Social and Economic Organization in the Prehispanic Andes 9780860542476, 9781407334653

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44

Proceedings International Congress of Americanists Congreso Internacional de Americanistas Manchester 1982

General Editor: Norman Hammond

Social and Economic Organization in the Prehispanic· Andes edited by

David L. Browman Richard L. Burger and Mario A. Rivera BAR International Series 194 1984

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. -S194,1984 :'Social and Economic Organisation in the PreRispanic Andes'

©

The Individual Authors,1984

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542476 paperback ISBN 9781407334653 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542476 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

Foreword General Introduction

1

Jorge G. Marcos and Presley Norton "From the Yungas of Chinchay Suyo to Cuzco: The Role of La Plata Island in Spondylus Trade"

7

Emil Peterson "Morteros Ceremoniales: The Early Development and Distribution of a Decorated Stone Bowl Tradition in Northwest South America."

21

Richard Burger "Archaeological Areas and Prehistoric Frontiers: The Case of Formative Peru and Ecuador"

33

Donald E.Thompson "Ancient Highland Connections with Selva and Coast: Evidence from Uchucmarca, Peru" Robert McKelvy Bird "The Chupachi../Serrano cultural boundary: multifaceted and stable." Ian S. Farrington "The Vertical Economy of the Cusichaca Valley (Cuzco, Peru) and its Prehistoric Implications" David L. Browman "Tiwanaku: Development of Interzonal Trade and Economic Expansion in the Altiplano"

73 79

97 117

Mario A. Rivera "Altiplano and Tropical Lowland Contacts in Northern Chilean Prehistd>ry'i Chinchorro and Alto Ramirez Revisited." 143 George Serracino "Interregional Relationships in the Southern Andes, A.D. 1,000-1,200" 161 Pedro Krapovickas "Relations between the Argentine Puna and its Eastern Border Zones" 171 Alicia Fernandez Distel "Contemporary and Archaeological Evidence of Llipta Elaboration from the Cactus TRICHOCEREUS PASACANA in Northwest Argentina" 193 Gordon C. Pollard "Interregional Relations in the Southern Andes: Evidence and Expectations for Understanding the Late Prehistory of Northwest Argentina and North Chile"

205

F oreword T he s e lection o f p apers o n p rehistor ic A ndean p o lit ica l e conomy t hat c onst itutes t his v o lume w ere t aken f rom t hree d ifferent s ymposia f rom I nternat iona l C ongress o f A mer icanist m eetings i n M anchester, E ng land, a nd V ancouver, B r it ish C o lumbia, C anada. W e h ave s e lected f rom t he 4 5 p apers as amp le o f t he n ew d eve lopments i n h ypothesis t esting a nd c u ltura l r econstruct ions d ealing w ith p o litical e conomy a long t he A ndean c hain. T he p resent v o lume s tarted o ut a s as e lection o f p apers f rom t he 4 3rd I nternat ional C ongress o f A mer icanists, w ith a s e lection o f 1 0 p apers f rom t he 3 0 p apers p resented i n t he s ymposia " Re laciones i nterreg ioneles i n e l m undo A nd ino p rehispanico", o rganized b y D avid L . B rowman a nd R uth M . S hady S o lis, a nd " Organizacion s ocia l y c omp lementar iedad e conom ica e r L os A ndes", o rganized b y J orge A . F lores O choa a nd M ar io A . R ivera. T hese p apers w ere s chedu led t o b e p ub lished i n ap roceed ings v o lume o f t he c ongress e ntit led " Socia l a nd E conom ic O rganizat ion i n t he P rehispanic A ndes". U nfortunate ly t he 4 3rd I CA r an o ut o f f unds, a s a r esu lt o f w hich t hey w ere u nab le t o p ub lish a ny o f t he s cheduled p roceedings v o lumes. Ac ont inuat ion o f t he d eve lopment o f A ndean s ocia l o rganizat ion a nd p o litica l e conomy i n p rehistoric f rameworks w as o rganized b y R ichard L . B urger a nd M ar io A . R ivera f or t he 4 4th I nternat iona l C ongress o f A mer icanists i n a s ymposium e nt it led " Vinculos p rehistoricos A nd inos d e S ud A mer ica al as t ierras b ajas t ropica les". T hus w hen t he B r itish A rchaeo logica l R eports s er ies p ub licat ion o pportun ity a rose, t he t hree o f u s f ound t hat w e h ad a n e xce llent c orpus o f p apers t o s e lect f rom t o c omp lete a n i ntegrated v o lume. W e h ave t r ied t o s e lect e xamp les f rom a v ar iety o f a pproaches, a nd t o f air ly r epresent t he d irect ions a nd t hemes o f a ll t hree s ymposia. T he v o lume t it le " Socia l a nd E conom ic O rganizat ion i n t he P rehispanic A ndes: H ighland a nd L ow land I nterreg iona l R e lat ions" a ttempts t o r ef lect t he w ide r ange o f A ndean t hemes o f s ocia l, p o litica l a nd e conom ic o rganizat ion d ea lt w ith i n t hese p apers o n p rehistor ic c ultures. T hese p apers t ake u s a nother s tep c loser t o u ltimate ly u nderstanding c u lture p rocess i n t he A ndes. T he E ditors . D avid L . B rowman ' R ichard L . B urger 2 M ar io A . R ivera '

1 . A nthropo logy, W ashington U n iversity, S t. L ouis, M issour i 2 . A nthropo logy, Y a le U niversity, N ew H aven, C onnecticut 3 . C asilla 1 611, A r ica, C hile A ll c opyediting , m ost a bstracts, m ost t rans lat ing, a nd a ll t ext p reparation o n w ord p rocessor w ere d one b y B rowman a nd h is s tudent a ssistants, L orien G ray, L eonid L ivshits, S tacey L owery, B rad ley P ayne a nd M ary A nne T ratche l, a t W ashington U niversity, S t . L ouis.

G enera l

I ntroduct ion

O ne o f t he n otab le s hifts o f f ocus o f t he c ontr ibutors o f t his v o lume h as b een t o b eg in t o d eve lop m ode ls o f p rehistor ic p o lit ica l e conomy w hich t ranscend n at iona l b oundar ies. C hrono logy b uilding , a m ajor i nterest p rev ious ly, n ow h as g iven w ay t o m ore s ubstant ive q uest ions i nvo lv ing t he f unct ion ing a nd p roposed b ases f or v ar ious c u ltures. T his s hift o f f ocus h as t aken r esearchers o ut o f t he ir n arrow " my s ite" o r " my p eop le" p erspect ive i nto s earching f or b roader , m ore i ntegrated r e lat ionships. I ndeed, t he e xpress t heme o f a l l t hree o f t he s ymposia i n t he I nternat iona l C ongress o f A mer icanists s essions ( Vancouver 1 979 ; M anchester 1 982) f rom w h ich t hese p apers w ere s e lected w as j ust t hat: t he e conom ic a nd p o lit ica l i nterre lationship o f v ar ious p rehispanic A ndean c u ltures, a nd t he p os ited f unct ioning o f t he ir e conom ic a nd p o lit ica l i nst itut ions. C learer p ictures o f t he i nterre lat ionships b etween h igh land a nd l ow land ( both t he P acif ic c oasta l a nd t he A mazon ian l ow lands) a reas a re b eing d eve loped , a nd s ome n ew a pproaches t o r esearch i n d ea ling w ith s ocio-po lit ica l a nd e conom ic o rganizat ion f or t he A ndes a re b e ing e xp lored. T he A ndean c ommunit ies a ppear t o h ave d eve loped s pecia lized e conom ic p roduct ion v ery e ar ly o n - w hether d ue t o e co log ica l c onstraints p revent ing s e lf-suff iciency a s s ome c ontr ibutors a rgue, o r d ue t o c u ltura l p reference a nd p atterning a s o thers a rgue . D ur ing t his p rocess, c ertain g roups b ecame c u lture b rokers, w h ile o thers b ecame p roduct ion s pecia lists. T here a ppear t o b e a t l east t wo g enera l p atterns o f e conom ic n etworks e vo lv ing : o ne o f t ry ing t o c ontro l r esources d irect ly t hrough m an ipu lat ion o f s ocia l r e lat ions i n d ifferent r esource z ones, a nd t he o ther t hrough a ccess t o r esources t hrough m anipu lat ion o f e conom ic f actors ( such a s t rade, t axes, o r t r ibute). P rev ious r esearchers h ave t r ied t o f it a ll p rehispanic c u ltures i nto o ne o r t he o ther m ode ls, d epend ing u pon t he ir o wn i deo log ica l b ent . B ut a s t he p apers i n t h is v o lume m ake c lear , t hese p rev ious m ode ls a re f ar t oo s imp list ic, a nd t here a re i n f act a v ar iety o f d ifferent m echan isms u t ilized t o a cquire r esources f or s ubsistence a nd s ocia l n eeds. M arx ist t heoret ica l d iscussions h ave r easserted t he ir i nf luence i n a rchaeo logy . F or t he f irst t ime s ince V . G ordon C hilde, t here i s e mphasis i n t he A ndes u pon s tud ies o f m odes o f p roduct ion r ather t han j ust m odes o f d istr ibut ion, a nd t here i s an ew e mphasis u pon a ttempts t o s eek p rehistor ic s ocia l r e lat ions o f p roduct ion . T here a ppears t o b e i mp lic it a greement a mong m ost o f t he c ontr ibutors t hat t he n ext s tep a fter d eve lop ing m ode ls f or e conom ic r e lat ions i s t o s o lve q uest ion o f p reh istor ic s ocia l r e lat ions. T he f irst s tep t aken b y m any c ontr ibutors i s t o i dent ify t he s umptuary g oods, u sua lly n on-local i tems, a nd t o d eve lop m ode ls f or t he ir d ifferent ial a cquisit ion a nd d istr ibut ion . T here i s a m uch w ider a rray o f m ater ia ls i n a dd it ion t o s umptuary i tems w h ich c an b e u sed f or s ocia l r econstruct ions. I nvest igat ions o f p rotoa nd p a leo-linguist ic b oundar ies c an h e lp d ef ine e thn ic b oundar ies. A rcheoa nd e thno-botanica l s tudies c an b e u sed t o d eve lop o ther b oundary m ode ls. R econstruct ions o f r e lig ious/ceremonia l c omp lexes h as p roven t o b e a p owerful t oo l f or s how ing i nterre lat ions o f t he e ar ly p o lit ica l 1

n etworks.

W e h ave e mphasized t he o ver-arch ing s ynthet ic t hemes i n o ur d iscussions a s e d itors. H owever t he v o lume m ust e qua lly s erve t he n eeds o f t hose w ith s pecif ic r egional i nterests. T hus t he p apers h ave b een b roken d own h ere n ot b y t op ic b ut b y m odern p o lit ica l b oundar ies, i n o rder t o m ake t he d ata m ore a ccessib le t o t hose s pec ia lists w ith s pecif ic r eg ional p rob lems o r s pecif ic n at iona list ic a gencies t o s at isfy . E cuador M arcos a nd N orton a rgue f or a m uch g reater l ongev ity f or i mportant m ar ine t rade a long t he c oast o f E cuador, a s e v idenced b y s ubstant ial e ar ly t rade s pecia lizat ion o n t he I s land o f L a P lata, t han h ad e ar lier b een g uessed . T he b asis o f t his t rade i s t ied t o t he u se o f S pondy lus a nd S trombus s he ll i n ac oasta l r e lig ious c ult a fter 3 ,000 B .C., a nd t he u n ique c apab ilit ies o f E cuador ian c oasta l d we llers t o p rov ide t hese n ecessary c omponents o f t he r e ligious r itua ls t o P eruv ian a reas w here t he s he lls a re n ot o therw ise a va ilab le . I n a dd it ion N orton a nd M arcos a rgue f or t he M anab i/Manteno a rea a s a n u nder-appreciated c u lture b roker b etween M esoamer ican a nd t he P eruv ian a reas f or m uch o f t he l ast t hree m illen ia . P eterson 's w ork a ppears t o u t ilize t he s ame m ode l f or t he e ar ly d eve lopment o f A ndean c eremonia lism , w ith t rade n etworks e merg ing a s t he r esu lt o f t he n eed f or e xot ic r e lig ious p arapherne lia . H e f ocusses o n t hree s tages i n t he s pread a nd e mphasis o n s tone b ow ls a s c eremonia l a rt ifacts. T he m ax imum e xpansion o f s tone b ow l c eremon ia lism i s l inked t o t he d eve lopment o f s ignif icant c eremonia l a rchitecture d ur ing t he 1 500-500 B .C. p er iod . I n l ater p er iods, s tone b ow l c eremon ia lism i s r ep laced b y c eram ic c ounterparts. P eru B ird 's p aper d ocuments a s harp c u ltura l b oundary o f p erhaps 1 500 y ears d urat ion o r m ore . W hile s harp c u ltura l b oundar ies i n t hemse lves a re n ot u nusua l, i t i s u nusua l f or s uch b oundar ies t o r emain s tat ic f or s uch e xtended p er iods. G enera lly t he d ifferences e ither b lend i nto g rad ients o r h omogeneous s ituat ions, o r o ne s et o f a ttr ibutes a cquires d om inance o ver t he o ther . B ird i dent if ies a b road c onste llat ions o f t raits, i nc lud ing s uch d iverse i tems a s m ajor m aize r ace c omp lexes, l inguist ic l ects, m ater ia l c u lture t raits a nd t he l ike, t hat a ppear t o h ave m aintained a s harp d ifferent iat ion f or a m illenium a nd a h a lf , b etween b asica lly C entra l A ndean t raits o n o ne h and a nd p resumed i ntrusive N orthern A ndean t raits o n t he o ther . B urger 's p aper a lso d eals w ith t he p rob lem o f b oundary m a intainence i n h is s tudy o f t he p reh istor ic f ront iers o f t he f ormat ive c u ltures o f P eru a nd E cuador . H e p osits t he e x istence o f a f ront ier a rea s eparat ing C hav in c u lture f rom t he l ate f ormat ive g roups o f E cuador , a nd v iews t his d iv ision a s r ef lect ing a nd s haping t he f low o f i nformat ion a nd g oods b etween t he t wo . B urger c aut ions a gainst a n o veremphasis o n e xchange i nteract ions a cross t his f ront ier , s uch a s 2

t hose b ased o n c onsp icuous i tems o f e xterna l t rade s uch a s S pondy lus a nd o bsidian. T he r o le o f e nvironmenta l f actors i n t he f ormation o f l ong s tand ing p rehistor ic f ront iers i s r e-emphasized . T hompson f ocuses o n v ery s pecific t raits f rom t he a rchaeo logica l, e thnohistor ic a nd m odern e thnographic r ecord t o a rgue f or a l ong t rad ition f or " vert ica l e co logy" a s b e ing t he m ost i mportant i ngredient f or t he e conom ic o rganization o f U chumarca a rea p o lit ies i n n orthern P eru. H istor ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l d ata f rom h igh land-se lva a nd h ighland-coast i nteractions i ndicate a l ong h istory o f v er it ica l o rganizat ion o f t he e conom ic s ystem h ere. F arr ington p rovides u s w ith a s im ilar a na lysis f or t he C usichaca v a lley i n t he C uzco a rea. H owever F arr ington s ees a m ajor s hift f rom t he p ure v ertica l e conom ic o rganization i n p re-Inca t imes t o t he I nca ( and s ubsequent c o lon ia l a nd r epub lican p er iod) s tate e xpropr iat ion o f t he r ichest l ands, w hich h as l ed t o ad isrupted, f ragmented s ystem . B o livia T iwanaku/Tiahuanaco h as b een o ne o f t he m ost i mportant p o lit ica l a nd r e lig ious c enters f or w hich w e h ave h ad l itt le i nformation, a f rustrat ing l ack s ince i n P eru t he W an i e mpire i s s een t o b e d irect ly r e lated a nd d er ivat ive f rom i t , a nd i ncreasing ly t he I nca e mpire i s s een a s i ndirect ly d erived f rom i t. T he a ddit iona l i nformat ion t hat B rowman p rovides c oncerning t he e ar ly d eve lopment o f t he g rain a nd t uber a gr icu lture a nd t he c ame lid p astoral b ase, a nd t he d eve lopment o f t he t rade m echanism o f c aravans, f ills J v oid . T he " a lt ip lano" m ode l t hat B row n ian p roposes h ere a s as upp lement t o t he v ert ical " archipe lago" m ode l o f M urra e nr iches o ur c orpus o f t heor ies r egarding t he m odes o f e conom ic p roduct ion a nd d istr ibution i n t he A ndes. T his m ode l i s m uch m ore e ntrepreneur ia l t han k in-based, a nd a lso e mphasizes h or izontal r ather t han v ert ica l n etworking . P art icular ly i nterest ing i s B rowman 's s uggest io r o f t he c orre lat ion o f t hree r ecent ly d ef ined d ia lects o f A ymara w ith t hree p revious ly d ef ined p o lit ica l s hifts i n T iwanaku i nf luence a nd t rade p atterns. C hile C hilean a rchaeo logy, a s i ndeed i s s een i n a ll A ndean a rchaeo log ical a reas, h as e xper ienced a m ajor i nformat ion e xp losion i n t he p ast d ecade, w hich h as a llowed t he a rchaeo logists t o s hift f rom s traight c hrono logy b uild ing t o c u ltura l r econstructons. R ivera p o ints o ut t hat m ost p rehistor ic C hilean s ett lements w ere n ot s e lf-suff icient, b ut r ather d ependent t o s ome d egree o n s ubsistence g oods a nd r aw m ater ials o btained t hrough t rade. T herefore r esearch h as f ocussed u pon t he i dent if icat ion o f t rade g oods a nd o n d eve loping a ppropr iate e conom ic m ode ls t o e xp lain t he a cquisit ion o f t hese g oods. P eruvian, B o livian, C hilean, a nd A rgent ine a rchaeo log ists u t ilize d ifferent h istor ica l f rameworks, w hich m akes i t d iff icu lt t o t race d irections o f t rade a nd p o litical i nf luence. R ivera 's r eformu lat ion o f t he C hinchorro t radit ion a nd t he A lto R am irez p hase p erm its t empora l c orre lat ions t o b e m ade b etween t he s outhern P eruvian a nd t he n orthern C hilean s equences. R ivera a rgues t hat t he s tudy o f c u ltural c orrelat ions b etween B o livian T iwanaku, P eruv ian W an , a nd

3

c ontemporary C hilean a nd A rgent ine c enters a llows t he s pecif icat ion o f l inkages, t he d irect ions o f d iffusion o r i nf luence, a nd u ltimate ly e xp licit c onsiderat ion o f c ause a nd e ffect . T he C hinchorro T rad it ion p rovides a h eur ist ic d evice f or i dent ifying e ar lier i nf luences a rr iving o n t he C hilean c oast f rom A mazon ian l ow land a reas . S erracino 's p aper f o llows u p o n t he e v idence f or i nterzona l e xchange f or l ater p er iods. H e f ocusses s pecifica lly u pon t he i dent if icat ion o f t wo d ifferent e thnic g roups i n t he A tacama a rea d ur ing A .D. 1 000-1450, w hich h ave d iffer ing s ubsistence a nd t rade f eatures, a nd h e a lso d ocuments c ont inuing p atterns o f t rade b etween t he A tacama d esert a nd t he B o livian a lt ip lano d ur ing t hrough b oth e thnohistor ic a nd e thnographic d ocumentat ion. A rgentina F ernandez 's p aper a ddresses t he i ssue o f i nteract ion b etween t he l ow land t ropica l f orest a nd t he h igh land . H er w ork s uggests t hat t here w as a m uch m ore e xtensive p harmacopeia u tilized f rom t he A mazonian l ow lands p rehistor ica lly t han o ur p resent s imp le m ode ls p ropose. " L lipta" h as b een d ocumented e thnographically t o h ave b een f abr icated f rom t he T r ichocereus c actus i n J ujuy, a nd i s a lso t hought t o h ave b een f ound f rom t he p rehistor ic s ite o f H uachichocana i n J ujuy. T his s pecif ic lipta i s f abr icated f or u se w ith c oca l eaf a nd t he h allucinogen " cebil" ( Anadenanthera s p). T he p ossib le p rehistor ic f ind o f t he s ame " l lipta" i n J ujuy s uggests a w ider u sage o f " llipta" t han t he u sually a ssumed c oca c hew ing o n ly . K rapovickas f ocuses u pon t he i nterre lat ionship o f t he N orthwest A rgentina p una w ith o ther g roups i n t he i ntermontane v a lleys a nd i n t he s em i-trop ica l s crub f orests a nd s avannas t o t he e ast o f t he m ountain z one. W hile h e d ocuments s ubstant ia l t ies b etween p astora l p una g roups a nd t he s ett lements o f t he m ore a gr icu ltura l i ntermounta in v a lley g roups, t he i ntensity o f t rade w ith t he s crub a nd s avanna f o lk i n t he e astern l ow lands w as m uch l ess. T he g roups t o t he e ast d o n ot a ppear a s p o litically d eve loped a s t hose t o t he w est, a nd a lso a ppear t o h ave b een l ess d ense n umer ica lly . K rapov ickas i ntegrates t he e thnohistor ic t rade p attern e vidence w ith e v idence f rom t he L ate P rehistor ic P er iod a rchaeo log ica l s ites, t o s uggest a s im ilarity i n p atterns f or m uch o f t he p ast m illenia. P o llard 's p aper i ntegrates m ater ia ls f rom b oth s ides o f t he C hilean-Argentine b order . H e h as p osited a d ozen s ocio-po lit ical e nt it ies b ase o n c eram ic e vidence . S ome o f t hese a re w e ll d ocumented e thnohistor ica lly, b ut f or o thers w e o n ly h ave a rchaeo log ical e vidence. T hus h is s tudy o f t he L ate ( A .D. 1 000-1500) p er iod g roups a dds t o o ur k now ledge o f h istoric s ociet ies, f or h e h as i dent if ied d ist inct p o lities f or w hich t he h istor ians m ust n ow s earch r ecords f or a ppropr iate w r itten m ater ia ls. P o llard h as c o llated a l ist o f t rade g oods f low ing i n v ar ious d irect ions. H e a rgues t hat e ven t hough i t i s t he s tatus-va lidat ing a nd s umptuary g oods w hich p rovide t he m ost i nformat ion c oncerning e conom ic n etworks, t hat i t w as t he s ubsistence g oods w h ich m ust h ave f ormed t he b ulk o f t he t rade g oods. W hile s ome o f t he c ontr ibutors t o t he v o lume h ave e mphasized t he e ntrepreneur ial c haracter o f t rade f or

4

t he ir r eg ion, P o llard b e lieves t hat e xchange i n t his r egion w as d om inated b y k in-based i nterfaces a nd p red icated o n r eciprocity. T his a rgument o f e ntrepreneur ia l v s. r eciproca l r e lat ions o f p roduct ion a nd e xchange i s c urrent ly m uch d ebated i n m odern A ndean e thnographic s tud ies, a s w e ll a s b eing r ef lected i n t he a rguments i n t his v o lume ( for e xamp le, B rowman 's Ha lt ip lano" m ode i s e ssent ia lly e ntrepreneur ia l, w h ile P o llard 's r eciprocity m ode i s k in-based).

W hile s tud ies i n t he A ndes h ave t o u ndergo m uch m ore e laborate d eve lopment b efore WP c an s o lve t he p rob lems o f m odes o f d istr ibut ion a nd p roduct ion, a nd b efore w e c an a dequate ly r econstruct p rehistor ic s ocia l r e lat ions o f p roduction, t his v o lume w ill b e o ne o f t he c omponents o f m ore s ophist icated d eve lopmenta l m ode ls. S evera l o f t he p apers h ere w ill p rove i nd ispensib le t o t hose u lt imate ly s uccessful i n i ntegrating a ll f acets o f t he d ata. J u ly 1 5, 1 983 D av id L . B rowman R ichard L . B urger M ar io A . R ivera

5

F rom t he Y ungas o f C hinchay S uvo t o C uzco : T he R o le o f L a P lata I s land i n S pondy lus T rade. J orge G . M arcos a nd P res ley N orton

M arcos a nd N orton a rgue f or t he i mportance o f t he S pondy lus-Strombus d yad i n e ar ly A ndean c osmo logy a s b eing p ivota l t o t he g rowth o f l ong d istance s he ll, a nd s ubsequent ly o ther s umptuary g oods t o A ndean c enters f or m ore t han f our m illenia. N orton a nd M arcos a rgue t hat t he f avorab le a gr icu ltura l c ondit ions a long t he N orthern A ndean c oast a llowed t he r e lig ious c u lt a nd i ts a ssociated t rade-supp lied r ega lia t o d eve lop e ar lier i n t his a rea t hat e lsewhere i n t he A ndes. T he M anteno a rea i s s een a s p ivota l i n t he t rade l inkages b oth w ith M esoamer ica a nd s outh t o P eru. I nvest igations o n L a P lata I s land i n t he M anteno a rea r evea led l arge q uant it ies o f S pondy lus p r inceps s he lls, i nd icating t hat t he i s land w as a n i mportant p rocessing a nd r edistr ibut ion c enter f rom p ossib ly a s e ar ly a s V a ld ivia p hase, b ut c ertain ly b y M achalilla p hase t imes. B ecause o f t he p reviously u nsuspected i mportance o f t his i s land a s ap ort-of-trade, t he a uthors p ostulate t hat o ther t rade e nclaves w ill b e f ound o n i slands a nd a long t he c oast b etween M esoamer ica a nd S outh A mer ica, a s w e ll a s a long t he S outh A mer ican c oast .

I nvestigaciones a rqueo log icas q ue i nc luyen l a P eninsu la d e S anta E lena, P rovincia d e M anabi, E cuador, c ontr ibuyen a e valuar e l r o l d e e sta z ona c on r espect° a l A rea A ndina S eptentr iona l e n r e lacion a l r esto d e l A rea A ndina y t ambien M esoamer ica, c omo u n c entro d e i ntercambio, e n e l q ue S pondy lus j uega u n p ape l f undamenta l. L a c ronica d e S amano ( 1842-1895), y q ue p rovee d atos d e B arto lome R uiz, i nd ica u na r ed d e i ntercambio b asado e n S pondy lus e n e l a rea c onocida c omo S alangone ( Ca langone), e xtremo s ur P rovincia d e M anabi. L a i nvestigacion h a c onfirmado e stos d atos y s ena la e l a ctua l P uerto L opez c omo e l c entro d e e sta r ed . F ina lmente, s e d iscute m as a mp liamente r especto d e p ape l d e S pondy lus-Strombus e n l a p rehistor ia a nd ina y p art icularmente c on l a a rqueo log ia d e l a I s la d e L a P lata.

I ntroduct ion T he p recocious c ultural d eve lopment o f t he N orthern A ndean A rea ( Ecuador, s outhern C o lumbia, a nd n orthern P eru) ( Lumbreras 1 979) i s m an ifested b y ( 1) t he e ar ly a ppearance o f ac omp lex c erem ic t rad it ion ( Meggers, E vans, a nd E strada 1 965; H ill 1 975; L athrap, e t.a l. 1 975; Z evallos a nd H o lm 1 960; N orton n .d .; M arcos 1 978); ( 2) t he e mergence o f v illages w ith m ounds a nd c eremonial p laza b y 4 500 B .P. ( Lathrap, e t . a l. 1 977; M arcos 1 978); a nd ( 3 ) t he e ar ly a ppearance o f a n A ndean c osmo logy b ased o n t he S pondy lus-Strombus d yad ( Paulsen 1 974; M arcos, 7

e t .

a l.

1 976; M arcos 1 977/78).

O ne o f u s h as a rgued t hat t his p recocity o f t he A ndean c ultura l p rocess i n t he N orthern A ndean A rea i s d ue t o t he r apid f low o f i nformat ion b etween p eop les a dapted t o v ar ied c atchment a reas o f t he s evera l e co log ica l z ones f ound i n t his c omp lex e quatoria l e nv ironment . T his i nteract ion s erved t o c reate a n etwork o f e xchange f or v a luab les ( for e xamp le, S pondy lus) a nd t hus t o c ement a c ommon f ert ility c u lt w hich s pread t o t he h inter lands ( Marcos 1 979). T he e xpansion o f t h is c ult c reated a d emand f or S pondy lus i n t he A ndean A rea w hich c ou ld o n ly b e s at isf ied f rom a reas w here t he s he ll i s n aturally f ound, t hat i s, f rom t he S anta E lena P eninsula t o t he G ulf o f C alifornia ( Keen 1 971; O lsson 1 961). D ue t o i ts g eographical p osition a nd u n ique e nvironmental c haracter ist ics, t he N orthern A ndean A rea, e specia lly t he c oast o f E cuador, w as i mportant n ot o n ly i n t he d eve lopment o f t his c osmo logy, b ut a lso a n e ssent ia l p art o f t he t rade n etwork t hat s upported t he c osmo logy. O ur p resent r esearch i n s outhern M anab i P rovince, E cuador, w h ich i ncludes t he i s lands o f L a P lata a nd S a lango, w as d esigned t o e lucidate t wo d ist inct, y et n ot n ecessar ily m utually e xclusive, p rob lems. T he f irst i s t he r o le o f t he S anta E lena P eninsula i n E cuador ian c u lture h istory . D ue m ain ly t o r easons o f c onvenience, t he m ajor ity o f d ata o n t he e ar ly p er iods o f E cuador ian a rchaeo logy a re f rom t he S anta E lena P en insula. A s e v idence f rom o ther a reas i s o btained a nd o ld e vidence r eana lyzed, w e n ow f ee l t hat t he S anta E lena P eninsula w as am arg ina l a rea, a nd n ot i n t he m ainstream o f e ar ly d eve lopments i n t he A ndean A rea c u ltural p rocess ( Marcos 1 979). O ur r esearch i n s outhern M anabi i s t he f irst s tage o f ap rogram i ntended t o c orrect t he l ack o f s cient ifica lly e xcavated d ata a vailab le o n t he a rea, w hich n ow a ppears t o h ave b een a f rontrunner i n e ar ly c ultura l d eve lopments i n t he N ew W or ld . T he s econd p rob lem i s t he c ontinued r o le o f t he N orthern A ndean A rea u p t o t he t ime o f S panish c ontact i n r e lat ion t o t he r est o f t he A ndean A rea a nd a lso M esoamer ica a s at rading c enter . T he c hron ic le o f S amano-Xerez ( 1937), w hich t ranscr ibes p arts o f B arto lome R u iz 's l og, i nd icates t hat a t rading n etwork, c entered a round e xchange f or S pondy lus, e x isted i n t he a rea k nown a s S a langone ( Ca langone). B y a na lyzing g eographica l n ames a long c oasta l S outh A merica, w e h ypothesized t hat t he a rea r eferred t o i n S amano-Xerez w as s outhern M anabi P rov ince, f rom S a lango t o S a laite a nd c enter ing a round t he p resent t own o f P uerto L opez. O ur r esearch h as c onf irmed t h is h ypothesis. B efore p resenting t he d ata r ecovered f rom o ur r esearch, h owever, i t i s i mportant t o f irst r ev iew t he c haracter ist ics o f t he N orthern A ndean A rea w hich r esulted i n t he p recocious d eve lopment f ound t here. E NVIRONMENT A ND C ULTURE I N T HE N ORTHERN A NDEAN A REA I t h as b een a rgued b y o ne o f u s ( Marcos 1 979,1980) t hat t he p recocity o f t he c u ltura l p rocess i n t he N orthern A ndean A rea r esu lted f rom t he a rt icu lat ion b etween g roups o f p eop le a dapted t o t he v ar ious c atchment a reas f ound i n e ach o f t he d ifferent e co log ica l z ones o f t his c omp lex e quator ia l e nvironment. T he N orthern A ndean A rea i ncludes f loodp lain a gr icu lture i n t he G uayas b asin a nd t he E smera ldas 8

p lain, w hich a re b oth t hen a gain c r iss-crossed b y i nnumerab le r ivers a nd c hanne ls. T he i ndiv idua lly s mall i nterf luv ia l a reas o f t his r iver ine n etwork t ogether p erm it a n a verage p opulation d ensity l arger t han t hat o f t he e nt ire A mazonian a rea, w here t he i nterf luvia l a reas a re m uch l arger . A t t he s outhern a nd n orthern e nds o f t his f loodp lain s ystem l ie t he G ulf o f G uayaquil a nd B ay o f S an L orenzo, r espective ly . T hese t wo b od ies o f w ater, d otted w ith i slands a nd s ilt ing i n t hrough t ime, p resent a n e stuary-mar it ime a daptat ion w ith v ary ing d ependence o n e stuary, m angrove, a nd m ar ine r esources. B etween t he c oast a nd t he i nter ior f loodp lain a rea r ises a s er ies o f c oasta l c ordilleras, w hich r ep licate t he m idd le a ltitude A ndean m ontana, w hich i n t he n orthern A ndes c overs b oth t he e astern a nd w estern s lopes. F ina lly, a nother f eature w hich d ist inguishes t he N orthern A ndean A rea i s t he d eep ly-incised i ntermontane v a lleys w hich d rain b oth t o t he P acif ic a nd t o t he A mazon, e ach o ne b ecom ing a n atura l a venue o f c ontact a nd c ontro l o f t he i nteract ion b etween t wo s im ilar e nvironments--the t rop ical P acif ic p la ins a nd t he h um id t rop ica l A mazonian l ow lands. S ome a uthors, f or e xamp le L athrap ( 1970), h ave p inpo inted t his l ast f eature--the d irect a nd r e lative ly e asy c ontact w ith t he A mazonian l ow lands--as t he i mpetus b ehind t he e ar ly c ultura l d eve lopments i n t he N orthern A ndean A rea. T hese i deas w ere d eve loped a s a lternat ives t o t he r hetoric o f t rans-Pacif ic c ontact a t at ime w hen t he p revailing d ogma w as t hat p recocious c u ltura l d eve lopments c ou ld n ot b e e ndem ic t o t he N orthern A ndean A rea, b ut h ad t o c ome f rom e lsewhere. S ince t hose t imes, n ew d ata h as b een a dded a nd w e a rgue t hat t his " Amazonian c onnect ion" i s s imp ly a n i ntegra l p art o f t he c omp lex s ystem o f i nteract ing n etworks t hat c ompr ises t he N orthern A ndean A rea. T he r apid e nergy f low b etween t he d iffer ing e cosystems o f t he N orthern A ndean A rea i s t he k ey t o u nderstand ing w hy t he c u ltural p rocess w as m ore p recocious i n t his a rea t han i n t he r est o f t he A ndean A rea. A s m ent ioned a bove, t he e ar ly c ultural d eve lopments i n t he N orthern A ndean A rea i nc lude s uch t hings a s ac eram ic t rad ition a nd s ett led v illages w ith p lazas a nd c eremonia l m ounds. T he b est e xamp le o f t he l atter t hat w e h ave s o f ar i s R ea l A lto, e xcavated b y D .W . L athrap a nd m yse lf , w here w e f ound a mp le e v idence i nd icat ing a w e ll-deve loped c osmo logy . T he p robab le a ntecedents o f t his c osmo logy c an b e b est u nderstood b y a gain l ooking a t t he e nv ironment o f t he N orthern A ndean A rea--in t his c ase, e specia lly t he c limate. T hroughout t he N orthern A ndean A rea, t he c limate i s e ssent ia lly u niform , t hough w ith c ertain z ona l v ar iat ions d ue t o a lt itud ina l a nd m ar it ime i nf luences. I t i s a n e quator ial m onsoon c limate, m odif ied b y t he c o ld H umbo ldt C urrent a nd t he N ino e vent, w hich a t t imes b r ings r a ins a s f ar s outh a s t he P eruv ian c oast a nd i s b e lieved t o o ccur e very 7 y ears. T he c oasta l c ordilleras s erve t o m od ify s ome o f t he m icro-environments i n t he c oastal z ones, w hile t he A ndes i ntroduce a lp ine c limates t o t he e quator ia l l at itudes. I n t he e astern c eja d e m ontana, t he r ains a re m ore f requent, l asting a bout 9 m onths o f t he y ear a nd i n t he A mazonian p lain, t hey a re a lmost y ear-round. I n t he c oast a nd t he i ntermontane v alleys d rain ing t o t he c oast, t here a re t wo s easons--a d ry o ne f rom J une t o N ovember a nd a w et o ne f rom D ecember t o M ay . R ains a re g enerally e xpected t o b eg in b y C hr istmas. H owever, d ur ing t he d ry c yc les i n t he c oast, r ains m ay n ot b egin u ntil 9

F ebruary, a nd a re e ven e ntire ly a bsent s ome y ears i n t he S anta E lena P eninsula. T he i ntermontane v a lleys d raining t o t he A mazon h ave a r eg ime o f r ain a ffected b y t he A ndes, w hich i s t he o pposite o f t he c oast, b eg inning i n J une a nd e nding i n F ebruary . T hus, i n c ontrast t o t he C entra l A ndean A rea, w hich i s d ry, a nd t o t he A mazonian A rea a nd e xtreme N orthern A ndes, w hich a re w et, t he w et-dry m onsoon c limate o f t he N orthern A ndean A rea w ith i ts c yc lica l a nd s omet imes a cyc lical f luctuat ions i n t he b eginning a nd a mounts o f r ain e ach y ear p resents a s ituat ion o f u ncertainty w ithin a g eneral p redictab le p attern. T his i s t he t ype o f s ituat ion w hich w ou ld f avor t he d eve lopment o f ac osmo logy b ased o n a ttempting t o c ontro l r ain a s V ogt ( 1958) s hows t hat ' water w itching i n p art icu lar a nd d iv ination i n g enera l a re r esponses t o u ncertainty--to t hat w hich m an i s u nab le t o k now a nd c ontro l t hrough r ationa l m eans.' T hat s uch a c osmo logy w as p resent a t a n e ar ly t ime i n t he N orthern A ndean A rea a nd i nvo lved s he lls, p art icu lar ly S pondy lus a nd S trombus, i s s upported b y e vidence f rom F ormative P er iod s ites i n t he c oast, h igh lands, a nd O r iente. T he r o le o f t hese s he lls i n l ater A ndean c osmo logy a s s ignif iers o f r ain a nd f ertility h as b een d iscussed b y m any a uthors ( Reiche l-Do lmatoff 1 949-51; L athrap 1 973; P aulsen 1 974; M urra 1 975; Z uidema 1 977-8). G iven t he e nv ionmenta l c ondit ions o f t he N orthern A ndean A rea o ut lined a bove a nd b y i nference f rom p rotohistor ical d ata, i t i s l og ica l t o c onc lude t hat t he S pondy lus-Strombus d yad f ulf illed t he s ame r o le i n a n e ar lier c ontext i n t he N orthern A ndean A rea. A lthough b oth S pondy lus a nd S trombus h ave e ssentia lly t he s ame g eographical r ange ( w ith S trombus b eing f ound a lso f urther s outh) a nd c ompr ise a d yad, S pondy lus w as c osidered t he m ore i mportant a s t he " food o f t he G ods" a nd w as a m ore m ajor i tem o f t rade . F or t hese r easons, o ur r esearch h as f ocused m ore o n S pondy lus. R OLE O F S PONDYLUS I N T RADE A ND C OSMOLOGY I N T HE N EW W ORLD B oth S pondy lus a nd S trombus s he lls a ppear i n a pparent ly n on-ut ilitar ian c ontexts i n t he f o llow ing F ormat ive P er iod s ites i n E cuador : 1 . I n t he c oasta l V a ld ivia s ite o f R ea l A lto, w e f ound a mp le e vidence o f a S pondy lus-working i ndustry ( Lathrap, e t . a l. 1 977; M arcos, e t . a l. 1 976). H owever, a lthough S pondy lus d eb itage a s c ommon, o n ly a f ew b eads a nd p endants w ere u ncovered, i ndicat ing e xportat ion o f t he w orked a rt ifacts. I n a dd it ion, a w ho le S trombus p eruvianus s he ll t rumpet w as f ound c arefu lly p laced a t t he f oot o f t he e ar ly V a ldivia I m ound, w hich d ates t o 4 700 B .P. 2 . T he B anco C entral M useum h as p urchased a rt ifacts f rom a c eremonial m ound a t t he n orthern M anab i s ite o f S an I s idro w hich i nc ludes r itual p araphenalia ( masks, n ecklaces, p laques, a nd b reastp lates) m ade o f S pondy lus s he ll a long w ith V a ldivia V II c ommuna l d r inking b ow ls. I n l ater r ebuildings o f t he m ound, c eram ics t yp ica l o f t he e ar ly l eve ls o f t he s outhern h igh land s ite o f C erro N arr io h ave a lso b een a cquired . 3 . S pondy lus f igur ines, p o lished j uvenile S pondy lus v alves, p endants, b eads, a nd o ther i tems w ere f ound a t C erro N arr io i n C anar P rovince i n t he s outhern E cuadorian h igh lands ( Co llier a nd M urra 1 0

1 943). F urther s outh i n L oja, U h le ( J ijon y C aamano 1 945) e xcavated a n E ar ly C erro M arr io ( or C haullabamba a s U h le d esignated t he s ty le) m ound w hich l ike t hose o f R ea l A lto h ad b een f inished i n y e llow ish w h ite c lay . O n t he u pper p latform o f t his m ound w ere s evera l w ho le S pondy lus s he lls c ontaining p laques a nd b eads o f g reen s tone a nd a t t he f oot o f t he r amp l eading t o t he p latform U h le e xcavated f our S trombus s he ll t rumpets p laced f orm ing a c ross. T hough m ore e laborate t hat a t R ea l A lto, t his i s t he s ame p osition o f t he S trombus s he ll f ound t here. 4 . A t t he C ave o f t he O ilbirds ( Los T ayos) i n t he s outhern E cuadorian c eja d e m ontana, a l arge o ffer ing o f S pondy lus s he lls a nd o rnaments f abricated f rom S pondy lus w as f ound a ssociated w ith M achalilla-like c eram ics, d ated c a. 1 500 B .C. ( Porras 1 977). I n a ddition t o t he F ormat ive s ites i n t he N orthern A ndean A rea, S pondy lus i s f ound s preading t o t he C entra l A ndes a t t he F ormat ive e astern m ontana s ite o f K otosh a s e ar ly a s i ts W isa J irca P hase ( Izum i a nd S ono 1 963). A nd a t C havin d e H uantar, t he S pondy lus-Strombus d yad i s p resent i n C havin c osmo logy a nd b oth a re r epresented a s i mportant i ns ignias i n t he T e llo O be lisk a nd t he S m iling G od S te lae ( Lathrap 1 973, 1 977). F rom C hav in o n S pondy lus b ecomes ag reat ly d esired v a luable a nd r itua l b adge i n t he C entra l A ndes a nd b eyond. O ne o f u s h as p resented e lsewhere ( Marcos 1 977/78) t he a rgument f or M esoamer ican a nd S outh A mer ican d own-the-line m ode o f e xchange i n S pondy lus s he ll a nd t he i mp licat ions o f t he e vo lut ion i n S pondy lus u sage f rom a p r im it ive v a luab le t o ap r im it ive m oney . I n t hat a rt ic le i t w as e xpressed t hat t he q uest f or S pondy lus b y S outh A mer icans s erved t o i ntegrate t he S outh A mer ican S pondy lus e xchange s ystem w ith a n e ar ly M esoamer ican m arket s ystem t yp if ied i n p rotohistor ica l t imes b y t he M esoamer ican t raders k nown a s P ochtecas. T he i mp licit t entat ive e xp lanat ion w as t hat d ue t o t he f act t hat t he S outh A mer ican t raders f rom s outhern M anabi ( trave lling i n ab a lsa r aft a nd r eported b y P izarro 's p ilot B arto lome R uiz) c arr ied S outh A mer ican m anufactured g oods, s uch a s g o ld a nd s ilver j ewe lry, a rmor-like a dornments, f ine t ext iles, a nd s em i-precious s tones, t o e xchange f or § pondy lus, t here m ust h ave e xisted a s ymbiotic r e lat ionship t hat m ade o f S pondy lus a v er itab le p r im it ive m oney . I t s erved b oth t he p eop le o f t he n orth t o e xchange f or S outh A mer ican m anufacture g oods a s w e ll a s t he S outh A mer icans t o t rade o ut p roducts f or w hat t o t hem w as p r incipa lly a p r im it ive v a luable o r r e lig ious i nsignia. O f c ourse, t he s ystem i s n ot t hat s imp le f or t he S outh A mer ican d yad a ppears l ater i n T eot ihuacan i n M exico, w here S pondy lus a nd S trombus d ecorated t he c eremonia l b uild ing f r iezes a s s ignif iers o f r a in. I t i s w orthwhile m ent ioning h ere t hat t he S pondy lus r epresented g enerally s how t he t r iloba l r ain b adge i n l ieu o f t he n orma l S pondy lus b a ll a nd s ocket h inge. T his c ou ld b e a n a dded r epresentat ion o f t he r a in b adge o r p erhaps a n a bstract r epresentat ion o f t hat h inge, w hen t he t rilobal e lement i s p resented b y i tse lf, a s as ubstitute f or a w ho le S pondy lus s he ll, t he r ain i nsignia i n N ew W or ld c osmo logy. I n o rder t o f ormalize t he S pondy lus e xchange s ystem a s h av ing s erved t o e stab lish t he p r incipa l m eans o f S outh A mer icanM esoamer ican i nterre lations, al ong-term a rchaeo logica l p roject w as i n itiated i n t he s outhern c oast o f M anabi. T his i nc ludes t he i sland 1

o f S alango, w hich w as m entioned b y B arto lome R uiz a s a s anctuary a t t he t ime o f t he c onquest, a nd t he i s land o f L a P lata f urther w est , w hich a ccording t o t he t urn o f t he c entury i nvestigation b y D orsey ( 1901) h ad e vidence o f I ncaic o ccupat ion. W e h ave j ust c omp leted o ur s econd f ie ld s eason a nd h ave n ow f inished e xcavat ions a nd s urvey o f L a P lata I s land a s w e ll a s s urveys o f t he m ain land v a lleys f rom t he A yampe t o t he J u lcuy. T he d ata a re n ot f ully a na lyzed y et, b ut w hat h as b een s tud ied g ives e nough i nformation t o e xp lain s ome o f o ur h ypotheses, r efine o thers, a nd g enerate s ome n ew o nes a bout N ew W or ld l ong d istance e xchange . T HE A RCHAEOLOGY O F T HE I SLAND O F L A P LATA T he i sland o f L a P lata l ies s ome 2 3 k ilometers w est o f t he s outhern M anabi c oast . T he p revailing w inds a nd w ave p attern r equire c lose t o t he w ind t acking i n o rder t o s a il f rom t he v illage c ommun ity o f S anta R osa, t he n earest p o int o n t he m ain land . F rom P uerto L opez ( 40 k m ), M acha lilla ( 35 k m ), a nd P uerto C ayo ( 33 k m ), aq uarter ing r each w ith n o t acking i s n eeded t o l and o n t he i sland, w hile f rom M anta, 3 c hanges o f d irect ion a re n eeded w ith w inds o f t he q uarter b eam . W e d on 't k now h ow o ld t he s ail i s i n t he N ew W or ld , b ut i t w as i n u se a t S panish a rr iva l ( Edwards 1 965,1969). T o r each L a P lata i n c anoes, s trong , s teady s trokes b y s evera l p add lers w ou ld b e n eeded a s t he w inds a nd w ave p attern t end t o d r ift t he c anoe . T he s ituation i s b etter f rom J anuary t o M arch w hen n orther lies a lternate w ith t he p revailing s outher lies a nd t he w armer N ino c urrent r uns f urther s outh . T he i sland i tse lf i s a pprox imate ly 3 k m w ide i n a n ortheasts outhwest d irect ion a nd 5 k m l ong f rom t he n orthwest t o t he s outheast . I t i s e asily d iscussed i n t erms o f f our t opographic a reas : b eaches, l ow lands, h igh lands, a nd s lopes. T here a re o n ly t wo b each a reas l arge e nough f or h ab itation o r l and ing . P laya G rande l ies o n t he w indward ( south) s ide, b ut n o s igns o f h abitation w ere f ound t here i n o ur s urvey . I n t he o ther b each a rea a long D rake 's B ay o n t he n orthern s ide o f t he i s land, i ntense a ct iv ity a reas a nd s igns o f c ont inuous o ccupat ion w ere f ound . M ajor e xcavations h ave b een i mp lemented b y u s i n t wo s ites b eh ind D rake 's B ay b each ( 0M-P1 Il 12 a nd 0 M-P1 Il 14). T he o ther m ajor e xcavat ion c arr ied o ut i n t he i sland w as b y D orsey ( 1901), w here h e f ound e vidence o f B ahia c u lture o ccupat ion ( 500 B .C. t o A .D . 5 00) a nd b ur ials c ontaining C uzco I nca p ottery a nd m eta l f igur ines. O ur s urvey o f L a P lata r esulted i n 8 8 o ther s ites, s how ing i ntense a nd d iverse a ct ivity t hrough t ime . E xcavat ions o f s ome o f t hese s ites w ill b e i mp lemented i n t he f uture . I n t he e roded p er imeter o f t he l ow lands a bove t he s outhern b eaches, 1 7 h uge l ithic c oncentrat ions w ere e ncountered w ith s ome o ccasional s herds. A lthough m uch o f t he l ithic m ater ial h as a c erta in p re-ceram ic q uality, t hese s ites m ay r epresent a ct ivity a reas w here b lanks f rom c herts a nd c halcedonies w ere p repared f or r itual o r t rading p urposes a nd t hus m ay b e m uch l ater i n t ime . T he e xportat ion o f c hipped s tones f rom C alangone t o t rade f or S pondy lus i s d escr ibed b y B arto lome R uiz i n S amano-Xerez. I n s ome a reas t he l ith ic s catters e xtend b eyond 3 0 m eters i n land w here t he s urface d ebr is i s n ot a s 1 2

c oncentrated a nd i nc ludes m anos a nd m etates. T hese g r inding t oo ls a s w e ll a s s everal c eram ic g rater f ragments a nd a w ho le g rater f ound a t B ahia s ites s uggest p r imary f ood p reparation i n t he i s land . S igns o f c eremonia lism a re f ound t hroughout t he i sland, e specially i n t he P ampa d e l os P itos, w here t he w e ll-descr ibed B ahia c aches w ere f ound b y D orsey, a nd a t t he l ighthouse, w here t here i s a n a pparent M anteno p eriod c eremonia l m ound. T his p robab le m ound, a s m ost o thers i n t he i sland, s eems t o b e an atura l r ise, w hich w as i ntent iona lly m od if ied t o c omp ly w ith c eremonial c haracter istics. S uch a s ystem o f c u ltura l m odif icat ion o f r ises t o s erve a s m ounds a ppears t o h ave a l ong h istory o n L a P lata . A t s ite 8 3, w here a s ma ll r ise a ppears t o h ave b een m od if ied i n s ugar loaf f ashion, a n i ntact V a ld ivia II v esse l w as f ound u pside d own i n t ypica l V a ldivia f ashion ( Marcos 1 978; Z eva llos a nd H o lm 1 960; N orton 1 977). O n e xcavation a t t he t op o f t he m ound a nd a fter c arefully t rowe ling t he e xcavated s urface, a f loor b ecame d iscernab le. T he p ost m o lds a nd o ther f eatures s howed a p lan t ypica l o f V a ld ivia c eremonia l s tructures f ound a t t he F iesta H ouse M ound a t R ea l A lto ( Lathrap e t a l 1 977; M arcos 1 978). N ear t he e ntrance o f t he s tructure a nd w ithin t he w all w as a s ma ll d epression c ontaining 1 47 w ater-worn p ebb les f ound a s i f t hey h ad b een p laced t here i n a p er ishab le c ontainer . S im ilar c aches o f s ma ll r ocks o r w ater-worn p ebb les w ere f ound w ithin t he w a ll t rench n ear t he e ntrance o f t he b etter p reserved c eremonia l s tructures o n t he F iesta H ouse M ound a t R eal A lto. O ther e vidence o f V a ld iv ia o ccupat ion o f L a P lata i ncludes a T -shape a xe, V a ldivia s herds f rom t he a ir - tr ip d isturbed s urface, V a ld ivia II s herds f rom t he s ame s ite w here t he v esse l w as f ound, a nd o ther V a ld ivia s herds, t he e ar liest o f w hich a ppear t o b e long t o p hase II ( ca. 4 400 B .P.), f rom a s ite a t t he e asternmcst s ection o f b each a t D rake 's B ay. I n a ddit ion t o s urvey e vidence o f M achalilla ucupat ion o f t he i s land, a n a pprox imate ly 8 0 c m d eep s tratif ied M achalilla d eposit w as e xcavated a t 0 M-P1-I1-12. I ntense a ct ivity i s i nd icated b y t he m ore t han 2 00 f eatures f ound i n a 2 x 3m c ut . T hese f eatures a re p redom inate ly f ire p its, p ost m o lds o f w hat a ppear t o b e r acks, a nd o fferings o f S pondy lus p r inceps, m other o f p ear l s he ll ( Pinctada m azat lanica) f rom w hich s he ll f ish h ooks w ere m ade, a nd t he l arge a nd c o lorful H exap lex r eg ious. T his d eep M acha lilla m idden a ppears t o h ave b een i ntentiona lly s urfaced a t d ifferent t imes w ith y e llow ish w hite c lay, a nd a l ast c apping o f t he m idden w as w e ll p reserved b y 6 0 c m o f a lluv ium d eposit . T h is l ast c app ing o f t he M acha lilla m idden s hows s ome d istinct a rchitectural f eatures w hich a ppear t o b e at wo-t iered p latform m ound a t t he f oot o f a v ery s teep c onelike h ill b are ly c onnected t o t he i s land b luff . I n t he a lluv ium t hat c overed t he M achalilla m ound a n i ntact C horrera m onkey e ff igy w hist ling b ott le o f s ingu lar a rt ist ic b eauty w as f ound . C horrera l enses o f o ccupat ion i nterspaced b y s lope w ash i nd icate a p referred c eremonia l a rea t hat w as d estroyed d ur ing p er iods o f h eavy r ain a nd c leaned, r ebuilt, a nd r eused s evera l t imes i n t his m anner. T his a rea w as u sed u p t o t he M anteno o ccupat ion o f t he 1 3

i s land . T he b est d ata f or t he C horrera, B ahia, a nd M anteno o ccupations o f L a P lata c ome f rom 0 M-P1-I1-14, s ome 4 0 m eters e ast o f s ite 1 2. A fter r emoving t he e ncapsulat ing s lope w ash, a " f loor" o f S pondy lus p r inceps a ppeared a s i f r eady f or e xport . U nder t he u pwards o f 6 00 v alves o f S pondy lus, w hich c overed a 4 x 5 m a rea, S . p r ince s f ragments a ppeared i n a ssociation w ith M anteno s herds, m oTea e C h im u b lackware a nd C uzco I ncaware f ragments. T he c lose i nteract ion b etween L a P lata a nd t he C entral A ndean A rea i s i mp licit i n t his f ind a nd i n D orsey 's ( 1901) e xcavat ion. A t t he B ahia l eve l c aches o f s tone p laques a ppeared , c ontain ing i nnumerab le g reen s tone b eads a nd p endants, s ome o f t hem t urquo ise ( which m ust h ave b een o btained e ither f rom M esoamer ica a nd/or C h ile), S pondy lus b eads, t ypical B ahia " dice", a nd l arge q uantities o f u nutilized f ish h ooks w ith t heir p o ints i ntentionally b roken. A lso i n t hese c aches w ere f ound d ecapitated o r d efaced c eram ic s tone f igur ines. A s ing le c ache c ontained B ahia, T o lita, J ama-Co que, a nd G uayaquil p hase f igur ines i nd icat ing t hat p eop le f rom d ifferent a reas h ad p articipated i n as ing le r itua l e vent i n t he i s land . T he B ahia-like s tone c aches a lso e x ist a t t he C horrera l eve l, e xcept t he p laques a re b etter m ade a nd m ore c arefully p laced . T hese c aches i nc ludcarvings, s ome c arved i n as ty le r em iniscent o f C hav in, a s w e ll a s s acr ificed s he ll f ish h ooks i n l arge q uant it ies. T he m ajor ity o f t he p ottery, a s i n t he B ah ia l eve ls, i s d ecorated w ith i r idescent p aint . G reen s tone p ebb les d ecorated w ith m onkey f ace c arv ings o n s evera l p lanes a ppear, i dent ica l t o o nes f ound i n M idd le C erro N arr io a nd a lso f ound a s t rade i tems i n t he S anta E lena P eninsula ( Bushne ll 1 951) a nd a t L os C err itos ( Zeva llos 1 965-66). T orpedo-shaped s tone w e ights a ppear t hroughout t he s equence f rom M acha lilla t o M anteno. T hese a re p o lished s tones i n t he B ahia a nd M anteno l eve ls a nd r ough ly c hipped i n t he M acha lilla a nd C horrera l eve ls. T hese w e ights h ave b een c a lled a nchors i n t he l iterature ( Estrada 1 957), a lthough t hey a re a pparent ly t oo l ight f or t hat p urpose. I nstead t hey a ppear t o b e d iv ing w eights a nd t he ir u se i s d epicted i n aM anteno-sty le s i lver e ar w hor l f rom T rujillo, P eru. I f w e o bserve c arefu lly, t he d ivers a re h o lding w ith t heir f eet p ear-shaped o bjects, w hich c ou ld r epresent t orpedo-like d iv ing w eights l ike t hose f ound a t L a P lata. D ISCUSSION O F S OME O F T HE A RCHAEOLOGICAL M AINLAND S ITES

I MPLICATIONS A T L A P LATA A ND

T he a rchaaeo logical S pondy lus t hat a ppears i n l arge q uantit ies a t L a P lata i s S . p r inceps, w hile f inds o f t he l ess r itua lly i mportant S . c a lcifer a re f ew . I n c ontrast, t he u nderwater s urvey f or S pondy lus a t s everal d epths a roung t he i s land h as s hown t hat S . c alcifer i s f ound i n l arge q uant it ies a t r ather a ccessib le d epths T S t o 7 m ), w hile S . p r inceps a ppears s o litary o r i n s ma ll g roups a t d epths r ang ing f rom T S t o 5 0 m eters. U n less c atastrophic e vents h ave r educed t he S . p r inceps p opulat ion a t L a P lata 's r eefs a nd s he lves, t he e xtract ion o f S . p r inceps a t L a P lata c ould n ever h ave p erm itted t he a ssemb lages o f s hells f ound i n t he d ifferent f eatures a t t he e xcavation, m uch l ess 1 4

t he u pwards

o f 6 00 S .

p r inceps v a lves f ound

i n t he u pper

l eve ls o f

I n t he s urvey o n t he m ain land, w orked a nd c leaned w ho le s he lls a nd f ragments o f S pondy lus a re q uite f requent i n w hat a ppear t o b e l arge p rocessing c enters. T he S pondy lus f ound i s p redom inant ly c a lcifer, i nverse t o t he s ituat ion a t L a P lata. T he s e lection o f p r inceps i n t he a rchaeo log ica l m ater ia l f rom L a P lata s uggests a p ort-of-trade w here t he p eop le f rom C a langone t ook p r inceps t o t he i s land t o t rade i t w ith p eop le w ho c ame f rom t he s outh. T he s he lls o f p r inceps m ust h ave b een o bta ined f rom t he r egion o f t heir c ontro l b y t he ir o wn d ivers a nd b y t rade f rom t he n orth a s i s s uggested b y t he S amano-Xerez c hronic le. I ridescent p ainting h as b een s uggested a s o ne o f t he i nputs o f S pondy lus t rade i nto C entra l A mer ica a nd M esoamer ica ( Coe 1 960; P au lsen 1 974). A t L a P lata I s land i r idescent p aint d ecorat ion f irst a ppears i n t he M acha lilla l eve ls ( ca. 3 500 B .P.). I t b ecomes t he p redom inant c eram ic d ecorat ion i n t he C horrera a nd B ahia o ccupat ions a t s ites 1 2 a nd 1 4, r epresent ing a lmost 1 00 p ercent o f t he c eram ics a ssociated w ith C horrera a nd B ahia c aches a nd a bout 7 0 t o 8 0 p ercent o f t he o ther c eram ics f ound i n t hese l eve ls. O n t he m ain land i r idescent p aint d ecorat ion n ever e xceeds m ore t hat 2 0 p ercent o f t he a ssemb lage f or e ither C horrera o r B ahia. I n a dd it ion, t he i r idescent-painted v esse l s hape m ost c ommon ly f ound i n C horrera a nd E ar ly B ahia a t L a P lata i s t he f lat-bottomed p late w ith h igh f lar ing w a lls s upported b y " pastry r o ll" l egs. T his s hape i s n ot c ommon i n c oastal E cuador . A lthough t he p astry r o ll l egs a re t ypica lly c oasta l C horrera ( Engoroy), t he c ajete s hape i s t ypica lly M esoamer ican, s uggest ing t hat t hese v esse ls m ay r epresent o ffer ings o f t radewares m ade i n c oasta l M anabi a nd G uayas e xclusive ly f or t he S pondy lus t rade w ith C entra l A mer ica a nd M esoamer ica. C onc lusion F rom t he e vidence t hus f ar i t i s c lear t hat L a P lata f unct ioned a s ac eremonial c enter a s e ar ly a s V ald iv ia ( ca. 3 000 B .C.) a nd a lso a s at rade c enter a nd c ont inued a s s uch t hrough M acha lilla, C horrera, B ahia, a nd M anteno p er iods. U pon t he a rr ival o f t he S panish o n t he c oast o f P eru, t he h istory o f L a P lata I s land a s a c eremonia l t rade c enter c ame t o a n a brupt e nd . T he k eepers o f L a P lata d oub led a s s haman-pr iests a nd t raders. I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he i ntroduct ion o f S outh A mer ica t raits i nto M esoamer ica w as b y s uch s haman-traders ( Sm ith 1 977-8). P robab ly t he s ame s haman-traders a lso h e lped t o s pread t he S trombus-Spondy lus c u lt t hrough t he C entra l A ndes i n C hav in t imes. W e s uggest t hat e nc laves, l ike t he o ne a t L a P lata, w ill b e f ound i n t he s evera l i s lands a long t he P acif ic c oast f rom M esoamer ica t o S outh A mer ica, a nd t hat a g enera l d own-theline s ystem o f e xchange f unct ioned, i nterspaced b y p orts-of-trade a t t he c ultura l b oundaries t hat s egmented t his l inear e xchange s ystem . I n 1 909 U h le, r eferr ing t o t he p re-Chimu m ater ia l w hich i nc luded d ecorated S pondy lus a nd c onch t rumpets f rom T rujillo, P eru, w rote, " There a re s tands o f t hese s he lls i n B aja C alifornia a nd i n t he 1 5

P acif ic w est o f C entra l A mer ica. W e d on 't y et k now i f t hey a ppear f urther . .. H H e a lso f e lt t hat t he s tudy o f t he p rovenience o f t hese s he lls w ould b e i mportant i n u nderstand ing M esoamer ica-Andean i nteract ions. N ow , 7 0 y ears l ater, w e h ave c omp leted t he f irst f ew s teps i n t his d irect ion. T he c ont inuat ion o f o ur s urvey a nd e xcavat ion i n M anab i a s w e ll a s f urther s tudy o f p ossib le p orts-of-trade o n t he i slands o ff t he P ac if ic c oast o f C entra l A mer ica a nd n orthwestern S outh A mer ica w ill a dd i mportant n ew d ata t o t h is p rob lem o f c u ltura l s im ilar it ies w hich h as f ascinated s o m any a uthors.

1 6

L iterature C ited B orhegyi, S tephen F . 1 966 S he ll O ffer ings a nd t he U se o f S he ll M ot ifs a t L ake A mat it lan, G uatemala a nd T eot ihuacan, M ex ico. P roceed ings o f t he 3 6th I nternat iona l C ongress o f A mer icanists V o l I : 3 55-371 . B ushne ll, G .H.S. 1 951 T he A rchaeo logy o f t he S anta E lena P eninsula i n S outhwest E cuador . C ambr idge M useum O ccasiona l P apers N o . 1 . C ambr idge, E ng land . C oe, M ichae l D . 1 960 A rchaeo log ica l L inkages w ith N orth a nd S outh A mer ica a t V ictor ia, G uatema la. A mer ican A nthropo log ist 6 2(3):363-393 C o llier, D ona ld a nd J ohn V . M urra 1 943 S urvey a nd E xcavat ions i n S outhern E cuador . N atura l H istory, A nthropo log ica l S er ies 3 5.

F ie ld

L a

M useum o f

D orsey, G eorge 1 901 A rchaeo log ica l I nvest igat ions o n t he I s land o f L a P lata, E cuador. F ie ld M useum o f N atura l H istory, A nthropo log ica l S er ies 2 :37-46 E dwards, C linton R . 1 965 A bor igina l W atercraft o n t he P acif ic C oast o f S outh A mer ica. I bero-Amer icana 4 7. 1 969 P ossibilit ies o f P reco lumbian M ar it ime C ontacts a mong N ew W or ld C ivilizations. M esoamer ican S tud ies 4 : 3 -10 . C arbonda le : S outhern I l linois U niversity . E strada, E m ilio 1 957 L os H uancav ilcas. U lt imas C ivilizaciones P rehistor icas d e l a C uenca d e l R io G uayas. M useo V ictor E m ilio E strada P ub licat ion N o . 3 . G uayaquil. H ill, B etsy D . 1 975 A N ew C hrono logy o f t he V a ld ivia C eram ic C omp lex f rom t he c oasta l z one o f G uayas P rovince, E cuador . N awpa P acha 1 0-12:1-32. I zum i, S . a nd T . S ono 1 963 A ndes 2 : E xcavations a t K otosh, P ub lishi ng C o . J ijon y C aamano, J acinto 1 945 A ntropo logia P rehispanica C ato lica

d e l

P eru, 1 960.

E cuador .

T okyo : K adokawa

Q uito :

L a

P rensa

K een, M yra 1 971 S ea S he lls o f T ropical W est A mer ica, M ar ine M o lluscs f rom B aja C a lifornia t o P eru, 2 nd e d . S tanford : S tanford U niversity P ress. L athrap, D ona ld W . 1 7

1 970 1 973

1 977

T he U pper A mazon. N ew Y ork: P raeger G ifts o f t he C ayman : S ome T houghts o n t he S ubsistence B asis o f C havin. I n : V ar iat ions i n A nthropo logy . D onald W . L athrap a nd J ody D oug las, e ds. P p . 9 1-106. U rbana : I l lino is A rchaeo log ica l S urvey O ur f ather t he c ayman o ur m other t he g ourd : S pinden r evisted , o r au nitary m ode l f or t he e mergence o f a gr iculture i n t he N ew W or ld . i n: C .A . R eed, e d . O r ig ins o f A gricu lture, p. 7 13-751. T he H ague : M outon P ub lishers.

L athrap, D onald W ., D . C o llier a nd H . C handra 1 975 A ncient E cuador. C ulture, C lay a nd C reat ivity C hicago : F ie ld M useum o f N atura l H istory .

3 000-300 B .C .

L athrap, D ona ld W ., J .G. M arcos a nd J .A . Z eid ler 1 977 R ea l A lto : A n A ncient C eremonia l C enter . 3 0(1):2-13.

A rchaeo logy

L umbreras, L uis G . 1 979 C r it icas y P erspectivas d e l a A rqueo log ia A ndina. D ocument° d e T rabajo N o . 1 . P aracas, P eru. 2 -7 A pr il 1 979. U NESCO/PUD. M arcos, J orge G . 1 977-8 C ruising t o A capulco a nd B ack w ith t he T horny-Oyster S et . J ourna l o f t he S t eward A nthropo log ica l S ociety 9 (1/2):99-132 1 978 T he C eremonii i- P recinct a t R ea l A lto : O rganization o f T ime a nd S pace i n V a ldiv ia S ociety . P h.D. D issertat ion, U n iversity o f U rbana, 1 979 C r it icas y P erspectivas d e l a A rqueo log ia A ndina. D ocumento d e T rabajo N o. 2 , N o . 4 , y N o . 5 . P aracas, P eru. 2 -7 A pr il 1 979. U NESCO/PNUD. 1 979 W oven t ext iles i n a l ate V a ld ivia c ontext . J unius B . B ird P re-Co lumbian T ext ile C onference, p. 1 8-26. W ashington D .C.: T ext ile M useum 1 980 I ntercambio a l arga d istancia e n A mer ica: e l c aso d e l S pondy lus. B o let in d e A ntropo log ia A mer icana 1 : 124-129 . M exico : M exico D .F. M arcos, J orge G ., D . W . L athrap a nd J . A . Z eid ler 1 976 A ncient E cuador R evisted . F ie ld M useum o f N atura l B u lletin 4 7(6):3-8. r "icago .

H istory

M eggers, B etty J , C . E vans. , n d E . E strada 1 965 T he E ar ly F ormat ive P er iod o f C oasta l E cuador : T he V a ld ivia a nd M acha lilla P hases. S m ithsonian I nsit itut ion C ontr ibut ions t o A nthropo logy I . W ashington, D .C. M urra, J ohn V . 1 975 E l T raf ico d e M u llu e n l a C osta d e l P acifico. E conom icas y P o lit icas d e l M undo A ndino. P p . I nstituto d e E stud ios P eruanos.

I n: F ormaciones 2 25-267 . L ima :

N orton, P resley 1 977 T he L oma A lta C onnect ion. P aper p resented a t t he 4 2nd A nnIa l M eeting o f t he S ociety f or A mer ican A rchaeo logy . N ew O r leans. n .d . A P re lim inary R eport o n L oma A lta a nd t he I mp licat ions o f 1 8

I n land V a ld iv ia A. P roceed ings o f t he P r imer S imposio d e C orre laciones A ntropo logicas A ndino-Mesoamer icanas. S a linas, E cuador . J uly, 1 971. O lsson, A .A . 1 961 M o lluscs o f t he E astern P acif ic, P articular ly f rom t he S outhern H a lf o f t he P anam ic-Pacif ic F aunal P rovince ( Panama t o P eru): P anam ic-Pacif ic P e lecypoda. I thaca: P a leonto log ica l R esearch I nst itut ion. P au lsen, A llison C . 1 974 T he T horny O yster a nd T he V o ice o f G od : So ndy lus a nd S trombus i n A ndean P rehistory . A mer ican A nt iquity 3 4 : 9 7-607 7 P orras, P edro I . 1 977 L a A rqueo log ia d e l a C ueva d e P ont if ica U niversidad C ato lica.

l os

T ayos.

Q uito,

E cuador :

R e iche l-Do lmatoff, G erardo 1 949-51 L os K ogi, U na T r ibu d e l a S ierra N evada d e S anta M arta, C o lombia. R evista d e l I nst ituto E tno logico N aciona l 4 : 5 -314, B ogota. S amano, J uan d e, a nd F . d e X erez 1 842-95 L a R e lacion S amano-Xerez ( 1528). d ocumentos I neditos p ara l a H istor ia F ernandez, e t . a l., e ds. V o l. 5 : 1 93-201.

I n: C o lecion d e d e E spana. M art in

S m ith, M ichae l E . 1 977-8 A M ode l f or t he D iffusion o f t he S haft C hamber T omb C omp lex f rom S outh A mer ica t o W est M ex ico. J ourna l o f t he S teward A nthropo log ica l S ociety 9 (1-2): 1 79-204. S tarbuck, D avid R . 1 975 M an-Anima l R e lat ionships i n P re-Co lumb ian C entra l M ex ico . P h.D. D issertat ion, D epartment o f A nthropo logy, Y a le U niversity, N ew H aven. U h le, M ax 1 909 L a E sfera d e I nf luencias d e l H istor ica 4 (I-II): 5 -40. L ima.

P ais

d e l os

I ncas.

R ev ista

V ogt, E von Z . 1 958 W ater W itching : A n I nterpretat ion o f a R itua l P attern i n a R ural A mer ican C ommunity . I n : R eader i n C omparative R e lig ion. L essa a nd V ogt, e ds. P p. 3 27-339. E vanston, I l lino is: R ow , P eterson a nd C o . Z evallos M enendez, C ar los 1 965-6 I nforme P re lim inar s obre e l C ementarr io C horrera, S anta E lana, E cuador. S ebastian B arrancos Z evallos, C ar los a nd O laf H o lm 1 960 E xcavaciones A rqueo logicas e n S an C asa d e l a C ultura E cuator iana.

1 9

P ab lo.

B ahia d e

G uayaquil: E d itor ia l

Z uidema, R . T om 1 977-8 S hafttombs a nd t he I nca E mp ire . J ourna l A nthropo log ica l S ociety 9 (1-2): 1 33-178 .

2 0

o f t he

S teward

M orteros C eremonia les : T he E ar ly D eve lopment a nd D istr ibut ion o f aD ecorated S tone B ow l T rad it ion i n N orthwest S outh A mer ica E m il P eterson

P eterson d ocuments a p ort ion o f t he e ar ly ( 2000-3000 B .C.) d eve lopment o f A ndean c eremonia lism , ac eremon ia l s tone b one c omp lex w h ich p resumab ly w ill t urn o ut t o b e a nother f acet o f t he S pondy lus-Strombus c osmo log ica l f ocus r eferred t o b y M arcos a nd N orton i n t he p revious a rt ic le . P eterson a rgues f or t he d eve lopment o f a d ecorated s tone b ow l c eremonia l t rad it ion f ocussing f irst a long t he E cuador ian c oast a nd l ater s pread ing t o t he P eruv ian c oast a nd t he A ndean h igh lands. H is f irst p hase ( 6000-3000 B .C.) r epresents a s tone b ow l t rad it ion m a in ly o f f unct iona l a nd p ragmat ic h ouseho ld u sage, b ut h is s econd p hase, 3 000-1500 B .C., s ees t he d eve lopment o f t he c eremonia l c omp lex , w hich a long t he E cuador ian a nd P eruv ian c oast a re a lso a ssociated w ith t he b eg inn ings o f m assive p ub lic a rchitectura l c onstruct ions. P eterson 's t hird p hase, 1 500-500 B .C., m arks t he s pread o f t he c omp lex i nto t he A ndean h igh land a reas.

M uy p oca i mportancia s e h a d ado a l os p ucos o p latos d e p iedra e n l a a rqueo log ia s udamer icana, u sua lmente c onfund iendose les c on m etates . S in e mbargo, e n e l a rea : k-T oeste d e S ud A mer ica p art icu larmente l a z ona c omprend ida e ntre e l n orte d e E cuador y c entro-norte d e P eru, e stos p ucos h an e vo lucionado d e s imp les i mp lementos m o ledores d e s em illas a a que llos v asos a rt istacamente d ecorados d urante e l p er iodo f ormativo . D e e sta f orma, s e h ipotet iza r especto d e u na p robab le t rad icion c eremon ia l q ue r e laciona l os t empranos a gr icu ltura listas d e e sta a rea d e i nf luencia, t omando c omo r eferenc ia e l f ormat ivo d e l s it io d e C otoco llao e n E cuador , S e e xam ina, p or t anto , l a h istor ia d e e sta t rad icion a t raves d e t res p er iodos a rb itrar iamente t razados, a s aber, P er iodo d e i ntroduccion i n icia l ( 6000-3000 a .C.), P er iodo d e d esarro llo ( 3000-1500 a .C.) y P er iodo d e d istr ibuc ion ( 1500-500 a .C.) ye l r o l d e e stos p ucos d entro d e u na p osib le t rad icion P an-and ina d e v a lor c eremonia l.

I ntroduct ion I n t he N ew W or ld s tone b ow ls a re f ound a t a rchaeo log ica l s ites f rom c oast t o c oast a nd t emperate z one t o t emperate z one . K nown t o h ave b een o ccasiona lly u sed b y a f ew h unt ing a nd g ather ing g roups f or g r inding s easona l p lantfoods a nd s afeguard ing p er ishab les, s tone b ow ls a re g enera lly t hought t o b e m ore s ynonymous w ith s edentary c u lt ivators w ho u sed t he d aily u se i mp lement f or m illing s eeds a nd p lants. S o c ommon w ere t he s tone b ow ls t o s eed c u lt ivators i t i s r are n ot t o f ind t hem w here a gr icu lture i s e v ident . 2 1

T here h as b een l itt le a ttent ion g iven s tone b ow ls i n S outh A mer ica w hich i n m ost c ases a re r eported i n t he s ame c ategory w ith g r ind ing s labs a nd o ther a gr icu ltura l i mp lements. T he b ow ls a re u sua lly j ust if ied i n b e ing c lassif ied a s s uch a s t he ir p r im ary f unct ion i s s im ilar t o o ther p lant p rocessing u tensils l ike g r ind ing s labs a nd m etates. T here i s ac ase, h owever , i n ar estr icted a rea i n n orthwest S outh A mer ica w here t he s tone b ow l m ay h ave a chieved a m ore c e lebrated p osit ion i n t he e ar ly a gr icu ltura lists t oo l i nventory. L ocated i n a n a rea b etween n orthern E cuador a nd n orth c entra l P eru s tone b ow ls e vo lved f rom a r ud imentary s eed g r ind ing i mp lement i n t he l ate h unter-gatherer e ra i nto a n a rtfu lly d ecorated a nd p o lished v esse l d ur ing t he s ucceed ing F ormat ive P er iod . T he d eve lopment a nd d istr ibut ion o f t he d ecorated s tone b ow l s uggest a c eremonia l t rad it ion l inking e ar ly s eed a gr icu ltura lists t ogether i n t h is i nf luent ia l a rea. T he i dea o f ad ecorated s tone b ow l t rad it ion i n t his a rea i s b est v iewed f rom t he E cuador ian n orthern h igh land F ormat ive P er iod v illage s ite o f C otoco llao w here t hese r emarkab le v esse ls r eached a n a pex i n c raftsmanship . I n n o o ther r eg ion s har ing t he s tone b ow l t rad it ion c an a s m uch v ar iance i n s ty le a nd d ecorat ion b e f ound. T he i ntras ite p rovenience o f t he C otoco llao s tone b ow ls a lso a l low c erta in s pecu lat ions t o b e m ade c oncerning t he b ow l a s ac eremon ia l o bject . I n t h is p aper t he h istory o f ad ecorated s tone b ow l t rad ition i n n orthwest S outh A mer ica i s t raced t hrough t hree a rb itrary t ime p er iods; I . T he I nit ia l I ntroduct ion P er iod ( 6000-3000 B .C.), I . T he D eve lopment P er iod ( 3000-1500 B .C.), a nd II. T he D istr ibut ion P er iod ( 1500-500 B .C.). B esides t he c hrono log ica l d eve lopment a nd i nterreg iona l d istr ibut ion o f t he s tone b ow l t rad it ion a s pecu lat ion o f i ts c eremonia l f unct ion i s a lso g iven .

T he I ntroduct ion P er iod ( 6000-3000 B .C.) T he f irst a ppearance o f t he s tone b ow l i n n orthwest S outh A mer ica w as d ur ing t he l ate h unting a nd g ather ing/ incip ient c u lt ivator e ra w here t hey w ere u sed b y s easona l f oragers t o g r ind p lants a nd s eeds . F or t he m ost p art t he m ajor ity o f t hese b ow ls a re f ound o n t he P acif ic c oast f rom s outhern E cuador t o n orthern C hile ( map 1 ). T he e ar liest k nown b ow ls o ccur a round 6 000 B .C. o n t he c entra l P eruv ian c oast i n a " lomas c u lture" c ontext ( Lanning, 1 967). T hese e ar ly b ow ls a re h em ispher ica l s haped , t he e xter ior o f t he v esse l b eing r oughened o ut o f t he b ou lder a nd t he p ecked o ut i nter ior p art ia lly p o lished f rom u se ( Lann ing , 1 963). A rt ist ica lly t hese b ow ls a re u nimpressive b ut c u ltura lly s ignif icant a s t he ir p resence i nd icates a n i nc lusion o f g round p lants a nd s eeds i n a b asica lly h unt ing a nd g ather ing s ubsistence p attern . A m ore e laborate a nd p erhaps e vo lved s tone v esse l a ppears i n t he T a lara r eg ion o n t he P eruvian n orth c oast a t a s light ly l ater d ate ( R ichardson, 1 969). T hese b ow ls h ave h em ispher ica l s hapes a nd a n o ccasiona l f lattened b ase, t he e xter ior a nd i nter ior s urfaces b e ing p art ia lly g round a nd p o lished . I n t he e xcavat ion o f aL as V egas p hase s ite o n t he S anta E lena P en insula i n s outhwest E cuador o ne f ragment o f a p o lished s tone b ow l w as f ound

2 2

w hich a ccord ing t o S tothert ( persona l c ommunicat ion) h as at ecomate s hape a nd i s d ecorated w ith a n e ngraved g roove c irc ling t he o uter r im . T h is m ay b e t he e ar liest e xamp le o f a d ecorated s tone b ow l i n n orthwest S outh A mer ica a nd i s e specia lly i nterest ing s ince t he v esse l f orm i s ap redecessor t o e ar ly c eram ic v esse l s hapes f ound i n n orthern P eru . I f s o, t hen i s a s im ilar s ituat ion t o t hat o f T ehuacan i n M ex ico w here c eram ic v esse ls w ere m ade i n t he s ame s hapes a s e ar lier s tone v esse ls ( MacNe ish, 1 961). I n t he s ucceed ing F ormative P er iod V a ld ivia p hase o n t he s outhern E cuadorian c oast s tone b ow ls o ccur f rom V a ld ivia I . T hese b ow ls a re w e ll m ade a nd p o lished e nd h ave a f orm s im ilar t o t he E stero p hase b ow ls a t T a lara. C eram ic c opies o f t he s tone b ow l a lso e x ist a t V a ld ivia ( Meggers, e t .a l., 1 965, f ig . 5 4, f orm 5 ). D ist inct f rom m etates a nd g rinding s labs a lso f ound i n V a ldiv ia ( Zeva llos a nd H o lm , 1 960; N orton, 1 971) t he p o lished s tone b ow ls i l lustrated i n t he A nc ient E cuador c ata logue, ( Lathrap, e t . a l., 1 975, p hoto 2 02,203) a nd o thers i nspected b y t he a n7hor d o n ot d emonstrate c haracter ist ic u sage s car p atterns c ommon ly f ound o n o ther m illing i mp lements. T he d ist inction b etween g r ind ing s labs a nd p o lished s tone b ow ls i n r egard t o t heir s ty lized f orm a nd p ossib le a lternate f unct ion s uggest t hat i n V a ld ivia t he s tone b ow l m ay h ave s erved p urposes o ther t han t he d aily m illing a nd g r ind ing o f s eeds. W hile t he m ajor ity o f s tone b ow ls a re f ound i n c oasta l a reas t here i s l ittle e v idence o f i ts p resence i n t he s ierra r eg ions e ven t hough p lant c u lt ivat ion w as u ndoubt ly p racticed i n t he l atter p art o f t his p eriod . T he D eve lopment P er iod ( 3000-1500 B .C.) T his p eriod w itnesses t he d eve lopment o f a d ecorated s tone b ow l t rad ition c onsecut ive w ith a n e ar ly i ntegration o f c eram ic t raits a nd m a ize a gr icu lture i n t his r estr icted a rea i n n orthwest S outh A mer ica. D ist inct f rom m etates a nd o ther s eed g r inding i mp lements a lso f ound a t t h is t ime, t he s tone b ow l s eems t o h ave e vo lved i nto a m inor a rt s ty le, h igh ly d ecorated a nd p erhaps h aving s ome c eremonia l v a lue. F or t he e ar ly p art o f t his p er iod t here i s l itt le r eference o ther t han s ome l ate p re-ceram ic P eruv ian c oasta l f inds a nd V a ldiv ia w here p o lished s tone b ow ls o ver lap f rom t he p reced ing p eriod . T here i s, h owever, a p henomena l d eve lopment o f t he s tone b ow l b etween t he e ar ly a nd l ate s egments o f t his p c- o d, t he l ater b ow ls b eing m ore p opu lar , b etter m anufactured a nd h av ga g reater v ar iety o f d ecorat ion t han t he e ar lier v ersions . F or t he m ost p art d ecorated s tone b ow ls a re f ound i n t he s ierra i n t hree w ide ly s eperated r egions. I nteresting ly, t he t hree a reas w h ich s hare a d ecorated s tone b ow l t rad ition a lso s hare s ome s im ilar c eram ic t raits a s w e ll a s p robab le m aize a gr icu lture . I n t he K otosh a rea o n t he u pper R io H ua llaga s tone b ow ls a re f ound d ating t o t he W aira-jirca p hase ( Izum i a nd T erada, 1 972). T hese i gneous s tone v esse ls h ave ab alanced p an s hape w ith o utsloping o r v ertical w alls a nd a f lattened b ase. T he h igh ly p o lished b ow l f ragments o ccasiona lly h ave e ngraved g eometr ic d esigns o n t he e xter ior 2 3

s urface. T he s tone v esse l s hapes a nd d ecorat ive m otifs a re a lso f ound i n W aira-jirca c eram ic. A t t he n earby t emp le s ite o f S hillacoto ( Kano, 1 972) a r ather u nique s tone v esse l w as d iscovered c onsisting o f al arge p o lished p late o n f our s hort l egs. T his v esse l w as f ound a ssociated w ith o ther f ragments o f d ecorated s tone b ow ls a nd W aira-jirca c eram ic. I n s ite r eports f rom t his a rea r egarding t h is t ime p er iod s tone b ow ls a re c lassif ied a s m orteros, d ist inct f rom m etates a nd g r ind ing s labs f ound t here b ut l itt le i nformat ion i s g iven t o t he b ow ls m anufacture, d ecorat ion, o r s pecu lative f unct ion. I n t he s econd P eruvian, p re-Chavin a rea, t he B agua-Pacopampa z one a t t he b end o f t he R io M aranon, t here i s l itt le r eported a bout t he s tone b ow l. A t t he c eremonia l P acopampa s ite ( Shady S o lis, 1 976) c arved s te la a nd o ther e ngraved l ithic a rt i s f ound a nd I h ave b een i nformed ( Danie le L ava llee, p ersona l c ommun icat ion) t hat d ecorated s tone b ow l f ragments a lso e x ist . I n a dd ition, L anning m akes p assing r eference t o s ome f ine ly m ade s tone b ow ls f ound a round B agua i n c ontext w ith s ome e ar ly I nit ia l P er iod c eram ic ( Lanning, 1 967; 8 7). T he t hird d eve lopmenta l a rea o f t he d ecorated s tone b ow l i s i n E cuador w here t hey a re r estr icted t o C otoco llao i n t he Q u ito V a lley . T he b ow l i s a bsent f rom c ontemporary C erro N arr io i n t he s outhern h igh lands a nd M acha lilla o n t he s outhern c oast . A t C otoco llao s ome f unction o ther t han m illing s eeds i s s uggested i n r egard t o t he s tone b ow ls q uant ity, v ar iance i n f orm a nd d ecorat ion, a bsence o f m illing s cars a nd t heir l ocat ion i n t he s ite . I n c ompar ison w ith t he P eruv ian a reas s har ing t he d ecorated s tone b ow l t rait t he C otoco llao b ow ls a re t he f inest m ade a nd e xhib it t he m ost v ar iety o f s hape a nd d ecoration . R ecent e xcavat ions a t t he F ormat ive P er iod C otoco llao v illage s ite h ave r evea led a l ong c u ltura l s equence, c a. 1 700-500 B .C. f or t he l arge a gr icu ltural s ett lement . M any c eram ic t raits a re s hared w ith t he E cuador ian c oasta l F ormat ive P er iod p hases a s w e ll a s s ome P eruvian h igh land p re-Chavin p hases. I n t he e ar ly p art o f C otoco llao 's h istory d ecorated s tone b ow ls n ot o ver ly n umerous b ut p resent - a re c onsistent ly f ound f ragmented i n t ypica l h ouse m idden. S tone t ypes u sed t o m ake t he b ow ls i nc lude d ifferent a ndesites a nd g ranites o f v ar ious t extures. V essel f orms p r imar ily c onsist o f r ound b ow l s hapes o f c omposite s ilhouette o n a f lat d isc b ase. A ll s urfaces o f t he b ow ls a re h igh ly p o lished a nd t he i nter ior s urfaces d o n ot r evea l g r ind ing a nd m illing s car p atterns e vident o n g r inding s labs a nd m etates. D ecoration m ot ifs i nc lude e ngraved r ows o f c ircumferent ial g rooves, n icked w e lts, l ight ly e ngraved c hevrons, a nd o ther g eometr ic d esigns. A ll s tone v esse l f orms a nd d ecoration t echniques a re f ound i n c eram ic. M any o f t he s tone v esse ls a re p ainted w ith a r ed s lip a lso u sed o n c eram ic. S ma ll b asa lt a nd s andstone a braders, p o lishers, c hise ls a nd g roovers a re a lso f ound i n t he h ouse e xcavations, a nd l ike a ssociated q uartz c rystals h aving a w ork-rounded t ip w ere m ost l ike ly u sed t o f orm a nd d ecorate t he h ard s tone v esse ls a t ah ouseho ld i ndustry l eve l. T he C otoco llao v ar iety i s t he f inest s tone b ow l m anufactured d ur ing t he d eve lopment p er iod . T he b ow ls s ymmetry a nd b alance a re a lmost p erfect a nd i t i s r are t o e ncounter a p oor ly e xecuted d ecorat ion m otif . W hile t he t oo ls u sed f or f ina l f orm ing a nd f ine 2 4

p o lishing a re f ound i n t he e xcavations n o d ata h as b een r ecovered t o e xp lain h ow t hese t hin w a lled v esse ls w ere o r ig inally p roduced f rom r ough b oulders. U ndoubted ly t he p ecking o ut t he r ough f orm w as d one b y o ther s tone t oo ls a ided b y a cid ic l iquids ( Tschopik,1946), b ut t he e ssent ial f orm ing a nd p o lishing a gents a re u nknown . Q uartz s ands h ave b een d emonstrated t o b e a r e xce llent f r iction a gent f or g r ind ing d own s tone ( Co les,1973) b ut a s t hey a re n ot r eadily a vailab le i n t he v o lcanic a rea o f Q uito i t i s r ather d oubtful t hey w ere u t ilized. A t K otosh, M atsutani r eports l arge a mounts o f E quistum g rass p o llen i n h is p hyto lith a na lysis a nd s uggests t hat i t m ay h ave b een u sed f or s tone p o lishing ( Matsutani,1972). T he f unct ions o f t he e ar ly C otoco llao d ecorated s tone b ow l a re u nc lear. Iw ou ld s uggest s ome k ind o f s pecia l o r p erhaps c eremonia l v a lue s ince t he b ow ls a re s o m uch m ore e laborate t han t he u tilitar ian g r inding a nd m illing i mp lements. T hey d o n ot d emonstrate c haracteristic m illing s car p atterns b ut a ppear n ew o r s light ly u sed a nd t he h ard s tone b ow ls a re c onsistent ly f ound i n s ma ll f ragments a s i f i ntentiona lly b roken. T he D istr ibut ion P er iod ( 1500-500 B .C.) I n t his f ina l p er iod t he d ecorated s tone b ow l b ecomes a n i ntegra l p art o f a s pecif ic c u ltura l s uffusion i n t his r estr icted a rea i n n orthwest S outh A mer ica. T his p er iod c an b e d ivided i nto t wo s equences: e ar ly, w hen t he f urther e laborat ion o f t he b ow l i s c ont inued a t d eve lopment p er iod l ocat ions; a nd l ate, w here t he b ow l t rad ition e vo lves i nto r eg iona l s ty les a nd i s d iffused t o o ther z ones. A lthough t he m anufacture o f d ecorated s tone b ow ls c ont inued a fter t he a rb itrary d ate o f 5 00 B .C. i n s e lect a reas, a s a c ultural a rt ifact b ind ing a n e ar ly t rad it ion s ty le i n n orthwest S outh A mer ica, t hey t end t o i nterregiona lly d iffuse b eyond a p o int o f i mmediate r ecognit ion. A t C otoco llao t he m anufacture o f d ecorated s tone b ow ls i ncreased i n l ate C otoco llao a nd a re f ound p r imar ily i n c ircumstances s im ilar t o t hose i n e ar ly C otoco llao. F ound m ixed w ith h ouse m idden, t here i s l itt le i ndicat ion o f c hanging v esse l f orm o r d ecorat ion b etween e ar ly a nd l ate C otoco llao . D ata f rom l ate C otoco llao, h owever, g ives a c lue t o p ossib le f unct ions o r v alues o f t he v esse l. I n a l arge m ultip le b ur ial c ontaining a s m any a s 4 00 b ur ia ls a nd d at ing t o c a. 5 40 B .C., f our c omp lete s tone v esse ls w ere f ound i n v arying c ontexts. T wo p robab le " b lanks", f ormed a nd s em ipo lished v esse ls s t ill l acking f ine p o lishing a nd d ecorat ion, w ere f ound i nverted i n n o r eadily a pparent a ssociat ion w ith a n i nd ividual b ur ial. O n o ne b ow l aC otoco llao t ype s pouted b ott le w as f ound s hattered, p erhaps i ntent ionally b roken o n t he i nverted b ow l d ur ing a c eremonial e vent . A t hird v esse l i s a r ather u nique s pecimen, c onsist ing o f af ine ly d ecorated, p o lished a nd p art ially r ed s lipped a ndesite b ow l h aving a h uman c ranium f orced d own o n t he v esse l r im . D i C apua n otes t he d ua l V -shaped b reaks i n t he r im o n o pposite s ides o f t he b ow l a nd s uggests a p ossib le b reaking r itua l ( D i C apua,1978). T his m ay w e ll b e t he c ase a s o ther b ow ls h ave i dentical b reakage p atterns a nd " killed" c eram ic v esse ls a re a lso f ound i n t he c emetery . A nother i nterest ing v esse l i s as tone b ox w h ich, w hile n ot d ecorated, i s p o lished a nd s hows t races o f o nce h av ing b een p ainted w ith r ed s lip. T he s tone b ox w as f ound t ipped o n i ts s ide a nd t he c ontents, s ome p o lished p ebb les, s pilled o ut. T he 2 5

b ox w as f ound a ssociated w ith a s t irrup-spout c ar inated d oughnut-shaped c eram ic v esse l i n t he g rave o f ay oung w oman. T he d ecorated s tone b ow l t radition i n E cuador i s l im ited t o t he Q uito V a lley o n ly f or t he d urat ion o f t he C otoco llao o ccupat ion. S poradic f inds o f d ecorated s tone b ow ls i n o ther p arts o f E cuador m ay r ef lect a n i nterreg ional e xchange r ad iat ing f rom C otoco llao . A t c a. 5 00 B .C. a v o lcanic e rupt ion d estroyed t he C otoca llao a nd b rought a l l a ctivity t o a h a lt. Al ater r eoccupat ion, c a. 2 00 B .C. d id n ot m anufacture t he d ecorated s tone b ow l. I n P eru d ecorated s tone b ow ls c ont inued t o b e m anufactured i n b oth t he B agua a nd K otosh a reas d ur ing t his p er iod . A round B agua, a t t he H uayurco s ite c omp lete d ecorated s tone b ow ls a s w e ll a s f ragments w ere f ound w ith b ur ia ls ( Rojas P once 1 969). Z oomorphic c ar icatures a ppear f or t he f irst t ime a nd v esse l f orms a re a lso f ound i n c eram ic. A t K otosh, d ecorated s tone b ow ls c ont inue t o b e m ade i nto t he K otosh-Kotosh a nd K otosh-Chavin p hases. S im ilar t o s tone b ow ls f rom t he e ar lier W airca-jirca p hase t he l ater K otosh b ow l f orms a re a lso f ound i n c eram ic. O ne i nterest ing b ow l f ragment h as a n a nthropomorphic f igure e tched o n t he p o lished s urface ( Izum i,1963). A t t he n earby L a P ampa s ite d ecorated s tone v esse ls h ave r ecent ly b een r eported f rom t he e ar liest p hases w hich d ate t o t his p er iod ( Terada,1979). Ab eaker s haped s tone v esse l h aving a g eometr ic d esign e ngraved o n t he s hou lder w as f ound t here a nd i s o ne o f t he e ar liest e xamp les o f t his f orm , t he p reced ing v esse ls h av ing b een g enera lly r estricted t o b ow l f orms. W est f rom K otosh, o ver t he c ordillera t o t he u pper R io M aranon, l ies t he w e ll k nown C havin d e H uantar s ite . F amous f or i ts t emp le a nd e laborate s tone c arvings t he C havin p hase a lso i nc ludes a w ide v ar iety o f d ecorated s tone b ow ls. T he m orteros c eremonia les f ound t here b y T e llo a re d ivided i nto t wo c ategor ies : z oomorphic a nd g eometr ic d esigns ( Te llo,1961). T he z oomorphic c lass i ncludes m ost ly a vian a nd f e line d epict ions w ith a b ow l c arved i nto t he b ack o f t he a n ima l. Z oomorphic l ikenesses a re w ide ly u sed a t C havin d e H uantar o n l arge s te la a nd c eram ic v esse ls a s w e ll a s s tone b ow ls. T h is u se i s r estr icted t o t he C havin p hase a nd i s n ot g enera lly f ound i n o ther p hases h aving a d ecorated s tone b ow l. T he s econd c ategory , g eometr ic, i nc ludes c onvent iona l s ty led b ow ls w ith g eometr ic d esigns e ngraved o n p o lished p an s haped v esse ls a nd c an a lso b e f ound i n c eram ic. T hese a re s im ilar t o t hose f rom o ther a reas i n p receding p hases. T he r apid s pread o f t he C havin c u lture t o o ther p arts o f t he C entra l A ndes, e specially i n c oasta l a reas, i nc lude a w ide r ange o f c ultura l t raits, t he d ecorated s tone b ow l b eing o n ly o ne o f t hem . I n n ear ly e very C havin s ite t he d ecorated s tone b ow l m ay b e f ound. F rom t he L ambayeque r eg ion s outh a long t he c oast t o P aracas d ecorated s tone b ow ls a re f requent ly f ound, o ften a s g rave g oods i n b ur ials. A t C up isnique l arge q uantit ies o f d ecorated s tone c ups a nd b ow ls a re f ound d ecorated i n ar ange o f a nthropomorphic a nd g eometr ic d esigns. L arco b e lieves q uartz c rystals w ith w ork r ounded t ips f ound t here w ere u sed t o d ecorate t he h ard s tone v esse ls ( Larco,1941). A t P aracas a n ice ly f inished c y lindr ical v esse l w as f ound d ep icting a m ythica l C havin g od e ngraved o n t he p o lished s urface ( Te llo,1940).

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D iscussion F or t he l ack o f d ata, o r b etter t he u navailability o f i t , a ny d iscussion r egard ing a d ecorated s tone b ow l t radit ion m ust b e l im ited t o as peculat ive n ature a t t his t ime. F rom t he d ata h owever , i t m ay b e s uggested a s tone b ow l t rad it ion d id i ndeed d eve lop i n t his e ar ly i nf luentia l a rea i n n orthwest S outh A mer ica, a t rad it ion t hay m ay b e c onsidered a m inor a rt s ty le h aving a c eremonia l v a lue a nd s erv ing a p ossib le m ode o f c u lture t ransfer f rom o ne r egion t o a nother . I n t his d iscussion t he d ata o f t he d ecorated s tone b ow ls d eve lopment a nd d istr ibution i s s ummar ized a nd t he p ossib le c eremonia l v a lue o f a d ecorated s tone b ow l t rad it ion a ttempted . S tone b ow ls h ave a n e ar ly d ebut i n n orthwest S outh A mer ica, a ppear ing a t a round 6 000 B .C. o n t he c entra l P eruvian c oast w here t hey w ere s easona lly u t ilized t o g r ind p lants a nd s eeds. A s imp le, a nd r ather c rude a rt ifact s erving a b asic n eed t hey e vo lved i nto a f iner m ade v esse l o n t he n orth P eruvian c oast a t as light ly l ater d ate. T he f irst e vidence o f a d ecorated s tone v esse l c omes f rom s outhwest E cuador w here a t ecomate s haped b ow l f ragment h aving a g roove a round t he r im w as e xcavated i n a l ate p re-ceram ic, e ar ly s edentary c u lt ivator c ontext . T here i s l itt le d oubt t hat d ur ing t he p re-ceram ic e ra s tone b ow ls w ere b asica lly a u t ilitar ian g r inding i mp lement . I n t he f u lly d eve loped c eram ic a nd m aize g row ing c u lture p hase o f V a ldivia h owever, s tone b ow ls a re d ist inct f rom t he n umerous m illing i mp lements. T he e laborate m anufacture a nd n on-ut ilitar ian u se s uggest t hat a h igher c u ltural v a lue w as g iven t o t he b ow l. W ith t he r ap id s pread o f t he F ormative P er iod t hroughout t he n orthwest S outh A mer ican a rea, d ecorated s tone b ow ls e vo lved i nto a m inor a rt s ty le. T he a ppearance o f ad ecorated s tone b ow l t radition i n t hree w ide ly s eparated a reas g ives r ise t o t he e ssent ia l q uest ion w hether t he b ow l t rad it ion e vo lved i ndependent ly o f e ach o ther o r w hether t hey w ere p art o f a l arger i nterreg iona l e xchange s phere. I n v iew o f c ertain c eram ic a nd p robab le s ubsistence s im ilar it ies t he l atter p ossibility, t hat o f a w idespread d eve loping t rad ition i s s uggested . T he u niqueness o f t he d ecorated s tone b ow l a nd i ts l im ited d istr ibut ion i n t his i nf luent ial s phere d oes n ot r eadily a llow i t t o b e e xp lained a way b y i ndependent i nvent ion. I t h as b een s uggested t hat d ecorated s tone b ow ls m anufactured a t t he H uayarco s ite w ere s upp lied t o t he P eruvian c oast i n a n i nterreg iona l t rade n etwork ( Lathrap,1970). W hether t he a ctua l b ow l o r t he i dea o f ad ecorated s tone b ow l t radit ion w as d iffused o ver t his a rea i s n ot k nown b ut t he a ppearance o f t he d ecorated b ow l i n F ormat ive P er iod s ites i ndicate t he w idespread d istribution o f t he d ecorated b ow l t radition. D ecorated s tone b ow ls a re f ound a t p ractica lly a ll C havin s ites. U nfortunate ly t hey a re o ften o ver looked i n r eports w hich d we ll m ore o n t he g reat a rt s ty les i n c arved s te la. T he p hrase " morteros c eremoniales" w as f irst c oined b y T e llo w ho s uggested a r itua l f unct ion f or t he e laborate ly d ecorated C havin s tone b ow ls ( Te llo,1940). H e c orre lated t he d istr ibution o f t he s tone b ow l w ith t he s pread o f t he C havin c ulture a nd s uggested a r e lationship b etween t he v esse l a nd a gr iculture. 2 7

M aize a gr icu lture w as m ost l ike ly p ract iced a t t he d evelopmenta l F ormat ive P er iod s ites s har ing t he d ecorated b ow l t radit ion a s w e ll a s a t t he d istr ibut ion p er iod s ites s uch a s C havin. T his a l l i mportant a gr icu ltural p ract ice m ay b e an on-direct c ause f or t he d eve lopment o f a d ecorated s tone b ow l t rad it ion. D a ily-use g r inding s labs a re p ro liferant i n t he a rea s har ing t he b ow l t radition b ut a re d ist inct f rom t he e laborate ly m ade b ow ls. T he l ocation o f d ecorated b ow ls i n t he a rchaeo log ical s ites r evea l l itt le t o s uggest a s pecif ic, r itua l e vent . A t m ost s ites b roken s tone b ow ls a re f ound i n t ypica l h ouse m idden. A t C otoco llao s tone t oo ls b e lieved t o h ave b een u sed i n m anufactur ing t he b ow ls h ave a lso b een e xcavated i n h ouses. V ery f ew o f t he s tone b ow l f ragments i nd icate t hey w ere u sed f or a p er iod o f t ime b efore b e ing b roken. T his m ay s uggest s ome k ind o f h ouseho ld r itua l i n w hich o nce t he b ow l w as m ade i t w as i ntent ionaly b roken. S ome s tone b ow ls a t C otoco llao h ave d ua l V -shaped b reaks i n t he r im o pposite e ach o ther a nd m ay b e d ue t o a" killing" r itual, e videnta lly a lso p ract iced w ith c eram ic b ow ls i n t he c emetery. C omp lete s tone b ow ls h ave a lso b een f ound a s g rave g oods i n b ur ials a t v ar ious s ites. T hese w ere o bviously p art o f s ome u ncomprehensib le r itua l b ut i ndicates a s pecia l v a lue o f t he b ow l i n t he f unera l e vent. A lthough t here i s l itt le r ea l a rchaeo logica l d ata t o s upport t he i dea o f d ecorated s tone b ow l t radit ion h av ing o ccured i n t his a rea d ur ing t he F ormat ive P er iod, t he c ircumstances s urrounding t he b ow l i nd icate s ome u nknown r itua l i n w hich t hey w ere s poradica lly m ade a nd b roken. W hat k ind o f r itua l c a lled f or t he s pecia l u se o f t he b ow l i s a lso u nknown . T he c omp iled d ata h owever , a nd t he u tilitar ian o r ig ins o f t he d ecorated s tone b ow l s uggest i t m ay h ave b een u t ilized t o p erhaps c e lebrate a gr icu lture r ather t han p rocess i t.

2 8

L iterature C ited C o les, J . 1 973 A rchaeo logy L ibrary.

b y

E xper iment .

D i C apua, C . 1 978 A ntropo logia E cuator iana, N o . 1 . I zum i, S . a nd T . S ono 1 963 A ndes 2 : E xcavat ions P ub lis -F ing C o .

L ondon :

H utchinson

U n iversity

Q uito : C asa d e C u ltura.

a t K otosh, P eru, 1 960.

T okyo : K adowkawa

K ano, C . 1 972 P re-Chav in C u ltures i n t he C entra l H igh lands o f P eru : n ew e vidence f rom S hillacoto, H uanuco . i n : E .P. B enson, e d. C u lt o f t he F e line . p p. 1 39-152. W ashington D .C.: D umbarton O aks. L anning, E . 1 963 A p re-ceram ic a gr icu ltura l o ccupat ion o n t he C entra l c oast o f P eru. A mer ican A nt iquity 2 8(3):360-371. 1 967 P eru b efore t he I ncas. E ng lewood C liffs : P rent ice-Ha ll. L arco H oy le, R . 1 941 L os C upisniques. L ima : L a C ronica y V ar iedades. L athrap, D . 1 970 T he U pper A mazon.

N ew Y ork: P raeger .

L athrap, D ., D . C o llier a nd H . C handra 1 975 A ncient E cuador : C u lture, C lay, a nd C reativity : C hicago : F ie ld M useum o f N atura l H istory .

3 000-300 B .C.

M acNeish, R . 1 961 F irst A nnua l R eport o f t he T ehuacan A rchaeo log ica l- B otanica l P roject. A ndover : R obert S . P eabody F oundat ion f or A rchaeo logy . M atsutani, A . 1 972 S podographic a na lysis o f a sh f rom t he K otosh s ite . i n : T . I zum i a nd K . T erada. A ndes 4 : E xcavat ions a t K otash, P eru, 1 963 a nd 1 964, p p. 3 19-326. T okyo : U niversity o f T okyo P ress. M eggers, B .J., C . E vans a nd E . E strada 1 965 E ar ly F ormat ive P er iod o f C oasta l E cuador : T he V a ldiv ia a nd M acha lilla P hases. S m ithsonian C ontr ibut ions t o A nthropo logy, V o l. 1 . W ashington D .C. N orton, P . 1 971 A p re lim inary r eport o n L oma A lta a nd t he i mp licat ions o f i nland V a ld ivia A . P r imer S imposio d e C orre laciones A nd ino-Mesoamer icano . S a linas. P eterson, E . 1 977 C otoco llao : AF ormat ive P er iod V illage S ite i n t he H igh lands o f N orthern E cuador . 4 3rd A nnual M eet ings, S ociety f or A mer ican A rchaeo logy, N ew O r leans. 2 9

1 979

E xcavations a t C otoco llao, E cuador , P art I .

Q uito .

R ichardson, J . 1 969 P receram ic S equence a nd t he P leistocene a nd P ost-P leistocene C limate i n N orthwest P eru. U rbana: U niversity o f I llino is D epartment o f A nthropo logy D octoral D issertation. R ojas P once, P . 1 969 L a H uaca H uayurco, J aen, C ajamarca. B o let in d el S en inar io d e A rqueo logia 4 :48-55. L ima: I nstituto R iva A guierro . S hady S o lis, R . 1 976 E xcavationes e n l a z ona P acopampa.

U npub lished m anuscript.

T e llo, J . 1 940 V aso d e P iedra d e N asca. C haski 1 (1): 2 7-48. L ima. 1 960 C havin: C ultura M atr iz d e l a C iv ilizacion A nd ina, P arte. L ima: U n .Aersidad N acional M ayor d e S an M arcos. T erada, K . 1 979 E xcavations a t L a P ampa i n t he N orth H ighlands T okyo : U niversity o f T okyo P ress.

P r imera

o f P eru,

1 975.

T schopik, H . 1 946 T he A ymara. i n: J .H. S teward, e d . H andbook o f S outh A mer ican I ndians, V o l 2 : T he A ndean C ivilizations. p. 5 01-574. W ashington D .C. Z evallos M enendez, C ., a n :. . 1 0 . H o lm 1 960 E xcavaciones a rqueG logicas e n S an P ab lo : I nforme P relim inar. G uayaquil: E ditor ia .. C asa d e l a C u ltura E cuatoriana.

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D istr ibut ion p attern o f s tone b ow ls i n n orthwest S outh Amer ica

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I ntroduct ion P er iod

( 6000-3000 B . C)

D eve lopment P er iod

( 3000-1500 B . C.)

D istr ibut ion P er iod

( 1500-500 B . C.)

3 1

A rchaeo log ical A reas a nd P rehistor ic F ront iers: t he C ase o f F ormative P eru a nd E cuador R ichard L . B urger

T he d ivision o f P eru a nd E cuador i nto d ist inct a rchaeo log ical a reas f irst b egan i n t his c entury . A rchaeo log ica l e vidence s uggests t hat t his d ivision e xisted a s e ar ly a s a n e poch o f A ndean p rehistory k nown a s t he E ar ly H or izon i n P eru a nd t he L ate F ormative i n E cuador . T his d ivision b etween P eru a nd E cuador r ef lected t he e xistence o f a f ront ier z one w hich s eparated t he C hav in c ivilizat ion o f P eru f rom t he c ontemporaneous c u ltures o f E cuador ( for e xamp le C horrera, E ngoroy, A lausi). D ur ing t his p er iod, C hav in i conography a long w ith c eram ics w ith d esigns r e lat ing t o t he J anabarr iu p hase o f C havin d e H uantar h as i ts n orthern l im its a t t he r iver d rainages o f L ambayeque-La L eche a nd C hotano o n t he c oast a nd s ierra r espect ive ly . T he p attern o f d istr ibut ion o f s ty listic e lements i s i nterpreted a s r ef lecting t he i deo logica l a nd s ocia l i ntegrat ion w hich e xisted i n n orth a nd c entra l P eru a s c ontrasted t o t he z one t o i ts n orth . T his h ypothesis i s e xam ined u tilizing c hem ica l a na lyses o f o bsid ian a rtifacts f rom t he s ite o f P acopampa, a C hav in c enter n ear t he p roposed f ront ier z one . T he r esu lts o f n eutron a ct ivat ion a nalysis a nd X -ray f lourescence i nd icate t hat P acopampa r eceived i ts o bsidian f rom Q uisp isisa, a m ine i n t he c entral s ierra o f P eru, i n s p ite o f t he e xce llent s ources o f o bsidian l ocated i n E cuador s ome 2 50 k m c loser . T his p attern i s c onsistent w ith as ystem o f i nterna l e xchange o f r eg iona l g oods p roduced b y a n e ar ly c ivilization s uch a s C havin. T here w as a s w e ll e xternal t rade b etween P eru a nd E cuador w hich p erm itted e xotic o bjects o f r itua l i mportance s uch a s S pondy lus a nd S trombus s he lls t o c ross t he f ront ier z one, b ut s uch e xchange d oes n ot n ecessar ily i mp ly a ny i ntensive o r s ignif icant i nteract ion b etween t he c ultures o f P eru a nd E cuador . T he S echura d esert, a nd t he u nhea lthy v a lleys a nd w oods o f C atamayo p rovide a n atura l z one o f s eparation w hich s erved a s t he b asis o f a p rehistor ic f rontier o f b oth a nthropogeographic a nd p o litica l n ature. W e o ught t o e mphasize, h owever , t hat t his f ront ier w as b reached a t v ar ious t imes i n p reh istor ic p er iods b y e conom ic, m ilitary, a nd i deo log ica l f orces o f v ar ious c onquest s tates.

L a d iv ision d e P eru y E cuador e n d ist intas a reas a rqueo log icas t uvo s us c onienzos a p r incipios d e e ste s ig lo . L os d atos p roporcionados p or l a a rqueo log ia m oderna levan as uger ir e n e ste p onencia, l a h ipotesis d e q ue t a l d ivision e x ist io p or l o m enos d urante u na e poca d e l a p rehistoria a ndina, q ue s e d enom ina H or izonte T emprano e n P eru y F ormativo T ard io e n E cuador . E sta d ivision e ntre P eru y E cuador s e r ef leja e n l a e x istencia d e u na z ona f ronter iza q ue s epara l a c ivilizacion C havin d e l as c u lturas c ontemporaneas e n E cuador ( por e jemp lo C horrera, E ngoroy y A lausi). D urante e ste p er iodo, t anto l a i conograf ia C havin c omo l a c eram ica c on r asgos v inculados a l a f ase J anabarr iu d e C havin d e H uantar t ienen s u l im ite s eptentional e n e l d renaje d e l os r ios L amayeque-La L eche y C hotano e n 3 3

l a c osta y s ierra r espect ivamente. E l p atron d e d istribucion e st ilistico e s i nterpretado c omo e l r ef lejo d e l a i ntegracion i deo log ica y s ocia l q ue e xist io e n e l n orte y c entro d e P eru e n c ontraste c on l a d e l a z ona m as a l n orte . E sta h ipotesis h a s ido e xam inada u tilizando e l a na lisis q u im ico d e a rtefactos d e o bsid iana p rovenientes d e P acopampa, c entro C havin u bicado c erca d e l a f rontera p ostu lada. L os r esu ltados d e l a na lisis d e a ct ivacion d e n eutrones y d ifraccion d e r ayos X n os i nd ica q ue P acopampa o btenia s u o bsid iana d e Q uispisisa, u na c antera e n l a s ierra c entra l d e l P eru, a p esar d e e xistir f uentes d e o bsid iana d e e xce lente c a lidad u bicadas e n E cuador, 2 50 k m . m as c erca. E ste p atron e s c onsistente c on u n s istema d e i ntercambio i nterno a n ive l i ntermedio d e b ienes p roduct ivos e ntre l os c omponentes d e u na c ivilizacion t emprana, c omo C havin. S e r econoce q ue u n i ntercambio e xterno e x istio e ntre P eru y E cuador q ue p erm it io q ue o bjetos e xot icos d e i mportancia r itua l c omo S pondy lus y S trombus c ruzaran l a z ona f ronter iza, p ero q ue t a l i ntercambio n o i mp licaba n ecessar iamente u na i nteraccion i ntensiva o s ignificante e ntre l as c u lturas m encionadas p ara P eru y E cuador . C abe d estacar q ue e l d esierto d e S echura, y l os b osques y v a lles i nsalubres d e C atamayo o frecieron u na z ona n atural d e s eparacion q ue s erviria d e b ase p ara e sta f rontera p rehistor ica d e c aracter a nropogeograf ico y p o lit ico. D ebe e nfat izarse, s in e mbargo, q ue t a l o rden f ue t ransgred ido m as t arde v ar ias v eces e n l a p rehistor ia p or l as f uerzas m ilitares, e conom icas e i deo log icas g eneradas p or e stados b asados e n l a c onquista.

I ntroduct ion P eruvian p rehistory h as t radit iona lly b een t reated a s d ist inct f rom a nd i ndependent o f d eve lopments i n E cuador . T his a pproach w as l eg itim ized b y a ssigning t he a rchaeo logy o f t hese t wo m odern n at ions t o d ifferent " archaeo logica l a reas", e ach o f w hich h as a cquired i ts o wn t erm ino logy, g roup o f s pecia lists, a nd r esearch p rob lems. A s a c onsequence o f t his p attern, s pecia lized t exts u sua lly t reat o ne c ountry o r t he o ther , b ut n ot b oth ( e .g ., B ennett a nd B ird 1 960, B ushne ll 1 957, L anning 1 967, L umbreras 1 974A, M eggers 1 966, P orras 1 980). G enera l s yntheses o f S outh A mer ica p rehistory d eal w ith m ater ia ls f rom b oth n at ions, b ut u sua lly i n s eparate a nd l arge ly u nre lated s ections ( W illey 1 971, R avines 1 982). O n t he s urface, t his s ituation m ight b e a ttr ibuted t o t he w or ldw ide t endency o f a rchaeo log ica l r esearch t o f o llow n at ional b oundar ies ( W illey 1 971:286, L umbreras 1 981:35-36), a t rend w hich i s e xacerbated f urther w hen, a s i n t he c ase o f E cuador a nd P eru, t here i s ah istory o f a rmed c onf lict . W hile t he i mpact o f p o litica l b oundar ies a nd b order d isputes o n a rchaeo logica l r esearch i s s e lf-evident, t he i nte llectua l r at iona le j ust ifying t he d iv ision o f t his r egion i nto t wo a rchaeo log ica l a reas i s l ess a pparent . I t h as r are ly b een e xp licit ly p resented, d espite t he f act t hat i t h as p ervaded t he o rganization o f a rchaeo log ica l m aterials a nd t he f ormulation o f h ypotheses f or s ome s eventy y ears. I t i s r easonab le t o i nquire w hether o r n ot t he p artit ioning o f t he 3 4

a ncient c u ltures o f P eru a nd E cuador i nto s eparate a rchaeo log ical a reas i s a n a rbitrary e xercise i n t ypo logy, c h ief ly r ef lecting m odern p o lit ica l a nd e conom ic r ea lit ies, o r w hether i t a ctua lly c orresponds t o a m eaningfu l d ivision w hich e x isted b etween t he p rehistor ic s ocieties t hat o nce i nhabited t hese t wo L at in A mer ican n at ions. B ut c an a rchaeo log ica l e vidence b e u sed e ffect ive ly t o e va luate t he e x istence a nd n ature o f t radit iona l p rehistor ic a rea d ivisions, l ike t hose b etween P eru a nd E cuador? T his p aper w ill f ocus o n ar e lat ive ly s hort p er iod i n A ndean p rehistory i n o rder t o e xp lore t he i nferences t hat c an b e d rawn f rom t he e xtant a rchaeo logica l r ecord a s i t p ertains t o t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween a ncient P eru a nd a ncient E cuador. I t w ill b e s uggested t hat, i n t his p articu lar c ase, a rchaeo log ical e vidence a ppears t o s upport t he p roposit ion t hat a d ivision b etween t he t wo a reas d id e xist a t c ertain t imes i n p rehistory, a nd t hat a f ront ier a rea b etween t hem c an b e p rovisiona lly d e lineated f or a t l east o ne s uch p eriod . L aprade lle, t he F rench g eographer, c arefu lly d ist inguished b etween t hree k inds o f f ront iers: g eographica l, a nthropo-geographical, a nd p o litica l. T he f irst o f t hese d oes n ot c onsider s ocio-cultura l v ar iab les a nd i s n ot r e levant t o t his d iscussion. T he s econd c orresponds t o a z one b etween t wo p art icu lar w ays o f l ife o r e cumene ( c ited i n K r istof 1 959: 2 70), w h ile t he t hird, t he p o lit ica l f ront ier, h as b een d efined b y K r istof ( 1959:269) a s ab order r egion, z one, o r t ract w h ich f orms a b e lt o f s eparat ion, c ontact o r t ransit ion b etween p o lit ical u nits. Ap rehistor ic f ront ier b etween E cuador a nd P eru c ould b e c onsidered m inima lly a s a n a nthro-geographical f ront ier s eparating t wo e cumene a nd m ay a lso c orrespond t o a n e ar ly p o lit ica l f rontier s eparat ing d issim ilar p o lit ica l u nits. T he p resent s tudy w ill b e c onfined t o ac onsiderat ion o f t he t ime p er iod r eferred t o a s t he L ate F ormat ive i n E cuador a nd t he m idd le o f t he E ar ly H or izon, o r M idd le F ormat ive, i n P eru ( Meggers 1 960 :24-28, R owe 1 962:49, L umbreras 1 974A :13-15). R ad iocarbon m easurements a re n ot e ntire ly c onsistent, b ut t he p er iod i n q uest ion d ates t o a pproximate ly 4 00 B .C. t o 2 00 B .C. ( uncorrected r ad iocarbon y ears, B urger 1 981, L athrap e t a l 1 975:16). I n P eru, t he C havin c u lture a t C havin d e H uantar w as a t i ts x enith a nd c oeva l c ultures l ike P acopampa, C up isnique, a nd P aracas ( Ocucaje 3 -6) f lour ished i n n orthern a nd c entra l P eru ( Burger, 1 983B). I n E cuador, t he C horrera a nd E ngoroy c u ltures w ere t hr iving o n t he c oasta l p lain a nd w estern s lopes o f t he A ndes, a nd t he A lausi, C otoco llao a nd o ther p oor ly u nderstood c u ltures w ere p resent i n t he i ntermontane v a lleys o f t he h igh lands ( Porras 1 980 :20). T he s e lect ion o f t his p art icular s egment o f t he t emporal c ontinuum f or s crut iny i s p art icu lar ly a ppropr iate s ince W ende ll B ennett s uggested t hat t he d ivergence b etween t he P eruvian a nd E cuador ian a reas m ay h ave f irst e merged d ur ing t his t ime ( Bennett 1 948 :2). M oreover, s ince B ennett 's s ynthesis, f ie ldwork a t " formative" s ites i n P eru a nd E cuador h as p roduced a l arge c orpus o f n ew a nd r e levant e vidence w hich p erm its a r e-eva luat ion o f h is f ormulat ion.

H istorica l B ackground T he o r ig in

o f t he a cadem ic 3 5

d ivision b etween t he

a rchaeo logy o f

P eru a nd E cuador s tarted i n t he e ar ly 2 0th c entury w hen m useum c urators w ere a ttempt ing t o o rganize t he l ooted a ntiquit ies o f S outh A mer ica. T he d ivision a ntedates n ear ly a ll o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r esearch u pon w hich s uch ad istinct ion c ould h ave b een e mpirica lly b ased . T he f ormulat ion f or a rchaeo logica l a reas w as d er ived f rom t he b e lief t hat c ertain f orms a nd s tates o f c u lture c haracter ized p art icu lar g eographic a reas a nd t hat a na logous d ist inct ions s hou ld c haracter ized t he m ater ia l c u lture o f t hese a reas ( Ho lmes 1 914:41-43). E nvironment w as p erce ived a s t he c hief d eterm inant o f d istinct ive a rchaeo log ica l a reas, t hough i t w as a ssumed t hat a rchaeo log ical a reas w ere n ot i nterna lly h omogeneous a nd t hat b lending w as t o b e e xpected a long t he ir b orders ( Ho lmes 1 914;41-44, W iss ler 1 917:265). Q u ite r easonab ly, t hese a rchaeo log ica l a reas w ere n ot e xpected t o c orrespond t o m odern n at ions o r e thnographica lly-der ived c ulture a reas . B y 1 912, W issler ( 1917:264), c urator a t t he A merica l M useum o f N atura l H istory, h ad d ivided S outh A mer ica i nto s ix a rchaeo log ical a reas, t reat ing E cuador a s ad iscrete u n it, s eparate f rom P eru. P art o f B o liv ia, o n t he o ther h and, w as m erged w ith P eru i nto a s ing le a rchaeo log ica l a rea, w hile C o lombia, a nd V enezue la w ere l inked t ogether t o f orm s t ill a nother a rea. W iss ler e xp licit ly a cknow ledged h is i nte llectua l d ebt t o H o lmes, a c urator a t t he S m ithson ian I nst itut ion, w ho h ad a lready d eve loped a s im ilar c lassif icat ion s cheme f or S outh A mer ica ( Ho lmes 1 914 :414, W iss ler 1 917:245). J oyce ( 1912:47) l ikew ise c hose t o s ever t he a rchaeo logy o f P eru f rom t hat o f E cuador i n h is p ioneer ing s ynthesis o f S outh A mer ican a rchaeo logy . T hese e ar ly f ormu lat ions w ere s trong ly i nf luenced b y a n a wareness o f t he g eographica l d issim ilar ity b etween E cuador a nd P eru. T he g enera l l ack o f r esemb lance b etween t he s undry l ot o f m useum p ieces a cquired f rom t he t wo c ountr ies a ppeared t o e mp ir ically c onfirm t he g eographica lly i nspired n ot ion. I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he d esignat ion o f a rchaeo log ica l a reas w as n ot l inked t o t he d efinit ion o f c u lture a reas f or S outh A mer ica . I n f act, c u lture a rea c lassif icat ions, u n like t he ir a rchaeo log ica l c ounterparts, u sua lly c ombined E cuador w ith P eru a s as ing le u nit ( Schm idt 1 913, W iss ler 1 917:246, C ooper 1 942:7, S tout 1 938; S teward 1 949 : 6 70). Ac onsiderabe a mount o f a rchaeo log ica l r esearch w as c arried o ut i n P eru a nd E cuador d ur ing t he t hree d ecades b etween J oyce 's S outh A mer ican A rchaeo logy a nd K roeber 's P eruv ian A rchaeo logy i n 1 942 w ithout c ontradict ing t he w idespread a ssumption t hat a ncient P eruv ian c ivilization w as b est c onsidered w ithout r eference t o c oeva l d eve lopments i n E cuador ( Kroeber 1 944 :11;1939). B ennett, w ho e xcavated d ur ing t he 1 930 's a nd 1 940 's i n B o livia, P eru, E cuador, C o lombia, a nd V enezue la, c onc luded t hat p rehistor ic E cuador b e longed " culturally w ithin t he n orthern A ndean a rea r ather t han w ith t he c entra l A ndean a rea o f P eru a nd B o livia" ( Bennett 1 946a:78), a nd i t l ater b ecame s tandard p ract ice f or E cuador, C o lomb ia , W estern V enezue la, a nd s outhern C entra l A mer ica t o b e s ubsumed i nto w hat w as t ermed t he I ntermediate A rea ( W illey 1 959, R ouse 1 962). B ennett ( 1948) w as t he f irst a rchaeo log ist t o e xp lic it ily d ef ine t he l im its o f t he P eruvian a rchaeo logica l a rea i n t ime a nd s pace. H e o ut lined t he g eographica l f eatures w hich a ppeared t o d eterm ine i ts n orthern l im it, n ot ing t hat t he p rehistor ic d iv ision l ay c onsiderab le 3 6

t o t he s outh o f t he 2 0th c entury p o lit ica l b order b etween E cuador a nd P eru. M ost s cho lars h ave e mu lated B ennett i n t his d etail a nd h ave d rawn h eavily u pon h is c onc lusions ( e .g ., R ouse a nd C ruxent 1 963:4). B ennett h owever w as d issat isf ied w ith t he c oncept o f " archaeo log ica l a rea" b ecause h e f ound i t s tatic, r ig id a nd b ound u p w ith t he a r id c omp ilation a nd c ompar ison o f a rchaeo log ica l t rait l ists. H e p roposed t he c oncept o f a rea c o-tradit ion a s ab etter m eans o f e xpressing t he m utua l r e lat ions i n t ime a nd s pace b etween a rchaeo log ica l c ultures. I n t he C entra l A ndes, B ennett p osited a c lear ly d e lineated P eruvian c o-tradition a nd a m ore p oor ly u nderstood n orthern c o-trad it ion w hich i nc luded t he p rehistor ic c u ltures o f E cuador . T he f ar n orthern a rea o f P eru ( i.e.g ., P iura) w as l eft i n a n a mbiguous s tatus b etween t he t wo . W hile B ennett 's s ubstant ive c onc lusions w ere w ide ly a ccepted, h is n ew t erm ino logy w as n ot . W illey, f or e xamp le, u t ilized a n a ma lgamated v ers ion o f W iss ler 's 1 917 t erm ino logy i n h is m onumenta l s ynthesis o f S outh A mer ican a rchaeo lo y, c o ining t he t erm " archaeo log ial c ulture a rea" ( Willey 1 971:22). P eru w as p laced i n t he P eruvian a rchaeo logica l c ulture a rea a nd E cuador w as r e legated t o t he I ntermediate a rchaeo log ica l c u lture a rea ( W illey 1 971:4). L umbreras ( 1981:16), i n h is r ecent o verv iew o f A ndean a rchaeo logy, r ehabilitated W iss ler 's o r ig ina l t erm " archaeo log ica l a rea", r edef ining i t a s " the d ia lect ical s o lution b etween p eop les ( pueb los) a nd t heir e nv ironment". T he M arxist p hrasing o f t he d ef init ion d id n ot s top L umbreras ( 1981:42) f rom a ssigning m ost o f P eru t o t he " Area C entra l A ndina" a nd m ost o f E cuador t o t he " Area S eptemtr ional A ndina"; t he s pecif ic t err itor ia l d ivision b etween t he t wo i s e xact ly t he s ame a s t hat d e lineated b y B ennett . L umbreras ' v ersion o f S outh A merican a rchaeo log ica l a reas w as u sed a s t he f ramework f or t he 1 979 U NESCO-sponsored i nternat iona l c onference o n A ndean a rchaeo logy ( PRPCA 1 979A ,1979B) a nd, i t i s l ike ly t o b e e xtreme ly i nf luent ia l i n t he f uture. T o r ecapitu late, t he i nit ia l d ivision s ome s eventy y ears a go b etween P eruvian a nd E cuador ian a rchaeo logy w as b ased o n f ragmentary m useum c o llect ions a nd a n i mpressionist ic u nderstand ing o f t he g eographica l d ifferences b etween t he t wo a reas. T he d ist inction h as b een p erpetuated i n a ll s ubsequent r eformu lat ions o f S outh A mer ican a rchaeo log ical a reas w ith s urpr ising ly l itt le c hange . D espite t he i nf luence a nd w idespread a cceptance o f t hese o rganizationa l c ategor ies, t here h as b een l itt le e xp licit e xam ination o f t heir u t ility o r v a lid ity o n t he b asis o f t he e ver e xpanding c orpus o f e v idence. I n t he a bsence o f s uch s tud ies, m any i nvest igators r egard s uch d iv isions a s a rbitrary , b ut c onvenient f rom a n a cadem ic p erspect ive . Y et d ivisions o f t h is s or' . h ave r am ificat ions w hich g o w e ll b eyond t he f ie ld o f a rchaeo logy i n a s m uch a s t hey s hape t he p ub lic 's u nderstand ing o f t he n ature o f p re-European d eve lopment a nd a ccomp lishment . W h ile s ome a rchaeo log ists m ay v iew c onvenience a s uff icient r eason t o m aintain s uch d ivisions, o ther s cho lars a re m ot ivated b y a d ifferent s et o f p r ior it ies. I n t his s pirit , t he C hilean a rchaeo log ist , L autaro N unez, h as a rgued t hat a h ea lthy p o lit ical u se o f a rchaeo logy w ou ld b e t he d e-emphasis o f h ypothetica l d iv isions w hen d ea ling w ith A ndean p rehistory i n o rder t o p romote a 3 7

v ision o f p re-Hispanic p an-Andean i ntegrat ion a nd i ts c oro llary , t he u nitary n ature o f a bor ig inal d eve lopment i n t he p re-Hispanic A ndes ( PRPCA 1 9798:13-14;cf . M acera 1 976). A s n oted p revious ly, a rchaeo logica l d ivisions m ay n ot, i n t his c ase, b e a rb itrary; i n a ny c ase, p o lit ica l g oals s hou ld n ot s hape o ut h ypotheses n o m atter h ow s a lutory o r l audib le t he e nds. O f c ourse, e mphasis o n d ivisions b etween c ulture a reas c an c onsciously o r u nconscious ly a lso r ef lect p o lit ical c onsiderat ions. A ny s tatic f ramework o f a rchaeo log ica l a reas i s i nherent ly m islead ing s ince t he l ocat ion a nd c haracter o f p o lit ica l a nd a nthro-geograph ical f ront iers i nevitab ly u nderwent s ignif icant c hanges t hrough t ime, a nd e ven t he s cant i nformat ion a vailab le i nd icates t hat t his w as t he c ase t hroughout t he p rehistory o f t he a rea i n q uest ion ( Quilter 1 981a). D ur ing t he 2 nd m illenium B .C., t here a ppear t o b e s trong c u ltura l a nd e conom ic l inks b etween s outhern E cuador a nd n orthern P eru ( Lathrap 1 975: 3 3, R osas a nd S hady 1 974 :30-32, K aulicke 1 976) a nd t he P eruv ian h istor ian P ab lo M acera h as c onc luded t hat, f or t his t ime p er iod , w e m ust t hink i n t erms o f ad ifferent s upranat ional t err itory c onjo ining t he p resent r epub lics o f E cuador a nd P eru ( Macera 1 976). T he e xtensive i nteraction b etween n orthern P eru a nd s outhern E cuador p r ior t o t he E ar ly H or izon p rovided a c ommon b asis o f s hared c u ltural e lements w hich i n s ome c ases p ersisted l ong a fter t his p attern w as a ltered. T hus, i t w ou ld b e i nappropr iate t o o veremphasize t he i mportance o f p rehistoric d iv isions, b ut i t w ou ld b e e qua lly d angerous t o d eny o r i gnore t heir s ignif icance . A ndean a rchaeo logy h as a l ong t rad it ion e xam ining p an-reg iona l p atterning, b ut i n r ecent y ears a rchaeo log ists h ave b egun t o n eg lect p rob lems s uch a s t his w hich r equire u nits o f o bservat ion a nd s tudy w ider t han a s ing le s ett lement s ystem . A c ursory r ev iew o f r ecent a rchaeo log ica l p ub lications i n t he A ndes w ill r evea l t hat c oncern i s i ncreasing ly d evoted t o n arrower f rames o f r eference: a ct ivity a rea, h ouse, h ouseho ld c luster , v illage a nd l oca l s ettlement p attern. P aradoxica lly, i n h is 1 976 D ist inguished L ecture o f t he A mer ican A nthropo log ical A ssociat ion, R obert A dams a ff irmed t hat o ne o f t he m ost s ignif icant s hifts i n a nthropo logy o ver t he p ast g enerat ion h as b een t he m ove a way f rom t he s tudy o f b ounded i so lab le c ommunities a nd t oward l arger, o pen i nteracting n etworks o f f unctiona lly s pecia lized r e lationships ( Adams 1 977: 2 74-275). R ecent d iscussions o f e merg ing c ivilizations i n M esoamer ica ( F lannery 1 967, 1 972, B lanton, e t a l 1 982) a nd E urope ( Renfrew 1 972) h ave r ef lected t his c oncern. E ar ly c ivilizations a re g enera lly d escribed i n t hese s yntheses a s c omposed o f m any s ma ller o pen r eg ional s ystems. T he r apid c u ltural c hange t hat c haracter izes t hese e ar ly c omp lex s ocieties i s i n p art t he r esu lt o f s t imu lation p rovided b y t he e conom ic, s ocia l a nd p o lit ica l i nteract ion b etween d issim ilar c omponents w h ich c onstitute t he l arger s ystem . E very c ivilizat ion i s b ounded, n ot i n t he s ense o f b e ing h ermet ically s ea led, b ut i n t he s ense t hat b eyond i ts l im its, i nteraction i s q ua litat ive ly a nd q uant itat ive ly d ist inct f rom t he i nteract ion b etween t he u nits w hich t ogether c onstitute t he c iv ilization ( Renfrew 1 975). T his c ontrast b etween t he i nter-reg iona l i nteraction w ithin a c ivilizat ion a nd i nteraction w ith e xterna l o r 3 8

" foreign" s ystems p rovides o ne m eans b y w hich t he s pat ia l l im its o f a c iv ilizat ion c an b e r ecogn ized a nd i ts f ront iers c an b e d e lineated . I n t he f o llow ing s ect ions, t hree k inds o f a rchaeo log ical e vidence w ill b e c onsidered w hich a re p resumed t o b e u seful i nd ices o f t he p atterning o f i nteract ion d ur ing t he f ourth a nd t hird c entur ies B .C. I conography, c eram ics, a nd o bsid ian w ere c hosen b ecause t he ir p atterning e xpresses d ifferent k inds o f r e lat ionships, n ot a ll o f w h ich n eed t o b e c oterm inus. I conography i s av isua l d ocument o f a n i deo logy ; i t e ncodes a s ymbo lic s ystem w ithin i ts d esigns, a nd t hrough t he p atterned i nterre lat ionship o f t hese d esign e lements, i t r epresents a nd t ransm its as ystem o f t hought, h e lping t o p rovide t hese a bstract c onceptions w ith a n a ura o f f actua lity b y t heir c oncrete e xpression. T he d istr ibut ion o f a n i conographic s ystem i s i nt imate ly t ied t o t he c onf iguration o f r e lig ious a ct ivit ies a nd t heir r o le i n p rovid ing s ocial c ohesion, a s w e ll a s i deo log ica l v a lidat ion t o e x ist ing s ocia l a nd p o lit ical h ierarchies ( Coe 1 981, F lannery 1 968). D ur ing t he E ar ly H or izon, i conography g enerally a ppears o n r e lig ious a rt d esigned f or d isp lay w ithin a r itua l c ontext . C eram ics, t he s econd c lass o f m ater ia ls w h ich w ill b e d iscussed, w ere g enerally u sed w ithin t he c ontext o f l ocalized c onsumpt ion u nits. T he f ormat a nd d ecorat ion o f p ottery p rov ided a m edium o f e xpression o f s ocial i dent ity a nd g roup c ohesion; c onverse ly, s harp d ifferences b etween c eram ic s ty les b etween a reas o ften s erve t o r einforce b oundary m aintenance b etween c ompet ing g roups ( Hodder 1 979, 1 982). W hile t he d egree o f s im ilar ity b etween c eram ic c omp lexes i s, i n p art , af unct ion o f i nteract ion, t he n ature o f t he i nteract ion r ather t han t he f requency o f i ts o ccurrence a ppears t o b e t he c r it ica l d eterm inant o f t he r esult ing p atterns o f s im ilar ity i n m ater ia l c u lture ( Hodder 1 982, c f . P log 1 980). T he p ottery w hich w ill b e c onsidered h ere w as l oca lly p roduced a nd c eram ics a cquired f rom d istant z ones w ill n ot b e d ealt w ith, s ince i ts d istr ibution i s r e lated t o o ther s ocio-econom ic f actors. T he t hird c lass o f m ater ial t o b e c onsidered i s o bsid ian, a v o lcanic g lass w hich w as w ide ly u sed f or t oo ls i n p rehistor ic P eru a nd E cuador. S ince o bsid ian p layed a r o le i n d aily p roduction a ct ivities, i ts s e lect ion c omp lements t hat o f c eram ics a nd i conography. I ts n atural s carcity p recluded i ts l ocal a cquisit ion, a nd c onsequent ly o bsidian p rovides e v idence o f l ong d istance p rocurement n etworks. T he a na lytic t echniques u sed t o d eterm ine t he o r ig inal s ource o f r aw o bsidian a re d er ived f rom t he n atura l s ciences a nd u t ilize a t otally d ifferent s et o f a ssumpt ions t han t hose e mp loyed i n t he s ty list ic a na lysis o f i conography a nd c eram ics. I conography T he C havin c iv ilizat ion o f P eru w as o rig ina lly i dent if ied o n t he b asis o f i ts " Ear ly g reat a rt s ty le" ( Te llo 1 943, W illey 1 951, 1 962), w hich K roeber ( 1947:411) c onsidered t o b e t he f inest e ver p roduced i n S outh A mer ica. T he C havin a rt s ty le h as a d ist inct ive i conography, c omposed o f a d iscrete g roup o f i nter-re lated t hemes o f m ot ifs w hich w ere r epresented b y af inite n umber o f s ty list ic e lements a ccord ing t o 3 9

a n i diosyncratic s et o f a rt ist ic c anons. T he l argest s amp le o f C hav in i conography i s k nown f rom t he s ite o f C havin d e H uantar i n t he n orthern h igh lands o f P eru. A t t his s ite, l ocated a t 3 100 m eters a bove s ea l eve l, r e lig ious m ot ifs w ere c arved o n o ver t wo h undred s tone s cu lptures a nd p ortab le o bjects. M ost o f t he s tone c arv ings d ecorated t he e xter ior w a lls o f t he t emp le p latforms a nd p lazas. C arved i n p o lished g ranite a nd l imestone, t he t echno logy a nd s k ill i nvo lved i n t heir c reat ion m ust h ave i nstilled a we i n t hose a ttend ing t he c eremonies. T he v ery a rt ist ic c anons o f C hav in a rt s eem t o h ave b een d esigned t o c onfuse t he u ninit iated v iewer b y a dorning t he m ot ifs w ith a n o ver load o f v isua l m etaphors ( e .g . s ubst itut ing s nakes f or f eathers) o r b y i nc lud ing e lements w hich a re m eaning less e xcept w hen s een i nverted o r r otated 9 0 d egrees. T he a rt o f C havin s erves n ot o n ly t o c ommunicate t he r e lig ious i deo logy o f t he c u lt b ut a lso a ct ive ly r e inforces a s ense o f w onder i n t he m ind o f t he v iewers; w ithin t he c ontext o f t he r itua ls a nd m onumenta l a rch itecture, i t w ou ld h ave a cted t o f urther v a lidate t he w orshippers b e lief i n t he C havin r e lig ious s ystem . C onverse ly, t he e soter ic s ty le o f C hav in a rt w ou ld h ave m ade i ts m eaning m ore i naccessib le a nd i ncomprehensib le t o t hose o utside o f i ts i deo log ical s phere. D ur ing t he f ourth a nd t hird c entur ies B .C., ( phases D a nd E F i n t he R owe C hav in s er iat ion), t he p r imary t hemes r epresented o n C hav in a rt a re " the S taff G od", a f anged a nthropomorphic f igure u sua lly f rontally h o lding s taffs i n e ach h and , a nd t he c ayman, u sua lly s hown i n s p lit-representat ion. S econdary t hemes, r epresented i n p rof ile, i nc lude j aguars, r aptor ial b irds ( Harpy e ag le, h awk, e tc.), a nd a nthropomorphic f igures i n p rocession; a spects o f t wo o r m ore a n ima ls a re o ften c ombined ( Rowe 1 962, L athrap 1 971, 1 973, R oe 1 974). T hese t hemes h ave a ntecedents i n v ar ious r eg ions d at ing t o t he I n it ia l P er iod ( Kano 1 979, B urger 1 981) b ut w hen r epresented u s ing C hav in s ty list ic c anons a nd e lements, t hey c onstitute a c lear ly d ef ined b ody o f r e lig ious a rt w hich c an c onf ident ly i dent if ied w hen i t i s f ound w ithin o r b eyond C hav in d e K i cntar . M ap 1 p rovides a s ummary o f t he d istr ibution o f t his i conography, w hich h as b een f ound a long 1 (00 k ms o f t he P eruv ian c oast a nd 5 50 k ms o f t he a djacent h igh lands. An umber o f d etailed s tud ies p resent t he e v idence a nd a rguments f or l inking t he n umerous i so lated f inds ( Te llo 1 943, 1 956, 1 960; W illey 1 951, 1 971; R owe 1 962; R oe 1 974, 1 978 K au licke 1 976; L umbreras 1 974a; B urger 1 983b) a nd t he r eader i s r eferred t o t hese p ub licat ions. A lthough o p inions o ccasiona lly d iffer o ver t he p recise d at ing o f n ature o f i nd ividua l p ieces, a b road c onsensus h as e xisted o ver t he l ast f our d ecades a mong a rchaeo log ists w orking i n P eru t hat t he w idespread d istr ibut ion o f t he C havin s ty le i s e vidence f or t he e ar liest p an-reg iona l p henomenon i n p reHispan ic P eru. I n t he h igh lands, t ie i conography h as b een d ocumented o n n on-portab le s tone s cu ltu e ( e .g ., P acopampa, K untur W asi), p etrog lyphs ( e .g ., C hungal), z nd c liff p aintings ( Monte C a lvario), a s w e ll a s o n p ortab le i tems s uch a s c arved b one s patu las ( e .g ., P acopampa, P a llka, H uar icoto) a nd s ma ll s culpted m ortars a nd p est les ( e .g . M at ibamba, P acopampa; R oe 1 974; C arr ion C achot 1 948 ; T e llo 1 956, 1 960; R avines 1 983). T he m ortars a nd s patu las w ere p robab ly u sed f or t he p reparation a nd i ngestion o f h a llucinogens d ur ing t he r itua ls o f t he C hav in c u lt ( Sharon a nd D onnan 1 977, K au licke 1 976, C ordy-Co llins 1 977). O n t he c oast, C hav in i conography a ppears m ain ly o n p ortab le 4 0

o bjects, i nc lud ing g o ld o bjects ( Chongoyape), c loth(Karwa), e laborate s t irrup-spouted b ott les ( e .g ., M orro d e E ten), a nd p yro-engraved g ourds ( Ica). A n e xceptiona lly l arge t omb l ooted a t t he s ite o f K arwa, I ca o n t he s outh c oast o f P eru p roduced h undreds o f t ext ile f ragments d epict ing v irtua lly a ll o f t he m ajor p r imary a nd s econdary t hemes o f C havin a rt, a nd t hese m ot ifs w ere p ainted i n as ty le w hich f o llowed t he c lassic C havin i conograph ic c anons ( Cordy-Co llins 1 976, S awyer 1 972, R owe 1 974, B urger 1 983b). T he a ppearance o f C havin i conography i n e co log ica lly a nd c u lturally d isparate r eg ions h as b een i nterpreted a s t he s pread o f a r e ligious i deo logy, c utt ing a cross l ong-stand ing e thnic a nd p o lit ica l d iv isions, t he C havin c ult c o-existed w ith o lder r eg ional c u lts ( Burger a nd S a lazar-Burger 1 980, S a lazar-Burger a nd B urger 1 983). I t i s p robab le t hat t he n ew r e lig ious s ymbo ls m ay, a s i n f ormat ive M esoamer ica, h ave b een m anipu lated i n s ome c ases b y l ocal e lites t o e nhance t he ir p rest ige a nd v a lidate t heir a uthor ity ( F lannery 1 968); i n f act, t his m ay h ave b een t he p r imary m ot ivat ion f or t he ir a dopt ion o f t he c u lt. N everthe less, r e lig ion o ffers s omething i nf inite ly v aster t han t his. I t p rovides a n e xp lanat ion a nd e xpression o f t he v a lues o f s ociety a nd t he r o le o f s ociety w ithin t he w ider e x istent ial c ontext o f t he u n iverse a nd t he u nknown ( Coe 1 981). I n p rov iding t his c onceptual f ramework, a r e lig ion o ffers a c ommon b asis f or c ommunicat ion a nd i nteraction w hich w ill h ave a n o vera ll i ntegrat ive e ffect o n t he s oc ieties a dhering t o i t . T he r o le o f as hared i deo logy i n t he f ormat ion a nd m aintenance o f e ar ly c ivilizPtions h as b een w ide ly r ecognized ( W illey 1 962, F r iede l 1 981, R enfrew 1 982) a nd C havin c iv ilization w ou ld a ppear t o b e a p art icu lar ly g ood e xamp le o f t his p henomenon. I t i s n ot n ecessary t o a ssume t hat t he C hav in i deo logy w as e mbraced b y a ll m embers w ithin t he C havin s phere o f i nteract ion ( Tab le 1 ); i t p robab ly w as n ot . B ut e ven i f i t w as a dopted b y o n ly a p ort ion o f t he p opulation o f e ach r eg ion, i t c ou ld s t ill h ave p rovided a n i deo log ica l b asis f or i ncreased i nter-reg iona l i ntergrat ion, f acilitating s ocia l a nd e conom ic r e lationships. K eat inge h as m ade t he a na logy w ith t he w e ll k nown h istor ical c ase o f m ed ieva l I s lam , w hich e nab led p ilgr ims t o t rave l a cross A fr ica a nd t he N ear E ast o n t he w ay t o M ecca, d espite e thnic a nd p o litical b oundar ies w hich w ould h ave o therw ise b een s ea led ( Keatinge 1 981). A ctua lly, t here i s n o n eed t o l ook o utside o f P eru f or a na log ies, s ince t he e x istence o f a p an-regiona l r e lig ious c u lt, c omp lete w ith b ranch c enters a nd p i lgrimages, i s d ocumented f or P eru d ur ing t he c entury p receed ing t he S panish c onquest ( Patterson m s., K eatinge 1 981). A cceptance o f t he C havin c ult w ou ld h ave a lso c reated a n eed f or r itua l p arapherna lia, w h ich c ou ld h ave p aved t he w ay f or i ncreased m ovement o f s ecu lar g oods b y c ommon c onveyance ( Pires-Ferreira a nd F lannery 1 976). P atterson ( 1971) w as t he f irst t o n ote t hat, l ike t he s pread o f e ar ly C hr ist ianity, t he C havin c u lt e xpanded t o t hose a reas w hich h ad p re-exist ing r e lig ious c enters. T he i conography a nd a rch itecture o f t hese p re-Chavin c omp lexes i mp ly a m ult ip licity o f d istinct r e lig ious s ystems f luor ishing p rior t o t he E ar ly H or izon . T his a rrangement w ou ld h ave s trengthened t he i ntegrat ion o f r eg iona l s ystems w hile i ncreasing t he c ontrast b etween n e ighbor ing r eg ions. T he s pread o f t he C hav in c ult r eversed t his t rend a nd p rovided a m echanism f or t he 4 1

i nter locking o f r eg ional e lites w hich w ou ld h ave b een t he m ost i mmediate b eneficiar ies f rom t hese n ew r e lat ionships ( F lannery 1 968). T he n orthernmost e xamp les o f C havin i conography h ave b een d ocumented f rom t he L ambayeque d rainage o n t he c oast ( Te llo 1 937, L othrop 1 941, W a lter A lva a nd C ar los E leyra 1 980) a nd t he C hotano b as in i n t he N orthern h igh lands o f C ajamarca ( Rosas a nd S hady 1 970). T h is e xtension c orresponds p recise ly w ith t he k nown d istr ibution o f m onumenta l c eremonia l c enters d ur ing t he I nitia l P er iod-specif ica lly, H uaca L ucia o n t he c oast a nd P acopampa i n t he h igh lands ( Rosas a nd S hady 1 974, S himada 1 981). D oes t he k nown d istr ibut ion o f C hav in i conography r e liab ly i nd icate t he n orthern l im it t he s pread o f t he C hav in c ult , o r i s t h is p attern t he r esu lt o f i nadequate s amp ling i n t he n orth? I t i s i mpossib le t o a nswer t his q uest ion w ith c ertainty, b ut t he a rchaeo logica l e xcavat ions a nd s urveys c onducted i n E cuador a nd t he f ar n orth o f P eru o ver t he l ast t wo d ecades w ou ld s eem t o i ndicate t he a bsence o f C hav in i conography f rom t hese a reas w hile p rovid ing a bundant e xamp les o f r eg ional i conographies f rom t he s ame p er iod ; t here i s n o i nd icat ion o f a ssociated m onumental c enters i n t his a rea. I nvest igators f rom t he U niversity o f T okyo, w orking n ear t he m odern P eru-Ecuador b order, o ut lined t he e ar ly s equence f or t his a rea a nd a ssigned t he P echiche c u lture t o t he t ime p er iod c orrespond ing t o t he E ar ly H or izon. T he p r imary i conographic m ot if o f t he P echiche c u lture i s a" b izarre r epresentat ion o f t he h uman f ace w ith s wo llen e ye lids, s omet imes s hedding t ears, a ccompanied b y a n e ye o r m outh v ert ica lly s et"; t hese r epresentations a re u nique t o t he P ech iche s ty le ( Izum i a nd T erada 1 966:88). O ther i nvest igators w orking i n t he S echura d esert a nd t he f ar n orthern c oasta l v a lleys o f P iura a nd C h ira h ave a lso f ailed t o e ncounter e xamp les o f C hav in i conography ( Lanning 1 963, R avines 1 873, C ardenas 1 979). T he s ituat ion i n s outhern E cuador i s s im ilar . S evera l p rojects h ave f ocused o n t he f ormat ive c u ltures o f s outhern E cuador, a nd E ngoroy a nd C horrera c u ltures o f t he c oast a nd w estern s lopes a re b eg inning t o b e w e ll k nown f rom t hese s tudies a nd f rom l ooted c emeter ies o f t h is t ime p er iod ( Meggers 1 966, E vans a nd M eggers 1 957, P aulsen a nd M cDoug le 1 974, Z eva llos 1 976, P orras 1 980, L athrap e t a l 1 975). C horrera g raves h ave p roduced m ater ia ls r ich i n l ocal i conography a nd t he a bsence o f C havin m ot ifs f rom t h is c orpus o f m ater ia l p rompted D ona ld L athrap t o c onc lude t hat t he C horrera p eop les o f t he s outh c oast o f E cuador m ust h ave " rejected t he H igh C hurch a spects o f C havin" ( Lathrap, e t a l 1 975 :59). A ctua lly, t here i s n o e v idence t hat t he i nhabitants o f c oastal E cuador w ere e ver e xposed t o t he C havin c u lt . T he L ate F ormat ive h igh land c u ltures o f s outhern E cuador a re l ess w e ll k nown, b ut t he m ater ia l a vailab le s hares l itt le i n c ommon w ith t he c oeva l c oasta l c u ltures o f E cuador, a nd e ven l ess w ith t he c u ltures o f P eru ( Bennett 1 946, C o llier a nd M urra 1 943, M eggers 1 966, P orras 1 977, 1 978). C eram ics T he m id-Ear ly H or izon i n P eru w itnessed a n u nprecedented s pread o f p ottery f orms, d ecorat ion a nd p roduct ion t echno logy . O ne o f t he m ost d etailed d escript ions o f ac eram ic a ssemb lage f rom t h is p er iod i s 4 2

o f t he J anabarriu ( or R ocas) p hase f rom C havin d e H uantar ( Burger 1 983a, c f . L umbreras a nd A mat 1 969 :170-175). S everal l ines o f e v idence c an b e u sed t o d emonstrate t he c ontemporaneity o f t his c eram ic a ssemb lage w ith p hase D o f t he R owe s culpture s er iation ( B urger, 1 983a, 1 983b, R owe 1 962). A mong t he m ost c ompe lling o f t hese a re t he d iagnost ic p hase D d esign e lements o n J anabarr iu c eram ics a nd t he d iscovery o f ap iece o f s late i ncised w ith a p hase D d esign i n a ssociat ion w ith J anabarr iu p ottery . B y e xtension, t he d iffusion o f t h is p ottery s ty le w ou ld b e c oeval w ith t he e xpansion o f t he C hav in c u lt . D ur ing t he l ate I nit ia l P er iod, t here w ere n umerous c eram ic s ty les, f ew o f w h ich h ad d istr ibut ions g reater t han t wo o r t hree a d jacent v a lleys. I t i s a gainst t his b ackdrop o f e xtreme d iversity t hat J anabarr iu-re lated s ty list ic f eatures s udden ly a ppeared f rom L ambayeque t o P a lpa o n t he c oast a nd f rom n orthern C ajamarca t o H uancave lica i n t he h igh lands ( Tab le 2 , M ap 2 ). T he n ew s ty listic a ttr ibutes o ccurred o n l oca lly p roduced p ottery a nd w ere u sua lly i ntegrated a nd c ombined w ith t he e ar lier r eg iona l c eram ic t rad it ions. T hus, n o t wo m id-Ear ly H or izon c eram ic s ty les a re c omp lete ly a like; o n t he S outh C oast, p ottery i s f requent ly e ncrusted w ith a m ixture o f r esin a nd p igment; i n t he H uanuco a rea, t here i s a n e laborat ion o f c omp lex m ot ifs m ade w ith s ea ls; i n t he n orthern h igh lands, r ims a re c arved i nto g eometr ic f orms a nd m ode ling i s c ommon; a nd s o f orth. W h ile t he d ifferences b etween t hese E ar ly H or izon s ty les i s c onsiderab le, t he i ntrusive e lements w hich t hey h o ld i n c ommon i s s o s tr iking t hat i n t hese a nd o ther c ases, i nvest igators h ave f requent ly a ttributed t hem t o aw ave o f o utside i nf luencc. T his p attern w as r ecognized o ver a d ecade a go i n t he n orthern a nd c entra l h igh lands, a nd t he P acopampa C havin a nd K otosh C hav in c eram ic p hases w ere n amed f or i t ( nssas a nd S hady 1 970, I zum i a nd S ono 1 963). A s r esearch e xpands a nd i rtensif ies, o ther r e lated a ssemb lages a re b e ing d ocumented, s uch a s t hose o f M orro d e E ten ( A lva a nd E lera 1 980) i n L ambayeque, H uaca d e L os C hinos, H uaca G uava lito, a nd H uaca H erederos i n M oche ( Watanabe 1 976, P ozorski 1 983:Fig . 2 2, B urger 1 981:589-9), A ncon o n t he C entra l C oast ( Burger 1 981:599), a nd L a P ampa i n t he n orthern h igh lands ( Terada 1 979, O nuki a nd F ujii 1 974). C eram ics f rom A taura i n t he M antaro a nd A ta lla i n H uancave lica m ay a lso b e p art o f t his g eneral p henomenon ( Matos 1 959, 1 973). T he d etails o f t he a ttr ibutes h e ld i n c ommon b y t he c eram ic a ssemb lages o f t hese a nd o ther m id-Ear ly H orizons s ites i n P eru h ave b een d iscussed e lsewhere ( Burger,1983b). T he a ppearance o f s im ilar c eram ics o ver s uch a b road a rea c onstitutes a h or izon i n i ts o wn r ight. T he i ntrusion o f as uite o f n ew a ttr ibutes i nto l oca l c eram ic t rad it ions d isrupted t he n orma l p rocess o f g radua l c hange i n p ottery s ty le. I t i s t he c o-occurrence a nd c onf igurat ion o f t hese i ntrusive e lements w hich i s t empora lly d iagnost ic r ather t han t he p resence o r a bsence o f o ne p art icu lar d ecorat ive m ode. A s T homas P ozorski h as n oted, m ost o f t he d ecorat ive t echniques a ssociated w ith C havin-sty le c eram ics ( e .g ., c oncentr ic c ircles o r d entate r ocker-stamp ing) a lready e x isted w ithin c ircumscr ibed g eographic a reas d ur ing t he I nitial P er iod ( Pozorski 1 983:25-8); h owever , t he p art icu lar c ombination o f t hese t echn iques a nd t heir a ssociation w ith c haracter ist ic f orms a nd p roduct ion 4 3

t echno logy d id n ot. P ozorski's a ssumpt ion t hat i so lated d ecorat ive t echniques s hould s erve a s d iagnostic t ime m arkers l ed h im t o c onc lude t hat p revious a ttempts t o u se c eram ics t o i dentify t he C hav in h or izon h ave f ailed ( Pozorski 1 983:24). O n t he c ontrary, t he d iff icu lty l ies w ith P ozorski's m ethod o f c eram ic a na lysis, w h ich i s u nab le t o d e lineate t ime s pans o f o ne o r t wo c entur ies, a nd t herefore i s u nsuitab le f or i ndent ifying h or izons w h ich, b y d ef in it ion, a re s hort-lived p henomena. I n m ost c ases, t he d anabarr iu-re lated p ottery i n q uest ion d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een p roduced f or s pecif ically r itual e nds a nd t he i nterpretation o f t he C havin p henomenon a s t he e xpans ion o f a r e lig ious i deo logy w ou ld n ot a lone e xp lain t he o bserved s hift i n n umerous l oca l p ottery t rad it ions. N everthe less, t he d istr ibut ion o f J anabarr iu-re lated a ssemb lages d oes b ear a s trong r esemb lance t o t hat o f t he C hav in i conography . I n n orthern P eru, t he t wo d ist inctions a re r ough ly c oterm inus: t he m ax imum e xtent o f b oth o ccurs i n t he L ambayeque-La L eche d rainage o n t he c oast a nd t he C hotano i n t he h igh lands. F urther n orth, t here a re, f or t he m ost p art, l oca lized a nd l arge ly u nre lated p ottery s ty les s uch a s t he P aita s ty le i n t he P iura/Chira a rea a nd t he P echiche s ty le i n T umbes a nd P hase II o f t he C atamayo s equence ( Lanning 1 963, I zum i a nd S ono 1 966, G uffroy n .d .). " Chavin C upisnique" f ragments d o o ccur a t t he s ites o f A yacabaca ( E l M ostrante) a nd M orropon i n P iura ( Matos 1 969 :101-2), b ut t hese c eram ics m ay h ave b een i mported o r c op ied f rom n orthern P eruv ian c enters l ike K untur W asi f or s ome s pecia l f unct ion ( Matos 1 969 :125). W hile t he d emonstration o f t he s pread a nd d istr ibution o f s ty list ic a ttr ibutes i s a s traight-forward m echanica l e xercise, t he i nterpretation o f i ts s ignif icance i s p rob lemat ic, e specia lly w ith t he l im ited a mount o f f ie ldwork t hat h as b een c onducted i n m ost a reas. T rad it ionally, f luctuat ions i n t he d egree o f r esemb lance b etween c eram ics o f d ifferent a reas w ere i nterpreted a s r ef lecting i ncreasing o r d ecreasing i ntensity i n t he i nteract ion b etween t he p opulat ions u sing t hose v esse ls ( Lathrap 1 977, P log 1 980). Y et, a s H odder h as d emonstrated e thnographically, s ubstant ia l i nteraction c an o ccur b etween n eighbor ing g roups w ithout t heir a dopting t he s ame o r s im ilar p atterns o f m ater ial c ulture ( Hodder 1 982 :51). N or d o r ura l c eram ic s ty les n ecessar ily r ef lect m ajor p o lit ica l o r r e lig ious c hanges ( Adams 1 979). R ogger R avines h as o bserved : T he A ndean a rtisan i s c onservat ive . R ap id a nd v io lent c hanges i nitiated b y t he S panish c onquest a re b are ly r ef lected i n m any t radit iona l c rafts. D omest ic p ottery c ontinues t o b e m anufactured a ccording t o i ts o wn r u les i n m ost o f t he a ncient c enters o f p roduct ion. A lthough i n m any c ases t he n at ive p otter w orked s ide b y s ide w ith S panish c raftsmen... c hange i n d omest ic p ottery w as l im ited t o t he a dd ition o f af ew v esse l s hapes a nd m inor f orma l m odifications ( Ravines 1 975:199). T he u nprecedented s hift t owards h omogeneity i n t he E ar ly H or izon p ottery s ty les i mp lies n ot o n ly a l eve l o f i nteract ion s uff icient t o t ransfer t he s ty list ic a nd t echno logica l i nformat ion n ecessary t o m ake t he c hanges b ut, m ore i mportant ly, i t i s a n i ndication o f b oth t he d esire o f t he p otter t o r ep licate t he a lien e lements a nd t he w illingness o f c onsumers t o a ccept a nd a cquire t he i nnovat ive p roduct . 4 4

T he n ew c onf igurat ion o f s ty listic f eatures w ou ld h ave c onveyed i nformat ion t o o utsiders a bout s ocia l i dent ity a nd, a s W obst ( 1977) s urm ised, t he m ost e fficient v ehic les f or t his k ind o f m essage w ou ld b e t hose i tems o f m ater ia l c u lture s een b y p eop le b eyond t he d omest ic u n it . I t i s t herefore n ot s urpr ising t hat s erving v esse ls ( i .e ., b ow ls, b ott les) s how t he s trongest e vidence o f J anabarr iu-re lated e lements. I n H odder 's v iew , s ty le i n m ater ia l c u lture e xpresses a nd r e inforces c ohesion f or t hose w ithin t he s ocial g roup, w hile t o t hose o utside i t, t hese s ymbo ls c an e ither h e lp t o m aintain o r t o l essen t he r ig id ity o f i nter-group b oundar ies. T he a dopt ion o f t he J anabarriu-re lated t raits m ay b e i nterpreted a s t he r esu lt o f i nd iv idua l d ecisions t o l essen o vert m ater ia l c u lture d ifferences w ith n e ighboring g roups. T his c onscious o r u nconscious c ho ice t o d im inish c u ltural c ontrasts m ay h ave e xpressed a nd r einforced a b roader s trategy o f c ooperat ion b etween r eg iona l g roups ( Hodder 1 979 :449;1982:26) r ather t han t he m ore c ompet it ive s trategy o f t he I n it ial P er iod. I t h as f requent ly b een n oted t hat t he s pread o f t he C hav in c ult w ou ld h ave p rovided a n i deo logical b asis f or i ncreased e conom ic a nd s ocia l i ntegrat ion o n ap an-reg iona l l eve l ( e .g ., K eat inge 1 981). I t i s t herefore s ignif icant t hat t he m ot ifs w h ich o ccur o n m any o f t he J anabarr iu-re lated p ottery a ssemb lages a re S 's, c irc le-dot, a nd c oncentric c irc les, e lements w hich a re a lso e mp loyed i n t he r e lig ious i conography o f C hav in d e H uantar, w here t hey a re u sed t o r epresent t he p e lage m arkings o f t he j aguar ( e .g ., T e llo 1 960:Fig . 6 5). T hese d esign e lements o n m id-Ear ly H or izon p ottery c an b e p lausib ly i nterpreted a s m etonym ic r epresentations o f r e lig ious c oncepts, p art o f t he f ramework o f s hared b e liefs w hich w ere p roviding t he i deo logica l m atr ix f or t he n ew s ocio-po litica l o rder . M ater ia l c u lture, i n t his c ase p ottery, c an b e s een a s e xpressing c ommunity i dent ificat ion w ith t he n ew i deo logy . T he u nity w hich p ottery s ty le w as a ct ive ly h e lping t o f orm m ay h ave b een m ore a n i deal t han a n a ccurate r ef lect ion o r c haracter izat ion o f m id-Ear ly H or izon r eality, w h ich w as s t ill e nmeshed i n t he s ocia l, p o lit ical a nd r e lig ious d iv isions i nher ited f rom t he p receed ing m illennia. O n t he o ther h and, t he u nprecedented d iffusion o f t hese s ty list ic e lements d oes i mp ly a n i mportant c hange i n t he n ature o f i nter-reg iona l r e lat ions t hroughout c entral a nd n orthern P eru. M oreover, t he l ack o f a cceptance o f t hese f eatures i n f ar n orthern P eru a nd E cuador ( Bushne ll 1 951, E vans a nd M eggers 1 957, E strada 1 958, B ischof 1 975, C o llier a nd M urra 1 943, B ennett 1 946, P orras 1 977,1978, P aulsen a nd M cDoug le 1 981) r einforces t he h ypothesis t hat a f rontier d id s eparate P eru f rom E cuador d ur ing t he E ar ly H or izon. O bsidian P rovenience, S pondy lus a nd E xterna l T rade O n t he b asis o f t he p receeding r eview o f E ar ly H or izon i conography a nd c eram ics, i t i s p ossib le t o t entat ive ly d e lineate a n orthern l im it f or C havin c iv ilizat ion, a nd a n a djacent f ront ier z one c omposed o f t he P iura, C hira, T umbes, a nd J ubones v a lleys o n t he c oast a nd t he M acara, C atamayo, Z aruma a nd L oja v a lleys i n t he h igh lands. T he f ormative o ccupat ion o f t his f ront ier r eg ion h as b een c haracter ized a s c onsist ing o f s ma ll i ndependent c ommunit ies w ithout h igh ly c entralized p o lit ical, s ocia l o r r e lig ious o rganizat ions ( Quilter 1 981A). F urther t o t he n orth, ap atchwork o f d istinct ive 4 5

E cuadorian c u ltures a pparent ly h ad d enser p opu lations a nd l arger s ett lements t han i n t he f ront ier z one, b ut w ere m ore w eak ly i ntegrated t han t heir P eruvian c ounterparts. T here i s s ome c eram ic e v idence f or i nterdig itat ion o f P eruvian a nd E cuador ian i nf luences w ithin t he f ront ier z one, b ut t heir i s n o c omparab le i ndicat ion o f d irect i nteraction b etween t he E cuador ian c u ltures o f t he l ate f ormative a nd t he p o lit ies c ompr ising t he C havin c iv ilization. R enfrew 's g enera l m ode l f or t he s pat ia l o rganizat ion o f e ar ly c ivilizat ions w as d eve loped f or t he O ld W or ld, b ut i t s eem s t o a pp ly e qua lly w e ll t o t he N ew W or ld, i nc lud ing P eru d ur ing t he E ar ly H or izon. I t d eposits a s er ies o f f air ly e ven ly s paced p ermanent c entra l p laces o f r ough ly t he s ame s ize, w hich s erve a s t he f ocus o f i ndependent s ma ll-sca le p o lit ies. T hough f requent ly u n if ied o n a n i deo log ica l l eve l, t hese p o lit ies i n itia lly r emain p o lit ica lly a utonomous ( Renfrew 1 967:12-14). E xchanges o f i nform at ion a nd m aterials b etween t he c omponent p o lit ies, o r E ar ly S tate M odu les ( ESM 'S), i s p ostulated t o h ave p layed a s ignif icant r o le i n t he ir d eve lopment, a s d id l oca l e xchange w ith in e ach E SM. T rade b etween t hese p o lities i ncluded f ood a nd i tems u sed i n p roduct ive a ct ivit ies. P rest ige i tems w ith h igh i nformat ion c ontent w ou ld a lso h ave b een e xchanged b etween E SM 's t hrough a v ar iety o f m echanisms, i nclud ing g ift e xchange. T he l ocal a nd i ntermed iate l eve l i nteract ions, w h ich c onst itute i nternal e xchange, t ook p lace w ithin t he c iv ilization a nd t hey c an b e c ontrasted w ith e xterna l t rade c arr ied o n w ith g roups b eyond t he p ale o f t he c ivilizat ion. E xternal t rade g enera lly c onsists o f an on-product ive g oods w h ich a re l ocally u navailab le a nd, w hile n ot b eing e ssent ia l t o i ts s urviva l, m ay b ecome v ested w ith s ymbo lically c harged m eanings b y t hose g roups a cquir ing t he e xot ic m ater ia ls. T he g oods t hem se lves a re u sua lly l ow i n i nformat ion c ontent, l im ited i n v ar iety, a nd m odest i n q uant ity ( Renfrew 1 967, 1 975, D a lton 1 967,Zeid ler 1 977-8 ). I tems w hich d o n ot f it t hese c r iter ia a re n ot l ike ly t o p ass t hrough t he f rontier a rea s eparat ing a c ivilizat ion f rom t he c ultures o utside o f i t . L ong-distance t ransport o f e xotics i s af eature o f b oth i nterna l e xchange a nd e xterna l t rade, b ut t he m odes o f e xchange a nd t he n ature a nd q uant ity o f t he g oods i nvo lved s hould t heoret ically b e d ifferent . T he d ivision p ostulated t o h ave e xisted C havin c ivilizat ion a nd t he E cuador ian c u ltures b eyond i t c an b e s tudied f rom t his p erspect ive b y u sing p rovenience a na lysis t o r econstruct p atterns o f e xchange. O bsid ian p rovides ap articu lar ly f ruitful s ource o f i nformat ion b ecause o f t he c omparative e ase a nd p recision w ith w hich t he s ource o f t he o bsid ian a rt ifacts c an b e d eterm ined u sing t rade e lement a na lysis. O ver t he l ast d ecade, p rovenience s tud ies o f P eruvian a nd E cuador ian o bsidian h ave b een c onducted a t t he L awrence B erke ley L aboratory . I n t hese s tud ies, X -ray f luorescence ( XRF) a nd n eutron a ct ivation ( NAA ) w ere u sed a s c omp lementary t echniques: X RF w as u sed t o m inim ize t he e xpense o f r unning l arge s amp les o f a rt ifacts, w hile N AA w as u sed t o c onf irm t he a ssignment o f e ach p rovisiona l s ource g roup d eterm ined b y X RF, t o p rovide h igh p recision r esults f or m ajor a nd r are t ypes o f o bsid ian, a nd t o r eso lve c ases w here a mbiguity o f s ourc ing s t ill e xisted a fter t he X RF a nalysis. T he a na lyt ica l p rocedures e mp loyed h ave b een d escr ibed e lsewhere ( Burger a nd A saro 1 979:287-288, A saro, M iche l, a nd B urger 1 9818:19-27). I n e ar lier s tudies, m ore t han 1 500 4 6

o bs id ian a rtifacts f rom s ome 1 20 s ites i n P eru w ere a na lyzed a nd n ine m ajor c hem ical t ypes o f o bsidian w ere i dent if ied, p resumab ly c orrespond ing t o n ine n atural o bsid ian d eposits. O n ly t hree o f t hese s ources h ave b een d iscovered t hus f ar, b ut t he a pprox imate l ocat ion o f t he o thers c an b e s uggested o n t he b as is o f d istr ibut iona l d ata f rom a rchaeolog ica l s ites ( Map 3 ). T he n orthernmost s ource o f P eruv ian o bs idian u t ilized i n p re-Hispanic t imes w as d iscovered b y R ogger R av ines n ear C astrovirreyna, H uancave lica. T his o bsid ian d eposit, l ocated a t Q uisp isisa, w as e xp loited o n al arge s ca le a nd w ide ly t raded t hroughout c entra l a nd n orthern P eru d ur ing t he E ar ly H or izon ( Burger a nd A saro 1 979:305-7). F or i nstance, 9 4% o f t he o bsid ian s tud ied f rom e xcavat ions a nd e xp lorations i n t he a ncient s ett lement o f C hav in d e H uantar w as s hown t o h ave d er ived f rom t he Q uisp is isa s ource; a lmost a ll o f i t d ated t o t he J anabarriu p hase ( Burger, A saro a nd M iche l 1 983). I n 1 977, s tud ies o f E cuador ian o bsid ian w ere i nit iated w ith t he s upport o f t he U n ited S tates D epartment o f E nergy a nd t he B anco C entral d e E cuador . T hus f ar , o ver 1 50 o bsid ian a rt ifacts f rom a d ozen a rchaeo log ica l s ites a nd t hree o bsid ian d eposits h ave b een a na lyzed u sing t he s ame m ethods a s a pp lied t o t he P eruv ian m ater ia ls. T wo o f t he d eposits, Y anaurco C hico a nd Q uiscato la, l ocated n ear M t . A nt isana, a re g eo log ically r e lated a nd h ave t he s ame c hem ica l c omposition; t he c hem ica l a bundances f rom t hese l oci a re n ear ly h omogeneous a nd t he d eposits m ay b e c onsidered f or p rovenience p urposes a s as ing le s ource. M u llum ica, as ource l ocated 1 2 k m n orth o f t he Y anaurco-Quiscato la a rea, i s c hem ically d ist inct f rom t he o ther d eposits. M oreover , i t i s r e lated i n i ts t race e lement c onfigurat ion t o an umber o f o ther c hem ica l g roups e stab lished o n t he b asis o f t he a na lysis o f o bsid ian a rtifacts ( Asaro, M iche l, a nd B urger 1 981a). I t i s q uite p ossib le t hat t he M ullum ica o bsid ian s ource i s v ar iab le i n c omposition a nd s ubsumes t he o ther c hem ica l g roups ( Asaro, M iche l, a nd B urger 1 981b); a dd it iona l s tud ies o f p r imary o bs id ian d eposits a re n ecessary t o c onf irm t his h ypothesis. O n t he b asis o f t he i nformat ion a va ilab le, i t a ppears t hat t he M ullum ica a nd Y anaurco-Quiscato la s ources o f o bsid ian, d iscovered b y E rnesto S a lazar, 1 980, a ppear t o h ave p rovided t he o bsid ian u t ilized a t t he l ate F ormat ive s ite o f C otoco llao n ear Q uito ( Porras 1 982), a s w e ll a s m ost o f t he o bsidian u sed i n s outhern E cuador a t s ites o n t he S anta E lena P eninsu la a nd e lsewhere. T he M u llum ica s ource, l ike t he Q uispisisa s ource, ( Burger a nd A saro 1 978) w as e xp lo ited s ince t he e ar ly H o locene. T his d igression p rovides t he n ecessary b ackground f or t he s ubsequent n on-sty list ic c onsiderat ion o f t he p ostu lated n orthern l im it o f C havin c iv ilizat ion. O bsid ian a rt ifacts h ave b een r ecovered f rom m ost o f t he E ar ly H or izon c enters w here C havin i conography a nd/or c eram ic a ffim it ies w ith C hav in d e H uantar a ppear . P acopampa, t he n orthernmost o f t he k nown E ar ly h or izon m onumenta l c omp lexes, i s l ocated a pproximate ly 6 25 a ir k m s outh o f t he m ajor E cuador ian o bs idian s ources a nd 8 75 a ir k m n orth o f Q uispisisa, t he n earest s ource o f P eruvian o bsid ian. T wo o f t he n on-cu ltura l v ar iab les w hich m ight h ave a lso h e lped t o d eterm ine t he p attern o f o bsid ian a cquisition a re t he q ua lity o f t he o bsidian a nd t he t errain s eparat ing P acopampa f rom t he n orthern a nd s outhern s ource a reas. T he d eposits o f E cuador ian a nd P eruvian o bsid ian i n q uest ion a re o f s uch h igh q ua lity t hat i t i s u n like ly t hat t his w ou ld h ave b een a c onsiderat ion. 4 7

T he l andscape b etween P acopampa a nd t he

t wo s ource a reas i s r elevant ,

s ince i t w ou ld p art ially d eterm ine t he e nergy e xpended i n o bsid ian t ransport . T he h igh lands o f E cuador a re a bout a t housand m eters l ower t han t hose o f P eru, a nd t hey a re a rranged i n p ara lle l r anges r unn ing n orth t o s outh, f acilitat ing n orth-south m ovement b etween h igh land v a lleys ( Bennett 1 948). T here i s, o f c ourse, r ugged t errain i n s ome a reas o f E cuador, b ut n o w orse t han t he h igh p asses, t ortuous q uebradas, a nd g enerally d iff icu lt t opography t hat r esu lts f rom t he m ore c omp lex a rrangement o f m ult ip le n on-para lle l m ounta in r anges i n c entra l a nd n orthern P eru . S o le ly i n t erms o f d istance a nd g eographica l a ccessib ility, t he E cuador ian d eposits w ou ld b e t he a nticipated s ources o f o bsidian f or P acopampa. T he E cuador ian s ources a re 2 50 a ir k m c loser t he Q uispisisa, b ut t his i s a g ross u nderest imat ion o f t he a ctua l d ifference w hen t rave lling a long t he t w isting A ndean t rails o n f oot . U sing t he e st imates p rovided b y F lores f or t he s peed o f m odern c ame lid c aravans ( F lores 1 968 :118), t he Q uispisisa s ource w ou ld r equire s even w eeks o f t rave l ( one-way) f rom P acopampa, c ompared t o f ive w eeks t o r each t he E cuadorian s ource. I t i s, o f c ourse, u n like ly t hat t he o bsid ian w as a cquired d irect ly f rom e ither d eposit , b ut c onversion i nto t ransport t ime p roves a c lear i dea o f t he s ubstantia l d iscrepancy i mp lied b y t hese d istance d ifferences. O n t he o ther h and, o bsid ian w ould n ot b e e xpected t o b e a c omponent o f e xterna l t rade, s ince e xternal t rade i s t heoretica lly r estr icted t o l ow v o lume m ater ials u navailab le f rom p eer p o lity i nteract ion w ithin t he c ivilizat ion. M oreover, i t u sua lly d oes n ot i nclude i tems w hich s erve p ure ly p roduct ive e nds a nd, a t l east a t C hav in d e H uantar, o bsidian w as w ide ly u sed f or u t ilitar ian p urposes. I f af ront ier s eparated P acopampa a nd t he r est o f C havin c ivilizat ion f rom t he l ate F ormat ive c ultures o f E cuador, i t w ould b e e xpected t hat t he o bsidian r ecovered f rom P acopampa w ou ld h ave p robab ly b een b rought f rom Q uisp isisa, d espite t he g reater d istance; c onverse ly , i f s uch a b oundary d id n ot e x ist, t he E cuador ian d eposits s outheast o f Q u ito w ou ld h ave b een t he m ore l ike ly s ources o f o bsid ian f or P acopampa. E ight o bsidian f lakes f rom t he P acopampa a rea w ere a na lyzed a t t he L awrence B erke ley L aboratory ; a ll o f t hem a re b e lieved t o d ate t o t he m id-Ear ly H or izon. S ix o f t hese h ad b een r ecovered b y t he U n iversidad N aciona l M ayor d e S an M arcos ( UNMSM) e xcavat ions o n t he u pper p latform o f t he p r incipa l m ound a t P acopampa. T hese e xcavat ions i ncluded a s ma ll p it l ocated a bout s ix m eters t o t he S E o f t he s unken r ectangu lar c ourtyard ; i n a pproximate ly 4 .5 c ubic m eters o f e arth, s even o bsid ian f lakes w ere r ecovered . T he o bsid ian c onst ituted o n ly 2 .6% o f t he l ithics a nd c hert a nd q uartz w ere c onsiderab ly m ore c ommon ( Fung 1 976:187-188). S ix o f t he f lakes f rom t he U NMSM e xcavat ions w ere s tud ied, a long w ith o ne s amp le f rom t he e xcavat ions o f I sabe l F lores ( 1975) i n t he M irador s ector o f P acopampa a nd o ne f ound d ur ing t he i nvest igations o f H erm ilio R osas a t M achaipungo, a s ma ll m ound l ocated 5 k m e ast o f P acopampa ( Rosas 1 974:576). T he s amp les w ere a nalyzed b y X RF a nd s ubsequent ly t wo o f t hem w ere r eana lyzed b y N AA . A ll o f t he s amp les p roved t o b e d er ived f rom t he Q uisp isisa s ource; t he r esults w ere u nambiguous a nd t here w as n o e vidence o f o bsid ian f rom t he E cuador ian s ources ( Tab les 2 , 3 ). T he f ind ings o f t he o bsidian a na lysis w ou ld s eem t o p rov ide i ndependent s upport f or t he e x istence o f af rontier a rea s eparat ing 4 8

t he l ate F ormat ive E cuador ian c u ltures, l ike C horrera, f rom E SM 'S o f C hav in c iv ilizat ion . T h is c onc lusion s hou ld n ot b e t aken t o i mp ly t hat t he E cuador ian a nd P eruvian a reas c onst ituted c losed s ystems i mpervious t o e ach o ther . T he e thnographic r ecord p rov ides n umerous e xamp les o f t he m ater ia l i nteract ions w hich o ccur a cross a nthropo-geographica l a nd p o lit ical f ront iers, e ven b etween h ost ile g roups ( e .g ., F ord 1 972). A c ommon a im o f s uch i nteract ions h as a lready b een m entioned i n t he d iscussion o f e xterna l t rade : t he a cquisit ion o f e xot ic i tems u navailab le f rom w ithin t he c iv ilizat ions. S uch e xchanges a re f requent ly c arr ied o n i n f orma l, c arefu lly d ef ined s ett ings i n w hich l itt le i nformat ion i s t ransferred ( Renfrew 1 975:54). T he l ong-d istance t rade i n s pondy lus a nd s trombus s he lls p robab ly r epresents a g ood e xamp le o f e xternal t rade d ur ing t he E ar ly H or izon. T he s pondy lus, w ith i ts d ist inct ive r ed c o lorat ion, a nd t he s trombus, w ith i ts u nusua lly l arge s ize a nd t rumpet-like s hape, f lour ish i n t he w arm w aters o ff t he c oast o f E cuador, b ut n ot w ithin t he c o ld w aters o f t he c urrent f ound a long t he c oast o f P eru. I n P eru, a t t he t ime o f t he S panish c onquest, s pondy lus w as t hought t o b e o ne o f t he p referred f oods o f t he g ods a nd P eruvians w ere f orced t o a cquire t his e xot ic m ater ia l f or r itua l p restat ion o r s uffer t he c onsequences ( Murra 1 975). T he s ounding o f t he s trombus-she ll t rumpet w as a n i mportant p art o f I nca r itual, a nd i t c ont inues t o b e u t ilized i n r itua ls o f t he t rad itional h igh land c ommunit ies o f s outhern P eru. S ma ll q uant it ies o f S pondy lus h as b een e ncountered a t P eruvian s ites d ated t o t he P receram ic ( Patterson 1 973: F e ldman 1 977, Q uilter 1 981:B:65) a nd i ts s ymbo lic v a lue w as e stab lished p r ior t o t he e mergence o f C hav in c iv ilizat ion ( e.g . G r ieder a nd B ueno 1 981). D ur ing t he E ar ly H or izon, t he i con ic i mportance o f b oth S pondy lus a nd S trombus i n P eruvian c osmo logy i s a ttested t o b y t he ir d epict ion o n t he s cu lpture o f C hav in d e H uantar ( Pau lsen 1 974, L umbreras 1 977). T he d iscovery o f n umerous f ragments o f t hese e xot ic m o llusks a t E ar ly H orizon e nters ( e .g . B urger 1 983A, L umbreras 1 977) d emonstrates t hat l ong-distance t rad ing n etworks e xisted t o d istr ibute t he m ater ia ls w ithin t he a rea o f C havin c iv ilizat ion a nd, m ore s ignif icant ly, t hat s ome m echanism h ad b een d eve loped t o p rocure t hese s he lls f rom a lien g roups b eyond t he f rontier a rea. I t i s n oteworthy t hat S pondy lus a nd S trombus s he ll f it t he c riter ia o f g oods p rocured b y e ar ly c ivilizat ions t hrough e xternal t rade: 1 ) l ack o f a vailability w ithin t he c ivilizat ion, 2 ) h igh s ymbo lic v a lue w ithin t he c ivilizat ion, 3 ) l ow i nformat ion c ontent, a nd 4 ) l ow v o lume . I n r ecent y ears, S pondy lus h as p layed a c entra l r o le i n d iscussions o f l ong-d istance c ontact d ur ing t he A ndean f ormat ive ( Marcos 1 977-8, M arcos a nd N orton 1 981, L umbreras 1 981:168). I ts d ist inct ive a ppearance, t o w hich i t o wed i ts s pecia l s uitab ility a s a n e xot ic c ommodity i n a ncient P eru, a lso p erm its i t t o b e e asily r ecognized a nd s ourced b y a rchaeo log ists a nd c onsequent ly , t here i s t he d anger t hat i ts i mportance m ay b ecome e xaggerated . I t w ou ld b e j ud icious t o c onsider R enfrew 's c onclusion t hat t he i nter-reg iona l e xchanges b etween E SM 's i s g enerally m ore s ignif icant i n e ar ly c iv ilizations t han e xternal t rade ( Renfrew 1 975, 1 982:286-9). T he d iscovery o f S pondy lus o r S trombus a t t he E ar ly H or izon s ites o f t he C hav in c iv ilizat ion d oes n ot n ecessar ily i mp ly i ntensive, o r e ven s ign ificant, i nteract ion b etween a ncient P eru a nd E cuador d ur ing t his t ime p eriod . 4 9

C onclud ing R emarks T he f ormu lations o f t he P eruv ian a rchaeo log ical a rea b y H o lmes a nd W issler w ou ld s eem t o b e f air ly c onsistent w ith t he e vidence p resented h ere f or t he f ourth a nd t hird c entur ies B .C. I t a ppears t hat t he t rad itional d iv ision b etween a ncient E cuador a nd P eru i s n e ither a n a rbitrary c onvent ion e stab lished f or t he c onvenience o r m odern a rchaeo logists, n or a b y-product o f c ontemporary p o lit ical a nd e conom ic f orces. O n t he c ontrary, t he d iv ision b etween t hem s eems t o c orrespond t o a n a ncient a nd p rofound s eparat ion b etween d ist inct e cumene, o ne c omparab le t o t hat d iv id ing C h inese c ivilization f rom S outh E ast A sia o r M esoamer ican c ivilizat ion f rom s outhern C entra l A mer ica. T he v iability o f t he o r ig inal c lassification o f H o lmes a nd W issler i s n oteworthy, c onsider ing t he a lmost c omp lete a bsence o f e mp ir ical d ata w hich w as a vailab le t o t hem . W as t he ir s uccess i n t h is i nstance a r ef lect ion o f t he u t ility o f t he ir o r ig ina l a ssumption t hat d ifferences i n c limate a nd r esources w ere t he p r imary f actors i n g enerat ing a rchaeo log ical a rea d ivisions? A c onsideration o f g eographical i nformat ion f or t he c ontrasts i n t he e co logy a nd p roduct ive p otent ia l o f P eru a nd E cuador i s g ermane. T he p resent c limat ic r eg ime a ppears t o h ave b een e stab lished b y 3 000 B .C. ( R ichardson 1 978, F erdon 1 981) a nd t hough t here m ay h ave b een s ome s hort-term c hanges i n c limate ( Card ich 1 976:19, P aulsen 1 976, S arma 1 974) a nd l ocalized t opographica l m odificat ions d ue t o c oastal u p lift a nd o ther f actors ( Mose ley a nd D eeds 1 982), t hese w ou ld p robab ly n ot a ffect l ong-term m acro-geographica l a rguments s uch a s t hose c ontemp lated b y H o lmes a nd W issler, a nd f oreshadowed i n t he w r it ings o f t he 1 6th c entury c hronic ler, C ieza d e L eon ( 1962:64-5). S pace d oes n ot p erm it a d etailed c onsiderat ion o f t his l arge a nd c omp lex p rob lem , b ut s ome o f t he s alient g eographica l f eatures w ill b e r eviewed i n o rder t o e va luate w hether t hese d ifferences c an a lone a ccount f or t he p art icu lar s pat ia l p atterning o f t he E ar ly H or izon f ront ier . T he g eographer C ar l T ro ll ( 1958) h as d ifferentiated b etween t wo g eneral c lasses o f h igh land A ndean L andscapes: t he p una A ndes a nd t he p aramo A ndes. T he d ifferences b etween t hem a re t he p roduct o f a n umber o f i nter-re lated c limat ic t rends a nd t opographic f eatures. A s o ne t rave ls n orth t hrough P eru a nd E cuador , t he A ndes b ecome g enera lly l ower, n arrower, a nd m ore h eavily b isected b y r ivers. A t t he s ame t ime, r ainfa ll b ecomes m ore a bundant a nd l ess s easona l. M oreover , a s o ne a pproaches t he E quator, t he l ength o f d ays i s l ess v ar iable a nd , a s a c onsequence, t he p rob lem o f f rosts d ur ing l ong w inter n ights d im in ishes a nd t he l eve l o f t he p ermanent s now-line i s l owered b ecause o f t he a bsence o f l ong s ummer d ays. T he p una A ndes o f P eru i s c haracter ized b y v egetat ion a nd f auna a dopted t o s easona l f rosts a nd l ong p er iods o f l ow p recip itat ion. T he r e lat ive ly u nbroken t opography o f t he p una p rovides a n e xpansive e nvironment o f g rasslands w hich a re u nsuitab le f or a gr icu lture b ecause o f t he f requent f rosts. T hese p asture lands a re t he n at ive h abitat o f w ild c ame lids a nd t hey w ere t he p r imary a reas f or h erding d omest ic c ame lids b y t he E ar ly H or izon. I n t he i ntermontane v a lleys b e low t he p asture land, t he h igh e levat ions a nd f rosts l ed t o t he d ependence o n ac omp lex o f f rost res istent h igh a lt itude c rops, l ike p otato, o ca a nd q uinoa. T he u npred ictab ility a nd s easona lity o f t he r ains l ed t o t he i ntroduct ion o f s upp lementary 5 0

i rr igat ion o f c rop land a nd p asture land i n m any a reas, b ut n at ive v ar iet ies o f t hese c rops c an g enera lly w ithstand s hort-term s hortages o f w ater b etter t han l ower-e levat ion c rops l ike m aize . T he h igh p asture lands o f t he p aramo A ndes o f E cuador w ere l im ited i n e xtent a nd d ifferent i n c ompos it ion. W ild c ame lids a pparent ly d o n ot o ccur i n t his e nv ironment a nd d omest ic c ame lids w ere i ntroduced o n ly l ate i n p rehistory, n ever p lay ing a r o le c omparab le i n s ign if icance t o t hat f urther s outh. A p r imary d ependence o n a m aize-based s ubsistence s ystem w as f easib le i n m ost o f t he i nter-montane v a lleys o f t he p aramo A ndes b ecause o f t he ir l ower-e lavat ions, l ack o f f rosts a nd y ear-round r ains; h igh land i rr igat ion s ystems w ere l arge ly u nnecessary . T he p aramo A ndes a re, o f c ourse, c haracter ist ic o f h igh land E cuador a nd n e ighbor ing C o lomb ia a nd t he p una A ndes a re w ide ly c ons idered t he h a llmark o f t he P eruv ian a nd B o liv ian a rea, b ut t echnically, t he p aramo A ndes e xtend i nto n orthern P eru a nd i nc lude p arts o f C ajamarca, L a L ibertad a nd A ncash. D epend ing o n t he g eographica l d ef initions e mp loyed , t he t ransit ion f rom t he p aramo A ndes t o t he p una A ndes w ou ld o ccur 2 00 t o 4 00 k m s outh o f t he p ostu lated f ront ier o f C hav in c iv ilizat ion . T he e nvironment o f t he C hotano b asin a round C ajamarca e xemp lif ies t he f eatures o f t he p aramo A ndes a nd h as f ar m ore i n c ommon w ith E cuador ian b asins l ike C uenca t han t he v a lleys o f t he p una A ndes. • Ac omparab le d ichotomy c an b e m ade b etween t wo g ross c lasses o f c oasta l l andscapes, t yp ica l o f P eru a nd E cuador : t he w arm d esert a nd t he t rue t rop ica l f orest . A long t he s outhern a nd c entra l c oast o f P eru, t he c oo l u pwe lling H umbo lt c urrent i nhib its n orma l p rec ipitat ion a nd a llows o n ly 0 t o 2 5 m m o f r ain t o f a ll a nnua lly ; t he p recip itat ion i ncreases s light ly i n n orthern P eru b ut i t s t ill f a lls s hort o f t he m inimum n ecessary f or f arm ing w ithout i rr igat ion, a nd c oasta l a gr icu ltura list l iv ing o n t he w arm d esert a re d ependent o n m an ipu lat ing t he r unoff f rom t he s easona l h igh land r ains i n o rder f arm m ost o f t he ir l and . T he w armer E cuador ian C ountercurrent w hich s weeps s outh a long t he c oast o f E cuador a llows f or h eavy p recip itat ion t hroughout t he y ear a nd i t s upports a r ain f orest v egetat ion c omparab le t o t hat o f P eru 's e astern s lopes. T he c oasta l p lain w idens a s o ne m oves n orth a nd t he c oast o f E cuador r eaches 1 50 t o 2 00 k m i n w idth a nd i t i s t raversed b y g ent le n av igab le r ivers. B ecause o f t he a nnua l a dvance a nd r etreat o f t he E cuador ian C ountercurrent , ab road c limat ic z one i s c reated b etween 3 .5 d egrees a nd 5 d egrees S l at itude w hich i s r eferred t o a s t he z one o f i nter-trop ica l c onvergence ( R ichardson 1 978 :122). I n t h is z one, c actus d esert r ep laces d ry d esert f urther s outh a nd m angrove e stuar ies a ppear i n s ome a reas d irect ly a long t he l ittora l. T he f it b etween g ross g eographica l c onf igurat ions a nd t he E ar ly H or izon d iv isions a re i ntr igu ing ly c lose a long t he c oast . T he f ront ier z one p ostu lated t o e x ist b etween t he E cuador ian c u ltures a nd C hav in c iv ilizat ion c orresponds w e ll t o t he z one o f i nter-trop ica l c onvergence . H owever, i n t erms o f a gr icu ltura l e xp lo itat ion, t he v a lleys o f t h is a rea ( e.g . C hira, P iura, T umbes) h ave m uch i n c ommon w ith t he i rr igat ion b ased s ystems o f t he w arm d esert . I n c ontrast , t he a rea o f t he S anta E lena P eninsu la a nd t he r est o f a r id 5 1

t rans it iona l a rea o f t he s outhern f or c ana l i rr igat ion .

E cuador ian c oast l acks w atercourses

T h is b r ief r ev iew o f t he g eograph ica l s ituat ion s hows a r ough c orrespondence b etween e nv ironmenta l s ett ing a nd a rchaeo log ica l a reas d ur ing t he E ar ly H or izon, b ut i t c ou ld b e a rgued t hat o n ap ure ly g eograph ica l b as is, i t m ight h ave b een e xpected t hat t he l im its o f C hav in c ivilizat ion w ou ld b e l ocated s omewhat f urther s outh i n t he h igh lands a nd, p erhaps, s light ly f urther n orth o n t he c oast . P o lit ica l g eographers h ave n oted t hat t he p referred l ocat ion f or p re-industr ia l p o lit ica l f ront iers w ere d eserts, m ounta in r anges, r ivers a nd o ther p otent ia lly d efensib le f eatures. A reas o f l ow p opulation d ensity w ere a lso f avored ( Jones 1 954 :254, P rescott 1 965 :43). T hese p o lit ica l c onsiderat ions m ay h ave p layed a r o le i n t he o bserved l im it o f C hav in c iv ilizat ion a nd , a t l east o n t he s urface, t hey s eem t o a ccount f or t he d iscrepancies o f f it n oted a bove . O n t he P eruv ian c oast, t he l ast c ompe lling e v idence o f C hav in c iv ilizat ion a ppears i n t he L ambayeque-La L eche d rainage a nd t he a djacent f ront ier z one b eg ins w ith S echura d esert, a 2 25 k m e xpanse o f a r id l and, o n ly l ight ly i nhabited i n p rehistory ( Cardenas 1 979). T he a verage d esert a rea b etween t he c oasta l v a lleys t o t he s outh i s o n ly 3 8 k m a nd t he S echura d esert p resents a n u nequa led g eographica l o bstac le a long t he P eruv ian c oast . T he b eg inn ing o f t he E ar ly H or izon f ront ier i n t he h igh lands c orresponds t o ab reak i n t he A ndes i n w h ich t he h igh land z one n arrows a nd d rops d own t o 2 ,000 m eters o r l ess. A t t his g eographica l a nomo ly , t he t ropica l s avannah c limate o f t he c oast e xtends w estward a nd n ear ly j o ins w ith t he m o ist t rop ica l c limate o f t he e astern A ndean s lopes. T he e astern p ort ion o f t his a rea i s c overed b y d ense f orests a nd t he a rea i s u nsuitab le f or c u lt ivat ion u sing h igh land t echn iques, a nd t he w estern p ort ion i s k nown f or i ts u nhea lthy e nv ironment . T he g eographer , T heodore W o lf , w rote t hat u nhea lthy l oca lit ies a re r are i n t he A ndean h igh lands b ut : T he b est k nown a nd m ost f eared v a lleys a re o f C atamayo ( Prov . o f L oja), o f Y ung illa ( Prov. o f A zuay) a nd G uay labama ( Prov. o f P inchincha) a nd o f C hota ( Prov . o f I magugarra). T heir h eight i s f ound b etween 1 200 a nd 2 ,000 m eters a nd t he ir a verage t emperature i s b etween 1 7 d egrees a nd 2 0 d egrees. N e ither w h ite m en n or I nd ians r esist l ong t he c ontinuous a ttacks o f f evers a nd m a lignant f evers a re e ndem ic t o t hese v a lleys; e ven n egro o r m u latto i nhab itants w ho a re p eons o f t he e states s uffer i ntense ly u nder t he p ernicious i nf luence o f t he c limate ( Wo lf 1 933:428). E ven a t p resent , t he p opulat ion d ensity o f t his f ront ier z one i s s ubstant ia lly l ess t han h alf o f t he p opu lat ion d ensity i n h igh land v a lleys t o t he n orth a nd s outh, a nd , a s B ennett n oted, o ver 4 00 k m o f h eav ily f orested a nd l ight ly i nhabited l and s eparates t he l ast l arge h igh land v a lly o f C ajamarca f rom t he f irst m ajor h igh land v a lley i n E cuador ( Brom ley 1 976 :96-7, B ennett 1 948): N e ither t he S echura D esert n or t he i nhosp itab le v a lleys a nd f orests o f C atamayo p resented i nsurmountab le b arr iers t o s urviva l o r t rave l ( Cardenas 1 979, Q uilter 1 981A). Y et t hese a reas a re i ncapab le o f s upport ing d ense p opu lat ion e quiva lent t o t hose o f r eg ions o f 5 2

C hav in c iv ilizat ion. T he g rad ient o f c limate a nd r esources f rom t he s outhern t o t he n orthern l im it o f t he p aramo A ndes w as c ut b y ar eg ion e nv ironmenta lly u nattract ive f or h uman s ett lement , a s w as t he c oast . W h ile t he p reh istory o f t h is n atura l b uffer z one i s p oor ly k nown , i t s eems v ery l ike ly t hat i t p rov ided a b reak s ignif icant e nough t o p roject E cuador a nd P eru o nto d ifferent t rajector ies o f s ocio-cu ltura l a nd p o lit ica l d eve lopment d ur ing t he E ar ly H or izon. T he r oots o f d ivergence m ay e ventua lly b e t raced t o t he e mergence o f d issim ilar m odes o f p roduct ion i n t he C entra l a nd N orthern A ndes d ur ing t he 2 nd m illenium B .C. I t s hou ld n ot b e f orgotten, h owever, t hat a t o ther t imes, e specia lly l ater i n p rehistory, t he f ront ier r eg ion w as r epeated ly t ranscended b y t he p owerfu l m ilitary , e conom ic, a nd i deo logica l f orces g enerated b y c onquest s tates.

A cknow ledgements: S pecia l t hanks t o F rank A saro a nd H e len M iche l o f t he L awrence B erke ley L aboratory f or t he ir c o llaborat ion i n t he t race e lement a na lysis o f t he s amp les d iscussed i n t h is p aper , t o J effrey Q u ilter f or h is c omments o n t he o r ig inal m anuscr ipt a nd t o L ucy S a lazar-Burger f or h er a ss istance w ith t he m aps.

5 3

L iterature C ited A dams, R obert M c. 1 977 W or ld p icture, a nthropo log ica l 7 9 : 2 65-279.

f rame .

A mer ican A nthropo log ist

A dams, W illiam 1 979 O n t he a rgument f rom c eram ics t o h istory : ac hallenge b ased o n e v idence f rom M ed ieva l N ub ia. C urrent A nthropo logy 2 0 : 7 27-734 . A lva, W a lter a nd C ar los E lera 1 980 S ummary o f w ork a t t he N orPARG N ews letter 3 : 2

f ormat ive

s ite

o f M orro

d e

E ten .

A saro, F rank, H e len V . M iche l a nd R ichard L . B urger 1 981a M ajor s ources o f E cuador ian a rchaeo log ical o bs idian a nd p rovenience a ssignment o f a rt ifacts. L awrence B erke ley L aboratory R eport , L BL - 1 3246, B erke ley . 1 981b C hem ica l s ource g roups i n E cuador ian o bsidian . L awrence B erke ley L aboratory R eport, L BL - 1 3247. B ennett, W ende ll 1 946 E xcavat ions i n t he C uenca r eg ion , E cuador . Y a le U nivers ity P ub licat ions i n A nthropo logy, N o . 3 6 : 1 -84 . 1 948 T he P eruv ian c o-trad it ion . I n A R eappraisa l o f P eruv ian A rchaeo logy , e dited b y W ende ll B ennett , p p . 1 -7. M enasha. B ennett, W ende ll C . a nd J unius B ird 1 960 A ndean c u lture h istory . A mer ican N ew Y ork.

M useum o f

N atura l H istory ,

B ischof, H en ing 1 975 L a f ase E ngoroy, p er iodos, c rono log ia y r e laciones . E stud ios s obre l a a rqueo log ia d e l E ucador , e d ited b y U . O beram , B onner A mer ikanistche S tud ien 3 :17-38. B lanton, R ichard , S tephen K owa lewski, G ary F e inman, a nd J ill A ppe l 1 981 A ncient M esoamer ica: ac ompar ison o f c hange i n t hree r eg ions . C ambr idge U n iversity P ress, C ambr idge . B rom ley , R aymond 1 976 C ontemporary m arket p er iod icity i n h igh land E cuador . I n R eg iona l A na lysis, v o l. I , E conom ic S ystems, e d ited b y C aro l S m ith, p p . 9 1-122. A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork. B urger, R ichard L . 1 981 T he r ad iocarbon e v idence f or t he t empora l p r ior ity o f C hav in d e H uantar . A mer ican A nt iqu ity 4 6(3): 5 92-602. 1 983a T he p reh istor ic o ccupat ion o f C havin d e H uantar, P eru . U n iversity o f C a liforn ia P ub licat ions i n A nthropo logy , i n p ress. 1 983b U n ity a nd h eterogene ity w ithin t he C hav in h or izon . I n A n o verv iew o f P eruvian p rehistory , e d ited b y R ichard K eat inge, C ambr idge U niversity P ress, N ew Y ork, i n p ress.

5 4

B urger, R ichard a nd F rank A saro 1 978 T he d istr ibut ion a nd p rovenience o f p receram ic a rt ifacts f rom t he c entra l h igh lands a nd c oast o f P eru. C ontr ibut ions o f t he U niversity o f C a lifornia A rchaeo log ica l R esearch F acility 7 6T 6 1-83. 1 979 A na lysis d e r asgos s ignif icat ivos e n l a o bsid iana d e l os A ndes c entra les. R ev ista d e l M useo N aciona l 4 3 : 2 81-325. L ima. B urger, R ichard , F rank A saro, a nd H e len M iche l 1 983 O bsid ian ( append ix E ). I n T he p rehistor ic o ccupat ion o f C hav in d e H uantar , P eru, b y R ichard L . B urger . U n iversity o f C a lifornia P ub licat ions i n A nthropo logy , i n p ress . B urger, R ichard L . a nd L ucy S alazar-Burger 1 980 R itua l a nd r e lig ion a t H uar icoto . A rchaeo logy 3: 2 6-32. B ushne ll, G . H . S . 1 951 T he a rchaeo logy o f t he S anta E lena P en insu la i n E cuador . C ambr idge U n ivers ity P ress, C ambr idge . 1 957 P eru . F reder ick A . P raeger P ub lishers, N ew Y ork.

s outhwest

C ardenas, M ercedes 1 979 A c hrono logy o f t he u se o f m ar ine r esources i n a nc ient P eru. I nst ituto R iva A guera, P ont if icia U n ivers idad C ato lica d e P eru, L ima . C ard ich, A gusto 1 976 A gr icu ltores y p astores e n L aur icocha y l im ites s uper iores d e l c u lt ivo . R ev isto d e l M useo N aciona l 4 1: 1-36. L ima. C arr ion C achot, R ebecca 1 948 L a c u ltura C hav in : d os n uevas c o lon ias : K untur W asi y A ncon . R ev ista d e l m useo N aciona l d e A ntropo log ia y A rqueo log ia 2 : 1 33-172. -- r ima . C ieza d e L eon, P edro 1 962 L a c ronica d e l P eru, p r imera p arte .

E spasa-Ca lpe, M adr id .

C oe, M ichae l 1 981 R e lig ion a nd t he r ise o f M esoamer ican s tates. I n T he t rans it ion t o s tatehood i n t he N ew W or ld, e d ited b y G rant J ones a nd R obert K autz, p p. 1-5 61 -1 71. C ambr idge U n iversity P ress, C ambr idge. C o llier, D ona ld a nd J ohn M urra 1 943 S urvey a nd e xcavat ions i n s outhern E cuador . F ie ld N atura l H istory , A nthropo log ica l S er ies, v o l. 3 5. C ooper, J . M . 1 942 A rea l a nd t empora l a spects o f P r im it ive M an, v o l. 1 5, p p. 1 -38.

S outh

A mer ican

M useum o f

c u lture,

C ordy-Co llins, A lana 1 976 A n i conographic s tudy o f C hav in t ext iles f rom t he s outh c oast o f P eru : t he d iscovery o f a P re-co lumb ian c atechism . U T i pub lished P 1f l 6 . d issertat ion, A r aaeo logy D epartment , U CLA. 5 5

1 977

C hav in a rt : i ts s hamanic/ha lluc inogen ic o r ig ins. I n P re-Co lumb ian a rt h istory, e d ited b y A lana C ordy-Co llins a nd J ean S tern, p p . 3 53-362. P eek P ub licat ions, P a lo A lto , C a lifornia.

D a lton, G eorge 1 975 K ar l P o lyani's a na lysis o f l ong-d istance a nd h is w ider p arad igm . I n A ncient c iv ilizat ion a nd t rade, e d ited b y J eremy S ab loff a nd C . C . L amberg K ar lovsky , p p . 6 3-132. U n iversity o f N ew M ex ico P ress, A lbuquerque . E strada, E m ilio 1 958 L as c u lturas p re-c lasicas, f ormat ivas o a rcaicas d e l E cuador . P ub licacion d e l M useo V ictor E m ilio E strada N o . 5 . G uayaquil. E vans, C lifford a nd B etty M eggers 1 957 F ormat ive p er iod c u ltures i n t he G uayas B asin, c entra l E cuador . A mer ican A nt iquity 2 3: 2 35-247. 1 982 T ecn icas d ecorat ivas d iagnost icas y v ar iantes r eg iona les C horrera, u n a na lisis p re lim inar . I n P r imer S imposio d e C orre laciones A ntropo log icas A nd ino-Mesoamer ica ( 25-31 d e j u lT d e 1 971), e d ited b y J orge M arcos a nd P res ley N orton, p. 1 21: 17 37 E SPOL, G uayaquil. F e ldman, R obert 1 977 L ife i n a ncient P eru. 4 8 : 1 2-17.

F ie ld M useum o f N atura l H istory B ullet in

F erdon, E dw in, J r . 1 981 H o locene m angrove f ormat ions o n t he S anta E lana P en insu la, E cuador : p luv ia l i nd icators o r e co log ical r esponse t o p hysiographic c hanges. A mer ican A nt iqu ity 4 6(3): 6 19-622. F lannery , K ent 1 968 T he O lmec a nd t he v a lley o f O axaca : am ode l f or i nter-reg iona l i nteract ion i n f ormat ive t imes . I n D umbarton O aks C onference o n t he O lmec, e d ited b y E lizabeth B enson, p. 7 9-110 . D umbarton O aks R esearch L ibrary a nd C o llect ion, T rustees f or H arvard U niversity, W ash ington D .C. 1 972 T he c u ltura l e vo lut ion o f c ivilizat ions. A nnua l R ev iew o f E co logy a nd S ystemat ics 3 : 2 99-426. F lores, J orge 1 968 L os p astores d e P arat ia: u na i ntroduccion a s u T i t ituto n i genista I nteram ano , M ex ico, D . V . F lores, I sabe l 1 975 E xcavac iones e n e l M irador , P acopampa. R ura l A ndina, L ima.

S em inar io

e stud io .

d e H istor ia

F ord, R ichard 1 972 B arter, g ift , v io lence : a n a na lysis o f T ewa i ntertr iba l e xchange . I n S ocia l e xchange a nd i nteract ion, e d ited b y E . N . W ilmsen, p p. 2 1-45. A nthropo log ica l P apers, M useum o f A nthropo logy, U n iversity o f M ichigan 4 6.

5 6

F re ide l, D av id 1 981 C iv ilizat ion a s as tate o f m ind : t he c u ltura l e vo lut ion o f t he l ow land M aya. I n T he t ransit ion t o s tatehood i n t he N ew W or ld, e d ited b y G rant J ones a nd R obert K autz, p p . 1 8 1 372 277 C amb r idge U niversity P ress, C ambr idge . F ung , R osa 1 976 E xcavaciones e n P acopampa, N aciona l 4 1: 1 29-210. L ima .

C ajamarca.

G r ieder, T erence a nd A lberto B ueno 1 981 L a G a lgada: P eru b efore p ottery .

R ev ista

d e l

M useo

A rchaeo logy 3 4 : 4 5-51.

G uffroy, J . n .d . I nvest igaciones a rq ueo log icas e n e l s ur L oja. M ision a rqueo log ica L oja, Lei .

d e

l a p rov incia

H odder, I an 1 979 E conom ic a nd s ocia l s tress a nd m ater ia l A mer ican A nt iquity 4 4 : 4 46-454. 1 982 S ymbo ls i n a ct ion : e thnoarchaeo log ica l s tud ies o f c u lture. C ambr idge U n iversity P ress. C ambr idge .

d e

c u lture. m ater ia l

H o lmes, W . H . 1 914 A reas o f A mer ican c u lture c haracter izat ion t entat ive ly o ut lined a s a n a id i n t he s tudy o f a nt iquit ies. A mer ican A nthropo log ist 1 6: 4 13-446. I sh ida, E iichiro , e t a l 1 960 A ndes: t he r eport o f t he U n iversity o f T okyo S cient if ic E xped it ion t o t he A ndes i 1-9 58 . B ijitsu S huppan S ha, T okyo . I zum i, S e iichi a nd T oshihito S ono 1 963 A ndes 2 : E xcavat ions a t P ub lishing C ompany , T okyo .

K otosh,

P eru

1 94 .0 .

K ado

K awa

I zum i, S e iichi a nd K azua T erada 1 966 A ndes 3 : E xcavat ions a t P echiche a nd G arbanza l, T umbes V a lley , P eru 1 960. U n iversity o f T okyo P ress, T okyo . J ones, S tephen 1 959 B oundary c oncepts i n t he s ett ing o f p lace a nd t ime . t he A ssociat ion o f A mer ican G eographers 4 9 : 2 41-255 .

A nna ls o f

J oyce, T homas A . 1 912 S outh A mer ican a rchaeo logy ; a n i ntroduct ion t o t he a rchaeo logy o f t he S outh A mer ican c ont inent w ith s pecia l r i frence t o t he e ar 1 T i—h i s-i F 6, o f P eru. G . P . P ut-F ii' s s ons, L ondon. K ano, C hiaki 1 979 T he o r ig ins o f C hav in c u lture . S tud ies i n a nd A rchaeo logy N o . 2 2, W ashington, D .C. K au licke, P eter 1 976 E l f ormat ivo d e P acopampa.

5 7

P re-Co lumb ian A rt

S em inar io d e H istor ia R ura l A nd ina,

K eat inge, R ichard 1 981 T he n ature a nd r o le o f r e lig ious d iffusion i n t he e ar ly s tages o f s tate f ormat ion : a n e xamp le f rom P eruv ian p reh istory . I n T he t rans it ion t o s tatehood i n t he N ew W or ld, e d ited b y G rant D . J ones a nd R obert R . K autz, p p. --- 1 7 2-187. C ambr idge U n iversity P ress, N ew Y ork. K r istof, L ad is 1 959 T he n ature o f b oundar ies a nd f rontiers . A nna ls A ssoc iat ion o f A mer ican G eographers 4 9 : 2 69-282.

o f

t he

K roeber, A lfred 1 944 P eruvian a rchaeo logy i n 1 942. V iking F und P ub lication i n A nthropo logy, N o . 4 . 1 947 E sthet ic a nd r ecreat iona l a ct iv it ies : a rt . H andbook o f S outh A mer ican I nd ians, v o l. V , e d ited b y J u lian S tewaT d , p. 4 11-492. S m ithsonian I nst itut ion , W ashington, D .C. K rzanowski, A ndrzej 1 980 E l a ssentam iento p reco lomb ino e n l a c uenca d e l R io A lto C-F icama, P eru s eptentr iona l. U npub liihed P h .D. — d r i%sertat ion , U n iversity o f V arsov ia, P o land . L ann ing, E dward 1 963 A c eram ic s equence f or t he P iura a nd C hira c oast , n orth P eru . U n iversity o f C a lifornia P ub licat ions i n A mer ican A rchaeo logy a nd E thno logy, v o l. 4 6, n o . 2 , p p . 1 35-784, B erke ley . 1 967 V e-F u b efore t he I ncas. P rent ice H a ll, E ng lewood C liffs, N J. L athrap, D ona ld 1 971 T he t rop ica l f orest a nd t he c u ltura l c ontext o f C hav in. I n D umbarton O aks c onference o n C hav in, e d ited b y E lizabeth B enson, p7 -7 3-100 . D umbarton O aks R esearch L ibrary a nd C o llect ion, W ashington, D .C. 1 973 G ifts o f t he c ayman : s ome t houghts o n t he s ubsistence b asis o f C havin. I n V ar iat ion i n A nthropo logy : E ssays i n h onor o f J ohn C . M cGregor, e d ited b y D onald L athrap a nd J udy D oug las, p. T -103 . U rbana I L. 1 977 F arm ing c ommun it ies a nd t he d emands o f a rchaeo logy . S c ience 1 95: 1 319-1321. L athrap, D ona ld ; D ona ld C o llier , a nd H e len C handra 1 975 A ncient E cuador : c u lture, c lay, a nd c reat iv ity, B .C. F ie ld M useum o f N aturiT T istory , C h icago . L othrop , S amue l 1 941 G o ld o rnaments o f C hav in s ty le A mer ican A nt iquity 6 (3): 2 50-262.

f rom

3 000 B .C.-300

C hongoyape ,

P eru .

L umbreras, L uis 1 974a T he p eop les a nd c u lture o f a ncient P eru. T ranslated b y B etty J . M eggers, S m ithsonian I nst itut ion P ress, W ashington, D .C. 1 974b L as f undaciones d e H uamanga : h acia u na p reh istor ia d e A yacucho . E ditor ia l N ueva eicion, L ima. 1 977 E xcavaciones e n e l t emp lo a nt iguo d e C havin ( sector R ): i nforme d e s exta c ampana . N awpa P acha 1 5 : 1 -38. 5 8

1 981

A rqueo log ia L ima .

d e l a

a mer ica

a nd ina.

E d itor ia l M illa

B atres,

L umbreras, L uis a nd H ernan A mat 1 969 I nforme p re limanar s obre l as g a ler ias i nter iores d e R ev ista d e l M useo N aciona l 3 4 : 1 34-197, L ima.

C hav in.

M acera, P ab lo 1 976 I ntroducc ion. I n E l F ormat ivo H istor ia R ura l A nd ina, L ima.

d e

P acopampa.

S em inar io

d e

M arcos, J orge 1 977/78 C ruising t o A capu lco a nd b ack w ith t he t horny o yster s et : a m ode l f or a l inea l e xchange s ystem . J ourna l o f t he S teward A nthropo log ica l S ociey 9 : 9 9-131. M arcos, J orge a nd P res ley N orton 1 981 I nterpretacion s obre l a a rqueo log ia d e l a i s la d e L a P lata. M isce lanea A ntropo log ica E cuator iana 1 : 1 36-154 . B o let in d e l os m useos d e l B anco C entra l d e E cuador , G uayaquil. M atos, R am iro 1 959 E xp loraciones a rque log icas e n H uancave lica. U npub lished t hesis, U n ivers idad N ac iona l M ayor d e S an M arcos. 1 969 A lgunas c ons ideraciones s obre e l e st ilo d e V icus. R ev ista d e l M useo N aciona l 3 4 : 8 9-130. L ima . 1 972 A TT aT eros y a gr icu ltores. I n P ueb los y c u lturas d e l a s ierra c entra l d e l P eru, e d ited b y D uccio B onav ia a nd R ogger-%v ines, p p. 3 5-43. C erro d e P asco C orporat ion, L ima . 1 973 A taura: u n c entro C hav in e n e l v a lle d e l M antaro . R ev ista d e l M useo N aciona l 3 8 : 9 7-108. L ima. M eggers, B etty 1 966 E cuador.

F reder ick A . P raeger , N ew Y ork.

M ose ley, M ichae l a nd E r ic D eeds 1 982 T he l and i n f ront o f C han C han : a grar ian e xpansion, r eform a nd c o llapse i n t he M oche V a lley . i n C han C han : A ndean d esert c ity, e d ited b y M ichae l M ose ley a nd K ent D ay , p p . 2 5-54. U n iversity o f N ew M ex ico P ress, A lbuquerque . M urra, J ohn 1 975 E l t raf ico d e m u llu e n l a c osta d e l P acif ico . e conom icas y p o lit icas d e l m undo a ndino . I nst ituto d e E stud ios P eruanos, L ima.

I n F ormaciones p p. 2 55-267.

N om land, G ladys 1 939 N ew a rchaeo log ica l s ite a t S an B las, J un in, P eru . M useo N ac iona l 8 : 6 1-66. L ima .

R ev ista d e l

O nuki, Y oshio a nd T atsuhiko F ujii 1 974 E xcavat ions a t L a P ampa, P eru . T he P roceed ings o f t he D eeartment o f H uman it ies, C o llege - o l G enera l E ducat ion, U n iversity 6 f-T okyo, V o l. 5 9, p p. 4 5- 04-. U n iversity o f T okyo P ress, T okyo .

5 9

P atterson, T homas C . 1 971 C hav in : a n i nterpretat ion o f i ts s pread a nd i nf luence. I n D umbarton O aks C onference o n C hav in, e d ited b y E lizabeth P . B enson, p p. 2 9-48, D umbarton O aks R esearch L ibrary a nd C o llect ion, T rustees o f H arvard U n iversity , W ashington D .C. m s. T he p ower o f P achacamac. M s. i n p ossession o f t he a uthor , T emp le U niversity, P h ilade lphia. P aulsen, A llison 1 974 T he t horny o yster a nd t he v oice o f G od : s pondy lus a nd s trombus i n A ndean p rehistory . A mer ican A nt iquity, 3 9: 5 97-607. 1 976 E nvironment a nd e mpire: c limat ic f actors i n p rehistor ic A ndean c u lture c hange. W or ld A rchaeo logy 8 : 1 21-132. P aulsen, A llison a nd E ugene M cDoug le 1 981 Ac hrono logy o f M achililla a nd E ngoroy c eram ics o f t he s outh c oast o f E cuador . P aper p resented a t 9 th A nnua l M idwest C onference o n A ndean a nd A mazonian A rchaeo logy a nd E thnohi s tory . P ires-Ferreira, J ane W . a nd K ent V . F lannery 1 976 E thnographic m ode ls f or f ormat ive e xchange. I n T he E ar ly M esoamer ican v illage, e dited b y K ent F lannery, p. -- 7 86 -1 9 2. A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork. P log, S tephen 1 980 S ty list ic v ar iation i n p rehistor ic c eram ics: D esign a na lysis i n t he A merican S outhwest . C ambr idge U nive -i ty P ress, C ambr idge . P orras, P edro I . 1 977 F ase A lausi. I n E stud ios a rqueo logicos, p. 8 9-159. U niversidad C ato lica, Q uito. 1 978 A rqueo logia d e l a C ueva d e l os T ayos. U niversidad C ato lica, Q uito . 1 980 A rqueo logia d e l E cuador . I mp . E d . " Gallocapitan". O tava lo , E cuador . 1 982 A rqueo logia d e Q uito 1 : F ase C otoco llao. C entro d e I nvest igaciones A rqueo log icas, U niversidad C ato lica, Q uito . P ozorski, T homas 1 983 T he C aba llo M uerto c omp lex a nd i ts p lace i n t he A ndean c hrono logical s equence. A nna ls o f C arneg ie M useum 5 2 : 1 -40 P rescott, J .R. 1 965 T he g eography o f f ront iers a nd b oundar ies.

A ldine, C h icago.

P rou lx, D onald 1 973 A rchaeo logica l i nvest igat ions i n t he N epana V af ley, P eru . U n iversity o f M assachussetts, D epartment o f A nthropo logy , R esearch R eport, v o l. 1 3. P RPCA 1 979a

C r it icas y p erspect ivas d e l a a rqueo log ia a ndina. D ocumento d e T rabajo N o . 1 , p repared b y L uis G . L umbreras. P royecto R egiona l d e P atr imonio C u ltura l A nd ino U NESCO/PNUD, L ima. 1 979b C omentar ios s obre e l c onjunto d e n otas q ue c onst ituyen e l 6 0

d ocumento d e t rabajo N o . 1 . D ocument° d e T rabajo N o . 2 , p repared b y L u is G . L umbreras, P royecto R egi aa l d e P atiimoni o C ultura l A nd ino . U NESCO/PNUD, L ima. Q u ilter, J effrey 1 981a T he P eru-Ecuador f ront ier i n p rehistory . P aper p resented a t t he 4 6th A nnua l M eet ing o f t he S ociety f or A mer ican A rchaeo logy , S an D iego . 1 981b P a loma: M ortuary p ract ices a nd s ocia l o rgan izat ion o f a p receram ic P eruvian v illage . U npub lished P h .D . d issertat ion, D epartment o f A nthropo logy , U n iversity o f C a lifornia, S anta B arbara. R av ines, R ogger 1 973 C oncha les d e l R io Z arum illa, P eru. R ev ista d e l M useo N aciona l 3 9: 8 0-20. L ima. 1 975 C omments o n c eram ic e co logy o f t he A yacucho B asin, P eru . C urrent A nthropo logy 1 6: 1 99-200. 1 982 P anorama d e l a a rqueo log ia a nd ina. I nst ituto d e E stud ios P eruanos, E im a . 1 983 U n m ampuesto g rabado d e l v a lle d e J equetepeque . R ev ista d e l M useo N aciona l 4 5 : 3 13-18. L ima. R enfrew , C o lin 1 972 T he e mergence o f c ivilizat ion. M ethuen a nd C o ., L ondon . 1 975 T rade a s a ct ion a t ad istance : q uest ions o f i ntergrat ion a nd c ommun icat ion . I n A ncient C iv ilizat ions a nd T rade, e d ited b y J eremy S ab loff a nd C . L amberg-Kar lovsky, p p . 3 -59, U n iversity o f N ew M ex ico P ress, A lbuquerque. 1 982 P o lity a nd p ower : i nteract ion, i ntensif icat ion a nd e xp lo itat ion . I n A n i s land p o lity , e d ited b y C o lin R enfrew a nd M a lcom W agstaff , p p . 2 64-290 . C ambr idge U n ivers ity P ress, L ondon. R ichardson, J ames B ., II 1 978 E ar ly m an o n t he n orth P eruv ian c oast : e ar ly m ar it ime e xp lo itat ion a nd t he P le istocene e nv ironment . I n E ar ly M an i n A mer ica : A C ircum-Pacif ic p erspect ive, e d ited b y A lan L . B ryan, p p . 2 74-179. O ccasiona l P ap ers N o . 1o f t he D epartment o f A nthropo logy, U n ivers ity o f Al berta. R oe, P eter 1 974 A f urther e xp lorat ion o f t he R owe C havin s er iat ion a nd i ts i mp licat ions f or n orth c entra l c oast c hrono log y . D umbarton O aks S tud ies i n P re-Co lumb ian A rt a nd A rchaeo logy 1 3. 1 978 I rEi nt d iscover ies i n C hav in a rt : s ome s pecu lat ions o n m ethodo logy a nd s ign if icance i n t he a nalysis o f a f igura l s ty le. E l D orado 3 :1-41. R osas, H erm ilio 1 974 I nvest igaciones a rqueo log icas e n l a c uenca d e l C hotano . A ctas d e l X LI I nternat iona l C ongress o f A mer icanists 3 :564-578. M ex ico. R osas, H erm ilio a nd R uth S hady 1 970 P acopampa: u n c entro f ormat ivo 6 1

e n

l a

s ierra

n or-peruana.

1 974

S em inar io d e H istor ia R ura l A nd ina, U n iversidad N ac iona l M ayor d e S an M arcos, L ima. S obre e l p er iodo f ormat ivo e n l a s ierra d e l e xtremo n orte d e l P eru. A rqueo log icas 1 5 : 6 -35. L ima.

R ouse, I rving 1 962 T he i ntermed iate a rea, A mazonia, a nd t he C ar ibbean a rea. I n C ourses t oward u rban l ife, e d ited b y R .L. B raidwood a nd G .R . W illey, V iking F und P ub licat ions i n A nthropo logy N o . 3 2: 3 4-59 . R ouse, I rving a nd J ose C ruxent 1 963 V enezue lan a rchaeo logy . Y a le U nivers ity P ress, N ew H aven. R owe, J ohn H ow land 1 962 C hav in a rt : a n i nquiry i nto i ts f orm a nd o f P r im it ive A rt, N ew Y ork. S a lazar, E rnesto 1 980 T a lleres p reh istor icos D epartmento d e D ifusion C uenca, E cuador .

m eaning .

T he M useum

e n l os a ltos a ndes d e l E cuador . C u ltura l d e l a U n iversidad d e C uenca,

S a lazar-Burger , L ucy a nd R ichard L . B urger 1 983 L a a rana e n a l i conograf ia d e l h or izonte t emprano a n l a c osta n orte d e l P eru. B e itrage Z ur A llgeme inen u nd V erg le ichenden A rchaeo log ie, B and 4 , M un ich, i n p ress. S arma, A kkaraju 1 974 H o locene p a leoeco logy o f s outh c oasta l E cuador . A mer ican P hilosophica l S ociety 18 : 9 3-134.

P roceed ings ,

S awyer, A llan 1 972 T he f e line i n P aracas a rt . i n T he C u lt o f t he F e line C onference, e d ited b y E lizabeth P . B enson, p. 9 1-112 . D umbarton O aks R esearch L ibrary a nd C o llect ions, T rustees f or H arvard U n iversity, W ashington, D .C. S chee le, H arry 1 970 T he C hav in o ccupat ion o f t he c entra l U npub lished P h.D . d issertat ion, D epartment H arvard U n iversity .

c oast o f P eru . o f A nthropo logy ,

S chm idt , W ilhe lm 1 913 K u lturkreise u nd k u ltursch ichten i n s udamer ika. f ur E thno log ie 4 5 : 1 014-1124. B er lin . S haron, D oug las a nd C hr istopher D onnan 1 977 T he m ag ic c actus: e thnoarchaeo log ica l A rchaeo logy 3 0 : 3 74-381. S h imada, I zum i 1 981 T emp les o f T ime : t he a nc ient b ur ia l B atan G rande . A rchaeo logy 3 4 : 3 7-45 . S ilva, J orge 1 975 E xcavaciones

e n

B ermejo : 6 2

1 972.

Z e itschr ift

c ont inuity

a nd r e lig ious

U npub lished

i n

P eru .

c enter o f

B ach iller

C iencias M arcos.

S oc ia les t esis,

U n iversidad

N aciona l

M ayor d e

S an

S teward, J u lian 1 949 S outh A mer ican c u ltures : a n i nterpret ive s ummary . H andbook o f S outh A mer ican I nd ians, v o l. V ., e d ited b y J u lian S teward, p p . 6 69-772. S m ithsonian I nst itut ion, W ash ington, D .C. S tout, D av id 1 983 C u lture t ypes a nd c u lture a reas i n S outh A mer ica. P apers o f t he M ichigan A cademy o f S cience, A rts, a nd L etters, v o l. 2 3, p p. 7 3-86. T e llo, J u lio C . 1 937 E l s trombus e n e l a rte C hav in. L ima 1 943 D iscovery o f t he C hav in c u lture i n P eru. A mer ican A nt iquity 9 : 1 35-160 1 956 A rqueo log ia d e l V a lle d e C asma; c u lturas C hav in, S anta o H uay las, Y unga, y S ub-Ch imu. P ub licacion A ntropo log ica d e l A rchivo J u lio C . T e llo d e l a U n iversidad N aciona l m ayor d e-7 6 S an M arcos, v o l. 2 , L ima . 1 960 C hav in : c u ltura m atr iz d e l a c iv ilizacion a nd ina . P ub licac ion A ntropo log ica d e l A rchivo J u lio C . T e llo d e l a U n iversidad N aciona l d e S an M arcos, v o l. 2 , L ima. T erada, K azuo 1 979 E xcava ions a t L a P ampa i n t he N orth H igh lands o f R eport 1 o f t he J apanese S cient if ic E xped it ion A mer ica. U n-i versity o f T okyo P ress7-T ö kyo .

P eru, 1 975. t o N uc lear

T erada, K azuo a nd Y oshio O nuki 1 982 E xcavat ions i n t he C ajamarca V a lley , P eru, 1 979. R eport 2 o f t he J apanese S cient if ic E xped it ion t o N uc lear A mer ica. U nivers ity o f T okyo P ress, T okyo . T hatcher, J ohn 1 979 E ar ly c eram ic a ssemb lages f rom P eru. N awpa P acha 1 7: 9 1-106.

H uamachuco,

N orth

H igh land ,

T ro ll, C ar l 1 958(1931) L as c u lturas s uper iorres a nd inas y e l m ed io g eograf ico . T rans lated b y C ar los N icho lson. M onograf ias E nsayos G eograf icos N o. 1 . U NMSM , L ima . W a llace, D w ight 1 962 C err illos: a n e ar ly 2 7: 3 03-314 .

P aracas s ite i n I ca.

A mer ican A nt iquity

W atanabe, L u is 1 976 S it ios t emprano e n e l v a lle d e M oche ( costa n orte d e l P eru). U npub lished P h.D . d issertat ion, P rograma d e C iT F IETi s H ig-t 6FTEas S ocia les, E specia lidad A rque lo lg ia, U n iversidad N aciona l d e S an M arcos. W illey, G ordon 1 951 T he C hav in

p rob lem :

ar eview 6 3

a nd

c r it ique.

S outhwestern

1 959

1 962 1 971

J ourna l o f A nthropo logy 7 : 1 03-144 . T he " Intermed iate A rea" o f N uc lear A mer ica: i ts p rehistor ic r e lat ionsh ips t o M idd le A mer ican a nd P eru. A ctas, 3rd I nternat iona l C ongress o f A mer ican ists, v o l. I , p. 1 84-194, S an J ose, C osta R ica. T he e ar ly g reat s ty les a nd t he r ise o f t he p re-Co lomb ian c iv ilizat ions. A mer ica A nthropo log ist 6 4 : 1 -14. A n i ntroduct ion t o A mer ican a rchaeo logy ; v o lume 2 , S outh A mer ica. P rent ice-Ha ll, N ew J ersey .

W illey , G ordon a nd J ohn C orbett 1 954 E ar ly A ncon a nd e ar ly S upe c u lture : C hav in h or izon s ites o f t he c entra l P iF uvian c oast . C o lumb ia U n iversity P ress, N ew Y ork. W iss ler , C lark 1 917 T he A mer ican I nd ian, a n i ntroduct ion t o t he a nthropo logy o f t he N ew W or ld . D oug las C . M cMurt ie, N ew Y ork. W obst , M art in 1 977 S ty list ic b ehav ior a nd i nformation e xchange . I n P apers f or t he D irector : R esearch e ssays i n h onor o f J ames B . G r iff in, e d ited b y C har les E . C le land, A nthropo logy P apers 6 1: 3 17-342, M useum o f A nthropo logy, U n iversity o f M ich igan, A nn A rbor . W o lf , T heodore 1 933 G eography F lanagan.

a nd g eo logy o f E cuador . T rans lated UTi nd a nd T ay , T oronto , C anada.

b y

J ames

Z e id ler, J ames 1 977/78 P r im it ive e xchange, p rehistor ic t rade a nd t he p rob lem o f a M esoamer ica-South A mer ican c onnect ion . J ourna l o f t he S teward A nthropo log ica l S ociety 9 : 7 -39. Z eva llos, C ar los 1 969 I nforme p re lim inar s obre e l c ementer io C horrera, B ah ia d e S anta E lena, E cuador . R ev ista d e l M useo N aciona l 3 4: 2 0-27. L ima .

6 4

B urger

S ite

L ocation

C omment

R eference

P acopampa

C hotano B asin, C ajamarca

P acopampa C havfn

R osas a nd S hady 1 970:lams. S hady a nd R osas 1 974:20

P andanche

C hotano B asin, C ajamarca

P andanche C I

K aulicke 1 976

K untur W asi

J equetepeque V alley,

C havfn C lasico

C arriön C achot 1 948:61:64

L a P ampa P eriod

O nuki a nd F ujii 1 974 Pls.

1 1, 1 2

C ajamarca L a P ampa

M anta R iver, A ncash

T erada 1 979:Pl. C hupacoto

H uaylas, A ncash

H uaricoto

C allejön d e H uaylas,

I shida e t a l.

X II-XIV

6 3a

1 960

C apilla P hase

B urger a nd S alazar-Burger 1 980

A ncash C havin d e Fuantar

M osna V alley, A ncash

J anabarriu P hase

B urger 1 983a

K otosh

U pper H uallaga V alley, H uanuco

K otosh C havin

I zumi a nd S ono 1 963:Pl.

S an B las

L ake J unin, Junin

M iddle F ormative

N omland 1 939

A ta ura

M antaro V alley, J unin I chu R iver,

A talla

M atos 1 973 C havinoid

H uamanga R iver,

C hupas

H uatatas R iver,

M atos 1 959 M atos 1 972:Fig.

H uancavelica W ichqana

1 26-129

7 , u pper r ow

K ishka P ata P eriod

L umbreras

1 974b:55-59

K ishka P ata P eriod

L umbreras 1 974b:65-69

A yacucho ( Usno E ra)

A yacucho C hongoyape

L ambayeque d rainage

L othrop 1 941:Pl.

M orro d e E ten

L ambayeque d rainage

A lva a nd E lera 1 980

H uaca d e 1,2,

M oche V alley,

W atanabe 1 976:163-4

C hinos H uaca H erederos, C hica

X IX

L a L ibertad Watanabe 1 976:73-76

M oche V alley, L a L ibertad

P V31-175w

N epef ta V alley, A ncash

P roulx 1 973:194-9, P l.

P allka

C asma V alley, A ncash

T ello 1 956:Lam .

I IG,

2 5

B ermejo

b etween R io S eco a nd

S ilva 1 975:Lam .

1 0-15, 1 978

I IIA

R io F ortaleza, A ncash L ighthouse S ite

W illey a nd C orbett 1 954:Figs.

P uerto d e S upe, L ima

S i 5a nd 6

A ncön

b etween R io C hancay a nd R io C hillon

P hases

C erillos

I ca V alley

O cucaje 3 l ayers

S cheele 1 970 Wallace 1 962

T able 1 . J anabarriu-related c eramic a ssemblages , E arly H orizon , P eru.

5 i,

B urger

S ite

P rovenience

B a

S r

Z r R b

S r/Zr

R 1/Zr

P acopampa

A rea 1 , A 3

6 78

1 34

8 8 1 71

1 .523

1 .943

P acopampa

A rea 1 , A 2

6 90

1 33

9 3 1 84

1 .430

1 .978

P acopampa

A rea 1 , C 2

7 28

1 39

9 6 1 89

1 .448

1 .969

P acopampa

A rea 1 , C 3

7 32

1 39

9 6 1 89

1 .448

1 .969

P acopampa

A rea 1 , C 6a

7 36

1 33

9 1 1 85

1 .462

2 .032

P acopampa

A rea 1 , f ib

6 80

1 27

9 1 1 75

1 .396

1 .923

P acopampa ( Mirador)

P it V , E ast, S tratum C

6 92

1 36

9 1 1 82

1 .495

2 .000

7 08

1 33

8 8 1 88

1 .511

2 .136

7 06

1 34

9 2 1 83

M achaipungo M ean R oot-mean-square-deviation Q uispibi2a S ource

2 4 7 33 2 2

9 1 39

3

7

9 9 1 81 1 0

T able 2 . X -ray f luorescence a nalysis o f o bsidian a rtifacts f rom t he P acopampa a rea .

L awrence B erkeley L aboratory R un 8 033.

Q uispisisa s ource a fter B urger a nd A saro 1 978 .

B urger

Run #

D y

M n

S i )

( PPm)

( PPm)

( PPm)

1 010E

P acopampa a

1 .75±.08

3 .56±.025

1 .211.09

1 010Q

P acopampa b

1 .77±.08

3 .671-. 025

1 .33±.09

1 .71± .08

3 .66± .06

1 .32±.13

( Mirador) Q uispisisa c

T h

C e

H f

( PPm)

( PPm)

( PPm)

1 010E

P acopampa

2 1.491-. 03

5 4.0±.07

3 .421-. 03

1 010Q

P acopampa

2 1.491-. 01

5 2.6±.07

3 .44 1 -. 03

2 0.67±.50

5 1.9±.87

3 .291.06

( Mirador) Quispisisa

( PPm)

T a

Y b

( PPm)

( PPm)

1 010E

P acopampa

8 .66± .o6

1 .2± .05

1 .18±.02

1 010Q

P acopampa

8 .7o± .06

1 .2± .05

1 .15±.02

8 .66± .15

1 .1±.02

1 .151-. 03

( Mirador) Q uispisisa

S c

F e

C s

( PPm)

( %)

( PPm)

1 010E

Pacopampa

1 .51±.02

0 .587±.01

1 1.78±.02

1 010Q

P acopampa

1 .54±.02

0 .595±.01

1 1.53±.02

1 .51±.02

0 .577±.01

1 1.38±.24

( Mirador) Q uispisisa aR eanalysis

b y N AA o f s ample f rom P acopampa A rea 1 , A 3

bR eanalysis

b y NAA o f s ample f rom M irador s ector,

P it V , E ast, cB urger

T able

S tratum C

a nd A saro 1 979:290-292

3 .

N eutron A ctivation Analysis o f Obsidian Artifacts f rom t he P acopampa Area b y t he Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.

6 7

B urger

P iu a

Z ana

S an ta

R i mac

Ma 5 00 Km

D istr ibut ion o f L ate Chav in I conography A C enters w ith Monumenta l A rch itecture

M ap 1 D istribution o f C havin i conography a nd m onumental a rchitecture d uring t he R arly H orizon o f P eru.

6 8

B urger

. vvv 1 > •••• • •••• e _eee i l b

Ja naparr i u -r e lated Cera m ics Cho r rera Ce ram ics Al aus i a nd Co toco l lao Cera m ics P ech iche C e ram ics 0 P a i ta Ce ra m ics

M ap 2 D ig tribution o f E arly H orizon c ontemporary c eramic s tyles.

6 9

M ap

3 .

T he P acopampa a rea i n r elation t o t he s ources o f a rchaeological o bsidian i n P eru a nd E cuador: l ist o f s ources 1 .

M ullumica a nd Y anaurco-Quiscatola

2 . Q uispisisa

3 . A yacucho 4 . A ndahuaylas A & B

5 . C uzco 6 . P ampas 7 . A cari 8 . T iticaca B asin 9 . T umuku

7 0

B urger

A

0

.

5 00 Km

t i P acopampaA rea • Obs id ian D epos i t 0 U nconf i r med Obs id ian Depos i t U n loca ted Obs id ian S ource

0

M ap 3

( see s eparate p age f or c aption)

7 1

A ncient H igh land C onnect ions w ith S e lva a nd C oast : E v idence f rom U chucmarca, P eru. D ona ld E . T hompson .

T hompson b r ief ly r ev iews s ome c ontemporary e v idence a nd s ome l ate ( ca. A D 1 200-1500) a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or M urra 's m ode l o f e conom ic v ert icality , f or t he d epartments o f H uanuco, A ncash a nd L a L ibertad i n P eru .

S e p resentan e v idencias d e c ontactos s e lva-t ierras a ltas, e specia lmente e n l os d epartamentos d e H uanuco, A ncash y L a L ibertad , P eru, e n t iempos t ard ios i nmed iatemente p re Inka COMO t amb ien I nka, C o lon ial yo bservaciones e tnograf icas m odernas d e l os a rchipe lagos v ert ica le s.

I ntroduct ion

C onnect ions b etween t he P eruv ian h igh lands a nd t he t rop ica l r ainforest o r s e lva h ave b een c lear ly d ocumented f rom a t l east t he e ar ly p hases o f C hav in . T he a rgument f or t he s e lva o r ig in o f s ome d eta ils o f C hav in i conography h as b een p ut f orward b y p eop le r ang ing f rom Y acov leff a md T e llo i n t he 3 0s a nd 4 0s t o L athrap i n t he 7 0s . T he c ases f or t he p ortaya l a t C hav in d e H uantar a nd e lsewhere o f t he h arpy e ag le, c ayman a nd a naconda, a ll l ow land a n ima ls, a re c erta in ly s trong. A lso s trong i s t he a rgument f or c onnect ions w ith t he P acif ic c oast, a s s een n ot o n ly i n t he d istr ibut ion o f C hav in c eram ic a nd i conograph ic a ttr ibutes o n t he c oast , b ut a lso, a gain i n t he i conography , i tse lf . T he i dent if icat ion o f s pondy lus a nd c onch s he lls i n t he h ands o f t he s m iling g od a nd o n t he o be lisk T e llo l eaves l itt le d oubt o n t hat s core . T he C hav in c onnect ions, t hen, s eem t rans-Andean, n ot j ust h igh land-se lva o r h igh land-coast . T hat t his s hou ld b e t he c ase o n a n e ar ly t ime h or izon, p robab ly i n c onnect ion w ith t he s pread o f a r e lig ious c u lt w ith i ts r oots i n s e lva s hamanism , i s r emarkab le i n i tse lf . T he s uggest ion t hat t his s ort o f t rans-Andean o rganizat ion b ecame a b asic A ndean e conom ic t heme a nd t hen p ersisted f or s ome 3 000 y ears, h owever, i s e ven m ore r emarkab le . S o i s t he t hought t hat s uch as uccessfu l a daptat ion i s n ow b e ing d estroyed b y m odern l aws a nd d eve lopment s chemes. M y c oncern h ere i s t oward t he l ate e nd o f t h is t empora l s pectrum : t he i mmed iate ly p re-Inca a nd I nca, b ut I w ill a lso b e d raw ing u pon 7 3

E ar ly C o lonia l a nd m odern e thnographic e v idence t o c ast m ore l ight o n t he s ystem . F rom t he p o int o f v iew o f a rea, I w ill r estr ict m y c omments t o n orthern P eru i n t he d epartments o f H uanuco, A ncash, a nd L a L ibertad .

E thnographic a nd C o lon ia l E v idence

S evera l p eop le h ave c ommented a nd e laborated u pon M urra 's c oncept o f A ndean v ert ica lity , t hat i s, t he e xp lo itat ion o f as er ies o f e co log ica l n iches a t d ifferent a lt itudes; a nd I w ill n ot r epeat t hose d iscussions h ere . A nyone a cqua inted i n a ny d epth w ith t he t owns o f t he E astern A ndes, e specia lly t hose a way f rom t he p r inc ipa l m odern l ines o f c ommun icat ion k nows t hat t here i s c onstant m ovement b y p ack a nima l t ra in o r o n f oot u p a nd d own t he e astern s lopes o f t he A ndes . T oday , o f c ourse, t rucks a nd b uses a nd n ew r outes a re r ep lacing t he o lder , m ore t rad it iona l m ode ls a nd l ines o f c ommunicat ion . C hav in i tse lf w as p robab ly o n a ncient r outes, a s i t i s c ertan ly o n m odern o nes t oday . Iw as f ortunate i n b e ing a b le t o o bserve a n e xce llent e xamp le o f t he " archipe lago" v ert ica lity a s M urra d ef ined i t i n e astern A ncash a t t he v illage o f R apayan ( Thompson 1 973:365; 1 980). T here I s tayed w ith am an w ho u sed t he p una f or g razing h is a n ima ls, t he z ones a bove t he v illage f or h igh a lt itude c rops s uch a s p otatoes, a nd t he l eve l o f h is v illage a nd l ower f or t emperate c rops s uch a s m a ize . I n a dd it ion, h e t rave lled i n h orseback t w ice a y ear f or t wo t o t hree d a ys i n e ach d irect ion t o a n a rea i n t he m ontana n ear t he m odern v illage o f M onzon, l ocated o n at r ibutary r iver o f t he s ame n ame w hich j o ins t he H ua llaga n ear T ingo M ar ia . T here h e r aised t rop ica l c rops s uch a s c offee, m ayru, b ananas, p apaya, y uca a nd, p erhaps m ost i mportant, c oca . C oca leaf , o f c ourse, i s ag ood c ash c rop a nd c an e ven b e u sed i n l ieu o f m oney t o p ay w orkmen, w ho w ill a ccept i t o n s pecu lat ion f or r esa le a t ah igher p r ice . W ith t he a va ilability o f a ll t he p roducts, a n ima l, v egetab le a nd p erhaps s omet imes e ven m ineral f rom t hese d ifferent e co log ica l n iches, s uch p eop le a re a lmost c omp lete ly s e lf s uff icient . A s o ne o f m y c o lleagues, R ogger R av ines p ut i t , " Estos t ipos n o c ompran n ada ," w h ich i s p retty c lose t o t he t ruth w hen y ou c onsider t hat t hey p robab ly b arter f rom i tinerant m erchants f or m any o f t he t hings t hey d on 't a ctua lly p roduce . T his s ystem i s w e ll p reserved a t R apayan b ecause t he v illage i s 1 0 o r m ore h ours o n h orseback f rom t he n earest r oad . U nfortunate ly, t he s ystem i s d isappear ing u nder t he i mpact o f m odern t ransportat ion i mprovements, c ommercia l n etworks, a nd r ecent l and r eform l aws w hich d iscourage s uch m u lt ip le l andho ldings . T wo a dd it iona l a spects o f t he c ontemporary R apayan e conom ic s ystem d eserve c omment . F irst , t his i s n ot a n i nd iv idua l c ase; m any o f t he r esidents o f R apayan h ave s uch m ontana f arms a nd m ost o f t hem a re l ocated c lose t o o ne a nother i n t he M onzon a rea. I n o ther w ords, n eighbors i n R apayan a re n e ighbors i n M onzon. T he s ett lement p attern, h owever , i s d ifferent : i n R apayan i t i s n uc leated ; i n M onzon i t i s 7 4

d ispersed . t ime d epth.

N everthe less, t his

p rox im ity

m ay i nd icate

c ons iderab le

S econd ly, t oday t here a re n o a rch itectura l c oncessions t o c limat ic d ifferences. T he h ouses i n M onzon a re v irtua lly i dent ica l t o t hose i n R apayan. T hey a re b as ica lly S pan ish i n d esign b ut p robab ly m ake u se o f s ome p re ,C o lumb ian c onstruct ion t echn iques . T he i mmed iate ly p re-Spanish a rchitecture o f R apayan m ay b e o bserved o n t he r idge a bove t he m odern t own i n t he r uins o f t he s ame n ame ( F lornoy 1 957; T hompson 1 980). A ncient R apayan i s a lmost t ota lly d ifferent f rom m odern i n o vera ll c onstruct ion, d esign, a nd s ett lement a rrangement . I ndeed, m odern R apayan i s p robab ly a S pan ish d esigned c o lon ial r educcion o f t he 1 570s. I t w ou ld b e av ery i nterest ing a rchaeo log ica l p roject t o s urvey t he a rea o f M onzon f or a rchitectura l a nd c eram ic s im ilar it ies t o a ncient R apayan t o v er ify, i f p ossib le, t he t ime d epth o f t he m odern e conom ic r e lat ionships . S uch a p roject c ou ld n o d oubt b e u ndertaken i n an umber o f o ther p laces, f or, a s n oted e ar lier , t he s ystem i s w idespread t oday . I n H uanuco i n P achitea A ndina, f or e xamp le, I k new a f am ily t hat h ad a v ery s im ilar e conom ic a rrangement . O ne i nteresting d ifference, h owever, w as t hat t he P achitea A nd ina f am ily h ad t he ir p ermanent r es idence a t h igher a lt itude , i n p una g rass land o n t he e dge o f p otato c u lt ivation . T o j udge b y t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord t his a ppears t o b e t he n orma l l ocat ion f or s ites p r ior t o t he S pan ish c onquest . T he m odern t owns, w ith a f ew e xcept ions, a re l ower d own a nd c loser t o t he f ie lds a ppropr iate f or t emperate c rops. G iven t he S pan ish n eeds f or w heat , b ar ley , a lfa lfa e tc . t he r e locat ion d ownward m akes s ense . I n a dd it ion, t he l ower p osit ions a re l ess e asily d efended , h ence l ess c onducive t o r evo lt . I t w ou ld a lso b e d iff icu lt t o i mpose a S pan ish g r id o nto a r idgecrest , t he p referred s ett ing f or m any p rehispan ic v i llages i n t hese a reas. P r ivate o wnership o f s ome o f t he l ands t oday i s p robab ly a nother i nnovat ion i n k eep ing w ith E urnpean r ather t han A ndean v a lues. T hus I f ee l t hat t he m odern s ystem i s as urv iva l o f a n a nc ient o ne, s light ly m od if ied t hrough t ime t o m eet c hang ing n eeds, w ith a n e specia lly n oteworthy s er ies o f c hanges i n C o lon ia l a nd r ecent t imes. T he C o lonia l d ocumentary e v idence f or c ontacts b etween t he h igh lands a nd o ther a reas i s b eaut ifu lly i llustrated f ar t o t he s outh a mong A ymara s peakers i n t he c omp lex t rans-Andean s ystem o f t he L upaqa d escr ibed i n t he v isita t o C huquito ( D iez d e S an M igue l 1 964; M urra 1 964, 1 969). V arTifT F ) s o f t his c omp lex s ystem , h owever , a re a lso d escr ibed i n t he n orth f rom H uanuco . T he C hupaychu, o ne o f t he e thn ic g roups o f H uanuco i ncorporated i nto t he I nca E mp ire , a re d escr ibed i n t he 1 562 v isita o f I nigo O rt iz d e Z un iga ( 1967). I n H uanuco , s e lva c ontacts a re p r inc ipa lly n oted i n t he v isita i n c onnect ion w ith t he p roduct ion o f c oca , a n i nterest ing m atter s ince, a s M urra ( 1967) p o ints o ut , i t l ays t o . r est t he q uest ion o f I nca s tate c ontro l o f c oca p roduct ion . I n t he H uanuco c ase t here w ere c lear ly m u lt i-ethn ic c oca p lantation a reas, w h ich w ere s eparate f rom s tate p lantat ions. T h is s uggests t ime d epth a gain . I t a lso s uggests t hat t rade a nd t rave l w ere n ot a s r estr icted i n I nca t imes a s m any o f t he c hron ic lers w ou ld h ave u s b e lieve . I nterest ing ly , i n c ontrast t o t he h istor ic L upaqa, t he m uch e ar lier C hav in e v idence a nd t he a rchaeo log ica l m ater ia l f rom f arther t o t he n orth t o b e d iscussed s hort ly , H uanuco s hows l itt le 7 5

e vidence o f c ontacts w ith t he w est c oast .

A rchaeo log ica l E v idence

It urn n ow t o t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or h igh land-se lva ( a nd h igh land-coasta l) c ontacts d ur ing t he i mmed iate ly p re-Inca a nd I nca p er iods i n t he N orth C entra l a nd N orth H igh lands. T he e v idence i s s canty a nd s potty, y et t aken w ith t he e thnographic a nd e thnohistor ic d ata a lready o ut lined, I f ee l i t o ffers a g ood c ase f or s im ilar k inds o f c ontact, t hough t he d etails a nd m echan isms c ou ld w e ll h ave b een s omewhat d ifferent . I n H uanuco t he o n ly a rchaeo log ica l e v idence s uggest ive o f s uch c ontacts i s t he p resence i n s ome C hupaychu v i llage s ites o f o ccasiona l p ieces o f b rushed p ottery w h ich i s r em in iscent o f s ome s e lva w ares . D ona ld L athrap ( persona l c ommun icat ion) h as e xam ined t his p ottery a nd d escr ibed i t a s s im ilar t o C ampa w ares d at ing t o c a . A .D . 1 500, w h ich w ou ld c ertain ly f it w e ll t empora lly . W e h ave n o n ame f or t h is p ottery , w hich h as r ough i nter iors a nd b rushed e xter iors, b ut f or c onven ience i t m ight a s w e ll b e c a lled " Campa B rushed ." S ome o f t he m ost i nterest ing e vidence w hich I h ave e ncountered f or t rans-Andean c ontacts c omes f rom s ites o n t he e astern s ide o f t he M aranon V a lley , e ast o f C ajamarca, i n t he D epartment o f L a L ibertad . T here w e s urveyed a nd e xcavated i n t he a rea o f U chucmarca, a t r iburary v a lley o f t he M aranon w hich r uns f rom h igh p una c ountry a t i ts h eadwaters w estward t o t he t rop ica l b ottom o f t he M aranon i tse lf ( Thompson 1 973, 1 976). I n t he h igh p una c ountry s urround ing t he h eadwaters o f t he V a lley o f U chucmarca w e e ncountered a s eries o f s ites w hich a ppear t o h ave b oth c eram ic a nd a rchitectura l t ies t o v i llages f urther t o t he e ast i n t he m ontana. T here i s a lso e vidence f or t ies w estward t o t he P acif ic C oast . T he s ite o f I nt icancha, w hich l ies i n h igh p una c ountry a bove t he m odern t own o f U chucmarca, c onta ined s ome 1 85 c ircu lar t o D -shaped h ouses b uilt o n c ircu lar b ases. I n a dd it ion, t here w ere 3 2 r ectangu lar a nd 2 e xtra l arge D -shaped o nes. T he c eram ic f eatures f rom t his a nd o ther s ites i n t he a rea i nc luded f lar ing r ims , s ome o f w h ich h ad e xter ior a pp lique b ands, w h ich r ather r esemb le a f o ld o ver , a nd/or r o lled f i llets o f c lay , s ome o f w h ich u ndu lated a long t he o uter p art o f t he r im i n aw orm o r s nakelike m anner . B oth t he c ircu lar h ouses a nd t hese k inds o f r ims a re f ound t o t he s outh a nd e ast i n t he s ite o f A b iseo o r G ran P ajaten a nd h ave b een i l lustrated b y B onav ia ( 1968) a nd R ojas P once ( 1967). T he a rchitecture a t I nt icancha i s n ot n ear ly a s e laborate a s t hat a t A b iseo, l acking a s i t d oes t he e laborate r e lief d ecorat ion f ound a t A b iseo, b ut t he a rchitectura l f orm i s s im ilar a nd s ome o f t he p ottery f eatures a re q uite a like . M oreover , c harred r emains o f v egeta l m ater ia ls f rom I nt i ancha i nc lude w hat a ppear t o b e t rop ica l p lants ( Da le M cE lrath, p ersona l c ommun icat ion). T he s ource o f t he p lants i s , o f c ourse, u nknown; i t c ou ld h ave b een a s c lose a s t he b ottom o f t he 7 6

n earby M aranon V a lley , w here t rop ica l a lso h ave b een g rown i n t he p ast .

p lants f lour ish t oday a nd c ou ld

E qually i nterest ing , e xcavat ions a t I nt icancha r evea led t wo c aches o f s pondy lus s he ll, b oth w ho le p ieces o f s he ll a nd p ieces w orked i nto t rapezo ida l s hapes, p robab ly f or u se a s b eads o r p endants. S pondy lus i s n at ive t o t he P acif ic c oast , b ut t oday i s f ound o n ly f urther t o t he n orth i n E cuador . I ts p resence a t I nt icancha i n a ny c ase i nd icates c ontacts w ith t he W est C oast . S upport ing e v idence f or s uch c oasta l c ontacts i s a lso f ound i n t he p resence i n t he U chucmarca V a lley o f af ew C h imu s ty le s herds. G iven t he k nown p re— Inca a lliance b etween C ajamarca t o t he w est o f U chucmarca o n t he o ther s ide o f t he M aranon V a lley a nd t he K ingdom o f C h imor o n t he c oast p roper, t he c ontacts c ou ld h ave b een m ed iated b y C ajamarca r ather t han b een d irect . W e s imp ly d o n ot k now a t t his s tage i n o ur r esearch. T he f act r emains, h owever , t hat t here w as s ome k ind o f c ontact b etween U chucmarca a nd P ac if ic c oast . O ther s ites a round t he h eadwaters o f t he U chucmarca V a lley s o f ar o ffer l itt le d irect a dd it iona l e v idence o f c ontacts w ith t he a reas t o t he E ast a nd W est , b ut s ome o f t he a rch itectura l d eta ils d o o ffer s upport ing e v idence f or c onnect ions w ith A b iseo i n a w ay t hat I nt icancha i tse lf d oes n ot . T he s ite o f P ueb lo V iejo, f or e xamp le, h as c urved, c orn iced p latform w a lls, p robab ly i ntended f or h ouse f oundat ions, t hat a re d ecorated i n a t echnique s im ilar t o, b ut m uch s imp ler t han, t hose f ound a t A b iseo . T he s ame k ind o f d ecorat ion a nd s uch u se o f c ornices i s a lso f ound i n o ther k inds o f s tructures s uch a s t he s quare t ower a t L os E str ib itos a nd t he s pectacu lar h illside s tructure, P irka P irka, a lso k nown a s C h ivani. T hese s im ilar it ies a re g eneral o nes, b ut t hey d o s uggest s ome k ind o f s hared a rchitectura l t rad it ion. T he c ontemporary e conom ic s tructure o f t he U chucmarca V a lley w as s tud ied i n d etail b y S tephen B rush ( 1977) a s ap art o f o ur p roject . H e f ound t hat t he m odern r esidents o f t he v a lley m ake u se o f as er ies o f z ones s im ilar t o t hose w e h ave a lready d escr ibed f or A ncash a nd H uanuco. T oday, h owever , s uch e xp loitat ion i s l arge ly r estr icted t o t he V a lley o f U chucmarca, i tself , w hich, f rom t he s urround ing p una t o t he c onf luence w ith t he M aranon, p rov ides a ccess t o a ll t he n ecessary m icroclimates. I w ou ld s uggest t hat t his i s y et a nother r e lat ive ly n ew l oca l v ar iat ion o f t he s ame b asic A ndean e conom ic a rrangement , w h ich b egan a t l east 3 000 y ears a go w ith C hav in a nd h as p robab ly b een c onstant ly m od if ied i n r esponse t o c hang ing p o lit ica l, e conom ic, s ocia l a nd p erhaps e ven r e lig ious s tructures t hrough m ost o f A ndean p rehistory a nd h istory .

A cknow ledgments

T he f ie ld w ork o n w hich p aper i s b ased w as s upported f rom t he N at iona l S cience F oundat ion .

7 7

b y g rants

L iterature c ited

B onavia, D UCCiC i 1 968 L as R u inas d e l A b iseo . T echno log ie.

L ima : U n iversa l P eruana d e

C iencias y

B rush, S tephen B . 1 977 M ountain, F ie ld a nd F am ily ( The E conomy a nd H uman E co logy o f a n A ndean V a lley). P h ilade lph ia : U n iversity o f P ennsy lvan ia P ress. D iez d e S an M igue l, G arci 1 964 V isita H echa a l a P rovincia d e C huqu ito p or D iez d e S an M igue l e n e l A no 1 567 . D ocumentos R eg iona les p are l a E tno log ia y E tnohistor ia A ndina, T omo 1 . L ima : E d iciones d e l a C asa d e l a C u lture d e l P eru . F lornoy , B ertrand 1 957 M onumentos d e l a R eg ion d e T antamayo . d es A mer ican istes, P ar is 4 6:207-26 .

J ourna l

d e

l a S ociete

M urra, J ohn V . 1 964 U na a preciacion e tno log ica d e l a V is ita. i n : V isita H echa a l a P rov incia d e C huquito p or G arci D iez d e S an M igue l e n e l A no 1 567, p p. 4 21-44. L ima : E d iciones d e l a C asa d e l a C u lture d e l P eru . 1 967 L a V isita d e l os C hupachu c omo f uente e tno log ica. i n : V isita d e l a P rovincia d e L eon d e H unuco e n 1 562. T omo I . V is ita d e l as C uatro W aranqa d e l os C hupachu, p p . 4 18-44 . H uanuco : U n iversidad N aciona l H erm ilio V a ld izan . 1 972 E l ' Contro l V ert ica l l. c k Lun M ax imo 4 e P isos E co log icos e n l a E conom ia d e l as S ociedades A nd inas . i n : V isita d e l a P rovinc ia d e L eon d e H uanuco e n 1 562. T omo I : V isita d e l os Y acha y M itmaqkuna C uzquenos E ncomendados e n J uan S anchez F a lcon, p p .429-476. H uanuco : U n iversidad N ac iona l H erm ilio V a ld izan . O rt iz d e Z un iga, I n igo 1 967 V isita d e l a P rovinicia d e L eon d e H uanuco e n 1 562, I n igo O rt iz d e Z un iga, V isitador . T omo I : V is ita d e l a C uatro W aranqa d e l os C hupachu. H uanuco : U niversidad N aciona l H erm ilio V a ld izan . R ojas P once, P edro 1 967 T he R u ins o f P ajaten.

A rchaeo logy 2 0 (1):9-17.

T hompson, D ona ld E . 1 973 A rchaeo log ica l E xp lorat ions i n t he E astern A ndes o f N orthern P eru . P roceed ings o f t he 4 0th I nternat iona l C ongress o f A mer ican ists, I :363- . 1 976 P reh istory o f t he U chucmarca V a lley i nthe N orth H ighlands o f P eru. P roceed ings o f t he 4 1st I nternat iona l C ongress o f A mer icanists, 1:99-106. 1 980 T he P reco lumbian a nd C o lonia l H er itage o f R apayan. A rchaeo log y 3 3(2):44-51

7 8

T he C hupachu/Serrano C u ltura l B oundary M u lt ifaceted a nd S tab le R obert M ck. B ird

B ird f ocuses u pon a c u ltura l a nd g eograph ic b oundary , w h ich h as r emained e ssent ia lly c onstant f or 1 ,500 y ears, b etween t he C hupachu a nd S errano c u ltures. T he b oundary r ef lects s harp d ifferences i n l anguage, i n g eography , i n a gr icu ltura l c rops i n r aces o f p lants ( such a s m aize w hich i s f ound o n b oth s ides o f t he b oundary , t hough s pecif ic r aces a re f ound o n ly o n o ne s ide o r t he o ther ), i n s ett lement p attern, a nd i n m any o ther a spects o f m ater ia l c u lture . T he b oundary t oday i s n ear ly a s s harp a s i t w as w hen f irst d escr ibed 4 50 y ears a go b y t he c onquistadores, a nd t he p reh istor ic c u ltures f ound i n t he a rea a lso a ppear t o s p lit c lose t o t his b oundary . T hus w e h ave a g eographica l, e thnographic, b otan ica l, a nd l inguist ic b oundary w hich h as r ema ined s tab le f or a t l east 5 00 y ears o f r ecorded h istory , o r i f w e i nc lude t he p rehistor ic d ata, f or 1 500 y ears. T he t wo d iscrete c u ltura l g roups i ntegrate t hrough v ert ica l e co logica l m anagement c oup led w ith c ross-boundary t rade, s o w e c an u se t he c u ltural b oundary a s o ne m echanism f or i dent ify ing t he u nder ly ing r a ison d 'etre f or t rade, a s w e ll a s f or t he f unct iona l m aintenance o f t rade. T he b oundary i s u sefu l i n r econstruct ing p rehistor ic c u lture h istory a s w e ll, f or B ird a rgues t hat t he S errano a rea a ppears t o b e t he a rea o f P roto-Quechua 1 , w hile t he C hupachu a re N orthern A ndean i n m uch o f t heir c u ltura l i nventory . T he c urrent b oundary t hus r etains i nformat ion w ith r espect t o ap ossib le N orth A ndean i ntrusion i nto t he C entra l A ndes s ome 1 500 y ears o r m ore a go , a s w e ll a s p rov id ing t he b asis f or p red ict ive e conom ic m ode ling .

S e p resentan e videnc ias a cerca d e u na f asc inante y m u lt ifacet ica f rontera d e m as d e 1 500 a nos d e a nt iguedad, e n l os A ndes d e P eru . E sta p arece n o h aber s ido a lterada p or l as c onquistas e spano las, I ncaica n i H uar i, y s epara c laramente d os c u lturas m uy d iferentes, a s aber, l a C hupachu y l a S errano . S e a na lizan e v idencias l inguist icas, e tno log icas, e tnohistor icas, e tnobotan icas y e co log icas q ue e xp licar ian e sta s ituacion d e c ontacto e ntre d os m undos q ue s e c omp lementan y q ue m ant ienen u na f rontera e stab le d urante t anto t iempo.

I ntroduct ion A f ascinat ing m u lt ifaceted b oundary , s eem ing ly o ver 1 500 y ears o ld, s tretches a cross t he A ndes i n P eru, u nchanged b y t he S pan ish, I nca, a nd H uar i c onquests. I t s harp ly s eparates t wo v ery d ifferent c u ltures, t he C hupachu a nd t he S errano ( B ird 1 966). T he

H uanuco-Pasco r eg ion

c ontains 7 9

h eadwaters

o f t he

M aranon,

H ua llaga a nd U caya li r ivers, t he s econd h ighest m ountain i n t he T rop ics, a nd a m arve lous j uxtaposit ion o f v ery d ry a nd v ery w et z ones ( F ig . 1 ; T osi 1 960). T he C hupachu u t ilize t he d esert v a lley-bottom a round t he c ity o f H uanuco ( 1912 m ) a nd t he t h ick ly f orested m ountain s lopes t o t he n orth a nd e ast . M ost live a bove t he d esert o n m o ist , m oderate v a lley s lopes b etween 2 300 a nd 3 000 m i n a v ery g ood a gr icu ltura l z one. A bove r uns a b and o f f orest j ust u nder v ery c o ld , w et g rass lands. O n t he v a lley b ottom , i nd igenous t rop ica l c rops w ere i mportant p rehistor ica lly , a nd n ew o nes h ave b een i mportant t o H ispanic c ommerce ( Mend izaba l 1 965, 1 966). I n c ontrast h igh land S errano c ulture i s n ot f ocused o n az one . M ost S errano t owns a re i n ab and a bove t he h eadwater s treams b etween 3 250 a nd 3 750 m . T heir s teep f ie lds a re n ot a s d ry a s t he C hupachu v a lley f ie lds n or a s w et a s t he C hupachu u pper c orn f ie lds, a nd g enera lly a re c o lder . P otatoes a re t he m ajor c rop, b ut m aize i s i mportant . P una g rass land i s e xtensive i n s ome a reas, p rov id ing p asture f or s heep a nd, o ccasiona lly , lamas ( Fonseca 1 966, 1 972; B urchard 1 976). H ow a nd w hen w as s uch a p rom inent f eature i ts s harpness b een m ainta ined f or s o l ong?

e stab lished?

H ow h as

M ethods T here a re t wo w ays t o d ef ine s uch a b oundary 's p resent p osit ion a nd c haracter--through i nterv iews a nd o bservat ion. O ne c an c ross t h is b oundary m any t imes i n t he a rea a round t he c ity o f H uanuco w h ile t rave lling o n t he m odern v a lley-bottom r oad w ithout n ot icing t he c hanges. O n ly w hen w a lking b etween v illages o n t he v a lley s lopes a n h our 's w a lk a bove t he r oad i s t he b oundary e asily s een t o b e s harp , n ot a b road z one o f c hange . I t i s u nnecessary , h owever , t o v is it e very s egment o f t he b ouundary s ince i nhab itants o f t he v icinity c an d escr ibe i ts a pproximate l ocat ion . B efore v isit ing t he v illages a butt ing t he b oundary I h ad n oted a l arge n umber o f e thn ic d ifferences w h ile s tudy ing f or t wo y ears i n t he C hupachu a nd S errano a reas o f H uanuco a nd P asco, p art o f t he S tudy o f I nca P rov incia l L ife, w h ich c omb ined h istor y, a rchaeo logy , e thno logy a nd b io logy ( Murra 1 966, 1 967; T hompson 1 968a, 1 968b ). D ifferent iating v ar iab les w ere n ot h ard t o o btain s ince m any f acets o f c u lture a nd e nv ironment d ist ingu ish t he t wo a reas. U s ing t he O rt iz a nd M or i a nd A lonso v isitas ( Ort iz 1 967, 1 972 ; M or i a nd A lonso 1 967; M urra 1 967b ; B ird 1 967b, 1 970 ::37-42), i t w as e asy t o e st imate t he b oundary 's h istor ic l ocat ion, a nd c onversat ions w ith i nhabitants a t p laces b etween A mbo a nd P arcoy c onf irmed i ts c ont inu ing p resence ( F ig . 2 ). A v is it t o U tcush a nd H acienda Y anamachay , s outhwest o f A mbo , a llowed m e t o e stab lish t he ir c ommon l im it a s p art o f t he m a in b oundary ( B ird 1 970 :41, 7 4 a nd f ie ldnotes f or 1 2 J une 1 966). T he f ormer t own i s S errano i n e very t rait e xcept f or a r are u se o f ac otton m anta b y am an a s aw aist s ash a nd a f ew e ars o f p urp lish f lour m aize . T he l atter h am let i s C hupachu e xcept f or a f ew w ool m antas. A b und le o f Q uechua p hono logica l i sog losses l oose ly p ara lle ls t he b oundary . 8 0

I nterviews e lsewhere a long t he m odern r oads e stab lished t hat t he p resent b oundary i s c lose t o t he h istor ic o ne b etween S an R afae l a nd A mbo a nd a bove H igueras ( F ig . 2 ). T he f u ll l ist o f d ifferent iat ing v ar iab les c ou ld n ot b e d irect ly o bserved t here s o i t i s n ot p roven t hat t he b oundary i n t hose a reas i s v ery s harp . T he E thnographic B oundary T he C hupachu a nd S errano a reas a re d ifferent iated m ost c lear ly b y t he ir s ett lement p atterns. S errano t owns a re n uc lear, t heir h ouses a re u sua lly w ithin 1 0m o f o ne a nother . T he f ew h ouses t hat d o e x ist o utside t owns a re n orma lly c lustered i nto h am lets. C hupachu s ett lements a re d ispersed, a lthough w here H ispan ic i nf luence i s s trong, h ouses c rowd a round s choo ls, g overnment b uildings a nd c hurches, o r h acienda h ouses ( B ird 1 966, 1 970 :63, f ig 1 0-11). C hupachu a rchitecture i s v ar ied . R oofs a re d om inant ly t ile a nd s omet imes s p lit w ith o ne s ide l ower . O ften C hupachu h ouses h ave t he f ront w a ll r ecessed l eaving a t wo-story p ort ico, c onsist ing o f ad irt f loor o verhung b y ap o le b a lcony o ff t he l oft b ounded b y l atera l w a lls. S errano h ouses m ay h ave a s imp le b a lcony o n t he f ront o r r ear, a nd t hey h ave t hatch o r m eta l r oofs, n ot t ile a nd n ot s p lit . W att le-and-daub s heds a re s ometimes s een i n C hupachu t err itory b ut n ot a cross t he b oundary ( B ird 1 970 :63-64, f ig . 1 2-13, 1 6). S errano w omen w ear h ats, m ost o f t he t ime, m u lt ico lored s kirts a nd b louses, a nd w oo l s haw ls o f m any c o lor c ombinations. T he m en w ear c lothing q uite E uropean i n s ty le p lus w arp-pattern b e lts a nd t he u n iversa l p oncho . T he o n ly C hupachu w omen t o w ear h ats l ive i n a reas b ordering t he S erranos, a nd t heir c lothing, a s t he m en 's, h as f ew c o lors--b lack o r b lue-b lack s kirts ( or p ants) a nd w hite b louses o r s h irts. T heir m antas a re w hite c otton, w ith a n arrow b order ing f i llet; t hese a re f or c arry ing l oads, s hading t he h ead o r c over ing t he s hou lders. M en w ear ' t hem a s w aist s ashes r eady f or u se i n c arrying . ( Mendizabal 1 965, 1 966; B ird 1 970 :70-71, f ig 1 4-15). W eav ing i n t he S errano a rea i s a lmost a lways d one b y t he m en, w hether i t i s b e lts a nd p onchos o n t he b ack-strap l oom o r s haw ls o n t he S panish t e lar . P atterns f or t he s haw ls a re v ar ied a nd c an b e u sed t o i dentify t he t own o r r eg ion o f o r igin. W eft-face t apestry-weave s haw ls a re c ommon s outh o f t he Y acha; p lain-weave s haw ls t ypify t he Y acha, H uama lies a nd H uanuco e thnic a reas. W ith t he e xcept ion o f s ome i tems w oven o n t he t e lar , C hupachu m en s e ldom w eave; t he w omen w eave p onchos, s haw ls a nd b e lts o n t he b ack-strap l oom . T here i s l itt le v ar iation i n t echnique a nd p atterning a cross t he C hupachu r eg ion ( Mendizaba l L . 1 966 ; B ird 1 970 :71-72, f ig . 1 6). N umerous a gricultura l d ifferences a re i mportant . T he C hupachu c ommonly i rr igate m aize a nd p otatoes a t i ntermediate e levat ions. T he S erranos s e ldom i rr igate m aize a nd n ever i rr igate p otatoes. C hupachu m aize a nd p otato f ie lds a re f ound i nterm ixed a t m idd le e levations, w h ile S errano f armers o n ly g row p otatoes i n az one a bove t heir m aize, u s ing a c arefu lly d ef ined r otation s ystem . M any t ropical c rops, N ew W or ld a nd O ld W or ld, c an g row i n t he v a lley b ottom o f t he C hupachu a rea n ear H uanuco - c otton, a vocado, c hili p epper, s weet p otato, e tc., a s w e ll a s c offee, s ugar c ane a nd o ranges. T he C hupachu 8 1

s omet imes h ave a f ew p lants o f C yphomandra c rassifo lia ( Ortega) K untze, t he t ree t omato, a nd P apaya c andamarcensis H ook. f ., a c oo l z one, a romat ic p apaya ( Fonseca 1 966, 1 975 ; B urchard 1 974 ; B ird 1 967a, 1 970 :74-80, 1 00-103, f ig . 1 7). M aize v ar iet ies s h ift a t t he b oundary . C hupachu m aize i s g enera lly w h ite a nd s oft o r y e llow a nd h ard , i nvo lving f our o r m ore r aces w hich a re d ecided ly N orth A ndean, a nd e ven C entra l A mer ican, i n f orm . A l ess c ommon b ut p referred p arching v ar iety C hushpilyu, i s f loury a nd w h ite w ith p urp le s peck les . S weet m a ize o f t he C hu llp i t ype i s c ommon o n ly l oca lly ( be low ). S errano m a ize i s p redom inant ly s oft, a s et o f r aces o f m any c o lors w hich r e late t o r aces i n t he C entra l a nd S outh-Centra l A ndes a s f ar a s J ujuy, A rgent ina. P urp le s peck led m aize i s a bsent , a nd s weet m aize i s v ery r are, f rom C erro d e P asco t o H uaraz ( B ird 1 970 :113-119, f ig . 3 5-39; B ird, B rowman a nd D urb in, i .p .). C hupachu Q uechua s trong ly r e lates b y v ocabu lary t o o ther d ia lects o f n orth-centra l P eru, t he Q uechua 1 s et o f d ia lects ( Parker 's Q uechua B ), b ut n umerous p hono log ica l s hifts o ccur a t o r n ear t he b oundary ( Parker 1 969a 1 971; T orero 1 964 ; B ird 1 970 :46-62, m ap 6 ; b e low ). /pusax a ly i c haki n yaw i// ' e ight g ood d ry e yes ', a s s poken b y t he C hupachu, b ecomes /pua a h ic haki n aw i// i n C erro d e P asco a nd /puax a ly i t saki n aw i// i n L a U n ion, n orthwestern H uanuco ( F ig . 1 ). T he i sog losses p lotted b y T orero a re r emarkab ly c lose t o t hose I p lotted f or H uanuco a nd P asco, a nd m ost o f t hem l ie f a ir ly c lose t o t he b oundary . T he H istor ic B oundary U s ing a w ide r ange o f h istor ical s ources i t i s p oss ib le t o p lot t he p osit ions o f p re-Incaic e thnic g roup ings i n t he H uanuco- P asco r eg ion . T he p eop le h ere c a lled S errano w ere o nce d iv ided i nto C hinchaycocha, Y aros, C haup ihuaranga, Y acha, Q ueros, H uama lies, A ncas yY acas a nd H uanuco ( F ig . 2 ). S ome o f t hese a re d ist ingu ished t oday b y c o lors a nd p atterns o n t heir s haw ls ( B ird 1 970 :18-26, f ront isp iece, M endizabe l 1 965). I n 1 549 M or i a nd A lonso c rossed f rom C hupachu t o Q ueros t o Y acha a nd b ack t o C hupachu t err itory , a nd i n 1 562 O rt iz m ade a s im ilar t r ip i n t he r everse d irect ion . T he l ast t own o f t he C hupachu v isited b y O rt iz b efore h e a nd h is g roup e ntered Y acha t err itory w as R umar . T oday b etween U tcush a nd H da. Y anamachay l ies t he r uin o f R umal ( B ird 1 970 :41). A t t h is p o int t he Y acha/Chupachu b oundary s eems t o r ema in w here t he v isitadores c rossed i t o ver 4 00 y ears a go . I n b oth v isitas t he Q ueros w ere a s pecia l s ubd iv is ion o f t he C hupachu p o lity, n oted b y O rt iz t o h ave b een p laced u nder C hupachu d om in ion b y G uascar I nca. O r ig ina lly t hey w ere t hree o ut o f t en p achacas w hich h ad m ade u p t he Y acha p o lity ( Ort iz 1 967 :41; 1 972). T he l argest k nown s hift i n t he r egion u nder t he I nca s eems t o h ave b een t h is c hange i n a lleg iance o f t he Q ueros; n othing i nd icates a ny o ther s hift v is-a-v is t he b oundary , a lthough m it imaes ( m itmaqkuna o r c o lonists) f rom s outhern P eru, n umber ing a bout 2 00 f am ilies, w ere p laced i n t he m idst o f t he C hupachu b y t he I nca ( Ort iz / 1972 :250, M urra 1 972b). T hese m it imaes m ay h ave h ad o n ly o ne s t ill n ot iceab le 8 2

e ffect o n t he a rea C hu llp i-type s weet c orn c an b e f ound i n s ome s pots n ortheast o f P anao . R ecent ly s ome m it ima r uins h ave b een i dent ified i n t he H ua llaga v a lley n ear H uanuco ( Craig M orr is, p ersona l c ommunicat ion). T he S pan ish r epartim iento s ystem m ainta ined t he Q ueros a s p art o f t he C hupachu a nd f o llowed t he o lder b oundar ies v ery c lose ly . E ven s o , t here i s n othing i n Q ueros e thnography t hat i nd icates t hey w ere e ver p art o f t he C hupachu p o lity ( Roder ick E . B urchard, p ers. c omm .). T hus a lthough t here i s s ome e v idence o f p ersist ing I ncaic e ffect i n t he a rea, t he C hupachu/Serrano b oundary w as n ot e stab lished b y t he I nca; i t m ust p redate t hat e mp ire .

E ar ly C u ltures M any r emains f rom t he 1 900 b .c .-A .D. 1 00 p er iod ( uncorrected r ad iocarbon y ears) h ave b een u ncovered a t t wo s ite-comp lexes n ear t he c ity o f H uanuco . T hey r evea l p owerfu l l oca l d eve lopments a nd i mportant i nf luences f rom t he N orth A ndes a t t he b eg inning o f t h is p er iod a nd l ater f rom C hav in d e H uantar t o t he n orthwest ( Isbe ll 1 974, I zum i a nd S ono 1 963, I zum i a nd T erada 1 972, L umbreras 1 974, T hompson 1 967). H owever , t he i nf luence o f t he C havin c u lture o n t he H uanuco r eg ion w as f air ly b r ief , t wo t o f ive c entur ies b etween t he K otosh a nd S ajara-patac c u ltures. A lthough t here m ay h ave b een s ome f oundat ion f or t he b oundary i n t h is p er iod , r ef lected i n t he K otosh/Chav in d ifferences, t here i s e v idence t hat t he b oundary t hen w as e stab lished i n i ts p resent p os it ion. I n t he H uanuco-Pasco r eg ion c hanges i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord f rom t he e nd o f t he S ajara-patac p hase ( ca .A .D . 1 00) u nt il t he I nca c onquest ( ca. A .D . 1 476) a re p oor ly k nown, a nd n o a rchaeo-geographica l b oundar ies h ave b een d escr ibed . B ecause s ome o f t he i mportant e v idence f or e ar ly c u ltura l s hifts i s l inguist ic, w e n eed t o s hift o ur v iewpo int . L inguist ic P atterns a nd t he B oundary T hat t he I nca s pread Q uechua t o t he n orthern a nd s outhern a reas o f t heir e mp ire i s n ot d isputed b y l inguists o r a rchaeo log ists, b ut o n ly i n t he p ast t wenty y ears h as i t b ecome a pparent t hat t he g eography o f Q uechua d ia lects i n c entra l P eru d emonstrates a m uch m ore a ncient h istory ( Parker 1 963, 1 969b, 1 971, T orero 1 964 „ 1 970, 1 974, B ird, B rowman a nd D urbin, i . p .). V ery b r ief ly „ a v ar iab le s et o f l oca l d ia lects o r l ects , c a lled C entra l Q uechua 1 , i s f ound a cross t he h igh lands f rom Y ungay t o T arma ( F ig . 1 ). I t i nc ludes t he S errano l ects o f t he H uanuco-Pasco r eg ion b eing d iscussed a nd i s d ist ingu ished f rom t he S ihuas a nd H uanuco a rea d ia lects t o t he n orth a nd s outh b y m any o f t hose t raits w h ich s et i t o ff f rom C hupachu Q uechua. P hono log ica lly t he " Per iphera l Q uechua 1 " d ia lects, S ihuas, C hupachu a nd H uanca, r e late t o Q uechua 2 o f A yacucho, s outh o f H uancayo, m ore t han t o a ny o f t he C entra l Q uechua 1 d ia lects, t hough l ex ica lly t hey a re Q uechua 1 . J ust a s Q uechua 2 w as s pread b y t he I nca, s o i t s eems t hat, a fter Q uechua 1 a nd 2 b egan t o d ifferent iate , S ihuas a nd C hupachu Q uechua m ay h ave b een i ntroduced f rom s omep lace i n t he H uancayo-Ayacucho r eg ion, a p attern b uttressed b y e v idence i n m odern m a ize r ace g eography ( be low ). T he m ost p robab le a gent f or t hese i ntroduct ions s eems t o h ave b een t he H uar i e mp ire ( ca. A .D. 6 00-800) w hich g reat ly i nf luenced , p robab ly c ontro lled „ t his r eg ion t o j ust n orth o f S ihuas. 8 3

L ingu ist ic p atterns f air ly c lear ly d ef ine y et a n e ar lier p er iod . L ects i n t he u pper C anete v a lley o n t he w estern f lanks o f t he A ndes s outhwest o f H uancayo v ary c onsiderab ly a nd a re i ntermed iate b etween Q uechua 1 a nd 2 i n m any w ays ( Torero 1 968, 1 974). T hat v a lley c an s erve a s ac ore a rea f rom w hich t he t hree m ain b ranches o f Q uechua c ou ld h ave c ome, a n i dea b uttressed b y a rchaeo log ica l e v idence . AC ombined D eve lopmenta l M ode l T he C ochachongos p hase o f t he H uancayo a rea ( 650-1 b .c.), v ery d ifferent f rom C hav in a nd S ajara-patac, s hared m any t raits w ith c u ltures t o t he w est a nd s outhwest a nd n ear L ago J un in ( Browman 1 970 , 1 975). I t w as p robab ly p art o f a l oose ly a llied s et o f c u ltures d ef ined b y W hite-on-Red o r R ed-on-Wh ite c eram ics, a t rad it ion c haracter ist ic o f m ost o f t he p roposed P roto-Quechua a rea . A pparent ly p eop les u t ilizing t hese s ty les m oved i nto m uch o f t he a rea o f t he C havin c u lture a t a bout 2 00 b .c. s pread ing a n e ar ly f orm o f Q uechua ( Burger 1 981, I zum i a nd S ono 1 963, B ird , B rowman a nd D urb in, i .p .). T he i ncip ient S errano c u lture m ay h ave f ocused o n h unt ing, h erd ing lamas, r aising h igh a lt itude c rops, m in ing a nd t rading , s tronger i n t hese e conom ic f unct ions t han t he C hav in, b ut w ith a m uch l ess d eve loped i conography . I n g enera l t hese p eop le s hou ld n ot h ave f ound t he w arm , d ry u pper H uallaga v a lley a nd n earby f orests i nv it ing , a lthough t he v a lley-s lope f ie lds m ight h ave b een o f i nterest . T here i s r e lat ive ly l itt le u sefu l h igh a lt itude p asture i n t he C hupachu a rea. T herefore e ven w ithout a r esident C hupachu o r o ther p opulat ion, t he i ncip ient S errano a dvance m ight h ave s topped n ear t he p resent b oundary . H owever, t he S ajara-patac c u lture w as a lready s trong ly e stab lished i n t he u pper H ua llaga v a lley ( Izum i a nd S ono 1 963, I zum i a nd T erada 1 972). Af ew c entur ies l ater ( A .D . 2 0-300 ) c u ltures w ith N orth A ndean t raits w ere m oving s outh, o n t he N orth C oast ( Gga llinazo a nd M oche) , i n t he S anta v a lley ( Recuay) a nd a round H uanuco ( H igueras) ( Lumbreras 1 974, I sbe ll 1 974, B ird a nd B ird 1 980, B ird 1 970 :81, 1 36-137, 1 50-155 ; B ird 1 980). T he r e lat ionships o f t hese c u ltures t o t he N orth A ndes i s l itt le d iscussed b ut t here a re s ome s ing le trait a na lyses. T he H igueras p hase s eems l arge ly t o b e t he i ncip ient C hupachu p hase b ecause o f c eram ic t raits ( Izum i a nd S ono 1 963, T hompson 1 967, I zum i a nd T erada 1 972, I sbe ll 1 974). N orth A ndean p eop les f avor a z one l ike t hat i n t he v a lley a round H uanuco w ith a w arm c limate f or r aising t ro ip ica l c rops y et w ith n earby f ie lds w here c oo l z one m aize w ill g row . P robab ly t hey f e lt l itt le i nc linat ion t o l ive i n t he c o lder r eg inons f urther s outh a nd w est w here t he i ncip ient S errano w ere l ocated . I t s eems t hat m ovements o f p eop le r ather t han d iffusion w ere r esponsib le f or b oth t he i ncip ient S errano a nd i ncip ient C hupachu c u ltures b ecause t he c u ltura l r ecord i n t he H uanuco-Pasco a nd A ncash r eg ions c hanged s o t horough ly b etween 2 00 b .c. a nd A .D. 2 50 . H owever , t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f rom t his p er iod i s s t ill n ot c omp lete . B y A .D . 6 00 t he H uar i c ontro lled n orth-centra l h igh land P eru . T hey b uilt W iragocha P ampa, o ne o f t heir t hree l argest h igh land c enters, o n ly 5 0 k m n orth-northwest o f t he S ihuas a rea ( M cCown 1 945, M enze l 1 964, L umbreras 1 974 „ B ird, B rowman a nd D urbin „ i .p .). T here 8 4

i s e vidence t hat a H uar i g roup w as i n L lata, n orthwest H uanuco - a c o llector t here h as a s tone s huff t ab let, a H uar i-sty le c eram ic v esse l i n t he s hape o f a h uman f oot , a nd o ther d ef init ive i tems ( persona l o bservat ion i n 1 981). N o s uch e v idence s upports t he p ropos it ion t hat t he H uar i h ad i mportant i nf luence i n t he C hupachu r eg ion, b ut w e c an p o int t o t he l ingu ist ic a ff iliat ions o f C hupachu t o H uancayo a nd A yacucho Q uechua, a s w e ll a s t o S ihuas. M aize m ay h e lp h ere a lso . F loury m a ize w ith a l ight p urp le a leurone l ayer a round t he k erne l, t he S hajatu-Checchi s ubcomp lex o f r aces, i s v ery c ommon i n B o liv ia a nd s outhern P eru b ut i s g enera lly l acking f rom t he S errano a rea a nd f rom t he P eruv ian N orth H igh lands a nd t he N orth A ndes ( B ird a nd G oodman 1 978). S hajatu h as b een c o llected m any t imes i n t he S ihuas a rea ( Grobman e t a l. 1 961), a nd t he p referred C hupachu p arch ing c orn, C hushpilyu, h as p urp le a leurone, s peck led i n t his c ase ( B ird 1 966, 1 970 :40-141, 1 99). S errano p arching m a ize i s g enera lly b rown , y e llow o r w h ite w ith a d ifferent p lant f orm . M aize a nd Q uechua p atterns a re t hus f urther s im ilar . P erhaps t hese m ajor m aize t ypes c an b e u sed t o g rade H uar i i nf luence i n t he S errano r eg ion - w hereas p urp le m a ize i s e ssent ia lly a bsent f rom t he Y acha a rea, a s a re H uar i a rt ifacts s o f ar , i t i s f air ly c ommon i n t he a rea o f L lata . O ther e v idence s upports t he v iew t hat N orth A ndean i nf luence n ear L lata w as s uppressed b y p eop le s peaking Q uechua 1 , p robab ly w ith H uar i h e lp ( p ersona l o bservat ion). I t i s p oss ib le t he b oundary w as i n p art e stab lished b y t he H uar i, b ut m ore p robab ly t he i ncipient C hupachu a nd S serrano a lready w ere separated b y i t i n i ts p resent p osit inon . H uar i-induced c hanges w ou ld t hen h ave b een m od if ied a nd s pread i n u n ique w ays b y t he C hupachu a nd S errano g roups a s h as h appened r ecent ly ( be low ). S tability a nd C omp lementar ity T he b oundary i s s tab le - i t a pparent ly h as n ot s hifted i n av ery l ong t ime . E ven t hough t he S panish, I nca a nd H uar i c onquered t he r eg ion a nd c hanged p o lit ica l a lleg iances, t wo b asic s ets o f m echan isms h ave g u ided t he s e lect ion o f e xtra-cu ltura l t raits a nd h e lped s pread t hem f air ly u n iform ly a cross e ither t he S errano o r C hupachu r eg ion . O ut o f t he l ist o f 2 3 d ifferent iat ing c u ltura l v ar iab les s o f ar s tudied ( Tab le 1 ), o n ly 1 t o 3 w ou ld b e i n t he a typ ica l s tatus i n t owns n ear t he b oundary , a s s o f ar i nvest igated . T hree i nterdependent f actors s eem t o r espons ib le f or m ost o f t his r emarkab le, l ong-term s tab ility, a ffect ing b oth t he e stab lishment a nd t he m aintenance o f t he l ine . F irst , t he t wo r eg ions h ave d ifferent t opographies a nd r esu ltant e co log ica l z ones. S econd, t hese z ones c hanne led t he e ntry i nto t he r eg ion o f t wo v ery d ifferent c u ltures w h ich o verran t he S ajara-patac, C hav in a nd n earby p eop les. T h ird, t rade b etween t he t wo c omp lementary a reas, C hupachu a nd S errano, m aintained t he m utua l i nterdependence o f t he t wo c u ltures f or o ver 1 000 y ears. A s d iscussed, t here i s l itt le a bout S errano t err itory t hat w ou ld h ave g reat ly a ttracted t he h ypothet ica l i ncip ient C hupachu. T he m ost l ike ly h ome land o f s uch a g roup w ou ld h ave b een t he N orth A ndes, p erhaps t he C hachapoyas a rea, s o t hese p eop le w ou ld h ave b een f am iliar w ith n umerous a gricu ltura l t echn iques, c u lt igens a nd c u lt ivars a dapted t o t he w ide r ange o f a gr icu ltura l l ands t yp ica l o f t he N orth A ndes . 8 5

T he " tropical c rop z one" e nds n ear t he C hupachu/Serrano b oundary, a s d oes t he f orested b and a bove t he C hupachu c orn f ie lds. F rost d oes l itt le d amage i n C hupachu f ie lds i n p art b ecause o f c loud c over . P roxim ity t o c oca l and p robab ly w as i mportant t o t he i ncipient C hupachu ( Burchard 1 976) c ommerce i n c rops a nd g athered w ild p roducts s eems t o h ave b een a m ajor e conom ic a ct ivity. T he S errano h ad m any p roducts o f i nterest t o t he C hupachu. S a lt f rom t he Y aros a rea, C hinchaycocha f ish, c harqui ( dried m eat) f rom C haupihuaranga, a nd Y acha lama w oo l w ere t raded f or C hupachu c oca, m aize, p eppers a nd c otton. A s P ab lo G uaman N aupa o f I chu s a id i n 1 562 ( Ort iz 1 967: 5 8): " los i ndios y aros y o tros c omarcanos v ienen ar escatar c on e stos c oca y m aiz y a u iy a lgodon y e llos v an a r escatar c on l os o tros p escados y o vejas y c harqui y l ana y s a l. . . " S ome S errano t r ibes m aintained c oqueros i n t he c eja d e m ontana ( Ort iz 1 972:135,139, M or i a nd A lonso 1 967:301, M urra 1 972b, 1 975), t he m ountainous f orested a rea t o t he n orth o f t he C hupachu, w h ile t he C hupachu h ad s ome p eop le i n t he s a lt f ie lds n ear C erro d e P asco ( Ort iz 1 967:293). T his m uta lly b eneficia l t rade a nd t he p lacing o f f ull o r p art-t ime c o llectors a nd h arvesters i n t he o ther 's t erritory m ust h ave h ad a s tabiliz ing i nf luence, u ntil t he I nca a nd S panish t ook o ver p arts o f t he s ystem a nd i mposed n ew r u les. O ngoing c ommunication b etween C hupachu c ommunities i s i ndicated b y t he d istr ibution o f s uch a dopted H ispan ic t raits a s p ort ico a rches a nd t iles o n t he C hupachu h ouses. L ikew ise, S errano w omen w ear f e lt h ats m ost o f t he t ime. T hese t raits a lso l arge ly a re l im ited b y t he b oundary . T he b oundary m ay w e ll c ont inue a cross t he A ndes s omewhere w ithin t he b and i ndicated i n F igure 1 . P au l D oughty a nd A nthony O l iver-Sm ith ( pers. c omm .) o bserved t hat s ome o f t he t rait l im its d iscussed p assed t hrough t he m idd le o f Y ungay, A ncash, u nfortunate ly n ow d estroyed b y a m assive a valance. P erhaps t he b oundary r uns t here f rom t he s outh e dge o f e ither t he S ihuas a rea o r t he P iscobamba a rea. T he S errano p eop le o f L lata, H uanuco, h ave a f ew C hupachu-like t raits a nd an earby w arm c ry v alley b ottom . P ossib ly t he t rait l im its m aking u p t he C hupachu/Serrano b oundary a re s eparated i nto s ubsets w hich i n A ncash r un a long d ifferent l ines. O n t he w est t he S erranos s eem t o h ave b een a butted b y t he C haupiyunga, a t a bout t he 1 800 m c ontour , a ccording t o h istor ica l s ources ( Murra 1 972b, 1 975, D illehay 1 979). O ne C haupiyungga t own, Q uivi, m aintained c oca f ie lds, a nd n eighbor ing g roups p laced m itima c oca f armers i n t he a rea. T heir e astern l im it w as c lose t o t he l im it o f Q uechua 1 t oday . U nderstanding t he b oundary a nd s im ilar c u ltural f eatures h as a r ange o f i mportant a pplicat ions. A gr icultura l d eve lopment a gencies c an m ore e ffective ly i ntroduce n ew m aize v ar iet ies, t eachers c an m ore e asily a pproach t heir w ork, a rchaeo logists c an b etter p lan t heir e xcavations i f s uch i nformat ion i s u sed . I t w ill h e m any y ears b efore t he b oundary c eases t o s eparate t wo v ery d ifferent r eg ions.

8 6

A cknow ledgements w ant t o t hank D r . J ohn V . M urra f or g uidance a nd i nsight n eeded f or m y f ie ld w ork, t he N ational S cience F oundat ion f or s upport o f t wo y ears o f f ie ldwork ( 1964-1966), a nd D r . C esar F onseca a nd S r . E m ilio M endizabe l, w ho h e lped o pen d oors i n m any t owns i n H uanuco a nd P asco .

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B urchard, R . E . 1 976 M yth o f t he s acred l eaf : e co log ica l p erspect ives o n c oca a nd p easant b i cu ltura l aiptat ion i n P eru. I nd iana- U niV iT s 77 D epartment o f A nthropo logy D octora l D issertat ion D illehay, T .D . 1 979 P rehispanic 2 04 :24-31.

r esource s har ing

i n t he

C entra l A ndes .

S c ience

F onseca M arte l, C . 1 966 L a c omun idad d e C aur i y l a q uebrada d e C haup iwaranga. C uadernos d e I nvest igatcion 1 :22-33. H uanuco : U n ivers idad N aciona l H erm ilio V a ldizan 1 972 L a e conom ia v ert ica l y l a e conom ia d e m ercado e n l as c omunidades a ltenas d e l P eru. i n : J . V . M urra, e d V isita d e l a P rov incia d e L eon d e H uanuco e n 1 562 . I n igo O rt iz Z eZ un iga, V isitador . -- Wl. II: V isita d e l os Y acha y M itmaqkuna C uzquenos E ncomendados e n J uan S anchez F a lcon, p. 3 17-333. H uanuco : U n iversidad N acTUnaT-R &rm ilio V a ld izan. G robman, A ; W . S a lhuana; R . S ev illa a nd P . C . M ange lsdorf 1 961 R aces o f M aize i n P eru. N at iona l A cademy o f S ciences-Nat iona l R esearch C ouncil P ub licat ion # 915, W ashington D .C. I nst ituto G eograf ico M ilitar d e l P eru 1 973 M apa F isico P o lit ico . L ima : M in ister io d e G uerra. I sbe ll, W . H . 1 974 E co log ia d e l a e xpansion d e R ev ista d e l M useo N aciona l 4 0 :139-155 I zum i, S ; J . C ucu liza, a nd T . K ano 1 972 E xcavat ions a t S h illacoto , U niversity M useum B u llet in # 3, T okyo . I zum i, S ; a nd T . S ono 1 963 A ndes 2 : E xcavat ions a t K otosh, S m ithson ian I nstitut ion P ress.

l os

Q uechua-hab lantes .

H uanuco ,

P eru 1 960 .

W ash ington D .C .:

L umbreras, L .G . 1 967 P ara u na r eva luacion d e C hav in . A maru 7 :49-60. 1 974 T he P eop les a nd C u lture o f A ncient P eru. W ash ington 3 Mithson ian I n st itut ion P ress . L umbreras, L . G ., a nd H . A mat 1 966 I nforme p re lim inar s obre l as g a ler ias R ev ista d e l M useo N aciona l 3 4 :143-197.

P eru .

i nter iores d e

D .C.:

C hav in .

M cCown, T . D . 1 945 P re-Incaic H uamachuco . U n iversity o f C a lifornia P ub licat ions i n A mer ican A rchaeo logy a nd E thno logY-V ol. 3 9, N o . 4 , B erke ley . M end izabe l, E . 1 965 L a f iesta e n P achitea A nd ina. F o lk lore A mer icana 1 3 :141-227 1 966 C ont inuidad c u ltura l y t ext ilar ia e n P achitea A nd ina. L ima : U niversidad N aciona l M i l yor S an M arcos, t esis d e b achillerato . 8 8

L iterature c ited B ird, R . M cK 1 966 E l m aiz y l as d ivisiones e tnicas e n l a s ierra d e H uanuco . C uadernos d e I nvest igacion, 1 :34-44. H uanuco, U niversidad N aciona l H erm ilio V a ldizan 1 967a L a a gr icultura e n l a v isita d e O rt iz. i n : J .V. M urra, e d . V isita d e l a P rovincia d e L eon d e H uanuco e n 1 562. I nigo O rt iz d e Z uniga, V isitador. T omo I : V isita d e l as C uatro W aranga d e 1 6 s C hupachu. p p. 3 62=1 E 7. H uanuco : H erm ilio V a ld izan. 1 967b L a s ierra d e H uanuco . M apa c on e l i tinerar io s eguido p or I n igo O rt iz d e Z un iga d urante l a v isita. i n: J .V. M urra, e d. V isita d e l a P rovincia d e L eon d e H uanuco e n 1 562. I nigo O rt iz d e V isitador . T omo I T-V isita d e -r a C uatro W aranga d e l os C hu a chu, e nd m ap. H uanuco : U niversidad N aciona l H erm ilio V a ld izan. 1 970 M aize a nd i ts c u ltura l a nd n atura l e nvironment i n t he s ierra o f H uanuco, P eru. B erke ley : U n iversity o f C alifornia, D epartment 6 7- G eography, D octoral D issertation. 1 977 T he e vo lut ion a nd i nf luences o f t he m aize o f t he I ntermediate A rea. 4 2nd A nnua l M eetings o f t he S ociety f or A mer ican a rchaeo logy, A pr il 2 7-30, N ew O r leans. 1 980 M aize e vo lut ion f rom 5 00 B .C. t o t he p resent . B iotropica 1 2(1):30-41 B ird, R . M cK. a nd J . B . B ird 1 980 G a llinazo m aize f rom t he A nt iquity 4 5(2): 3 25-332.

C hicama

v a lley,

P eru.

A mer ican

B ird, R . M cK, D . L . B rowman a nd M . E . D urbin i .p. Q uechua a nd m aize : m irrors o f A ndean c u lture h istory . B ird, R . M cK. a nd M .M . G oodman 1 978 T he r aces o f m aize V : g rouping m aize r aces o n t he b asis o f e ar m orpho logy . E conom ic B otany 3 1:471-481 B r ieger, F . G ., J . T . A . G urge l, E . P aterniani, A . B lumenschein, a nd M . R . A lleoni 1 958 R aces o f M aize i n B razil a nd o ther e astern S outh A mer ican C ountr ies. N at ional A cademy o f -5 C r e-n ces - N at iona l R esearch C ouncil P ub lication # 593. W ashington D .C. B rowman, D . L . 1 970 E ar ly P eruvian p easants: t he c u lture h istory o f a c entral h igh lands v a lley . C ambr idge : H arvard U niversity D epartment o f A nthropo logy D octora l D issertation. 1 975 T rade p atterns i n t he C entra l H igh lands o f P eru i n t he f irst m illenium B .C. W or ld A rchaeo logy 6 :322-329 B rowman, D .L. a nd R . M cK. B ird 1 978 D emographic m ovements a t t he E ar ly I ntermed iate P er iod/M idd le H or izon b oundary i n t he C entra l A ndes a s d educed f rom l inguist ic, b otanica l a nd c eram ic e vidence. 6 th A nnua l M eeting, M idwest C onference o n A ndean a nd A mazonian A rchaeo logy , C hicago . 8 9

M enze l, D . 1 964 S ty le a nd t ime i n t he M idd le H or izon . N awpa P acha 2 :1-106 1 969 N ew d ata o n t he H uar i e mp ire i n M idd le H or izon E poch N awpa P acha 6 :47-114

2 A .

M or i, J . d e, a nd H . A lonso M a lpart ida 1 967 L a v isitacion d e l os p ueb los d e l os C hupachu, 1 549 . i n : J . V . M urra, e d . V isita d e L a P rov incia d e L eon d e H uanuco e n 1 562 . I n igo O rt iz d e Z uniga, —V isitador . T omo I : Vi s-i ta d e l as C uatro W aranga d e l os C hupachu, p p . 2 89-3107 H uanuco : U n ivers idad N aciona l H er i niT io V a ld izan . M urra, J . V . 1 966 E l I nst ituto d e I nvest igaciones A nd inas y s us e stud ios e n H uanuco 1 963-1966. C uadernos d e I nvest igacion 1 :7-21. H uanuco : U n iversidad N ac iona l H erm ilio V a ld izan 1 967a V isita d e l a P rovincia d e L eon d e H uanuco e n 1 562. I n igo O rt iz d e Z uniga, V isitador . T omo I : V is ita d e l as C uatro W aranga d e l os C hupachu. H uanuco : U n iversid ad N aciona l H erm ilio V a ld izan . 1 967b L a v is ita d e l os C hupachu c omo f uente e tno logica. i n : J . V . M urra, e ditor . V isita d e l a P rov inc ia d e L eon d e H uanuco e n 1 562. I n igo O rt iz d e Z uniga, V isitador . T omo I : —V is ita d e l as C uatro W aranga d e l os C hupachu . p p . 3 83-406 . H uanuco : U niversidad N aciona l H erm ilio V a ld izan 1 972a V isita d e l a P rov incia d e L eon d e H uanuco e n 1 952. I n igo O rtiz d e Z uniga, V isitador . T omo I: V isita d e l os Y acha y M itmac iE na C uzquenos E ncomendados e n J uan S anchez 7 5 76 a . H uanuco : U niversidad N aciona l H erm il . 7 ) V a ld izan. 1 972b E l " contro l v ert ica l" d e u n m ax imo d e p isos e co log icos e n l a e conom ia d e l as s ociedades a nd inas .. i n : J . V . M urra, e d . V isita d e l a P rov incia d e L eon d e J uanuco e n 1 562. I n igo O rt iz d e Z uni-0, V isitador . V isita d e l os Y acha y M itmaqkuna C uzquenos E ncomendados e n J uan S anchez F a lcon. p. 4 29-476. H uanuco : U niversidad N aciona l H erm ilio V a ld izan. O f icina N aciona l d e E va luacion d e R ecursos N atura les 1 976 M apa E co log ico d e l P eru. L ima : O NERN O rtiz d e Z uniga, I . 1 967 V isita d e r epart im iento d e l os C hupachos . i n: J . V . M urra, e d . V isita d e l a P rov incia d e L eon d e H uanuco e n 1 562. T omo I : V isita d e l as C uatro W aranga d e l os C hupachu. p . 3 - NT .H uanuco : U niversidad N aciona l H erm ilio V a ld izan 1 972 V isita d e l os Y acha y M itmaqkuna c uzquenos e ncomendados e n J uan S anchez F a lcon . i n : J . V . M urra, c d, V isita d e l os Y acha y M itmaqkuna C uzquenos E ncomendados e n J uan S anchez —F i lcon, p . 5 -269 . H uanuco : U niversidad N ac iona l H erm ilio V a ld izan P arker , G . J . 1 963 L a c lasif icacion g enet ica d e l os d ia lectos q uechuas . R ev ista d e l M useo N aciona l 3 2 :241-252. 1 969a C omparat ive Q uechua p hon logy a nd g rammar I : c lass if icat ion . U niversity o f H awaii W orking P apers i n L inguistics 1 ( 1):65-87 1 969b C omparat ive Q uechua p hono logy a nd g rammar I V: t he e vo lut ion o f Q uechua A . U n ivers ity o f H awaii W orking P apers i n L inguistics 1 (9):149-204 9 0

1 97 1

C omparat ive Q uechua p hono logy a nd g rammar V : t he e vo lut ion o f Q uechua B . U niversity o f H awaii W orking P apers i n L inguist ics 3 (3):45-109.

R am irez, R ; D . H . T imothy; E . D iaz; J . J . G rant ; G . N icho lson; E . A nderson a nd W . L . B rown 1 960 R aces o f M aize i n B o livia. N at iona l A cademy o f S ciences-Nationa l R esearch C ouncil P ub licat ion # 747. W ashington D .C. R oberts, L . M ; U . J . G rant; R . R am irez; W . H . H atheway; D . L . &P . C . M ange lsdorf 1 957 R aces o f M aize i n C o lombia. N at iona l A cademy S ciences-Nat iona l R esearch C ouncil P ub licat ion W ashington D .C.

S m ith o f # 510 .

T hompson, D .E. 1 967 I nvest igaciones a rqueo logicas e n l as a ldeas c hupachu d e I chu y A uquimarca. i n : J . V . M urra, e d . V isita d e l a P rovincia d e L eon d e H uanuco e n 1 562. I nigo O rtiz d e Z un iga, V isitador , T omo I : V isita E J i T i -t uatro W aranga -a e l os C hupachu p p . 35 9-367 . H uanuco : U n iversidad N aciona l H erm iTT6 V a ld izan. 1 968a H uanuco, P eru: as urvey o f a p rovince o f t he I nca e mpire. A rchaeo logy 2 1:174-181 1 968b A n a rchaeo log ica l e va lualt ion o f e thnohistor ic e vidence o n I nca c u lture. i n : B . J . M eggers, e d . A nthropo log ica l A rchaeo logy i n t he A mer icas, p p.108-120 . W ashington D .C.: A nthropo log ical S ociety o f W ashington T imothy, D . H .; W . H . H atheway; U . J . G rant ; M . T orregroza; D . S arr ia &D . V are la 1 963 R aces o f M aize i n E cuador . N at iona l A cademy o f S c iences-Nat iona l R esearch C ouncil P ub licat ion # 975. W ashington D .C. T imothy, D . H ; B . P ena; R . R am irez; W . L . B rown a nd E . A nderson 1 961 R aces o f M aize i n C hile . N at iona l A cademy o f niences-Nationa l R esearch C ouncil P ub licat ion # 847. W ashington D .C. T orero, A . 1 964 L os d ia lectos q uechuas. A na les C ient if icos d e l a U niversidad N aciona l A grar ia 2 (4):446-478 1 968 P rocedencia g eograf ica d e l os d ia lectos Q uechuas d e F errenafe y C ajamarca. A na les C ient ificos d e l a U niversidad N aciona l A grar ia 6 :291-316 1 970 L inguist ica e h istor ia d e l a s ociedad a nd ina. A na les C ient if icos d e l a U niversidad A graria 8 :231-264 1 974 E l Q uechua y l a H istor ia S ocia l A ndina. L ima : U niversidad P a lma.

9 1

B ird T able 1 . E thnographic,

l inguistic,

e nvironmental a nd o ther d ifferences

b etween C hupachu a nd S errano r egions ( after B ird 1 970).

C hupacha

S errano

d ispersed s ettlements

n uclear t owns

o ften p orches o n h ouse t ronte , w ith

n o p orches b ut b alconies

l ateral walls c orrals u sually l acking

o ften a dobe-walled c orrals b y h ouses

wattle-and-daub c onstruction p resent

n o wattle-and-daub c onstruction

w omen u se s hawl t o c over h ead

w omen a lways w ear h ats

b lack a nd w hite c lothing u sual

b lack a nd w hite c lothing r are

s hawls w hite, c otton, w ith b ordering

s hawls o f w ool, v ariously c olored, o nly

f illet

r arely w ith f illet

m en c arry s hawl a s w aist s ash

m en u se w oven b elt o nly

w omen d o m ost b ackstrap l oom w eaving

m en u sually d o a ll w eaving

s hawls w oven o n b ackstrap l oom

s hawls w oven o n S paniph-type l oom

m uch i rrigation

i rrigation r are

p otato f ields a mong c orn f ields

p otato f ields i n z one a bove c orn f ields

Papaya c andamarcensis a nd C ypho-

t hese s pecies v ery r are

m andra c rassifolia c ommon N orth A ndean m aize r aces

( small,

t hese r aces a bsent

l arge a nd e longate y ellow f lints)

p rominent

t he S hajatu-Pisccoruntu s ubcomplex o f p urple,

f loury m aize

f requent; y ellow

l arge a nd s mall-eared t ypes o f C entral

r aces

A ndean F lours d ominant - y ellow,

a nd b rown

b rown, w hite,

f lours v ery r are

9 2

e tc., b ut n ot p urple

B ird

T able 1 ,

c ontinued

p honological s hifts: n one i f i t i s

* ly

l y-1

a ssumed t hat * ly, * ny, * ch a nd

* ny

> n

* s a re c onservative

* ch

> t e-s-ch

* a

> 0 /V

a ll a re c alled C hupachu h istorically

o nly Q ueros l isted w ith C hupachui u nder P aucar G uaman i n 1 562

a rchaeological p ottery w ith m icaceous p aste n ot m icaceous a nd h andles n ot p aste a nd g rooved h andles

g rooved

w arm t ropical v alley l and a vailable

l ittle t o n o w arm t ropical l and

d ense m ontane f orest c ommon

l ittle t o n o d ense m ontane f creet

m ost p opulation f ound b etween

m ost f ound b etween 3 250 a nd 3 750 m

2 300 a nd 3 000 m l ittle p una

g rassland a vailable,

p una i s l argest e cological z one

a lthough w et j alaga c ommon t ropical c rops o f m any s pecies g rown

v ery l ow p roduction o ' t ropical c rops

l ess p recipitous t opography

v ery p recipitous t opography

9 3

F igure 1 . M ap o f n orth-central P eru , t he a rea o f F igure 2 .

i ndicating d epartments a nd c apitals ,

T riangles a re p eaks o ver 5 500 m .

l ines i ndicate d epartmental b oundaries.

a nd

T he d ashed

T he h eavy d otted l ine

i ndicates t he a pproximate b oundary o f t he n orthern z one o f Q uechua 1 ( Quechua I /B),

a lthough t wo l ects , H uanca a nd C acra ,

t o t he s outh o f t he s maller d otted l ine s hown i n J unin.

l ie

S tippled

b ands s eparate e cological z ones--two h ighland ( Serrano a nd C hupachuN orth A ndean) a nd t wo l owland ( Selva t o t he e ast a nd C osta t o t he w est). D ata f rom B ird 1 970 , T orero 1 964 , a nd I nstituto G eografico M ilitar 1 973 . 9 4

F igure 2 . M ap o f h istoric e thnic e ntities i n H uanuco a nd P asco. l ine i s t he C hupachu b oundary.

T he h eavy

T he m itmaqkuna O rejon a nd Q uichua ,

c olonists f rom s outhern P eru, w ere l ocated m ainly w ithin t he n orthwest w aranga o f t he C hupachu.

T he b oundary b etween t he

n orthwest a nd s outhwest w aranEas s eems t o h ave c hanged b etween t he v isitas o f 1 549 a nd 1 562.

M ap b ased o n i nformation f rom O rtiz

1 967,1972; M ori a nd A lonso 1 967 ; a nd B ird 1 970.

9 5

T he V ert ica l E conomy o f t he C us ichaca V a lley ( Cuzco , P eru) a nd i ts P rehistor ic I mp licat ions I an S . F arr ington

F arr ington e xam ines t he c urrent a gr icu ltura l e co log ica l z ones o f t he C usichaca v a lley , a nd t he a ccess o f c urrent p opu lat ions t o t he c r it ica l r esources o f l and a nd a gr icu ltura l p roducts f rom d ifferent e co log ica l z ones. B ased o n t he a rchaeo log ica l s urveys o f D r . A nn K enda ll's p roject , h e a ttempts t o r esurrect t he a gr icu ltura l z onat ion p atterns a nd e conom ic n etworks i n t he v a lley i n P re-Co lomb ian t imes . H e a rgues t hat p r ior t o t he I nca o ccupat ion, B rush 's " compressed t ype" o f v ert ica l e co log ica l c ontro l o f r esources t yp if ied t he v a lley, b ut t hat t he I nca o ccupat ion c omp lete ly d isrupted t his p attern . W ho lesa le l andscape r emode lling a nd l and e xpropr iat ion o ccurred i n t he l ower p art o f t he v a lley d ur ing t he I nca o ccupat ion, l ead ing t o a f ragmentat ion o f t he p rev ious s ystem . T he I nca e xpropr iated t he l ower v a lley m a ize l ands f or s tate p urposes; t he l ater c o lom ia l h ac ienda a nd c ontemporary e conom ies h ave m ere ly r e inforced t h is I ncaic i mposed p attern.

S e e stud ia l a e conom ia v ert ica l d e l v a lle d e C usichaca y z onas a dyacentes d e V ilcanota c on e l p roposito d e d ilucidar l os p atrones d e u so d e l a t ierra e n l a a ctua lidad y e stab lecer h ipotesis a cerca d e s us o cupaciones p rehistor icas. S e i dent if ican s iete s ub-reg iones a gro-eco log icas, s obre l a b ase d e e stac ion d e p lantac ion, c osecha e i rr igacion . S e h a e stab lecido t amb ien u na d iv ision m arcada a l os 2 750 m etros, l a q ue a parece e star v incu lada a l a o cupacion I ncaica e n l a z ona, c on e f in d e a provechar c osechas m as t empranas q ue e n l a p arte s uper ior d e l v a lle, e specia lmente d e m iska ( choc lo). F ina lmente , s e h acen c onsiderac iones a cerca d e l d esarro llo d e e ste c omp lejo e n t iempos i nca y p re incaicos.

I NTRODUCTION T he c u ltura l e co logy o f t he C entra l A ndes h as b een d escr ibed b y a nthropo log ists ( e .g . B rush 1 976, 1 977) a nd e thnoh istor ians ( Murra 1 972) a s a s ystem o f ' vert ica l e conomy ' i n w h ich c ommun it ies e xp lo it n ot o n ly t he r esource z one t hey i nhab it b ut a s m any o thers a s t hey c an e conom ica lly w ork o r i n w hich t hey h ave t it le t o l and o r r ights t o c ommon g razings. T herefore s uch c ommunit ies h o ld l ands i n m any o ther r esource z ones, o ften m any h ours d istance f rom t he l ocat ion o f t he p r incipa l r esidence, w h ich i s g enera lly a t o r n ear t he i nterface b etween m aize a nd p otato g row ing r eg ions . S uch a n e conomy e nsures a n a dequate a nd v ar ied s ubsistence p attern a nd o ften p rov ides t he c ommunity w ith e ssent ia l, n on-food r esources, s uch a s c oca, w ood a nd w oo l. T hose r esources, w hich a p art icu lar c ommunity c annot e xp lo it d irect ly , m ay b e o btained b y e xchange o r i n m arkets. B rush ( 1976, 9 7

1 977) h as r ecogn ized t hree b asic t ypes o f v ert ica l e conomy : c ompressed, e xtended a nd a rch ipe lago . I t i s t he f irst t wo o f t hese w hich a re o f r e levance t o t his s tudy . T he c ompressed t ype o ccurs i n s hort , s teep v a lleys i n w h ich r esource z ones a re c lose t ogether a nd t o w h ich t he i nhab itants c an t rave l i n as hort t ime f rom a h ome b ase o n t he m a ize/potato b oundary . T he e xtended t ype i s p resent i n l arger , m ore g ent ly s lop ing v a lleys i n w hich c ommun it ies t end t o s pecia lize i n t he p roducts o f o ne r esource z one a nd t rade i n m arkets. T he p rehistor ic i mp licat ions o f s uch e conom ies, a lthough o ften h inted a t i n t he l iterature ( hurra 1 972 ; P atterson 1 971) a re r are ly f u lly e laborated w ith d etaileo s tudy . O n ly t he w ork o f T hompson i n t he E astern A ndes ( 1971) a nd f illehay i n t he C h illon ( 1978) s eem t o a pproach s uch a n a na lysis. T lis p aper i s a n a ttempt t o r e late t he c ontemporary ' vert ica l e conom y' o f a s ma ll A ndean v a lley w ith i ts p rehistor ic s ett lement p atterns. 1 .

T he C usichaca V a lley

T he a rchaeo logy o f t he l ower C usichaca V a lley h as b een e xtens ive ly s tud ied b y K enda ll ( 1974, 1 976). S he c onducted s urvey a nd e xcavat ion o f an umber o f P re-Inca a nd I nca s ites a nd o n t he b as is o f a rchitectura l a na lysis p ostu lated f unct ions f or t hem . U nder h er d irect ion t he C usichaca P roject i s c urrent ly u ndertaking e xcavation o f t he I nca f ort a t H u illca R accay a nd t he t own o f P ata llacta i n t he l ower v a lley . F urthermore s ite s urvey , g eo log ica l, e co log ica l, p edo log ica l, a nd l and u se a nd i rr igat ion s tud ies a re b eing c arr ied o ut i n t he b asin a s aw ho le ( Kenda ll 1 978). T he c ontemporary v ert ica l e conomy i s a na lysed o n t he b asis o f 3 7 i nterv iews c onducted b y t he a uthor i n t he b as in i tse lf a nd i n a djacent r eaches o f t he V ilcanota . 2 .

P hysica l g eography

T he C usichaca R iver i s as ma ll, s teep t r ibutary o f t he V ilcanota, f low ing o n ly 3 0 k ms. f rom t he g laciers o f S a lcantay ( 6271 m ) t o i ts c onf luence a t c . 2 450 m . I t i s ar e lat ive ly s ma ll, d rainage b asin ( c . 6 00 s q . k m .), w h ich i s h eavily g lac iated, w ith o n ly o ne m ajor t r ibutary , t he O qeska, a nd a s er ies o f h ang ing v a lleys. T he v al ley i s n arrow w ith r e lat ive ly l itt le f lat l and . T he p r incipa l a reas f or a gr icu ltura l a ct iv ity a re f ormer l ake b eds, t he a lluv ia l f an: , a nd t erraces o f t he m idd le v a lley, a nd a djacent p arts o f t he V i lcanota . T he v egetat ion z ones a re s im ilar t o t hose d escr ibed b y G ade ( 1975 :15-16) r ang ing f rom h igh a lt itude p unas t o w oody s ub-trop ica l e xpanses o f t he c eja d e l a m ontana, i mmed iate ly b e low t he s tudy a rea. E nc laves o f s uch s ub-trop ica l v egetat ion s urv ive i n r iver line a nd o ther w e ll w atered a reas u p t o a bout 3 000 m . T here i s a d earth o f t rees i n t he l andscape e lsewhere, s ave f or i ltroduced e uca lypts, a lvhough i t i s u nderstood t hat t he l ower v a lley a nd Q uente t erraces w ere w ooded w ith s econdary v egetat ion o n ly 5 0 y ears a go ( MacDonne ll 1 978). 3 .

A groecosystems o f t he v a lley

A ccord ing t o P u lgar V idal ( 1946) t he I ncas r ecognized s ix m ajor r esource z ones i n t he A ndes w hich c lose ly r esemb le t he s ix f o ld 9 8

d iv ision o f z ones i n t he i lcanota V a lley e stab lished b y G ade ( 1 975 :104) ( Tab le 1 ). S uch a c lassif icat ion i s e xtreme ly r e levant t o t he p resent s tudy f or t he C usichaca V a lley c onf luence i s l ocated a t t he l ower e nd o f z one 3 , t he m a ize r eg ion ( 3300-2400 m ). T hus t his s urvey w as i nvo lved p r incipa lly i n G ade 's z ones 1 ( reg ion o f n at ive w i ld g rass a nd o ccas iona lly c u lt ivated p otatoes, 4 340-3910 m .), a nd 2 ( r eg ion o f w heat , b ar ley, b road b eans a nd p otatoes, w here n at ive g rass a nd l egumes a re n ow o f l esser i mportance , 3 910-3300 m ) a nd z one 3 . H owever, b ecause e ach z one c overs a w ide a lt itud ina l r ange i t i s e xpected t hat d ifferences i n a spect , m icroc limate a nd s o il m ay i nf luence t he n ature o f a gro-ecosystems a nd e ither a s et o f d iscrete s ubsystems o r ac ont inuum o f g radua l c hange . I n t he C us ichaca t hese t hree m acrozones a re n ot c lear ly d ef inab le, a lthough o n t he b asis o f c ropping c yc les, c rop c omp lex a nd t he n umber o f i rr igat ions s even a gro-eco log ica l s ubzones h ave b een i dentif ied ( Tab le 1 , F igure 1 ). G ade ( 1975) h as r ecogn ised f ive m ajor c ropping c yc les, w hich m ay b e p erformed d ur ing t he y ear i n t he V i lcanota, o n t he b asis o f t he t im ing o f t he p lanZAng a nd h arvest ing . T hese a re t he p roduct ion o f e ar ly ( m iska), a nd m a in c rop ( hatun t arpuy) a nd l ate ( k le pa t urpuy) m a ize a nd o ther s eed c rops, a nd t he p roduct ion o f e ar ly ( maway ) a nd m ain c rop ( hatun t arpuy) r oot c rops . C ropping c yc les a re n ot n ecessar ily e xc lusiV e t o o ne s ub-zone, a nd c oup led w ith t he t wo o ther v ar iab les p rov ide a u sefu l c omponent i n t he c lassif icat ion. S ubzone 1 : P unas a nd p astures ( 4000 m a nd a bove). A s i n t he c lass ic A ndean p attern t he p unas a bove t he l im it r ‚ f c u lt ivat ion , w "irh i n C usichaca i s c . 4 000 m , p rov ide s hort, t ussocky g rass lands a nd s lopes f or t he g razing o f f locks o f s heep a nd g oats, o wned b y t he p otato f armers o f s ubzone 2 . O ccasiona lly c att le a nd h orses m ay h e s eer g razing b ut t here a re n o A ndean c ame lids c urrent ly h erded , n or h ave t here b een w ith in l iving m emory . P astures a re r otated b etween t he p unas, t he s lopes a nd t he u nused p otato f ie lds o f s ubzone 2 . P astora lism i s a n a ctiv ity p ractised o n t he s lopes a bove e ach o f t he s ubzones l ower d own a nd i s e verywhere a v a luab le c omponent t o t he l oca l s ystem . T he h erders a re g enera lly c hildren . S ubzone 2 : M ain c rop p otatoes ( 4000-3700 m .) S ix a reas a re i dentif ie w ithin t f iev a lley w hich s pecia lize i n t ne c u lt ivation o f m ain c rop p otatoes. T hese v ary i n s ize f rom o ne h ouseho ld a t A ltomatara t o t we lve a t P ampacahuana/Hatunpampa, a lthough t he j uxtapost ion o f s ubzones 2 a nd 3 i n t he m idd le Q qeska ( i .e . C hchurupampa/Kasana) m eans t hat 1 2 h ouseho lds h ave d irect a ccess t o f ie lds i n s ubzone 2 . T he m a in a reas a re t he f ormer l ake b eds a nd a djacent s lopes o f P ampacanuana/Hatunpampa, m idd le Q qeska a nd S utturum iyoc. I n t he f ormer a rea, f armers r ecognize t hree c lasses o f l and o f w h ich t wo a re p r imar ily u sed f or m a in c rop p otatoes. T hese a re : p uq uio, c ompr ising l acuntr ine p eaty g leyed s ed iments, w hich h ave b een p art ia lly d ra ined b y r iver s traightening i n p rehistory ; a nd n anacaca, w hich a re d eep, o rganic s i lts o n t he l ower s lopes ( Kee ley 1 978). T he p lant ing r eg ime i s h atun t arpuy i n w h ich t he f ie lds a re p repared i n M arch f or p lant ing i n A ugust . M ound ing o ccurs i n O ctober a nd N ovember, h arvest ing i n M ay . T he p redom inant p lant i s t he p otato o f w hich s ome 2 0 o r m ore v ar iet ies a re g rown, i nc lud ing a n umber o f b itter o nes f or t he p roduct ion o f c hunu a nd m oraya . T he o ther A ndean 9 9

t ubers, o ca, a nu a nd u lluco a re s carce ly g rown i n t his s ubzone a nd g enera lly a t i ts l ower e nd . S o il f ert ility i s l ow a nd m anure i s s pread o n t he f ie lds p r ior t o p lant ing . F ie lds a re c u lt ivated f or o n ly a s ing le s eason a nd t hen r ested f or b eteween 5 a nd 7 y ears b efore r ep lant ing ( manay s ystem ). S heep a nd g oats f orm a v a luab le c omponent i n t his s ubzone. S ubzone 3 : M away ( 3700-3200 m ). T he p roduct ion o f e ar ly r oot c rops ( potatoes, u lluco, o ca a nd a nu) i s p ossib le t hroughout t he v a lley b e low a bout 3 700 m , a lthough i n t he l ower r eaches t he l ack o f r ainfa ll a nd t he c onsequent n eed t o i rr igate r estr icts t he a rea u nder t h is c ropp ing c yc le. H owever t wo m ain m away g row ing a reas m ay b e i dentif ied i n t he P ampacahuana a nd Q qeska v a lleys, l ocated b etween 3 700 a nd 3 200 m . I n t he P ampacahuana l arge a reas o f s teep s tony h ills lopes a re c u lt ivated a round C hchorromayoc a nd s cattered h ills lope f ie lds a re l ocated a s f ar a s t he c onf luence w ith t he M atara. F ie lds a re p loughed w ith t ac lla a nd h oe i n J u ly a nd p lanted i n l ate J u ly/August w ith t he w ho le r ange o f A ndean r oots. O n t he e astern s lopes c ertain f ie lds a re i rr igated p r ior t o p lant ing . M ound ing t akes p lace i n S eptember a nd O ctober a nd t he h arvest i s i n F ebruary/March. O n ly o ne f am ily r esides p ermanent ly h ere, b ut a ll f armers o f s ubzone 2 i n C hchorro , P ampacahuana/ H atunchaca a nd A lto M atara h ave a ccess t o t hese l ands . A s even y ear r otat ion s ystem i s p ract ised . T he m idd le Q qeska p rov ides a m uch m ore e xtens ive m away a rea i n w h ich n ine f am ilies l ive b ut t o w h ich p robab ly a f urther t wenty-one o f t he Q qeska c omunity h ave a ccess. T he c ropping r eg ime i s s im ilar t o t hat o f C hchorromayoc, a lthough b road b eans a re g rown a s a f odder c rop . T h is s ubzone a lso f orms p art o f t he m ain c rop p otato r otation i n t he m idd le Q qeska. S ubzone 4 : S eed/root t ransit ion z one ( c . 3 100 m ). A r e lat ive ly s ma ll a rea, c ompr ising o n ly 4 f armsteads, l ocated a t t he c onf luence o f t he Q qeska a nd P ampacahuana r ivers. I t c ompr ises t hree c ropp ing c yc les , o ne o f r oots a nd t ubers a nd t he o ther t wo o f s eed c rops. W inters s eem t o b e d r ier t han i n t he m a in m away l ands a t c . 3 500 m a nd a s a c onsequence i n t his s ubzone t he m away c yc le i s o n ly m ade p ossib le h ere b y t he a dd it ion o f f air ly f requent i rr igat ion w ater . T he w ho le r ange o f A ndean t ubers i s g rown . I rr igat ion i s a lso u sed i n A ugust a s p art o f f ie ld p reparat ion p r ior t o t he p lant ing o f m ain c rop m aize a nd b eans ( both P haseo lus s p . a nd V icia f aba). A t t he s ame t ime t he f ie ld e dges a re p lanted w ith q uinoa a nd t he A ndean l up ine, t arw i. T here i s a lso a kle pa t arpuy c yc le s own i n D ecember a nd n ow d om inated b y a w heat a nd b ar ley . T he l atter i s s own i n t he f ie lds v acated b y t he m away c rop, w hile w heat i s s own i n ' fresh ' f ie lds . P asture i s u sed a s ac omponent i n t he r otat ion c yc le o f t hese f ie lds. S ubzone 5 : H atun t arpuy m a ize ( 3000-2800 m ). T he t erraces a nd a lluv ia l T i n a round t he c onf luence o f t he H uayruro w ith t he C usichaca a t H uay llabamba t ogether w ith t he a lluv ia l f an o n t he o pposite b ank, k nown a s S a lyac f orm a s ing le a gro-eco log ica l s ubzone. I t i s t he m ost i mportant a nd e xtensive o f t he m aize g row ing a reas i n t he m idd le v a lley a nd h as t he g reatest p opu lat ion d ensity o f a ll s ubzones. T he v i llage o f H uay llabamba h as a p opulat ion o f a round 1 50 b ut i ts l ands a re l ocated o n ly o n t he H uayruro s ide o f t he r iver . T he Q qeska c ommunity f arms S a lyac. A s ac onsequence t he i nd ividua l f armer d oes 1 00

n ot h ave t he l and t o g row t he v ar iety o f s ubzone 4 . T he S a lyac l ands a nd a bout h a lf t he H uay llabamba l ands a re w atered i mmed iate ly p r ior t o p lant ing i n l ate A ugust. T he p r incipa l c rop i s m aize, p lanted i n t he s ame m ound a s b eans o r p eas. I n s ome p laces q uinoa i s d om inant . T arw i i s s t ill g rown i n s ome f ie lds i n a ssociat ion w ith m aize o n ly b ut t h is c omb inat ion a ppears t o b e i n d ec line . H arvest ing o ccurs i n M ay a nd J une. T he r emaining H uay llabamba l and i s s own w ith h atun t arpuy m aize w ithout i rr igation. S ubzone 6 : C hakimayo ( 2800-2700 m ). T his i s a v ery s ma ll a rea d om inated b y s teep s lopes w ith v ery l itt le l and f or a gr icu lture. T here a re o n ly a f ew s cattered f arms. J ust b e low t he H atunchaca c onf luence t here a re t wo f arms w hich g row m ain c rop m aize a nd b eans w ith u p t o t hree i rr igat ions. H owever t he m ajor ity o f f arms p lant t his c yc le w ithout i rr igation. S ubzone 7 : L ower V a lley ( 2600-2400 m ). T his s ubzone c ompr ises t he l ower p art o f t he C usichaca v a lley f rom j ust a bove t he T unasmocco s traighten ing t o t he c onf luence w ith t he V ilcanota a s w e ll a s t he l ands o f Q uente w atered b y t he C usichaca c anal. A ll o f t his l and w as t erraced b y t he I ncas. I t a lso i nc ludes t he m orainic s lopes a nd t erraces o f H uillca R accay a nd M iskay o n t he e astern s ide o f t he c onf luence a nd o n t he e astern s ide o f H uallancay . F or r easons s uch a s l ower a lt itude, l arger a nd r e lat ive ly l eve l t racts o f l and , h igher r ates o f s unshine, a nd t he a vailab ility o f i rr igat ion w ater, t his s ubzone i s c haracter ised b y f our c ropping c yc les. H owever t he H uillca R accay p ampa i s n ot u sed t oday a nd t he t ota l n umber o f f am ilies i n t h is s ubzone i s o nly n ine. F arm ing a ct iv it ies b egin i n l ate J u ly w ith t he w ater ing a nd p reparation o f s ma ll f ie lds f or m away o f t he w ho le r ange o f A ndean r oots. T hese a re w atered f requent ly a nd m ounded t w ice b efore h arvesting i n N ovember . I n e ar ly A ugust f ie lds a re p repared a nd p lanted w ith e ar ly ( m iska) m aize. I rr igat ion o ccurs t w ice a m onth u nt il h arvest i n l ate J anuary . T he c rop i s u sua lly p icked g reen a s c hoc llo a nd e aten l oca lly o r t aken t o m arket i n C uzco o r 0 1 1antaytambo. B efore t he a dvent o f m odern h ybr id v ar iet ies, t his w as t he e ar liest p roduc ing r eg ion i n t he v icinity o f C uzco. H atun t arpuy f or m aize, b eans/peas, a nd q uinoa i s p lanted i n e ar ly S eptember a nd i s a lso i rr igated t w ice a m onth b ut o n ly u ntil D ecember w hen r ainfa ll i s s uff icient t o s ustain g rowth. T he m ain h arvest ing o ccurs i n M arch a nd A pr il a lthough f or q uinoa i t i s i n M ay . C ertain f armers s t ill p lant f ie ld e dges w ith t arw i. T he f ourth c yc le, kle pa t arpuy i s p lanted w ith w heat a nd b ar ley, a nd i n s ome c ases m aize, i n t he f ie lds n ew ly c leared o f m away. F ie ld p reparation i s m inimal a nd t here i s n o i rr igation. T he h arvest b eg ins i n M ay. I t i s i nterest ing t o n ote t hat s ma ll a reas o f t he s ub-tropica l r oot , a rracacha, a re a lso p lanted u nder i rr igat ion d ur ing a ny m onth o f t he y ear.

1 01

. T he V ert ica l E conomy I t w ou ld b e e xpected f rom B rush 's c lassif ication o f v ert ica l e conom ies ( 1976,1977) t hat t he s hort, s teep C usichaca V a lley w ou ld f orm a t yp ical c ompressed s ystem . I n t his ,t he s ett lement a t o r n ear t he m aize :potato b oundary, i .e . c . 3 000-3200 m , w ould b e t he m ain l ocus o f p opulat ion. I ts f armers w ou ld h ave a ccess t o l ands i n a l l s ubzones w ithin t he v a lley . H owever, i n C usichaca, w hen r ights t o u sage o f s ubzones a re c onsidered, t his c an b e s een c lear ly n ot t o b e t he c ase . T he c ontemporary v ert ica l e conomy i s q uite c omp lex a nd f ragmented i nto a n umber o f s ub-systems ( F igure 2 ). T he v illage o f H uay llabamba ( c . 2 950 m ), l ocated i n B rush 's c lassic p osit ion, i s t he l argest s ett lement a nd i ts l ands t he m ost d ense ly o ccupied o f a ll t he s ubzones i n t he v alley . H owever i ts f armers d o n ot h ave a ccess t o a ll s ubzones a nd i n p art icu lar t o t hose o f t he l ower v a lley . T he H uay llabambenos h ave r ights t o t he ir p art o f s ubzone 5 a s w e ll a s t o s ubzones I , 2a nd 3 i n t he H uayruro a nd M atara t r ibutar ies. T hey h ave n o r ights t o l and i n s ubzones 2 o r 3i n Q qeska o r P ampacahuana, a lthough s ome d o p erform r eciprocal l abour t asks w ith t he f armers o f P ampacahuana/Hatunpampa. T he f armers o f s ubzone 4 , P aucarcancha, a ppear t o b e a n i ndependent p art o f t he H uay llabamba c ommunity a nd t hey u t ilise s ome l abour f rom P ampacahuana a nd Q qeska a t c ertain t imes o f t he y ear . H uay llabamba, t herefore, h as a ccess t o b oth m aize a nd p otato l ands, b ut n ot t he m ost e xtensive . T he i ncidence o f s ome l abour r eciprocit ies m ight i mp ly t hat t he l ink w as a t o ne t ime g reater w ith t he m ore e xtensive l ands. T he c ommunity s t ill p lays a s ignif icant e conom ic r o le w ith t he v a lley a s a n e xchange p ivot . F or e xamp le, t he f armers o f P ampacahuana e xchange p otatoes f or m aize w ith t hem . T hey a lso a ct a s t raders b r inging i n f ruit, c oca a nd o ther t ropical p roducts. T he c ommunity o f Q qeska f orms a t ight ly c ompressed a nd w e ll o rganized v ert ical e conomy. T he t hirty f am ilies l ive i n d ispersed f armsteads a bove 3 500 m . T he c ommunity c ontro ls a ccess n ot o n ly t o s ubzones 1 , 2a nd 3 i n Q qeska i tse lf b ut a lso h as e xclus ive r ights t o t he u se o f t he i rr igated m aiza les o n t he S alyac a lluv ia l f an a nd t errace ( c . 3 199-2900 m ). L and i n t he l atter a rea i s s carce a nd n ot e very h ouseho ld h as a ccess t o i t . T he c ommunity p er iodica lly r edistr ibutes i t a ccord ing t o h ouseho ld n eeds. T here a re n o p ermanent d we llings a t S a lyac o n ly o vernight l ean-to 's t o g uard t he c rops. T h is c ommunity i s v ery c lose ly k nit a nd p reserves a v ery t rad it ional w ay o f l ife. T here a re n o a yne r e lat ionships b eyond t he b ounds o f t he c ommunity. A t hird s ystem i s p resent i n t he u pper v a lley , t hat o f P ampachuana/Huay llabamba. I t i s e st imated t hat t we lve f am ilies i n t his a rea h ave a ccess o n ly t o s ubzones 1 a nd 2 a nd s ubzone 3 a t C hchorromayoc. N one o f t hese f armers h as t he r ight t o a ny m a ize g row ing l and. T herefore m aize , b eans a nd p eas m ust b e o btained b y e xchange w ith H uay llabambenos o r f armers f rom t he l ower v a lley. T here a re r eciproca l l abour e xchanges, a yne, i n o perat ion w ith c erta in H uay llabambenos a nd s ome f rom s ubzone 7 . S uch e xchanges o ften r esu lt i n g ifts o f s ome p roduce a t h arvest t ime a s w e ll. T hese c ommunit ies a lso l ook b eyond t he w atershed t o t he L imatambo V alley f or m a ize e xchange . A s im ilar s ystem i s r ecorded f or t he s ma ll C hchorro 1 02

c ommunity. T here a re v est iges o f a f ourth i nter-subzone s ystem b e low C hakimayo, c . 2 750 m . H ere t he l abour r e lat ionships l ink s ubzones a nd 7 a nd t his i s c onf irmed b y t he f act t hat t he f armers o f s ubzone 6 o wn a s ma ll a mount o f l and a t C hamana f or i rr igated h atun t arpuy m aize a nd m away . T hus t heir e conomy i s m ade s light ly m ore s e lf-suff icient . U ntil r ecent ly t he m ain f arms o f s ubzone 7 w ere t wo h aciendas, Q uente a nd C hamana, o wning b etween t hem a bout 5 0 h ectares o f p r ime i rr igable l and. D espite t he r ecent r ev ival o f Q uente h acienda, a ll f arms i n t h is a rea a re s ma ll a nd a re i rr igated . T he n ine f am ilies a re f ormer h acienda p eons a nd s quatters w ho h ave v ery f ew l inks w ith t he u pper v a lley, o r t hey a re t he t rad it iona l o wners o f s ome h acienda l and a t M iskay. T he g reat v ar iety o f c ropping c yc les a nd t he l ack o f l oca l l abour r equire t hat r eciproca l l abour r e lat ionships a re e stab lished, g enerally w ith P ampacahuana. T his a lso e nsures t hat t here i s p roduce e xchange, m aize f or p otatoes, t he l atter t o b e u sed n ot o n ly a s f ood b ut a s m away s eed p otatoes t oo . S ome o f t he t rad it iona l f armers a re r e lated t o f am ilies i n P ampacahuana b ut t he m ajor ity a ppear t o h ave k in t ies i n C hilca a nd 0 11antaytambo. O ne f am ily o f s quatters a nd t he h acienda m arket s ome o f t heir p roduce i n 0 11antaytambo a nd C uzco . T he l ower v a lley s ubzone i s a lso p art o f t he e xtended-type v ertical e conomy o f t he V ilcanota. I t i s n ot a s e xtensive a s e ither 0 11antaytambo o r C hilca b ut r epresents t he l owest e xpanse o f r e lative ly g ood, l eve l l and b efore t he j ung les o f t he c eja d e m ontana. A l l c ropping c yc les o f t his s ubzone a re p ract ised i n b oth 0 1 1antaytambo a nd C hilca b ut t he l ower C usichaca c rops w ere h arvested s l ight ly e ar lier , i nclud ing t he d e licacy m iska m aize. T hus w ithin t he C usichaca V a lley f ive s ma ll s ub-systems c an b e r ecognised a ll o f w hich s how v est iges o f a t rad it iona l v ert ica l e conomy. I t c ou ld b e a rgued t hat t he p resent s ystem i s av ariety o f B rush's e xtended t ype b ut t he a bsence o f m arkets a nd t he i ntricate w eb o f l abour r e lat ionships s uggest t his n ot t o b e t he c ase. T here a re s ome l inks b etween s ome o f t he s ub-systems, f or e xamp le b etween P ampacahuana a nd t he l ower v a lley a nd b etween P ampacahuana a nd t he l ower v a lley a nd b etween P ampacahuana a nd H uay llabamba. I n f act, t he l ower v a lley i s o nly s tr ict ly l inked t o s ubzone 6 , C hakimayo, t he n arrow s ubzone s ituated j ust b e low H uay llabamba a t 2 750 m . T hus t here i s a d ist inct d ivision b etween t he u pper v a lley c ompressed-type o f s ub-system a nd t hose o f t he l ower v a lley, w hich o n ly h ave l im ited a ccess t o t he a vailab le v ert ica lity . I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he s ma ller H uallancay d rainage, a djacent t o C usichaca, d isp lays a s im ilar d ichotomy . W hy s hou ld t his b e s o?

5 .

H istor ical D eve lopment

I f i t i s c onsidered t hat t he C usichaca f ormer ly d id o perate a s a c ompressed t ype o f v ertica l e conomy, t hen t he p er iod d ur ing w hich t he l ands o f t he l ower v a lley b ecame a lienated f rom i t w ou ld b e m ost i nterest ing .

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P re-Inca P er iod . D espite t he p resence o f C hanapata a nd M arcava lle s herds, d at ing t o t he l ast m illenium B .C., i n r ecent e xcavations a t H uillca R accay, n o s tructures a re k nown f rom t his p er iod ( Kenda ll 1 976, 1 977). I n f act, t he o n ly i dentifiab le s ites o f p re-Inca p rovenance a re g roups o f c ircu lar/ova l s tone s tructures, g enera lly a ssociated w ith K illke-re lated p ottery ( Kenda ll 1 976). T hus t hey a re b e lieved t o b e o f L ate I ntermed iate P er iod d ate. T hese s tructures a re s ing le r oomed, d omest ic u nits w ith a f loor a rea o f b etween 1 0 a nd 3 0 s q. m . T he w a lls a re o f s tones s et i n am ud m ortar, s omet imes w ith n iches, a nd w ith a s ing le e ntrance . T he b uildings a re o ccasiona lly a rranged a round c ourtyards. T he g roups r ange i n s ize f rom 3 t o 5 0 s tructures. K enda ll ( 1976) r eported a n umber o f s uch s ites i n t he l ower v a lley a ssociated w ith a gr icu ltura l t erracing a nd f ie ld s ystems i n s ubzone 7 . O ne g roup i s s ituated d irect ly i n t he H uillca R accay s ystem w hilst t hree o thers a re l ocated o n r idges a t c . 3 000 m o ver looking i t o r M iskay . T hese l atter s ites a lso h ave a ccess t o s ubzones 3 a nd 4 i n t he H uallancay d rainage . T he f inal g roup o f s ites a t P ata llacta a nd T arapata a re a lso a ssociated w ith i rrigated t erraces. R ecent s urvey b y K enda ll a nd M acDonne ll i n t he m idd le a nd u pper C usichaca h as i dentif ied t he l ocat ion o f af urther 6 s ites o f s im ilar a rchitectura l f orm . T hese a re l ocated o n r idges i n a ssoc iat ion w ith s ubzones 4 a nd 5 n ear H uay llabamba a nd P aucarcancha, w ith s ubzones 2 a nd 3 i n Q qeska; a nd w ith s ubzone 2 a t P ampacahuana. P re lim inary i nvestigat ion a ppears t o s uggest a c oncentration i n t he H uay llabamba/Paucarcancha a rea, 2 900-3100 m , w hich m ight i mp ly t he o perat ion o f a c ompressed t ype o f v ert ical e conomy . T he t hree s ites i n Q qeska m ight a lso s uggest t hat t hat s ubsystem h ad a lready b ecome d iv ided f rom t hat o f t he v a lley . T herefore i t c ou ld b e a rgued t hat t he P re-Inca s ett lement p attern i n C usichaca s uggests t he f o llow ing a rrangement o f v ert ical e conomy ( F ig . 3 ). F irst, a s ystem p ivotted a bout a c oncentration o f s ett lement a t H uay llabamba/Paucarcancha, w hich h ad a ccess t o l ands i n P ampacahuana a nd t he l ands o f C hamana, C usichaca a nd Q uente i n t he l ower v a lley . S econd ly, a s ub-system i n Q qeska s im ilar t o t hat r ecorded t oday, p ivotted a bout t hree s ett lements i n t he m idd le Q qeska. T hird ly, t he r est o f t he l ower v a lley w hich s eems t o h ave b een r e lated t o t he H ua llancyay s ystem . I nca P er iod ( 1438-1530). P r ior t o t he r e ign o f P achacut i I nca t he n orthern b oundary o f t he E mpire l ay a t S a lapunco, u pstream f rom Q uente i n t he V ilcanota. T he I nca o ccupat ion o f t he v a lley m ust h ave t aken p lace s ome t ime a fter 1 438 e ar ly i n P achacuti's r e ign, a nd i t a ppears t o h ave f o llowed t wo d ifferent c o lonizat ion/occupation s trateg ies. K endall ( 1970, 1 974) h as p ub lished d etailed d escr iptions o f t he m a in I nca s ites i n t he v a lley a nd w here r e levant t hat w ork w ill b e f o llowed . O ne s trategy r e lates t o t he I nca r oad f rom C uzco t o M achu P icchu 3 nd V ilcabamba w hich t rav ,? rsed t he b asin v ia t he Q qeska t o P aucarcancha, t hen d own t he m ain v a lley t o H uay llabamba, c l imbing o ut v ia t he H uayruro a nd L lu llaclayoc. T he r oad i s q uite w e ll p reserved 1 04

i n p laces a nd h as s ituated a long i t, t wo t ambos a nd t wo f ort/adm inistrat ive c omp lexes ( F ig . 4 ). O f t he t ambos, I nca R accay , i s l ocated j ust b e low t he p ass i n t he u pper Q qeska a t 4 300 m , a nd I ncasama i s i n s ubzone 3 o f t he m idd le Q qeska n ear t o a m ineral s pr ing . T he l atter c ompr ises f our o pen s tructures, a d etached o pen s tructure a nd as toreroom . I t h as t wo o r t hree I nca t erraces b e low i t . T he t wo f ort/adm inisrat ive c omp lexes a re a t P aucarcancha a nd H uay llabamba. P aucarcancha i s s ituated o n a l ow r idge a t t he c onf luence o f t he Q qeska a nd P ampacahuana r ivers. I t i s ar e lative ly l arge f ort a nd a dm inistrat ive c omp lex w ith a f light o f n ine t erraces s tretching d own t he r idge b e low i t . T he c omp lex o f H uay llabamba, n ow m uch d estroyed b y t he m odern v illage, i s a s ma ller v ersion o f P aucarcancha w ith a s er ies o f t erraces b e low i t. O n t he h ills lopes a bove i t t here i s a nother f light o f I nca t erraces. A f urther I nca s tructure o f i nterest i n t his a rea i s as ma ll b uild ing l ocated n ear t he h ead o f t he S a lyac i rr igated a rea. T here a ppear t o b e n o o ther I nca s tructures i n t he u pper v a lley a lthough a ' road ' s ystem m ust h ave l inked C usichaca w ith P a llkay i n A obamba a nd L imatambo i n t he L imatambo v a lley v ia P ampacahuana. T he r iver s traightening o n H atunpampa w as a ffected b y t he c onstruct ion o f m assive d ry s tone r etaining w a lls a nd t hus c ould b e o f I nca d ate . A s c ou ld t he s im ilar c onstruct ion i n t he m idd le Q qeska a t C hchurupampa. T hus i n t he m idd le a nd u pper v a lley , o n ly a s ma ll a mount o f l and s eems t o h ave b een e xpropriated b y t he I nca. U ndoubted ly t r ibute c o llected f rom t he l oca l a rea a ugmented t he p roduce d er ived f rom t he I nca t erraces. I n c ontrast t o t his p attern, t he I nca o ccupat ion o f t he l ower v a lley w as q uite d ramat ic a nd o verwhe lm ing ( F igure 4 ). A s t he E mp ire e xpanded b eyond S a lapunco t he I nca r oad w as e xtended d own t he V i lcanota o n t he n orthern s ide a nd a s er ies o f t ambos a nd s ing le h ouses w ere c onstructed a long i t i n a ssociat ion w iht s ma ll f arm ing a reas c ompr ising a lluvia l f ans o r s ma ll t erraced a reas. H owever t he m ost s ignif icant f eature o f t he e xpansion d ownva lley w as t he r ecognit ion t hat t he l ower C usichaca, Q uente a nd t he P ampa H uillca R accay p rovided t he l ast r e lative ly e xtensive a gr icu ltura l l and b efore t he c eja d e l a m ontana. I ts c ropping c yc les w ere s im ilar t o t hose o f t he I nca T hinter 1and b ut u nder i rr igat ion c ould b e h arvested e ar lier t han t he t wo m ore e xtensive f ie ld a reas i mmediate ly u pstream , i .e . C h ilca a nd 0 11antaytambo. T hus t he I nca o ccupat ion o f t he l ower v a lley c ould b e v iewed a s a n e xtension o f t he V ilcanota v ert ica l e conomy w hich w as o f e xtended t ype. T he l ands o f P ata llacta a nd Q uente w ere e xpropr iated a nd r emode lled b y e xtensive t erraced s ystems w atered b y t he C usichaca c anal a nd a nother , a s y et u nrecognised, c anal. T he t erraced f ie lds o f Q uente w ere a bout 1 2 h ectares i n a rea. T hose a t P ata llacta w ere a bout 5h ectares. F urthermore i n t he l ower C usichaca a bove t he P ata llacta g orge, i .e. a round T unasmocco, t he r iver w as s traightened a nd t he l ower s lopes a nd 1 0 h ectares o f r iver t erraces f ormally l aid o ut w ith s traight a nd r egu lar t erracing o n b oth s ides o f t he v a lley . T hese f ie lds w ere i rrigated b y c anals f rom t he r iver a nd f rom s pr ings. A t t he f ar e nd o f t he Q uente c omp lex m ore I nca t erracing w as c onstructed o ver a P re-Inca o ccupat ion a nd t his w as w atered f rom s ma ll p ermanent q uebradas. T hus a bout 2 5-30 h ectares o f g ood a gr icu ltural l and w as e xpropr iated f rom t he l oca l p opulation f or I nca p urposes.

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I n a ssociat ion w ith t his m assive I nca a gr icultura l s cheme, a n umber o f i mportant i mper ia l s tructures w ere c onstructed a nd h ave b een d escr ibed b y K enda ll ( 1974). T he t own o f P ata llacta i s l ocated o n a t errace a bove t hirteen b ench-like a gr icu ltura l t erraces. I t c ompr ises 12 s tructures d iv ided i nto f our q uarters s urrounding a c entra l p laza . K enda ll's a rchitectural a nalysis o f t he s ite i ndicates a s ma ll a dm inistrat ive q uarter , ab arrack a rea a nd a n e xtensive r esident ia l z one, b ut n o s tate s torage f acilit ies, o n ly s ma ll d omest ic s tores . T here a re a lso s ma ll r e lig ious s tructures a t P u lp ituyoc, M achu Q uente a nd H uayna Q uente. T here a re s ome s ma ll I mper ia l I nca b u ildings i n a ssociat ion w ith t he t errraces a t t he f ar e nd o f t he Q quente s ystem . T here i s a lso a s ma ll g roup o f s tructures i n a ssociat ion w iht t he s cheme a t T unasmoceo. B oth t he T unasmocco a nd P ata llacta s chemes a re o ver looked b y t he f ort c onstructed o n t he r idgetop a t H uillca R accay . T his s ite i s o f g reat i nterest i n t he a na lysis o f t he a rea f or i ts w ater s upply, a nd p ossib ly t hat t o t he t own a s w e ll, c ame t hrough a f ie ld a rea, t he H uillca R accay p ampa, w hich w as n ot r emode lled b y t he I nca. T h is e xtensive, 3 5 h ectare a rea w as t erraced p resumab ly i n P re-Inca t imes a nd h ad a P re-Inca v illage i n a ssociat ion . A n I nca s tat ion a t Q uishuarpata a nd a nother w ithin t he f ie lds s erve a s t est imony t o t he d egree o f c ontro l w ie lded o ver t his a rea a nd c ana l. T he a bsence o f f orma l I nca t erracing c ou ld s uggest t hat t his a rea r emained a s c ommunity l and. T he Q uishuarpata c ana l n ot o n ly s upplied i rrigat ion w ater t o t he f ie lds b ut a lso t he w ater s upp ly t o t he f ort, a nd p ossib ly t he t own a s w e ll ( Kenda ll 1 974 :85). T hus I nca c ontro l o ver t his a rea m ay h ave b een g reater t han i s i nd icated b y t he t erracing . T he f ina l a rea, M iskay, a lso w as n ot t erraced b y t he I nca a lthough t wo I nca b uildings w ere b uilt a t t he h ead o f t he p ampa o n t he r oad t o P ata llacta. T hus t hese c ou ld h ave b een t o c ontro l b oth a gr icu ltura l a ct iv ities a nd m ovement a long t he r oad t owards C hilca a nd 0 11antaytambo. I t w ou ld s eem , t herefore, t hat t he I nca c o lonization o f t he l ower v a lley w as o ne o f e xpropr iat ion o f s ome l ands o n t he o ne h and a nd o f d irect c ontro l o f c ommunity a ctivities o n t he o ther . T he c onstruct ion o f t he t own i mp lies t hat a w ork f orce w as i mported t o c u ltivate t he I nca t erraced l ands a nd t hese p eop le m ust a lso h ave b een a llocated l ands f or t heir o wn s ubsistence. S uch l and c ou ld h ave b een o n t he H uillca R accay a nd M iskay p ampas a nd t hus i mp ly ac omp lete t ake-over o f t he l ower v a lley f rom i ts t radit ional o wners. H owever t he a ppearance o f I nca s herds i n e xcavat ions i n P re-Inca v illages o n H uillca R accay a nd a t 0 11er iayoc T rancapata s uggests t hat t hese c ontinued t o b e o ccupied a nd t he f ie lds w orked i n t he n orma l w ay . T he l ack o f f ormal s torerooms, g o llga, a ssociated w ith t he t own, a nd o n ly t he p resence o f d omest ic s torage u nits s uggests t hat t he a gr icu ltural p roduce w as e xported f air ly s oon a fter h arvest . Iw ou ld a rgue t hat t he i mportance o f t his a rea w as e nhanced b y t he f act t hat t he e ar liest c rops o f t he t emperate z ones o f t he I nca h eart land c ou ld b e p roduced. T his w ou ld h ave i nc luded s weet, g reen c orn, c hocllo , a d e licacy w hich w ou ld h ave d eter iorated r apid ly a fter h arvest. T hus t he I nca

p er iod w itnessed d ramat ic c hanges 1 06

i n t he v ert ica l

e conomy o f C usichaca. T he d isrupt ions c aused b y t he o ccupat ion i n t he m idd le/upper v a lley w ere r e lat ive ly m inor w hen c ompared w ith t he w ho lesale l andscape r emode lling a nd l and e xpropr iat ion w hich o ccurred i n t he l ower v a lley . C erta in ly t he l oca l c ommunity l ost i ts r ights t o l ands i n t he l ower v a lley a nd t he f oundation o f c o lon ial h acienda a t Q uente m ere ly c ont inued t his. I t i s i nterest ing t o n ote t hat H uay llabamba n o l onger h as r ights t o f arm o n Q uente, a lthough i t p urports s ome c laim t o t he a rea, w hilst C hakimayo o n t he e astern s ide o f t he r iver d oes h ave r ights i n C hamana, i .e. o n n on-terraced, a nd p robably n on-expropr iated l and . T he I nca i mpact i n t he H u illca R accay p ampa w as p robab ly q uite s ubstant ia l a lthough i t i s v ery d iff icu lt t o d etect. T his a rea n ow f orms p art o f h acienda f ounded i n t he n ineteenth c entury a nd i s u n tsed . H owever I w ou ld a rgue t hat t he d ichotomy w itnessed i n t he c on 'emporary v ert ica l e conomy w as p robab ly t he p roduct o f c hanges w hich o ccurred d ur ing t he I nca p er iod . C onc lusions T his p aper r epresents a n a ttempt t o i nterpret t he c ontemporary s ub-systems o f v ert ica l e conomy i n t he C usichaca V a lley i n t he l ight o f a rchaeo log ica l s ite s urvey . I ts c onc lusions r emain t entat ive a nd m ust b e t reated a s h ypotheses f or f uture w ork. T he e v idence a t p resent i mp lies t hat d ur ing t he L ate I ntermed iate P er iod a nd p resumab ly e ar lier t oo a c ompressed-type o f v ert ica l e conomy w as i n o peration, a lthough h ow t he Q qeska s ub-system f itted i nto t he o vera ll p icture i s s till u ncertain . T he I nca o ccupat ion c omp lete ly d isrupted t his p attern. T he u pper a nd m idd le v a lleys r etained s ome v est iges o f t he f ormer c ompressed e conomy a nd u ltimate ly b ecame f ragmented, p erhaps q uite r ecent ly, i nto d iscrete s ub-systems. I n t he l ower v a lley, l and w as e xpropr iated f rom t hen c ommunity a nd r un f or s tate p urposes a nd v ery f ew o f t he l inks w ith t he m idd le v a lley w ere m a intained . T he h acienda a nd c ontemporary e conom ies a ppear t o h ave m ere ly r einforced t his p attern.

1 07

A cknow ledgements T he C usichaca P roject i s s ponsored b y A ero P eru; A ng lo-Peruv ian S ociety; B ar ing F oundat ion; B innie a nd P artners; B irm ingham C ity M useum ; B P; B r it ish C a ledonian A irways; C entra l R esearch F und, L ondon U niversity; E uro-Lat inamer ican B ank L td; G ordon C hilde F und, I nst itute o f A rchaeo logy ; C ommercia l U niun; E NEFER ( Peruvian R ailways); R obert K iln T rust; M inistry o f O verseas D eve lopment; L loyds B ank I nternat ional ( Bo lsa); M ilne y C ia P eru; R oya l G eograph ica l S ociety; R oya l A nthropo log ical I nst itute; R oya l S ociety; R oya l B ernet a nd C o ; T wenty-Seven F oundation; 1 969 V ison C har ity T rust; U NESCO; G eorge W impey; E l P acif ico; T he L everhulme T rust ; D enis B uxton T rust ; G . T rege lles-Worsde ll. A n umber o f o ther c ompan ies h ave d onated e quipment a nd f ood. A cadem ic S ponsor :

I nst itute o f A rchaeo logy, U niversity o f L ondon.

Iw ou ld l ike t o t hank: m y i nterpreter , J avier C orone l S o lis a nd m y o ther f e llow t rave llers, C hr is J ones a nd W /0 P hil T homsett f or t heir a ssistance i n t he f ie ld : a nd A nn K endall ( D irector ) a nd E dward M acDonne ll f or l engthy d iscussions d ur ing m y f ie ld s easons i n C usichaca. T he i nterpretat ion, h owever, r emains s tr ict ly m y o wn.

1 08

L iterature C ited B rush, S .B. 1 966 M an 's u se o f a n A ndean e cosystem , H uman E co logy 4 (2):147-166. 1 977 M ountain, F ie ld, a nd F am ily . U n iversity o f P ennsy lvan ia P ress. D i llehay , T .D. 1 979 P re-h ispan ic 2 04 :24-31.

r esource s har ing

i n t he

G ade, D .W . 1 975 P lants, M an, a nd L and i n t he B iogeograiAT ca, — v or : Tr , -u r . W . H ague .

c entra l A ndes,

S c ience

V ilcanota V a lley o f P eru, J unk, B .V . P ub lishers, T he

K ee ley, H .M . 1 978 T he s o ils o f t he C usichaca V a lley, P eru. t he C usichaca P roject .

P re lim inary r eport t o

K enda ll, A . 1 974 A rchitecture a nd P lann ing a t t he I nca s ites i n t he C usichaca a rea, B aess ler A rchiv . 2:73-137. 1 976 P re lim inary r eport o n c eram ic d ata a nd t he P re-Inca U rubamba V a lley ,C uzco . a rchitectua l r emains o f t he ( Lower ) B aess ler A rchiv . 2 4 :41-159. usichaca A rchaeo log ical 1 978 A r eport o n t he e ar ly s tages o f t he C P roject, m .s . M acDonne ll, .E.A . 1 978 G uaman 's H ouse, R eport f or t he C usichaca P roject/Unpub. B .A . ( Hons) t hes is, - I nst itute o f A rchaeo logy , L ondon. M urra, J .V. 1 972 E l " contro l v ert ica l" d e u n m ax imo d e p isos e co log icos e n l a e conom ia d e l as s ociedades A nd inas, i n : I n igo O rt iz d e Z un iga, v isitador, V isita d e l a P rovincia d e L eon d e H uanuco ( 1562) T omo I, H uanuco :429-47 6-. P atterson, T .P. 1 971 C entra l P eru : 2 4(4):307-315.

i ts

p opu lat ion

a nd

e conomy ,

A rchaeo logy

P u lgar V ida l, J . 1 946 H istor ia y G eograf ia d e l P eru : l as o cho r eg iones n atura les d e l P eru. L ima : U n iversidäd N acioniT-M ayor d e S an M arcos . T hompson, D .E . 1 971 L ate p reh istor ic o ccupat ion i n t he E astern P eruv ian R ev ista d e l M useo N aciona l, L ima 3 7:116-123.

1 09

A ndes,

F arrington

I NCA

C ADE

P UNA

N ative w ild g rass

C USICHACA

( 1975)

( pasture)

.P unas a nd p astures

a nd

4 000 i n .

c ultivated p otatoes 4 310-2910 i n .

S UNI

+

•M ain c rop p otatoes 4 000-3700 i n .

W heat,

b arley,

b eans,

p otatoes.

b road

n ative

t ubers,

A lso

l egumcs

p seudo-cereals.

.M away

3 700-3200 i n .

.S eed/root z one

t ransition

c 3 100 i n .

3 910-3300 i n .

Q UECHUA

M aize

3 300-3400 i n .

.H atun t arpuy m aize 3 000-2800 i n . .C hakimayo 2 800-2700 i n . .L ower V alley 2 600-2400 m .

C HAuPIYUNCA

S ubtropical

s tarches

2 400-1500 i n .

Y UNGA

C oca a nd c offee 1 500-1000 i n .

R UPA R UPA

M anioc a nd c ocao 1 000-750 i n .

T able 1 . A gro-ecological z ones o f t he C entral A ndes, t he C usichaca v alley.

1 10

a nd t he s ub-zones o f

Farrington

0

Figure 1.

1

2

3

4

kms.

Agro-ecological subzones of the Cusichaca Valley

111

F arrington

R .Vilcanota

1 \-Miskay

Q uente C hamana

H ull l ea R accay

L lulluchayoc

u allancay

C hakimayo

S alyaC R .Huayruro

H uayllabamb \ . . . ,‘ ,

\ P a

a rcancha

A lt M atara

C hchtrupampa

. Qqeska

K asana C hchorrom ayoc

R .Aobamba

S utturumiyoc R .Chchorro

P ampacahuana

H atunpamp

i ;2TT 5;;2 = 5 0 1 2 3 4 kms

F igure 1 A.

N ames m entioned i n t he t ext .

1 12

F arrington

F igure 2 .

S ubsystems o f c ontemporary v ertical e conomy i n t he C usichaca V alley .

1 13

F arrington

• •

0011eriayoc T rancapata

•

0

F igure 3 .

k

2

3

P re-Inca s ites i n t he C usichaca V alley

4

k r us

F arrington

- I nca r oads I nca t erracing • T orontoy • • •

1 f anabamba • • • • •

H ui l ca R accay

u ishuarpata

H uayllabamba

P aucarcancha

•

• • • •

I ncasama

• • •

•

I nca R akkay •

0

F igure 4 .

1

I nca s ites i n t he C usichaca V alley .

15

2

3

4

l u ns

T iwanaku: D eve lopment o f I nterzonal T rade a nd E conom ic E xpansion i n t he A lt ip lano D avid L . B rowman

B rowman o ut lines t he b asis f or t he e stab lishment o f t uber a nd g rain a gr icu lture i n t he T iticaca b asin a rea i n c onjunct ion w ith p astoralism , w ith t he s ubsequent b eg inning o f i dentif iab le t rade n etworks i n t erms o f s mptuary c ommodities ( meta l g oods o f g o ld, s ilver a nd c opper ; i tems o f ' s em iprecious s tone s uch a s t urquo ise, l apis l azu li, s odalite, m a lachite, a nd o bsidian; a nd v ar ious s he ll o rnaments f rom P acif ic C oast s pecies s uch a s S pondy lus, e tc), i n t he p er iod b etween 1 200-300 B .C. E vidence f or p er ishab le g oods, s uch a s w oo len t extiles, a gr icu ltural p roducts, a nd p harmaceutica ls f rom A mazonia, i s w e ll e stab lished b y 3 00 B .C. T he p er iod o f 3 00 B .C. t o A .D. 3 00 m arks t he d eve lopment o f s everal r egional t rade c enters i n t he a lt ip lano, w ith T iwanaku a chieving p o litica l a scendancy o ver i ts s ister t rade c enters d ur ing t his p er iod . B rowman i ntroduces t he c oncept o f a n " a lt ip lano" m ode o f e conom ic i ntegrat ion, e mphasizing h orizonta l i ntegrative m echanisms, i n s harp c ontrast t o M urra 's v ert ica l " archipe lago" m ode, t o e laborate o n t he f unctional r easons f or t he d eve lopment o f l arge s cale t rade a nd c ommodity p roduct ion i n t his z one . T iwanaku i s s een a s f unctioning p r imar ily t hrough t his " a ltip lano" m ode; i ts s ubsequent d em ise i s c oincident w ith t he r ise i n p opu lar ity i n t he T iticaca b asin o f t he " archipelago" m ode. T he s pread a nd v ar ious p o lit ical s hifts i n t he T iwanaku e conom ic f ederat ion a re a rgued t o b e r ef lected i n t he d eve lopment o f t hree d ifferent A ymara d ia lect c lusters.

S e p resentan d iversas h ipotesis r espect° d e l as b ases e conom icas d e l d esarro llo T iwanaku, i dent ifacando l as p robab les a reas d e P fectivo c ontrol T iwanaku y a que llas d e r e laciones i nterregionales W ar i-Tiwanaku. A si, s e b osquejan l as b ases p ara e l d esarro llo d e u na a gr icultura d e t uberculos y g ranos c onjuntamente c on p astoralismo e n l a c uenca d e l T it icaca, y , s ubsecuentemente, e l i nicio d e l d esarro llo d e u na r ed d e i ntercambio d e e lementos s untuar ios ( objetos d e o ro, p lata y c obre, d e p iedras s em ipreciosas, y d e a dornos d e c onchas d e e species p rovenientes d e l P acif ico e n e l p er iodo e ntre 1 200-300 A C. E l p eriodo d e 3 00 A C a3 00 D C m arca e l d esarro llo d e v arios c entros d e ; intercambio r eg ional e n e l a ltip lano, c on T iwanaku a sum iendo u n p ape l m as i mportante s obre s us c entros h ermanos. S e i ntroduce, a demas, e l c oncepto d e m ode l a e conom ic° d e i ntearacion " a lt ip lano", e nfatizando l os m ecanismos d e i ntegracion h or izonta l, e n c ontraste a l m ode lo v ertica l d e " archipie lago" d e M urra, e n r e lacion a l d esarro llo d e i ntercambio a g ran e sca la. T iwanaku e s v isto e n f uncion d e e ste m ode lo " a lt ip lano" y s u d ec linacion e s c oincidente c on l a p opu lar idad q ue a sume e l m ode lo 17

" archipie lago" e n l a c uenca d e l T iticaca . L a d isem inacion y c ambios p o liticos e n l a f ederacion e conom ica T iwanaku s er ian r ef lejo d e t res d ialectos A ymara.

T he r uins o f t he c ity o f T iwanaku l ie o n t he B o liv ian a ltip lano, n ear t he s outhern e dge o f L ake T it icaca, a t a n e levation o f 3 850 m eters o r 1 2,600 f eet. I w ant t o p resent a s er ies o f h ypotheses r egarding t he b asic e conom ic s ubstrate o f t his M idd le H or izon s tate, i dentifying t he p robab le a reas o f e ffective T iwanaku c ontro l, a nd p resent ing a s er ies o f c oncepts r egarding W ar i-Tiwanaku i nterreg ional r e lationships. R omantic T iwanaku T iwanaku h as b een r eferred t o a s t he R ome a nd M ecca o f t he s econd, M idd le H or izon e mpire f or m ore t han a c entury, b ut v ery l itt le s cientific r esearch h as b een c onducted a t t he s ite u nt il t he l ast t wo d ecades. B o liv ia h as b een f aced w ith p ressing p rob lems o f e conom ic d eve lopment, a nd e xcavat ion o f r uins d oes n ot s tand h igh o n t he p r ior ity l ist o f m odernization p lanners. T he r e lative l ack o f h ard e vidence h as l eft t he o r ig ins o f t he i mposing s ite s urrounded b y m ysteriousness. I n t he l ast f ew y ears, a n umber o f a rt ic les d ealing w ith T iwanaku a nd o ther p re-Co lumb ian c u ltures h ave a ppeared i n t he p opular p ress. T hese c ontribut ions a re t ypif ied b y s e lective e xtraction o f m isce llaneous b its o f a rchaeo log ica l i nformation , a nd i ts r ecombination i nto a pparent s cientif ic f ormat , w ith c ava lier d isregard f or t ime, s pace a nd c u ltural a ssociations. E ither o pen ly s tated o r i nferred i s t he b e lief t hat t he c asual o utside o bserver 's s tate o f i gnorance l eaves a n o pen m ind, a n a dvantage w hich a llows t hat o bserver t o p roper ly p erceive t he i mportance o f t he d ata. T he a rchaeo log ist , b y c ontrast , i s s een a s h aving h is/her t hinking l ocked i n a nd l im ited b y v ar ious p reconceptions l earned d ur ing f orma l t raining w hich b lind t he a rchaeo log ist t o t he s ignif icance o f t he f acts. A uthors o f t hese c ontr ibutions r ange f rom s traight f ict ion w r iters t o a cadem icians i n o ther f ie lds. A c ommon u nder ly ing a ssumpt ion i s t hat t he i nd igenous N ew W or ld p eop le w ere b asically t oo i ncompetent t o d eve lop c ivilizat ion o n t heir o wn, a nd t hat t herefore w e m ust l ook e lsewhere f or t he o r ig ins o f a ny c u ltura l a dvancements d iscovered a mong p re-Co lumbian g roups. T hus w e l earn, f or e xamp le, t hat T iwanaku w as b uilt b y E gyptians, o r I ber ian-Punic s ett lers, o r S ub-Saharan B lack A fr icans, o r e xtraterrestr ial b e ings. O ur B r it ish c o lleague, D r . G lyn D anie l, a pt ly c aptured t he f rustrat ions o f N ew W or ld a rchaeo logists w hen h e q uer ied : " Why d o r esponsib le a nd a ccredited p rofessors w r ite s uch i gnorant r ubbish?"(1977:13).

18

A rchaeo log ical T iwanaku: O r ig ins a nd E ar ly D eve lopment I f T iwanaku i s n ot a n E gyptian s un t emp le c omp lex o r a n a stronom ical c heck p o int, t hen w e s hou ld b e a b le t o o ut line i ts c u ltural e vo lution a nd i ntegrat ion i n t he f abr ic o f A ndean p rehistory . B ecause o f t he p ersuasiveness o f t he m isinformation r egarding t he s ite, Iw ant t o d etail t he g eneral c u ltural m ilieu i n w hich i t d eve loped a s w e ll a s t he s pecif ics r egard ing t he r uined c ity i tse lf . T he s tory o f t he o r ig in o f T iwanaku i s c lose ly t ied t o t he o r ig ins o f a gr icu lture i n t he A ndes. E ar ly d omest ication i n t he A ndean a rea f ocusses u pon d ifferent a ttr ibutes t han i n t he O ld W or ld . O n t he P eruvian c oast, f or e xamp le, t he e ar liest d omest icated p lants a rt p r imar ily t echno log ical i n n ature. E mphasis i s u pon c otton, f or c lothing, n ets, l ines a nd t rade g oods; o n t he b ott le g ourd, f or v ar ious c ontainers a nd f ishing n et f loats; a nd o n a chiote, a s as ource o f t ext ile d ye . T his s tands i n s harp c ontrast t o o ur m ode ls f or N ear E astern d omest ication, w here t he e ar liest d omesticated p lants w ere p r imarily o f n utr it iona l i mportance. T he e ar liest d omest icated s pecies i n t he A ndes w ere a nima ls: t he g u inea p ig a nd t he c ame lid lama a nd a lpaca ( Browman 1 974; W ing 1 978). O ld W or ld s cho lars h ave s uggested t hat p astoralism d eve loped e verywhere o n ly a s ap oor r e lat ion t o p lant a gr iculture, i n m arg ina l a reas w here f ormer f armers r e luctant ly t urned t o h erd ing a nima ls. I n t he A ndes, t he o pposite m ay b e t rue. C urrent e v idence s upports t he i dea t hat t he h igh landers w ere p astoralists f irst , a nd t hat A ndean p lant c ult ivation d eve loped i n t hose a reas m arg ina l t o h erding, w here f ormer h erders r e luctant ly t urned t o g row ing p lants. I f f urther w ork s upports t hese i nit ia l c onclusions, t hen p resent m ode ls o f c ultural e vo lut ion w ill h ave t o b e m od if ied . O steo log ica l e vidence i ndicates t he b eg inning o f e xtensive m anipu lation o f t he A ndean c ame lids b y 7 ,000 B .C. I nc luded a re s hifts i n t he c u lling a nd c ropping p atterns, s hifts i n s ex r at ios, a nd p opu lat ion s hifts a s d eterm ined b y m etr ica l m easures. T he p er iod o f 4 ,000 B .C. t o 2 ,000 B .C. i s o ne o f c onso lidat ion a nd i ntegrat ion o f t he p astoral r egime i n t he L ake T it icaca b asin. C ame lid h erding r emains i mportant o n t he a lt ip lano, n ot o n ly f or t he o bv ious m eat a nd w oo l p roducts i nvo lved, b ut e ven m ore i mportant ly f or t he u se o f t he lamas a s c aravan a nima ls t o t ransport b u lky c ommodities b etween v ar ious c onsumers. S hort ly a fter 2 ,000 B .C. s ome n ew s hifts a ppear i n t he a rchaeolog ical r ecord, i nclud ing t he a dopt ion o f n ew t echno log ies s uch a s c eram ics, t he d eve lopment o f n ew t echniques i n a rchitecture, a nd t he i ncreasing r e liance u pon a w ide r ange o f d omest icated p lants. W hat b r ings a bout t hese n ew c hanges? O ur c urrent t hinking r uns p aralle l t o t he p opu lat ion d eterm inism m ode l o f C ohen (1977). A bout t h is t ime, t he c arry ing c apacity o f t he r eg ion i n t erms o f p r imary p astora lism w as r eached , a nd p opu lat ion p ressure m ade i t a ttract ive t o p lace i ncreasing r e liance u pon m ore l abor i ntensive e xp loitative t echniuques. B y 1 ,000 B .C. a n umber o f i mportant s eed a nd r oot p lants h ad b een 19

d omest icated a nd w ere b eing e xp lo ited i n t he T it icaca b asin , i nclud ing c henopod a nd a maranth g ra ins, t hree d ifferent l egumes, a nd f our d ifferent t ubers . T hese p lants i nc lude : a s g ra ins, q uinoa ( Chenopod ium q uinoa), c an ihua ( C . p a llid icua le), a nd a maranth ( Amaranthus c audatus); a s l egumes, t arw i ( Lup inus m utab ilis), j iqu ima ( Pachyrrh izus a hipa), a nd t he c ommon b ean ( Phaseo lus v u lgar is ); a nd a s t ubers, p otato ( both ( both S o lanum t uberosum a nd S . a nd igenum ), o ca ( Oxa lis t uberosa), m ashua o r a nu ( Tropaeo lum t uberosum ) a nd u llucu ( U llucus t uberosus) ( P ickersg ill a nd H e iser 1 978; B rowman 1 981). A lt ip lano p lant d omest icat ion r equired t he d eve lopment o f t echniques t o d etox ify t he p lants, b ecause m ost o f t he a bove l ist o f c u lt igens c ontain s ignif icant l eve ls o f t ox ins . T he p otato s pec ies w h ich a re m ost f rost r esistant a nd w hich g row b est a t h igh a ltitudes a lso c ontain t he h ighest l eve ls o f g lycoa lka lo id s o lanine . M oreover , t he p otato c ontains a s ubstance w hich i nhibits a w ide r ange o f d igest ive e nzymes n ecessary f or b reaking d own p roteins--a p art icu lar ly u nfortunate t rait a t h igh a lt itude w here d ifferent ia l p art ial o xygen p ressure a lready h as i mpaired p rote in b reak-down - a nd t he p lants a re a lso n itrate a ccumu lators . T hus t he f reeze-dr ied p otato , m ade b y a p rocess o f f reezing , l each ing , a nd s un-dry ing t o p roduce " ch lu no", i s s ignif icant f or m ore t han t he o bvious r esu ltant l ong-term s torage f ood p roduct . T he l eaching a nd s un-dry ing r emove t he m ajor ity o f t he s o lan ine a nd e xcessive n itrate l eve ls, a nd s ubsequent c ooking d estro ys t he i nhib itors o f d igest ive e nzymes. T he o ther p lants a lso h ave s im ilar t ox ins a nd r equ ire v ar ious t echniques i n d etox if icat ion . F or e xamp le, t he o ca h as s ian if icant a mounts o f o xa lates, t he q uinoa a nd c an ihua h ave h igh l eve ls o f h ydrocyanic a cid a nd h igh l eve ls o f t he a lka loid s aponin, t he a maranths a re n itrate a ccumu lators a nd h ave h igh l eve ls o f o xa lates , t he t arw i ( as d o a ll l up ines) c ontains t he p o isonous a lka lo id l up inine, t he b ean c ontains v ary ing l eve ls o f t he c yanogenet ic g lycoside p haseo lunat in, a nd s o o n ( Browman 1 981). T here w ere o ther n on-domest icated p lants o f n utr it iona l i mportance w h ich o ccur i n o ur a rchaeobotan ica l c o llections a s f ar b ack a s 1 ,000 B .C. i n t he T iwanaku a rea. F ruits o f v ar ious c act i ( predom inant ly O punt ia s p.) w ere c o llected a nd e aten. L ake T it icaca i tse lf w as a m ajor s ource o f p lant f oods. R hizomes, t ubers a nd p ort ions o f t he s tem o f t he l akeside t otora a nd r eeds ( Scirpus s p . a nd J uncus s p .) w ere e aten . T he s pongy , w h ite m o ist p ith o f t he t otora s tem i s s t ill s o ld a s ad e licacy i n r eg iona l m arkets t oday . D ense g rowths o f w aterweeds a nd a lgae a re f ound a long t he s hore o f t he l ake . I n s outhern P eru a nd o n t he B o livian a lt ip lano o ne m ay e ven t oday p urchase d r ied b r icks o r c akes o f d r ied a lgae a nd w aterweed f rom t he lama t rade c aravans . I n s ome a reas t hese b r icks o f d r ied a lgae a nd w aterweed a re u sed a s s tandard u n its o f t rade ( Casaverde R ojas 1 977:181). T he o ccurrence o f t hese p lants w as f rank ly a s urpr ise ; i n m y e ar lier w ork I h ad c omp lete ly o ver looked t h is r esource . I ncomp lete a na lysis i nd icates t hat t hey i nc lude s ubmersed v ascu lar p lants s uch a s A zo lla s p ., M yr iophy llum s p ., E lodea s p. a nd P otamogaton s p.; t he g reen a lgae C ladaphora a nd t he a lga l s tonewort C hara. W ork o n r e lated s pecies o f M yr iophy llum , P otamogeton , E lodea , 1 20

a nd C hara n at ive t o t he U nited S tates i nd icates t hat t hese a quatic p lants a re e xce llent s ources o f p rotein, w ith v a lues o f c rude p rotein r ang ing f rom 1 0% t o 2 5% ( Boyd 1 968). D irect i ngest ion o f m inerals ( geophagy) i s a n i mportant s ource o f c a lcium , i ron, m agnesium , s odium a nd p otassium a mong s ome L ake T it icaca p opulat ions t oday . T rade i n e d ib le c lays i s s t ill i mportant; lama c aravan d rovers f rom t he a rea o f P arat ia, P uno, c omp lement t heir l oads w ith b ags o f t wo d ifferent v ar ieties o f e dib le c lays, w hich t hey t rade i n t he L ake T it icaca a rea f or t ubers a nd g rains ( F lores O choa 1 977:145). T he b ioavailab ility o f m ine ,a ls i n t he d ozen o r s o d ifferent n amed c lays t raded i s n ot c lear ly e stab lished f or t hem a ll. I n t he c ase o f t wo o f t he m ost f requent ly u tilized c lays,"p la s eand " ch imp", r ecent a nalyses ( Cespedes a nd V illegas 1 977:155) i nd icate t hat t hese h ydrated a lum inosilicates h ave s o lub le s a lts o f a lum inum , m agnesium , i ron, s odium , c alcium , a nd p otassium . A nother s pec if ic m inera l s ource u tilized i s k ataw i o r c a l, w hich i s p repared f rom c a lcining c a lcium-contain ing r ocks a nd g r inding t he r emains i nto a f ine p owder . A ll o f t hese s o lub le/comest ib le c lays a re u t ilized w ith e ither t uber d ishes o r c henopod g rain d ishes, a nd t he s uggest ion h as b een m ade t hat i n a dd ition t o p rovid ing n eeded m inerals, t hey a lso m ay i nteract w ith t he r esidua l p lant t ox ins, f orm ing i nso lub le p recip itates. O f t hese c lays, s o f ar w e h ave o n ly i dent ified t he u se o f k ataw i c a. 6 00 B .C. T here a re o bv ious d iff icu lt ies i n i dent ifying c lays f ound i n a rchaeo log ica l c ontexts a s b eing u sed f or n utr it iona l p urposes, a nd t hus i t i s d iff icu lt t o a scertain h ow e ar ly i n t he r ecord u se o f s uch s ources b ecame i mportant . W e c lear ly h ave u nderestimated t his s ource. B y t he m idd le o f t he s econd m illenium B .C., d ependence u pon c u ltigens h ad i ncreased t o t he p o int w here s ett led y ear-round v illages w ere a ppear ing . H ard u pon t he h ee ls o f t he s edentary l ife s ty le o ther t echno log ica l i nnovations w ere a dopted f rom s urround ing c u ltures, i nc luding t hat l ove o f a rchaeo log ists -c eram ics. P otsherds t o t he a rchaeo log ist r epresent f ine-sca le c hrono logy, u nits o f t ime w hich i f t reated p roper ly c an s upp ly u s w ith c u ltural u nits o f ag enerat ion o r l ess i n l ength, 2 5-50 y ears i n d urat ion. P otsherds a lso s upp ly u s w ith b its o f f ossilized s ocio logy a nd t heo logy, a nd a re p recise m arkers o f e conom ic e xchanges. I t i s t he p er iod o f s tate o r f ederat ion, p articular ly A .D. 3 00 t o A .D. 9 00, t hat i s u sua lly r eferred t o w hen o ne m ent ions " Tiwanaku". T he s ite o f T iwanaku h as b een o ccupied, h owever , f or 3 ,000 t o 3 ,500 y ears. T he r oots o f t he c ity e xp lain m uch o f i ts l ater p rom inence. B eg inning a bout 1 300-1000 B .C. ( uncorrected r ad iocarbon y ears), t rade n etworks b egan f orm ing i n t he T it icaca b as in ( Browman 1 980). T he t hree m ost c ommon s umptuary c ommodit ies f ound a re m eta l g oods ( go ld, s i lver a nd c opper), s em i-precious s tones ( turquo ise, l apis l azuli, s oda lite, m alachite a nd o bsidian), a nd a v ar iety o f P acif ic C oast s eashe lls, i nc lud ing s pecies s uch a s S pondy lus w hich c ome f rom a s f ar n orth a s E cuador . I nformation f rom d esert s ites i n C hile i ndicates t hat f ancy w oo l t extiles a nd h allucinogenic d rugs w ere a lso i mportant l ong-d istance, s tatus-va lidat ing t rade g oods. 1 21

T here w as a m ore i mportant m idd le l eve l r eg iona l t rade i n c onsumab les, i nc lud ing a gr icu ltura l p roducts s uch a s c orn, a j i ( ch ili p epper ), s quash, c oca l eaf , q uinoa, a nd p otatoes, a nd i tems o f l oca l m anufacture s uch a s c eram ic v esse ls, s tone p roject ile p o ints a nd f igur ines, a nd t ropica l o r c oasta l w ood m anufactures. T h is t rade i n c onsumab les i s l ess s pectacu lar t han t he t rade i n l uxury i tems, a nd m ore d iff icu lt t o d etect a rchaeo log ica lly , b ut i t w as m uch m ore i mportant t o t he a verage a lt ip lano i nhab itant . T hese l arger , b ulkier i tems w ere t he m ajor g oods t ransported b y t he lama c ar avans w h ich t raversed t he a rea a t t he e nd o f t he h arvest , o n t r ips l ast ing u p t o s ix m onths i n d urat ion . A ccess t o c oasta l a nd j ung le p roducts t hrough t his m echan ism w as f ar m ore b asic t han t he e xot ic t rade i n l uxury g oods. I t s hou ld b e n oted t hat i n m any a reas o f t he a lt ip lano s uch p atterns p ersisted u nt il t he c urrent c entury . M any c ommun it ies i n t his p art o f t he A ndes d o n ot p roduce e nough v egetab le f ood f or y ear a round s ubsistence r equirements. T hey h ave t rad it ionally r e lied u pon t rad ing p astora l lamas f or t ransport i n l ow land a reas t o a cqu ire a ccess t o b as ic n ecessities f or s ubsistence . T he n ext m ajor p er iod i n t he e conom ic d eve lopment o f t he T it icaca b asin i s 3 00 B .C. t o A .D . 3 00 . D ur ing t h is p er iod r eg iona l s pheres o f i nf luence d eve lop . P ucara d om inated t he a rea n orth o f L ake T it icaca, i n t andem w ith T araco, w h ile f irst C h ir ipa a nd l ater T iwanaku d om inated t he a rea i mmed iate ly s outh o f t he l ake ( Browman 1 9 78 , 1 980 ). T he C allawaya h erba lists a nd h ea lers, f amous t he l ength o f t he A ndes, b egan t o p ly t he ir t rade a t t his t ime . T he " a lt ip lano" m ode o f e conom ic i ntegrat ion, w hich d om inated t he h igh p lateau f or a m illenium o r m ore, b ecame f u lly e stab lished d ur ing t h is t ime . T his " a lt ip lano" m ode i s i n s harp c ontrast t o a nother m ode, t ermed t he " archipe lago", w h ich h as b ecome p opular i n P eruv ian l iterature i n r ecent y ears. I n b oth c ases, w e h ave A ndean c ommunit ies w hich a re n ot a gr icu ltura lly s e lf-suff ic ient, p r incipa lly d ue t o u neven d istr ibut ion o f e colog ica l z ones. O ne s o lut ion t o t he p rob lem o f s e lf-suff iciency i s t hat o f d irect e xp lo itat ion o f s evera l d ifferent e co log ica l z ones, t he " arch ipe lago" m ode . As ing le c ommun ity d irect ly c ontro ls a ccess t o g oods i n a d ifferent z one b y h av ing m embers o f t he ir o wn d escent g roup i n t he s econd e cozone, p roducing t he c ommod ities o f t hat z one, a nd b r ing ing t he g oods b ack t o t he v illage i n t he h ome a rea. T h is m ode l t akes i ts n ame f rom t he l itt le " is lands" o f p roduct ion s cattered t hroughout a n umber o f d ifferent s trat if ied z ones. A long t he s harp ly d issected s lopes o f t he A ndes i n P eru, t his p attern s t ill e x ists i n a ttenuated f orm t oday . F or o ne s ixteenth c entury e thn ic g roup n ear T it icaca, t he L upaqa, a bout 5 % o f t he p opu lat ion w as s ett led i n t hese d ifferent z ones, a nd a gain t hat m any m ore w ere i nvo lved i n t he m undane p rov ision ing , t ransport a nd s upport f unct ions. A s ignif icant p roport ion o f t he p opu lat ion w as i nvo lved i n a s ystem o f r esource e xp lo itat ion w hose s ocia l c osts a s w e ll a s e conom ic c osts s eem q uite h igh. T his " archipe lago"

m ode l

s eems 1 22

t o b e

r easonab ly e ff icient

f or

e xp loiting t he s teep A ndean f lanks i n P eru a nd C hile . T he B o livian a lt ip lano i s a h igh f lat p lain, r ough ly 3 600 t o 3 900 m eters i n e levation, r unning a bout 8 00 k m N -S a nd 3 50 k m E -W . T he p o lit ical d ifficulty a nd t he e conom ic a nd s ocia l c osts o f t ry ing t o c ontro l s ma ll i s lands i n d ifferent e cozones s eparated b y h undreds o f k i lometers f rom t he h ome v illage i s i mmed iate ly e vident . T he " archipe lago" m ode l i s i mpract icab le f or f o lk l iv ing i n t he m idd le o f t he a lt ip lano, a nd o ther m echan isms h ad t o b e f ound i n o rder t o o btain t he r esources n eeded. T he s o lut ion t he i nhib itants r eached i n t his a rea w as o ne o f e xchange, w ith a ccess t o g oods f rom o ther e co log ica l z ones a chieved t hrough t rade n etworks, t he b asis o f o ur " a lt ip lano" m ode. C raft s pecializat ion, p er iod ic m arkets, a nd r egu lar c aravan t rade e merge, r eaching g reatest s ignif icance d ur ing t he c lassic T iwanaku p hase ( T iwanaku I V, c a. A .D. 3 00-900). B ecause a ll a lt ip lano c ommun ities p roduce r ough ly t he s ame c ommodities, t rading w ith t hese g oods a lone w ill n ot y ie ld i mmediate a ccess t o t he r equired r esource f rom o ther e cozones. M any c ommunities h ave b ecome s pecialists i n c ertain p roducts, s uch a s p ottery m aking c enters, t ext ile m aking c enters, o r s pecia lists i n m eta l p roduct ion a nd f abr icat ion. T he a lt ip lano i ndividual h as f ound t hat i n o rder t o a cquire a ccess t o r esources i n o ther e co log ica l z ones h e m ust b ecome a n e xpert t rader , a cquir ing g oods t hrough h is e ntrepreneur ia l s kills, o r a n a ccomp lished c raftsman, e xchanging h is m arketab le s kills f or d esired c ommod it ies. T iwanaku e merges a s t he m ajor t rade c enter a nd p o lit ica l h ead o f al oosely o rganized g roup o f s em i-independent t rade c enters i n W estern B o livia, N orthern C hile, a nd N orthwestern A rgentina. M ercant ile e xchange w as a n i mportant f actor i n b oth t he m aintenance a nd e xpansion o f T iwanaku i nf luence. T he c ity s erved a s a n i ndustr ia l c enter, w ith g u ilds o f c raftsmen a nd a rtisans; i t i mported r aw m ater ia ls a nd e xported f inished m anufactured g oods. T iwanaku i ncreased i ts p o litical c ontro l b ecause i ts d eve lop ing i ndustr ial s pecia lization m ade i t m andatory t o d eve lop i ncreasing ly l arger m arket a reas t o a bsorb i ts s pecia lized p roduct ions.

T iwanaku: T he U rban C enter T he u rban c enter o f T iwanaku i s s ituated i n as ma ll v a lley, b ounded b y l ow h ills, a t a n e levat ion o f a pproximate ly 3 ,850 m . T hrough t he c ity r uns t he R io W akira o r T iwanaku, w hich e mpt ies i nto L ake T iticaca a bout 2 0 k m n orthwest o f t he c enter . E ar ly s tudies o n t he c ity o f T iwanaku f ocussed o n o n ly t he v isib le r emains o f t he c eremonia l s ructures a t t he c ore o f t he c ity. A rchaeo logy h as f ought a l osing b att le w ith " progress" i n t he p reservat ion o f t hese b u ildings. M uch o f t he T iwanaku s tone a rchitecture n ow i s i ncorporated a s f oundation s tones f or s urrounding h aciendas, a s t he p r imary b uild ing m aterial f or t he i mposing c o lonia l C atho lic c hurches i n T iwanaku v illage a nd i n L aja, a s t he b ridge a nd t rest le a butments o n t he L ake T it icaca t o L a P az r ailroad, a nd e ven a s b asic b uild ing m aterial f or a n umber o f b uild ings i n t he c ity o f L a P az a bout 8 0 k m e ast .

1 23

I t i s o n ly r ecent ly, w ith t he e xcavat ion o f t he f oundations o f t he s tone-robbed t emp les, w ith t he p lott ing o f e xtent o f o ccupat ion d ebr is, a nd w ith t he u se o f r emote s ensing s urvey t echniques t hat w e h ave r ea lized t he m agnitude o f t he o r ig ina l c ity . T he c ore a rea o f t he c ity, w h ich i nc ludes t he A kapana p yram id a nd t he t emp les/pa laces o f K a lasasaya, P umapunku, K antataita, P utun i, K her ika la, a nd L akkako llu, c onsists o f l ess t han 2 0 h ectares. T h is c ore i s l aid o ut o n ag r id p lan, o r iented t o t he c ard ina l d irect ions, w ith a n e laborate s ystem o f c overed d rainage c ana ls, a nd a n umber o f i mpress ive c entra l m onuments. W e h ave n ow m apped a n u rban s praw l o f m ore t han 4 00 h ectares, o r o ver 4 s quare k ilometers; t he a dm inistrat ive c ore a rea i s t hus l ess t han 5 % o f t he t ota l u rban z one . I nsuff icient e xcavat ion h as t aken p lace t o a llow a ccurate p opu lat ion m easures, b ut b ased o n c urrent e v idence, w e p lace t he s ize a t a round 2 5,000 t o 4 0,000 p eop le ( Ponce S ang ines 1 972). Ar ecent s urvey o f t he c ap ita l c ity o f W an, h ead o f t he s ister e mp ire a t t his t ime, p laces i ts s ize a t 3 00 h ectares ( Isbe ll a nd S chre iber 1 978), o r a bout 2 5% s ma ller t han T iwanaku i n t erms o f s ite a rea. A ssociated w ith T iwanaku w ere a n umber o f s ate llite t owns, a rranged i n as ite h ierarchy . M ost o f t he l arger s ites h ad c entra l t emp le c omp lexes m ode led o n t he K a lasasaya t emp le o f T iwanaku, a s w e ll a s h a lf a d ozen o r s o s tone m ono liths o r s te la. S pec ia l f unct ion s ites a re a lso f ound i n t he c ont iguous a rea, s uch a s t he s ite o f I wawe, w hich w as t he l ake p ort f or T iwanaku, o r t he s ite o f S im illake , w h ich c ontro lled t he t rade d own t he R io D esaguadero . ( Map 8 ) I n a dd it ion t o t he a dm inistrators, p r iests, a rch itects a nd c onstruct ion e ng ineers, t here w ere a lso o ther s pecia lists i n t he c ity . M eta llurg ists c ast i tems o f c opper , s ilver a nd g o ld, a nd f abr icated t oo ls a nd o rnaments f rom a lloys s uch a s a rsen ic a nd t in b ronzes. T here w ere s cu lptors a nd p otters, p ainters a nd m usicians, w hose h igh d egree o f s ophist icat ion i nd icates f u ll-t ime s pecia lization. F ragmentary i nformat ion f rom t he t ime o f t he S pan ish c onquest i nd icates t he p resence o f g u ilds; o ur r econstruct ions s uggest t hat t he e ar lier T iwanaku s pecia lists w ere a lso o rganized i n as trat if ied s er ies o f g uilds. T iwanaku i mported a n umber o f e xot ic m ater ia ls. B est s tudied o f t hese a re t he l ith ic i tems. T he g rey a ndesites u sed f or t he e laborate ly s cu lptured m ono liths c ame f rom C opacabana m ore t han 6 5 k m n orth a cross L ake T it icaca. S tones w ere l oaded o n t he t otora r eed b oats, f err ied a cross t he l ake t o t he p ort o f I wawe, a nd t ransported o ver land t o t he c ity . T he h eav iest b lock f rom C opacabana w eighs 4 1 t ons, w h ich c ompares q uite f avorab ly w ith m ater ia ls b e ing m oved i n M esoamer ica a t t his t ime . T he h eaviest s tone a t t he s ite , as andstone b lock o f 1 31 t ons, w as t ransported t o t he t emp le o f P umapunku f rom a q uarry 1 0 k m s outh o f t he c ity . Q uarry ing t echn iques w ere m ain ly r ock o n r ock, a nd t ransportat ion o f t he q uarr ied s tone w as a ccomp lished b y d ragg ing i t a cross t he l andscape , u sing o n ly r amps a nd s kids t o r educe f r ict ion. A rrow-straight s cars b etween t he q uarr ies a nd t he t emp les c an s t ill b e o bserved i n a ir-photos o f t he s ite, a nd f aint ly o n t he g round . S maller i tems

w ere t ransported 1 24

g reater d istances.

T he v itreous

b asa lt f or a gr icu ltura l h oes c ame f rom a q uarry 3 00 k m s outh a t L ake P oopo . S odalite f or b eads a nd c eremonia l m ortars c ame f rom C erro S apo i n C ochabamba 1 75 k m e ast. C opper, t in, g o ld, a nd o ther m inera ls w ere m ined a t C orocoro a nd Q uimsachata, i n t he L a P az r iver b asin, i n t he C a llawaya a rea, a nd i n C hile. O bsid ian w as o btained f rom a s ource o ver 1 50 k m n orth i n P uno. S eashe lls, c orn, c hili p eppers, c otton, a nd d r ied f ish w ere t raded i n f rom t he P acif ic c oast . F rom t he A mazon ian d rainage, t he m ost i mportant p roducts w ere o f m edicina l o r p harmaceutica l v a lue p lants s uch a s c oca, ' tobacco, a nd v ar ious h a llucinogens o f t he I lex, D atura, B an ister iopsis, a nd A nadenanthera g enera. I nteract ion b etween T iwanaku a nd t he o ther t owns i n t he f ederation i s p r imar ily p red icated o n e conom ic a nd t heo log ical g rounds r ather t han u pon p o litical e xpediencies. E ach s eparate c enter i n B o liv ia, C hile a nd A rgentina e xhib its a u nique a ssemb lage o f T iwanaku-re lated m ater ia ls. E ach t own c lear ly s e lected t hose i tems f rom t he T iwanaku p edd lers l ocally u sefu l. O ne s ing le c omp lex i s c ommon t o a ll s ites, t hat o f t he e quipment u sed w ith as er ies o f h a llucinogenic p lants d ur ing t he p ract ice o f T iwanaku r e lig ious c eremonies. T his h a llucinogenic c omp lex i nc ludes c arved s tone m ortars a nd p est les; s tone b ow ls a nd c ups w ith i ncised r e lig ious d esigns; d ecorated p ottery " incensar ios" a nd o ther p ottery v esse ls; w ooden s nuff " tab letas"; s nuff t ubes o f w ood a nd b one; a nd s nuff s poons o f w ood . A lso a ssociated a t m any o f t he s ites a re v ar ious i tems o f g o ld, s i lver, c opper , o f b ronze. I n P eru, t he W an i e mpire h ad c o llapsed b y A .D. 8 50. T his c o llapse i s m irrored b y s er ious e conom ic d isrupt ion i n t he T iwanaku c onfederat ion. T he s pecial t rade a nd p ilgr image r e lat ionships t hat T iwanaku h ad w ith s ome o f t he W an i p rovinces w ere s evered w ith t he c o llapse. I n B o livia, t he i mportant C ochabamba v alley a rea w as l ost t o t he T iwanaku n etwork c lose t o A .D. 9 00-1000. C ochabamba, w ith i ts C a lifornia c limate, i s o ne o f t he m ost i mportant f ood p roducing a reas i n B o livia t oday, a nd w as a lso d ur ing e ar lier I nca a nd T iwanaku p er iods. P erhaps T iwanaku h ad a llowed t rade r e lationships t o d eteriorate, h aving r e lied i ncreasing ly u pon W an i c ustom ; i f t his i s t he c ase, t hen C ochabamba w as a b le t o d eve lop i ts o wn i ndependent n etwork, n o l onger n eeding T iwanaku t raders a s m idd lemen. O r p erhaps T iwanaku w as s uff icient ly d isadvantaged a t t he t ime o f t he W an i c o llapse t hat i t w as n ot a b le t o m aintain i ts p aramount p lace i n t he m arket n etwork, a nd t hus C ochabamba w as a b le t o a ssert a nd m aintain i ts i ndependence . T iwanaku l ost t wo i mportant a reas f or r aw m ater ia ls a nd f or m arkets a t r ough ly t he s ame t ime . T his e conom ic d is locat ion i s s een i n a c oncurrent r elig ious r eformat ion. E ar lier s ymbo lism i s g reat ly c hanged, a nd n ew d eities b ecame p owerfu l. A lthough T iwanaku p ersisted a s ah igh land k ingdom f or a t l east 4 00 y ears a fter t he W an i c o llapse, i t i s ap er iod m arked b y a n e ver c ontract ing a rea o f i nf luence. F or a s hort w hile, T iwanaku w as a b le t o p art ly c ompensate f or t he l oss o f a gr icultural r esources f rom C ochabamba b y aa dopting a n ew , P eruvian s trategy o f v ert ica l c ontro l. N ew T iwanaku c o lon ia l o utposts s udden ly a ppear o n t he S outh C oast o f P eru a t t his t ime . O ther f ormer T iwanaku-inf luenced s econdary c enters i n C hile b eg in t o m onopo lize 1 25

t rade i n C h ile a nd A rgentina. A fter A .D. 1 200-1300, T iwanaku i nf luence d isappears c omp lete ly . F or t he n ext f ew c entur ies, u nt il t he I nca c onquest a round A .D. 1 460, v ar ious e thnic g roups a round L ake T it icaca, s uch a s t he L upaqa a nd P acajes, c ont inued t o m aintain c oasta l c o lonial o utposts. S im ilar N orthwest A rgent ina, a nd t he C hilean c oastal a reas. T he r uins o f T iwanaku m a intained a c ertain l oca l p restige. T he I nca, a fter t hey c onquered t he r egion, b uilt a s ma ll t emp le u pon t he o ld c ity, u sing i ts p restige a s o ne m eans o f v a lidat ing t he I nca 's r ight t o r u le.

T iwanaku:

I ts P o litica l

I nf luence

S pecif ic t raits f rom T iwanaku c an b e i dentif ied n orthward a long t he A ndes a s f ar a s l oca les i n E cuador , a nd s outhward i nto c entra l C hile a nd n orthwest A rgent ina. A s as tart ing p o int, w e c an d ivide t his v ast g eographica l s pread o f T iwanaku i nto t wo s ocio-po lit ica l e nt ities: a n orthern o r W an i e mpire, c lear ly b ased o n m iliary c onquest, r ough ly A .D. 5 00 t o A .D. 8 00; a nd a s outhern o r T iwanaku f ederat ion, w hich s pread i ts c oncepts t hrough t he s outhern A ndes b y m eans o f p rose lytzing m erchants d ur ing a m uch l onger p er iod o f t ime, p erhaps A .D. 3 00 t o A .D. 1 200. T he W an i e mp ire o f P eru w as o ne b uilt u pon r apid m ilitar ist ic c onquest . W ithin a p er iod o f a bout 5 0 y ears, m ost o f m odern P eru w as c onquered a nd i ncorporated w ith t he W an i s pheres o f c ontro l. T he b asis o f t he W an i t heo logy, a bundant ly r ef lected i n a ll W an i m ater ial g oods, w as d irect ly d er ived f rom T iwanaku. T iwanaku i deo logy a nd r e lig ious t hemes w ere s pread b y W an i m ilitary c oercion, a nd a re t he h allmark b y w hich W an i i nf luence a nd c ontro l i s i dent if ied . B etween t he t wo p o lities t here e xists a n a rea w here t o d ate w e h ave f ound n e ither W an i n or T iwanaku m ater ia ls, a n a pparant n o-mansland . W ith in t he W an i a rea, w e f ind e vidence f or t he f irst s pread o f t he Q uechua l anguage ( later t he l anguage o f t he I nca), a nd w ithin t he T iwanaku a rea, t he e ar ly s pread o f t he A ymara l anguage. W an i a nd T iwanaku i nteract ion i s q uite c omp lex . T he b ulk o f T iwanaku i nf luence i n P eru w as f iltered a nd m odu lated b y t he W an i c apita l t o t he v ar ious a dm inistrative u n its. Ib elieve w e c an d eve lop e vidence f or f ive m ajor W an i p rovinces, w ith t wo q uasi- i ndependent k ingdoms a lso c lose ly a ff iliated w ith t he e mp ire. W an i c ontro l w as g reatest i n t he h igh lands. F or e xamp le, t he e nt ire c u ltura l c ontext o f t he H uancayo r eg ion i n t he c entral h igh lands w as r e-cast i n t he i mage o f W an . I n o ther a reas, s uch a s t hekingdoms o f C ajamarca a nd M oche t o t he n orth, W an i i mpact w as q uite d ifferent . C urrent e vidence s uggests t hat t he W an i d id n ot i n f act c onquer t hese t wo a reas, b ut r ather i ncorporated t hem i nto t heir s phere o f i nf luence t hrough a lliances. L itt le o f t he W an -spread T iwanaku m ytho logy i s f ound i n e ither t he M oche a rea o r t he C ajamarca a rea. A s t he W an i e mp ire w eakened, M oche a nd C ajamarca a ppear t o h ave s evered a ll t ies. I nterest ing ly t he W an i p rovinces a ppear t o r etained s ome a utonomy . F or e xamp le, a lthough m uch o f T iwanaku i deo logy w as t ranslated d irect ly f rom t he W an i c ap ital t o t he p rovinces, w e f ind 1 26

s pecific i deo log ica l t hemes w hich a re s hared b etween t he C entral C oast p rov ince c entered a t P achacamac a nd T iwanaku t hat a re n ot f ound a t t he W an i c apita l, a nd s pecif ic t raits s hared o n ly b etween t he S outh C oast N asca a rea c enters o f A tarco a nd P acheco a nd T iwanaku, i nd icating t hat T iwanaku w as s omehow a b le t o m a intain d irect a ccess w ith t hese a reas. B ased o n e v idence f rom b otanica l r emains, a nd f rom t rade i n s tr ict ly u t ilitar ian o bjects, i t a ppears t hat a s ubstant ia l a mount o f t rade t ook p lace b etween t he s outhern c oasta l W an i p rov ince i n t he N asca a rea a nd t he T iwanaku h igh land c enter . T his t rade s eems t o h ave b een p r imar ily i n f oodstuffs ( h igh land lama m eat, p otatoes a nd o ther t ubers, q uinoca, e tc., f or l ow land c orn,hot p eppers, o ther l ow e levat ion a gr icu ltura l p roducts, a nd d r ied f ish) a nd i n r aw m ater ials ( h ighland w oo l a nd t ext iles, a nd s econdar ily a cquired A mazonian p harmaceut ica ls f or l ow land s he lls, c otton, w ood, e tc.). T he l ack o f a ccompanying h igh-status i tems ( such a s c eremonia l p ottery, m eta l i tems, e tc.) f rom e ither a rea g ives r ise t o t he s pecu lat ion t hat t his t rade m ight h ave f unct ioned p r imar ily a s c ontraband, m uch a s t he t rade o f m anufactured i tems i nto B o livia t hrough t his s ame a rea d oes t oday . W e n eed t o b ack-track a nd e laborate o n s ome p o ints m ade i n t his d iscussion. T he i dent if ication o f Q uechua a s t he l anguage o f W an i a nd A ymara a s t ha l anguage o f T iwanaku i s a n ew s tep f orward i n t he r econstruct ion o f t hese e mp ires. T he h ypothet ica l i dent if icat ion o f f ive s eparate p rovinces a nd t wo c lose ly a llied k ingdoms f or t he W an i o f P eru r equires a ddit ional d iscusion. T hese p atterns a re t he r esu lt o f t he a nswer t o o ne d ecept ive ly s imp le q uest ion: " What w as t he l anguage o f t he T iwanaku a rea a m illenium a go?" R esearch q uickly s hows t hat i t h as b een a lternat ive ly i dentif ied a s P ukina, U ru- C hipaya, Q uechua o r A ymara. T he p r imary s ource o f l inguistic d ata a re h istor ica l r eferences t o t he d istr ibution o f v ar ious l anguages a t t he t ime o f t he S panish c onquest i n t he 1 530 's, a nd s ubsequent m odern l inguist ica l a na lyses. D istr ibut ion o f P ukina a nd U ru-Chipaya i n s ixteenth c entury P eru i nd icates t hat t hey e xisted m ain ly a s s ma ll d isparate s cattered r e licts e ven a t t hat t ime . F or e xamp le, w ord l ists f rom d ifferent g roups i dentif ied a s U ru h ave b een i dent if ied b y l ingu ists a s b e long ing t o t hree m ajor, m utua lly u ninte llig ib le m acro-fam ilies. I t a ppears t hat a nything t hat w as n ot c lear ly i dent if iab le a s e ither Q uechua o r A ymara i n t he A ndes g ot q uickly l umped i nto a n " other" c ategory s omet imes c a lled U ru, s omet imes c a lled P ukina, a nd s ometimes b y s ome l ocal g eographica l n ame . B ecause o f t he e vidence o f t he s pread o f Q uechua i nto t he a rea o n ly w ith t he I nca c onquest , i t w as a ssumed t hat Q uechua w as n ot t herefore a l ike ly c and idate. T o t est t h is a ssumpt ion, ac loser l ook a t t he c urrent d istr ibut ion o f Q uechua a nd i ts d ia lects w as u ndertaken. P arker ( 1969) a nd T orero ( 1964) h ave i so lated t wo m ajor s ubdivisions o f Q uechua. P arker t ermed t hem Q uechua A a nd Q uechua B , a nd T orero 's s im ilar g roupings w ere t ermed Q uechua I a nd Q uechua I. C onfusing ly, P arker 's A = T orero 's I, a nd P arker 's B = T orero 's I . T hus t he a ccompany ing m aps r efer t o Q uechua I /B a nd I/A . T orero 's w ork ( 1964, 1 970,1972, 1 974) p rovides a n umber o f c orre lat ion m atr ices w h ich a re a menab le t o m ultivar iate s tatist ica l a nalysis. U t ilizing 1 27

t h is m ater ia l, M ap 1 w as c onsructed, i l lustrat ing t he d istr ibution o f Q uechua I /B a nd I/A . T he r e lationship o f Q uechua I/A w ith t he h istor ica l k nown a reas o f t he I nca e mp ire i s g raphica lly e vident . S omewhat u nexpected ly, t he Q uechua I /B d ia lects c luster n ice ly i n t he c entra l a rea o f P eru. W e m ay m ake s ome g eneral c orre lat ions b etween t he d istr ibution o f t he Q uechua d ia lects a nd t he d istr ibut ion o f c ertain m aize r aces . C uzco t ype m a ize h as l ong b een a ssociated w ith t he s pread o f t he I nca e mp ire. D r . R obert B ird b rought t o m y a ttent ion t he f act t hat t here i s al arger s et o f m aize c omp lexes, i nc lud ing n ot o n ly t he C uzco m aize c omp lex, b ut a lso t he C hu llp i-Maiz D u lce m aize c omp lex, w h ich m ay b e a ssociated w ith t he I nca e xpansion ( Goodman a nd B ird 1 977; B ird a nd G oodman 1 978; B rowman a nd B ird 1 978; B ird , B rowman a nd D urb in, i .p .). I n M ap 2 I h ave o ut lined t he c ombined g enera l a reas w here c urrent h erbar ia s pecimens a re r ecorded f rom t hese t wo c omp lexes. C ompar ing M aps 1 a nd 2 , t here i s c lose c orre lation b etween t he d istr ibution o f Q uechua I/A a nd t he d istr ibut ion o f t hese t wo m aize c omp lexes. T hus i t a ppears t hat w e m ay i dent ify a s pecif ic c o llect ion o f m a ize r aces a nd a s pecif ic g roup o f Q uechua d ialects a ssociated w ith t he I nca E mpire. I f w e r emove t hese d ialects a nd m aize r aces f rom t he d ata b ase a s b eing L ate H or izon I nca-re lated, t hen i t a ppears l ike ly t hat w e m ay b e a b le t o i dent ify a n e ar lier s et o f t raits b e long ing o nly t o t he M idd le H or izon W an i a nd T iwanaku s tates. A r eif icat ion o f o ne a spect o f t his h ypothesis i s i llustrated i n M ap 3 . T he W an i a rea o f t his m ap i s b ased o n a rchaeo log ica l t raits, a s i nd icated b y t wo P eruvian s pecia lists ( Menze l 1 964, L umbraras 1 974). T he T iwanaku a rea i s b ased o n ac ombinat ion o f d istr ibution o f T iwanaku a rchaeo log ica l t raits w ith t he u se o f t he d istr ibution o f A ymara a s e xtrapo lated b ackward i n t ime a s a l im iting f actor t o a ttempt t o d ifferentiate b etween t hose a reas w hich h ad T iwanaku t raits a ctua lly w ithin s ome s ort o f a rea o f i nf luence b y T iwanaku f rom t hose a reas i n C hile a nd n orthwest A rgent ina w here T iwanaku i nf luenced g oods o ccur , b ut o n ly i ndicate t rade a nd n ot a ny k ind o f p o litica l r e lation . T he T iwanaku a rea i s d iff icu lt t o a pprox imate b ecause u n like t he W an i c onquest s tate, i t w as a pparent ly m ade u p o f a g roup o f l oose ly f ederated t rade p artners. C urrent e v idence ( Po llard 1 977; S erracino 1 980) i ndicates t hat t he c entra l C hilean a nd n orthwest A rgent ine a reas w ere o rganized i nto a s er ies o f i nterdependent b ut a utonomous c hiefdoms. T he u se o f A ymara a s t he l im it ing f actor w ill b e f urther e laborated u pon i n t he e xplanat ion o f M aps 6 , 7a nd 8 . T wo c omp lexes o f m aize m ay b e a ssociated w ith t he M idd le H orizon W an i a nd T iwanaku e xpansions ( Map 4 ). T he P urp le, M any-Rowed F lour m aize c omp lex a nd t he C entra l A ndean F lour a nd A lt ip lano S ma ll F lour m aize c omp lex i n M ap 4 c orre late m oderate ly w e ll w ith t he l ocations o f W an i a nd T iwanaku s pread i n M ap 3 ; t he n orthern c luster o f m aize c omp lexes a lso a ppears t o c orre late w e ll w ith t he a rea o f Q uechua I /B d ia lects o f M ap 1 . T hus w e m ay i dentify s ome l ike ly c and idates f or p ossib le m a ize r aces s pread a long w ith t he e xpansion o f t he t wo M idd le H or izon s tates, a nd w e c an s ee a c lose r e lat ionship b etween t he a rea o f W an i a nd t he a rea o f Q uechua I /B. A s w e h ave s uggested, T iwanaku e njoyed s pecia l 1 28

r e lationships w ith

i nd ividua l p rovinces i n t he W an i e mpire, p art icu lar ly t he N asca a rea, t he P achacamac a rea, a nd t he W an i c apital a rea. T he c oasta l a reas w ere l east w e ll i ncorporated i nto t he W an i s tate, a nd q uickly r e-asserted i ndependence a s t he W an i s tate c o llapsed . M enze l ( 1977: 3 1) h as s uggested t hat t he C himu C apac a rea, i n t he S upe-Pativ ilca-Forta leza r iver a reas, w as a s pecial p o litical e nt ity s et u p b y t he W an i w ith t he p r imary f unct ion t o s erve a s ab uffer t o p revent W ar's t wo i mportant c oasta l r iva ls, P achacamac a nd M oche, f rom j oining f orces a nd u nit ing . B ecause o f t he o ccasiona l o ccurrence o f W an i t rade g oods i n t he M oche a rea, a rchaeo log ists u nt il r ecent ly h ad a ssumed t hat t he M oche a rea w as o ne o f t he s tates c ontro lled b y t he W an . R ecent s tud ies ( for e xamp le, D onnan a nd M ackey 1 978) h ave i nd icated t hat M oche w as m ore o r l ess a utonomous. M enze l ( 1977) p o int o ut s trong r e lat ionships b etween P achacamac a nd M oche, s o t he n eed f or t he W an i t o m aintain a s trong f rontier c ontro l z one a t C h imu C apac s eems q uite l og ica l. T he s trength o f P achacamac i s f urther i ndicated a t t his t ime b ecause i t w as a b le t o m aintain s ome s ort o f s pecia l r e lat ionship w ith T iwanaku. I t i s p erhaps l og ical t hat P acheco a nd A tarco i n t he N asca a rea a nd W an i i n t he c ap ita l z one m aintain s ome t ies w ith T iwanaku, s ince t hey a re m ost p rox ima l. B ut P achacamac s eems t o b e t he o n ly W an i p rovince t o m aintain d irect t ies w ith T iwanaku t hat w as n ot c ont iguous. I t w ou ld b e q uite i nstructive t o i nvest igate t he t ies o f t he i mportant b ranch o rac les i n m ost o f t hese W an i p rov inces. S ince t h is i s t he a rea o f t he g enera l Q uechua I /B d istr ibut ion, p erhaps w e m ay b e a b le t o i dentify a p re-M idd le H or izon s ubstrate . A dd itiona lly, t he i ndependence o f b oth C ajamarca a nd M oche a reas f rom d irect c ontro l a s i ndicated b y t he a rchaeo log ical r ecord f its n ice ly w ith t he d isr ibution o f Q uechua I /B. W e f ind Q uechua I /B d istr ibuted t o t he s outh o f t hese a reas, b ut b asica lly t he Q uechua s poken i n t hese t wo n orthern a reas t oday i s Q uechua I/A , d er ived f rom t he I nca c onquest . I f t he W an i a re i n p art r esponsib le f or t he s pread o f Q uechua I /B, a nd i f M oche a nd C ajamarca r etain s ome a utonomy e ven t hough c lose ly i ntegrated, t he t he l ack o f Q uechua I /B i n t hese t wo a reas m ight b e p redicted ( Map 5 ). T he c orre lat ion o f A ymara a nd T iwanaku a re f urther i llustrated i n M aps 6 ,7 a nd 8 . P lace n ames h ave a g reater l ongev ity t han o ther a spects o f l anguage i n t erms o f b eing i ndicators o f p ast d istr ibut ion. F or e xamp le, w e c an a ll t hink o f I ndian p lace n ames s t ill i n c urrency i n t his c ountry, e ven t hough t he s peakers h ave l ong s ince b een d isp laced. P ure A ymara i s b asica lly l im ited t o B o livia t oday, b ut w e h ave a mp le e thnoh istor ic d ocuments i nd icating a m uch w ider s pread e ar lier . Ap art ia l p lott ing o f A ymara p lace n ames i s i l lustrated o n M ap 6 . I t i s q uickly a pparent t hat t he d istr ibut ion o f A ymara p lace n ames i s m uch g reater t han t he c urrent d istr ibution o f A ymara s peakers, a nd t hat t he d istr ibution a ppears t o c onform w ith s ome e co logica l f actors, a s d efined b y t he 3 ,000 m eter c ontour . T his c ontour r ough ly t ends t o m ark t he d istr ibut ion w here o ne f inds b oth c ame lid p astora lism a nd t uber a gr icu lture, s uggest ing t hat w e a re i dentifying a b oundary a ssociated w ith s pecif ic c u ltura l p ract ices. A ymara, o r i ts p roto-language, p roto-Jaq i, m ay h ave b een s pread o r iginally a long t he A ndean p una a s f ar a s t he J unin=Lima=Huancave lica 1 29

a rea. T h is i s t he s outhern b oundary o f Q uechua I /B. A ddit iona lly , t here a re s ome s ma ll, e ar ly b ranches o f J aq i, t he K awki a nd J ac iaru s peakers, s t ill f ound i n L ima, a nd t here a re r esidua l g roups o f A ymara s peakers r eported i n H uancave lica, A yacucho, a nd A requipa ( for e xamp le, s ee t he r ecent g roup s tud ied b y S i lverb latt a nd E ar ls 1 977). I n t hese l atter c ases, w e c annot e lim inate y et t he p oss ib ility t hat t hese m ay h ave b een c o lonists ( m ittmaes o r m itmaqkuna) s pread b y t he l ater I nca. I n t his r espect, h owever , i t i s i nstructive t o n ote t hat w hen t he I nca m oved i nto t he C o llaguas a rea, t he h igh land h erders a nd p otato g rowers r emained A ymara, w hile t he I nca Q uechua m oved i nto t he l ower a reas a nd b ecame t he c orn, a u, a nd m idd le e levat ion f armers ( Pease 1 977:140,157) T hree m ajor A ymara d ia lects, a s d ef ined b y B r iggs ( 1976) a re i nd icated i n M ap 7 . T he i nterna l d ivis ions a re b asica lly t hose o f B r iggs, b ut t hey h ave b een e xpanded t o t he m ax imum l im its o f A ymara s peakers. I f t he t entat ive o rder o f d ia lects i s c orrect , a nd i f t h is s equence r ef lects p rehistory a ccurate ly , t hen w e h ave p reserved a d istr ibut ion o f A ymara d ia lects t hat c orresponds n ice ly w ith t he a rchaeo log ica lly d er ived e v idence . T he N orthern D ialect o f A ymara i s f ound i n t he a rea w here w e h ave a rgued t hat T iwanaku c iv ilizat ion w as c oa lesc ing b etween 3 00 B .C. a nd A .D . 3 00 . T he S outhern D ia lect o f A ymara r epresents t he a rea, p art icu lar ly C ochabamba, w here T iwanaku i nf luence s pread i n t he l oca l T iwanaku P hase I V ( A .D. 3 00-900). T he l atest A ymara d ia lect i s f ound i n t he a rea i n t he n orthwest , i n T acna, M oquegua a nd A requipa, j ust t hose a reas w here w e i dent if ied n ew T iwanaku P hase V ( A .D. 9 00-1200) c o lonies b e ing e stab lished f o llow ing t he c o llapse o f W an . T hus t he p rob lem o f s imp ly i dent ify ing t he l anguage s poken b y t he i nhab itants o f T iwanaku i n i ts h eyday h as l ed u s i nto t he d eve lopment o f s ome d ynam ic m ode ls f or t he s pread a nd i nteract ion o f Q uechua a nd A ymara. T he p icture w e h ave o f t he i mportance o f T iwanaku h as b een p ainted w ith a b road b rush, a nd w e n eed v ery m uch t o d o f urther r esearch t o d ef ine t he f iner d etails. T he a lt ip lano i s i mportant f or e conom ic p rehistorians b ecause i t m an ifests s uch a n a pparent ly d ifferent m ode o f p lant a nd a n ima l d omest icat ion t han t he O ld W or ld . T iwanaku 's u se o f r e lig ious a nd e conom ic f actors a s i ntegrat ive m echanisms c ontrasts m arked ly w ith t he s trong p o lit ical c entra lizat ion o f t he s ynchronic W an i c onquest s tate . B oth g ive u s a ddit iona l e xamp les t o i ncrease t he c orpus o f d ata b e ing u t ilized i n a ttempt ing t o u nderstand t he i nterna l e vo lut ionary p rocesses o f p r ist ine s tates. T he c omb inat ion o f e vo lut ionary s chema f rom a v ar iety o f f ie lds, s uch a s l ingu ist ics a nd a rchaeobotany , c an y ie ld m uch m ore d ynam ic m ode ls . U tmost c aut ion m ust b e o bserved, h owever , t o a vo id t he f a llacy o f s imp list ic c orre lat ions o f r ace, l anguage a nd c u lture. O n-go ing r esearch a t T iwanaku, s ponsored b y t he I nst itute N aciona l d e A rqueo log ia o f B o liv ia, i nvo lves a n umber o f c o llaborat ive p rojects, i nc lud ing s urvey u sing p roton m agnetometers a nd e lectr ica l r esist iv ity t echniques, r emote s ensing u s ing d ata f rom t he E RTS II s ate llite, n ew m icro-techniques f rom a rchaeozoo logy a nd a rchaeobotany e nhancing t he r ecovery a nd i dent if icat ion o f f lora l a nd f auna l m ater ials, a nd v ar ious t race e lement s tud ies f or t he i dent if ication o f o r ig in o f e xot ic g oods a nd t he r econstruct ion o f t echno logy . I t i s 1 30

t hus b oth w ith a musement a nd c onsternat ion t hat w e r ead t he c ontinuing s er ies o f w r iters w ho p ersist i n p opu lat ing t he A ndes w ith E gypt ians, P hoenicians o r o ther e xot ic c u ltures. W e f ind T iwanaku e xciting, b ut i ts s ignif icance t o u s i s f ar d ifferent: i t i s o ne o f n ew v istas o f i nd igenous s ocio log ica l e vo lut ionary p rocesses, r ather t han a p otpourr i o f e xterna lly i mposed r andom t raits.

A cknow ledgements Iw ant t o a cknow ledge t he h e lp o f C lark E r ickson, D arw in H orn, C har les M iksicek, a nd J onathan K ent i n v ar ious p hases o f t he a na lysis. M iksicek a nd E r ickson c ontr ibuted m ater ia lly t o t he r ecovery o f b otanical i nformation, a nd K ent a nd H orn c ontr ibuted t o t he z oo log ica l d ata b ase; a ll f our s erved a s f ie ld p ersonne l d ur ing t he 1 974-1975 e xcavations. P art icu lar t hanks g o t o G regor io C ordero M iranda, D irector, M useo N aciona l d e A rqueo log ia, L a P az, w ho w orked b oth f ie ld s easons w ith u s; a nd t o D r . C ar los P once S ang ines, D irector o f t he I nst itute N aciona l d e A rqueo logia d e B o livia, L a P az, w ho m ade t he e nt ire p roject p ossib le. F unding f or t he p roject w as i n p art f rom N SF G rant # 7401258.

1 31

L iterature C ited B ird, R . M cK., D .L. B rowman a nd M . D urbin i .p . Q uachua a nd M aize : M irrors o f C entra l A ndean C uture H istory. B ird, R . M cK. a nd M .M . G oodman 1 978 T he r aces o f m aize V : g rouping m aize r aces o n t he b asis o f e ar m orpho logy . E conom ic B otany 3 1:471-481 B oyd, C .E. 1 968 F reshwater p lants: a p otentia l B otany 2 2:359-368

s ource

o f p rotein .

E conom ic

B r iggs, L .T. 1 976 D ia lecta l V ar iat ions i n t he A ymara L anguage o f B o livia P eru. P h.D. D issertat ion, U niversity o f F lor ida

a nd

B rowman, D .L. 1 974 P astora l N omadism i n t he A ndes. C urrent A nthropo logy 1 5(2):188-196 1 978 T oward t he D eve lopment o f t he T iwanaku S tate . i n: D .L. B rowman, e d., A dvances i n A ndean A rchaeo logy, p p. 3 27-349. T he H ague : M outon 1 980 T iwanaku E xpansion a nd A lt ip lano E conom ic P atterns. E studios A rqueo logicos # 5, p p. 1 07-120. A ntofagasta: U niversidad d e C hile 1 981 P rehistor ic N utr it ion a nd M ed icine i n t he L ake T it icaca B asin . i n : J . B ast ien, J . D onahue a nd H . H a ley, e ds., M a lnutrition, M orbid ity a nd M edicine i n t he A ndes, p p. 1 03-118

B rowman, D .L. a nd R . M cK. B ird 1 978 D emographic m ovements a t t he E ar ly I ntermed iate P er iod/M idd le H or izon B oundary i n t he C entra l A ndes a s d educed f rom L inguist ic, B otanica l a nd C eram ic E vidence. 6 th A nnua l M eet ing, M idwest C onference o n A ndean a nd A mazonian A rchaeo logy, C hicago . C asaverde R ojas, J . 1 977 E l t rueque e n l a e conom ia p astor il. i n: J . F lores O choa, e d ., P astores d e P una: U ywam ichiq p unarunakuna, p p. 1 71-191. L ima : I nst ituto d e E stud ios P eruanos. C espedes, G . a nd V .H. V illegas A . 1 977 C onceptos q uirurgicos, p ato log ica o sea y d entar ia e n c raneos p reco lomb inos e n B o livia. A rqueo log ia d e B o liv ia y P eru, 1:129-170. L a P az : I nst ituto N acional d e A rqueo log ia. D anie l, G . 1 977 R eview : A mer ica B efore C o lumbus, a nd T hey C ame B efore C o lumbus. N ew Y ork T imes, S unday M arch 1 3, S ect ion 7 . D onnan, C .B. a nd C .J. M ackey 1 978 A ncient B ur ia l P atterns o f U niversity o f T exas P ress. 1 32

t he M oche

V a lley, P eru .

A ust in :

F lores O choa, J .A . 1 977 P astoreo, t ejido e i ntercambio. i n : J .A . F lores O choa, e d ., P astores d e P una: U ywam ichiq p unarunakuna, p p. 1 33-154. L ima: I nstituto d e E stud ios P eruanos. G oodman, M .M . a nd R . M cK. B ird 1 977 T he r aces o f m aize I V: t enat ive g roup ing o f 2 19 L at in A mer ican r aces. E conom ic B otany 3 1:204-221 G robman, A ., W . S a lhuana, R . S ev illa a nd P .C. M ange lsdorf 1 961 R aces o f M aize i n P eru. W ashington:NAS/NRC H ardman, M .J. 1 966 J agaru. T he H ague: M outon 1 975 P roto-Jaqi: R econstruct ion d e l s istema d e g ramat ica les. R evista d e l M useo N aciona l 4 1:433-456

p ersonas

I sbe ll, W .H. 1 977 T he r ural f oundation f or u rbanism : e conom ic a nd s ty list ic i nteract ion b etween r ura l a nd u rban c ommunit ies i n e ighth-century P eru. I l linois S tud ies i n A nthropo logy # 10, U rbana I sbe ll, W .H. a nd K .J. S chreiber 1 978 W as H uar i aS tate? A mer ican A ntiquity 4 3:372-389 L oukotka, C . 1 967 C lassif icat ion o f S outh A mer ican T i i §g Tes : U niversiiy o f C a lifornia. L umbreras, L .G . 1 974 T he P eop les a nd S m ithsonian P ress

C ultures

o f

I ndian

A ncient

L anguages.

P eru.

L os

W ashington:

M enze l, D .A . 1 964 S ty le a nd t ime i n t he M idd le H or izon. N awpa P acha 2 :1-106 1 977 T he A rchaeo logy o f A ncient P eru a nd t he W ork o f M ax U h le. B erke ley : R .H. L ow ie M useum o f A nthropo logy . P arker, G .J. 1 969 C omparat ive Q uechua P hono logy a nd G rammar I : C lassif ication. W orking P apers i n L inguist ics ( University o f H awaii) 1 (1):65-87 P ease, F . 1 977 C o llaguas: C o llaguas C ato lica

u na I ,

e tnia d e l s ig lo X VI. i n : F . p p. 1 31-168. L ima:Pontif icad

P ease, e d. U niversidad

P ickersg ill, B . a nd C .B. H eiser, J r . 1 978 O r ig ins a nd d istribution o f p lants d omest icated i n t he N ew W or ld. i n : D .L. B rowman, e d., A dvances i n A ndean A rchaeo logy . p p. 1 35-165 T he H ague: M outon P o llard, G .C. 1 979 I nterreg iona l

R e lat ions i n 1 33

t he S outhern

A ndes: E vidence

a nd

E xpectations f or U nderstand ing t he L ate P rehistory o f N .W . A rgent ina a nd N . C hile. 4 3rd I nternat ional C ongress o f A mer icanists, V ancouver, C anada. P once S ang ines, C . 1 972 T iwanaku: E spacio, T iempo y C u ltura. d e C iencias d e B o livia.

L a P az: A cadem ia N aciona l

R oberts, L .M ., U .J. G rant, R . R am irez, W .H. H ateway, D .L. S m ith, a nd P .C. M ange lsdorf 1 957 R aces o f M aize i n C o lombia. W ashington D .C.: N AS/NRC R owe, J .H. 1 946 I nca C u lture a t t he t ime o f t he S panish C onquest . i n: J .H. S teward, e d. H andbook o f S outh A mer ican I nd ians, V o l. 2 , p p. 1 83-330. B ureau o f A mer ican E thno logy, B u llet in 1 43. 1 976 R e lig ion e I mperi6 e n e l P eru a ntiguo. A ntropo log ia A ndina 1 /2 :5-12 S antos R am irez, R . 1 977 P resencia d e W an i e n e l V a lle B o liv ia y P eru, 1:393-409. L a A rqueo logia S erracino, G . 1 980 T iwanaku d esde S an A rqueo logicos # 5. p p. C hile

d e S ihuas. A rqueo log ia P az: I nst ituto N acional

e n d e

P edro d e A tacama. i n : E studios 5 5-106. A ntofagasta: U nivers idad d e

S ilverb latt, I . a nd J . E ar ls 1 978 M ito y R enovacion : e l c aso d e M oros y l os A ymaraes. P hutur inga 1 0 :93-104

A llpanchis

S tark, L .P. 1 976 A puntes s obre l a g ramat ica g uichua d e l a S ierra E cuatoriana. O tava lo : I nst ituto I nter-And ino d e D esarro llo . T orero, A . 1 964 L os d ia lectos Q uechuas. A nales C ient if icos, U niversidad A grar ia d e L a M o lina 1:446-478 1 970 L inguist ica e h istor ia d e l a S ociedad A nd ina. A na les C ient if icos, U niversidad A grar ia d e L a M o lina 8 (3/4):231-264 1 972 L inguist ica e h istor ia d e l os A ndes d e l P eru y B o liv ia. i n: A . E scobar, e d. E l R eto d e l M u lt ilinguismo e n E l P eru, p. 4 7-106. L ima: I nst ituto d e E stud ios P eruanos. 1 974 E l Q uechua y l a H istoria S ocial A ndina. L ima: U niversidad R icardo P alma W ing, E .S. 1 978 A nima l D omestication i n t he A ndes. i n : D .L. B rowman, e d. A dvances i n A ndean A rchaeo logy, p p. 1 33-166. T he H ague : M outon.

1 34

Co lomb ia

D ISTR I BUT ION

OF

QUECHUA I /B a nd QUECHUA 1/A

o= l oca le

where quant itat ive l ex ica l d ata o b ta ined

SCALE:

km

L ima

PAC IF I C OCEAN

= Area o f Quechua 1 /B

= Area o f Quechua 1/A

p i

. Shared o r o ver lapp ing t ra its , Quechua I/ B a nd I / A Argent ina Ch i le

B ased on d ata f rom S tark 1 976; Torero 1 964 , 1 970 , & 1 974 ; P arker 1 969 ; B rowman & B ird 1 978 .

M ap 1 . D istribution o f Q uechua I /B a nd Q uechua I I/A. r esponsible f or t he s pread o f Q uechua I I/A. t he o riginal p ossible h omeland .

T he I nca E mpire i s Q uechua I /B i ndicates

S mall c ircles i nside b oundaries

r epresent l ocals f rom w hich l exical d ata w as u tilized. 1 35

Co lomb ia

I NCA EMP IRE MA IZE D ISTRI BUT ION ( show ing ma ize c omp lexes l ike ly s pread b y t he I nca)

P eru

SCALE: 0

1

2

3

4

km.

B raz i l

PAC IF IC

OCEAN

=G enera l ized a reas where t he Cuzco ma ize c omp lex a nd t he C hu l lp i-Ma iz Du Ice m a ize c omp lex a re f ound t oday. Argent ina D ata f rom B ird C G oodman 1 978; Goodman & B ird 1 977; Grobman e t a l 1 961; R oberts e t a l 1 957; B ird, Browman & Durb in, i .p.

M ap 2 . D istribution o f m aize c omplexes a ssociated w ith t he I nca e mpire. C ompare t he d istribution o f t he m aize r aces i n t his f igure w ith t he d istribution o f ( 4 ucchua I I/A i n M ap 1 t o s ee t he c lose c orrelation o f d istribution o f l anguage a nd m aize c omplex .

1 36

5 00

C o lomb ia

S ISTER

E cuador

WAR I

STATES

AND

T I WANAKU,

c a. A .D. 7 50

P eru

•

SCALE:

1 1 1 1 1= 7 1 1 1 1 0

1

2

= 1 1 1 1.km 3

B raz i l

•

PAC IF IC

OCEAN

B o l iv ia

= Max imum e xtent o f t he M idd le H or izon W an ie mp ire o f P eru, c a. A . D. 6 00-800 ( af ter Menze l 1 964 , a nd L umbreras 1 976 )

= Max imum e xtent o f Aymara s peaker c a. A .D. 8 00-1200 , a nd t herefore t he h ear t land o f t he T iwanaku I V V . ( af ter B rowman 1 978 )

Ch i le

A rgent ina

M ap 3 . A pproximate b oundaries o f t he W an i c onquest s tate a nd t he T iwanaku c onfederation ,

OF

c a. A .D .

7 50.

1 37

4

5 00

1

C o lomb ia E cuador

GENERAL IZED AREAS OF THE CURRENT D ISTR IBUT I ON OF MA IZE COMPLEXES PROBABLY S PREAD BY WAR I &T 1WANAKU

SCALE:

P ERU

km‘

B o l iv ia PAC IF IC OCEAN T iwanaku

= Genera l ized a reas o f t he d istr ibut ion o f t he C entra l Andean Ma ize c omp lex ( A lt ip lano s ma l l f l ours, Centra l Andean r otund f l ours & h igh ly c o lored r aces) a nd t he S outh Andean F l ints ( A lt ip lano s ma l l f l ints & B o l iv ian f l ints )

D ata f rom B ird & Goodman 1 977 ; G oodman & B ird 1 977 ; B r ieger e t a l 1 958; Grobman e t a l 1 96 1; R am irez e t a l 1 960; T imothy e t a l 1 961

a ragua ' y

Argent ina

, M ap 4 . D istribution o f m aize c omplexes b elieved t o b e a ssociated w ith t he s tates o f W an i a nd T iwanaku.

C ompare t he d istribution o f m aize r aces

i n t his m ap w ith t he p olitical b oundaries i n M ap 3 ,

t o s ee t he l evel

o f c oncordance b etween m aize r aces a nd p olitical c ontrol.

1 38

•

E cuador )

PROPOSED WARI PROV INCES

\

AND

ALL IES

P eru

=r iver =c urrent b oundary PAC IF IC OCEAN

=M idd le Hor izon c enter S ca le : 1 111 11 11 1 1 00

Moche

=1 111 1 . 1 em 2 00 3 00

B raz i l

L as L lamas -4

Ch imu C apac

W an i& S outhern S ierra a rea

C a jamarqu i l P achacama

N asca a rea

M e n ex •ma

P achacamac a .-e a P ik i l lacta Ch imu C apac f ront ier

N or thern S i : -rra a rea

Moche a rea, i ndependent b ut a l l ied

L ake T i t icaca T iwana ldu

C a jamarca a rea, i ndependent b ut a l l ied

I . -

e ". Ch i le B ased o n i nformat ion f rom B rowman & B ird 1 978; D onnan E .M ackey 1 978; Menze l 1 964 , 1 977; L umbreras 1 974 ; a nd R owe 1 976.

N ap

5 .

P roposed t entative b oundaries f or W ari a dministrative p rovinces. A lthough a llied o r i nfluenced b y t he W an, p olity ,

b oth M oche

a nd C ajamarca a re a rgued t o h ave b een i ndependent o f t he s tate.

1 39

« .

• Ayacu

•

CORRELATI ON OF AYMARA LOCAL IT IES W ITH THE 3 ,000 METER OR 1 0 ,000 FOOT CONTOUR I NTERFACE

•

•I ‚CU ZCO

•

Abancay

S ca le: 0 1 00 3 1 1 1• 1 1 1 1 1 C

0 0 0

0 (1

) ( -7

0

2 00 = 1 11

3 00 km M 11 13 1

0 °

• , 0 0 ( 7 5 . 0 % •0 ,0 0% /

L a P az

0

Moq PAC IF IC

OCEAN

" Aymara 3 ,000 me ter f ront ier"

Ta Ar ica

P isagua

1 0

0

0

= Aymara l oca l it ies

I qu ique

I

=3 ,000 m o r 1 0 ,000 f t c ontour

I

=s a lares

• P '•

'

(• 1 An tofac ias ta

S an P edro

M ap 6 . C orrelation o f A ymara t oponyms w ith t opography .

T he A ymara a ppear

t o b e c onfined t o a bove t he 3 ,000 m . o r 1 0 ,000 f t.

c ontour .

T his

t oponym d istribution i s p art o f t he b asis f or t he r econstruction o f T iwanaku b oundaries i n M ap 3 a nd A ymara d ialects i n M ap 7 .

1 40

C uzco •

• Abancay

A requ ipa

•

P AC IF IC OCEAN

P isagua

- Aymara - N ,

B OH M = Aymara = Aymara

-S ,

o ldest d ia lect

I q u ique

s econd d ia lect

-I , most r ecent d ia lect

M ap 7 . P robable d istribution o f t hree A ymara d ialects a t A .D. a s r econstructed f rom a rchaeological , d ata.

1 41

e thnohistoric,

1 000-1450 ,

a nd l inguistic

A S ina

6 9°

6 8 '

1 5°

N i r lo

C in

L uqu rma ta a nd C lass ic T iwanaku S ty le S i tes

E scoma

9

LAKE TI T ICACA

&A nco ra imes T i t ica

eCoati

T am b okus i P ukuro- u yu C huan i-uyu A T iqu ina \

a iyah d an i

P a lch i r i L u •u r ma ta K a laka la T i wanaku 41 1ka tata S lm i l lake I omen !

A r L a z L lo je ta

l

' oko tl a

J esus d e a dha a

1 7° S an t iago d e Machaca S ca le : 0

2 5

5 0

7 5

km 1 00

M ap 8 . D istribution o f s ites i n t he T iticaca b asin w hich e xhibit L uqurmata a nd C lassic T iwanaku ( late P hase I II a nd P hase I V) s tyle m aterials.

1 42

A ltip lano a nd T ropica l L ow land C ontacts i n N orthern C hile P rehistory: C hinchorro a nd A lto R am irez R ev isited .

M ar io A . R ivera

R ivera p resents a s ynthesis o f h is m ode l o f e conom ic i ntegrat ion b ased u pon a rchaeo logica l e vidence f rom 5 ,000 B .C. t o A .D. 5 00 o n t he n orth c oast o f C hile . T he m ode l i s a lso r e lated t o am ore g enera lized r econstruct ion o f t he o r ig ins o f A ndean s ociety, i ts o rganizat ion, s tructure a nd t he ir r e levance t o t he c ultural d eve lopment o f t ropical l ow land c u ltures. T he C hinchorro a nd A ltip lano t rad itions a re d efined a nd p laced t empora lly i n t his s cheme, a nd R ivera c omments u pon t heir c ontr ibut ions t o t he f ormation o f A ndean s ociety .

S e p resenta u na s intesis d e l m ode lo d e i nterpretacion a cerca d e l as e videncias a rqueo log icas p ara e l p er iodo e ntre 5 000 A .C. y 5 00 D .C. e n l a c osta P acif ico d e l N orte d e C hile . L a p resentatcion d e e ste m ode lo e sta t ambien r e lacionada c on u na i nterpretacion m as g eneralizada d e l a g enesis d e l a s ociedad a nd ina, s u o rganizacion, e structura y s u r e levancia h acia e l d esarro llo c u ltural d e t ierras b ajas t ropicales. C on e ste p roposito s e h acen c onsideraciones a cerca d e l e squema c rono logico, d ef iniendose l as t rad iciones C hinchorro y A lt ip lanica, d e d istinto o r igen e h ipotet izando s obre l as r espectivas c ontr ibuciones a l a f ormacion d e l a s ociedad a ndina.

A n o ut line o f a m ode l f or i nterpret ing t he a rchaeo log ical e v idence f or t he t ime p er iod b etween 5 ,000 B C t o A D 5 00 o n t he P acif ic c oasts o f N orthern C hile w ill b e a ttempted i n t his p aper . A lso, t his m ode l i s r e lated t o a m ore g eneral i nterpretation r egard ing t he g enesis o f t he A ndean s ociety, o rganization, s tructure, a nd i ts r e levance t o t he t ropical l ow land c u ltura l d eve lopment . A b r ief s tatement o n t he g eographica l s ituat ion w ith s ome e co logical c onsiderations o f t he N orthern c oast o f C hile w ill b e f o llowed b y c onsiderat ions o f t he p er iodif ication s cheme f or t he a rea a nd a d ef in it ion o f C hinchorro a nd t he A lt ip lanic T radit ions. F inally, s ome r emarks o n t he m ode l a nd h ypothesis w ill b e p resented . T he G eographica l S etting C oastal C hile f rom a bout 1 8 t o 2 0 d egrees S outh L atitude i s c lose ly r e lated t o p una a nd a ltip lano e nvironments. T o t he e ast t he a lt ip lano i s a lso r e lated t o t he c eja d e s e lva a nd t rop ical f orest . D escending f rom t he a lt ip lano, w here o ne f inds a n e conomy b ased o n h erding a nd a gr icu lture, o ne c an f ind d ifferent e nvironmenta l n iches t hat p roduce s evera l t ypes o f p roducts. T he p record illeran b asins a t 3 ,000 m eters h ave a p ronounced r ainy s eason, w hich m akes p ossib le a m ore i ntensive a gr icu lture, i n a ddition t o c ame lid a nd s heep 1 43

p astora lism . A t al ower a lt itude t he h ead w aters o f t he m ain s treams s tart t o f low d own t o t he c oast . T he s tr iking a nd m ost o utstanding f act t o p o int o ut t hough i s t hat a ll t hese e nvironments l ocated a t d ifferent a lt itudes a re q uite i nterconnected . I t i s b e lieved t hat s ince e ar ly t ime, m an c onceived t his f act a s a w ho le, a s j ust o ne g eographica l f ramework, t aking a dvantage o f a ll t he e co log ical f actors i nvo lved a t t he s ame t ime . A s ocio-po litic a nd e conom ic s ystem w orking t his w ay m ust h ave b een t he r esult o f al ong e xper imentation, b ased o n t he p r incip le o f c omp lementar ity . I n t his s ense, t he d eve lopment o f t he C hinchorro T radit ion f irst, f rom c a. 5 000 t o 5 00 B C, t hen t he A ltip lano T radit ion, b eg inning a t 1 000 B C a nd t o a bout 5 00 A D, c ou ld p rov ide g ood i nsights f or t he a pproach o f t his p rob lem . P eriodificat ion a nd C u ltura l D eve lopment . I n p revious w orks ( R ivera 1 975, 1 977) I h ave p roposed a m ode l r egard ing c hrono logy a nd c ultural d eve lopment i n N orthern C hile . T here, I h ave o ut lined t he d eve lopment o f a n E ar ly T radit ion w h ich c haracter izes t he E ar ly P er iod a nd d ef ined c ulturally a s h unters, g atherers a nd f ishers i n p rocess o f a daptation t o t he e nv ironment . T he m ain f eatures o f t his c omp lex w ere a chieved b etween 1 0,000 a nd 6 000 B C. B etween 6 000 a nd 4 000 B C, t hese p opulations b egan a p rocess o f d ifferent iat ion. S ome o f t hem o n t he c oast b ecame f ishers, a nd a long t he v a lleys t hey b ecame g atherers. T he c omp lexity o f t his d eve lopment b eg ins w ith t he i ntroduction o f n ew w ays o f s ubsistence a nd a m ar ine t echno logy w ith s he ll-f ishhooks, g r ind ing s tones, h arpoons, m ortars . T his t echno logy i s i mportant b ecause i t r epresents a s tage o f a daptation . T his i s t he c ase f or s ites l ike C amarones 1 4 ( Ca-14), C -14 d ated b etween 5 ,800 a nd 4 ,800 B C. B ut a lso t here a re i n land s ites l ike A ragon w here ac oex istence o f t wo p opulations h as b een p ostulated, a t a ges b etween 6 000 t o 4 000 B C. S ometime b etween 5 000 B C a nd c a. 5 00 B C, t he C hinchorro T radit ion t akes p lace . A s i t h as b een s uggested e lsewhere ( R ivera, 1 975), t h is t radit ion h as a t ransandean c onnection p robab ly r e lated t o t he t rop ical l ow lands. F rom a bout 1 000 B C, a side f rom t he C hinchorro d eve lopment, a n ew t rad it ion, b ased o n a lt ip lanic f eatures f rom t he c ircum-T iticaca a rea, a rises o n t he c oastal v a lleys o f N orthern C hile . T his i s c a lled t he A ltip lanic T rad it ion a nd r uns t hrough t he I ntermediate a nd L ate P er iods u p t o r ecent t imes. T he f irst d eve lopments a ssociated w ith w hat i s c alled t he A lto R am irez p hase a re i dentif ied w ith t he E ar ly I ntermed iate P er iod, f rom c a. 1 000 B C u p t o a bout A D 3 00. S ubsequent ly, t he T iwanaku a nd I nca L oca l v ar iat ions a ffected t he a rea d ur ing t he M idd le a nd L ate I ntermediate, a nd L ate P er iods. I n p rev ious w orks I h ave o ut lined a lso t he n ature o f t he A lto R am irez p hase p o int ing o ut i ts s im ilar ity w ith P ukara a nd o ther A lt ip lanic d eve lopments f rom t he T it icaca l ake ( Rivera 1 976).

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T he f igures e xp lain t he p er iod if ication b ased o n t he a ssumpt ion t hat e ach p er iod c oincides w ith t he m ax imum d eve lopment o f a n e conom ic, s ocial a nd t echno logica l a ct iv ity t hrough t ime . F or i nstance, t hey c ould s tart w ith a rr iva l o f p opu lat ions f rom d ifferent a reas w hich c ontr ibute t o s ignif icant t echno log ica l, s ocia l o r e conom ic c hanges, o r t hey m ay b e t he r esult o f ap opu lat ion d r ive d ue t o p ressure b ecause o f e conom ic c onditions s uch a s t ranshumance ( i .e . A ragon, T iliviche, a nd C amarones 1 4 a t 5 000 B C). T he p ersistence o f c ertain t raits t hrough t ime, s uch a s t he h unt ing a ct iv it ies, a nd/or g ather ing a nd f ishing d ur ing t he m aximum d eve lopment o f t he C hinchorro T rad it ion m ay r eveal a c oexistence o f t wo t rad it ions a t a g iven t ime, b ut c ertain ly t hey h ave d ifferent c onnotations. I n t his c ase, t he d eve lopment o f at rad it ion m ay h ave a p ersistence t hrough t ime, s urpassing a g iven t ime m arker . T he d ef inition o f ap er iod t herefore m ust b e k ept i n m ind a s au seful t oo l, a bstract a nd q uite a rguab le b ut i t m ay c ontr ibute e ff icient ly i n o rder ing t he c hrono logica l m ode l a nd t he s equent ial d eve lopment o f t he d ifferent p rehispan ic c ultural e vents i n N orthern C hile. T he c hrono log ica l m arkers f or e ach p er iod m ay b e d ef ined b y m eans o f a n e conom ic s ituat ion d ue t o e co log ica l c ondit ions w hich m ay a lso a ffect t he c u ltura l d eve lopment i tse lf . T he I nitia l P er iod, f or e xamp le, c ould b e d ef ined b y t raits l ike t he c omp licated m umm ificat ion. T h is i n t urn d ef ines a t ime m arker f or t he C h inchorro T radit ion. A nother e xamp le c ou ld b e t he g ather ing a ct ivities w hich g ive n ew i nsights t o t he e conom ic s ystem b e ing p redom inant d ur ing t he E ar ly P er iod, b y d ef ining a d ifferent P er iod c alled T ransit ion I . T h is i s c haracter ized b y t ranshumance o n c oasta l s ituat ions ( B ird 1 943) i n a s ort o f t ransition a nd c omp lementat ion o f e conom ic a ct ivities. I n t his s ense t he n ew t rait - g ather ing , w hich d ef ines t he p er iod c ou ld h ave r evo lutionary i mp licat ions. T he d ef init ion o f e ach p er iod i n t he p roposed s equence i s b ased a lso o n t he s trat igraphic e v idence f or s ome a rchaeo log ical s ites, a lthough t here i s al ack o f s trat igraphic s ites f or c ertain p er iods s uch a s A lto R am irez a nd T iwanaku. A s ar esu lt t here i s n ot a c omp lete s trat igraphic s equence a t o ne s ite. C ross d at ing s tratigraphic e vidence f rom s evera l s ites t hrough C -14 b ecomes i mportant i n b uild ing u p a m aster c hart f or N orthern C hile a nd s urrounding a reas . T his c hart, a s aw orking t oo l, r epresents t he c u ltura l d eve lopment i n t erm o f t emporal u nits. A ccord ing t o t he p er iod if ication s hown i n F igure 1 , t he c u ltura l e vents a re i n c lose r e lation t o o ther a reas. T he E ar ly P er iod i s c ontemporaneous t o m ost o f t he A ndean H unt ing T rad it ion a nd s ites l ike T oquepa la, T arata, P uyenca a nd S umbay i n P eru; M orr illos a nd A yamp it in i n A rgent ina; a nd T agua T agua, S an P edro V iejo a nd Q uereo i n C entral C h ile. T ransit ion I p er iod o ccurs a t t he s ame t ime a s S an P edro V iejo I a nd t he i ntermediate l eve ls o f T agua T agua i n C entral C hile, P uyenca a nd S umbay i n P eru; H uachichocana i n A rgent ina. W ith t he I n itial P erod, t here i s am ore d irect r e lat ion w ith I nca C ueva i n J ujuy, w hile d ur ing t he E ar ly I ntermediate P er iod t he r e lat ion i s c loser t o Q a luyu, C hir ipa, P ukara, W ankarani a nd E ar ly T iwanaku, i n t he c ircum-Titicaca a rea.

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T he C h inchorro T rad ition . T he C hinchorro t radit ion c ompr ises a u n ique c u ltura l d eve lopment w hich d eve loped o n t he n orthern C hilean c oasts f rom a bout 1 8 t o 2 4 d egrees S outh L at itude. A mong t he m ost o utstand ing t raits t hat d ef ine t his t rad it ion a re : a rt if icia l t reatment o f b od ies ( mumm if icat ion), u se o f b ow a nd a rrow , m eta llurgy o f c opper, g o ld a nd s i lver , c otton t ext iles, a s ophist icated b asketry a nd , a t t he e nd o f t he t rad it ion , t he a ppearance o f e xper imenta l p ottery . A ll t he s ites - w ith t he p robab le e xcept ion o f A ragon - a re l ocated o n t he c oast . T he m ost r epresentat ive o nes a re : P laya M iller-8 ( PLM-8), C hinchorro, E l M orro, C amarones-14 ( Ca-14), C amarone-15 ( Ca-15), Q uiani-7 ( Qu i-7), P laya M iller-7 ( PLM-7), P isagua V iejo , P at illos, B ajo M o lle, C anastos-3, C a leta H ue len-42 ( CaH-42), A ntofagasta-H ipodromo, a nd p oss ib ly Q uiana-2 ( Qui-2) a nd T a lta l. T he w ho le t rad it ion s eems t o b e a c oasta l a daptation t hat i nc ludes s ome e lements o f t he t rop ica l c omp lex . A mong t hese, t he h a llucinogenic e quipment i s s ignif icant . I t i s c omposed o f t rays, b one t ubes, b oxes a nd s patu las f or s nuff . A lso i mportant i s t he e x istence o f h ead o rnaments m ade o f v egeta l f ibers a nd f eathers o f t rop ica l b irds, o f v ery d e licate a nd c omp lex m anufactur ing . B ut t he m ost i mportant f eature i s t he p reparat ion o f t he b ody a nd t he a ccompany ing m ortuary r itua ls o n w hich M ax U h le ( 1922) d ef ined h is ' Abor igenes ' o f A r ica ( Uh le, 1 922). I n f act , U h le d ef ined t hree t ypes o f b ody p reparation : T ype I , b od ies o f s imp le p reparation . G enera lly , t he b od ies a re e xtended , t ied a nd c overed w ith m ats a nd c lay ( i .e . Q uiani-7, C amarones-15). T ype I, b od ies o f c omp licated p reparat ion w ith d essicat ion a nd e v isceration o f t he b ody w h ich i s r ef illed w ith s traw , h uman h air , s t icks, s hap ing o f a s econdary r est itut ion, i nc lud ing a c lay m ask a nd w ig . ( i .e . P laya M iller-8, C hinchorro , P isagua V iejo, P at illos). T ype II, e xtended b od ies c overed w ith c lay a nd s and, a nd w rapped i n m ats . B ittmann a nd M un izaga ( 1976, 1 979) w ho h ave w orked m ost w ith C h inchorro m umm ies a lso f o llow U h le 's c lass if icat ion a nd p ropose t hat T ype I, c omp licated m umm ies, i s o lder . F or t hem , t he t echniques i nvo lved d o n ot h ave c hrono log ica l i mp licat ions . H owever , n ow t hat t here a re m ore C -14 d ates a vailab le a s ar esu lt o f m ore f ie ld w ork, U h le 's p roposed s equence s eems t o b e c orrect . I n f act , t here i s a f irst s tage w ith e xtended b od ies, c overed w ith c lay a nd s and a nd w rapped w ith m ats; a s econd p er iod w here c lassica l c omp licated p reparat ion s eems t o r each t he p eak, a nd a t hird p er iod w here i t d ecreased t o j ust s imp le p reparation w ith f ace c overed c lay p laster . T he C hinchorro t rad it ion c ou ld b e a ccord ing t o c hrono logy , t echno log ica l a ssociations.

d iv ided i nto d eve lopment

t hree p hases a nd c u ltura l

P hase I ( Chinchorro I ). P hase I i s c haracter ized b y e xtended b od ies, i n af ew c ases t he o rb ita l c av it ies a re f i lled w ith c lay, a nd p laster c lay c oated o n t he f ace . T he f ishing t echno logy c onsists o f s he ll f ishhooks, l ines, w e ights, h arpoons. A lso, t here i s s ome b asketry a nd c otton t ext iles. S ites a re u sua lly s ma ll c emeter ies . 1 46

T his p hase i s c onnected w ith T ransit ion Ip er iod w ith h unting a nd g ather ing a ct ivit ies. S ites m ost c haracter istic a re C amarones-14 a nd Q uiani, w ith a n a verage C -14 d ate o f 4 600 B C. P hase I ( Chinchorro I). D ur ing t his p hase t here i s a n i ncrease i n p opulation s ince m ore s ites a re f ound a long t he c oast . T he m ost c haracteristic t rait i s t he c omp licated m umm if icat ion w hich i s f ound a t s ites l ike C hinchorro, P laya M iller-8, E l M orro; Q uiani, P isagua V iejo-2, P atillos, B ajo M o lle, A ragon a nd C a leta H ue len 4 2. D we lling s ites a nd c emeter ies a re m ore e xtended a nd i ntensive ly o ccupied . T echno logy, f ishing e quipment i s m ore c omp lete a nd e ff icient . B esides b asketry a nd m ats, t he b ow a nd a rrow , a t lat ls, a nd t oo ls o f c opper a nd g o ld a re k nown. P hase II i s d ated b etween 3 500 t o 2 000 B C. P hase II ( Chinchorro II). I t i s d ef ined b y e xtended a s w e ll a s f lexed b od ies p artia lly c overed w ith c lay a nd s and . I t m ay m ean a s imp lif icat ion o f t he p revious m umm if ication t echniques. B askets a re p roduced w ith v ery f ine t echniques a nd t ext iles i mproved b y i ntroducing t he b e lt l oom . A lso, b esides c otton, w oo l i s b eing u sed . N ew t echniques l ike " repp" d eve lop g eometr ic d esigns i n t he d irecton o f t he w eft. T he h a llucinogenic e quipment b ecomes m ore p opular . T urbans a nd c epha lic o rnaments a re m ore c ommon. C hinchorro p eop le b ecome m ore i ndependent f rom t he s ea, b y i ntroducing n ew c u ltigens s uch a s m anioc a nd q uinoa. L ater i n t his p hase, e xper imenta l p ottery c haracterized b y a m ixture o f s and a nd a lga l t emper, m ain ly i n P laya M iller-7, c omp letes t he t echno logica l a dvancement . T he m ost r epresentative s ites f or t his p hase a re P laya M iller-7, C amarones-15, Q uiani-7, L os C anastas a nd p ossib ly P isagua. I t i s d ated b etween 2 000 a nd 5 00 B C. I n g enera l t erms, t he C hinchorro p eop le w ere o rganized p robab ly i n s mall g roups w hich h ad a n e conom ic s ystem b ased o n f ishing a nd g ather ing a t t he s ubsistence l eve l. B y t he e nd o f C hinchorro II s ome e xper imentat ion w ith a gr icu ltura l p roducts, o ther t han s quash a nd c otton, b egan ( i .e. p a llar, q uinoa, s weet p otato, y ucca). T he s ociopo litica l s ructure o f t hese g roups m ay h ave f unct ioned a s p resent d ay f ishing c ommunities. T hat i s t o s ay, a c ommunity o rganized w ith e mphasis o n s ea o r iented a ct ivities w here s ome s pecialization m ay o ccur . T echno log ica l d eve lopment i s a lso r e lated t o e conom ic a ct ivities a nd r ituals. A mong t he C hinchorro p eop le, r itua ls a nd b e liefs c onnected w ith t he d ead w ere q uite s ophist icated . C omp licated m umm if icat ion, d eformation o f t he s ku ll a nd p erhaps t rephining a long w ith e xce llent k now ledge o f a natomy , a re t he m ost o utstanding f eatures. M obility f rom o ne p lace t o a nother p robab ly p layed a lso a n i mportant r o le. T h is p attern i s a lso r e lated t o t heir s ubsistence e conomy, w hereas d ecisions w ere m ade b y c hiefs u pon t heir k now ledge o f t he e nvironment . A lt ip lanic T radit ion a nd t he A lto R am irez p hase. W ithin t he A lt ip lanic t radition, d eve loped, f rom a bout 1 000 B C t o A D 5 00. 1 47

t he A lto R am irez p hase S pat ially, A lto R am irez

c overs t he A zapa V a lley, C amarones, c oastal s ites i n I quique, a nd C aleta H ue len. T here a re a lso i n land s ites l ike T arapaca-40, C aserones, G uatacondo, a nd S an P edro d e A tacama. W ith A lto R am irez, t he f irst i nf luences f rom t he a lt ip lanic a rea, p art icular ly t he c ircum-Titicaca a rea, d eve loped o n t he c oasta l v a lleys, i ntroducing a n ew s ociopo litica l a nd e conom ic s ystem b ased o n c omp lemenar ity a nd r eciprocity. T his m ade p ossib le a n i ncrease o f p opu lation b y p roducing a s urp lus t hrough n ew t echniques i n a gr icu lture a nd h erding, d eve lop ing t he f irst v illages a s t he c ase f or s ites A zapa-83, C aserones, a nd G uatacondo . A s ar esu lt, af ew n ew t echno log ica l d evices w ere d eve loped. A t lat ls o f ar ectangu lar p latform s im ilar t o t hose o f t ype G ( R ivera, Z later, 1 982, p late 2 ), m eta l o rnaments o f g o ld a nd s ilver, s poons o f d oub le s haft, s im ilar t o E spoueys t ype A -1 ( Espoueys, 1 972-3:83), i mp lements o f t he h a llucinogenic c omp lex l ike s patu las, b oxes, t ubes, t rays; s ophist icated a nd w e ll m anufactured b asketry , s omet imes d ecorated w ith d yed w oo l; p ottery g enera lly u ndecorated b ut w ith s patu lated s urfaces a nd s and g r it t emper , o f g lobular a nd k ero s hapes; t ext iles w ith t he i ntroduct ion o f t he " ke lim" t echnique , a nd w ith g eometr ic a nd a nthropomorphic d esigns. S ome o f t hem h ave b een d ef ined a s o f P ukara a ff iliat ion ( R ivera, 1 977, 1 980). A mong o ther f eatures o f t he A lto R am irez p hase, a lso c an b e m ent ioned t he p ractice o f h uman s acr if ices a nd t he c u lt o f t he s acr if icer a nd t rophy h eads, m ound f ormation f or t he c emeter ies, a gr icu ltura l p roducts l ike q uinoa, a ji, c otton, b eans, s quash, p allar . A t t he s ite o f A zapa-71, A lto R am irez b ur ia ls h ave b een f ound c ontaining c opper a nd s ilver o rnaments o f s aur ian f orm ( Santoro, 1 980), a nd s im ilar t o t hose f rom B rowman 's A siruni-Pajano s ty le f rom t he c ircum-Titicaca a rea. A lso, t ext iles o f d ifferent t echn iques, i nc luding t w ining, b raided, a nd " ke lim", w ith g eometr ic d esigns . B y d esigns a nd t echniques, t hese t ext iles a re r e lated t o t hose c lassic A lto R am irez t ext iles w hich h ave b een d ef ined a s P ukara. A mong t hese t here a re g eometric d esigns, a nthropomorphic f igures, t rophy h eads i n c o lors b lue, y e llow , r ed ( R ivera 1 977:43) F rom a c hrono logical p o int o f v iew , t hree m oments c an h e o ut lined f or t he A lto R am irez p hase. A lto R am irez I , w ith t ime m arkers o f 1 000 t o 5 00 B C, o ccur ing a t t he s ame t ime a s C h inchorro II d ur ing t ransit ion p er iod I ( see F igure 4 ). A lto R am irez I T, f rom 5 00 E C t o A D 3 00, d efines a lso t he E ar ly I ntermediate P er iod w hich i s b ounded b y t he f irst T iwanaku i nf luences o n t he w estern v a lleys. A lto R am irez II, f rom A D 3 00 t o A D 5 00 a nd p robab ly l ater, c oexists w ith T iwanaku r eg ional d eve lopment, e specially L oreto V iejo, C abuza a nd M aitas/Chir ibaya. A lto R am irez I i s c orre lated t o P re-Classic P ukara o f t he c ircum-Titicaca a rea ( Chir ipa, W ankarani, M arcava lle, Q aluyu) ( See F ig . 1 ). I t r epresents t he e ar liest c ontact w ith t he A lt ip lan ic T radit ion a nd b egins t o r ep lace t he C hinchorro II p hase. I mportant s ites f or t his p eriod a re A zapa-71 a nd A zapa-14(84) w ith C 14 d ates o f 1 000 t o 6 00 B C. G enera lly s peaking , i t c orresponds t o D auelsberg 's F a ldas d e l M orro C omp lex ( Daue lsberg, 1 96 1), a nd S antoro 's A zapa p hase ( Santoro, 1 980). A lto R am irez I i s r e lated t o c lassic P ukara ( F ig . 1 48

T he A lto R am irez s ociety w as o rganized u nder d ifferent e conom ic b asis t han t he C h inchorro T rad it ion. I rr igated a gr iculture p roduced a s urp lus w hich m ay h ad r esu lted i n d emographic s tability . H ypothetica lly, i ntensive a gr icu lture a lso l ed t o t he i ntroduct ion o f t he c omp lementar ity p r incip le . A lto R am irez p eop le p robab ly v iewed t he ir e co logica l n iches l ocated i n t he A lt ip lano, o n t he v a lleys a nd o n t he c oast, a s p art o f t he s ame f ramework b ased o n t he p roduction o f d ifferent b ut s pecialized g oods c onform ing a ltogether a m ore c omp lex s ystem o f r esources . T his a lso r equires a f lex ib le t echno logy w hich a l lows p eop le t o m a intain t heir t ies t o t he m etropo lis. A s evere a nd w e ll s tructured p o litica l o rganizat ion p robab ly b ased o n d eit ies o f w hich t he s acr if icer i s a s ymbo l, c onstituted t he e ssence o f t he s ystem . C omp lement ing t his h ypothesis, i t i s a ssumed t hat t he A lto R am irez p eop le d eve loped a s trat if ied s ociety, i nclud ing d iv ision o f l abor, p rofessionals a nd a r u ler c lass w ho c onducted t he t err itor ia l a nd e conom ic p o licies. T hese s eem t o b e ap recursor o f w hat w ill t ake p lace l ater d ur ing T iwanaku t imes. S ummary a nd C onc lusions T wo m a in c ultural t rad it ions f or N orthern C hile p rehistory h ave b een o ut lined . T hey a re t he C hinchorro a nd t he A ltip lanic T raditions ( main ly A lto R am irez p hase d ur ing t he E ar ly I ntermed iate P er iod). A f ew i deas r egard ing t he p ossib le c onnect ions w ith t he s urround ing a rea w ill b e a dvanced, s ince b oth t raditions r epresent n ew i nput a nd m ay f orm p art o f d ifferent p rocesses w h ich, a ltogether, c ontr ibuted t o t he A ndean w ay o f l ife . A s i t h as b een d emonstrated a bove, b oth t rad it ions a re c omp lete ly d ifferent f rom o ne a nother . C hinchorro s eems t o b e r e lated t o t he T rop ical L ow lands b y t raits l ike t he a rt if icia l m umm if ication, t he u se o f b ows a nd a rrows, a t lat ls, t he h a llucinogenic c omp lex, b ur ia l t reatment a nd s pecial r itual f or t he d ead, a s w e ll a s s ome r emains o f f eathers o f t ropical b irds, a nd m anioc. I t h as b een a rgued b efore ( R ivera 1 975) t hat m ost o f t hese t raits e x isted p otent ially i n s ome A mazon t r ibes a nd t hat, d ue t o s carcity o f p rotein i n t he f orest a nd v arzea e nvironment , p opu lat ion m oved w estwards. O n t he P acif ic c oast o f N orthern C hile, M ax U hle ( 1922) a nd J unius B ird ( 1943) w ere a b le t o i dentify e ar ly s tages o f t his p rocess. S he llf ishers a nd t he " Aborigines" o f A r ica h ad b asically t he s ame t echno logy a t a s ubsistence l eve l b ut a dapted t o ac oasta l e nvironment . T he A lt ip lanic T rad it ion, w ith t he A lto R am irez p hase, i ntroduced n ew t echno logy w hich p erm itted a n i ntensive a nd e xtensive a gr icultura l p roduct ion. T his f actor a lso m ade p ossib le a s urp lus, a l low ing a p opulation i ncrease a long w ith t he d eve lopment o f m echanisms o f c omp lementar ity . T he C hinchorro p eop le w ere o rganized o n t he b asis o f b ands, c entered a roung f our o r f ive n uclear f am ilies, l iving i n t he f ew a vailab le s ites a long t he c oast, w hich a re p rovided w ith f resh w ater , a s f or e xamp le C amarones, E l M orro, C hinchorro, P isagua, P laya M iller . I n C amarones, t here a re i ndications t hat s everal f am ily g roups g ot t ogether a nd e ven s everal b ands w ere l iving a t t he s ame s ite. T he 1 49

s ize o f t he c emetery i s r ather l arge, c ontain ing s ome 1 50 b ur ials. I t h as b een s uggested f or C hinchorro I , t hat t here w as a w ave o f p opu lat ion c om ing f rom t he t ropical l ow lands. I t i s h ypothesized t hat t his p opulat ion c oex isted w ith p eop le f rom t he o ld A ndean h unt ing t radition. T his s uggestion i s a lso s upported b y B ittmann a nd M unizaga ( 1976:79). P eop le o f t he A lt ip lanic T rad ition b rought a d ifferent a pproach t o t he e nvironment . T heir m ain c oncern w as p roduct ivity a nd s o t hey d eve loped a gr iculture u sing i rr igation, g iv ing i mportance t o m aize a nd c apsicum . I n g eneral, t here a s ag reat t echno logica l i mprovement . F urthermore, t he A ltip lanic T radit ion, b eg inning w ith t he A lto R am irez P hase h ad v illages b ased o n a s ocio-po lit ical o rganizat ion t hrough e conom ic c omp lementar ity . T his f eature, q uite s imp le a s i s s tarted, l ed t o am ore c omp lex s ystem o f m ult iethnic s ett lements o n t he w estern v a lleys ( i.e. L luta, A zapa, C amarones, T arapaca, L oa). B eg inning w ith A lto R am irez p hase, N orthern C hile i s c lose ly r e lated t o c ircum T it icaca e vents. T his m ode l o f p opu lat ing t he P acif ic c oast a nd i ts s ubsequent a daptation t o t he n ew e nvironment p rovides a d ifferent p erspect ive i n t he u nderstanding o f t he A ndean s ociety . A n e ar ly p opulat ion s tock c ame f rom t he t ropica l l ow lands, p robab ly d ue t o p opu lation p ressure d er ived f rom t he h igh lands, a round L ake T it icaca. A n a lternative w ay w as f rom t he i ntermed iate a rea ( Jujuy, S a lta, T ar ija, M ojos) r ather m arg ina l t o t he T it icaca b asin, d own t o t he P acif ic c oast . T he s ocio-po litica l o rganization o f t he t ropical l ow land b ands w as a b asis f or t he s ubsequent A ndean s ociety. T echno log ica l d eve lopment, i ncluded a gr icu lture a nd a n ew e nvironmenta l s ituat ion, g ave t he p ossibilit ies, p rogressive ly, f or a m ore s ophist icated t echno logy . A t t he s ame t ime, b y 1 000 B C a m ore c omp lex s ociety e xpanded t owards n ew g eographica l s paces, i nf luencing b oth, t he e ast a nd t he w est s ides o f t he T iticaca. T his w ay, i t b ecame a n i mportant c enter f or t he A ndean c ulture. I t i s e xpected t hat b efore i nf luencing t he w estern v a lleys, t he A ndean c hiefdoms h ad a p revious d eve lopment a round t he T iticaca, b ecom ing i ncreasing ly p owerfu l. E ventua lly, t hey t urned i nto s ma ll s tates w ith a c ertain d egree o f a utarchy, u nt il t he p opulat ion i ncreased a nd e xpanded, d emanding a n ew d imension i n i ts s ocio-po litical a nd e conom ic o rganization . T his m ode l, e xp lained s o s imp ly, c ontains i mplicit ly o ne l ast c onc lusion, t he a ssumed a nt iquity o f m an 's s ett lements i n t he t ropica l l ow lands. F or a l ong t ime, f o llow ing V av ilov 's a nd S auer 's s uggest ions, i t h as b een s uggested t hat t he A mazon b asin c ould h ave b een a n i mportant c enter a nd p erhaps a s u itab le p lace f or m an t o l ive.

1 50

A cknow ledgements

T his p aper i s p art ly t he r esu lt o f aR esearch P roject f unded b y U niversidad d e C hile, S ervicio d e D esarro llo C ientif ico. U niversidad d e C hile a lso m ade p ossible m y t r ip t o V ancouver . T he B ritish C ouncil a nd t he E xecutive C omm ittees o f b oth C ongresses o f A mer icanists m ade a lso p ossib le m y a ttendance t o V ancouver a nd M anchester, r espective ly. T o a ll o f t hem m y a ppreciation. T o X imena R ivera m y s pecia l d iff icult d ays.

r ecognition

1 51

f or h er s upport o n t hese

L iterature c ited

B ird, J unius B . 1 943 E xcavations i n N orthern C hile . A nthropo log ica l A mer ican M useum o f N atural H istory, 3 8(4):171-316.

P apers,

B ittmann, B . &J . M unizaga 1 976 T he E ar liest A rt if icia l M umm if icat ion i n t he W or ld? A S tudy o f t he C hinchorro C omp lex i n N orthern C hile. F o lk, 1 8 : 6 1-92. 1 979 E l A rco e n A mer ica: E v idencia T emprana y D irecta d e l a C u ltura C hinchorro. I ndiana ( Ber lin) 5 :229-251. D aue lsberg, P ercy 1 961 L a C eram ica d e A r ica y s u S ituacion C rono logica. E ncuentro A rqueo logico I nternacional d e A r ica, M useo R eg iona l d e A r ica. E spoueys, O scar 1 972-3 T ipif icacion d e C ucharas d e M adera d e A r ica. i n : A ctas d e l V I C ongreso A rqueo logia C hilena . B o let in d e P rehistor ia U niversidad d e C hile, N umero E specia 1:63-109. S antiago R ivera, M ar io A . 1 975 U na H ipotesis s obre M ovim ientos P ob lacionales A lt ip lanicos y T ransalt ip lanicos a l as C ostas d e l N orte d e C hile . C hungara 5 :7-31. 1 976 N uevos A portes S obre e l D esarro llo A ltio lanico e n l os V a lles B ajos d e l E xtremo N orte d e C hile, D urante e l P er iodo I ntermed io T emprano . A ctes d u X LIIe . C ongres I nternat ional d es A mer icanistes T(T7 ):31 -38, P ar is. 1 977 P rehistor ic C hrono logy o f N orthern C hile . P h .D. D issertat ion, U niversity o f W isconsin— T unpub lisheUTTR ad ison. 1 980 A lgunos F enomenos d e C omp lementar iedad E conom ica a T raves d e A rea C entro S ur A nd ina. L a F ase A lto R am irez R eformu lada. i n : T emas A ntropo log icos d e l N orte d e C hile, M .A . R ivera e d ., p. 7 1-103, U niversidad d e C hile. R ivera, M .A . &V . Z latar 1 982 L as E sto licas e n e l D esarro llo C u ltura l T emprano P rehispan ico d e l N orte d e C hile . B o letin M useo L a S erena, T omo 1 8, L a S erena. S antoro, C . 1 980 F ase A zapa, T ransicion d e l A rcaico a l D csarro llo A grar io I nicial e n l os V a lles B ajos d e A r ica. C hungara, 6 :46-56. U h le, F . M ax 1 922 F undamentos E tnicos y A rqueo logia d e A r ica S ociedad E cuator iana d e E stud ios H istor icos.

1 52

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T he f irst p art o f t he p aper r eviews t he e thnohistor ic a nd e thnographic e v idence f or t rade b etween t he A tacama r eg ion o f C hilo, a nd t he L ipez a nd C hichas a reas o f t he B o livian a lt ip lano, a nd , t o a l esser e xtent, t he A rgentine p una. S erracino r eports o n t wo i nterest ing a rchiva l d ocuments w hich d emonstrate t he c ontinuity o f e xchange f rom p rehistor ic t o c ontemporary p er iods. T he s econd p art o f t he p aper d ea ls w ith E l L oa p rovince d ur ing t he A .D. 1 000-1450 p er iod. S erracino a rgues t hat t ha A tacena s hould n ot b e t reated a s as ing le c oherent a rea, b ut r ather t wo s eparate e thnic g roups, o ne c entered i n t he S an P edro d e A tacama v icinity, a nd t he o ther i n t he T un i a rea.

S erracino e xam ina l a e v idencia e tnohistor ica y e tnograf ica c on r e lacion a l os i ntercambios e ntre e l r eg ion A tacama y l as a reas L ipez y C hichas d e l a ltip lano, y a u na p roporcion m enores, l a p una e n A rgentina. E l a nuncia l os d os h allazos d ocumentados y i nteresante l os c uales d emonstran l a c ont inuidad d e i ntercambio d e l a e poca p rehistor ica h asta e poca c ontemporaneos. E n l a s egunda m itad d e l p onencia e l e xan ina l a p rov incia E l L oa d e C hile d urante l a e poca 1 000-1450 D .C. E l c onsidcra l a e videncia e n c ual d isputa q ue l a a rea n o e s u n idad c oherPnte, p ero m as b ien d os g rupos e tnicos s eparados, c on u no c entro e n S an P edro d e A tacama, y e l o tro e n l a v ecindad d e T un.

I ntroduct ion T he a nalysis o f i nterreg ional r e lationships c an b e o f t hree k inds: 1 . c ultura l, 2 . e conom ic, a nd ? . s ocial ( k inship). T hree d ifferent a pproaches a re u t ilized i n a rchaeo logy t o a nalyze t hese r e lat ionships : ( a) e thnographic a nd e thnohistor ic a na log ies; ( b) c omparat ive s tudies o f a rchaeo logical f eatures; a nd ( c ) s ettlement a nalysis. W hile t hree o f t hese l atter a pproaches a re u tilized i n t he z one u nder a na lysis h ere, s ett lement a na lysis i s t he m ost p roductive. T he s tudy a rea i s R eg ion Ia o f C hile ( 21 d egrees-26 d ecrees S , 6 7-7 1 d egrees W ). T his a rea i s d om inated b y t he A tacama d esert. W hile t he d esert i s t he n ajor f eature i n t he i ntermediate b asin, t here a re a lso c oastal a nd c ordilleran e co logica l z ones f or p otent ial e xp loitat ion. 1 61

E thnohi s tory T here i s n ot m uch e thnohistor ic d ata, a nd o nly o ne s ource r efers d irect ly t o t he t rade b etween t he S an P edro d e A tacama r egion a nd N orthwest A rgent ina. I n t he 1 558 C ronica o f B ibar ( fo lios 1 2 a nd 1 3) t here i s r eference o f t rade o f d esert z one f oodstuffs f rom A tacama t o t he C hichas o f t he a ltip lano : " Sabiendos l os i nd ios d e A tacama l a v enida d e l g eneral p or a v iso d e l os i ndios a q ue laman C aperuzones y d e l os d e G uatacondor y d e P ica, p ud ieronse e n a rma y e scondieron l as c om idas d e b ajo d e t ierra q ue e s m aiz y a lgarroba c hica b lanca y c hanares, q ue e s u na f ruta d e m anera d e a zofaifas. E sto h acian p or d os COS3S: l a u na p or g uardar lo p ara s ustentarse, y l a o tra p or q ue l os i nd ios d e C opiapo l es d aban m uchas s alidas ae stos d e A tacama p orque h iciese g uerra a l os c r ist ianos. S a lieron le e n c iertas q uebradas a l c am ino h asta m il y q uinientos i ndios C hichas, q ue s on d e u na p rovincia c ercana a A tacama d entro d e l as s ierras n evadas." T he e vidence h ere i s f or a v ar iety o f c ontacts. T here i s s ome i ndication o f ap ossib le m utua l a lliance b etween t he g roups. I t i s d iff icu lt t o o n ly d eal w ith t he e vidence f rom w ar w ithout k now ing o ther r e lat ionships s uch a s t rade a nd k inship . W ith r espect t o t rade, Ih ave l ocated t wo d ocuments i n t he n at iona l a rchives o f B o livia i n S ucre, E -59 f or 1 755 a nd F F2-95. T hese d ocuments r efer t o ad ispute b etween t he G overnor o f S an P edro d e A tacama, a nd t he n at ives o f S an P edro d e A tacama a nd T oconao, a nd a p et it ion t o t he A udienca o f C harcas ( Sucre) t o i ntervene b ecause " no p ueden v ender f uera d e l a P rov incia l as l anas y c ueros d e v icuna.. . y q ue e n l a j ur isd iccion d e S a lta l es p agan a p lata" ( E-59, f o lio 2 4) T his s ame d ocument r efers t o v ar ious i nd ians c om ing f rom t he p rov ince o f T ucuman, N orthwest A rgent ina, t o t rade a nd t o l ook f or w ork. V ar ious d ocuments f rom t he a rchives o f B uenos A ires ( Casassas C antu 1 974) i ndicate t he s ame g eneral p attern . T hese B uenos A ires d ocuments a re a n i mportant a ddit ion a s t hey i nd icate p laces w ith w hich t he A tacamenos h ad c ontact . A nd d ocument E -59 ( fo lio 6 9) m ent ions t rade o f i nhabitants f rom A tacama w ith t he p rovinces o f C hichas a nd S an A ntonio d e L ipez i n B o liv ia. Ih ave a lso l ocated a d ocument r eferr ing t o p o lit ical a ctiv ity, w ith t he m aintenance o f r e lat ions w ith t he n atives o f C uzco d uring t he r ebe llion o f T upac A maru i n 1 781. T he d ocument i ndicates t hat t his r ebe llion s pread t o t he P rovince o f A tacama, w here a g roup C hiu C hiu f o lk r ebe lled a gainst t he S painards. T hus w e h ave e v idence o f b oth e conom ic a nd p o lit ical i nteractions b etween S an P edro d e A tacama a nd t he A ndes.

E thnography T oday t here a re s till k inship a nd t rade r e lat ionships b etween t he r eg ions o f A tacama ( Chile), L ipez ( Bo livia) a nd N orthwest A rgent ina. T he m ovement a ppears t o b e b asically c ommercial, b ut t he v oyagers a lso i ntermarry w ith t heir c ontacts. T here a re t wo p atterns o f c ommerce. T he f irst i s t hat w hich o ccurs i n A pr il a nd M ay b etween t he A tacama 1 62

a rea a nd t he B o liv ian a nd A rgentine a lt ip lano a reas. H igh land t raders c ome d own d ur ing t he h arvest s eason f or m aize a nd v egetab les, b ring ing lamas, w oo l, c oca a nd r aw c ane a lcoho l. T hey t rade f or f lour, s ugar, c ooking o il, s oap, a nd p reserved f ruits. T he m ajor ity o f t hese v oyagers c ome f rom K etena, S oniquera a nd S an A gust in d e L ipez, a t wo w eek t r ip o n f oot . T he s econd p attern o f t rade i s t hat w hich o ccurs d ur inc l oca l r e ligious f iestas, w hen B o livian t raders b r ing i n r e lig ious a rtifacts n ot f ound i n C hile s uch a s i ncense, d ecorated c and les, m usica l i nstruments, m edicinal h erbs, a nd v ar ious m inera ls a nd r ocks. T hese t raders c ome f rom O ruro, u sually b y w ay o f t he A ntofagasta-La P az r ail l ine. M arr iage o r k inship i nterchange o ccurs f or t wo r easons b esides s imp ly f alling i n l ove. O ne i s c ommercially m otivated : t he c onvenience o f h aving a h ouse o f k in o n at rad ing t r ip w here o ne c an s tay a nd c onduct b usiness. T he s econd i s b ased o n k inship r estr ict ions, p reventing m arr iage f rom c lose k in, f orcing t he t raders t o m arry o ut o f t he ir k in g roup .

A rchaeo log ica l E v idence T he e thnographic a nd e thnohistor ica l s ources i ndicate t hat p o litical b oundar ies d o n ot i mpede i nterregional r e lat ions, e ven l ong d istance o nes. A rchaeo log ica l e vidence i ndicates t his p attern e xtends b ack i nto p rehistor ic p er iods. T hus f or t he E ar ly P er iod ( 600 B .C.-A .D. 2 00), G onzalez ( 1963:54-61) h as r eported R ed P o lished w are f rom S an P edro d e A tacama i n v ar ious s ites i n t he V alliserrana a rea o f N orthwest A rgent ina. E lbow p ipes o f t he s ame f orm a re f ound b oth i n S an P edro a nd i n N orthwest A rgent ina i n C ondorhuasi, C ienaga, L a C ande ler ia, A lam ito a nd T af i c u lture s ites ( Gonza lez a nd P erez 1 972:46; L e P aige 1 972-3:181; T arrago 1 976:62; S erracino 1 979). T he r e lationships w ith t he B o liv ian a lt ip lano a re c urrent ly u nknown d ue t o t he l ack o f e xp lorat ion i n t hat a rea. F or t he M idd le P rehistor ic P er iod ( A .D. 2 00-1000), e vidence f or z onal i nterchange i s c onsiderab ly g reater , b oth f rom t he T iticaca a rea o f t he B o livian a lt ip lano a nd f rom N orthwest A rgent ina. N ow t here a re c lear s tylistic t raits v er ifying c rosst ies. T arrago ( 1968 :140-1) n otes t rade m ater ials f rom t he A rgentine c u ltures o f T ebenquiche, L aguna B lanca, C ande lar ia, C ienaga I, H ua lf in, A guada, S anta M ar ia a nd C a lchaqui i n S an P edro d e A tacama. I n t urn, S an P edro I w are i s f ound i n N orthwest A rgent ine s ites o f T ebenquiche, L aguna B lanca, L a P oma, L a P aya, Q uebrada d e H umahuaca, A mpascachi, P enas A zu les, a nd L a Q uiaca ( Tarrago 1 976:62-3; F ernandez 1 978). R e lationships w ith t he B o livian a ltip lano d ur ing t his p er iod a re w ith t he T iwanaku f ederat ion. E va luation o f t he T iwanaku m ater ia ls i n S an P edro d e A tacama ( Serracino 1 980) i nd icates t hat l itt le d irect c ommerce i s i nvo lved, b ut r ather t he m ater ia l a re p ure ly a rtist ic. F or e xamp le, a mong t he 6 ,346 w ho le a nd f ragmentary c eram ic v esse ls r ecorded ( Serracino 1 980), t here a re o n ly 1 0 v esse ls w ith d irect r e lat ionships f rom T iwanaku. T iwanaku e lements a re m uch m ore n umerous a mong t he s nuff t ab letas a nd s nuff t ubes, a nd t hough t hey a re a n 1 63

i mportant t heme, t hey a re n owhere n ear a m ajor ity o f t he 4 08 t ab letas r ecorded. W hile t here c lear ly i s e xtensive c ontact b etween T iwanaku a nd S an P edro d e A tacama, t he e xact n ature o f t his i nterchange i s n ot y et k nown. T he i nterzonal r e lat ionships o f t he L ate P er iod ( A .D . 1 200-1450) a re l ess w e ll k nown, a s t o d ate m ain ly t he c eram ics o n ly h ave b een s tudied. C ont inued e xchange i s i ndicated b y t he I sla c eram ics f rom H umahuaca i n A rgentina, a nd t he H uruqu illa c eram ics f rom t he B o liv ian a lt ip lano . T his p er iod i s c haracter ized b y t he c onstruction o f as er ies o f v illages w ith i nternal o rganization s im ilar t o t hat o bserved i n A rgentina. I n t he n orthern p art o f E l L oa p rovince t here i s t he T chu llpas h or izon, w ith r e lat ionships t o t he A lt ip lano ( Nunez e t a l 1 975). S erracino ( 1979) r ejects t he i dea t hat t he t owers c a lled " tchu llpas" h ere a ctually s erved i n t he s ame m anner a s t he B o livian c hullpas, f irst b ecause t he ir a rchitectura l f orm i s d ifferent t han t he B o liv ian c hullpas, a nd s econd ly b ecause n o b ur ials h ave b een f ound i n m ore t han 3 00 o f t hese s tructures w hich h e s urveyed , w ith o ne e xcept ion, w hich w as I ncaic i n t erms o f a ssociated c eram ics. T he r e lationship b etween t he B o livian a nd A rgent ine a lt ip lano a nd t he C hilian a rea i s p robab ly m uch l ike t he p attern i dent if ied b y A re llano ( 1978) f or t he E l M o llo c u lture i n t he T iticaca a rea. S ett lement A na lysis. N orthern v s. S outhern E l L oa R eg ions T he m ost c haracter istic f eature o f t he L ate P er iod i s t he d eve lopment o f v illages. T hese h ave b een s tud ied a rchitecturally b y L atcham ( 1938), M ostny ( 1949) a nd L e P aige ( 1957-8). A lthough v ar ious e lements a re p resent i n s ome v illages a nd a bsent i n o thers, t he e vidence o n ly i nd icates s ome m inor d ifferences o f s ocia l a nd p o lit ica l o rganizat ion b etween t he t wo r egions; t he b asic c onclusion i s t hat t he v illages : il f orm p art o f t he s ame o verall c u lture. T his a nalysis c an b e r ef ined, f irst t hrough c arefu lly n oting t he c haracter ist ics w hich a re t he s ame a nd d ifferent i n t erms o f d ivision o f u t ilizat ion o f s pace; s econd i n t erms o f t he p resence o f s torage c hambers a nd s omething n ot p revious ly o bserved, t heir f unction; a nd t hird t he n umber a nd v ar iety a nd o r ig in o f t he g oods f ound i n t he s ites. Ac arefu l a na lysis o f t he m ater ia ls i n t his f ashion w ill a l low u s t o d ecide t he f unct ion o f t he s ites w ithin t he t err itor ia l s pace o f t he t wo r egions. T yp ica l e xamp les w ou ld b e T un i w ith 11 s tructures a nd T a likuna 1 w ith 4 5 e nc losures. T he t ypical s ite f or S an P edro d e A tacama w ou ld b e S o lor 4 , w hich a lthough i t h as n ot b een e xcavated, h as a s urface s catter c overing m ore t han 5 k ilometers s quare . T he o n ly o ther l ate s ite i n t he a rea w hich h as b een s tudied i s av illage 3 5 k m n ortheast, w ith 4 2 s tructures ( Serracino a nd S tehberg 1 974:37). I n b etween G uat in a nd S an P edro t here a re t wo o ther v illages o f s ma ller s ize : C a lar w ith 1 s tructures ( Le P aige 1 965, L am . 8 ) a nd V i lama w ith 2 5 s tructures ( Latcham 1 938 :99). T here a re d ifferent f orms o f i ntegrat ion b etween t he n orthern a nd s outhern E l L oa r egions. O ne r eason f or t his i s t he t opographic 1 64

d ifferences: T he s outhern a rea i s s urrounded b y t he A tacama s a lt f lats, w hich l im it m ovement f a ir ly u nilatera lly t o t he e astern s ector, w hile t he n orthern a rea i s p art o f t he l arge r iver b asin a nd t r ibutar ies o f t he R io S a lado, w hich t ended t o r estrict m ovement a long p aths p aralle l t o t he w atershed . T he l ocat ion o f s ites a nd t he u se o f s pace w ithin t he s ites i s v ery d ifferent. I n g enera l a ll o f t he s ites o f t he a rea n orth o f C hiuChiu a nd L asana a re o f t he s ame m ode l, a nd d iffer o n ly i n s ize. T here a re t hree s hared f eatures. L arge s tructures ( 4m x 1 4m , T alikuna 1 ) o ccupy t he n orth s ide o f t he v illage . A ssociated w as a c luster o f r ectangular o r s l ight ly r ounded s tructures, p robab ly r esidences; t hese s tructures w ere s urrounded b y l arge d eposits o f a sh a nd r efuse ; h ad i nternal s ubd iv is ions w hich p roba ly s erved a s s torage f eatures; h ad l arge j ars; b ut l acked i nternal h earths. T he t hird s hared f eature w as t he s er ies o f " towers" w hich s erved a s s torerooms, b ased o n t he m aize f ound i n t hem , w h ich w ere l ocated a round a s ma ll p laza ( e .g . T a likuna 1 , P anir i, E l C ircu lo). T hese " towers" a lso s pread t hroughout t he l ength o f t he v illage . I t i s t he l atter w h ich h ave b een t ermed t ombs, e ven t hough o n ly o ne b ur ia l h as b een f ound, a nd t hat p ertained t o a n I ncaic o ccupat ion. N ot a ll v illages h ave t he " towers" s pread t he l ength o f t he v illage--for e xamp le T oconce a nd T un i l ack i t, p robab ly b ecause t hey h ad a n a djacent c emetery. T he v illages i n t he s outhern p art o f E l L oa p rovince l ack t hese s torehouses o f t owers, a nd l ack t he s ame i nterna l d ivision o f v illage s pace. T he s ite o f Q uitor i n S an P edro d e A tacama i s b asically a l oca le f ormed b y c ommon s torage f acilit ies f or f oodstuffs ( Bibar 1 558). T he c eram ics a re n ear ly a ll l arge j ars a nd o llas. H ouses i n l ate S an P edro s ites h ave t he ir o wn s ubterranean s ilos. B ur ials a re p laced i n t he b ack p art o f t he h ouses. C haracter istic o f t h is p attern a re t he s ites o f C hiuChiu a nd L asana, w hich l ack t he " towers" a nd l ack i nterna l d ivision o f s pace s uch a s s een i n t he n orthern a rea. T hese d iv isions o f v illage s pace r ef lect t he i nclinat ion f or c ommerce w hich i s f ound i n t he r egion. T he s pat ia l d istr ibut ion o f v illages a nd t heir a ttr ibutes d ef ines t he c entra l a reas, t he p eripheral a reas, a nd t he a reas o f i nteract ion. U sing t he c r iter ia o f s ett lement p attern l ocat ion, w e d ivide t he s pace i n t he E l L oa a rea i nto t wo b asic r egions, a n orthern a nd a s outhern o ne. T he f urthest s outh t hat t he s torage t owers o f t he n orthern r eg ion a re f ound i s a t t he s ite o f S an B arto lo ( Latcham 1 938:118). B etween t he n orthern a nd s outhern z one t here a ppears t o b e a n i ntermediate a rea m arked b y R io G rande a nd P ena lir i, w hich w ou ld b e o n t he r oute f or t raders b etween T un i a nd S an P edro a reas. C hiuChiu a nd L asana w ou ld b e t wo m arket c enters s erving b oth t he n orthern a nd s outhern a reas, a nd C a lama w ou ld s erve a s t he p ort o f t rade f or t he c oast . C a lama c hanne led t he f ish a nd o ther m ar itime p roducts t o C hiuChiu, a nd f rom t here t o S an P edro d e A tacama a nd T un , w hich t hen d istr ibuted t he g oods t o t heir s urround ing v illages. T he d eve lopment a nd u se o f s torehouses i ndicates s ome e xternal i nteract ion, b ut i s m ore c lose ly l inked t o i nterna l i nteract ion . H owever t he c alculation o f t he a rea u nder c u lt ivation v ersus t he n umber o f h ouses a nd s torehouses i ndicated t hat t here w as a n e xcess a vailab le f or e xport . T hrough a n a na lysis o f t he g oods r ecovered , w e 1 65

c an r econstruct t he n etwork o f p roducts e xported a nd i mported. T he v ar iety o f p roducts w hich e x ist i n e ach s ite i s e normous; f or e xamp le as ing le t omb a t S an P edro d e A tacama h ad 3 70 i tems, a nd w e h ave 2 7,000 f rom t he e nt ire s ite . T he e asiest g oods t o a nalyze a re t he l oca l p roducts; n ear ly a l l s ites, f or e xamp le, h ave i nd ications o f e xtensive i nteract ion w ith t he c oast , h av ing s he llf ish a nd f ish r emains. T he c loser t o t he c oast , t he m ore m ar it ime p roducts; T hus C hunchur i h as m ore m arit ime r emains t han o ther s ites f urther t o t he i nter ior . A lgarrobo i s f ound i n a ll t he t ombs. A lgarrobo t rees a re r estr icted t o t he S an P edro o asis a rea t oday , a s i s a lso c hanar. T he f ruit o f t he a lgarrobo a nd c hanar a re u sed f or f ood a nd b everages, w hile t he w ood o f t he t wo i s u t ilized t o m ake i tems s uch a s b ows a nd d igg ing t oo ls. T he p resence o f l arge n umbers o f d igging t oo ls i n C aspana, o f as tandard f orm , i ndicates t hat t he p r incipa l g oods f or t rade f rom C apana m ust h ave b een a gr icultura l, s uch a s m aize, q uinoa a nd v ar iet ies o f p otatoes. S quashes d om inate i n s ome s ites, a nd a ppear i mported f rom N orthwest A rgent ina v ia S an P edro . C oca l eaf c omes f rom B o livia v ia C aspana, p assing t hrough T un , L asana, C hiuChiu, R io G rande, S an P edro a nd f rom t here b e ing d istr ibuted t o a ll t he v illages. C arnia l d eformation c an b e u tilized a s o ne i ndex t o a scertain t he l eve l o f s ocia l i nteract ion b etween t he t wo r eg ions ( Baron 1 978; S erracino a nd B aron 1 979). F or e xamp le , i n C aspana, 7 4% o f t he i nd ividua ls h ave a nnular c ranial d eformat ion, b ut t his t ype o f c rania l d eformat ion i s n ot f ound i n S an P edro o r f urther s outh. I nstead i n t hose a reas t abu lar e recta a nd t abu lar o b licua d eformation d om inate . T here i s a n u neven d istr ibution o f t he t ypes i n t he a reas b etween t hese t wo a reas. T his s uggests t hat t he f orm o f i ntegration b etween c ommunit ies i s p r imar ily c ommerce, n ot k inship. C onc lusion T he i nterregional r e lat ionsh ips i n t he C hilean r eg ion Ia f o llows a p attern w hich h as e xisted f rom t he p er iod o f t he e arliest c eram ic-using c ultures. T he n ature o f t he i nterchange i s n ot a lways c lear . S ome a rchaeo logists ( Nunez e t a l 1 975) a rgue t hat a ltip lano e thnic g roups m aintained c o lonies i n t he c oasta l a reas i n t he M idd le P rehistor ic p er iod a s w e ll a s t he L ate P rehistor ic P er iod . H owever I d o n ot b e lieve t hat t he e v idence o f s ty list ic s im ilar ities b etween t he a ltip lano a nd t he A tacama a rea i s s uff icient t o j ust ify s ay ing t here w ere a lt ip lano c o lon ies h ere. F or t he L ate P rehistor ic p er iod, t here a re t wo a pparent c enters i n C hilean R eg ion Ia--one a t T un i a nd t he o ther a t S an P edro d e A tacama--which s erved a s c entral p o ints f or m anag ing t he c ommerce w ith o ther r eg ions. A n a nalysis o f t he a rchitectural f eatures a nd a rtifact a ssemb lages f rom t he a rea s upports o ur h ypothesis o f t wo z ones.

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A cknow ledgements: I w ant t o t hank A na M aria B aron P arra, m y a ssistant i n t his r esearch, f or h er c omments a nd c orrect ions o n t his p aper, a nd H ector G arces, d irector o f t he r egional m useum i n A ntofagasta f or h is s upport o f t he r esearch a nalysis.

1 67

L iterature c ited

A re llano, J orge 1 978 L a c u ltura M o llo : e nsayo d e s intesis a rqueo log ica . D ocumentos i nternos I NAR 2 0-78 . L a P az : I nstituto N aciona l d e A rqueo log ia d e B o liv ia. B aron, A na M ar ia 1 97C I nforme s obre e l c ementer io A rchivo M useo d e C aspana.

" Los A bue los" d e

B ibar, G eronimo d e 1 558 C ronica y r e lacion c op iosa y V erdadera C hile. S ant iago : F ondo J .T . M ed ina. 1 966.

M ss.

l os R e inos

d e

C asassas C antu, J .M . 1 974 N ot icias d emograf icas s obre l a r eg ion A tacamena d urante s ig le X VIII. E stud ios A tacamenos 2 :75-92

e l

F ernandez, J orge 1 978 E xp lorac ion d e Q uiaca. C omun icacion A rqueo log ia C hilena. A lto d e V ilches.

d e

a l

d e

C aspana .

V II

C ongreso

G onza lez, A lberto R ex 1 . 963 L as t rad iciones a lfareros d e l p er iodo t emprano d e l N O A rgent ino y s us r e laciones c on l as a reas a ldeanas . A na les d e l a U niversidad d e l N orte 2 : 1 03-117. A ntofagasta . G onza lez, A .R . a nd J .A . P erez 1 972 A rgent ina i nd igena, v isperas d e l a c onquista . P a idos. L atcham , R icardo 1 938 A rqueo log ia A tacamena.

B uenos A ires:

S ant iago : P rensas d e l a U n iversidad .

L e P a ige , G ustavo 1 957-8 A nt iguas c u lturas a tacamenas e n l a c ord illera C h ilena. A na les d e l a U niversidad C ato lica d e V a lparaiso 4 -5: 1 5-148. 1 965 S an P edro d e A tacama y s u z ona . 1 4 t emas. A nales d e l a U niversidad d e l N orte 4 . A ntofagasta: U . d e l N orte . 1 972-3 T res C ementer ios d e S . P edro d e A tacama y T oconao . A ctas d e l V I C ongreso d e A rqueo log ia C hilena : 1 63-188. S ant iago : U niversidad d e C hile . M ostny , G rete 1 949 C iudades a tacamenos. B o let in d e l M use° N aciona l N atura l X XIV : 1 25-211. S ant iago . N unez, L autaro, V jera Z latar , a nd P atr ic io N unez 1 975 R e laciones p rehistor icas t rasand inas e ntre e l N .O . yN orte C hileno ( per iod° c eram ico). D ocumentos d e 1 -24. A ntofagasta : U niversidad d e C h ile .

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d e H istor ia

A rgentino t rabajo 6 :

S erracino, G eorge 1 979 C ata logo d e m ateria les e n S an P edro d e A tacama. U npub lished m anuscr ipt, A rchivo M useo d e C aspana. 1 980 T iwanaku d esde S an P edro d e A tacama. E stud ios A rqueo log icos 5 :95-106 1 982 E l c ementer io C hunchur i. N orte G rande 6 . S antiago : U niversidad C ato lica, i n p ress. S erracino, G eorge, a nd A na M ar ia B aron 1 979 P rospeccion d e l a rea n orte d e l a P rovincia U npub lished m anuscript, A rchivo M useo d e C aspana S erracino, G eorge, a nd R uben S tehberg 1 974 E xcavaciones e n G uat in. E studios P edro d e A tacama:

E l

L oa.

A tacamenos 2 :7-58.

S an

T arrago, M yr iam 1 968 S ecuencias C ultura les d e l a e tapa a groa lfarera d e S . P edro d e A tacama ( Chile) A ctas d e l X XXVI1 C ongreso I nternaciona l d e A mer icanistas I: 19-1447 B uenos A ires. 1 976 T ipos A lfareros d e S an P edro d e A tacama. E studios A tacamenos 4 : 3 7-64. S an P edro d e A tacama.

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R e lations b etween t he A rgentine P una a nd i ts e astern b order z ones. P edro K rapovickas

T his p aper p rov ides p art o f t he b asic d ata f rom w hich P o llard 's s pecu lative m ode l ( see h is p aper) i s b ased. K rapovickas d ef ines t he e co log ical p arameters f or t hree d ifferent N orthwest A rgentine a reas: t he p una v s. i ntermontain v a lleys v s. t he S ubandean H ills lopes o f t he U pper C haco. T he p aper f ocusses u pon t he N orthwest A rgent ine p una, a n a rea m ost s uitab le f or p astora lism , w ith t uber a nd s ome g rain a gr icu lture a lso . T wo d iscrete J ujuy p una e thnic g roups a re d ef ined b y K rapovickas f or t he L ate P er iod ( A.D. 1 000-1450): o ne c entered i n t he Y av i C hico p una a rea t o t he n orth, a nd t he o ther i n t he C asabindo a rea t o t he w est. C eram ic c ross-t ies a re p art icu lar ly s trong b etween t hese t wo s eparate p una a reas a nd t he i ntermountain v a lley f armers i n t he Q uebrada d e H umahuaca, b ut t here a re a lso c eram ic t rade t ies b etween t he p una a nd t he l ow s ubandean h ills/chaco b order a rea f urther t o t he e ast . T hus K rapovickas e xtends b ackward i n t ime t he k nown e thnoh istor ic p attern f rom t he t ime o f t he S panish c onquest t o a t l east A .D. 9 00-1000, a nd s hows, b ased o n m ater ial c u ltura l c rosst ies a nd t rade i tems ( such a s p ottery, g ourds, w ood f or m usica l i ntruments a nd a rrows, s he llf ish, c oca, a nd m aize) t hat t he e conom ic n etworks a nd t rade p atterns d ur ing t he L ate P rehistor ic P er iod ( A .D. 1 000-1450) w ere t he s ame a s t he e thnohistor ica lly d ocumented p er iod .

E ste e nsayo o frece u na p orcion d e l os d atos e n c uales P o llard ( en e sto v o lumen) b asa a m enudo c on s u m ode lo s pecu lativo . K rapovickas d escr ibe l os p arametros e co logicos p ara t res r egiones d istintos d e l N orteoeste e n A rgentina: P una, V a lles y Q uebradas, y S ierra S ubandinas O rienta l ( y l a lanura c haquena). E l c oncentra s u e nsayo e n l a p una y d escr ibe d os g rupos e tnicos d e l a p una d e J ujuy p or l os t iempos d e 1 000-1450 D .C. o P er iodo T ardio : u n e n l a p una d e Y avi C hico e n l a a rea s eptriona le, y e l o tro e n l a r eg ion o ccidenta le d e C asabindo. I nterre laciones d e l os c eram icos d e l os g rupos e n l a p una y l os i nhab itantes d e l v a lle p rehistor icas e n l a Q uebrada d e H umahuaca s on f uertes, p ero h ay e v idencia e n c uanto a r e laciones d e i ntercambios c on c eram icos y m ater ia les p erecederos e ntre l a y u na o tra r eg ion m as a l e ste . K rapov ickas d emonstra q ue l os d os e pocas--la p rehistor ia ( 1000-1450 D .C.) y l a e tnohistor ia d ocumentada--son c omparab le.

I ntroduction T he A rgentine " puna" r efers t o t he p ort ion o f t he A ndean a lt ip lano c ontained w ithin t he n ationa l b oundar ies. W e c an s ubd ivide i t i nto t hree d ifferent c ont iguous e nvironmenta l r egions: t he p una a nd i ts e astern b order ; t he e xtensive l ong itud inal v alleys; a nd t he e astern h illy r eg ions w hich i ntegrate t he s ubandean s ierra t o t he n orth w ith t he p ampas t o t he s outh. E ach o ne o f t hese i s ad ifferent 1 71

p hytogeograph ic p rov ince ( Cabrera 1 958, 1 971). I n t he p una, b etween 3 400-4500 m b e longs t o t he P unena P rov ince; t he h igher e levation a reas b e long t o t he A ltoand ina P rov ince o f t he A ndean R eg ion. T he l ong itud ina l v a lleys b e long t o t he P repunena P rovince o f t he C haco R eg ion. T he e astern h illy f lanks a rea b e longs t o t he Y unga P rov ince o f t he A mazonian R eg ion. T hese e co log ica l r eg ions c onc ide f air ly c lose ly w ith t hree o f t he f our r eg ions w h ich G onza lez a nd P erez ( 1972 : 3 1) d iv ide N orthwest A rgent ina . T hus I w ill a dopt t he ir t erm ino logy f or t he t hree r espect ive r eg ions : P una, V a lleys, a nd S ubandean Q uebradas a nd H ills ( F ig . 1 ). A rchaeo logy s hows u s t hat t he p reh istor ic i nhab itants w ere i nvo lved i n e xchanges w ith t hese d ifferent e cozones t o c omp lement t heir s ubs istence b ase . Ip ropose t o r ev iew p una a rchaeo logy w ith t he a im o f a nalyzing t he p ossib ility o f i mp lement ing M urra 's ( 1 972) m ode l o f v ert ica l e co logy a nd c omp lementar ity t o i nterpret a rchaeo log ica l i nformat ion . F ew s pecif ic h ypothese a re o ffered i n t his p aper ; r ather t he c ultura l, e conom ic a nd e nv ironmenta l c ond it ions w h ich w ill b e n ecessary f or f uture h ypothes is f ormu lat ions a re o ut lined . I h ave l im ited m y d iscussion h ere t o t he e astern s ector o f t he p una , t he z one w here I h ave d one t he m ost r esearch. Iw ant t o r eview t hree a spects o f t he i ssue : ( a) t he e conomy o f t he r eg ion i n p rehispan ic p er iods b ased o n a rchaeo log ica l e v idence ; ( b ) t he c u ltural i nterchanges b etween t he p una a nd t he n eighbor ing z ones, a s i nd icated b y a rchaeo log ica l m ater ia ls; a nd ( c ) a r ev iew o f e thnohistor ic s tud ies r egard ing t he r eg ion 's i nhab itants. P astora lism a nd A gr icu lture i n t he P una. I n o rder t o d eterm ine i n w hat m anner t he i nhab itants o f t he r eg ion s ought t o s ecure p roducts f rom n e ighbor ing r eg ions t o c omp lement t he ir o wn p roduct ions i t i s n ecessary t o f irst d efine t he l oca l e conom ic r esources. T hus I w ill o ut line t he e conomy o f t he p una i n p reh ispan ic t imes. I t h as f requent ly b een t hought t hat d ur ing t he c eram ic p er iod a p astora l e conomy d om inated t he r eg ion, w hile a gr icu lture w as t ota lly o f s econdary i mportance a nd w as i n f act n ear ly n on-ex istent . T h is s cenar io d er ives f rom t he g enera l n atura l c ondit ions o f t he r eg ion . T hus i t h as b een s upposed t hat t he g reat e levation a nd e xtreme ly a r id e nv ironment i nhib ited a gr icu lture p roduct ion, a nd t hat s tock r aising r ep laced i t . T his p icture i s r e inforced b y c urrent c ond it ions w here h erd ing i s t he m ajor d eve lopment a nd t here i s l itt le i n t he w ay o f p lant ing . As er ies o f e lements f rom b ur ia l o ffer ings h as b een s een t o c onf irm t h is p osit ion . I n p ub lished c o llect ions a nd m useum c o llect ions, w h ich a lmost w ithout e xcept ion c ome o n ly f rom t ombs, t here a re f ew c eram ics, a nd t he v esse ls a re o f c oarse w are a nd u ndecorated . B ut t he p reservat ion c ond it ions o f t hese b ur ia ls h ave a llowed t he r ecovery o f p erishab le m ater ia ls f rom t hese b ur ia ls. C onta iners f abr icated f rom g ourds s tand o ut a mong t he p er ishab le i tems, b y t he ir n umber a nd s tate o f p reservat ion . T here a re a lso a l arge n umber o f f orked w ooden h arness t ogg les ( horquetas) w h ich i nd icate s ubstant ia l u se o f c argo h arnesses f or a nima ls. T hese m ater ia ls a ppear t o i ndicate t hat t hey t raded i n l ightweight h ouseho ld g oods w hich w ere n ot f rag ile, a s b e ing b oth e asy 1 72

t o t ransport a nd a ppropr iate f or a t ranshumant l ife . T here a re a lso s ome t ext ile f ragments, a nd w ooden a nd b one w eaving t oo ls . W ith w oo l-bear ing a n ima l p roduct ion b e ing c urrent ly i mportant , t his t extile t echno logy h as b een t aken a s a nother p iece o f p roof o f t he p redom inant ly p astora l e conomy o f t he p una . B ut a ll o f t his e v idence i s i nd irect a nd p art ia l. R are ly h ave w e t r ied t o e va luate w hether t he a bundance o f w ooden o bjects i s d ue t o a c u ltura l m ot ivat ion o r w hether i ts p resence i s ar esu lt m ere ly o f t he h igh ly f avorab le c ond it ions i n t he a r id c limate f or p reservat ion. F or o n t he o ther h and t hese s ame b ur ia l o ffer ings a lso c ontain i mp lements d ed icated t o c u lt ivat ion . M oreover m any o f t hese c o llections c ome f rom c emeter ies i n w hose v icinity i t h as n ot b een p rev ious ly k nown t hat t here w ere s ign if icant r emains o f a gr icu ltura l c onstruct ions. T h is i s w hat h as o ccurred , f or e xamp le, w ith t he s ites o f t he b asin o f t he R io D once llas ( Ottone llo d e G arcia R e inoso 1 973; A lfaro d e L anzone a nd S uetta 1 976) a nd w ith t hose o f t he R io G rande d e S an J uan ( Krapovickas a nd C ig liano 1 962-3; K rapov ickas a nd o thers 1 978). I n r ecent y ears i nvestigat ions h ave s hown t hat t he s ituation i s v ery d ist inct , a nd h ave a mp lif ied o ur a rchaeo log ica l k now ledge. I n t r y ing t o a chieve c omp lete c u ltura l r econstruct ion n ow , w e n ow s tudy h ab itat ion s ites a s w e ll a s b ur ia ls. W e h ave i nvest igated a s er ies o f s ites w hich h ave e xtensive a reas w ith a gr icu ltura l c onstruct ions. S ome o f t hese s ites a re n ew ly d iscovered ; o thers w ere p rev ious ly r eported b ut o n ly i n av ery b r ief m anner . T he n ew f ocus o n r econstruct ion h as r esu lted i n t he e xcavation o f h ouses a nd m iddens a s w e ll a s b ur ia ls. T he m iddens h ave y ie lded a bundant e v idence o f a n ima l b ones. A lthough t here h ave o n ly b een s tud ies t hat i dent ify t he s pecies p resent a nd t he ir f requencies, t hese r emains a re t he f irst a uthent ic p roof o f a n i mportant m eat c onsumption u ndoubted ly s ecured f rom d omest ic a n ima ls. B ut t hese f inds h ave b een m ade i n s ites i n w h ich t here i s a lso c lear i nd icat ions o f a gr icu ltural p ract ices, a s i s s een i n t he e x istence o f a gr icu ltura l c onstruct ions o r b y t he p resence o f t oo ls a ppropr iate f or a gr icu lture . W e t hus h ave e v idence t hat i n t he p una a gr icu lture a nd p astora lism w ere o f p erhaps e qua l i mportance . T he q uant itat ive a na lysis o f t he b ones f rom s ome s ites w ith t erraces s uggests t hat i n s ome c ases, s uch a s S anta A na d e A bra laite, t hat c u lt ivat ion m ay h ave b een t he m ore d om inant o f t he t wo f orms o f e conomy ( Krapov ickas a nd o thers 1 977). T hus i n s ome z ones o f t he a ltip lano, c u lt ivat ion w as t he f undamenta l b asis o f t he e conomy, e ven t hough s ome a uthors h ave d ownp layed t he r o le t he a gr icu lture m ight h ave h ad i n t he e vo lut ion o f t he c u ltures o f t he r eg ion ( Pa lma 1 972 : 2 43,245). I n s ome c ases t he a gr icu ltura l t raits a re q uite c omp lex . I n a dd ition t o a gr icu ltural t erraces a nd c u lt ivated p lots, w e c an a dd i rr igat ion c ana ls a nd d ams f or t he s torage a nd] d istr ibut ion o f h ydraulic r esources ( Krapov ickas a nd o thers 1 977:9). T here a re a lso a ddit iona l e lements w ith r espect t o t he m it igation o f t he e ffects o f e rosion ( Krapov ickas 1 973:13,16). M oreover t here i s e v idence o f n umerous s torage s tructures o f v ar ious t ypes, b oth d omest ic a nd c ommunal ( Krapov ickas a nd C ig liano 1 962-3:100-104; O ttone llo d e G arcia R e inoso a nd K rapov ickas 1 973:27; K rapov ickas 1 973 :15). A gr icu ltura l t oo ls c onstitute t he o ther i mportant a spect o f t he e v idence . T hey a re 1 73

f ound i n t he t ombs, a nd i n s ome c ases, s uch a s t he h oes a nd t he s tone d igg ing b lades, a re s o n umerous t hat t hey h ave b een c o llected b y t he d ozens. H oes a nd d igg ing b lades h ave a lso b een f ound o n t he s urface . T hus i n s ome s ites w here t here a re n o a gr icu ltural c onstruct ions, t hese c u lt ivat ing t oo ls a re t he u n ique i nd icat ion o f i ts p ract ice . T hey a lso d emonstrate e xtension o f c u lt ivat ion i nto t he a lluv ia l b ottoms o f t he v a lleys, w here t here w as n o n eed t o c onstruct t erraces o r c ana ls ( Hered ia 1 962; G onza lez 1 963; K rapov ickas 1 977). S ome f inds o f c u lt igens, m ade i n d iverse c ircumstances, a nd c onsist ing o f m a ize a nd q uinua r ema ins, i nd icate t hat i n s p ite o f t he h igh g enera l e levat ion o f t he r eg ion, c u lt ivat ion c ou ld p rovide a n otab le d iversif icat ion i n s ome s ites. T he a rchaeo log ica l f inds l inked w ith a gr icu lture i nd icate n ot o n ly t hat a gr icu lture w as p ract iced w ith a c ertain i ntens ity i n t he p una, b ut a lso t hat i t i s v ery a ncient a nd h as a p ro longed t empora l d eve lopment. A lthough w e k now o n ly s ome v est iges o f t he s tage o f i ncipient a gr icu lture, t wo d iscover ies r e lat ing t o t his p er iod w ere m ade a t s ites o n t he e astern b order , I nca C ueva a nd H uachichocana ( Aguerre, F ernandez D iste l a nd A schero 1 973; F ernandez D iste l 1 974). Ir isk t o v enture t hat i n t he n ear f uture w e w ill f ind e vidence o f t his s tage a ll o ver t he p una. B ut a t t he m oment t he e ar liest r ema ins f ound a re a ttr ibutab le t o t he A groa lfarero T emprano p er iod . T o t h is p er iod b e long v ar ious s ites l ocated i n t he s outhern p art o f t he w esterns s ector : T ebenquiche ( Krapovickas 1 955) Q uinuas q uebrada ( Menecier a nd B arr ionuevo 1 978 :20-6), s ome s ites o n t he e dge o f t he A ntofa lla s a lare, a nd a s ite w ith c ircu lar h ab itat ions a nd c u ltivat ion p lots i n A ntofagasta d e l a S ierra ( Barr ionuevo 1 969 ; R aff ino a nd C ig liano 1 973:245). T he m ajor ity o f s ites i n t he w estern s ector a re, a ccord ing t o c urrent k now ledge, o f t he L ate P rehistor ic P er iod , a lthough s ome o f t hem m ay d ate b ack t o t he M idd le P er iod . A n e xcept ion t o t his i s t he l ower l eve ls o f C erro C o lorado ( Krapov ickas 1 977), w h ich c cu ld h ave g reater a nt iqu ity . A n a na lysis o f t he d istr ibut ion o f a gr icu ltura l s ites i ndicates t hat t hey a re l ocated i n z ones w hich h ave a dequate c ond it ions f or t he ir e x istence. T hus t he m ajor ity o f l ocat ions w ith i nd icat ions o f c u lt ivat ion a re f ound i n t he e astern s ector . T here i s a m ajor c oncentrat ion i n t he n ortheastern b asins, i n t he f ert ile v a lleys o f t he t r ibutar ies o f t he P ilcomayo w here t he m ounta ins p rov ide s uff icient w ater r esources. I n t he w estern s ector , w e k now o f s ites w ith a gr icu ltura l c onstruct ions a t t he e dge o f t he A ntofa lla s a lare a nd i n A ntofagasta d e l a S ierra. W e d o n ot c ontro l s uff icient d ata y et t o b e e qua lly p rec ise c oncerning t he d istr ibut ion o f p astora lism i n t he p una i n p rehispan ic t imes. W e s uppose t hat i t w as t he s ame a s a gr icu lture , t hat i t w as n ot p ract iced i n a ll o f t he t err itory b ut w as f ound l im ited a lso t o s pecif ic a reas. T he p una b asins h ave s uccesive e nv ironmenta l b e lts a t d ifferent e levat ions, w ith d ifferent e conom ic v a lue. P astora lism c an b e d eve loped i n t he s ame z ones a s c u lt ivat ion, i n m icroenv ironments d istinct b ut c ont iguous. B oth f orms o f e conomy c oex ist i n m any o f t he p rehistor ic s ites. W e k now t hen t hat w here a gr icu lture w as p ract iced t hey a lso r aised a nima ls. T he q uest ion i s, w ere t here r ea lly s ectors w here t he e nv ironmenta l c ond it ions d id n ot p erm it c u lt ivat ion, b ut f acilitated t he i ndependence o f p astora lism?

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A rchaeo log ica l

I nformation

It urn n ow t o t he c onsiderat ion o f e lements i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r eg ister w h ich s uggest t he e x istence o f c ontacts a nd e xchange b etween t he a ncient i nhabitants o f t he e astern s ector o f t he p una a nd t he p eop le p rox ima l t o i ts b order . I a m c oncerned f undamenta lly w ith t he m ost c onsp icuous g roup, c eram ics, b ut I w ill r efer t o s ome o f t he o ther m ater ia l w h ich i n a n e qua l m anner i nd icate s uch c ontacts. F or s evera l y ears t he a rchaeo log ica l p anoramas h ave p resented t he p una a s a n i ndependent c u ltura l r eg ion w ith r espect t o t he o ther p arts o f N orthwest A rgent ina. T hey i nd icate a u n iform d istr ibution o f i tems, a s a r esu lt o f t he i nhosp itab le c ond it ions, w h ich a re s een a s m ode ling t he f orm o f l ife o f t he a ncient i nhab itants . I n am anner n ot a t a ll e xp licit , p una c u ltures a re s een a s m arked b y c haracter ist ic e lements d ue t o t he p re-em inence o f p astora lism a s a n e conom ic f orm a nd t he e x istence o f b ur ia ls, p r incipa lly i n c rypts, w h ich h ave a n a bundance o f o bjects m ade w ith w ood a nd o ther e qua lly p er ishab le s ubstances. I n t hese d escr ipt ions c eram ics a ppear i n as econdary r o le a nd a re d isparaged i n t hat t he m ajor ity a re o f c rude f orms a nd w ithout d ecoration . T his p icture w as g enerated f undamenta lly a s t he r esu lt o f t he r eign ing i nvest igat ive t echniques w h ich l im ited k now ledge o btained t o t he e xcavat ion o f t ombs, a nd b y t he b e lief t hat t he t err itory w as o ccupied b y A tacama f o lk ( Araucan ians) ( Boman 1 908). B ut s tud ies d eve loped i n t he l ast d ecades h ave s hown t hat t here d id n ot e x ist s uch a c u ltura l u nity i n t he p una a nd t hat f inds m ade i n i ts v ar ious z ones r ef lect t he s ame f requencies a s i tems f ound i n n e ighbor ing n on-puna z ones. W ith t he g oa l o f p rov id ing a n o rder ing o f t he a rchaeo log ica l i nformat ion k nown, w e h ad s et u p i n a p rev ious w ork ( Ottone llo d e G arcia R e inoso a nd K rapovickas 1 973) t he h ypothesis t hat t he a rt ifacts t hat m ark s uch d ifferent c u ltures, a t l east i n t he e astern s ector , c o incide w ith t he ir l ocat ion a nd d istr ibut ion t o t he l im its o f s pecif ic p una b asins. T hus w e h ypothesized t hat e ach c u ltura l u n ity o ught t o h ave o ccupied d ist inct b asins o r n etworks o f i nterre lated b asins. T he d iv ides o f t he w atersheds t hat e x ist b etween t hese b as ins m ark t he f ront iers o f t he n atura l n uc lear z ones o f e ach o ne o f t hese c u ltura l u n it ies. W e p os ited f or t he e astern s ector t wo d ifferent c eram ic z ones ( Ottone llo d e G arcia R e inoso a nd K rapovickas 1 973:5 ; K rapov ickas a nd o thers 1 978 :4). O ne o f t hese h as a s i ts c enter t he c losed b asin o f t he R io M iraf lores, w hich f lows i nto t he L aguna G uayatayoc a nd t he S a lines G randes. H ere f or t he L ate P rehistor ic P er iod w e h ave a p hase w h ich w e h ave d es ignated a lternat ive ly a s C asab indo ( Krapov ickas 1 968) o r A gua C a liente ( Ottone llo d e G arcia R e inoso a nd K rapov ickas 1 973). T he o ther z one i s t o t he n orth o f t his a nd c ompr ises t he e xterna l b asin o f t he P ilcomayo t r ibutar ies, w here w e h ad d ef ined , f or t he L ate P er iod, t he Y av i C hico p hase ( Krapovickas 1 977). T he t hird l arge b asin i n t h is s ector , t hat o f P ozue los L aguna, h as s hared e lements. T he p rehispanic r emains o f t he M iraf lores b asin s how g reatest a ff init ies w ith t hose s ites t hat a ppear i n t he m idd le a nd u pper c ourse o f t he H umahuaca q uebrada. I t i s t hus o ne o f t he l arge v a lleys w hich 1 75

i s i ntegrated i n t he r eg ional u n ity o f v a lleys a nd q uebradas. S a id q u2brada, w h ich r uns n orth-south, i s p ara lle l t o t he M iraf lores b asin , a nd i s b ounded o n t he e ast b y ap ro longat ion o f t he e astern b order o f t he p una. T hese t wo z ones s hare a c ommon b oundary a nd a re s eparated b y h ills w hich f orm t his b order . T he c eram ic c omp lex o f t he t wo z ones s hows a n a pparent c raft s im ilar ity . R ed w are c eram ics, f ired i n a n o xid izing a tmosphere , d om inate t he t wo z ones. D esigns a re c ommon ly e xecuted i n b lack o n t he r ed b ase, b ut t here i s a lso a m inor w hite o n r ed c omponent . I n t he f o llow ing p aragraphs Iw ill p resent t he s pat ia l d istr ibut ion o f t he d ecorated t ypes i n o ne z one a s c ompared t o t he o ther , i nsofar a s t he a ctua l s tate o f k now ledge p erm its u s t o d o i t . W e l ump t ogether s ome u ndecorated t ypes w hich n onethe less h ave s ign if icance . I n t he Q uebrada o f H umahuaca t here h as b een a n e laborate s ystem izat ion o f c eram ic t ypes, b ut i n t he M iraf lores b as in s uch a t ask h as n ot y et b een c omp lete ly r ea lized . I n c onsequence i t f o llows t hat t h is p resents a d iff icu lty i n p resent ing t he d om inant t ypes . F or t h is r eason, a nd i n o rder t o g a in a b etter o rder ing o f o ur e xposit ion o f c eram ic t ypes, w e c ommence w ith a b r ief o ut line o f t he c eram ic g roups i n H umahuaca. I n t he c eram ics o f t he Q uebrada o f H umahuaca a s er ies o f d ecorated t ypes w h ich h ave b een g iven a r e lat ive c hrono log ica l o rder ing h ave b een s eparated . T his s equence , b ased i nit ia lly o n t he a ssociat ions i n b ur ia ls ( Bennett a nd o thers 1 948), h as b een p artia lly v er ified s trat igraphica lly ( Madrazo 1 969; P erez 1 978). A mong t he L ate P er iod t ypes, t wo a re u sefu l f or o ur p urposes : P urmamarca f ine l ine , a nd P urmamarca b lack o n r ed ( Perez 1 978). T he t wo a re b ichrome w ares w ith d esigns i n b lack l ines, w ith g eometr ic a nd r ect ilinear m ot ifs d om inat ing . T he t wo t ypes a ppear w ith g reat f requency i n t he s ites o f t he M iraf lores b asin i n t he f orm o f c omp lete p ieces o r a s f ragments . T he ir p resence, w hich h as t urned o ut t o b e v ery i mportant , i ndicates a c lose r esemb lance o f t he c eram ic c omp lexes o f t he t wo z ones w hen c ompared . B ut t his H umahuaca s ty le d ecorated c eram ic i s f ound i n t he p una w ith e xamp les w h ich s how e lements w ith a c erta in i mprec ise m anner t hat a ppear t o b e e ffected w ith a s omewhat r ud imentary t echn ique . I n c ontrast, t he t r ico lor c eram ic o f t he Q uebrada o f H umuhuaca , w hich i nc ludes n ot o n ly b lack a nd w h ite d ecorat ion, a nd w hich i s c onsidered t o b e o lder ( Bennett a nd o thers 1 948, M adrazo 1 969), i s f ound i n t he e astern s ector o f t he p una i n o n ly a v ery l im ited f ashion . H owever , a mong t he u ndecorated c eram ics o f t he Q uebrada o f H umahuaca, w e h ave o ne t ype, J ue lla r ed a nd b lack f ound o n s ma ll b ow ls w ith p o lished b lack i nter iors ( C ig liano 1 967) w hich i s a lso v ery f requent i n s ites o f t he M iraf lores b asin . B ut i n t his c ase a lso w e o bserve v ar iat ions i n t he t echnique o f f abr icat ion w hich t urn o ut t o b e c oarser t han t he q uebrada p rototypes. T here a re a m ajor p ort ion o f p lain c eram ic f orms i n t he w ares o f t he M iraf lores b asin i n w hich d ecorat ion a ppears t o h ave p layed a s econdary r o le . A lthough, a s h as b een p o inted o ut , w e d o n ot y et h ave at ota lly e laborated t ypo logy f or t his z one, w e c an p o int o ut a mong t he d ecorated c eram ics s ome t ypes w h ich a re i nd igenous t o t his b as in 1 76

a nd w hose d ef in it ion t hus i s v ery u sefu l i n t he c ompar ison a nd e stab lishment o f as equence . O ne o f t hese t ypes, w hich i s h ere c a lled T ype A , i s c haracter ized b y as pecif ic d ecorat ion a nd f orm . D esigns o f w ide t r iang les a lternat ing w ith b lack l ines a re p laced o n t he u pper p art o f v esse ls w ith e llipt ica l b od ies, h or izonta l h and les, a nd c y lindr ica l n ecks . T his w are h as t wo m oda lit ies. I n o ne, t he t r iang les a re p ainted d irect ly o n t he n atura l s urface f o t he c eram ic o r o n ar ed b ase ( Krapovickas 1 958-9 :58 ;, F ig . 4 ). I n t he o ther t here a re a lso t r iang les, p o ints, o r s ma ll w hite c irc les d rawn o n t he i nter ior ( A lfaro d e L anzone a nd S uetta 1 976, F igs. 5 ,17). T he o ther d ecorated t ype, w hich w e c a ll h ere T ype B a nd w h ich i s r e lated t o T ype A , s hows s ma ll c urv ilinear w hite d esigns i n t he f orm o f t hin h a lf m oons. T hese a re a lso c omb ined w ith b lack l ines ( Krapov ickas a nd o thers 1 977). T ype A w as f ound i n s ites o f t he R io D once llas b asin, i n T ab laditas, i n S anta A na d e A bra laite, a nd i n R inconada ( A lfaro d e L anzone a nd S uetta 1 976; C abezas a nd o thers 1 976; K rapov ickas a nd o thers 1 977). T ype B h as b een f ound o n ly i n S anta A na d e A bra la ite ( Krapovickas a nd o thers 1 977). I n t his l ast s ite, f ragments o f t he t wo t ypes a ppeared a ssociated w ith s ome p ieces o f I s la P o lychrome t ype f rom t he H umahuaca q uebrada. T his f ind i s o f i nterest a s i t i ndicates a n a ssoc iat ion o f c ertain a nt iqu ity . T his t empora l p osit ion, a s i nd icated b y t he c eram ics, i s i n a greement w ith t he c haracter ist ics o f t h is a rchaeo log ica l s ite . T he d efensive c haracter , a nd t he d we llings, w h ich a re o f c ircu lar p lan, a re a ssociated w ith a gr icu ltura l c onstruct ions. I t i s t his c onf igurat ion o f c onstruct ion p atterns w h ich i s c onsidered g enera lly a s t he o ldest . T hus i n l ight o f t his a ssociat ion a s w e ll a s t he o ther f inds, i t a ppears t hat t hese t wo t ypes a re v ery e ar ly b ut t hat T ype A p ers ists m uch l onger a nd c ont inues u nt il t he f u ll L ate P rehistor ic p er iod . T hese d ecorated t ypes s pecif ic t o t he M iraf lores b asin h ave b een f ound i n s ome H umahuaca q uebrada s ites, b ut a s e xcept ions a nd c lear ly o f i ntrusive c haracter . V ar ious v esse ls o f t he b ico lor m oda lity o f T ype A w ere f ound i n P ucara d e T ilcara ( Bregante 1 926:159, F ig 1 47). A nother v esse l, b ut o f t he t r ico lor v ar iety w ith w h ite p o ints, w as f ound b y u s i n ad we lling i n P ucara d e Y acoraite i n c lear l ate a ssociat ion ( Krapoc ickas 1 969). I n P ena C o lorada, a s ite n ear P ucara d e Y acoraite, t he t wo t ypes a ppear t ogether i n ac ontext s im ilar t o t hat o f S anta A na d e A bra laite a nd a re a lso a ssociated w ith o ther c eram ics w hich a re c onsidered t o b e o lder t ypes. T he s ett lement o f P ena C o lorada a lso h as d efenses a nd h ouses, w hich a lthough t hey a re i n q uadrangu lar p lan, a re a ssociated w ith a gr icu ltura l c onstruct ions ( Deambrosis a nd D e L orenz i 1 975). T he l ast t hree s ites n amed--Yacoraite a nd P ena C o lorada i n t he H umahuaca q uebrada, a nd S anta A na d e A bra laite i n t he p una--are l inked b y t he Y acoraite q uebrada w hich i s at r ibutary t o t he l arger H umahuaca v a lley . T his r oute o f c ommunicat ions b etween t he t wo z ones i s c lear ly t he r oute o f d ispersion o f t hese c eram ic t ypes ( Krapocickas 1 979). I n t he u ndecorated c eram ics t here a re m u lt ip le f orms w h ich a re c ommon t o b oth z ones. N everthe less s ome a re c onsidered t o b e m ore d iagnost ic o f o ne t han t he o ther . T hus t he b ur ia l g oods r ecovered i n s ites o f t he M iraf lores b asin f requent ly c ontain s ma ll b ow ls w ith c on ical b odies a nd c ircu lar b ases a nd h igh s traight t o s light ly 1 77

e verted s ides w h ich h ave b een c a ll

" tumb lers" ( Krapovickas 1 958-9 :57).

A lthough t hey h ave b een p resented a lways a s b e ing t yp ical a nd c haracter ist ic o f t he p una, t hey h ave b een r eg istered w ith m uch g reater f requency i n s ites o f t he Q uebrada o f H umahuaca, w here t hey a ttain, o n o ccasion, a d om inant p roport ion o f t he t ota l n umber o f p ieces. T he b iomorphic c eram ic r epresentat ions o f t he e astern s ector o f t he p una, a s w e ll a s t hose o f t he H umahuaca q uebrada, a re v ery l im ited . V esse ls w ith a nthropomorphic m ode ling a re s omewhat m ore f requent , w hile i n c ontrast z oomorphic f orms a re m ore s carce . N everthe less t here a re s ome e xamp les w hich a ppear i n t he Q uebrada o f H umahuaca a s w e ll a s i n t he M iraf lores b asin w h ich a cqu ire s ign if icance i n t hat t hey i nd icate o ne o f t he e conom ic p ract ices, t hat o f p astora lism . T his r efers t o t he v esse ls w hich r epresent i n a n atura list ic f ashion t he f igures o f lamas . T he i nterest i n t hese f orms i s ac onsequence o f t he i nd icat ion o f t hese r epresentat ions w ith r espect t o t he r aising o f a uchenids . W e c annot a ff irm i n w hich o f t hese t wo z ones t hey a re m ore c haracter ist ic s ince t hey a re f ound i n l im ited n umbers i n b oth, a lthough i n t he l ast f ew y ears t hey h ave b een f ound m ore f requent ly i n t he s ites o f t he M iraf lores b asin . H ere t hey h ave b een f ound a t S orcuyo ( Casanova 1 938 ), i n s ites o f t he D once llas b asin ( A lfaro d e L anzone a nd S uetta 1 976) a nd a t Q uinilican, w here w e r ecovered a n e xamp le i n o ur r ecent e xcavat ions. I n t he H umahuaca q uebrada v ar ious e xamp les w ere f ound a t A lfarc ito a nd L a I s la ( Debenedett i 1 918; C asanova 1 937; B eregante 1 926, F ig . 1 32). T o c omp lete t he e numerat ion o f a rchaeo log ica l e lements w hich a ppear b oth i n t he e astern s ector o f t he p una a nd i n t he H umahuaca q uebrada, w e m ust m ent ion, a lthough b r ief ly , s ome o f t he n on-ceram ic o bjects w h ich o ccur . A mong t hese f igure w ooden s poo ls, " horquetas d e a ta laje"(the lama c argo h arness t ogg les), a nd t ab letas a nd t ubes f or h a lluc inogens w h ich o n o ccasion s how s im ilar d ecorat ive m ot ifs. T he o ther z one o f t he e astern s ector o f t he P una w hich h as s hared i nd igenous c u ltura l e lements i s l ocated t o t he n orth o f t he M iraf lores b asin, i n ab asin w hose b orders a re f ormed b y t he ' r ivers a nd a rroyos o f t he t r ibutar ies o f t he P ilcomayo . A s t he r esu lt o f i nvest igat ions , I h ave b een a b le t o d ef ine s uccesive c u ltura l p hases ( Krapovickas 1 973, 1 975, 1 977). T he o ldest i s c a lled C erro C o lorado . T he m ore r ecent a nd b etter k nown i s c a lled Y av i C h ico . T h is l atter c u lture d eve loped , a ccord ing t o t he i nd icat ions o f r adiocarbon d ates, b etween A .D. 9 30 a nd 1 460. I ts z one o f d ispersa l i s c ompr ised p r inc ipa lly o f t he v a lleys o f t he r ivers a nd a rroyos o f t he n ortheast p una . A s t he p hase i s f ound a long t he r iver c ourses, t he l im its o f t he p hase o ught t o e xtend a lso i nto t hat p art o f t he d rainage w hich t oday i s s outhern B o liv ia. T he e lements w hich d ist inguish t his p hase h ave b een f ound i n s ites w h ich s how a v ar iety o f a rchitectura l c haracter ist ics. T hese i nc lude f ortif ied c enters, h am lets w ithout a ssociated d efenses, a nd s ites w ith a gr icu ltura l t erraces . T he d ist inct ive c eram ic c omp lex i s c haracter ized p r incipa lly b y t ypes w ith b uff , o range-ish, o r y e llow ish c o lor p aste , w hich h ave a bundant w hite-co lored i nc lusions . T here a re t ypes b oth w ith a nd w ithout d ecorat ion i n t his w are . A mong t he d ecorated t ypes a re Y avi C hico p o lychrome, P ort illo p o lychrome, a nd P ort illo p urp le o n b uff . A mong t he p la inwares a re P ort illo p la in

1 78

b uff . O ther t ypes w ithout d ecorat ion a re a lso c haracter ist ic o f t his p hase, b ut t hey h ave d ifferent i nc lusions i n t he p aste ; t hey i nc lude P ozue los w ith q uartz, C erro C o lorado p la in, a nd Y av i C hico b lack w ith m ica t ypes ( Krapovickas 1 975, 1 977). V ar ious o f t he t ypes m ent ioned h ave b een f ound o utside o f t he p una l im its, i n s ites a djacent t o i ts b orders. O ne o f t hese s ites i s S anta V ictor ia ( Togo 1 973). T his c enter i s f ound o n t he e astern s lopes o f t he s ierra o f t he s ame n ame . A t t his s pot , t he e astern b order o f t he p una i s c onst ituted s o le ly b y t he S anta V ictor ia c ha in, w h ich r uns f rom t h is l oca lity t o t he a lt ip lano, b ut w hich i s v ery c lose t o t he s ites w hich w ere u t ilized t o d ef ine t he Y av i C h ico p hase . T he e nvironment o f S anta V icotr ia i s d ist inct ; i t i s g overned n ot b y a lt ip lanolike c ond it ions b ut b y t he h um ider a nd l ower d eep v a lleys. S anta V ictor ia i s a t 2 400 m , w h ile Y av i C hico i s a t 3 200 m . T he o ccurrence o f v ar ious t ypes w h ich a re m ost r epresentat ive o f Y av i C h ico h ave b een r ecognized i n t he c eram ic c omp lex . T hus t he f inds o f S anta V ictor ia m ark a n e xtension o f t he Y av i C hico c u ltura l s phere t o t he e ast t o a n e nv ironment , w hich a lthough n e ighbor ing , i s v ery d ist inct ' rom t he o r ig ina l c u ltura l h abitat . T he s pat ia l d istr ibut ion o f t he d ist inct a rchaeo log ica l e lements a na lyzed s uggest s pec if ic s ituat ions o f c ontact a nd i nterre lat ionsh ip b etween t he p opulat ions o f t he v ar ious z ones c onsidered . T he l inkages b etween t he c eram ic c omp lexes i dent if ied i n t he M iraf lores b asin a nd t hose i n t he m idd le a nd u pper s ect ions o f t he H umahuaca q uebrada a ppear t o b e v ery s parse; o n ly s ome v ery s pecif ic t ypes a ppear t o b e v er y c lose ly l inked ; a nd o n ly s ome s pecif ic t ypes p erm it u s t o o bserve d istinct ions. T h is s upposes t he e x istence o f c lose l inks o f a n e thnic c haracter b etween t he p opu lat ions o f t he t wo c ont iguous z ones. H owever t he p resence o f v ar ious l oca l t ypes i nd icates a c ertain c u ltura l i ndependence b etween t he t wo g roups . T he a ppearance o f s pec ific y pes f rom o ne o f t hese z ones i n t he o ther o ught t o b e a p roduct o r t he ir e xchange . I n t he c ase o f t he m ater ia ls o f t he Y avi C hico p hase w e h ave o bserved, a s n oted , t wo d ifferent s ituat ions. O ne i s t he d ispersion o f c oncrete e lements, w ith a c ertain t err itor ia l c ont inuity, t o p roxima l z ones s eparated o n ly b y t he a ccident o f a n i nterposing m ountain r ange, w h ich i nc lude d iverse e nv ironmenta l c ond it ions. T h is c ou ld b e c onsidered a s t est imony o f t he e xtension o f t he s ame p opu lat ion m aking a d ist inct e nvironment t he ir o wn, b ut o ne w h ich i s e ncountered i n t he ir i mmed iate v icinity . T he o ther Y av i C h ico s ituation, f ound i n p laces s eparated b y m uch g reater d istances, d ea ls w ith m ater ia ls o f a n i ntrusive c haracter , w hich o ught t o b e t aken a s i nd ication o f t he m ovement o f s ma ll g roups o f p eop le c arry ing t hese e lements. A ccord ing t o t he a rchaeo log ica l i nformat ion w hich w e h ave, b oth o f t hese p rocesses c ont inue i n p lace d ur ing t he L ate P rehistor ic P er iod. S ome o f t hese i nterchanges, d ef ined b y c eram ics, c ou ld b e e ar lier , a s i ndicated b y s ome a ssociat ions. F or a l l o f t he p rev ious d iscussions w e h ave d ea lt w ith t he d ispersion o f s ome o f t he e lements o f a rchaeo log ica l r eg isters, p r imarily t he c eram ic o nes, f or t he z ones p rox ima l t o a nd a djo ining t he e astern e dge o f t he p una. A ll o f t he l inkages w ere t aken a s e v idence o f d ist inct t ypes o f e stab lished r e lat ionships b etween t he 1 79

p rehispanic p opulat ions. B ut w e d id n ot i nd icate i f t hese i nvo lved a r ea l e conom ic i nterchange o f g oods a nd p roducts. W e h ave , n onethe less, s ome s pecif ic f inds t hat r e late t o r ea l e conom ic i nterchange a nd i nd icate l inkages m ade a t s ome d istance . T hese d ea l w ith a s er ies o f e lements o f v egetab le o r ig in w h ich u ndoubted ly c ome f rom l oca lit ies w hose e nvironmenta l c ond it ions c ontrast m ar ked ly w ith t hose f ound i n t he p una . T he p una f unerary f urniture , e specia lly t hose c om ing f rom t he b ur ia ls i n t he w a lled u p c rypts, a re k nown f rom m u lt ip le p laces i n t he e astern s ector a nd a re a lways d ist inguished b y t he p resence o f al arge n umber o f w ooden o bjects. T he v ar iety o f w ooden o bjects i s v ery e xtensive a nd i ts i nventory s hou ld b e s een i n t he r e levant b ib liography ( Boman 1 908 ; K rapovickas 1 958-9). S ome o f t hese t oo ls , p oss ib le t he s ma llest a nd s imp lest , w ere m ade o f t he w ood o f o ne o f t he t wo u n ique p una t rees--quenoa ( Po ly lep is t omente lla) a nd c hurqu i ( Prosop is f erox). B ut t he m ajor ity o f s poons, b ows, s nuff i mp lements, e tc, w ere f abr icated o f t he d ark h ardwoods b rought f rom t he w ood lands t o t he c ast . T he g ourds ( Lagenar ia) w ere u t ilized t o m ake c onta iners. T hese f inds, p lain o r d ecorated b y p yroenrav ing , a re u n iversa l i n t he i nhumat ions i n t he a lt ip lano . A s g ourds c annot b e g rown i n t he a lt ip lano, t hey w ere b rought u p i n l arge q uant it ies f rom w armer a nd l ower z ones. T he l ist o f e xot ic v egeta l e lements p reserved i nc ludes a lso c oca, w hose o ccurrence h as b een s uggested o n o ccasions ( Casanova 1 938), s ome f ruits s uch a s n uts ( nueces) u sed t o m ake r att les o r a dornos: c anes w h ich a re u sed t o m ake m us ica l i nstruments , c ases o r a rrow s hafts, a nd a lgarroba, c lear ly f or f ood ( Lehmann-Nitsche 1 902:87: O ttone llo d e G arcia R e inoso a nd K rapovickas 1 973 :33 ). T he p resence o f a ll t hese e lements, o r ig inat ing i n t he h um id e astern i -e g ions, d enotes t he e x istence o f am ovement o f b oth p roducts a nd p eop le . S uch e xchange i s i nd icated, i n a n e ast-west d irection, i n m any p laces. T hey e mp loyed t he q uebradas a nd p asses w hich o pened o nto t he e astern p una b order . I t i s p ossib le t hat t he H umahuaca Q uebrada s erved a s a n i ntermed iate s tep i n t he e nt ire c omp lex s ystem o f i nterchange . T here i s o ne f actor w h ich p erm its u s t o s uggest i ts b readth o f i mportance . A t c erta in p o ints, a pparent ly n odes o f t hese a ncient r oads, t here a re a ncient f ort if ied c enters p reserved w h ich c orrespond c hrono log ica lly t o t he L ate P er iod . F urther t o t he n orth , i n t he z one o f Y av i C h ico d ispersion, n ear t o t he s ierra o f S anta V ictor ia, i s C erro C o lorado . H ere t here i s as ett lement c onstructed o n a p romontory . A djacent t o i t p asses a r oad, p ossib le t he d escendant o f a nother p rehispanic r oad . I n t he H umahuaca q uebrada, a t t he m ouths o f v ar ious s ubsid iary q uebradas t hat, a s m uch f or m ovement t o t he e ast a s t o t he w est , p erm it t he b reaching o f t he h igh s ierras w hich b order t he s ierra, t here a re a lso f ort if ied i nsta llat ions : T ilcara, C ampo M orado , Y acora ite a nd C a lete . A ll o f t hese a re l oca lized o n h eights o f s trateg ic c haracter f rom w hich t hey c ou ld o bserve a w ide a rea . T he ir d irect a ssociat ion w ith p o ints w h ich a ppear t o b e c ross-roads s uggests t hat t he ir f unct ion w as t hat o f s ecur ing c ontro l o f t hese r oads. B ut g iven t he ir p rov isions f or d efense, w e t hink t hat s uch c ontro l w as n ot p eacefu l, b ut r ather c oercive. V ar ious o f t he s ites t hus d ef ined a re v ery p rox im ate t o o ne a nother s pat ia lly a nd a re c u ltura l r e lated, a nd t hus i t i s p oss ib le 1 80

t hat t he f ort if icat ions p ertain t o s trugg le f or t he d om inance o f c ontro l a mong n e ighbor ing r e lated c ommun it ies ( Krapov ickas 1 969,1979). W ith t he I nca c onquest t he p una w as i nc luded a mong t he c omp lex i mper ia l s ocio-po lit ical o rganization . A ccord ing t o h istor ic s ources a n I ncaic r oad p assed t hrough t he e astern s ector . J uan d e M at ienzo, i n al etter t o t he k ing d ated 1 566, m ent ioned a s er ies o f t ambos a nd a lso c ited t he I nd ian e thnic g roups w h ich s erved i n t he t ambos a t t he t ime o f t he I nca . T he I nca p resence c ont inues t o b e d e lim ited a rchaeo log ica lly b y f requent f inds o f o bjects o f I nca o r ig in i n s ites i n t he p una a nd b y t he l ocat ion o f i nsta llat ions w hich a re c lear ly I ncaic. I n s ome p laces, s uch a s C ochinaca, C uzqueno r ema ins a re p art icu lar ly n umerous. I nc luded a re I nca s herds i n e very s treet o f t he p ueb lo i nd icat ing t he i ntensity o f t h is o ccupat ion. A t Q uiaca V ieja w e h ave e xcavated a n I ncaic s ructure w hich i s s uper imposed u pon a n e ar lier l oca l h ouse . A lthough t he w a lls w ere e ncountered t ota lly r azed , t he ir t races r evea l t hat i t w as, p ossib ly, at ambo . W e c an i nd icate t he r oad l inking t hese i nsta llat ions t o o ther i nsta llat ions, l ocated a way f rom t he p una b ut a long i ts e astern e dge, w hich a lso s how c lear a ttr ibutes o f a n i mper ia l o ccupat ion c onsist ing o f a rt ifacts a nd I ncaic s tructures. I n t h is m anner t he n etwork o f c ommun icat ions e stab lished b y t he I ncas, l inking t he e aster s ector o f t he P una w ith o ther r eg ions, c an b e o ut lined w ith t ota l s ecur ity, c onf idence, b readth a nd s ystematizat ion. W r itten S ources f rom t he 1 6th C entury T he r esemb lances a nd s im ilar it ies w hich c an b e i dent if ied i n t he a rchaeo log ica l m ater ia ls d e lim it a c omp lex a ssemb lage o f i nterre lat ionships b etween t he p rehispanic p opu lat ions w h ich l ived o n o ne o r t he o ther s ide o f t he e astern b order o f t he p una. T he c haracter ist ics w h ich d ef ine t he d ispersion o f t he d iverse c u ltura l m anifestat ions d e lim it c ontacts w hich w ere n ot s porad ic b ut c ont inuous a nd p ro longed . Is uggest a lso t hat n e ighbor ing z ones, d ifferent i n q uantity o f t he ir n atura l r esources, w ere o ccupied b y t he s ame g roup o r w ere t he s eat o f s ociet ies w hich, a lthough s how ing a c ertain i ndependence, w ere i nt imate ly r e lated . F rom o ur p rev ious r esearch, w e c an c o llect a l ist o f f inds i n t he p una o f p roducts o r ig inat ing f rom d istant z ones, t hat c onf irm a n i nterchange o f g oods. B ut t he a rchaeo log ica l r eg ister i s m ute a nd a s a r esu lt f ound w anting , r equiring a ssistance f rom o ther m eans s uch a s e thnoh istor ic d ocumentat ion, a s t o w hether t he p easant p opu lat ions o f t he z ones w ere a lso i nvo lved i n s uch m ovements. I n t his m anner, u s ing b r idg ing p roject ions t o t he a rchaeo log ica l r ema ins f rom t he i nformat ion o btained f rom e thnoh istor ic s ources, w e c an f ormu late h ypotheses r e lative t o t he f orms o f s ocia l o rganizat ion a nd t he e conom ic s ystems w h ich s upport t he p rocesses t o w hich t hese r ema ins t est ify . I n t he p aragraphs w h ich f o llow I m ake a b r ief s ummary o f t he i nformat ion f rom t he w r itten s ources c ontemporary w ith t he 1 6th c entury h ispanic c onquest . T he o bservat ions w hich f o llow a re t he p roduct o f a n a na lysis o f a s er ies o f i mportant d ocuments f rom t he 1 6th c entury , p ub lished i n d iverse c o llect ions, w hich m ake r eference t o t he f ormer i nhabitants o f t he p una . T he g eographic s cope o f a na lysis i s v ery l im ited . If ocus 1 81

e xc lusive ly u pon i nformat ion f rom v ar ious g roups n e ighbor ing t he r oad w hich r uns f rom n orth t o s outh a long t he e astern s ector o f t he p una, r unn ing f rom C harcas, i n U pper P eru, t o S ant iago d e l E stero, s eat o f t he g overnment o f T ucuman, D iaguitas a nd J ur ies . T hese w r it ings , g enera lly , a re l im ited t o m ent ioning t he n ames o f n at ions, t r ibes, p ueb los o r c ommunit ies o f I nd ians. T here a re v ar ious r easons f or t hese e numerat ions. O n o ccasion t he e numerat ions a re l ists o f c uracas a nd p ueb los o f t heir d ependents w h ich w ere g ranted i n e ncom ienda t o t he e ar ly c onquistadores. I n o thers t hey f igure i n t he d ocuments r e lat ive t o t he f ound ing o f t owns, w here t hey d eterm ine t he l im its o f t he ir p ub lic l ands a nd j ur isd ict ions. M ost o f t he t ime t hey a re r eg istered i n o ther p apers o f b ureaucrat ic c haracter s uch a s t he P robanzas d e M er itos y S ervicos o f t he c onquistadores, i n t he l etters o f t he G overnors o r t he A ud iencias, i n v ar ious o f t he R e lac iones, e tc . T he i nformat ion c ontained i n t hese d ocuments w ith r espect t o t he I nd ians o f t he p una i s m inima l. T hose I nd ians a re r educed p ract ica lly t o o n ly a m ention i n t he b att le e p isodes o f t he S pan ish c onquest , w ith o n ly r are m ent ion m ade c oncern ing l ife w ays. T his i nc ludes m ent ions o f " despob lado" av ague a nd i mprecise t erm i n i ts s ign if icance , a pparent ly a t t imes i ntegrated w ith t he r eg ion . T his o ught t o r efer , i n l arge p art , t o t he r esistance o f t he a lt ip lano i nhabitants t o t he E uropeans. O ne f act w hich t ranscends a l l o ther m ent ions o f t he p una I nd ians, w hich w as r epeated ly c ited , w as t he l arge r ebe llion c apta ined b y J uan C a lchaqui. T h is p owerfu l c uraca c onfederated a lmost a ll o f t he t r ibes s outh o f t he a lt ip lano a nd i n t he n e ighbor ing v alleys, i nc luding t he C hir iguanos, b etween 1 562 a nd 1 588. T h is w as a d angerous t reat t o t he m ining e stab lishments o f P orco a nd P otosi. T he r oad r eferred t o f rom T ucuman t o A lto P eru w as i ntercepted f or a l ong t ime . T he a ssau lts, p lunder ing a nd m urders o f S paniards a t t he h ands o f t he I nd ians w ere f requent a nd t he v oyagers h ad t o b e p rotected o n t he ir j ourneys b y a rmed e scorts. A n e ssent ia l t ask i n t his s tudy o f e thnoh istorica l s ources l ies i n t he m ore o r l ess p recise d eterm inat ion o f t he g eographica l l ocat ions o f t he i nd igenous g roups m ent ioned . T his i s b ased o n a n i nterpretat ion o f t he t exts t hat i nc ludes a n a na lysis o f t oponyms d er ived f rom t he ir n ames; t he r are m ent ions o f s pecif ic g eograph ic f eatures; a nd w hatever o ther c omp lementary d ata t hat i s u sefu l. A pp ly ing t hese c r iter ia t o t he n ames c ited i n t he w r itten s ources w e c an d eterm ine t hat i n t he e astern s ector o f t he p una, d ur ing t he 1 6th c entury, l ived C hichas, C asib indo , C ochinocas a nd A patamas ( Krapovickas 1 978). G roups o f C h ichas I nd ians w ere r ecorded a s c lear ly e xpand ing i n t he n orthest o f t he r eg ion, p enetrat ing t he e astern s ector o f t he p una t hrough t he s er ies o f v a lleys f ormed b y t he P ilcomayo t r ibutar ies . T he C asab indos a nd t he C ochinocas o ccup ied , i nd isputab ly , s ome s ectors o f t he M iraf lores b asin. T he n ames o f s ome s urv iv ing c ommun it ies w ith t he d esignat ions o f t hese t wo p opu lat ions f acilitates t he t ask o f s pat ia l l ocat ion o f t hese I nd ian g roups . O n t he o ther h and , w ith r espect t o t he A patamas, w e c annot f ind a s ing le e astern t oponym ; w e c an o n ly s ay t hat t hey l ived i n s ome c orner o f t he p una , i n t he v ic inity o f t he r oad w hich l inked S ant iago d e l E stero w ith C harcas. W e d o

n ot k now i f

t he t hree l ast 1 82

n ames--Casabindos, C ochinocas

a nd A patamas —designate i ndependent e thnic g roups o r c ommunit ies w hich f orm p art o f l arger n at ions. T here e x ists t he p ossibility, a s c ited b y o ne i nvest igator ( Lohmann V illena 1 967) t hat t he A patamas w ere a g roup o f C hichas . T he n ame " Apatamas" w as a ssumed t o r efer t o t he A tacamas b y B oman, w ho s upposed t hat i t w as a n e rroneous u se o f t he c onjunction " and" i n p lace o f " or " b y s ome 1 6th c entury a uthors ( Boman 1 908). T hus B oman i ntroduced A tacama/Araucanian f o lk i nto t he e astern s ector o f t he p una a s t he p r incipa l i f n ot t he o n ly p opulat ion. B ut i n m y r eview o f t he d ocuments, Id eterm ined, a s V ignati(1931) n oted , t hat w hen t he n ame " Atacama" a ppeared, i t a lways o ccured w ith r e lat ion t o t he z ones l ocated t o t he w est o f t he A ndean c ordillera a t s ome d istance f rom t he p una. T he 1 6th c entury d ocuments d o n ot h ave a ny c oncrete i nformat ion w ith r espect t o t ies w hich c ould l ink t he I ndians o f t he p una w ith t hose w ho i nhabited t he n eighbor ing z ones o f t he r eg ion. B ut w e c an f erret o ut s ome i nformat ion, a lthough i nfrequent, w hich r e lates t o t h is i ssue . I n v ar ious c ontexts, t he n ames o f p una i nhabitants a ppear l inked w ith t hose o f o ther c ommunit ies w hich c lear ly i nhabit d istant z ones. T his w e f ind i n t he d ocuments r e lat ing t o t he f ounding o f t owns, s uch a s S a lta; i n t he p apers r ecording t he d ata o n t he a lliance f ormed b y J uan C a lchaqui; a nd i n t hose e numerat ions g iven o f t he f irst e ncom iendas. I n t he v ar ious l ists o f t he g roups a llied w ith C a lchaqui, t hat a re a lso c ited i n d ocuments c oncerning t he f ounding o f S a lta, i n a ddition t o t he C asabindos, C ochinocas a nd A patamas, t he f o llow ing i ndigenous g roups a re a lso n oted : I nd ians o f C alchaqui, T af i, C h icoana, t he P u lares, t he L ules, t he C hir iguanos, t he C hichas, t he O maguacas, a nd t he I ndians o f t he S alta a nd J ujuy v alleys. T hese n ames a re n ot l isted c o llect ive ly i n a ny o ne d ocument; r ather t his i s t he t ota l r eg ister o f n ames m entioned i n o ne f ashion o r a nother a long w ith t he p una I ndians. E xcept f or t he C hichas, a ll t he o ther g roups a re l ocated i n p laces s ituated o n t he e astern s ide o f t he a lt ip lano . I n t he e ncom iendas g ranted b y t he M arquis P izarro i n 1 540 t o J uan d e V i llanueva a nd M art in M onje, s evera l n ames o f p laces a nd o f I ndian p ueb los w ith t heir c uracas a re l isted . A mong t hese f igure t hose o f C asabindo a nd C ochinoca. W e d o n ot h ave a ny p recise l ocat ion f or m any o f t he o ther n ames. B ut t he f ew e asily r ecognizab le, s uch a s T ar ija, C ochabamba, a nd O maguaca, a re a lso t o t he e ast . T hus t he a ccounts w h ich c ould e stab lish f or a rchaeo logy w hich a ncient p opulations i nhabited t he p una a nd w hich i nhabited t he z ones o n t he e astern b order o f t his r eg ion, t here a ppears e v idence, t hough i n a v ery d iffuse a nd i mprecise m anner , a s w e ll a s f or t he i nc lusion i n t he e ar liest e ncom iendas, m uch o n t he ir a lliances a nd c onfederat ions. T here i s a nother f orm o f c itation o f v arious i nd igenous n ames w h ich a ppears t o h ave s ome s ignif icance. R epeated ly w e r ead m ent ion o f t he p una I ndians i n c onjunct ion w ith t he O maguacas. O n l im ited o ccasions t he C ochinocas a re r ep laced b y t he A patamas f orm ing t hus t he t r ip let o f C asabindos, A patamas a nd O maguacas. W e d o n ot k now w hat t h is a sociat ion s ignif ies i n i nd igenous t erms, w hether i s i mp lies a r ecognit ion o f s ome t ype o f e thnic, l inguistic o r c u ltural r e laionship. N either d o w e k now t he r eason w hy t he n ames A patamas a nd C ochinocas c an r ep lace e ach o ther . T he d ocuments d o n ot g ive t he k ey f or d eterm ining t his. B ut i t i s v ery s uggest ive t hat t hree o f t he 1 83

i nd igenous g roups i nvo lved - t he C asab indos, t he C ochinocas a nd t he O maguacas - o ccup ied t err itor ies f or w hich a rchaeo logy h as i dentif ied g roups o f v ery c lose ly r e lated c eram ic t ypes. T he b oundary o f t he C asab indo a nd C ochinocas h istor ica lly e xtended c lear ly t o t he e dge o f t he M iraf lores b asin, w h ile t he O maguacas o ccupied t he q uebrada o f t he s ame n ame . T o r e iterate t he c omp iled c itat ions, t he d ocumentat ion s eems t o c onf irm t hat t he t hree e thnic g roups, w h ich o ccup ied a d jacent z ones a nd p art icipated i n au nited f ront a gainst t he E uropean i nvaders, w ere l inked b y r ea l a nd p erhaps v ery e xtensive t ies. A t t his p o int I k now o f o n ly o ne p iece o f e v idence w hich s uggests t hat t here m ay h ave e xisted a r e lat ionsh ip o f e conom ic c haracter a mong t he t hree c ommun it ies, e xhib ited i n t he e xp lo itat ion o f ac ommon r esource. W hen P adre L izarraga d escr ibed t he d azz ling w hite s ands o f t he S a linas G randes, h e t o ld u s t hat t hey p roduced s a lt f or t he I nd ians o f C asabindo , C ochinoca a nd O maguaca ( L izarraga 1 916, 2 :226). T he c oincidences t hat w e h ave e ncountered b etween t he a rchaeo log ica l d ata a nd t he e thnoh istor ic i nformat ion p erm its u s t o t ender , a t t he l eve l o f ah ypothes is, a n i dent if icat ion b etween s ome o f t he h istor ic g roups a nd t he v ar ius c u ltura l p hases k nown f rom a rchaeo logy . I n t h is m anner t he l ate r ema ins r ecovered f rom t he s ites i n t he M iraf lores b asin b e long t o t he h er itage o f t he C asab indos a nd C och inocas; t he l ate p hases o f t he H umahuaca q uebrada f rom t he u pper a nd m idd le s ectors w ill b e a ttr ibutab le t o t he O maguacas; a nd t he Y av i C hico p hase, a lso o f t he L ate P er iod, o f t he e xterna l b as in f ormed b y t he u pper t r ibutar ies o f t he P ilcomayo, w ill b e i dent if iab le w ith t he c ommunit ies o f t he C h ichas w hich h ad b egun t o e xpand o utward . S ummary Ih ave f ocussed m y a ttent ion e specia lly o n t he e astern s ector o f t he p una, l ooking a t w hat a rchaeo logy s hows u s t h t he a ncient i nhabitants d id t o o btain, f or t he f abr icat ion o f t oo ls, r aw m ater ia ls o r ig inat ing f rom l ower a nd c lear ly m ore h um id e nv ironments . T hese e nv ironments w ere l ocated i n r eg ions p rox ima l t o t he p una . T hese m ater ia ls c ou ld b e o btained b y m eans o f t rade o r b y t ransport b y v ar ious i ndividua ls. P oss ib le r oads f o llowed b y t his m ovement a re i nd icated b y t he m ountain p asses w hich l ink w ith t he m u lt ip le q uebradas. T hese r outes o ught t o b e m ore n umerous a nd m ore d irect t han m odern c ommun icat ion w hich, l im ited b y t he n ecessit ies o f o ur m odern w or ld , f o llow m ore r oundabout c ourses . T he t raff ic a long t hese a ncient r oad o ught t o b e i ntensive . T hus i t i s s uggested t hat r eason f or t he d eve lopment o f s ome i nsta llat ions i s t heir l ocat ion a t t he c rossroads o f t hese t ransport r outes. F or e xamp le, t h is i s w hat o ccurs f or t he i mportant f ort if ied p opu lat ion c enter o f P ucara d e T ilcara w hich i s l ocated i n t he H umahuaca q uebrada i n ap lace l inking t he Q uebrada o f H uichairas, w hich d escends f rom t he p una t o t he w est , a nd t he Q uebrada o f H uasamayo t o t he e ast , a long w hich r uns ar oad f urther t o e astern l oca les w ith m ajor f orest v egetation. A s In oted i n t he b eg inning, i t w as n ot m y i ntent ion t o f ormu late h ypotheses r e lat ive t o m ode ls o f c omp lementary e conom ies a nd v ert ica lity, s uch a s h ave b een e laborated i n o ther p arts o f t he A ndean r eg ion o n e thno log ica l, e thnohistor ic a nd a rchaeo log ica l l eve ls 1 84

( Fonseca M arte l 1 972; M urra 1 972; L orand i 1 977,1978), a s Ic onsidered t hat i n o ur f ie ld o f s tudy t his w as ap remature r esu lt . Ib e lieve t hat t he s ame m ode ls o ccur w ith r e lat ion t o p laces i n N orthwest A rgentina. B ut t he r eview t hat I m ade o f t he e xtant i nformat ion i nd icates t hat t he p roposal o f s uch a n h ypothesis a nd i ts n ecessary v er ificat ion w ill h ave t o b e p lanned f or t he f uture. B ut t o s ucceed i n t his i t w ill b e n ecessary t o i ncrease o ur i nformat ion. I t w ill b e i nd ispens ib le, f or e xamp le, t o d ef ine w ith p recision w hat t he e conom ies w ere t hat d eve loped s ynchronica lly i n e ach o ne o f t he v ar ious r eg iona l u nits. T hus f or n ow w e c an s uppose t hat i n t he e astern s ector o f t he p una, d ur ing t he p rehispanic p er iod, t here w as a c ombinat ion o f p astora lism a nd a gr icu lture i n t he a lt iplano . F or a gr icu lture, a ccord ing t o s ome o f t he a rchaeo log ica l f inds a s w e ll a s t hat w hich c an b e o bserved t oday, i t a ppears t hat t he c u lt ivat ion o f m aize p layed a p rom inent r o le . I n t he s ame m anner p recise f ormulat ion o f e conom ic r eg ime o f t he H umahuaca q uebrada w ill f acilitate t he d ef init ion o f t he r o le t hat t his z one s hared i n t hese p rocesses. H ere t he v a lley b ottoms a re l ess e levated t han t he p una. B ut i n s ome p laces a gr iculture w as a lso p ract iced a t h igh e levat ions. T he e xtension o f a gr icu ltura l c onstruct ions a t A lfarcito i s a t a n e levation o f 2 900-3000m ( Madrazo 1 969) a nd t he t erraces o f C octaca a re a t 3 600 m .(Suetta 1 967). T he o ther a spect t hat w ill b e n ecessary t o c ontro l i s c hrono logy . T he a rchaeo log ica l i nformation w hich w e c ontro l c orresponds f or t he m ost p art t o t he L ate P rehistor ic P er iod t ime i mmed iate p r ior t o t he I nca d om ination, a lthough s ome c eram ic a ssociations s uggest t hat r eg ional i nterchange c ou ld b e e ar lier . B ut e conom ic r e lationships b etween p laces l ocated a t t he e dges o f t he p una a nd t he e astern w ood lands e xisted s ince p receram ic p er iods ( Aguerre, F ernandez D iste l a nd A scher° 1 973:214). I n o ur a nalysis w e h ave b een o ccupied w ith t he r e lationships e stablished b y t he a ncient i nhab itants o f t he e astern s ector o f t he p una w ith t he z ones l ocated p roxima l t o t he e astern b order o f t his r eg ion. B ut I h ave i gnored d e liberate ly, i n o rder n ot t o c omp licate m y p resentaton, a ll t he i nformat ion r e lative t o t he c ontact e stablished w ith r eg ions t hat w ere s ituated t o t he w est o f t he A ndean c ordillera, z ones i n n orthern C hile . A rchaeo logy p rov ides s ubstant ia l e v idence f or s uch c ontacts. b ut t heir c onsideraton w ill r equire a nother s pecia l s tudy . T wo a spects w ill b e n oted h ere. T he p rehispanic i nhabitants o f t he e astern s ector o f t he p una j oined i n e xchanges w ith p opulations t hat o ccupied l ocat lit ies i n t he A tacama d esert. T he p una f o lk a t t hat t ime a lso s erved a s i ntermed iar ies b etween t he z ones o f t he P acif ic s lopes o f t he A ndes a nd t hose s ituated t o t he e ast o f t he l arge m assives i n N orthwest A rgent ina. I h ave o m itted d ea ling w ith t his c omp lex n etwork o f e xchange n odes i n t h is s tudy, a s as tudy o f t hat t ype n eeds t o b e e xhaust ive.

1 85

E ndnote T his a rt ic le w as a bstracted a nd t ranslated b y D avid L . B rowman f rom t he l onger p resentat ion o f D r . K rapovickas p repared f or t he I nternational C ongress.

1 86

L iterature C ited

A guerre, A .M ., A .A . F ernandez D iste l, a nd C .A . A schero 1 973 H a llazgo d e u n s it io a ceram ico e n l a q uebrada d e l a C ueva ( Prov . d e J ujuy). R e laciones d e l a S ociedad A rgent ina d e A ntropo log ia 7 :197-231. A lfaro d e L anzone, L .C. a nd J .M . S uetta 1 976 E xcavaciones e n l a c uenca d e l R io D once llas. 2 2/23. B uenos A ires. B arr ionuevo, 0 .A . 1 969 Y acim ientos a rqueo log icos d e l a S ierra. C atamarca : L a V erdad .

h oyada d e

A nt iquitas, v o l.

A ntofagasta d e

l a

B ennett , W .C.,E.F. B le iler a nd F .H. S ommer 1 948 N orthwest A rgent ine A rchaeo logy . Y a le U n iversity P ub licat ions i n A nthropo logy, V o l. 3 8 . N ew H aven. B oman, E . 1 908 A nt iqu ites d e l a r eg ion a nd ine d e l a R epub lique A rgent ine e t d u d esert d 'Atacama. P ar is : I mpr imer ie N at iona le. t wo v o lumes . B regante, O . 1 926 E nsayo d e c lasif icacion d e l a c eram ica d e l N oroeste A rgent ina. B uenos A ires : A nge l E strada C ia. C abezas, 0 .A ., J .C. J oaquin a nd D .J. C asas 1 976 Y acim iento d e T ab lad itas ( Puna J ujena). A ctas y M emor ias d e l C uarto C ongreso N aciona l d e A rqueo log ia A rgent ina, 3 : 89-94 . S an R afae l. ••

C abrera, A .L. 1 958 L a v egetacion d e l a P una A rgent ine . R ev ista d e I nvestigac iones A gr ico las 1(4):317-412. 1 971 F itogeograf ia d e l a R epub lica A rgent ina. B o let in d e l a S ociedad A rgent ina d e B otanica . 1 4 (1/2):1-42. C asanova, E . 1 937 C ontr ibuc ion a l e stud io d e l a a rqueo log ia d e l a I s la. R e lac iones d e l a S oc iedad A rgent ina d e A ntropo log ia 1 :65-71. 1 938 I nvest igac iones a rqueo log icas e n S orcuyo , P una d e J ujuy . A na les d e l M useo N ac iona l d e C iencias N atura les 3 9 :423-456. 1 942 E l y acim iento a rqueo log ico d e A ngosto C hico . R e lac iones d e l a S ociedad A rgent ina d e A ntropo log ia 3 :73-87. C ig liano, E .M . 1 967 I nvest igaciones a ntropo log icas e n e l y acime into d e J ue lla ( Dep . d e T ilcara, P rov . d e J ujuy). R ev ista d e l M useo d e L a P lata, S eccion A nropo log ia 6 :123-249. D eambros is, M .S . a nd M . d e L orenzi 1 975 D ef in icion d e n uevos t ipos c eram icos : A na lisis d e m ater ia les p rocedentes d e P ena C o lorada, P rov incia d e J ujuy. A ctas y T rabajos d e l P r imer C ongreso d e A rqueo log ia A rgent ina 1 87

1 :451-461.

B uenos A ires.

D ebenedett i, S . 1 910 E xp loracion a rqueo log icas e n l os c ementer ios p reh istor icos d e l a I s la d e T ilcara ( Quebrada d e H umahuaca, P rov . d e J ujuy). P ub licaciones d e l a S eccion A ntropo log ica d e l a F acultad d e F ilosof ia y L etras, N o . 6 . B uenos A ires. 1 918 L as R u inas p rehispanicas d e e l A lfarc ito . P ub licat iones d e l a S eccion A ntro p log ica d e l a F acu ltad d e F ilosof ia y L etras, N o . 1 8 . B uenos A ires. F ernandez D iste l, A . 1 974 E xcavaciones a rqueo log icas e n l as c uevas d e H uachichiocana, D ep. d e T umbaya, P rov . d e J ujuy , A rgent ina. R e lac iones d e l a S ociedad A rgent ina d e A ntropo log ia, n .s. 8 :101-134 . F onseca M arte l, C . 1 972 L a e conom ia v ert ica l y l a e conom ia d e m ercado e n l as c omun idades a ltenas d e l P eru. i n : V is ita d e l a P rovincia d e L eon d e H uanuco e n 1 562, I n igo O rt iz d e Z un iga v is itador . V o l 2 :317=338 . H uanuco : U n iversidad—f iEiona l io V aldizan . G onza lez, A .R . 1 963 P rob lemas a rqueo log icos d e l a P una A rgent ina. i n : A P edro B osch-Gim iera e n e l s eptuagesimo a n iversar io d e s u n acim iento , p p. 3 73-384 . M ex ico D .F. G onza lez, A .R . a nd J .A . P erez 1 972 A rgent ina I nd igena, v isperas P aidos .

d e l a

c onquista.

B uenos

A ires :

H ered ia, O .R . 1 964 A rqueo log ia d e l y ac im iento d e P ozue los ( Dpto . R inconada, P rov . d e J ujuy). T esis d e l icenciatura . C ordoba . K rapovickas, P . 1 955 E l y acim iento d e T ebenquiche, P una d e A tacama. P ub licac iones d e l I nst ituto d e A rqueo log ia d e l a F acu ltad d e F ilosof ia y L etras d e l a U niversidad d e B uenos A ires 3 :1-40. 1 958-9 A rquei iTog ica d e l a P una A rgent ina. A na les d e A rqueo log ia y E tno log ia d e C uyo 1 4/15 :53-113. 1 968a S ubarea d e l a P una A rgent ina . P roceedings o f t he 3 7th I nternat iona l C ongress o f A mer icanists, 2 :235-271. 1 968b U na c onstruccion n ovedosa e n l a q uebrada d e H umahuaca ( Jujuy). E tnia 7 :22-26. 1 969 L a i nsta lacion a bor igen e n ' Pucara d e Y acoraite ' ( Prov d e J ujuy , R ep A rgent ina). E tnia 1 0 :8-12. 1 973 A rqueo log ia d e Y av i C h ico ( Prov . d e J ujuy, R ep A rgent ina). R ev ista d e l I nstituto d e A ntropo log ia d e C ordoba 1 975 A lgunos t ipos c eram icos d e Y av i C hico . A ctas y T rabajos d e l P r imer C ongreso d e A rqueo log ia A rgent ina 1 :293-3D0 . B uenos A ires. 1 977 A rqueo logia d e C erro C o lorado ( Dept . Y avi, P rov. d e J ujuy, R ep. A rgent ina). O bra d e l C entenar io d e l M useo d e L a P lata 2 :123-148. L a P lata. 1 978 L os i nd ios d e l a P una e n e l s ig lo X VI. R e lac iones d e l a 1 88

1 979

S ociedad A rgent ina d e A ntropo log ia, n .s., 1:71-95. E l t ransito e ntre T i P una y l as z onas o r ienta les v ecinas a s u b orde. A mer ica I nd igena 3 9(4 ):681-695.

K rapovickas, P . a nd E .M . C ig liano 1 962-3 I nvest igac iones a rqueo log icas e n e l v a lle d e l R io G rande d e S an J uan ( Puna A rgent ina). A na les d e A rqueo log ia y E tno log ia d e C uyo 1 7/18 :71-118 . K rapovickas, P .;A .S. C astro ; M . M . P erez M eron i, a nd R .J. C rowder 1 977 L a i nsta lac ion h umana e n S anta A na d e A bra la ite ( Sector O r ienta l d e l a P una). P onencia p resentada a nte e l P r imer C ongreso R eg iona l d e A rqueo log ia d e l N oroeste A rgent ino, O ctubre d e 1 977. S an S a lvador d e J ujuy . K rapovickas, P ; A . S . C astro a nd M . M . P erez M eron i 1 978 L a a gr icu ltura p reh ispan ica e n l a P una. P onenc ia p resentada a nte e l Q u into C ongreso N aciona l d e A rqueo log ia A rgent ina, M ayo d e 1 978 . S an J uan L ehmann-Nitsche, R . 1 904 C ata logo d e l as c onservadas e n e l P lata 1:73-120 .

a nt iguedades d e l a p rov incia d e J ujuy M useo d e L a P lata. R ev ista d e l M useo d e L a

L izarraga, R . d e 1 916 D escr ipc ion C o lon ia l.

B uenos A ires: J . R o ldan.

L ohman V illena, G . 1 967 E tude P re lim inaire . J uan d e M at ienzo , E l g ob ierno d e l P eru ( 1567). T ravaux d e l 'inst itut F rancais d 'Etudes A ndines 1:i-lx ix . P ar is. L orand i, A . M . 1 977 A rqueo log ia y E tnohistor ia : h acia u n ' a v ision t ota lizadora d e l M undo A nd ino . O bra d e l C entenar io d e l M useo d e L a P lata 2 :27-50. L a P lata. 1 978 L es ' hor izons ' a nd ins: c r it ique d 'un n ode le. A nna les : E conom ies-Societes-Civ ilisat ions 3(5/6):921-925. M adrazo, G .B. 1 969 R eapertura d e l a i nvest igacion e n A lfarcito ( Pc ia. d e J ujuy, R ep . A rgent ina). M onograf ias d e l M useo E tnograf ico M unicipa l D amaso A rce N o . 4 . O lavarr ia. M eneciar , M .A . a nd O .A . B arr ionuevo 1 978 P rospeccion a rqueo log ica e n e l d epartamento d e A ntofagasta d e l a S ierra . P rov . d e C atamarca. C uadernos d e A ntropo log ia C atamarquena, C atamarca . M urra, J . V . 1 972 E l ' contro l v ert ica l' d e u n m ax imo d e p isos e co log icos e n l a e conom ia d e l as s ociedades a nd inas. i n: V isita d e l a P rov incia d e L eon d e H uanuco e n 1 562, I n igo O rt iz d e Z unia 7Visitador, V o l 2 :429-476. H uanuco : U n iversidad N ac iona l H erm ilio V a ld izan . 1 89

O ttone llo d e G arcia R e inoso, M . 1 973 E co log ia y A rqueo log ia d e c uencas e n e l s ector o r iental d e l a P una. P ub licaciones d e l a D ireccion d e A ntropo log ia e H istor ia d e J ujuy 1 :3-21. S an S a lvador d e J ujuy . 1 973 I nsta lacion, e conom ia y c amb io c u ltura l e n e l s it io t ard io d e A gua C a liente d e R achaite . P ub licaciones d e l a D ireccion d e A ntropo log ia e H istor ia d e J ujuy, N o . 1 . S an S a lvador d e J ujuy . P a lma, N . H . 1 972 T ransf iguraciones a ntropo log icas d e l a P una A rgent ina . R ev ista d e l M useo d e L a P lata, S eccion A ntropo logia, n .s. 7 :239-296 . P erez, J .A . 1 978 C oncern ing t he A rchaeo logy o f t he H umahuaca Q uebrada. A dvances i n A ndean A rchaeo logy, D . L . B rowman e d itor , 5 13-524. M outon : T he H ague .

i n : p .

R aff ino , RA . a nd E .M . C ig liano 1 973 L a A lumbrera ( Antofagasta d e l a S ierra): u n m ode lo d e e co log ia c u ltura l p rehispan ica. R e laciones d e l a S ociedad A rgent ina d e A ntropo log ia n .s. 7 :241-258 . S uetta, J . M . 1 967 C onstruccones a gr ico las p rehispanicas e n J ujuy). A nt iqu itas 4 :1-9. B uenos A ires. T ogo, J . 1 973 P rospeccion a rqueo log ica e n e l P c ia. d e S a lta. A ctua lidad E tnia 1 2 :1-8. O lavarr ia.

C octaca

d e

d epartamento d e S anta V ictor ia, A ntropo log ica, S upp lement° d e

V ignat i, M . A . V ignat i, M . A . 1 931 L os e lementos e tnicos d e l N oroeste A rgent ino . d e L a P lata 1 :115-157. B uenos A ires .

1 90

( Prov .

N otas d el M useo

K rapovickas

F igure 1 . M ap s howing t he t hree e cological r egions i n N orthwest A rgentina . ( Adapted f rom G onzalez a nd P erez 1 972:31).

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C ontemporary a nd A rchaeo logica l E v idence o f L lipta E laboration f rom t he C actus T RICHOCEREUS P ASACANA i n N orthwest A rgent ina. A licia F ernandez D iste l

D r . F ernandez r ecords t he c urrent p reference f or i nhab itants o f t he A ndean r eg ion o f A rgent ina t o p repare " l lipta" f rom t he f ruits a nd f lowers o f t he c actus T r ichocereus p asacana. W hile o ther v egetab le m aterial i s a lso u tilized i n p repar ing lipta, t he c actus i s p referred . T he a ct ive a lka loid i s h ordenine, w hich c haracter ist ica lly p roduces a s ympathet ic-m imet ic r eact ion. T he a rchaeo logica l a nalysis f ocuses u pon a n a ssociat ion o f c oca l eaf a nd p asacana f ruits i n C ave C H-III i n H uachichocana, J ujuy . F ernandez D iste l r eports t hat w hile t he p ascana c actus f irst i s f ound i n t he c ave a s e ar ly a s 7 670-6980 B .C., c oca l eaf d oes n ot a ppear u nt il a z one d at ing t o e ar ly c o lonia l t imes, i n t he 1 6th o r 1 7th c entury . T hus c oca h as o n ly r ecent ly b een a n i mportant i tem o f e xchange i n N orthern A rgent ina. T his i s s urpr ising c onsider ing t he v ery e ar ly p attern o f l ong-d istance t rade f ound i n t he A rgent ine p una c ommunit ies, w hich r esu lted i n t he e ar ly i ntroduct ion o f o ther c u ltigens f rom t he c oastal a nd l ow land a reas.

S e h ace h incapie s obre t est imonios a ctuales d e l os c ampesinos d e l a r eg ion a ndina d e A rgentina q ue e laboran s u lipta p referentemente c on f rutos y f lores d e l c actus T r ichocereus p asacana. S e a grega u na e numera -Aon d e o tros v egetales q ue s on f act ib les d e s er t ransformados e n lipta y e l m odo d eta llado d e p rocesam iento . L as c onsideraciores e tnobotanicas f inalizan c on l a c onsideracion d e l c ontenido e n a lcaloides d e l c actus p asacana. E l a lca loide e n c uest ion e s l a h ordenina, c aracter istico p or p roducir u na a ccion s impat ico-m imet ica. S e a naliza e l h allazgo a n l a c ueva C H-III d e H uachichocana, J ujuy, d e l a a sociacion h ojas d e c oca-frutos d e p asacana. D ebe r esaltarse q ue n o o bstante r emontarse l a p r imera a par icion d e p asacana e ntre 7 670 y 6 980 A .C., l a a par icion d e c oca s e p roduce r ecien e n u n n ive l h ispano-ind igena e ntres l os s ig los X VI o r X VII. L a c oca p ues, r ecien t ard iamente c omenzo a s er i ntercambiada, p ud iendo h aber t enido l a c onquista h ispan ica u n i mportante p ape l a l r especto . E s a sombroso q ue l a c oca n o p osea e n e l N W a rgent ino u n r eg istro m as t emprano, s obre t odo t en iendo e n c uenta q ue l as e tnias a rcaicas d e l b orde d e l a p una h an s ido m uy t empranas i ntroductoras d e c u lt igenos, h an p ract icado o tras a d iciones a a lca loides y r ea lizaban v iajes e i ntercambios c on l os t ierras b ajas y c on l a c oasta p acif ica.

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I .

E thnobotanical B ackground

T he p ract ice o f a dd ing s ome a lka line s ubstance t o c oca c hew ing, i n t he f orm o f ap aste o f a h a lf-hardened b a ll, i s v ery w e ll k nown i n t he A ndes a nd i ts e astern f oothills. I h ave p ub lished e lsewhere ( Ca lifano a nd F ernandez D iste l 1 977) o n t he u se o f t his a ddit ion i n a t ropical f orest g roup o f t he P eruvian A mazonia. I a pp ly t he m ost c ommon t erm u sed t o n ame t his s ubstance, " l lipta", a w ord o f Q uechua o r ig in. T he lipta b eing e laborated i n t hat c ase, a s a lso i n t he p resent s tudy, i s o f a shes, w ith a n a verage o f 2 5-30% l ime a nd 0 .5 t o 3 .0% p otash. A ccording t o C ooper ( 1949), s outh o f 1 d egrees S l at itude ( centra l P eru), t he I ndians u se lipta f abr icated w ith b urnt v egetab le s ubstances. N orthward t he s ituat ion s eems t o b e d ifferent . T he p lace w here lipta i s o btained f rom c actus l ies i n t he m idd le o f t he S outhern A ndes, i n t he P rovince o f J ujuy i n N orthwest A rgent ina, i n ar eg ion w hich c ou ld b e c haracter ized p hysiographica lly a s t he " border o f t he p una", p recisely t he h abitat o f t wo s pecies o f l arge c o lumnar c act i: T r ichocereus p asacana ( Web.) B r itt a nd R ose, w ith i ts w hite f lowers, a nd T . t ar ijensis ( =T. p oco), w ith r ed f lowers. I s hall b eg in b y g iving a n e xtensive d escr iption o f t he p reparat ion i n H uachichocana, a nd a lso m ent ion s ome v ariants o f p reparat ion f rom a nother e nc lave i n t he P rovince o f J ujuy w here i t i s a lso c ustomary t o p repare lipta f rom t he p asacana c actus. ( a) H uachichocana, J ujuy . T est imony b y D on R eg lio D ata r ecorded i n 1 980.

M amani, 5 0 y ears

o ld, w ho

c hews c oca.

P asacana: f lowers a nd f ruits. T he f irst f lowers o f t he p asacana a ppear a t t he e nd o f O ctober a nd i ts f lower ing p er iod e xtends u nt il t he e nd o f J anuary. I n t his m onth i t b egins t o b ear f ruit, w hich c an b e f ound u nt il A pr il. P rocedure o f e laboration o f t he lipta. L lipta c an b e p repared i nd iscr im inate ly f rom t he f lower o f t he p asacana, i ts f ruit, o r b oth, t he f lower g iving t w ice t he y ield a s t he f ruit . B e low i s t he p rocedure f or e laborat ion o f lipta f rom t he f lower a nd f ruit t ogether . T he f lower m ust b e c ut o ff f rom t he p lant a t t he m oment w hen i ts c o lor i s c omp lete ly w hite . T hen i t m ust b e d r ied i n t he s un u p t o a f ortnight i f n ecessary . I n t he s ame f ashion t he f ruit m ust b e c ut o ff b efore i t d r ies u p . T his i s f o llowed b y t he t ask o f r emoving t he h airs f rom f ruits a nd f lowers, s ince t hey d o n ot b urn r ead ily. A t t he s ame t ime t he s eeds a re r emoved f rom t he f ruit . T hen f lowers a nd f ruit a re p laced i n av esse l w hich h as a n o pening f or t he a ir t o e nter a nd a nother o ne f or i t t o e xit, a nd t hen t hey a re b urned . T he o pening t hrough w hich t he a ir e nters i s t urned t owards t he w ind , s o t hat t he a ir m ay h it i t f u lly a nd t he c ombustion w ill t ake p lace m ore q u ickly . 1 94

T he w ind m ust n ot b e t oo s trong, t o a vo id s catter ing t he a shes, n or m ust i t b e t oo l ight, b ecause t he f ire m ight d ie o ut t oo s oon. I n o rder t o a void t his, t he b urning f lowers a nd f ruits a re s t irred n ow a nd t hen, a nd b lown u pon. T he f ire m ust n ot b e p ut o ut u ntil a ll t he f lowers a nd f ruit h ave b urned t o a shes. W hen t his h appens, t he a shes a re l eft t o c oo l d own, a nd o nce t hey a re c o ld, t hey a re p laced o n a f lat s tone. H ere, u sing a s e gg-shaped s tone, t hey a re g round t o p owder a nd m ixed w ith a p ee led p otato o f a ny k ind, p revious ly b oiled i n w ater . I nstead o f u sing a p otato, o ne m ay a lso u se s ma ll q uantities o f w ater, i n w hich c ase t he lipta w ill h ave a s tronger t aste. I n t his m anner a m ass i s o btained w hich i s s haped b y h and . T he l ast s tep i s t o l et i t d ry. E very t ime lipta i s p repared , as uff icient q uant ity i s m ade t o l ast s evera l d ays. E ach t ime o ne c hews c oca, as ma ll q uantity i s t aken, c hewed a nd d isso lved i n t he m outh. P repared lipta l asts f or a pprox imate ly o ne m onth, a fter w hich i t h ardens t oo m uch a nd l oses i ts f lavor . T his i s w hy i t i s n ot p repared t o b e s tored f or a l ong t ime . T he a shes a lso l ose t heir t aste i f o ne i ntends t o k eep t hem f or a l ong p er iod . L lipta c an b e p repared b etween t he m onths o f A pr il a nd O ctober b y u sing f lowers a nd f ruits o f p asacana w hich h ave b een c o llected a t t he r ight m oment a nd b een k ept i n ad ry p lace . E laborat ion o f lipta f rom o ther p lants. I n t he H uachichocana a rea lipta i s a lso p repared f rom o ther p lants. T he m ost f requent, b esides p asacana, a re " cortadera" a nd t he s unf lower . F or t his p urpose " ataco", " verdo laga", " jume", m aize, " aroma" a nd " jar illa" a re a lso u sed; u se o f s ome o f t hese i s m ore f requent i n n eighbor ing v illages. L lipta i s a lso p repared f rom s everal o f t hese p lants m ixed t ogether . I n t his w ay o ne c an m ake a lipta w ith a s tronger f lavor, w hich l asts l onger t han t hat p repared f rom o n ly o ne p lant. A ny o f t he a bove m ent ioned p lants c an b e s tored d ur ing s evera l m onths f or t he p urpose o f p reparing lipta a fter t heir r espective p er iods o f f lower ing h as f inished. W ith a ll o f t hem , o ne f o llows t he s ame p rocedure t hat h as b een d escr ibed f or t he e laborat ion o f lipta f rom p asacana c actus. L lipta t rade. I n t he M oreno a rea n orthwest o f H uachichocane, lipta i s p repared i n l arge q uant it ies f rom " cortadera" f or t he p urpose o f t rade. I n t h is v illage t he p eop le l ive e xc lusive ly o n w hat t hey g et f rom s ale o f lipta i n t he c ord illeran a reas o n b oth s ides o f t he A rgent ine-Chilean b order, w here t here a re n o p lants f rom w hich lipta c an h e m ade. I n t hose a reas, t he l ack o f a ppropr iate v egetat ion i s d ue t o t he p resence o f h igh s alt a nd a lka line s oils.

1 95

( b ) C oraya, J ujuy T est imony b y D on J uan S a las, 3 6 c hewer . D ata r ecorded i n 1 978.

y ears

o ld,

ah ab itua l

c oca

L lipta e laboration. F or t he p reparation o f lipta f rom p asacana a lone, t he e xterna l p art o f t he f ruit i s u sed. A s s oon a s t he f ruit i s r ipe , t he i nner p art, w hich i s e d ib le, i s r emoved . T he s kin i s g round u p a nd p laced i n av esse l, e ither a p ot o r p an, w here i t i s b urned. A fter t his, i t i s g round a gain, i n o rder t o p u lver ize t he a shes c omp lete ly , a nd a fter a dd ing w ater t o i t , l itt le c akes a re m o lded, w hich a re l ater c ut i nto s ma ller p ieces. L lipta c an a lso b e m ade f rom t he b uds o f " suncho" (V igu iera t ucumanensis ) ( Hook, e t A m .) G r iseb., v ar . d iscoidea ( Gr iseb. C ar .), w hen t hey a re t ender a nd w ithout f lowers, f rom " paico" ( C henopod ium a mbrosiodes L .) o r f rom " quinua" ( C henopod ium q uinoa W illd .).

( c) A lka lo ids o f t he p asacana a ct ion o n c oca.

c actus a nd p ossib le i ncreased s t imu lant

S . A gure ll ( 1969) r eported o n t he a lkalo ids f ound i n 4 0 o f t he 1 20 s peices o f c act i h e a na lyzed, u sing b oth g as c hromatography a nd m ass s pectrometry . A mong t he c act i c ontaining a lka loids i s T r ichocereus p asacana ( or H e liantocereus p asacana), t he a ct ive s ubstance o f w hich, h ordenine, w as f ound i n t he s tem . A lthough i t i s a l itt le k nown p sychotropic, i t i s a s imp le d er ivative o f b eta-pheny l-ethy lam ine, a nd a s s uch h as a s ympatho-m imet ic a ct ion. I ts e mp ir ica l f ormu la i s ( p-) H O-C6H4-CH2-N(CH3)2. W e h ave n ot y et s ubm itted t he lipta i tse lf f or a na lysis. T his a na lysis i s p lanned f or f uture r esearch.

a lka lo id

Id o n ot w ant t o m ake a ny j udgement o n w hether t he s timu lant a ct ion o f E rythroxy lum c oca i s i ncreased b y t he a ddition o f a lipta m ost p robab ly r ich i n a lka loids. U sers o f t his lipta d o n ot s how a ny o utward s ymptoms o f c hanges i n t heir u sual b ehavior . W e o bserve a g reater r esistance t o f at igue b ecause o f c oca c hew ing i n t h is m ountainous a nd r ugged a rea. O n n o a ccount c an t he i nhabitants o f t hese r eg ions b e c onsidered t oxicomaniacs. T he f acts d escribed h ere a re o n ly m ent t o b e ac ontr ibut ion t o t he l iterature r egard ing lipta. I. A rchaeo logical E vidence T he e vidence I w ant t o d ea l w ith h ere c omes f rom m y e xcavat ions i n c ave C H II i n H uachichocana c arr ied o ut b etween 1 971 a nd 1 977. T his c ave a nd f our a djacent c aves a re l ocated i n t he s ame a rea a s t he i nformat ion c o llected i n P art I h ere f rom H uachichocana . A dditiona l i nformat ion o n t hese e xcavations c an b e f ound i n m y 1 974 a rticle, a nd m y y et u npub lished d octora l d issertation .

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T he s trat igraphic s equence, a ssociated r ad iocarbon a ssays, a nd t he e vidence o f p asacana r emains o r c oca f rom c ave C H II i s s ummarized b e low : L eve l

E : S ub leve l E 3.

E ar liest o ccupation o f t he c ave D ates: 7 670, 6 980, 6 720 B .C. A ppearance o f T . p asacana. S ub leve l E 2. D ate : 1 450 B .C. P resence o f T . p asacana. S ub leve l E l. D ate : A .D. 5 30 P resence o f T . p asacana. L eve l D : H umahuaca-Atacameno c u lture, A .D. 1001200 P resence o f T . p asacana L eve l C : I ncaic i nf luence, A .D. 1 450-1550 P resence o f T . p asacana L eve l B : H ispano-ind igenous p eriod, A .D. 1 550-1650 P resence o f T . p asacana; a ppearance o f c oca. L eve l A : M odern m ater ia ls. T he m ajor ity o f p asacana r emains i n t he e xcavations a re p arts o f f ruits a nd f lowers. F rom t he e ar liest l eve ls t his p lant w as u t ilized a s f ood. T he s equence f rom t he C H II c aves s trong ly e mphasizes t he c onsumpt ion o f w ild p lants a nd l ater t he d omesticat ion o f p lants. T he p receram ic c u ltures ( Sub leve l E 3 a nd E 2) u tilized t he b ott le g ourd ( Lagenar ia s iceraria), c ommon b ean, p otato, o ca ( Oxa lis t uberosa), m aize, a nd a ji ( chili p epper). W e a lso r ecovered r emains o f t he w ood, s kin a nd s pines o f T . p asacana a nd o ther c act i f rom t he m idden. T he c actus T . p asacana w as o bvious ly a n i ntegra l p art o f t he c u ltures f rom p receram ic t imes u ntil t oday . T he u se o f t h is c actus i n p receram ic c u ltures i n N orthwestern A rgent ina h as a lso b een d escr ibed i n a rt ic les b y J . F ernandez ( 1969-70) a nd A guerre, F ernandez D iste l, a nd A schero ( 1973). I t i s n ot c lear w hether t he p rehistor ic g roups w ere a ware o f t he n euro-st imu lat ing p ropert ies o f t he c actus. H owever, i t i s c ur ious t hat i mmed iate ly a fter t he i ntroduct ion o f c oca i nto t he r eg ion t hat t he i dea a rose t o c hew c oca i n c ombinat ion w ith a c omponent o f t he p asacana c actus. W e f ound t hree l eaves o f c oca i n g ood p reservat ion. T hey w ere i dent if ied b y T imothy P lowman ( Fie ld M useum o f N atural H istory, C hicago) a s E rythroxy lum c oca L am . v ar . c oca. O ur k now ledge a bout t he f irst i ntroduct ion o f c oca i n t he A rgentine A ndean r eg ion i s v ery l im ited . W e t hink t hat t he i ntroduct ion p ara lle led t he i ntrusion o f t he S paniards, b rought a bout b y m ovements o f t he p eop le i mpacted b y t he c onquest . H . D ifr iera ( 1980 :16) h as i nvest igated s ome o f d emographic i mp licat ions o f t hese m ovements. H e h as i dent if ied t wo m ovements t oward t he Q uebrada o f H umahuaca i n p re-Co lonia l t imes: o ne f rom t he a djacent p una o f N orthwest A rgent ina, a nd t he o ther f rom t he p rovinces o f L ipez, C hichas, T ar ija a nd P otosi i n S panish " A lto P eru". T hese p rovinces d id n ot p roduce c oca b ut h ad i ncreased c ontacts w ith t he l ow lands o f B o liv ia w here c oca w as u tilized a nd g rown.

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Iw ant t o c omment o n o ne p ecu liar ity o f t he h istor ica l p rocess i n c losing . T ha p receram ic p eop le o f N orthwest A rgent ina, w ho h ad e xtensive r e lat ions w ith t he b order ing t ropica l l ow lands a nd t he C haco ( as c an d emonstrated b y f inds o f t rop ica l b ird f eathers, s kins o f e xot ic m amma ls, f reshwater s he llf ish, e tc) d id n ot i ncorporate t he c oca s t imu lant i n t heir c u lture f rom t he l ow land p eop le . I nstead o f c oca t hey u sed a nother s timu lant , uc eb il n ( Anadenanthera m acrocarpa) w hich w as s moked i n p ipes.

A cknow ledgements

I a m i ndebted t o D r . R oberto K ies ling o f t he I nstituto d e B otanic° D arw inian, t o D r . A ntonio T . D 'Arcange lo o f t he D epartamento d e Q uim ica O rganico, o f t he F acu ltad d e Q uim ica, B ioquim ica y F armaco log ia, U n iversidad d e S an L uis; t o C EFAPRIN ( Center o f P harmaco log ica l S tudies a nd N atural P r incip les) ( Centro d e E stud ios F armaco log ias y P r incipa les N atura les) a nd t o D r . T imothy P lowman, f or t he ir a dv ice o n t he b otanica l a spects o f t his s tudy.

1 98

L iterature c ited

A guerre, A ., A .A . F ernandez D iste l, a nd C . A scher ( ) 1 973 H a llazgo d e u n s it io a ceram ico e n l a Q uebrada d e I nca C ueva ( Provincia d e J ujuy). R e laciones d e l a S ociedad A rgentina d e A ntropo log ia, n .s. 7 :197-235. 1 975 C omentar ios s obre n uevas f echas e n l a c rono log ia a rqueo logica p receram ica d e l a P rovincia d e J ujuy . R e laciones d e l a S ociedad A rgentina d e A ntropo logia, n .s. 9 :211-4. A gure ll, S . 1 969 C actaceae a lka loids.

L loyd ia 3 2(2):206-16.

C a lifano, M . a nd A . A . F ernandez D iste l 1 977 E l e mp leo d e l a c oca e ntre l os M ashco d e l a A mazonia d e l P eru. A rstryck 1 977 G oteborgs E tnograf iska M useum :16-32. C ooper, J . M . 1 949 S t imu lants a nd n arcot ics. i n : J . H . S teward, e d itor . H andbook o f S outh A mer ican I nd ians 5 :525-558. W ashington D .C.: B u lletin 1 4-3 , B ureau o f A mer ican E thno logy, S m ithsonian I nst itut ion. D ifrier i, H . 1 980 U n m ode lo d e P ob lam iento C o lonial, E l s ector m ed io d e l a Q uebrada d e H umahuaca e n e l s ig lo X VIII. E ntregas d e l I . T . T ilcara, N o . 9 . F ernandez, J . 1 969-70 L a r eco leccion d e b u lbos, r izomas y t ubercu los e ntre l os c azadores s uper iores d e l a P una. A na les d e A rqueo log ia y E tno log ia 2 4/25 :131-42. F ernandez D iste l, A . A . 1 974 E xcavaciones a rqueo log icas e n l as c uevas d e H uachichocana, D epartamento d e T umbaya, P rovincia d e J ujuy, A rgent ina. R e laciones d e l a S ociedad A rgent ina d e A ntropo log ia, n .s. 8 :101-34.

F ernandez D istel

.V ulgar t erm p asacana c ortadera s unflower . a taco

S ection o f t he p lant u sed

S cientific t erm low er T richocereus p asacanaf ( Web .) B ritt a nd R ose ,

f ruit

w ithout s eeds

C ortaderia a tacamensis(PHIL.) PILG.

f lower p e d u n c le

H elianthus a nnuus L .

f lower w ithout

. A maranthus

s eeds .

s p.

v erdolaga

P ortulace o leracea L .

m aize

Z ea m ays L . ,

,

c omplete r oots)

( without

c omplete r oots)

( without

c ane c orn—cob

aroma

A maranthus s p.

c omplete r oots)

( without

a jarilla

C henorodium .s p.

c omplete r oots)

( without

j ume

S uaede

c omplete r oots) .

( without

a ff.

d ivaricata M OO.

.

Table 1 . L ist o f t he p lants u sed i n t he p reparation o f l lipta i n H uachichocana .

2 00

I

F ernandez D istel

F igure 3 . V essel f or r oasting f ruits a nd f lowers ,

s howing a lready b urned s pec

F igure 4 . F inal s teps i n p reparation o f l lipta b all.

F ernandez D istel

F igure 1 . T richocereus p asacana c actus.

H uachichocana ,

J ujuy ,

A rgentina.

F icure 2 . D ried f lowers f rom T . pasacana ,

r eady f or l lipta e laboration.

F ernandez D istel

F igure

5( left).

L eaves o f E rythroxylum c oca L am . L evel B ( A .D.

F igure

1 550-1650).

v ar .

c oca f rom H uachichocana C ave I II,

H uachichocana ,

J ujuy,

A rgentina.

6( right).

D ried f ruit f rom t he T richocereus pasacana c actus, C ave I II,

L evel B ( A .D.

1 550-1650).

H uachichocana ,

f rom H uachichocana J ujuy ,

A rgentina.

I nterreg iona l R e lat ions i n t he S outhern A ndes : E v idence a nd E xpectat ions f or U nderstand ing t he L ate P rehistory o f N .W . A rgentina a nd N . C hile G ordon C . P o llard

P o llard h as c o llated a rchaeo log ica l e vidence f or t rade b etween N orth C entra l C h ile ( Chile R eg ion I) a nd N orthwest A rgent ina, i n t erms o f ( i ) f ood p roducts ( such a s p otatoes, q uinoa, m eat , b eans, m a ize, s a lt ), ( i i) r aw m ater ia ls ( gourds, a lgarrobo, w ood, w oo l), a nd ( i ii) c eremonia l o r p rest ige i tems ( Pac if ic C oast s he lls, p ottery , b ird f eathers). O ver t he y ears, C h ileans, s uch a s N unez, a nd A rgent ines, s uch a s T arrago, h ave c o llated t he c eram ic e v idence ; P o llard b r ings t hese c o llat ions u p t o d ate a nd a dds a n i nventory o f s he llf ish i dent if icat ions f rom s evera l s ites, t hus d ocument ing t he w idespread P acif ic c oast c omponent i n t he s ierra t rade i nventor ies. O n t he b as is o f t he c eram ic i nventor ies, 1 2 r eg iona l s ystems a re p roposed a nd d ef ined i n N orthern C h ile a nd N orthwest A rgent ina. P o llard r estates f ive h ypotheses c ommon t o m any c u ltura l r econstructions r egard ing t he f unct ioning o f t rade n etworks d ur ing t he L ate P rehistor ic P er iod ( c . A .D. 1 000-1450): ( 1 ) t rade l inked s ma ll p opu lat ions i n d ifferent e co log ica l z ones, g iv ing t hem a ccess t o r esources o f o ther z ones; ( 2) m ost t rade w as i n c onsumab le i tems; n on-ut ilitar ian p rest ige o bjects w ere t raded b ut w ere l ess i mportant q uantitat ive ly ; ( 3 ) e xchange w as m ot ivated b y s ocia l, r e lig ious, a nd r itua l r easons; ( 4 ) m ost t rade w as e ffected b y t he m echan isms o f r eciprocity ; a nd ( 5 ) t he e co log ica l l im itat ions o n p roduction a nd p opulat ion r esu lted i n t he ir b eing l itt le h ierarch ica l d ifferent iat ion . T he f irst f our h ypotheses a re c ommon t o m ost a rchaeo log ica l r econstruct ions i n t he A ndes, b ut P o llard 's s uggested d ozen o r m ore s ma ll r eg iona l s ystems, w ith h is a rgument t hat r estricted p roduct ion a nd p opu lat ion p revented s ignif icant h ierarchica l d ifferent iat ion, a re n ew c ontr ibutions t o o ur b ody o f t heory r egard ing t he d eve lopment o f e conom ic a nd p o lit ica l s ystems o f t he S outhern A ndes .

D ado q ue l os g rupos t ard ios p re-h ispan icos d e l N .W . d e A rgent ina yN . d e C hile n o e vo luc ionaron h acia s oc iedades a l n ive l e stata l, h a h abido u na t endenc ia e ntre l os p reh istor iadores p ara t ratar l os g rupos d e e sta a rea c omo s ociedades m as o m enos a utonomas, a unque s e s upone c ierto g rado d e i ntercamb io r eg iona l e ntre e llos, d estacan p or h aber s ido r eceptores d e c ontactos c u lturales y e ventua lmente d om inacion p o litica d e u na o m as s ociedades c omp lejas d e l o q ue a hora e s B o liv ia yP eru. M ientras l a n atura leza d e d ichas " inf luencias" e s i mportante p ara c omprender e l c aracter d e l a s ociedad q ue e ntrega, s e a rguye q ue s im ilar a tenc ion d ebe c entrarse e n l as c aracter ist icas e vo lut ivas d e a que llas s ociedades q ue n o a lcanzaron a d esarro llar e structuras e state les. T omando a si u na g ran a rea d e l N .W . A rgent ina y d e l N . d e 2 05

C hile p ara a na lisis c omparat ivo i nterno , l os d atos a rqueo log icos p r im it ivamente a is lados s ug ieren a hora u n p atron d e m u lt ip les f acetas d e r e laciones i nter reg iona les q ue s e d esarro lla e n e l t iempo e n e l p er iodo c eram ico, y q ue p rovee l as b ases p ara n uevas h ipotes is a cerca d e l d esarro llo c u ltural e l os A ndes m er id iona les.

I ntroduct ion

A r ev iew o f t he s evera l s ummar ies t hat a re a vailab le o n t he p rehistory o f t he s outh-centra l A ndes q uickly i nd icates t he a ppropr iateness o f c onsider ing t he a r id a nd s em i-ar id r eg ions o f n orthern C hile a nd n orthwest A rgent ina a s a u n it , p art icu lar ly w ith r espect t o t he c eram ic-produc ing s ociet ies a nd t ime p er iods ( e .g ., W illey 1 971, L ann ing 1 974, N unez R . 1 978, I barra G rasso 1 967, G onza les 1 963a, B ennett e t a l. 1 948). T h is p erspect ive i s s uggested b y t he g enera l s im ilar it ies o f l eve ls o f c u ltural d eve lopment w ith in t h is a rea, w hether w ith r espect t o s ubsistence/econom ic o r ientat ion, s ett lement s ize/conf igurat ion, c eram ic t rad itions, o r o ther f eatures, a s w e ll a s t he i ncreasing ly a pparent s ynchrony o f t empora l c hanges o f s uch f eatures. B y e xtens ion, Ih ave e lsewhere a rgued ( Po llard 1 977) t hat s uch a p erspect ive i s e ssent ia l i f w e a re t o f u lly u nderstand t he p rehispan ic d eve lopment o f c u lture a nd s ociety i n t his a rea o f t he A ndes. D esp ite e ar lier a ssert ions t hat t he v ar ious l ate p rehispan ic t r iba l g roups h ere w ere e ssentia lly a utonomous ( e .g . M arquez M iranda 1 946: 6 49, C asanova 1 946: 6 26, B ennett 1 946 : 6 17), t he g enera l s im ilar it ies a nd s ynchrony o f l oca lized g roups s uggests m ore t han s imp ly s im ilar a daptat ions t o s im ilar e nvironments . I ndeed, t he i nteract ion a mong c eram ic-producing s ociet ies a t a ll t ime p er iods s eems t o h ave b een s ubstant ia l a nd i ntegra l t o r eg iona l c u ltura l d eve lopment . I n t his p aper I s ha ll e xp lore s evera l a spects o f t he n ature o f t his i nteract ion w ith ing t he l im itat ions o f p resent e v idence , a nd o ffer f rameworks a nd h ypothesis f or r ef ining o ur u nderstand ing o f t he d eve lopmenta l p rocessees t hat s eem t o h ave b een i nvo lved . E v idence o f I nterreg iona l R e lat ions T he a rchaeo log ica l l iterature r e lat ive t o t he n orthern p ort ion o f t he s outhern A ndes i s s ubstant ia l, a nd h as s teadily i ncreased s ince t he t urn o f t he c entury w hen f ar-rang ing e xped it ions b egan d ocument ing t he a rea 's p rehistory ( e .g ., B oman 1 908, V an R osen 1 924, A mbrosett i 1 907-08, D ebenedett i 1 910, S an R oman 1 896, U h le 1 919). W ith t hese e ar ly w orks a p attern s eems t o h ave b een s et , i n w hich d etailed b ut v ar iab le d escr ipt ions a nd l isting i s g iven o f t he c ontents o f e xcavated u n its ( usua lly g raves) a nd o ther c o llect ions, b ut o ften w ith l ess-than-adequate i l lustrat ion o f t he m ater ia ls. T h is s ty le o f r esearch a nd r eport ing h as l arge ly c ont inued t o t he p resent t ime ( e .g ., C ig liano e t a l. 1 973). I t i s a n o r ientat ion, h owever, w h ich f rom t he b eg inning h as a lso i nc luded a t l east a c asua l i nterest i n n ot ing t he s im ilar ity o f v ar ious a rtifacts a nd " sty les" t o t hose o f o ther l oca lit ies, w hether n ear o r f ar , w h ich t hen b ecome i nd icators o f " trade" o r " inf luence ." . A s i n m ost a rchaeo log ica l r eport ing a nywhere , i t h as 2 06

n ow b ecome s tandard t o s earch f or a nd p o int o ut s uch s im ilar it ies o r c onnect ions, i f n ot t o e xp lore a nd d iscuss t he b asis a nd i mp licat ions o f s uch d iscover ies. M any e xamp les o f t h is a re t o b e f ound i n l arger s ite r eports a nd r eg iona l s ummar ies ( e .g ., S chaede l 1 957: 3 9-41, a nd R ivera 1 975 f or e xtreme n orthern C h ile ; T arrago 1 968 : 1 33-137, 1 976 : 6 1-63 f or S an P edro d e A tacama; R yden 1 944 f or t he m idd le R io L oa; N unez A . 1 978 i n ac hrono log ica l o verview o f n orthern C h ile ; K rapov ickas 1 968 f or t he A rgent ine p una; P erez 1 968, 1 973 f or t he Q uebrada d e H umahuaca; C ig liano e t a l. 1 973, a nd R aff ino 1 972 f or t he Q uebrada d e l T oro ; T arrago 1 97 4-, 1 975 f or t he C a lchaqui V a lley). W ith t hese a nd a h ost o f o ther s tud ies, w e a re r apid ly a nd o ften b ew ilder ing ly d rawn i nto c ompar isons o f h igh ly v ary ing d egrees o f s pecif icity , b ut w h ich h ave, i t i s h oped, a p otent ial f or p rov id ing a b asis f or d educt ion a nd i nference a bout t he n ature o f c u ltural i nteract ions . T he r ange o f t h ings w h ich h ave a nd c an b e c ited a s e vidence o f g roup i nteract ion i s c onsiderab le . T hese i nc lude t he t ransference o f a ctua l a rt ifacts a nd r aw m ater ia ls, a s w e ll a s t he s pread o f i deas a nd s t lyes. I n t he c ase o f s pecif ic a rt ifacts o f r aw m ater ia ls, o ne c an a lso a ttempt t o d ist ingu ish a mong a t l east t hree k inds o f s ituat ions: ( 1) I ntra-group m ovement : i n w hich i tems m ove f rom o ne s ett lement t o a nother , b ut w ith b oth s ett lements b eing c omponents o f a s ing le e thn ic o r c u ltura l g roup, ( 2) N e ighbor ing i nter-group m ovement : i n w hich i tems m ove f rom o ne e thnic o r c u ltura l g roup t o a nother , w ith t he g roups b e ing g eographica lly a djacent , a nd ( 3) S equent ia l i nter-group m ovement : i n w hich i tems m ove f rom o ne e thn ic o r c u ltura l g roup t o a nother , b ut w ith t here b e ing a h igh p robability t hat s uch m ovement i nvo lved " traversing" t he t err itory o f g eographica lly i ntervening g roup (s). S evera l e xamp les w ill h e lp i llustrate t he n ature o f t he d ata a nd e v idence a long t hese l ines . I ntra-group m ovement A s o ne w ou ld e xpect , e v idence o f i ntra-cu ltura l m ovement o f i tems i s d iff icu lt t o d ocument i n s o le ly a rchaeo log ical c ontexts. O ne e xamp le c omes f rom t he m idd le R io L oa r eg ion o f C hile, i n w hich p etrograph ic a na lysis o f s herds f rom s evera l l oca lit ies a s m uch a s 3 5 k m . a part ( Santa B arbara, T ur i/Ayquina, C h iu C h iu, L asana, w ith a n e levat ion s pan o f 2 500 t o 3 000 m .) s howed t hat a ll o f t he u t ility c eram ics f rom t hose s ites f or t he L ate P er iod ( Lasana C omp lex) w ere m ade f rom c lays f ound a t o n ly t wo o f t he l oca lit ies ( the C hiu C h iu/ L asana s ect ion o f t he R io L oa). T he i nference i s t hat s ma ll s ca le v illage s pecializat ion i n p ottery m anufactur ing h ad d eve loped , w h ich p rov ided v esse ls f or v ar ious s ett lements o f a s ing le e thn ic g roup ( Po llard 1 975: 2 85). T he g eographica l l ocat ion o f t he s ites f urther s uggests t hat t he d istr ibut ion o f p ottery w as i n a n " up-s lope" d irect ion f rom t he a pparent l ocus o f m anufactur ing , a nd t hat t he r ecipient s ett lements m ay h ave i n t urn p rovided i tems f or t he l ower e levat ion s ites, s uch a s c actus w ood w h ich w as o ccasiona lly u sed a s l inte ls i n n iche b ur ia ls a long t he R io L oa ( Po llard 1 975 : 2 54). Am ore p rob lemat ical e xamp le i s f ound i n c ompar ing i llustrat ions o f c eram ics f or t he Y ocav il V a lley r eg ion o f N .W . A rgent ina. Q uiroga ( 190 1: 1 40, f ig . 5 2) i llustrates a d ist inct ive S antamar iana-sty le ( Late P rehispanic) b ur ia l u rn f rom t he l oca lity o f S an J ose ( reproduced 2 07

i n S errano 1 976: 5 0, f ig . 1 0). I n ar ecent ly p ub lished s eriat ion o f S antamar iana u rns b y W eber , a n u rn v irtua lly i dent ica l t o t hat f rom S an J ose i s i l lustrated f or t he l oca lity o f T af i ( Weber 1 978 : 8 6-87, f ig . 1 8, p l. 2 ). T he t wo u rns a re u n ique ly d ecorated w ith a f roglizard m ot if , a nd u ndoubted ly w ere m ade b y t he s ame p erson. M ore p rec ise i nformat ion o n t he p rovenience o f t hese p ieces i s u navailab le, b ut t he t wo l oca lit ies l ie a bout 4 0 k m . a part, b oth a t e levat ions o f c a. 2 000 m eters, b ut s eparated b y t he n orthern s ect ion o f t he S ierra d e l A conquija w ith h e ights t o c a. 4 000 m eters . O ther u rns f rom T af i a ppear t o c onf irm t hat l oca lity 's i nc lusion i n t he c u ltura l/sett lement n etwork o f t he Y ocavil V a lley , a nd t he t wo u rns i n q uest ion w ou ld s eem t o s uggest a n i nter-sett lement m ovement o f b ur ia l v esse ls. N e ighbor ing I nter-group M ovement

,

I t i s i n t his c ategory o f e vents t hat t he g reatest n umber o f e xamp les c an b e f ound i n t he l iterature. M ost o f t he " h ard e v idence" c omes f rom o bservat ions o n t he d istr ibution o f p ottery t ypes a nd s ty les. A l im ited c onsiderat ion o f s uch e v idence i s f ound i n M adrazo a nd O ttone llo ( 1966) f or s evera l r eg ions o f N .W . A rgent ina , a nd o ther e xamp les d emonstrate t ies t o N orthern C h ile, a s i nd icated b e low . O ne o f t he s eem ing ly b est-documented e xamp les i s t he r ecognit ion o f t wo S an P edro I ( N . C h ile) b lack p o lished v esse ls ( forms 1 a nd 3 o f T arrago 's c lassif icat ion, 1 976) i n ag rave a t t he s outhern A rgent ine p una s ite o f T ebenquiche ( Krapov ickas 1 955, 1 968 :248 ; T arr ago 1 968 :138). A t t he s ame t ime, p o lychrome s urface s herds f rom T ebenquiche s uggest t o K rapovickas ( 1968 : 2 48) t hat L a A guada e lements a re p resent , p resumab ly f rom t he Y ocav il/Cajon V a lley o r H ua lf in/Be len r eg ion a d jacent t o t he e astern e dge o f t he p una. T hese a ssociat ions t end t o d ate t he s ite t o t he l atter p art o f t he E ar ly P er iod , p erhaps a round A .D. 4 00-600. A l ater ( post A .D. 1 000) s outh p una s ite , L a A lumbrera a t A ntofagasta d e l a S ierra, h as r eceived l itt le i n t he w ay o f s ystemat ic w ork, b ut K rapovickas ( 1968 : 2 51) r e iterates t he a pparent p resence o f s pecif ic v esse ls o f F amaba lasto b lack-on-red a nd Y ocav il p o lychrome s ty les w hich d er ive f rom t he Y ocav il/Cajon V a lley r eg ion t o t he e ast . R aff ino a nd C ig liano ( 1973), o n t he o ther h and , s uggest t hat t he s ite w as a p una c o lony f or t he l ower-e levat ion H ua lf in/Be len c u lture t o t he s outheast, b ut n o c onf irm ing e v idence i s o ffered . T he n orthern A rgentine p una h as y ie lded e v idence o f an umber o f c onnections b etween t hat r eg ion a nd n e ighbor ing o nes, p art icular ly w ith t he Q uebrada d e H umahuaca j ust t o t he e ast . A t p resent, s ites b e lieved t o d ate t o t he E ar ly C eram ic P er iod ( pre A .D . 6 00) h ave n ot b een d ocumented f or t he n orthern p una, a nd e v idence f or o ccupat ion d ur ing t he M idd le P er iod ( A .D. 6 00-1000) i s m inima l ( cf . K rapov ickas 1 968: 2 53). T he b est e vidence f or t he l atter c omes f rom t he s ite o f S orcuyo ( Casanova 1 938 : 4 35-36, f ig . 6 -8), a t w hich g rave ( ?) c eram ics w ere f ound w ith c onsiderab le s im ilar ity t o o nes f rom t he c enter o f t he Q uebrada d e H umahuaca a t t he s ite o f L a I s la ( Debenedett i 1 910: 1 91 a nd o thers). P erez ( 1973: 6 75) e st imates t he I s la s ty le, w h ich i nc ludes m any v ar iat ions i n t he Q uebrada, a s f a lling w ithin t he M idd le P er iod. T he h igh f requency o f o ccurrence o f t he s ty le i n t he Q uebrada w ou ld s eem t o s uggest a m ovement u pward t o t he p una; a dd it iona l f inds o f t his s ty le c ome f rom t he n orthern e nd o f t he H umahuaca v a lley i n t he Q uebrada d e L a 2 08

C ueva, a t t he s ites o f P ucara d e L a C ueva a nd P ueb le ( Casanova 1 931-33: 2 68f , 3 05f ).

V iejo d e L a C ueva

I t i s w ith t he L ate P er iod ( post A .D. 1 000) t hat t he n orthern p una s hows s ubstant ia l o ccupat ion, w ith r e lat ions t o t he Q uedbrada d e H umahuaca. H ere K rapov ickas ( 1968 : 2 58f ) a nd M adrazo a nd O ttone llo ( 1966 : 4 9) p o int t o t he f requent o ccurrence o f H umahuaca c eram ic s ty les a t p una s ites ( e .g ., S orcuyo a nd R inconada w ith H orn illos b lack-on-red a nd T ilcara b lack-on-red), a nd s evera l e xamp les o f p una p lain, f lat-based b ow ls ( vasos c hatos) a re n oted a t Q uebrada d e H umahuaca s ites ( Krapovickas 1 958-59b : 5 7-58), s uch a s T ilcara a nd R odero . T hese p una b ow ls a re a lso n oted i n h igh n umbers, a s g rave a ccompan iments, a t t he s ite o f T ast il i n t he Q uebrada d e l T oro ( C ig liano e t a l. 1 973: 7 9f ), a nother r eg ion o f s ett lement t o t he s outhwest o f t he 7 ue -S rada H umahuaca. O ther, b ut l ess p rec ise, i nterreg iona l r e lat ions f or t he n orthern p una h ave b een s uggested , i nc lud ing t he a cquisit ion o f r aw m ater ia ls o r f in ished i tems m ade o f m ater ia ls w h ich d o n ot o ccur n aturally a t p una e levat ions ( 3400 m eters a nd a bove). E ar ly-recogn ized e xamp les i nc lude g rave f inds o f ac hanar s eed r att le ( Jug lans a ustra lis) a nd a t oy b ow o f b amboo a t C asab indo ( Von R osen 1 924 : 3 4, 4 8), a nd B oman ( 1908 : 4 10) w as s truck b y t he h igh i ncidence o f m a ize c obs i n g raves a t m any p una s ites . T he p robab ility o f i nteract ion w ith l ower-e levat ion n eighbor ing g roups i s r ead ily r ecognized, a s h as b een w itnessed h istor ica lly i n t he r eg ion ( Boman 1 908 : 4 61f ; B owman 1 924 : 3 22), a nd c ou ld a pp ly a s w e ll t o g ourds ( p lain o r p yroengraved, L agenar ia s p.) w hich a re c ommon i n p una s ites ( cf . K rapovickas 1 958-59b : 1 08), b ut w hich c annot g row a t p una e levat ions g iven f rost-day l im itat ions . C eram ics f rom t he Q uebrada d e H umahuaca a re a lso b e lieved t o h ave m oved t o o ther a djacent l ocalit ies o r s ett lement r eg ions, i nc lud ing Y av i a t t he A rgent ine/Bo liv ia b order , f or w h ich K rapovi-kas ( 1970 : 1 21) r eports o ne v esse l o f T ilcara b lack-on-red . K now ledge o f c eram ics a nd c hrono logy f or t he u pper R io I ruya r eg ion n ortheast o f t he Q uebrada d e H umahuaca r emains p oor , b ut t here i s m in ima l e v idence o f l arge t ubu lar u rns a t t he s ite o f R odeo C o lorado i n I ruya ( Marquez M iranda 1 937: 1 61, 1 936-41: 1 35), a nd s im ilar o nes a re f ound a t t he s ites o f E stancia G rande ( Sa las 1 948) a nd T ilcara ( Madrazo 1 968) i n t he H umahuaca V a lley . A ll o f t hese f inds a re c onsidered " ear ly" ( cf . P erez 1 973: 6 68f ), b ut m ay w e ll d ate t o t he M idd le P er iod ; t he g eograph ica l " or ig in" o f t he f orm c annot y et b e d eterm ined . M ore m ovement o f i tems f rom t he Q uebrada d e H umahuaca s eems t o h ave o ccurred s outhward t o t he Q uebrada d e l T oro, w here C ig liano e t a l. ( 1973 : 9 4f ) e xcavated 1 06 L ate P er iod g raves ( many w ith m u lt ip le i nterments) a t t he s ite o f T ast il. A q uick t abu lat ion f rom t he d ata ( see T ab le 1 ) i nd icates t he p resence o f 1 0 v esse ls o f T ilcara b lack-on-red, a nd t wo o f A ngosto C h ico I ncised , a ll p resumab ly f rom t he Q uebrada d e H umahuaca . T he l ate p reh ispan ic o ccupat ion o f t he Q uebrada d e l T oro i s i ntr iguing . T he t hree k nown i ndigenous s ett lements a ll l ack e v idence o f I nca c ontact, a nd i t i s s uggested t hat a t l east t he l argest o f t hese, T ast il, w as a bandoned b efore I nca a rr iva l ( C ig liano e t a l. 1 973: 1 54, 6 58). F ive r ad iocarbon d ates f or T ast il ( ib id, p . 5 89) r ange f rom A .D. 2 09

1 336 t o 1 439, c onf irm ing i ts L ate P er iod p osit ion; s ma ll, p ure ly I nca i nsta llat ions a re k nown f or o ther l oca lit ies i n t he Q uebrada d e l 'Toro ( ib id, p . 6 52). M ore r e levant t o t he i mmediate c oncern, h owever , a re o ther o bservat ions t hat c an b e m ade b y t abu lat ing d ata f ound i n C ig liano e t a l. 1 973 f or t he T ast il s ite ( see T ab le 1 ). A ssum ing r easonab le i dent if icat ion o f c eram ic s ty les a nd t he ir o r ig ins, w e f ind t hat o f t he 7 5 v esse ls f ound i n 1 06 g raves, 5 0 ( 66% ) a re d er ived f rom a djacent e thn ic o r c u lture g roups ( 17 f rom t he p una, 2 0 f rom t he Q uebrada d e H umahuaca, a nd 1 3 f rom t he C a lchaqui V a lley t o t he s outh). C onverse ly , o f t he 5 3 w ho le v esse ls f rom 7 s tructure e xcavat ions, o n ly 8 ( 15% ) a re " nonloca l". E qua lly s ignif icant, o f t he 2 593 c lass if ied s herds f rom t hree r efuse-area t est p its, o n ly 3 8 ( 1 .5% ) w ere o f t hese n e ighbor ing s ty les o r t ypes. O ther c orre lat ions c an o f c ourse b e s crut in ized, b ut o bservat ions s uch a s t hese s hou ld p rov ide a f irmer b asis f or f ormu lat ing h ypotheses a bout t he n ature o f i ntergroup r e lat ions, a t l east a s c oncerns t he m ovement a nd u se o f p ottery , a nd w here s uch e v idence l ies. S pecif ic i mp licat ions a long t hese l ines a re c ons idered i n a l ater s ection o f t his p aper . F ina lly , t he L ate P er iod c eram ics o f t he C a lchaqui V a lley (s) r eg ion o f N .W . A rgent ina h ave n ot b een a dequate ly s tud ied t o p erm it m eaningfu l d iscussion o f o ther n e ighbor ing c onnect ions, a lthough T arrago ( 1974 : 2 10, 1 978 : 5 04) f inds s igns o f c eram ic s ty le m ovement i nto t he r eg ion f rom t he H ua lf in a nd Y ocavil V a lleys t o t he s outheast . F or t he Y ocav il V a lley n o s ignif icant i nterreg iona l c onnect ions s eem t o b e r eported ( C ig liano 1 960). S equent ia l

I nter-group M ovement

W ith t his f orm o f i nterreg iona l i nteract ion, Ia m r eferr ing t o t he m ovement o f a rt ifacts, m ater ia ls, o r s ty les f rom o ne g roup o r p o int t o a nother , h ut w ith t here b eing a h igh p robab ility t hat s uch m ovement i nvo lved " traversing" t he t err itory o f o ne o r m ore g eographica lly i ntervening g roups w ho m ay o r m ay n ot g ive e v idence o f s uch m ovement t hemse lves. I t i s m ost f requent ly o ut o f t h is c lass o f s ituat ion, w h ich c an i nc lude m any a ctua l v ar iat ions, t hat r esearchers d er ive c onclus ions a bout s uch t h ings a s l ong-d istance t rade , c onquest , a nd t he g enera l d iffusion o f s ty les. F or t he s outh-centra l A ndes, s evera l e xamp les c an b e f ound, f or v ar ious t ime p er iods, b ut r are ly h ave r esearchers c ons idered t he l og ist ica l a nd c ontextua l i mp licat ions o f t he ir o bservat ions . T he S an P edro d e A tacama r eg ion o f C h ile , i n a ddit ion t o p rov id ing a n e xamp le o f " ne ighbor ing i nter-group m ovement" a s n oted a bove, o ffers av ar iety o f e xamp les i n w hich i tems s eem t o h ave m oved c onsiderab le d istances, f ina lly e nd ing u p a s g rave a ccompan iments. T arrago ( 1968 : 1 37-138f ) g ives b r ief r ev iew-ment ion o f m ost o f t hese , b ut w ithout s uff icient d etail o r c ompar ison . O ne o f t he e ar liest i s t he p resence o f aC ondorhuasi I a nthropomorphic v esse l i n ag rave a t t he S an P edro s ite o f T u lor A lgarrobo, i n d irect a ssociat ion w ith l oca l S an P edro B lack P o lished w are ( Le P aige 1 964 : 7 2, 2 39, l am . 1 43), t he l atter d at ing a s e ar ly a s A .D . 2 00 ( Nunez A . 1 976 : 1 07, 11). T he v esse l h as d irect c ounterparts a nd u ndoubtab le o r ig in i n t he H ua lf in V a lley o f C atamarca P rovince, A rgent ina ( cf . I barra G rasso 1 967 : 6 19 ; S errano 1 976 : l am . X X). T he C ondorhuasi C omp lex h as h ad s ome t roub le i n f ind ing i ts t rue p osit ion i n p rehistory , b oth i n t erms o f i ts c hrono log ica l p lacement 2 10

( cf . G onza les 1 956 : 7 4; G onza les a nd P erez 1 971: 4 ; W illey 1 971: 2 01; B erber ian a nd M assidda 1 975 : 3 5; N unez R . 1 978 : 4 67), a nd i n t erms o f i ts s ty le a ff in it ies e lsewhere, w h ich i nc lude a t l east t he M o lle, A lam ito, C ande lar ia , S an F rancisco, I s la, a nd A lfarc ito s ty les w hich f orm a b road b and f rom t he N orte C hico r eg ion o f C hile t o t he Q uebrada d e H umahuaca o f e xtreme N .W . A rgent ina ( cf . H ered ia 1 968, 1 974)! M ore t o t he p o int h ere, h owever, i s t hat t he C ondorhuasi v esse l i n S an P edro p robab ly m ade i ts w ay v ia t he s outhern A rgent ina p una, a nd p robab ly t hrough o ne o f t he e merg ing p ermanent p una s ett lements s uch a s T ebenquiche o r t he l itt le-stud ied s ite o f L aguna B lanca ( Krapov ickas 1 968 : 2 43-249) o f t he s ame t ime p er iod . O ther e xamp les o f t h is n ature i nc lude s ing le a nd s eparate f inds o f a T i lcara b lack-on-red v esse l, a nd a Y av i v esse l, i n g raves a t t he C atarpe s ite l oca lity a t S an P edro d e A tacama ( Tarrago 1 968 : 1 38). T he f u ll c ontext f or t hese f inds i s e ither n ot p ub lished o r s omewhat u nc lear ( cf . L e P aige 1 964 : 8 6f ), b ut b oth c ases d ate t o t he L ate P er iod a nd p robab ly c ame v ia n orthern p una s ett lements f rom t he ir o r ig ins t o t he e ast o f t he p una, a t t he Q uebrada d e H umahuaca a nd t he A rgent ine/Bo liv ia b order , r espect ive ly . S im ilar ly, a s ing le L a I s la v esse l, a lso f rom t he Q uebrada d e H umahuaca, w as f ound i n a nother S an P edro s ite ( Tchecar ), d at ing t o t he M idd le P er iod ( Le P aige 1 964 : 7 0, l am . 1 41, f ig . 1 ). M arked ly s im ilar s pecimens a re t o b e f ound i n t he w ork o f D ebenedett i ( 1910 : 4 2, 1 32, f ig . 7 5), a nd a gain t he v esse l w ou ld h ave t raversed t he p una, p ossib ly t hrough t he e merging s ite o f S orcuyo . Ac onnect ion i nvo lving e ven g reater d istance c omes f rom a nother s ing le f ind a t t he Q uitor 9 c emetery a t S an P edro ( Le P a ige 1 964 : 7, l am . 1 48, f ig . 1 ) w h ich c lear ly d ates t o t he L ate P er iod . I t i s o f a n a pparent H uruquilla-sty le v esse l ( cf . I barra G rasso 1 973 : 3 43f ) f rom t he P otos i r eg ion o f B o liv ia, a nd m ay h ave t raversed s outhern B o liv ian s ett le n icnts a s w e ll a s t he n orth A rgent ine p una s ector b efore r eaching S an P edro . I nterest ing ly , B oman ( 1908 : 7 50 a nd p l. L XXVIII, f ig . 1 81-182) c ompares t wo n ear ly i dent ica l v esse ls o f a pparent Y ura s ty le, w h ich i s c lose t o H uruquilla i n b oth t ime a nd s pace ( Ibarra G rasso 1 973: 3 47f ). O ne v esse l i s f rom a C a lama g rave a long t he m idd le R io L oa o f C h ile, a nd t he o ther f rom C ajua V a lley, B o liv ia. S equence m ovement w ou ld a lso s eem t o a pp ly i n t his e xamp le. Av ar iety o f g rave f inds h ave d emonstrated w hat a ppear t o b e d irect c onnections o f T it icaca B asin T iwanaku w ith t he S an P edro d e A tacama l oca lity ( summar ized i n T arrago 1 968 : 1 33-136). T hese i nc lude a bout 8 0 s pec imens, r ang ing f rom g o ld a nd w ood k eros, a f ew c eram ic v esse ls, 8 p yroengraved ( ?) a rt ifacts m ade f rom lama h umer i ( Le P aige 1 965 : 2 3f , l am . 4 9-55), a nd s evera l c arved a nd e ngraved w ooden s nuff t ab lets a nd t ubes; m ore t han h a lf o f a ll s uch i tems a re i n d irect a ssociation w ith S an P edro B lack P o lished W ares. T hese f inds s eem t o r epresent m ost o f t he " purest" T iwanaku e lements i n a ll o f N . C hile a nd N .W . A rgent ina, b ut m any a dd it iona l f inds i n t he A r ica r eg ion o f e xtreme n orthern C h ile ( which l ies i n m uch m ore d irect g eographica l p rox im ity t o t he T it icaca B asin) p ose a m ore c omp licated s ituat ion w hich m akes t he a ctua l r oute, s equence, a nd n ature o f c ontact o pen t o c ons iderab le i nterpretation ( cf . F ocacci 1 969; D aue lsberg 1 972-73a, 1 972-73b ; L umbreras 1 972-73; N unez A . 1 972-73; R ivera 1 975, 1 977: 5 6f ; B rowman 1 977, 1 978). S uch p ure e lements h ave y et t o b e f ound i n N .W . A rgent ina ( cf . G onza les 1 963a), t hus a llow ing l oose s pecu lat ions a bout a p ossib le c ontro lling a nd 2 11

r einterpret ing s tatus f or t he l oca lity o f S an P edro d e A tacama w ith r espect t o f ar-rang ing e xchange n etworks ( Browman 1 977, 1 978 : 3 34), b ut m ore e v idence i s b ad ly n eeded t o s upport s uch a p osit ion. P acif ic c oast s ea s he lls a re a nother l ine o f e v idence t hat c an b e c onsidered f or l ong d istance m ovement o f i tems. I t i s c lear t hat t he i n land m ovement o f s he lls i n n orthern C h ile i s e ar ly, w here V ega A lta C omp lex ( pre-200 B .C.) c amp a nd v illage s ites a long t he R io L oa h ave y ie lded s ma ll q uant it ies o f O live lla s p ., P ecten p urpuratus, C on idae c onus, C horomyt ilas c horus, C oncho lepas s p ., C h itonidae s p., a nd F issure lla s p . ( Po llard 1 975 : 7 8, 9 7, 1 00 , 1 28). F or N .W . A rgent ina o n t he o ther h and, e xcept f or t he p ossib ly M idd le P er iod s ite o f P ucara d e l a C ueva a t t he n orthern e nd o f t he Q uebrada d e H umahuaca, w h ile y ie lded o ne s he ll o f C oncho lepas s p . f rom a g rave ( Casanova 1 931-33: 2 800, m ent ion o f P acif ic c oast s he lls i n p re-Late P er iod s ites i s r are i n l iterature . T his s ituat ion m ay b e i n p art d ue t o t he p resent s tate o f r esearch a nd r eport ing f or t he e ar lier s ites, a nd s ome o f t he f inds r ev iewed b y M art inez S o ler ( 1958-59) m ay p ertain t o s uch t ime p er iods . F or t he L ate P er iod ( post A .D. 1 000) t here i s s ubstant ia l e v idence t hat s he lls t raversed t he A ndes t o N .W . A rgentina . I n T ab le 2 , I h ave l isted t he f inds w hich h ave e nough r easonab le p roven ience i nformat ion t o a llow t he i nference t hat t hey d ate t o t hat t ime u n it . F or t his t ab le, I h ave c onsidered o n ly f rom t he Y ocav il V a lley n orthward, b ut M art inez S o ler ( 1958-59) c ites s evera l f inds f rom L a R ioja P rovince w hich a lso s how t rans-Andean m ovement . I f t he d ata o f T ab le 2 a re i nd icat ive, i t a ppears t hat o n ly f our g enus c ategories w ere o f p r imary i mportance d ur ing t he L ate P er iod : P ecten, S eme le, O liva, a nd C oncho lepas. T ota l q uant it ies a re s ma ll, b ut P ecten s he lls s eem t o h ave b een m ost c ommon. R eferences t o L ate P er iod s he ll f inds i n i n land n orthern C h ile a re r are o r p oor ly d ocumented , b ut R yden -s ( 1944: 1 58-60, f ig . 9 2) " Chiu C h iu c emetery" m ater ia l f rom t he R io L oa a re a lso o f P ecten ( 2 s he lls), S eme le ( 2), a nd C oncho lepas ( 4). I nterest ing ly , t he m ovement o f s he lls a lso s eems t o h ave i nc luded t he l and s pec ies S trophoch ilus, w hich i s n at ive t o t he e astern s ide o f t he A ndes ( Ryden 1 944 : 1 59). S trophochilus w as f air ly w ide ly u sed i n N .W . A rgent ine ( see M art inez 1 958-59 f or s pecif ic l oca lit ies, p lus C ig liano e t a l. 1 973 : 1 04, 1 06), b ut h as a lso t urned u p a t C hiu C hiu b eside t he R io L oa i n C h ile ( Ryden 1 944 : 1 59). T he a ctua l r outes a nd m echanisms o f m ovement o f s he lls m ay h ave b een q uite c omp lex, a nd m any f actors, a s i nd icated b e low , s hou ld e nter i nto a n e va luat ion o f t h is l ine o f e v idence o f r eg iona l i nteract ion . A f ina l c lass o f e v idence o f t his c ategory o f i nterreg iona l i nteract ion r e lates t o t he I nca c onquest o f N . C h ile a nd N .W . A rgent ina. T he I nca i ntrusion i nto t hese r eg ions i s m ost c ommon ly e v idenced b y c eram ic v esse ls, p robab ly o f h igh land B o liv ia o r ig in, a s w e ll a s l oca l i m itations o f I nca v esse l s hapes, p art icu lar ly t he a ryba llus, h and led d ish, a nd p edestaled p ot . I n a dd it ion, t here a re i ntrusive s ites w h ich a ppear t o b e t otally o f I nca d er ivat ion, a s w e ll a s i nd igenous s ites w hich w ere c hosen b y t he I nca f or p resumab ly a dm inistrat ive f unct ions a nd w hich h ave i ntrusive I nca s tructures. W ith r espect t o c eram ics, m any r esearch r eports f a il o r d o n ot a ttempt t o d ist inguish b etween t ru ly i ntrusive I nca v esse ls a nd t hose 2 12

w h ich a re l oca l i m itat ions. As ummary s tudy b y D eambrosis a nd L orenz i ( 1973: 1 36) f or t he n orthern A rgent ine p una a nd t he Q uebrada d e H umahuaca, h owever , d oes f ind t hat t rue i mports a re r are . T hey f ound I nca a nd I nca-sty le v esse ls t o b e p resent i n 6p una s ites a nd 8 Q uebrada d e H umahuaca s ites, m ost ly g rave f inds, w ith t he t ota l s pecimens n umber ing 4 4 v esse ls, 2 l ids, a nd 1 7 s herds. B regante 's e ar ly n on-quant itat ive, n on-contextua l s tudy o f n orthwest A rgent ine c eram ics ( 1926 : 2 67f , &p l. X X) l ists p erhaps a d ozen a dd it iona l l oca lit ies, s ites, o r f inds w hich a ppear t o b e d ef in ite ly I nca-re lated, r ang ing f rom t he s outhern p una t o t he s ub-Andean L erma V a lley . F or n orthern C h ile, n umerous v esse ls h ave b een r eported, f rom t he e xtreme n orthern t ransverse v a lleys s outhward t o w e ll b e low t he a rea o f c oncern h ere ( e .g . L atcham 1 938 : 2 50-53; M un izaga 1 957: 1 20-21). C ontextua l i nformat ion i s p oor ly p rov ided i n m ost r eports, h owever . I n t erms o f s ites o f I nca o r ig in o r w ith I nca a rchitectura l i ntrusions, m any h ave b een r ecogn ized , b ut n one h as b een s tud ied i n a dequate d etail. M ost r eg ions h ave y ie lded s uch e v idence o f I nca p resence, w ith t he m ajor r eported s ites b e ing a s f o llows. T he Q uebrada d e l T oro a pparent ly h as t wo s ma ll p ure ly I nca s ites, P unta C ienaga a nd A bra d e l as M inas ( Raff ino 1 969 ; C ig liano e t a l. 1 973: 6 52), w hich b order o n t he p una a nd w ere p robab ly a ssociated w ith m in ing a ct iv it ies. T he C a lchaqu i V a lleys c ontain t wo p ure I nca s ett lements, P otrero d e P ayogasta ( D ifr ier i 1 948) a nd C ortaderas ( Tarrago 1 974b : 2 11f ), b oth o f w h ich y ie ld c onsiderab le l oca l c eram ics a s w e ll a s I nca p ieces. I n a ddit ion, o ne o f t he l argest l oca l v illages i n t he C a lchaqu i V a lley, t hat o f L a P aya, h as a n i ntrusive I nca s tructure a nd a ssociated a rt ifacts ( Ambrosett i 1 907-08 ; B ennett e t a l. 1 948 : 7 0f ). T he Y ocav il ( Santa M ar ia) V a lley h as o ne s ite w ith a pparent ly i ntrusive I nca s tructures, t hat o f P unta d e B a lasto ( Carrara e t a l. 1 960 : 1 3f ). F urther s outh, a t t he e astern s ide o f t he C ampo A rena l a t 2 700 m eters e levat ion, i s t he I nca g arr ison ( ? ) s ite o f I ngenio d e A rena l M edanos ( Marquez M iranda a nd C ig liano 1 961a), w h ich y ie lded l ess t han 1 0% I nca s herds, t he r est b e ing o f v ar ious l oca l t radit ions. T o t he e ast o f t his s ite, a t 4 200 m eters o n t he e astern s ide o f t he N evados d e A conquija m ounta in r ange, i s t he l arge I nca s ite o f N evados d e A conquija, w hich y ie lded a bout 3 0% I nca s herds f rom s urface c o llect ions ( Pau lott i 1 958-59), a nd w hich s eems t o h ave b een a ssociated w ith g o ld m ining ( Mansfe ld 1 948). I n t he s outhwest o f C atamarca P rov ince, a long t he R io A baucan, t here a re t wo s ites t hat a ppear t o b e o f I nca o r ig in : B atungasta a nd M ishma s ite 7 ( Sempe 1 973 : 1 6f ), a nd a re p robab ly a ssociated w ith a m ajor r oute a cross t o t he C op iapo l oca lity o f C h ile . F urther n orth i n C hile, a t S an P edro d e A tacama, t here i s t he a pparent ly I nca H tamb e t o C atarpe ( Mostny 1 949 : 1 60). I n t he m idd le R io L oa r eg ion, t he l arge v illage s ite o f T un i h as a n i ntrusive, r ectangu lar , a dm in istrat ive ( ?) s tructure ( Mostny 1 949 : 1 65f ; P o llard 1 975: 26f ) a lmost i dent ica l t o t he o ne a t t he p ure I nca s ite o f P otrero d e P ayogasta m entioned a bove f or t he C a lchaqui V a lleys o f A rgent ina. F ina lly, I nca p resence m ay b e i nd icated b y t he s ite o f C oyparc ito n ear A ntofagasta d e l a S ierra i n t he s outhern A rgent ine p una ( Raff ino a nd C ig liano 1 973: 2 53f ), a nd b y a p ossib ly I nca l apidary w orkshop i n t he s ite o f T ilcara i n t he Q uebrada d e H umahuaca ( Krapov ickas 1 958-59a). T he I nca p resence t hroughout N . C hile a nd N .W . A rgent ina o bv ious ly c ross-cuts n umerous r eg ions o f i nd igenous s ett lement, a nd i s a n 2 13

e xcept iona l e xamp le o f s equent ia l i nterreg iona l i nteraction o n al arge s ca le . I nca c ontro l a nd i nf luence o n l oca l s ocieties u ndoubted ly e manated f rom t hose s ites w hich w ere e ither e rected b y t he I nca o r w h ich w ere c hosen f or i ntrusive i nsta llat ions, b ut w e c annot y et b e s ure h ow I nca a rt ifacts ( or l oca l c op ies) b ecame d istr ibuted a mong l oca l s ett lements, i nc lud ing t hose s ites w h ich l acked a ctua l I nca s tructures , b efore e nding u p, i n m ost c ases, a s g rave a ccompaniments. I nca p o licies, s uch a s t he m it imae ( m itmaqkuna) s ystem d is locat ion o f p eop les o ver c onsiderab le d istances, o bv ious ly h ave c ontr ibuted t o p resent a rt ifact d istr ibut ion p atterns, a nd o ur k now ledge o f s uch a p o licy , f or e xamp le, h as b een u sed i n a n a ttempt t o e xp lain t he p resence o f t wo S antamar iana-sty le b ur ia l u rns ( of Y ocav il o r C a lchaqui V a lley o r ig in?) i n ac o llect ion f rom t he C ochabamba l oca lity o f B o livia ( Ibarra G rasso 1 960).

E va luat ion o f t he E v idence D ata Q uality a nd S ignif icance T he p reced ing s ets o f e xamp les c lear ly d emonstrate t hat g roup i nteract ion w as c ommon i n t he s outhern A ndes. A t t he s ame t ime, w e m ost r ecogn ize s evere l im itat ions f or t he b u lk o f t hat e vidence a s i t a ppears i n t he l iterature . T he m ajor l im itations c enter o n t he e v idence g enera lly b eing n on-quant itat ive a nd n on-contextua l. T h is r esu lts i n h igh ly i ncomp lete d ata w h ich a re o f m inima l u tility i n c omparative a nd a na lyt ica l s tud ies w h ich a re p rob lem-or iented . I n f act , i t d oes n ot a ppear t o b e a n o versimp lif icat ion t o s tate t hat t he v ast m ajor ity o f t he h ard e v idence o f i nterreg iona l r e lat ions t yp ica lly f a lls i nto t hree c ategor ies: ( 1) o bjects f ound i n b ur ia ls, ( 2 ) o bjects n ot f ound i n b ur ia ls, a nd ( 3) a rchitectura l e vidence o f I nca i ntrus ion . U nfortunate ly , t he e v idence i s t oo o ften p resented i n s im ilar ly p rec ise t erms. N everthe less, s evera l p otent ia lly i mportant o bservations a nd g enera lizat ions c an b e m ade. A t p resent , a part f rom t he w ide g enera l d istr ibution o f I nca o r I nca-sty le c eram ics, t he v ast m ajor ity o f t he e vidence o f g roup i nteract ion d er ives f rom c eram ic v esse ls a nd a f ew o ther c lasses o f a rt ifacts e ncountered i n b ur ia ls . T h is a pparent f act m ay w e ll b e i mportant i n d ecid ing w here b est t o s eek a nd f ind s uch e v idence, a nd t he d ata r ev iewed e ar lier f or t he T ast il s ite o f t he Q uebrada d e l T oro w ou ld s eem t o a ff irm t he v a lue o f b ur ia ls o ver r efuse t est-p it s amp ling i n t his r egard, a t l east f or t he L ate P er iod o f t h is a rea 's p reh istory . I n o ther w ords, f or t his a rea o f t he A ndes i t m ight b e s uggested t hat n on-ingest ib le i tems o btained f rom n e ighbor ing o r d istant g roups t end m ore o ften t han n ot t o e nd u p a ccompany ing d eceased i nd iv idua ls t o t he g rave , i rrespect ive o f t he s ocia l, e conom ic, i deo log ica l, o r p o lit ica l f actors w h ich m ay h ave b een i nvo lved i n t he i n it ia l t ransference o f t he i tems. A t t he s ame t ime, t he n umber o f c ontro lled e xcavat ions i n n on-bur ia l s ect ions o f m ost L ate P er iod s ett lements i n N . C h ile a nd N .W . A rgentina i s s t ill i n t he m inor ity, a nd o ur p resent b asis f or i nvest igat ing i ntergroup r e lations m ay b e a rtif icia lly s kewed . G iven t hat t he m ajor ity o f t he e v idence c omes f rom b ur ia ls, w e a re s evere ly l im ited i n w hat w e c an c onc lude w ith a ny c ertainty a bout t he c u ltura l c ontext o f i tem m ovement . W e k now t hat t hings m oved f rom o ne 2 14

l oca lity o r r eg ion t o a nother , b ut b ur ia l-associated i tems i n t hemse lves t ell u s n oth ing a bout t he c ond it ions u nder w hich t he t ransfer o ccurred, e ither i n t erms o f m ot ivat ion o r p o int (s) o f t ransfer , o r a bout t he p ossib le a dd it iona l m ovement o f s uch i tems b etween t he t ime a nd c ontext o f t he ir i nitia l t ransfer a nd t he ir e ventua l p lacement i n g raves w ith d eceased p ersons a t s pecif ic s ites. O ne c an o f c ourse m ake s pecu lat ions o n s uch c ond itions, b ut s upport m ust b e s ought e lsewhere t han i n t he b ur ia ls t hemse lves. S uch s upport m ust d er ive f rom t he t ota l c ontext , i nc lud ing k now ledge o f r eg iona l a nd i nterreg iona l s ett lement p atterns i n t he b roadest s ense , a nd f rom i nferences f rom e thnohistor ic a nd e thnographic d ata. A nother l im itat ion w e f ace i s t hat i nterreg iona l r e lat ions p robab ly i nvo lved t he t ransfer o f p er ishab le o r i ngest ib le i tems w hich m ay r are ly b e d etected t hrough a rchaeo log ica l p rocedures. B ased o n o ur k now ledge o f r eg iona l r esource v ar iat ions a nd p roduction p otent ials f or v ar ious c u lt igens a nd d omest ic a nima ls, w e m ay a gain l og ica lly s pecu late o n t he p robab ility o f s uch t ransferences w h ile l acking a dequate p roof . T hus R aff ino a nd C ig liano ( 1973) s uggest a m ovement o f m aize, b eans, z apa llos, a nd c hanar w ood f rom t he H ua lf in V a lley u p t o t he A lumbrera s ite i n t he s outhern A rgent ine p una d ur ing t he L ate P er iod, w ith a r eturn m ovement o f lama w oo l, m eat, a nd s a lt . S im ilar i tem m ovements a re n oted e thnograph ica lly f or t hese t wo r eg ions ( Raff ino a nd C ig liano 1 973 : 2 55f). C ig liano a nd R aff ino ( 1973: 1 75f ) u se a s im ilar m ode l t o s uggest a m u ltip le-reg ion i nterconnect ion o f t he p una ( 4000 m eters e levat ion), t he Q uebrada d e l T oro ( Tast il s ite a t 3 000 m eters), a nd t he l ower L erma V a lley ( 1500 m eters), w ith t he L ate P er iod s ite o f T ast il b e ing a " center" w h ich r ece ived m aize f rom n earby a gr icu ltura l h am lets, a nd w h ich i s f urther i nvo lved i n am ovement o f t ext iles a nd m aize t o t he p una , w ith s a lt , lam as, a nd m eat i n " exchange"; t ext iles a nd r oot c rops a re f urther h ypothesized a s g o ing f rom T ast il t o L erma V a lley s ett lements ( unspec if ied), w ith a t l east a chira, w ood , b eans, p eppers, a nd b irds m oving u p t o T ast il. C ig liano a nd R aff ino 's a pp licat ion o f M urra 's ( 1972) " vert ica l c ontro l" m ode l t o t hese r econstruct ions i s o pen t o s er ious q uest ion, b ut t he p robab ility o f i nterreg ional m ovement o f s uch p erishab le a nd c onsumab le i tems i s i ndeed h igh. A ddit iona l l im itat ions o n o ur e v idence o f g roup i nteract ion w ill a r ise d epend ing u pon t he k inds o f q uest ions w e a sk, a nd m ay w e ll i nc lude c ons iderat ions o f s amp le s ize ( k inds a nd n umbers o f i tems), t ime a ssoc iations ( rate o r f requency o f i nteract ions), a nd d irect ions a nd m echan isms o f m ovement ( cf . P log 1 977). T empora l

C onsiderat ions

W hile i t i s i mportant t o d eterm ine w hether t he n ature o f i nterregiona l r e lat ions c hanged t hrough t ime , t he l im itat ions o n o ur p resent e vidence m ake s uch a q uest ion l arge ly r hetor ica l. F or a ll t he c eram ic-producing p er iods o f t he s outhern A ndes, w e k now t hat p ottery , i n a t l east s ma ll q uant it ies, m oved b etween a nd a cross n umerous s ett lement s ystems . T here i s m ore e v idence f or t his i n t he L ate P er iod t han f or t he E ar ly a nd M idd le P er iods, a nd t he g reatest a mount o f r esearch h as b een d evoted t o t hat p er iod a s w e ll, t hereby g iv ing u s a n u ndoubted ly d istorted v iew o f t he f requency o f s uch m ovements a t d ifferent p o ints i n t ime. T he s ame m ay b e s a id f or t he i nterreg ional d istr ibution o f P acif ic s he lls, a lthough p resent e vidence d oes s uggest a 2 15

d im inuat ion t hrough t ime o f t he n umber o f s pecies b e ing t ransported . N umerous e thnohistor ic o r e thnograph ic m ode ls o f t he m ovement a nd e xchange o f c ommodit ies h ave b een f ormu lated ( e .g ., P ires-Ferreira a nd F lannery 1 976; M urra 1 972; B rowman 1 977). P resent e v idence f or N . C h ile a nd N .W . A rgent ina, h owever, d oes n ot s at isfactory d eterm ination o f c hanges t hat m ay h ave o ccurred t hrough t ime w ith r espect t o s uch t h ings a s i nd iv idua l v s. h ouseho ld v s. v illage e xchange o r p rocurement ; d egree o f c entra lizat ion o f e xchanges; o r d egree o f p ossib le r edistr ibut ion , a t l east f or t he p re-Inca p er iods. F or p una-based g roups, B rowman ( 1977) h as p roposed a n " a lt ip lano" m ode l o f e xchange c haracter ized b y p er iod ic m arkets a nd lama c aravan t rade n etworks, ap attern w hich B rowman f ee ls d eve loped a s e ar ly a s t he l atter p art o f t he s econd m illen ium B .C . i n h igh land B o livia a nd s outhern P eru, r each ing i ts f u llest d eve lopment w ith T iwanaku a s a n e conom ic u rban c enter b etween A .D. 3 00 a nd 9 00 . D esp ite v ar ious u nsupported s pecu lat ions b y B rowman c oncern ing l oca l d eve lopments a ssociated w ith t he r ise a nd f a ll o f T iwanaku " inf luence" i n N .W . A rgent ina a nd t he c entra l A tacama o f N . C h ile, t he p ossib ility o f p er iodic c aravan t rad ing a mong v ar ious s ett lement r eg ions r emains a v iab le h ypothesis, t he i mp licat ions o f w h ich n eed c onsiderab ly f urther r esearch a nd e va luat ion. E ven f or t he t ime o f I nca o ccupat ion, w e h ave o n ly l im ited k now ledge o f t he m echanisms o f c ommodity d istr ibut ion, w hich a pparent ly i nvo lved p r imar ily r eciproc ity, a nd w h ich h ave b een d iff icu lt t o d iscern f rom t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord ( e .g ., M orris 1 978). I n s um , t he s ets o f e vidence r ev iewed a bove i nd icate t hat t he m ovement o f o bjects b etween a nd a mong d ifferent c u ltural g roups h as a l ong a nd c omp lex h istory i n t he s outhern A ndes. S uch e v idence, w hen p resented i n t he l iterature, r are ly g oes b eyond t he f acts o f i tem i ntrusion o r s ty le d issem inat ion, h owever , a nd o ne i s l eft w ith l itt le s ense o f t he c ontext i n w h ich t his m ovement o ccurred .

AS ett lement S ystem P erspect ive T he p rev ious e va lut ion c lear ly i ndicated t hat a s ite-to-site o r a rt ifact-to-art ifact c ompar ison i s s imp ly i nadequate a s ab asis f or u nderstand ing i nterreg iona l r e lat ions i n t he s outhern A ndes. A ccording ly, I h ave p roposed t hat w e p erce ive e ach g eograph ica l r eg ion 's o ccupat ion i n t erms o f " sett lement s ystems" ( Po llard 1 977). B y f ocus ing o n k nown s ites o f a pparent c ontemporane ity , u nits c orrespond ing t o w hat m ight b e c a lled " ethn ic g roups" s hou ld b e r ecogn izab le, d istingu ished f rom e ach o ther o n t he b as is o f g eographica l, l ocat iona l, a rt ifactua l, a nd a rchitectura l f eatures. W ith s uch a n a pproach, w e a re p rovided w ith u n its w hich s erve a d ua l p urpose : ( 1) d ata r e lat ive t o i ntra- a nd i nterg roup r e lat ions a re t ied t o s pecif ic a nd s ignif icant s pat ia l c ontexts ( s ites a s p art o f w ider s ystems o f h uman a ct ion), a nd ( 2) s uch d ata c an b e m eaningfu lly a na lyzed a nd e va luated i n c omparat ive t empora l c ontexts. S uch a p erspect ive s hou ld b e q uite f undamenta l i n d ea ling w ith s edentary g roups, a nd w ith p roper d ata s hou ld a llow t he e xp lorat ion a nd a pp licaton o f n umerous m ode ls o f a na lys is w hich d eal w ith i ntra- a nd i nter-group r e lat ions ( e .g ., s ee v ar ious p apers i n S m ith 1 976 ; F lannery 1 976; E ar l a nd E r icson; R edman e t a l. 1 978). S evera l o f t he f eatures w hich a re i ntegra l s ystems w ere i mp licit i n t he m ore t rad it iona l 2 16

t o d ef in ing s ett lement " sub-area" a pproach t o

d iv id ing t he s outhern A ndes i nto a rchaeo log ica l u n its ( e .g ., B ennett e t a l. 1 948; G onza les 1 963a; S errano 1 963; W illey 1 971: 1 96). W ith a s ett lement s ystem a pproach, h owever , o ne 's c oncern i s s hifted f rom p r imary c oncern w ith c eram ic d istr ibut ions a nd b road e nv ironmenta l t rans itions, t o a n a ttempt t o i dent ify a ll s ites w hich a re l ike ly t o h ave c onstituted t he o perat iona l c ontext o f a ctua l s ociopo lit ica l a nd s oc ioeconom ic g roups. E xamp les o f P roposed S ett lement S ystems I n F igure 1 , Ih ave i nd icated t he g eograph ica l l ocat ion o f 1 2 p roposed s ett lement s ystems f or t he L ate P er iod o f N . C h ile a nd M .W . A rgent ina ( ca A .D. 1 000-1535). T he n ames f or t hese s ystems a re t aken f rom t heir g eographica l r eg ions, a nd i nc lude ( 1 ) t he L ower R io L oa, ( 2) t he M idd le R io L oa/R io S a lado, ( 3 ) S a lar d e A tacama, ( 4) N orthern P una I , ( 5 ) N orthern P una I ( Yav i), ( 6) U pper R io U ruya, ( 7 ) Q uebrada d e H umahuaca, ( 8) Q uebrada d e l T oro, ( 9) C a lchaqui V a lleys, ( 10) Y ocav il ( Santa M ar ia) V a lley , ( 11) S outhern P una, a nd ( 12) t he H ua lf in/Be len/Abuacan R eg ion. O ther s uch s ystems c lear ly e x ist , p art icular ly i n N . C h ile i n t he e xtreme n orthern t ransverse v a lleys, t he o ases o f t he P ampa d e T amaruga l, a nd t he t ransverse v a lleys o f A tacama P rov ince; i n A rgent ina a ddit iona l s ystems r e levant h ere a re t o b e f ound i n t he L erma V a lley a nd i n L a R ioja P rovince, a nd o thers s hou ld b e f ound i n s outhern B o liv ia. P resent r eports o n t he L ate P er iod h ab ituat ion s ites f or t hese a dd it iona l s ystems, h owever , a re n ot a dequate t o p lot t he ir e xtent o r l im its. T he m ajor s ites c ompr ising e ach s ett lement s ystem a re l isted i n T ab le 3 . O n ly w hat a ppear t o b e p r imary h ab itat ion s ites ( v illages) a re l isted, b ased o n a va ilab le s ite r eports a nd f ie ldwork b y m yse lf i n t he C a lchaqui V a lleys a nd a long t he R io L oa/R io S a lado . A lso i nc luded a re a f ew s it2 l oca lit ies w h ich a re p oor ly d escr ibed i n t he l iterature, b ut f or w hich s ubstant ia l v illage s ett lements c an b e r easonab ly i nferred . E xc luded h ere a re i so lated c emeter ies a nd o ther s pec ia l a ct iv ity a djunct s ites, s uch a s c ampsites, p etrog lyph z ones, m in ing l ocat ions, a nd a gr icu ltura l l ands w h ich m ay h ave a ssociated h am lets. A ll o f t hese s ite t ypes a re o f c ourse i mportant f or u nderstand ing t he f u ll n ature a nd e xtent o f s ett lement s ystems, b ut a re o ften t oo p oor ly d escr ibed t o a llow a ccurate a ssessment a nd p lacement, e ither i n t ime o r s pace . T he v illage s ites o f 7o f t he s ett lement s ystems a re p lotted i n f igures 2 a nd 3 , a s e xamp les ( s ite n umbers r efer t o T ab le 3 ). F or m ost , i f n ot a ll o f t hese s ett lement s ystems, i t c annot b e a ssumed t hat t he l ist ing o f T ab le 3 i s c omp lete . T he p resent s tate o f r esearch i n t his p art o f t he A ndes p rec ludes s uch a n a ssumpt ion, p art icular ly g iven t he v ar iab le n ature o f p ast f ie ld s urveys. A s w e ll, t he d ating o f m ost s ites i n j udgementa l, b ased l arge ly o n c eram ic a nd a rch itectura l a ssociat ions a nd s ome r ad iocarbon d eterm inat ions. T hus t he p rob lem o f s ite c ontemporane ity m ust b e k ept i n m ind w hen u sing t his a pproach. A t t he v ery l east, h owever , t his p re lim inary a ttempt t o o rder o ur k now ledge o f L ate P er iod s ett lements m ay s erve a s a n i n it ia l f ramework f or a ssessing e v idence o f i nterreg iona l i nteract ion a nd d eve lopment . S ett lement i nformat ion f or t he f u lly s edentary g roups o f t he L ate P er iod i s c lear ly b etter t han t hat o f e ar lier t ime u n its, b ut s ite l ist ing a nd p lott ing f or e ar lier p er iods s hou ld a lso p rove t o b e u sefu l. 2 17

B ased o n p resent e v idence, i t i s c lear t hat t he s ett lement s ystems v ar ied c ons iderab ly i n s ize a nd n umber o f v illages. G eography a nt r e lat ive a bundance o f n atura l r esources w ere u ndoubted ly a f actor i n t his, a nd t here w ere s ett lement " systems" w ith a s f ew a s o ne o r t wo v illages ( e .g ., L ower R io L oa, N orthern P una I - Y av i, a nd t he S outhern P una), a nd o thers w ith a s m any a s 2 6 v illages . F urther r esearch w ill u ndoubted ly a lter t he p resent c oncept ion o f s ome o f t hese s ystems, p robab ly r esult ing i n m ore s uch u n its. F or e xamp le, m y p resent r esearch i n t he C a lchaqui V a lleys s uggests t hat t he n orthern s ect ion o f o ccupat ion o f t he R io C a lchaqui i n t he v icinity o f L a P oma ( 6 m ajor v illages) m ay c onst itute s uch a s ub-sytem . A dd it iona lly, t he s ma ller L uracatao V a lley p ara lle ling a nd a djo ining t he C a lchaqui V a lley a t M o linos h as y et t o b e e xp lored , a nd m ay p rove t o b e a n e xtension o r a nother s ub-system o f t he l arger u nit. S ome c eram ic s ty les a lso s eem t o s light ly e xpand g eographica lly i n t he l atter p art o f t he L ate P er iod, p ossib ly i nd icat ing a m inor e xpans ion o f t he s ett lement s ystem : a n e xamp le o f t his m ay b e t he Y ocavil V alley s ystem o f A rgent ina, w hich s eems t o h ave g rown t o i nc lude t he C ajon V a lley t o t he w est a nd T af i d e l V a lle t o t he e ast . T he H ua lf in/Be len/Abaucan r eg ion t o t he s outh o f t he Y ocav il s ystem i s c omp licated, a nd t he f ew p resent ly-reported s ites s uggest l im ited p opu lations, a nd p erhaps t hree s ma ll, s eparate s ystems a t t he t ime o f I nca p resence ( see T ab le 3 ). I t s hou ld b e n oted t hat n one o f t he L ate a rea o f t he A ndes i s p articu lar ly l arge; m ost t o 5 00 p ersons. T he m ajor e xcept ions s eem L oa/Sa lado s ystem , T ast il i n t he Q uebrada d e l i n t he Q uebrada d e H umahuaca s ystem , e ach e st imated b etween 1 000 a nd 2 000 p ersons.

P er iod s ett lements i n t h is p robab ly a veraged f rom 2 00 t o b e T un i i n t he M idd le T oro s ystem , a nd T ilcara w ith m ax imum p opulat ions

S ett lement S ystems i n O perat ion : N odes a nd M odes o f I nteract ion W ith a t l east a p re lim inary c oncept ion o f s pecif ic s ett lement s ystems, w e c an b eg in l ooking f or g reater m eaning a nd s ign ificance i n o ur e ar lier c ategor izat ions o f ( 1) i ntra-group i tem m ovement, ( 2 ) n e ighbor ing i nter-group m ovement, a nd ( 3) s equentia l i nter-group m ovement . T he f irst o f t hese c ategor ies i s i mportant f or i so lat ing p oss ib le l oca lized p roduction/d istr ibut ion u n its w ithin a g iven s ett lement s ystem ( ethn ic g roup). I n al arger c ontext s uch o bservat ions m ay o r m ay n ot b e r e levant t o p inpo inting t hose s pec if ic s ett lements w ithin a s ystem w h ich m ay a lso h ave s erved a s t he f ocus f or e xterna l r e lat ions t o o ther s ystems . I n o ther w ords, i f t here a re p r imary n odes o f a n e xchange/d istr ibut ion n etwork w ithin a s ett lement s ystem , t hese m ay b e d ifferent f rom t he n odes w hich s erve t o o r ient t hat s ystem t o o uts ide g roups. S uch s eems t o h ave b een t he c ase i n t he m idd le R io L oa/R io S a lado r eg ion o f C hile, w here u tilitar ian c eram ics f or t he s ystem o r ig inated i n t he C hiu C h iu/Lasana l oca lity, b ut t he l arge A ndean-f lanks s ett lement o f T un i w as c hosen b y t he I nca f or a dm inistrat ive p urposes a nd p resumab ly s erved a s ap r imary n oda l p o int f or e xterna l r e lat ions w ith o ther r eg ions. T he I nca c ho ice, h owever, i nvo lved t he i mpos it ion o f al arger a nd s tateleve l s tructure, r esu lt ing i n ap attern w hich m ay 2 18

h ave h ad l itt le r e lat ionship t o l oca l d eve lopmenta l t rends. A t t he l eve l o f n e ighbor ing i nter-group m ovements o f i tems, t he p lace a nd m ode o f i nterchange m ay o f c ourse t ake a ny n umber o f f orms, a s i nd icated b y t he t heoret ica l a lternat ive " modes o f t rade" o ut lined b y R enfrew ( 1975 : 4 1f ; 1 977: 8 8). T hus t he E ar ly P er iod m ovement o f S an P edro I B lack P o lished v esse ls t o t he s outhern p una s ite o f T eben iquiche h ave i nvo lved h ome-base r ec iprocity e xchange i n w h ich a p arty f rom e ither s ett lement s ystem w ent t o t he o ther a nd c onducted t he n ecessary t ransact ion , o f w hatever n ature . A lternat ive ly , p art ies f rom b oth s ystems m et a t s ome c ommon b oundary w here t he e xchange w as m ade. S ince t he i tems o f e xchange u sua lly e nded u p i n b ur ia ls, t here i s l itt le h ope o f d eterm ining w hich a lternat ive w as a ctua lly t he c ase, u n less t here a re o ther c ons iderat ions o f l ines o f " ev idence" w hich c an b e b rought t o b ear , s uch a s o ther c haracter ist ics o f t he ' o vera ll s ett lement s ystem p attern. F or t he e xamp le j ust c ited, t here i s n o e v idence ( at p resent) o f g eographica lly i nterven ing s ites b etween t hose o f t he S a lar d e A tacama a nd T ebenquiche . W h ile t h is a lone i s i nsuff icient p roof , w e c an a t l east h ypothes ize t hat h ome-base r eciprocity w as i nvo lved i n t he m ovement o f t he c eram ic v esse ls. W ith l arger a nd m ore m ature s ett lement s ystems, o ther f orms o f n e ighboring e xchange m ay b e s uggested . D ur ing t he L ate P er iod, f or e xamp le, t he c ommon m ovement o f i tems b etween t he Q uebrada d e H umahuaca a nd t he n orthern A rgent ine p una i s c orre lated n ot o n ly w ith a h igh n umber o f v illage s ites i n e ach r eg ion , b ut t he n orthern p una a ppears a lso t o h ave a n umber o f h am let-s ized s ites w hich f a ll a t t he p robab le t err itor ia l l im its o f t he s ett lement s ystem . N one o f t hese s ites h as b een r eported i n a dequate d etail, b ut K rapovickas ( 1968 : 2 52) l ists a s er ies o f t hese f orm ing a r ough l ine . f rom t he v illage s ite o f C angrejillos t o t he L aguna d e G uayatayoc, p ara lle ling t he Q uebrada d e H umahuaca. S im ilar s ites s eem t o f a ll o n t he n orthwest p er im iter o f t he p una s ystem , i nc lud ing C hoco ite ( Krapov ickas 1 968 : 2 52), G uayatayo ( Boman 1 908 : 6 91), P ueb lo V iejo ( Debenedett i 1 930a), a nd Q uirquinchos a nd A bra d e l a L aguna ( Boman 1 908 : 6 91). L acking f urther d ata, i t c an o n ly b e h ypothesized t hat s uch h am lets p ossib ly s erved a s t err itor ia l m arkers, p erhaps o f p er iodic o ccupat ion, a t w h ich " border" r eciprocity e xchanges o ccurred b etween t he n e ighbor ing s ett lement s ystems o f t he p una a nd t he S a lar d e A tacama o n t he o ther . T he L ate P er iod n orthern p una s ett lement s ystem m ay h ave d eve loped a dd it iona l m odes o f e xchange, h owever , i nc lud ing " free lance" t rad ing ( cf . R enfrew 1 975 : 4 3) w ith m ore s outher ly r eg ions s uch a s t he Q uebrada d e l T oro a nd i ts l arge v illage s ite o f T ast il. I n t urn, b ecause o f i ts r e lat ive ly l arge s ize a nd c entra lized g eograph ica l p osit ion, a nd a s s uggested b y t he c eram ic m ater ia ls, o ne c an s pecu late t hat T ast il h ad b ecome a m inima lly d eve loped b ut c entra lized m arketp lace ( cf . C ig liano e t a l . 1 973: 14f ), s ervicing s evera l s urround ing r eg ions. W ith t he p resent d at ing o f T ast il, a nd a part f rom t he s uggest ions o f C ig liano ( ib id ), i t i s a lso t empt ing t o s pecu late t hat t he Q uebrado d e l T oro s ett lement s ystem 's c entra lity a nd l oca l i mportance w ere u nacceptab le t o t he I nca a nd t he ir p lan f or r eg iona l c ontro l, w ho t hen d isbanded t he s ystem u pon t he ir d om inat ion o f t he s outh-centra l A ndes. F or t he f ina l c ategory, t hat o f s equent ia l i nter-group m ovement i nvo lv ing c ommodity t ransfer a cross t wo o r m ore s ett lement s ystems, t he 2 19

p ossib le c omp lex ity o f e xchange e vents b ecomes a pparent . A s a n e xamp le , f or t he T ilcara b lack-on-red ( Quebrada d e H umahuaca) v esse l w hich w as f ound a t t he C atarpe s ite i n C h ile, w e c an h ypothesize t hat i t w as o r ig ina lly e xchanged a t a n e astern b order h am let o f t he n orthern p una, w as t hen t aken t o am ajor p una v i llage, w as l ater e xchanged a t aw estern p una h am let b order ing t he S a lar d e A tacama s ystem , a nd e ventua lly e nded u p i n t he C atarpe g rave n orth o f S an P edro d e A tacama. T he v esse l m ay a lso, o f c ourse, h ave u ndergone o ne o r m ore i nterna l e xchanges ( "down-theline," R enfrew 1 975 : 4 1) w ith in a ny o f t he r espect ive s ett lement s ystems. W h ile p roof o f s uch s pecif ics w ill e vade u s f orever , t he p o int i s t hat m ost o f t he e v idence w e h ave o f i nterreg iona l r e lat ions m ay h ave i nvo lved i nteract ions w hich w ere o f t hat l eve l o f c omp lex ity . T he m ore u b iquitous L ate P er iod P acif ic s eashe lls m ay a lso h ave b een d istr ibuted i n a s im ilar f ashion, w ith i nd iv idua l s he lls m ov ing f rom o ne s ett lement a rea t o a nother , a nd f rom o ne v illage t o a nother w ithin e ach s ystem . I n t his r egard t he Q uebrada d e H umahuaca w ould s eem t o h ave a n e xcept iona lly l arge p roport ion o f P acif ic s he lls ( Tab le 2 ), b ut e ven w ith a d isproport ionate ly h igh p ercentage o f e xcavations i n t hat r eg ion, w e f ind t hat o n ly a bout h a lf o f t he Q uebrada's L ate P er iod v illages h ave y ie lded s uch f inds ( inc lud ing b oth g eographica l " ends" o f t he s ystem ). O vera ll, t he l im ited p resent s he ll e v idence f or a l l r eg ions p rec ludes m eaningful c a lcu lat ions o f " fa ll o ff" r ates o r o ther m easures o f d irect iona l t rade ( Renfrew 1 977). W hen t he e vidence o f g roup i nteract ion a nd e xchange i s v iewed i n t erms o f s ett lement s ystems a nd t he g enera lly n on-e laborate i nterna l s tructure o f v illage s ites, w e t hus f ind t hat s uch i nteract ions, w h ile c ommon, c ou ld h ave i nvo lved m odes a nd m echan isms o f e xchange w hich w ere r e lat ive ly s imp le, a t l east p r ior t o t he t ime o f I nca i ntrus ion . S pecif ica lly , o f t he 1 0 g enera l m odes o f t rade o ut lined b y R enfrew ( 1975 : 4 1f ), i t i s p robab le ' t hat t he v ast m ajor ity o f o ur e xamp les o f r eg iona l i nteract ion w ere t he r esu lts o f t hree s uch m odes, a ll b as ic f orms o f r eciprocity : ( 1) h ome-base r eciprocity, ( 2 ) b oundary r eciprocity, a nd ( 3) d own-theline e xchanges . W here i ncreased s ite s ize, g eographica l c entra lity, a nd h igh n on-loca l a rt ifact c oncentrat ion a re u nusua l c ompared t o a ll o ther s ites, w e m ay h ypothesize a n e merg ing c entra l-p lace m arket t ype o f e xchange, s uch a s a t T ast il i n t he Q uebrada d e l T oro . T he o n ly o ther v illage s ites c omparab le t o T astil i n s ize a re T un i ( M idd le L oa/Sa lado r eg ion) a nd T ilcara ( Quebrada d e H umahuaca), b ut t heir s ize m ay h ave b een d ue t o d irect I nca p resence r ather t han i nd igenous d eve lopmenta l t rends. F ina lly , am ode o f f ree lance ( caravan) t rad ing m ay h ave b een u ndertaken b y s ome n orthern p una g roups, b ut t he r e lat ive ly c lose p rox im ity o f t he v ar ious s ett lement s ystems t o e ach o ther w ou ld h ave p rec luded t he n ecessity o f e laborate d eve lopment o f s uch a m ode o f i nteract ion. W h ile w e m ay b e o n v ery u ncertain g round w ith r espect t o T iwanaku r e lat ions w ith n orthern C hile a nd n orthwest A rgent ina, t he l ater I nca d om inat ion o f t he a rea m ay w e ll h ave f orced c ertain c ontro ls o r r estr ict ions o n i nterreg ional i nteract ion , a nd a n a ddit iona l m ode o f e xchange w as p robab ly i ntroduced a nd e laborated, t hat o f c entra l p lace r ed istr ibution . T he m odes o f c ommod ity t ransfer t hat h ad b ecome e stab lished i n p re-Inca t imes, h owever , w ere p robab ly m inima lly a ltered . I nd igenous ly , s uch m odes p robab ly n ever h ad a ttained g reat s tructura l 2 20

c omp lex ity, b ut t he f requency a nd v ar iety o f t heir o ccurrence h ad b een a s eem ing ly i mportant p art o f s outh A ndean c u lture a nd i ts d eve lopment .

C onc lus ions: H ypotheses, E v idence, a nd E xpectat ions I n c onc lud ing t his p aper I s ha ll p resent a s er ies o f h ypotheses r e lat ive t o t he n ature o f i nterreg iona l r e lat ions i n t he s outhern A ndes. T hese a re a d irect o utgrowth o f t he k inds o f e v idence a nd c onsiderat ions w h ich h ave b een d iscussed a bove . I t i s e mphasized, h owever , t hat h ypotheses a re t entat ive, g enera liz ing c onc lusions w h ich s erve t o o rder o ur p resent k now ledge, b ut w hich l og ica lly g o b eyond t hat k now ledge t o p rov ide a n e xp licit b asis f or c ont inued d ata e va luat ion a nd f oci f or f uture r esearch. D iscussion o f t he p resent h ypotheses i nc ludes s uch a n e mphasis. H ypothes is 1 : I nterreg iona l e xchanges w ere c ommon t hroughout t he a rea , a nd s erved t o l ink z ones o f d iffer ing o r q uant ity-var iab le r esources. T hese z ones w ere c haracter ized b y r e lat ive ly s ma ll p opu lat ions, w ith d emograph ic p otent ia l b eing l im ited d ue t o r eg iona lly l ow p roduct ion p otent ia ls f or a gr icu lture a nd h erd ing . T his h ypothesis o ffers b oth a m ot ive a nd a g eneral c ontext f or t he i nterreg iona l e xchanges w h ich h ave b een e v idenced . A ll o f t he r eg ions o f p rehispan ic s ett lement i nc luded i n t his s tudy a re p roper ly c haracter ized a s a r id a nd s em i-ar id , a nd t hus h ave a r e lat ive ly l ow p otent ial f or r eg iona l p opu lat ion s ize a nd p opu lat ion c oncentrat ions w hen b ased o n p re-industr ia l a gr icu lture a nd h erding ( e .g ., R aff ino 1 973). I n a dd it ion, s evera l s tud ies h ave b egun t o d ocument a nd q uant ify z ona l v ar iat ions i n r esources, t heir f requency o f o ccurrence, a nd t he ir p otent ials f or d eve lopment ( e .g ., R aff ino 1 973, 1 975; S chaede l 1 957; B owman 1 924 ; F rengue lli 1 944; C onvenio 1 970). F or p roper e va luat ion o f t his h ypothesis, f uture r esearch m ust i nc lude a f u ller c onsiderat ion a nd d ocumentat ion o f e co log ica l v ar iat ions, a nd a s earch f or c orre lat ions w ith a ctua l s ett lement s ize a nd p lacement a t d ifferent p o ints i n t ime . H ypothes is 2 : T hese e xchanges w ere f undamenta lly e conom ic, i nvo lving t he t ransfer o f c onsumab le c ommod it ies, b ut w ith n on-ut ilitar ian, p rest ige, o r c eremonia l o bjects b e ing c ommon ly i nvo lved i n s uch t ransact ions . W hile z ona l a nd r eg iona l r esource a nd p roduct ion v ar iations a re h ere s een a s t he p r imary i mpetus t o i nterreg iona l r e lat ions, i t i s s uggested t hat e xchange t ransact ions w ou ld h ave q u ick ly b egun t o i ncorporate n on-ut ilita han, p restige, o r c eremonia l o bjects a s a dd it ional i tems o f e xchange f or e d ib les a nd r aw m ater ia ls. T ab le 4 g ives a m inima l l ist ing a nd c lassif icat ion o f t he k inds o f i tems w h ich a re k nown a nd/or h igh ly s uspected o f h av ing b een i nvo lved i n i nterregiona l e xchanges, w ith t he p robab le d irection o f c ommod ity f low a lso b eing i ndicated ( the r e lat ive ly g reat g eograph ica l l ong itude i nherent i n e ach c o lumn m akes n orth-south m ovement o f i tems i mp licit i n t he c hart). T he m ovement o f e d ib les a nd r aw m ater ia ls i s l east w e ll d ocumented i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord, a s w e w ou ld e xpect w ith 2 21

r ecyc ling/preservat ion c onsiderat ions. S ince t he v ast m ajor ity o f t raded p ottery , s he lls, a nd f eathers h ave b een f ound i n b ur ia ls, t hey a re c lassif ied h ere a s c eremonia l o r p rest ige i tems. A s er ies o f o ther a rt ifacts m ay h ave s erved a s im ilar f unct ion; s uch c ou ld i nc lude f in ished p roducts l ike t ext iles, a nd m eta l, b one, a nd w ood o b jects s uch a s p laques, p unches, a xes, s patu las, s nuff t ubes a nd t ab lets, a nd p yroengraved g ourds. I f s uch a ddit iona l i tems w ere c ommon ly u t ilized i n e xchanges, t heir w ide g eographica l o ccurrence i n a rchaeo log ica l c ontexts c ou ld m ake a p inpo int ing o f t heir u ltimate o r ig ins e xtreme ly d iff icu lt , e specia lly w hen s uch i tems u nderwent l itt le s ty list ic c hange o ver l ong p er iods o f t ime . F ina lly, e xchange t ransact ions c an b e e xpected t o i nc lude t he m ovement o f ac onsiderab le a mount o f v erba l " informat ion ," w hich i s a lso i nc luded a s ac ategory i n T ab le 4 . W hile i mpossib le t o d ocument a rchaeo log ically , s uch " exchanges" c ou ld h ave p rov ided g enera l k now ledge o f e vents a nd c ondit ions o ver e xtreme ly w ide g eographica l a reas. H ypothes is 3 : E xchanges w ere g iven c ont inued m otivat ion b y h av ing a t l east s ome o f t he e xchange i tems b e ing d est ined f or u se i n s ocia l, r e lig ious, o r r itua l c ontexts. T he r ange o f d emonstrated a nd l ike ly i tems o f e xchange i n T ab le 4 i nc ludes a n umber o f a rt ifact c ategor ies w h ich a re e videnced a lmost e xc lusive ly f rom b ur ia l-associated f inds ( traded p ottery , s he lls, e tc.), a nd w e m ay t entat ive ly c onc lude t hat m any i tems w ere o bta ined t hrough e xchange e xpress ly f or l ater u se i n s uch c ontexts. T he i ncorporat ion o f aw ide r ange o f c ommod it ies a nd m otivat ions i nto t he e xchange n etworks w ou ld a ppear t o b e a n i mportant e lement k eep ing s uch n etworks v iab le a nd o perat ive w hen s upp ly-and-demand f luctuat ions o ccurred w ith r espect t o e d ib le a nd u t ilitar ian c ommod it ies ( cf . R appaport 1 968 : 1 06; P ires-Ferre ira a nd F lannery 1 976 : 2 90). F uture r esearch r e lat ive t o t est ing h ypotheses 2 a nd 3 i nc lude f u ll c ontextua l q uant ificat ion a nd a na lysis o f t he p resumed e v idence o f i nterreg iona l e xchanges, i nc lud ing n ew d ata d er ived f rom s tat ist ica lly-va lid s amp ling o f a ll k inds o f s ite u nits, a nd c lose a ttent ion t o t he d egree t o w h ich t rade i tems h ave l oca lly-produced c ounterparts o r e quiva lents. H ypothesis 4 : T he v ast f orms o f r eciprocity .

m ajor ity o f t hese e xchanges

i nvo lved b as ic

A s i nd icated i n t he p rev ious s ect ions o f t h is p aper, m ost o f t he i nterreg iona l e xchanges f or w h ich w e h ave e v idence c an b e i nterpreted a s h av ing i nvo lved h ome-base , b oundary , a nd d own-the-line t ypes o f r eciproca l e xchange. T he c lose p rox im ity o f s ett lement s ystems t o e ach o ther , p lus t he g enera l l ack o f s ignif icant s ize d ifferent iat ion o f m ost v illages w ou ld s eem t o s upport s uch a n i nterpretation. I t i s a lso p oss ib le t hat f ree lance o f c aravan t rad ing h ad b egun t o d eve lop i n a ssociat ion w ith p una-based g roups, b ut i n t he l ight o f t he p rev ious r easoning w ou ld s eem t o h ave h ad l itt le s ustaining b asis h ere, e specia lly w hen c ompared t o t he p atterns w h ich h ave b een p roposed f or t he m ore c omp lex a nd f ar-rang ing a lt ip lano g roups o f B o liv ia a nd P eru ( cf . B rowman 1 974, 1 977). O ut o f a ll t he s ett lement s ystems c onsidered i n t his p aper , t hat o f 2 22

t he Q uebrada d e l T oro , w ith i ts l arge v illage s ite o f T ast il, i s t he o n ly o ne a t p resent w hich c an b e s uspected o f h av ing d eve loped a c entra l-p lace m arket f unct ion a nd s tatus p r ior t o I nca i ntrus ion . I f s uch i s t he c ase, i t w as a n e xcept ion w hich d id n ot s ucceed ; a nd i n t erms o f c u ltura l d eve lopment i n t he s outhern A ndes, i t w ou ld b e o f m ajor i mportance t o k now w hether i ts f ailure w as d ue t o e co log ica l o r i nterna l f actors, o r t o a ct ions b y t he i ntrud ing s tateleve l I nca. W e s hou ld a lso k eep i n m ind t hat p atterns o f g roup i nteract ion m ay w e ll c hange t hrough t ime, e ven w hen t he " ev idence" i nd icates t hat t he s ame c lasses o f c ommod it ies w ere i nvo lved t hrough t he s evera l t ime p er iods w ith w hich w e a re c oncerned . T hus w hile f ine ly f in ished o r d ecorated p ottery a nd s eashe lls m oved f rom o ne r eg ion t o a nother d ur ing t he E ar ly a nd M idd le P er iods, t he ir m ovement m ay h ave b een a ssociated w ith s ma ller r eg iona l p opu lat ions w h ich w ere l ess s edentary , a nd w ith a h igher f requency o f l onger-range s ing le o r m u lt ip le-househo ld m ovement i n t he p rocurement o f d es ired o r n eeded c ommod it ies. S uch c ou ld c ontrast w ith t he L ate P er iod a nd i ts t erm inat ion w ith I nca d om inat ion, d ur ing w hich 2 11 r eg ions w ere m ore d ense ly a nd p ermanent ly s ett led, a nd i n w h ich o lder p atterns o f i nterreg iona l e xp lo itat ion a nd u t ilizat ion m ay h ave r equired n ew , a dd it iona l, o r m ore s ystemat ic i nteract ions w hich i nc luded t he t ransference o f s im ilar k inds o f c ommod it ies. F uture r esearch r e lat ive t o h ypothes is 4 m ust g ive s ystemat ic c onsiderat ion t o t he s tructura l c haracter ist ics o f t he v ar ious s ett lement s ystems, a s w e ll a s t he t he s pat ia l a nd d istr ibut iona l c orre lates o f v ar ious m odes o f e xchange ( cf . R enfrew 1 975, 1 977). H ypothesis 5 : E co log ica l l im itat ions o n p roduct ion a nd p opu lat ion c oncentrat ion m ade h ierarch ica l r anking o f s ett lements o r r eg iona l s ett lement s ystems o n ly m inima lly p ossib le o r d esirab le a s ai nd igenous d eve lopmen t . . R eciproca l e xchanges w ere t hus i ntegra l t o a s upra-regiona l n etwork o f s ett lement s ystems i n w hich c entra lizat ion o f e conom ic o r p o lit ica l a uthor ity, p ower , a nd c ontro l w ere l arge ly p rec luded . M ore c omp lex a nd c entra lized f orms o f c ommod ity d istr ibut ion c ame o n ly w ith t he i ntrusion o f t he I nca s tate . T his f ina l m u lt i-pronged h ypothesis g ives f u ll a nd e xp licit i nterpretat ion t o o ur p resent s ets o f 'evidence r e lat ing t o t he c ontext i n w h ich i nterreg iona l e xchanges o ccurred, a nd h as d irect i mp licat ions f or t he d eve lopmenta l t rends o f p reh ispanic s ociety i n t his a rea. I n o rder t o t est t he v ar ious f eatures o f t his h ypothesis, i t i s c lear t hat m ore r igorous a na lysis m ust b e g iven t o t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween e nv ironmenta l c haracter ist ics a nd s ite s izes, t ypes, a nd d istr ibut ions, a s w e ll a s t o t he s evera l c onsiderat ions e mbedded i n t he p rev ious h ypotheses. T he p resent c onc lusions a nd i nterpretations a re o f c ourse t entat ive a nd a re i ntended t o g ive m eaningfu l o r ientat ion t o o ur f uture r esearch e fforts. S ubstant ia l q uant it ies o f n ew d ata a re o bv ious ly r equired, b ut i f t hese i nterpretat ions c ont inue t o b e u phe ld a nd r ef ined, w e s ha ll h ave g one f ar i n a chiev ing a n u nderstand ing o f t he n ature o f s outh A ndean c u ltura l d eve lopment . U nt il s uch t ime, h owever , o ur p resent i nterpretat ions o f t he e vidence m ust s tand o n ly a s a n i n it ia l b ut s ystemat ic s tep i n t he r ight d irect ion .

2 23

A cknow ledgements F ie ldwork b y t he a uthor w hich c ontr ibuted t o t his p aper w as p artia lly s upported b y g rants f rom t he N at iona l S cience F oundat ion, t he S tate U n iversity o f N ew Y ork R esearch F oundat ion, a nd t he N at iona l E ndowment f or t he H umanit ies. S pecial t hanks i s e xtended t o H e len P o llard f or i nva luab le c omments a nd s uggest ions o n a n e ar lier v ersion o f t he p aper .

2 24

L iterature C ited A lfaro d e L anzone, L id ia C . 1 968 E l P ucara d e R odero . I nst ituto d e A rqueo log ia, P ub licacion n o . 1 , F acu ltad d e H istor ia y L etras, U n iversidad d e l S a lvador , B uenos A ires . 1 969 E xp lorac iones a rqueo log icas e n l a P una d e J ujuy . A nt iquitas 8 , p p. 7 -13. B o let in d e l a a sociacion a m igos d e l I nst ituto d e A rqueo log ia, U n iversidad d e l S a lvador, B uenos A ires. A lfaro d e L anzone, L id ia a nd J uan M . S uetta 1 970 N uevos a portes p ara e l e stud io d e l a sentam iento h umano e n l a p una d e J ujuy . A nt iquitas 1 0, p p . 1 -10, B uenos A ires. A mbrosett i, J uan B . 1 897 L a a nt igua c iudad d e Q uilmes ( Va lle C a lchaqu i). B o let in d e l I nst ituto G eograf ico A rgent ino . T omo X VIII, n o . 1 -3, p p . 3 3-70, B uenos A ires . 1 904 A puntes s obre l a a rque log ia d e l a P una d e A tacama . R evista d e l M useo d e L a P lata, t omo X II, p p. 3 -30, B uenos A ires. 1 907-8 E xp lorac iones a rqueo log icas e n l a c iudad p reh istor ica d e " La P aya" ( Va lle C a lchaqui, P rov. d e S a lta). P ub licacion n o. 3 , S eccion a ntropo log ica, F acu ltad d e F ilosof ia y L etras, p arts I a nd I, U n ivers idad N aciona l d e B uenos A ires . A par icio , F rancisco d e 1 948 L as r uinas d e T o lombon . C ongreso I nternacional A mericanistas ( 1947), A ctas 2 8e, p p . 5 69-580, P ar is.

d e

A rd issone, R omua ldo 1 940 L a i nsta lac ion i nd igena e n e l V a lle C a lchaqui, a p ropos ito d e l P ucara d e P a lermo . A na les d e l I nst ituto d e E tnograf ia A mer icana I , p p. 1 69-190, M endoza. 1 942 U na i nsta lacion i nd igena d e l a q uebrada d e P urmamarca . E l a nt iga l d e C ienaga G rande. R e laciones, V o l. 3 , p p . 2 9-43, S ociedad A rgent ina d e A ntropo log ia . B uenos A ires . A rocena, M ar ia L u isa a nd B . C arneva lli 1 960 A nda lhua la. I nvest igaciones a rqueo log icas e n e l v a lle d e S anta M ar ia, I: D escr ipcion d e l os y acim ientos e xcavados. P ub licacion n o . 4 , U n ivers idad N aciona l d e l L itora l, R osar io, p p . 5 3-63. A rocena, M ar ia L .; G . d e G asper i; a nd S . P etruzzi 1 960 C aspinchango . I nvest igaciones a rqueo log icas e n e l v a lle d e S anta M ar ia, I: D escr ipcion d e l os y acim ientos e xcavados. P ub licacion n o . 4 , U n ivers idad N aciona l d e l L itora l, R osar io, p p . 8 1-110. B ennett , W ende ll C . 1 946 T he A tacameno . I n H andbook o f S outh A mer ican I nd ians, e d ited b y J . S teward, v o l. 2 , p. 5 99-618 . B ureau o f A mer ican E thno logy B u lletin 1 43, W ash ington D .C. B ennett , W .C.; E .F . B leiler ; a nd F .H. S ommer 1 948 N orthwest A rgent ine A rchaeo logy . Y a le U niversity P ub licat ions 2 25

i n A nthropo logy n o . 3 8, Y a le U niversity P ress, N ew H aven. B erber ian, E duardo E . a nd F rancisco M ass idda 1 975 I nvest igaciones a rqueo log icas e n l as B arrancas ( Dpto. B e len , C atamarca). N uevas c ontr ibuciones p ara e l e stud io d e l a c u ltura C ondorhuas i d e l n oroeste a rgent ino. R evista d e l I nst ituto d e A ntropo log ia. U n ivers idad N ac iona l d e T ucuman . T ercera s er ie, v o l. 2 , p p . 7 -48. S an M igue l d e T ucuman . B oman, E r ic 1 908 A nt iquites d e l a r eg ion a nd ine d e l a R epub lique A rgentine e t d e D esert d 'Atacama. I mpr imer ie N atiE s na le, P ar is. 2 v o l. B owman, I saiah 1 924 D esert T rails o f A tacama. A mer ican G eographica l S pecia l P ub licat ion n o . 5 , N ew Y ork.

S ociety ,

B regante, O d illa 1 926 E nsayo d e c las if icac ion d e l a c eram ica d e l n oreoste A rgent ino . B uenos A ires. B rowman, D av id L . 1 974 P reco lumb ian lama c aravan t rade n etworks. X LI C ongreso I nternaciona l d e A mer ican istas. M ex ico D .F . 1 977 T iwanaku e xpansion a nd a lt ip lano e conom ic p atterns. P aper p resented a t V II C ongreso d e A rqueo log ia d e C h ile, T a lca. ( Pub lished i n E stud ios A rqueo log icos 5 :107-120, 1 980 ). 1 978 T oward t he d eve lopment o f t he T iahuanaco ( T iwanaku) S tate . i n A dvances i n A ndean A rchaeo logy , e d ited b y D . B rowman, p p .327-350 . M outon P ub lishers, T he H ague . B rgch, C ar los 1 913 E xp loraciones a rqueo log icas e n l as p rov incias d e T ucuman y C atamarca. R ev ista d e l M useo d e L a P lata, t omo X IX, s egunda s er ie, p p . 1 -209, U n iversidad N ac iona l d e L a P lata . C arrara, M .T .; A .M . L orand i; S . R enard ; a nd M . T arrago 1 960 P unta d e B a lasto . I nvest igaciones a rqueo log icas e n a l v a lle d e S anta M ar ia, I: D escr ipcion d e l os y ac im ientos e xcavados, P ub licacion n o . 4 , U n ivers idad N acional d e l L itora l, R osar io , p p. 1 3-41. C asanova, E duardo 1 931-33 T res r u inas i nd igenas e n l a Q uebrada d e l a C ueva. A na les d e l M useo A rgent ino d e C iencias N atura les, t omo XXVII, p. 2 55-318, B uenos A ires. 1 934a O bservaciones p re lim inares s obre l a a rqueo log ia d e C octaca. 2 5th C ongreso I nternaciona l d e A mer icanistas ( 1932), A ctas, t omo I, p p. 2 5-39, B uenos A ires. 1 934b N ota s obre e l P ucara d e H uicha iras ( Prov . d e J ujuy). 2 5th C ongreso I nternaciona l d e A mer ican istas ( 1932), A ctas, t omo I, p p . 3 9-45, B uenos A ires. 1 938 I nvest igaciones a rqueo log icas e n S orcuyo, P una d e J ujuy . A nales d e l M useo A rgent ino d e C iencias N atura les, t omo 3 9, p. 4 23-456, B uenos A ires. 1 942a E l y acim iento a rqueo log ico d e A ngosto C hico . R e lac iones d e l a 2 26

S oc iedad A rgent ina d e A ntropo log ia, t omo II, p p . 7 3-87, B uenos A ires. 1 942b E l P ucara d e H ornillos. A na les d e l I nst ituto d e E tnograf ia A mer icana d e l a U n ivers idad N aciona l d e C uyo , t omo II, p p . 2 49-265, M endoza. 1 946 T he c u ltures o f t he P una a nd t he Q uebrada o f H umahuaca. i n H andbook o f S outh A mer ican I nd ians, e d ited b y J . S teward, v o l. 2 , p p . 6 19-636. B ureau o f A mer ican E thno logy B u llet in 1 43, W ashington, D .C. 1 9 70 E l P ucara d e T ilcara ( Antecedentes, R econstruccion, G uia), 3 rd e d it ion, U n iversidad d e B uenos A ires, M useo d e l P ucara d e T ilcara. C ig liano , E duardo M . 1 957 I nvest igaciones a rqueo log icas e n l a z ona d e F amaba lasto ( Prov. d e C atamarca). R UNA , v o l. 8 , p t . 2 , p p. 2 41-269, B uenos A ires. 1 958 A rqueo log ia d e l a z ona d e F amaba lasto ( Depto . d e S ta. M ar ia, P rov . d e C atamarca). R ev ista d e l M useo d e L a P lata, s eccion a ntropo log ia, t omo V , p. 2 9-122, U n iver-s i did N aciona l d e L a P lata. 1 960 A rqueo log ia d e l V a lle d e S anta M ar ia, C atamarca . J ornadas I nternaciona les d e A rqueo log ia y E tnograf ia, 2 , p p . 6 4-71, B uenos A ires . 1 967 I nvest igac iones a ntropo log icas e n e l y acim ioneto d e J ue lla ( Dpto . d e T ilcara, P rov. d e J ujuy). R ev ista d e l M useo d e L a P lata, s eccion a ntropo log ia, t omo V I, p p . 1 23-249, U n ivers idia N aciona l d e L a P lata. C ig liano , E .M . a nd R .A . R aff ino 1 973 T ast il: u n m ode lo c u ltura l d e a daptac ion f uncionam iento y d esarro llo d e u na s ociedad u nbana p reh istor ica. R e laciones, t omo V II, p. 1 59-181, S ociedad A rgent ina d e A ntropo log ia, B uenos A ires. C ig liano , E duardo M . e t a l 1 973 T ast il: u na c iudad p re incaica A rgentina. B uenos A ires.

E d ic iones C abargon,

C onvenio 1 970 L evantam iento d e s ue los d e l os v a lles C a lchaqu ies . d e l a P rov incia d e S a lta, U n iversidad N aciona l d e S a lta.

G ob ierno L a P lata.

D aue lsberg , P ercy 1 972-73a L a c eram ica d e A r ica y s u s ituacion c rono log ica . C hungara 1 -2, p p . 1 7-24. U niversidad d e l N orte, A r ica, C h ile . 1 972-73b C arta r espuesta a L uis G uillermo L umbreras " Sobre l a p rob lemat ica a rqueo log ica d e A r ica." C hungara 1 -2, p. 3 2-37. U niversidad d e l N orte, A r ica, C h ile. D eambrosis, M ar ia S . a nd M onica d e L orenzi 1 973 L a i nf luencia i nca ica e n l a p una y Q uebrada d e H umahuaca, R epub lica A rgent ina. R ev ista d e l I nst ituto d e A ntropo log ia, n o . I V, p. 1 29-139. U niversidad N aciona l d e C ordoba. D ebenedett i, S a lvador 2 27

1 908

1 910

1 918a

1 918b

1 930a 1 930b

E xcursion a rqueo log ica a l as r uinas d e K ipon ( Va lle C alchaqui, P rovincia d e S a lta). P ub licaciones d e l M useo E tnografico n o. 4 , U niversidad N aciona l d e B uenos A ires. E xp loracion a rqueo log ica e n l os c ementerios p reh istoricos d e l a I s la d e T ilcara ( Quebrada d e H umahuaca, P rov . d e J ujuy ). P ub licaciones d e l a s eccion d e a ntropo logia, n o. 6 , U niversidad N acional d e B uenos A ires. L as r uinas p rehispanicas d e E l A lfarcito ( Departmento d e T ilcara, P rovincia d e J ujuy). P ub licaciones d e l a s eccion d e a ntropo logia, n o . 1 8, U niversidad N aciona l d e B uenos A ires. L a X IV e xpedicion a rqueo logica d e l a F acu ltad d e f i losof ia y l etras. N ota p re lim inar s obre l os y acim ientos d e P erche l, C ampo M orado y L a H uerta, e n l a P rovincia d e J ujuy . P ub licaciones d e l a s eccion d e a ntropo logia, n o. 1 7, U niversidad N aciona l d e B uenos A ires. C hulpas e n l as c avernas d e l R io S an J uan M ayo . N otas d e l M useo E tnograf ico, n o. 1 , U niversidad d e B uenos A ires. L as r uinas d e l P ucara, T ilcara, Q uebrada d e H umahuaca, P rovincia d e J ujuy. A rch ivos d e l M useo E tnograf ico , n o. 2 , p t . 1 , U niversidad N aciona l d e B uenos A ires.

D ebenedetti, S alvador a nd E . C asanova 1 933-35 T iticonte. P ub licaciones E tnograf ico, s er ie A , II, p p . B uenos A ires.

d e l M useo A ntropo logico 7 -35, U niversidad N aciona l

D e lia A rena, M ar ia 1 975 A rqueo logia d e l C ampo d e l F raile y a ledanos ( Va lle d e l D pto. d e S anta M ar ia, C atamarca). A ctas y T rabajos d e l C ongreso d e A rqueo logia A rgentina ( Mayo 1 970), p. B uenos A ires. D ifr ier i, H oracio 1 948 L as r uinas d e l P otrero A rgent ina). 2 8th C ongreso A ctas, p p. 5 99-604, P ar is.

d e P ayogasta I nternational

y

d i

C ajon, P r imer 4 3-96.

( Prov . d e S a lta, d e A mer icanistas,

E ar le, T imothy K . a nd J onathan E . E r icson ( ed itors) 1 977 E xchange S ystems i n P rehistory . A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork. F lannery, K ent V . ( ed itor) 1 976 T he E ar ly M esoamer ican V illage .

A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork.

F ocacci A ., G uillermo 1 969 A rqueo logia d e A r ica: s ecuencia c u ltural d e l p er iodo a groa lfarero H or izonte T iahuanacoide. A ctas d e l V C ongreso N aciona l d e A rqueo logia, L a S erena, C hile, p p. 2 1=7 57 F rengue lli, J oaquin 1 944 I nf luencia d e l a mbiente f isico e n l a d istribucion d e c ulturas ( Va lle C a lchaqui). R e laciones d e l a S ociedad A rgentina d e A ntropo logia, v o l. 4 , p p. 1 51-156 . B uenos A ires. G atto, S antiago 1 943 R uinas d e l P ucara d e H umahuaca. C ongreso d e H istor ia A rgent ina d e l N orte y C entro . T omo I , p p . 1 30-142. C ordoba. 2 28

1 946

E xp loraciones a rqueo log icas e n e l p ucara d e V o lcan . R ev ista d e l M useo d e L a P lata, t omo I V, p p . 5 -91, U nivers idad N aciona l d e L a P lata.

G onzales, A lberto R ex 1 954 L as r u inas d e L oma R ica y a lrededores. N atura, t omo I , n o . 1 . M in ister ion d e a gr icu ltura y g anader ia . A dm in istracion n acina l d e p arques n aciona les. B uenos A ires. 1 956 L a c u ltura C ondorhuasi d e l n oroeste a rgent ino . R una V II, p arte 1 , p p . 3 7-85, U n iversidad d e B uenos A ires. 1 963 C u ltura l d eve lopment i n n orthwestern A rgent ina. i n A bor ig ina l C u ltura l D eve lopment i n L at in A mer ica: a n i nterpretat ive r ev iew , e d ited b y B . M eggers. S m ithsonian M isce llaneous C o llect ions, v o l. 1 46, n o . 1 , p. 1 03-117, W ashington, D .C. G onza les, A lberto R ex a nd V . N unez R . 1 958-59 A puntes p re lim inares s obre l a a rqueo log ia d e l C ampo d e l P ucara y a lrededores ( Dpto . d e A nda lga la, P cia. d e C atamarca). A na les d e a rqueo log ia y e tno log ia, t omo X IV-XV, p p . 15-162, U n iversid ad N aciona l d e C uyo, M endoza . G onza les, A lberto R ex a nd J ose A nton io P erez 1 971 P r imeras c u lturas a rgent inas. F ilmed iciones A ires.

V a lero, B uenos

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L ange, G unardo 1 892a L as r uinas d e l p ueb lo d e W atungasta . A na les d e l M useo d e L a P lata, s eccion d e a rqueo log ia I, L a P lata, p p. ' 1 : 4 . 1 892b L as r uinas d e l a f orta leza d e P ucara. A na les d e l M useo d e L a P lata, s ecc ion d e a rqueo log ia II, L a P lata, p p . 3 -12. L ann ing , E dward P . 1 974 W estern S outh A mer ica. i n P reh ispan ic A mer ica, e d ited b y S . G orenste in, p. 6 5-86. S t . M art in 's P ress, N ew Y ork . L atcham , R icardo E . 1 933 N otas p re lim inares d e u n v iaje a rqueo log ico a Q uillagua . R ev ista C h ilena d e H istor ia N atura l, a no XXVI, p . 1 30-138 , S ant iago . 1 938 A rqueo log ia d e l a r eg ion a tacamena. P rensa d e l a U n ivers idad d e C h ile. S ant iago . L e P aige, G ustavo 1 963 C ont inuidad o d iscont inuidad d e l a c u ltura a tacamena. A na les d e l a U niversidad d e l N orte, n o . 2 , p. 5 -39, A ntofagasta. 1 964 L os c ementer ios d e l a e poca a groa lfarera e n S an P edro d e A tacama. A na les d e l a U n iversidad d e l N orte , n o. 3 , p. 4 9-93, A ntofagasta . 1 965 " R io S a lado--Socaire-Toconao" A na les d e l a U n iversidad d e l N orte, n o . 4 , p. 1 6-18, A ntofagasta L orand i, A na M .; S . R enard ; a nd M . T arrago 1 960 L ampacito . I nvest igaciones a rqueo log icas e n e l v alle d e S anta M ar ia, I: D escr ipcion d e l os y acim ientos e xcavados, P ub licac ion n o . 4 , U n iversidad N aciona l d e l L itora l, R osar io , p p . 6 5-79. L umbreras, L uis G u illermo 1 972-73 S obre l a p rob lemat ica a rqueo log ica d e A r ica. p p. 2 5-27. U n iversidad d e l N orte, A r ica, C hile.

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M adrazo, G u illermo B . a nd M arta O ttone llo d e G arcia R e inoso 1 966 T ipos d e i nsta lacion p rehispan ica e n l a r eg ion d e l a p una y s u b orde . M useo e tnograf ico m un icapa l " Damaso A rce" m onograph 1 , O lavarr ia. M ansfe ld, F ranz 1 948 L a c iudad l egendar ia d e l A mer icana v o l. 3 0, p p . 5 3-59 .

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M ostny, G reta 1 949 C iudades A tacamenas. B o let in d e l M useo N aciona l N atura l, v o l. 2 4, p p . 1 25-204, S ant iago .

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M un izaga A ., C ar los 1 957 S ecuencias c u ltura les d e l a z ona d e A r ica. A rqueo log ia C h ilena, p. 7-126, C entro d e E stud ios A ntropo log icos. U niversidad d e C h ile, S ant iago . M urra, J ohn 1 972 E l c ontro l v ert ica l d e u n m ax ima d e p isos e co log icos e n l a e conom ia d e l as s ociedades a nd inas . i n V isita d e l a P rovincia d e L eon d e H uanuco e n 1 562. I nigo O rt iz d e Z un iga, v isitador 2 , p p. 4 2 5 -4 76 . U n iversidad H erm illio V a ld izan, H uanuco. N unez A ., L autaro 1 972-73 C arta r espuesta a L uis G u illermo L umbreras " Sobre l a p rob lemat ica a rqueo log ica d e A r ica ." C hungara 1 -2, p p. 2 7-32, U n iversidad d e l N orte, A r ica, C h ile. 1 976 R eg istro r eg iona l d e f echas r ed iocarbon icas d e l n orte d e C h ile . E stud ios A tacamenos 4 , p p . 7 4-123. M useo d e A rqueo log ia, S an P edro d e A tacama , U niversidad d e l N orte, C h ile. 1 978 N orthern C h ile. i n C hrono log ies i n N ew W or ld A rchaeo logy , e d ited b y R .E. T ay lor a nd C .W . M e ighan, p. 4 83-511. A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork. N unez R ., V ictor A . 1 978 C ons iderat ions o n t he p er iod izations o f n orthwest A rgent ina. i n A dvances i n A ndean A rchaeo logy , e d ited b y D . B rowman, p. 4 53-484, M outon P ub lishers, T he H ague. O yarzun, A ure liano 1 934 A lfarer ia d e C a lama. R ev ista C h ilena d e G eograf ia, v o l. 7 5, n o . 8 2, p. 4 90-503, S ant iago .

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P au lott i, O sva ldo 1 958-59 L as r uinas d e l os N evados d e A conquija. N ot ic ia p re lim inar . R una v o l. I X, p arts 1 -2, p p. 1 25-135. U n iversidad N aciona l d e B uenos A ires. P erez, J ose A nton io 1 968 S ubarea d e H umahuaca. X XXVII C ongreso I nternaciona l d e A mer ican istas ( 1966), A ctas y m emor ias v o l. 2 , p. 2 73-977 B uenos A ires. 1 973 A rqueo log ia d e l as c u lturas a groa lfareras d e l a Q uebrada d e H umahuaca ( Prov incia d e J ujuy , R epub lica A rgent ina). A mer ica I nd igena, V o l. X XXIII, n o . 3 , p. 6 67-679, M ex ico . 1 978 C oncerning t he a rchaeo logy o f t he H umahuaca Q uebrada. i n A dvances i n A ndean A rchaeo logy , e d ited b y D . B row n ian, p. 5 03-524, M outon P ub lishers, T he H ague . P ires-Ferre ira, J ane W . a nd K ent V . F lannery 1 976 E thnographic m ode ls f or F ormat ive e xchange. M esoamer ican V illage, e d ited b y K . F lannery, A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork. 2 32

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P log, F red 1 977 M ode ling e conom ic e xchange . i n E xchange S ystems i n P rehistory , e d ited b y E ar le a nd E r icson, p. 1 27-140 . A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork. P o llard, G ordon c . 1 975 P reh istory a nd D esert A daptat ion i n N orthern C hile : t he c eram ic s tage o f t he m idd le R io L oa r eg ion . P art I , S ett lement a nd E co logy . S tate U n iversity o f N ew Y ork P ress, A lbanay. 1 977 V illages, s ystems, a nd e conom ics i n t he S outhern A ndes. p aper p resented a t t he 4 2nd a nnua l m eet ing o f t he S ociety f or A mer ican A rchaeo logy , N ew O r leans . Q u iroga, A dam 1 901 L a c ruz e n A mer ica ( Arqueo log ia A rgent ina).

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R enfrew , C o lin 1 975 T rade a s a ct ion a t ad istance : q uest ions o f i ntegrat ion a nd c ommun icat ion. i n A ncient C iv ilizat ion a nd T rade, e d ited b y S ab loff a nd L amberg-Kar lovsky , p. 3 -59 . U n ivers ity o f N ew M ex ico p ress, A lbuquerque . 1 977 A lternat ive m ode ls f or e xchange a nd s pat ia l d istr ibut ion . i n E xchange S ystems i n P reh istory , e d ited b y E ar le a nd E r icson, p p . 7 1-90, A cadem ic P ress, N ew Y ork. R ivera, M ar io A . 1 975 U na h ipotesis s obre m ov im ientos p ob laciona les a lt ip lanicos y t ransa lt ip lanicos a l as c ostas d e l n orte d e C hile . C hungara 5 , p p. 7 -31, U n ivers idad d e l N orte, A r ica, C h ile . 2 33

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1 978

A tacama ( Ch ile). A ctas y m emor ias, X XXVII C ongreso I nternaciona l d e A mer ican istas 1 966, v o l. 2 , p p . 19-144, B uenos A ires. A spectos e co log icos y p ob lam iento p rehispanico e n e l v a lle C a lchaqui, P rov incia d e S alta, A rgent ina. R evista d e l I nst ituto d e A ntropo log ia, t omo V , p p. 1 95-216. U n iversidad N acional d e C ordoba. P anorama a rqueo log ico d e l s ector s eptentrional d e l v a lle C a lchaqui, S a lta. A ctas y T rabajos d e l P r imer C ongreso d e A rqueo logia A rgentina ( Mayo 1 970), p p. 2 21-236. B uenos A ires. — A lfarer ia t ip ica d e S an P edro d e A tacama ( Norte d e C hile). E stud ios A tacamenos 4 , p p. 3 7-64. U niversidad d e l N orte, M useo d e A rqueo logia, S an P edro d e A tacama. P a leoeco logy o f t he C alchaqui V a lley, S a lta P rovince, A rgent ina. i n A dvances i n A ndean A rchaeo logy, e d ited b y D . B rowman, p. 4 85-512, M outon P ub lishers, T he H ague.

T arrago, M yr iam N . a nd P io P ab lo D iaz 1 972 S it ios a rqueo log icos d e l v a lle C a lchaqui. E studios d e A rqueo log ia 1 , p. 4 9-61, M useo A rqueo log ico d e C achi, S alta. — 1 977 S it ios a rqueo logicos d e l v a lle C a lchaqui ( II). E studios d e A rqueo logia 2 , p p. 6 3-71. M useo A rqueo log ico d e C achi, S a lta. T en K ate, H erman F .C. 1 894 R apport s omma ire s ur u ne e xcursion a rcheo log ique d ans l es p rovinces d e C atamarca, d e T ucuman e t d e S a lta. R evista d e l M useo d e L a P lata, v o l. 5 , p p. 3 29-248, U niversidad N aciona l d e L a P lata. U h le, M ax 1 919 L a a rqueo log ia d e A r ica y T acna. B o let in, S ociedad E cuator iana d e E studios H istoricos. V o l. 3 , p p. 1 -48 . Q uito. V on R osen, E r ic 1 924 P opular a ccount o f a rchaeo log ica l r esearch d ur ing t he S wedish C haco-Cord illera e xpedition, 1 901-1902. S tockho lm . A lb. B onniers B oktrychker i. 1 957 U n m undo q ue s e v a. F undacion M igue l L illo, U niversidad N acional d e T ucuman, I nst ituto L ill°, O peri—Ur loana, n o. 1 . T ucuman. W eber, R onald L . 1 978 A s er iat ion o f t he L ate P rehistor ic S anta M ar ia C u lture o f N orthwestern A rgent ina. F ie ldiana A nthropo logy v o l. 6 8, n o. 2 , p p. 4 9-98. F ie ld M useum o f N atura l H istory, C hicago. W illey, G ordon R . 1 971 A n I ntroduct ion t o A mer ican A rchaeo logy . A merica. P rent ice-Hall, E ng lewood C liffs.

V o l.

2 ,

S outh

W inter, C ar los T . a nd M .A . B enavente A ninat 1 974-75 P roposicion d e u n m ode l° p ara e l a na lisis d e f ragmentacion c eram ica p oco d iagnost ica. B o letin d e p rehistor ia d e C hile, a nos 6 -7, n os. 7 -8, U niversidad d e C hi r e , S ant iago .

2 35

P ollard

K ey t o F igure

1

1 . L ower R io L oa S ystem 2 .

M iddle R io L oa/Rio S alado S ystem

3 . S alar d e A tacama S ystem 4 . N orth A rgentine P una S ystem 1 5 . N orth A rgentine P una S ystem I - Y avi 6 . U pper R io I ruya S ystem 7 . Q uebrada d e H umahuaca S ystem 8 . Q uebrada d el T oro S ystem 9 . C alchaqui V alley S ystem 1 0. Y ocavil

( Santa M aria)

V alley S ystem

1.South A rgentine P una S ystem 1 2.

H ualfrn/Belen/Abaucgn S ystem

P ollard 7 2 LOCAT ION

OF

SETTLEMENT N ORTHERN

PROPOSED S YSTEMS

C H ILE a nd N ORTHWEST A RGENT INA

2 0

2 4

24

ARGENT INA

• . • . 26 2 6

' e t

2 8 2 8

6 6

7 2

F igure 1 .

2 37

P ollard

6 6 2 2

•

I

23

LA M INA d e CUA YA TA VOC

N ORTHWEST

ARGENT INA

S ETTLEMENT

S YSTEMS

I

N ORTHERN

P UNA

I L

N ORTHERN

P UNA - Y AV I

I RUYA

S YSTEM

l E t

UPPER

r z

HUMAHUACA S YSTEM

S YSTEM

SHADED AREA • 3 600 +

0

1 0

2 0

METERS

30

40

ELEV .

50

k i lometers 6 5

F igure 2 .

2 38

P ollard 6 9

6 8 •

2 2

2 2

•

\

5

7. . • • , : • E

e i o

• • •• • ,TI . .

LO

• •• • • • • : . . f . :* * : [— ‘

:

I L I 1 \ • • ' . • • :; , •.

2 3-

2 3

64

7.

• • . •SALAR •

NORTHERN

C H ILE

SETTLEMENT I LOWER

LOA

M IDDLE S ALAR SHADED

S YSTEMS

d o A TACAMA

AREA

• . .• ' •:

S YSTEM

L OA / S ALADO

3 600 +

d•

. 4: . • ATACA MA

• :

S YSTEM

:

• •: •1 • •• : .••" .

S YSTEM

METERS

• 9

E LEV .

' 4 * 0

1 0

2 9

3 0

k i lometers

4 9

•8

5 0

, I0 ' • • .

G .c .p .

6 8

F igure 3 .

2 39

N.

1 9 7 3 .

s h e r d s f r o m r e f u s e a r e a t e s t p i t s

. -

( N J

. .

, -

SL A S N.

8

C D

D a t a e x t r a c t e d a n d c o m p i l e d f r o m C i g l i a n o e t a l

L I N

3

i n

c o

u n c l a s i f i e d

A n g o s t o C h i c o

s t r u c t u r e s

7

s u r f a c e o r n o p r o v e n i e n c e . -

i n

b l a c k o n r e d

b l a c k o n r e d

1 0 6 g r a v e s

c o m p l e t e v e s e l s

P ollard

r

. 1 UN

( N I

C • 1 C vl

e zo uou

2 40

c r %

n r s L t1

, -

( N J

1 , . 0 . / • C ) C J

r —

r ,

. . . 1L I1

LA C • I UN N.

0

c d E 4

P ollard T able 2 .

P acific C oast s hells i n L ate P eriod a rchaeological s ites i n N orthwest A rgentina

R egion & S ite N ame

s he ll

t ype

q uantity s hell b eads

c ontext

r eference

Q uebrada d e H umahuaca R odero

A mar illos

T ilcara

C oncho lepas s p.

1

b ur ial

C hione s p. o r S amarangia s p .

1

t renched c o llective g rave

P ecten p urp. C oncho lepas s p.

3 5

S em ilidae s o lida

1

P ecten s p.

9

+ frags

V o lcgn

P ecten s p.

s ev.

A lfaro d e L anzone 1 968: 9 8 " p .

4 9, 9 8

b ur ial ( s)? 1e ach i n s eparate b ur ials b urial ?

M arengo 1 954: " p . 3 8

1e ach i n 3 s eparate r ooms; 1e ach i n 3 m u ltiplep erson g raves; 3i n 2 s inglep erson g raves

D ebenedetti 4 1, 5 , 5 7 ,

b urial

?

"

P

.

3

3 8

b

1 930 :

6 2 ,

6 8 , 7 4 , 7 , 9 5, 1 04

G atto 1 946:

7 0-

7 1

C ampo M orado

P ecten s p.

1

6p erson g rave

D ebenedetti 1 918b: 8

A ngosto C hico

m o llusk s hells

3

g rave ?

C asanova 8 6

C ienaga G rande

P ecten s p. C oncho lepas s p. S eme le s p.

4

v ar ious g raves g rave s eparate g raves

S ay s 1 94 I I 5: 2 59

1 2

1 942a:

J uella

m o llusk s hell

s ev.

2 s eparate s econdary b ur ials

C ig liano 1 967 : 1 48, 1 59

H ornillos

n o i dentificati m

1 500

b ur ial

C asanova 1 942b: 2 64

2 41

P ollard ( Table 2 ,

c ontinued)

N orthern P una C asabindo

1

g rave

A mphidesma r osea

1

g rave

w hite s he ll

Q ueta Y avi

P ecten s p.

s ev.

V on R osen 1 924 : 3 8 , f ig. 5 7 . "P .

38 , f ig . 5 8 B oman 1 908: 6 27

R egion

S ansana Q uebrada d el

s ev.

g rave

B oman

P ecten s p.

1

s urface f ind

S emele s olida

4

3f rom 2

C ig liano e t a l. 1 973 : 2 17-21 r

n o i dentificat i

s ev.

g raves ( 1 m ultiple b urial, 1 p artial b ur ial);1 f rom a r oom s tructure 6 8

O liva p eruv iana

1

Z avaleta c o llection

M art inez S o ler 1 9 58 -5 9 : 2 83

P ecten s p.

8

1e ach i n 3 m u ltiplep erson g raves ( 1 w /Inca a ssoc iat ion); 3 i n 1m u lt ip le g rave w /I nca a ssoc iat ion; 1 e ach i n 2 s inglep erson g raves ( 1 w /lnca a ss oc iat ion)

A mbrosetti 1 908 : 5 18-19 , f ig. 2 85, a nd p p. 1 02, 15, 1 40, 2 04, 2 08 , 2 43

P ecten s p.

1

i n a s tructure

C ard ium s p.

1

s ingle-person g rave

B oman 1 908: 2 42, p l. I X, f ig. 2 0. A mbrosetti 1 908 : 2 24

1 908:

7 8 1

T oro

T astil

Y ocavil

O liva p eruv iana

V alley

Q uilmes

C alchaqur V alley L a P aya

2 42

P ollard T able

3 .

P roposed s ettlement s ystems,

a ssociated v illages a nd

m ajor b ibliographic s ources ,

N orthern C hile a nd

N orthwest A rgentina.

1

L ower L oa S ystem 1 .

I.

6 . 7 .

3 .

4 .

5 . 6 . 7 . 8 .

9 . i 0 .

C hiu C hiu L asana C alama T oparn T un i ( w/Inca T oconce C aspana

P ollard 1 9 75; W inter & B enavente 1 974-75 R yden 1 944; P o llard 1 975 B oman 1 908; O yarzün 1 934 P o llard 1 975 ; M ostny 1 949 P o llard 1 9 75 ; M ostny 1 949 L e P aige 1 963 L e P aige 1 963, 1 965

i ntrusion)

( northern C hile )

V ilama S an B arto lo L icancabü r S an P edro d e A tacama C rpe ( Inca) Z apar T oconao S ocaire P eine T ilomonte

3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 .

S orcuyo P ueblo V iejo C asabindo C hacrahuaico D oncellas Q ueta R inconada

8 .

C angrejillas

L atcham 1 938 B oman 1 908 B oman 1 908 M ostny 1 949; L e P aige 1 964; M ostny 1 949 M ostny 1 949 L e P aige 1 963, 1 965 L e P aige 1 963, 1 965 M ostny 1 949 L e P aige 1 963

Y avi

C hico

L atcham 1 938

I

N orthern A rgentine P una S ystem I 1 .

1 938

( northern C hile)

N orth A rgentine P una S ystem 1 . 2 .

V .

L atcham 1 933,

S alar d e A tacama S ystem 1 . 2 .

I V.

Q uillagua

M iddle L oa/Salado S ystem 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 .

II.

( northern C hile)

C asanova 1 938 B oman 1 908 V on R osen 1 924; B oman B oman 1 908 B oman 1 908 B oman 1 908 B oman 1 908; A lfaro d e A lfaro d e L anzone a nd B oman 1 908 ; V on R osen

( Yav i) K rapov ickas

2 43

1 970

1 908

L anzone 1 969; S uetta 1 970.

1 957

P ollard ( Table

V I.

U pper

( N .W .

2 . 3 . 4 .

C olanzu li P ueb lo V iejo Z apallar H igueras A rcayo C haupi L oma R odeo C o lorado ( 2?) C uesta A zul V izcarra/Mo lino V iejo

8 . 1 0.

H umahuaca S ystem 1 . 2 .

1 0. 1. 1 2.

1 3. 1 4 . 1 5. 1 6. 1 7 .

H uichairas H ornillos C ienaga G rande V o lcgn C aspalä/Antiguito

Q uebrada d el

A rgent ina ) D ebenedetti & C asanova 1 933 -3 5 ; iranda 1 M ärquez M 936-4 1, 1 937 , 1 94 1 M ärquez M iranda 1 934 , 1 937 , 1 9 4 1 M grquez M iranda 1 94 1 M grquez M iranda 1 936-4 1, 1 937 , 1 9 4 1 M arquez M iranda 1 936-41, 1 937 , 1 9 4 1 M grquez M iranda 1 936-4 1, 1 937 , 1 94 1 M grquez M iranda 1 936-4 1, 1 937 , 1 9 4 1 M ärquez M iranda 1 936-41, 1 937 , 1 9 4 1 M ärquez M iranda 1 936-4 1, 1 937 , 1 94 1 M arquez M iranda 1 936-4 1, 1 937 , 1 94 1

( N.W . A rgentina)

R odero C octaca P e i ias B lancas C alete L os A marillos Y acoraite C ampo M orado L a H uerta P erchel A ngosto C hico J uella T lIcara ( w/Inca

3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 .

I X .

I ruya S ystem

T iticonte

9 .

V III.

c ontinued)

1 .

5 . 6 . 7 .

V II.

3 ,

i ntrusion?)

T oro S ystem

1 .

S anta R osa d e T ast il

2 . 3 .

P uerta d e T astil M orohuasi

A lfaro d e L anzone 1 968 S uetta 1 967 ; C asanova 1 934a M grquez M iranda 1 945; G atto 1 943 S chuel 1 930 M arengo 1 954 B oman 1 908 ; K rapov ickas 1 969 D ebenedetti 1 918 b D ebenedetti 1 9 18b;Lafon 1 954 D ebenedetti 1 918 b C asanova 1 942a C igliano 1 967 C asanova 1 970; K rapov ickas 1 958-59a; M adrazo 1 969; D ebenedetti 1 918a;1930b; B ennett e t a l. 1 948 . C asanova 1 934b C asanova 1 942b S alas 1 942, 1 945; A rdissone S uetta 1 969 ; G atto 1 946 M adrazo 1 965

( N.W . A rgentina) C igliano e t B oman 1 908; B oman 1 908; B oman 1 908 ;

a l. 1 973 ; C igliano & R aff ino 1 9 73 R affino 1 972 R affino 1 972 R affino 1 972

C alchaqur S ystem ( N.W . A rgentina) 1 .

E squina d e P ircas Lap 2 3

2 .

E squina A zu l Lap 5 E l C andado -L ap 6 C erro d e H uasa C ienega Lap 4 1

3 . 4 .

1 942

P o llard T arragö T arragö P o llard

2 44

f ie ldwork a nd P ab lo a nd P ablo f ie ldwork

1 977 1 972 1 972

1 977

Pollard ( Table

I X .

C alchaqui S ystem ( N .W . A rgentina) 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0 . 1. 1 2. 1 3. 1 4. 1 5. 1 6 . 1 7. 1 8 . 1 9 . 2 0. 2 1. 2 2. 2 3. 2 4. 2 5. 2 6.

X .

3 , c ontinued)

P um P um Lap 4 4 L a F alda Lap 4 5 C ajän Lap 1 9 R odeo C o lorado Lap 1 8 P otrero d e P ayogasta ( Inca) Cac 4 2 C ortaderas ( Inca ) Cac 6 5 P alermo Cac 6 B uena V ista Cac 8 7 C ruz Cac 7 9 V aldez Cac 1 2 L as P allas Cac 1 8 R uiz d e l os L lanos Cac 1 0 Q uipön Cac 3 B orgatta Cac 1 6 A lejandro B urgos Cac 1 03 P iedras B lancas Cac 1 05 M ariscal Cac 5 T ero Cac 1 4 G uitiän Cac 2 L a P aya ( w/Inca i ntrusion) Cac 1 L a P uerta Mo l 1 E l C hurcal Mol 2

Y ocavil 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0. 1. 1 2. 1 3. 1 4. 1 5. 1 6. 1 7 .

( Santa M ar ia)

c ont. P o llard P o llard T arrag6 T arrag6 D ifr ieri

f ieldwork 1 977 f ieldwork 1 977 a nd P ablo 1 977 a nd P ablo 1 977 1 948; T arrag6 a nd P ablo 1 972

T arrag6 1 974 A rdissone 1 940; B ennett e t a l. 1 948 ; T arrag6 a nd P ablo 1 972 P ollard f ie ldwork 1 977 P ollard f ieldwork 1 977 T arrag6 a nd P ablo 1 972 T arrag6 a nd P ablo 1 972 T arrag6 a nd P ablo 1 972 D ebenedetti 1 908; T arrag6 a nd P ablo 1 972 T arrag6 a nd P ab lo 1 972 P o llard f ieldwork 1 977 P ollard f ie ldwork 1 977 T arrag6 a nd P ab lo 1 972 T arragö a nd P ab lo 1 972 T arrag6 a nd P ablo 1 972 B oman 1 908; A mbrosetti 1 907-08; B ennett e t a l. 1 948; T arrag6 a nd P ablo 1 972 T arragö a nd P ab lo 1 977 T arrag6 a nd P ab lo 1 977

S ystem ( N.W . A rgentina)

T olombön Q uilmes F uerte Q uemade C erro P intado d e l as M ojarras R inc6n C hico L a M aravilla E l P abellon L oma J ujuil L oma R ica A ndaljuala P unta d e B alasto ( Inca i ntrusion) C erro M endoc ino G uasamayo F amabalasto P ampa G rande N evados d e A conqu ija ( Inca) I ngenio d e A rena] M edanos ( Inca)

A par ic io 1 948 A mbrosett i 1 897; B ruch B ruch 1 913 M ärquez M iranda & C igliano 1 961b; B ruch 1 913 M ärquez M iranda & C igliano 1 96 1b; L orandi e t a l. 1 960 A rocena e t in 1 960 A rocena e t a l. 1 960 G onzales 1 9g G onzales 1 954 A rocena a nd C arnevalli 1 960 C arrara e t a l. 1 960; B ruch 1 913 C arrara e t a l. 1 960; B ruch 1 913 T en K ate 1 5 5W ; B oman 1 908 ; D elia A rena C igliano 1 957, 1 958 ; B ruch 1 913 D elia A rena 1 975 M ansfeld 1 948; P aulott i 1 958 - 5 9 M ärquez M iranda & C igllano 1 961a

2 45

1 975

P ollard ( Table

X I.

S outh A rgentine P una S ystem 1 .

X II.

3 , c ontinued)

L a A lumbrera ( Antofagasta d e

l a S ierra)

B oman 1 908; A mbrosetti 1 904; B ennett e t a l. 1 948; K rapovickas R affino & C igliano 1 973

H ualfin/Belen/Abaucgn S ystem ( N.W . A rgentina) A .

H ualfrn V alley/Campo d e B elin 1 .

B .

B ruch 1 9 13

S ierra L a C arreta/Campo d e P ucara 1 .

C .

H ualfin

P ucari d e A conquija

L ange 1 892b; B ruch 1 913; G onzales a nd N t l i rez R . 1 958 -5 9

R io A bauci n 1 .

B atungasta

( Inca)

2 .

M ishma s ite 7 ( Inca)

L ange 1 892a; L afone-Quevado 1 392; S empe 1 973 S e mi 1 973 , 1 975

2 46

1 968;

P ollard V I

I

1

I I V

7

V I

V I

I i n C l _ . - —

I

C o m o d i t y C l a s e s

_ 0 * 7 3 u _ i

I

I

I

I

I

I

S e t l e m n t s ( A r g e n t i n a & B o l i v i a )

! S u b A n d e a n

I

L Q . ) C I ) ( I ) I - 4 1 ( . ) 0 . . . —

c y

X

x

X

. ,

S e t l e m e n t s ( A r g e n t i n a )

I

E a s t e r n A n d e a n

( 0 c u _ C I

N — ( 1 3 c r t 1 0 .C

C D

A

4 ) 3 a 3 C T ( 1 )

E

c r ) C O 0

( 0

I

a ) I _ c

l

a )

I

x

I

4 C — -

xi

( n 1 : 3 — L . _ _ 0

I

1

I

I

I

i

u c : n

' 0'

I 1 I 3

( 1 3

< 0 )< > 0

C . t . y ux 1xx x-

a . )

, . , 0 o

I

1

I

x

iX I

I 1

I

I

I

I v

I

X

X

AÄ i

f ' . . 'I I '0 0 X 1

X

Iy

. ' . 1y I 4) 4 J

X

X

I

X

X

X

A gA

I

A

I

I

C U I D

U

[

'V

0 0 _

I

I

v s

I

i n

( 0 >