation tillage, contour farming, strip cropping, and buffer strips) improve soil fertility, organic matter (OM), water holding capacity, water infiltration, soil organic matter, and soil biological properties. Further, the application of compost, manuring, vermicomposting,

M. M. Khan (*) · R. Al-Yahyai · R. Janke Department of Plant Sciences, College of Agricultural and Marine Science, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman e-mail: [email protected] M. T. Akram · M. A. Khan Department of Horticulture, PMAS-Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan R. W. K. Qadri Institute of Horticultural Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan # The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Rakshit et al. (eds.), Soils in Urban Ecosystem, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8914-7_7

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and soil enzymes enhances soil physical and biochemical properties of soil such as nutrient uptake, pore size, cation exchange capacity, biological activity and reduces surface runoff that ultimately controls soil erosion and soil degradation. Keywords

Agricultural ecosystem · Biological activity · Soil degradation · Soil organic matter · Sustainable · Urbanization · Vermicomposting

7.1

Introduction

Urban soil has been disturbed or manipulated by anthropogenic activities that have changed its physical, biochemical, and biological attributes. The construction of tall buildings and roads and the use of heavy machinery have increased soil temperature, soil compaction, restricted gases exchange, and soil drainage, while the removal of topsoil has reduced soil fertility, nutrient imbalance, and soil organic contents that enhance soil erosion and siltation. Rapid urbanization has polluted the soil in many ways, thereby endangering the urban ecosystem (Cardoso 2014). The waste generated from household and industries is also one of the key factors in altering soil properties (Bouma 2016). An increase in alkalinity or higher pH (7.4) has been observed in urban soils as compared to forest soil (5.7) (Asabere et al. 2018). However, the urban soils may serve a major role in urban green spaces management that provides recreation spaces for citizens, a refreshing environment, improves gaseous exchange, reduces soil heats, soil erosion, supports urban agriculture, and helps in conserving flora and fauna species. Worldwide, the human population is tremendously increasing and according to an estimate, it will be 9.6 billion by 2020 (Wheeler and Braun 2013). Such exponential increase in population compels agriculture to produce more food to fulfill people’s needs (Khan et al. 2020). Since the 1960s, the development in modern agriculture technologies has increased crop productivity significantly. However, it has threatened the soil and caused biological ecosystem disturbance. For example, numerous synthetic chemicals were allowed to control several insects and pest populations. But the excessive use of these synthetic chemicals has polluted soil and water, and with time insects developed immunity against these chemicals (Nierenberg and Halweil 2005). Likewise, the excessive use of artificial fertilizers to increase crop productivity has degraded soil quality as well. The increase in food demand has also increased biomass burning, fossil fuel consumption, and soil disturbance. In addition, the use of heavy machinery and intensive farming practices has depleted soil fertility and increased soil degradation. Globally, agriculture is also considered a major source of greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxides (CO), nitrous oxides N2O, and methane (CH4) causing global warming (Smith et al. 2007). Nevertheless, the increasing population of the world needs an increase in agriculture production to fulfill their needs. Therefore, there is utmost need to develop

7

Urban Soils and Their Management: A Multidisciplinary Approach

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sustainable approaches that can be sophisticatedly used in agriculture systems to enhance agriculture production. As soil is continuously degraded by anthropogenic activities, there is great attention of the world community towards the protection and restoration of world resources. There have been many conventions such as Rio Summit, UN Framework, and Kyoto Protocol that indicate the world has a common concern on this global issue (Hannah 2011). Soil management is essential for environmental sustainability, crop productivity, and human health (White et al. 2014). The proper management of soil ensures that all essential mineral elements are available in soil in sufficient quantity. Their excessive presence becomes toxic to plants and insufficiency leads unavailability to the plants. Further, proper soil management helps sustain those microorganisms that are the source of mineral nutrients and contributes to carbon sequestration. In soil management, the addition of biomass ensures minimal soil disturbance, improves soil structure and texture, improves biological organisms’ efficiency, enhances species diversity, and conserves water (Lal 2004). Moreover, the soil management techniques such as mulching, composting, intercropping, nutrientrecycling, use of cover crops, and zero tillage improve soil organic matter contents and sustain soil health (White et al. 2014). To fulfill the food demand for future generations, there is a great need to maintain and improve the soil quality through sustainable approaches. In several parts of the world, there is a loss of topsoil due to erosion or nutrients imbalance (Ranjan et al. 2021). Additionally, heavy metals toxification is observed in urban soils of different cities of the globe (Table 7.1). Climate change, storms, and water flow are also major reasons for soil erosion. This chapter addresses several sustainable soil management strategies such as management of urban greenery, crop rotation, cover crops, tillage, manuring, composting, mulching, soil conservation techniques, and soil organic carbon accumulation, and aims to contribute to sustainable food production with suitable soil conservation techniques.

7.2

Management of Urban Greenery

Urban green spaces (UGSs) or urban greeneries (UGs) are one of the key elements of the urban landscape that ensures and provides a safe environment for the urban residents. UGSs are a resource of recreation for urban dwellers and have a positive effect on human health. Moreover, these urban spaces increase the aesthetic value and are the habitats of various fauna species (Tribot et al. 2018). UGSs provide a platform for urban people to do physical activities and exercise. It is reported that in urban green areas, there is 83% more social activity as compared to grey areas. In addition, green spaces at urban dwellings are also a great source of social cohesion. However, due to rapid urbanization and congested areas, urban green spaces are decreasing and causing soil, air, and water degradation. Meanwhile, due to anthropogenic activities, these urban greeneries are under intense pressure due to the following phenomena:

City, Country Lisbon, Portugal Islamabad, Pakistan Wein, Austria Guangzhou, China Fallujah, Iraq Athens, Greece New York, EUA Baltimore, Maryland New Madrid, Missouri Shenzhen, China Talcahuano, Chile Ibadan, Nigeria

Cu – 101 56.35 11 2.01 – – 45 18 28.33 – 47

Pb 8.5 212.34 54 65.4 3.82 77 102 231 49 53.59 35 95

Cd 0.41 3.54 0.3 0.23 0.64 0.4