Smart Cities for Sustainable Development (Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences) 9811674094, 9789811674099

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Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences

Ram Kumar Mishra · Ch Lakshmi Kumari · Sandeep Chachra · P. S. Janaki Krishna · Anupama Dubey · R. B. Singh   Editors

Smart Cities for Sustainable Development

Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences Series Editor R. B. Singh, University of Delhi, Delhi, India

Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences synthesizes series diagnostigation and prognostication of earth environment, incorporating challenging interactive areas within ecological envelope of geosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and cryosphere. It deals with land use land cover change (LUCC), urbanization, energy flux, land-ocean fluxes, climate, food security, ecohydrology, biodiversity, natural hazards and disasters, human health and their mutual interaction and feedback mechanism in order to contribute towards sustainable future. The geosciences methods range from traditional field techniques and conventional data collection, use of remote sensing and geographical information system, computer aided technique to advance geostatistical and dynamic modeling. The series integrate past, present and future of geospheric attributes incorporating biophysical and human dimensions in spatio-temporal perspectives. The geosciences, encompassing land-ocean-atmosphere interaction is considered as a vital component in the context of environmental issues, especially in observation and prediction of air and water pollution, global warming and urban heat islands. It is important to communicate the advances in geosciences to increase resilience of society through capacity building for mitigating the impact of natural hazards and disasters. Sustainability of human society depends strongly on the earth environment, and thus the development of geosciences is critical for a better understanding of our living environment, and its sustainable development. Geoscience also has the responsibility to not confine itself to addressing current problems but it is also developing a framework to address future issues. In order to build a ‘Future Earth Model’ for understanding and predicting the functioning of the whole climatic system, collaboration of experts in the traditional earth disciplines as well as in ecology, information technology, instrumentation and complex system is essential, through initiatives from human geoscientists. Thus human geosceince is emerging as key policy science for contributing towards sustainability/survivality science together with future earth initiative. Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences series publishes books that contain novel approaches in tackling issues of human geoscience in its broadest sense — books in the series should focus on true progress in a particular area or region. The series includes monographs and edited volumes without any limitations in the page numbers.

More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/13113

Ram Kumar Mishra · Ch Lakshmi Kumari · Sandeep Chachra · P. S. Janaki Krishna · Anupama Dubey · R. B. Singh Editors

Smart Cities for Sustainable Development

Editors Ram Kumar Mishra Institute of Public Enterprise Osmania University Campus Hyderabad, Telangana, India Sandeep Chachra ActionAid Association India New Delhi, Delhi, India Anupama Dubey Institute of Public Enterprise Osmania University Campus Hyderabad, Telangana, India

Ch Lakshmi Kumari Institute of Public Enterprise Osmania University Campus Hyderabad, Telangana, India P. S. Janaki Krishna Institute of Public Enterprise Osmania University Campus Hyderabad, Telangana, India R. B. Singh Department of Geography, International Geographic Union University of Delhi New Delhi, Delhi, India

ISSN 2198-3542 ISSN 2198-3550 (electronic) Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences ISBN 978-981-16-7409-9 ISBN 978-981-16-7410-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7410-5 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Foreword

While the soul of ‘India lives in the villages’, the economic strength and future advancement largely rely on the Urban India—Cities. The rapid urban growth, rural– urban migration, and burgeoning socio-economic divide are pushing Urban India to adopt new ways of planning, managing, and operating cities. There are two key characteristics that differentiate Urban India from the Western style of urban planning— the embedded culture which reflects in every aspect of urban lives and governance impeding on implementation of basic urban infrastructure, most notably, physical infrastructures. While the western style of urban planning has its merits and plays a vital role, Urban India must develop its own planning approach and urban management practices to cater for all walks of life in cities. The ‘Science of Architecture’ has now entered the most critical phase for Urban India—Less is More. With the limited resources, capacity, and time constraints, how is India going to cater for more people, more demands, and more infrastructures? The first planned city in India, Jaipur (1727), was based on the ‘Science of Architecture’, depicting the planning and design of buildings, landscape, and streets in harmony with nature. The city was designed with a grid-like system, dividing into nine squares and broad crossings, each symbolising the planetary bodies of astrology. Jaipur presented a successful urban planning model for the world, defying earlier medieval city planning and growth around organic settlements. Before Jaipur, the grid-like systems and urban patterns are evident in the Indus Valley Civilisation (3300 BCE–1300 BCE), with an estimated population between one and five million inhabitants. From 3300 BCE to date, Cities have been the most integral part of the history, culture, and commerce of India. The Democratic India of the twenty-first century has very different political, economic, and environmental challenges and yet, the Cities are at the forefront of the opportunities and solutions. The ‘Science of Architecture’ and ‘Economics of Cities’ are embedded in the new paradigm of Smart Cities. But the underlying principles of the Smart Cities are no different than the Jaipur of 1727—about people, communities, commerce, and security, all in harmony with nature and the environment. The Smart Cities of today have strategic and competitive advantages for Urban India—Leapfrogging and Speed. The legacy infrastructures are one of the biggest liabilities for cities around the v

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world. Urban India has the advantage to leapfrog and focus on building future urban infrastructures. The technology and innovation, combined with the power of social media, allow Urban India to gain speed in delivering urban planning, operations, and services. The technology has also proven globally to remove the governance impediments and bring transparency and equity in cities. Smart Cities provide a timely opportunity for India in a coordinated effort between the People, Governments, and Businesses in developing Sustainable Cities for the future. The largest democracy in the world sets the new paradigm, that the government of the people, by the people, for the people, is reflected in Cities, where close to 7 billion people around the world are projected to live in urban areas. The opportunities of shared prosperity in Smart Cities are equally challenged by the capacities and the resourcing, where urban institutions at all levels have shared responsibilities in delivering Sustainable Cities for the future. Smart Cities in India aren’t just the embodiment of electronic innovations and fibre optics, rather the reflection of hope, freedom, and a better future enabled by technology and human endeavours. I wish the Institute every success in initiating the Smart Cities programme. I conclude with the words from Wolfgang Nowak from Alfred Herrhausen Society, If we want the city to remain the driving force behind the human development, we must reinvent it now; otherwise there is the risk that it will become the final stage of the human civilisation in the twenty-first century. Prof. Sunil Dubey Adjunct Faculty—Building Economics & RE Asset Management Institutional Advisor—Urban Innovation and Smart Cities The University of Sydney Sydney School of Architecture Design and Planning Darlington, Australia [email protected]

Prof. Sunil Dubey is a thought leader in urban innovation and connecting global cities through knowledge networks. He advised Metropolis World Association for over twelve years as a senior advisor. He teaches at the University of Sydney and currently works in NSW Govt in strategy, planning, and innovation.

Preface

The IPE Smart Cities and Sustainable Development publication presents case studies and research papers, focusing on technology, science, urban economy, culture, and environment. The four sections cover the conceptual background, urban attributes, and achievements of smart cities in India, changing aspects of economic and technological sourcing and selected studies from the Smart Cities programme and implementation challenges on the ground. The publication provides comprehensive literature on the various aspects of Smart Cities and reasons for Urban India. Various case studies presented in this book provide practical insight demonstrating the governance and technological challenges faced in implementing the programme at city levels. The comprehensive literature includes the interactions and competing priorities between competitiveness, capital, and sustainability while demonstrating an example of ‘Magarpatta’ near Pune, a mini city, where circular economy and sustainability is achieved through connecting living and working in community infrastructure and environment. The role of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is examined through the policy changes and impact on local communities and an assessment of energy mix is provided with the comparative reference of the foreign investments in renewable energy sources. A pressing case is presented for the adoption of online geodata repositories as advanced planning and management tools for Smart Cities in India. The publication, in totality, provides a good outline of the Smart Cities programme in India—Challenges and Opportunities, where institutions can play an important role in fulfilling the capacity and applied knowledge gaps through bringing national and international collaborations. This book reviews the structure, applications, technologies, governance, environmental sustainability, smart communities, gender space, and other related issues to smart cities. This book is divided into four sections. The first Part entails the Conceptual Background, Growth, and Development. This includes papers from Australia, China, South Africa, and India. The second Part represents a diversity of issues on smart cities covering the issues of Environmental sustainability, role of community, and Gender space. The third Part revolves around the Economic and technological issues and presents Case Studies concerning smart cities.

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This volume presents a holistic view of smart cities as it unfolds diverse issues relating to Smart Cities by the authors. Different innovative concepts such as digital governance, Polycentric Structures, Geo data Repositories, Geo web Services, and Advanced Geospatial Technologies in Smart City Planning, Urban Microclimatic Parameters, and Urban heat Islands would contribute to knowledge creation. The various approaches and methodologies adopted by the authors present an alternative approach to academicians, researchers, experts, and policy makers to assess the current and future status of smart cities. Hyderabad, India Hyderabad, India Hyderabad, India Hyderabad, India New Delhi, India New Delhi, India

Ram Kumar Mishra Ch Lakshmi Kumari P. S. Janaki Krishna Anupama Dubey R. B. Singh Sandeep Chachra

Acknowledgments This book arose from the work of all the paper contributors who are associated with the work relating to smart cities and sustainable development. We sincerely acknowledge all the professors, researchers, scientists, specialists, managers, administrators, and directors, without whose effort; this Volume could not have been possible. We also acknowledge the World Urban Campaign, ActionAid for their valuable contribution. We thank the Knowledge and Documentation Center, Institute of Public Enterprise for extending the support during the process of manuscript development.

Contents

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Smart Cities for Sustainable Development: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . Ram Kumar Mishra, Ch Lakshmi Kumari, P. S. Janaki Krishna, and Anupama Dubey

Part I

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Smart Cities: Conceptual Background, Growth and Development

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Monocentric City Plans to Polycentric Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chris Johnson

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Intelligent Communities—Towards a New Ontology of Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gregor H. Mews

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Digital Governance for Smart City and Future Community Building: From Concept to Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Peng Weibin, Fang Liuqing, and Lin Xiaojing

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Smart Cities or Smart People: The Role of Stakeholders to Achieve Integrative Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Attia Sahar, Ibrahim, and Asmaa

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Smart City Initiatives in Japan: Achievements and Remaining Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jun Yamashita

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Part II 7

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Smart Cities: A Dimensional Look

Smart Cities and Urban Deprived Communities: A Reflection on the Need to Re-think . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K. T. Suresh, Roshni Chakraborty, Andrew Lillywhite, and Louis Dexter

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Environmental Sustainability of Smart Cities: Cues from Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Vinita Pandey

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Linking Sustainability of Smart Cities to Education and Health: A Broad Study of Smart City Mission, India . . . . . . . . . 127 Daisy Singh

10 Celebration of Public Festivals Toward Sustainable Development: A Perceptual Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Shivkumar L. Biradar and Rima Hibare 11 Gendered Spaces: A Spatial Perspective to Women’s Fear of Violence and Smart Cities Rhetoric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Anushka Part III Economic and Technological Issues 12 Crowdsourcing for Sustainable Smart Cities and Their ICT Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 K. Bhavana Raj 13 Online Geodata Repositories, Geoweb Services and Emerging Geospatial Technologies for Smart City Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Harish Karnatak, Kamal Pandey, and V. Raghavaswamy 14 Assessment of Urban Microclimatic Parameters in Various Urban Landscape Settings Using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Hemant Bherwani, Suman Kumar, Anju Singh, and Rakesh Kumar 15 Foreign Investment in Energy—Mix: An Assessment of Sustainable Indian Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Aditi and Nalin Bharti 16 Understanding Economic Activities of SMART and AMRUT Cities of Telangana State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Ashok Kumar Lonavath and Karunakar Virugu Part IV Indian Smart Cities: Some Case Studies 17 Urban Heat Island (UHI) Assessment Using the Satellite Data: A Case Study of Varanasi City, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Sant Prasad and R. B. Singh 18 SWOT Analysis to Determine the Feasibility of Guwahati Smart City in North East India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Mijing Gwra Basumatary, Subhash Anand, and Usha Rani

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19 Smart City Surat: A Case Study for Urban Health System and Climate Resilience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 Suresh Kumar Rathi 20 Industrial Pollution and Soil Quality—A Case Study from Industrial Area, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India . . . . 327 Pushpanjali, K. L. Sharma, K. Venkanna, Josily Samuel, and G. Ravindra Chary 21 Analyzing Urban Extension and Land Use Changes in Kalimpong Municipality, West Bengal Using Remote Sensing and GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 Buddhadev Hembram and N. C. Jana 22 A Comparative Analysis of Emerging Water Consumption Pattern in Indian Smart Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 M. Maschendar Gaud and Anupama Dubey

Contributors

Aditi School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, Patna, India Subhash Anand Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, New Delhi, Delhi, India Anushka Public Policy and Management, Indian Institute of Management Calcutta, Kolkata, India Asmaa Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Mijing Gwra Basumatary Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, New Delhi, Delhi, India Nalin Bharti School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, Patna, India Hemant Bherwani CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India; Academy of Scientific and Industrial Research, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India Shivkumar L. Biradar Hirachand Nemchand College of Commerce, Solapur, India Roshni Chakraborty ActionAid Association, Delhi, India Louis Dexter ActionAid Association, Delhi, India Anupama Dubey Institute of Public Enterprise, Osmania University Campus, Hyderabad, India Buddhadev Hembram Department of Geography, The University of Burdwan, Burdwan, India Rima Hibare Hirachand Nemchand College of Commerce, Solapur, India Ibrahim Cairo University, Giza, Egypt

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N. C. Jana Department of Geography, The University of Burdwan, Burdwan, India P. S. Janaki Krishna Institute of Public Enterprise, Osmania University Campus, Hyderabad, India Chris Johnson Urban Taskforce, Sydney, Australia; Institute of Public Enterprise, Hyderabad, India Harish Karnatak Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun, India Rakesh Kumar CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India Suman Kumar Academy of Scientific and Industrial Research, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India Ch Lakshmi Kumari Institute of Public Enterprise, Osmania University Campus, Hyderabad, India Andrew Lillywhite ActionAid Association, Delhi, India Fang Liuqing College of Economics, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China Ashok Kumar Lonavath Department of Geography, University College of Science, Osmania University, Hyderabad, India M. Maschendar Gaud Institute of Public Enterprise, Osmania University Campus, Hyderabad, India Gregor H. Mews QUT Design Lab, Queensland University of Technology & Urban Synergies Group, Brisbane, Australia Ram Kumar Mishra Institute of Public Enterprise, Osmania University Campus, Hyderabad, India Kamal Pandey Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun, India Vinita Pandey Department of Sociology, Nizam College (Osmania University), Hyderabad, India Sant Prasad Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, New Delhi, Delhi, India Pushpanjali Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, India V. Raghavaswamy National Remote Sensing Centre, Balanagar, Hyderabad, India K. Bhavana Raj Institute of Public Enterprise, Hyderabad, Telangana, India Usha Rani Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, New Delhi, Delhi, India Suresh Kumar Rathi Indian Institute of Public Health, Public Health Foundation of India, Madhapur, Hyderabad, India

Contributors

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G. Ravindra Chary Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, India Attia Sahar Cairo University, Giza, Egypt Josily Samuel Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, India K. L. Sharma Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, India Anju Singh National Institute of Industrial Engineering, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India Daisy Singh Research Scholar, Department of Humanities and Social Science, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India R. B. Singh Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, New Delhi, Delhi, India K. T. Suresh ActionAid Association, Delhi, India K. Venkanna Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, India Karunakar Virugu Department of Geography, University College of Science, Osmania University, Hyderabad, India Peng Weibin Institute of Population Development and Health Governance, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China Lin Xiaojing College of Economics, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China Jun Yamashita Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

Chapter 1

Smart Cities for Sustainable Development: An Overview Ram Kumar Mishra, Ch Lakshmi Kumari, P. S. Janaki Krishna, and Anupama Dubey

Abstract Globally, cities are under enormous pressure due to burgeoning population growth, stranded economic reforms, and climatic distress. Realizing the need to cope up with these challenges, strong initiatives are being taken the world over, to make cities smart and sustainable. In this chapter, the authors synthesize the conceptual framework and contents of the various chapters detailed in the book. This chapter while dovetailing the national and international status of smart cities presents in a nutshell, the works presented in various chapters ranging from innovative concepts and technologies in smart city development to presenting a way forward. Although in developed countries urban development is very strong and systematic, in developing countries including countries like India, smart city development is faced by several challenges such as deferred investments, coordination of stakeholders at local, state, and central level, timelines, and displacement of funds toward rural infrastructure instead of urban infrastructure, etc. As a way forward, undeterred attention of policymakers is suggested for the successful development of cities that are smart and sustainable. Keywords Smart cities · Local bodies · Urban governance · Policymakers · Sustainable development

1.1 Background Globally, a substantial percentage of population is currently residing in the urban region because of the rapid urban growth, rural–urban migration, and burgeoning socio-economic divide. The rising urban load is creating abundant pressure on existing cities in using the available resources in a ‘Smart way’, and gradually leading toward a new concept known as ‘Smart Cities’. The term ‘smart’ is considered as synonymous with ‘Connected City’, ‘Resilient City’, ‘Intelligent community’ or ‘digital community’. Generally, inner operability, sustainability, city-wide R. K. Mishra · C. L. Kumari (B) · P. S. Janaki Krishna · A. Dubey Institute of Public Enterprise, Osmania University Campus, Hyderabad 500 007, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 R. K. Mishra et al. (eds.), Smart Cities for Sustainable Development, Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7410-5_1

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connectivity, security, effective transportation, and development of private/public partnerships are considered as the crucial components of a smart city. Smart cities caught fire a decade ago in North America and have spread to Europe over the past year ending in 2015. Definition of ‘smart cities’ is also applied rapidly in India. Although India’s current urban population of 31% produces 60% of the country’s GDP, the vast majority of its people live in the countryside. It is estimated that in the next fifteen years, urban India will contribute 75% of the country’s GDP. Today, much of the rural-to-suburban transition has occurred. because of the scarcity of rural land and increasing urban pressure, towns must be made more ‘smarter’. To make a ‘Smart City’ successful, it’s critical to incorporate key features such as competition, capital, and sustainability. Inclusive, effective, forward-looking cities should be able to provide good infrastructure such as clean water, sanitation, health care, and so on, but above all, they should have an open, non-restricted access to such amenities. They must draw significant investments. They must have open and honest business practices to operate socially, economically, and commercially. There are also safe and pleasant online and uncomplicated means for obtaining approvals for various citizen-oriented services. It is clear that the environment plays a critical role in keeping cities safe and green, and municipal and local governments need to reflect this as well. The impacts of urbanization and climate change are converging, threatening lives and progress in urbanized regions worldwide. At the same time, the concentration of human capital, infrastructure, industry, and culture in cities, has the potential to make cities center of attraction for social and economic good. In urban societies, resilience depends on slow-changing variables such as climate, land use, nutrient stocks, human values, and policies. A variety of factors ranging from increasing pollution leading to the deterioration of air, water and food quality, fixed subsidies that encourage unsustainable use of resources. Institutions that do not adequately respond to the needs of society can degrade the resilience of urban areas. In order to mitigate hazards, a climate-resilient smart city must have a focus on strong disaster-resistant infrastructure, policy, and response capacities. Thus, cities are the places of choice to live, on one hand, and on the other hand, they have become unliveable because of vicious urbanization issues and challenges of which climate change becoming the pressing problem. The paradigm shift of ‘Smart Cities’ changed from technology-centric to citizen-centric followed by environmental friendly. However, while Florida (2002) places importance on the rivalry between cities, Landry (2006) states that city officials should not focus on making the world’s best city but rather a strong local one. The discipline of urban governance has been very complex over the years, but it has recently been linked to other disciplines that are focused on creativity and technology. The fields of e-government and innovation are being integrated with the concept of urban governance to better realize this objective (Nam and Pardo 2011). Although in his book about innovative cities, Florida (2002) stresses the rivalry between cities from other cities around the world. The increased interconnectedness of individuals, houses, and traffic networks is one of the key characteristics of the modern city (Batty et al., 2012). It’s crucially important to consider how to create synergy between social structure and new technology during

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e-government studies over the last decade (Danziger et al. 1982; Fountain 2001). A range of different innovations has been tested to ensure government services are of better quality and increased in effectiveness. Zamblli et al. (2018) described how ubiquitous and mobile technologies help the urban environments to self-control, implement normal actions, and support city functions by providing real-time actuation, sensing, and computation. Various research studies used an examining model that incorporated neural networks and pair association to develop the smart growth strategy of the cities. Cities can learn a lot from the model, particularly in developing countries. It was observed that more thrust is needed in the big data-based urban environment, society, and sustainability (UESS) research. Thibault Werle and Rachid el Ameri (2021) reiterated the fact that smart city development is totally integrated with IoT solutions. However, the supplier landscape worldwide is struggling to work together hindering the exploitation of potential benefits and suggested inter-operability for seamless information exchange. What we are seeing in the current crises is that the social and technological issues are now intertwined and moving from the agency to citywide and even regional levels. Existing principles and theories are appropriate for use but must be improved upon to be applicable to urban experiences. Keeping the above dynamics in view the current book titled ‘Smart Cities for Sustainable Development’ is placed before the readers to present a better understanding about the smart cities and the various dimensions, issues, and challenges that are to be taken care of while developing them with a way forward.

1.2 Smart Cities for Sustainable Development: At a Glance This book is divided into four sections. The first section includes papers from Australia, China, South Africa, and India. The second section represents a diversity of issues on smart cities covering various aspects of environmental sustainability, the role of community, gender space, etc. The third section revolves around the economic and technological issues, and the fourth section is a notable compilation of different case studies in connection with the development of smart cities. These cases are presented by the authors who have fundamental and practical knowledge and gained experience in their respective domains by working many years in different locations. This book presents a holistic view of smart cities. Innovative concepts such as digital governance, polycentric structures, geo data repositories, geo web services, and advanced geospatial technologies in smart city planning, urban microclimatic parameters, urban heat islands were thoroughly discussed in this book which will add value toward the knowledge creation and development of the individuals and institutions working in this domain. The first section entails the conceptual background, growth, and development of smart cities, wherein the first chapter discusses the conceptual framework, issues, and challenges in developing smart cities that are sustainable and various aspects

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discussed by eminent authors that are presented in the book. The second chapter on monocentric city plans to polycentric structures elaborates the paradigm shift of smart cities in the current circumstances. The author echoed the fact that the COVID-19 pandemic will stimulate the rethinking of the shape and structure of cities. A likely post-pandemic model will be to restructure cities as being a cluster of mini cities where there is a much closer relationship between the people where they live and where they work. This will reduce travel times and the congestion that comes with this. This paper observed the traditional form of Indian cities and the role of geometry from ancient texts that gave structure to temples, towns, and cities. India’s capital city of New Delhi evolved as a series of separate city centers focused around the palace of the latest ruler to give a spider’s web of streets and boulevards that tied the parts together. The growing interest in the polycentric structuring of cities is examined including the cases of city plans from different parts of the world. The city of Sydney in Australia is a case study of a city becoming polycentric based on a new metro rail transport system. The Indian mini city of Magarpatta at Pune is examined as an illustration of a work/live structure that combined nature with a built-in environment. Finally, the paper promotes the polycentric approach to city planning as a realistic response to the COVID-19 pandemic that manages large cities as being a combination of many mini cities. In the Third Chapter, Gregor H. Mews emphasized the significance of communities in shaping smart cities. He observed that cities are becoming an integral part of the human conditions on a global scale. They hold the capacity to transform human life with increasing acceleration beyond what is possible. However, at the same time, the everyday life experiences of humans in cities have become increasingly complex. These experiences need to be understood in order to shape urban conditions and prevent consequent systems’ collapse. Of particular concern is the ability to achieve shared visions such as the New Urban Agenda and the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’s) in relation to the human-caused COVID-19 pandemic and associated setbacks. The dilemma is deeply rooted in the human condition; in the way how reality is being conceived, impacts our health, and solutions being offered to solve challenges in cities from a smart city perspective. Undoubtedly to achieve the SDG’s we need to undergo a transformational change. In order to resolve this dilemma, this contribution suggests urgently renegotiating our ontology of practice. This new ontology of practice embraces or may embrace the concept of Intelligent Communities which aligns ‘thinking’ with ‘doing’ and enables meaningful actions that enrich everyday life experiences in cities in a way that yet has to be collectively realized. The fourth Chapter titled ‘Digital Governance for Smart City and future community construction: from concept to application’ is contributed by WeibinPeng, Liuqing Fang, and Xiaojing Lin of China. The authors state that the interactions between technology, community, and citizens are the core of smart city development. With the increasing penetration of Internet applications, digital governance is advancing constantly. As the basic carrier of smart city, future community is the embodiment of urban sustainable development. To change the situation of single national governance, the Chinese government has begun to integrate the concept of smart city into

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community construction, actively using big data to explore the digitization of community governance over the past five years. In some central cities of eastern developed regions, digital technology and community governance are gradually integrated to improve grassroots governance through community digital empowerment. Based on Hangzhou, Zhejiang, this paper discusses the necessity of using digital ways to promote the theory intellectualization of grassroots governance; it expounds on the importance of future community in relation to a citizen’s production and living, especially while responding to public health emergencies (such as COVID-19), and proposals for achieving urban sustainable development. The sixth chapter contributed by Jun Yamashita, Faculty of Social and Cultural Studies, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan analyses the smart city initiatives in Japan by presenting the achievements and the pressing issues in connection with the development of smart cities in Japan. The second section of the book dovetails on a dimensional look of smart cities. The seventh chapter deals with an emerging concern of urban deprived communities in the existing smart cities in India by KT Suresh of ActionAid, India. The Author elucidates that for the first time in history, the majority of people on the planet live in urban areas. Urbanization is a ubiquitous phenomenon and India’s urban population is projected to grow to 600 million by 2030. Cities might be the engines of economic growth, but there is an urgent need to plan, not just for the accommodation of millions of people, but also an improved quality of life for all. Indian cities were not designed for the most vulnerable and provide constant reminders of the stark inequality in the country. With the increasing risk of climate-related catastrophes, our cities need to become resilient to natural hazards. India’s approach to urban development has typically comprised disparate attempts to upgrade infrastructure and invest in water, sanitation, utility, education, housing, etc. The Smart Cities Mission gives us the perfect opportunity to synthesize these different methods and integrate them into a plan that aims to build ‘smart’ cities which are sustainable and resilient while keeping in mind the need to democratize access to services and infrastructure in order to protect the most vulnerable. The eight Chapter authored by Vinita Pandey deals with the environmental sustainability of smart cities and cues based on the experiences of publication on garden cities. According to Pandey, India is expected to be home to seven megacities with a population above 10 million by 2030. Several innovations are taking place in the direction of making cities environmentally sustainable. Sir Ebenezer Howard is famous and acknowledged for his publication on Garden Cities of Tomorrow (1898). The publication is a description of a utopian city in which people amicably reside in harmony with nature. The idea of the garden city evolved as an effective response to ensure good quality of life in overcrowded and dirty industrial towns, the environs of which have deteriorated and posed serious health risks. There is a need to understand the various facets of garden city and adopt them in contemporary urban planning in the Indian context. Thus, the paper based on a review of literature endeavors to present various aspects of garden city and how they can be adopted by contemporary urban planners to make city life relatively pollution free and provide green and safe public spaces as envisaged in Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2030.

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Ninth Chapter authored by Daisy Singh, India, correlates the sustainability of smart cities to education and health. Based on an extensive review of literature and reports on smart city initiatives, this chapter is essentially focused on understanding the need and importance of human capital for inclusion and sustainability. A review of 10 smart cities proposals under the ‘Smart City Mission’ of the Government of India showed that the scores of education and health care have considerable influence on the composite scores of the cities, demonstrating the resulting influence of the sectors on human capital generation, and thus help in the sustainable development of smart cities. The finding suggests that in addition to the development of physical infrastructure, inclusiveness, and sustenance, the smart city mission requires an adequate emphasis on the development of social infrastructure particularly in respect of education and health care. India has a rich culture and tradition of celebration of diversified festivals with belief and faith. It helps to inculcate cultural and traditional values in the new generation. Nowadays the nature of celebration of public festivals has changed significantly; now public festivals are celebrated on a mass basis in a contesting way. The present nature of celebration of public festivals has socio-environmental implications in society. The tenth chapter is a unique assessment of the celebration of public festivals in Solapur, which is a perceptual study conducted by Shivkumar L Biradar and Rima Balkrushna Hibare, India. The paper aims to understand the perception and purpose of celebrating public festivals and the existing nature of celebration of public festivals in Solapur across demographic variables and its socio-environmental issues. It is found that there is a need to change the approach toward celebration of public festivals. It should be celebrated in an eco-friendly, healthy, and peaceful manner. Public space is gendered, where men have better access at all times of the day, while women have to have a purpose for their legitimate access to public spaces. City planning and public services are responsible for violence and intimidation faced by urban women, especially poor transportation and street-lighting make them more vulnerable. What indicates all this is that the fear of crime is continuously modifying a woman’s spatial realities. The eleventh chapter on ‘Gendered Spaces: A spatial perspective of women’s fear of violence’ contributed by Anushka, India, discussed the gender aspects with respect to smart cities. This paper, through a critical review of literature related to gender and urban planning, attempts to suggest directions for the planning of ‘inclusive cities’ respectful to the specific needs of women, which can contribute to reducing violence and enhancing safety for women. The third section of the book extensively discusses the economic and technological issues pertaining to smart cities. Structures, as well as social, economic, and technological barriers of cities since the advancement of the ICT industry, tends to disregard, thus mischaracterize certain legacies, traditions, beliefs, and histories. Both social and technical and economic shifts have caused a rise in the demand for modernization services, and the emergence of ICT (Internet of Things) and IOT (Internet of Things), so businesses are being hit by these in succession. ICT enabled cities to be more effective, safer, more inclusive, more prosperous, and more sustainable, while still protecting the cities’ cultural assets. Culture is at the heart of modern

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smart cities, and not only serves as a tool to implement engineering initiatives but also obtaining creative and/suggestion input from multiple individuals or groups. This paper describes crowdsourcing for sustaining smart cities and their ICT practices and is contributed by K Bhavana Raj, India. Technological development is the base of ‘Smart Mission Plan’ in India. Harish Karnatak, Kamal Pandey, and Raghavaswamy presented the geo-web services and advanced geospatial technologies in smart city planning in the tenth chapter. Currently, fast and innovative advances in data processing, an internet- and broadband-based paradigm shift in data generation, distribution, and sharing has occurred in the field of geospatial data and information. Several online location-based databases and geographic web services are now making various data collection and access possible for the public. Geospatial innovations that use creative data collection, sharing, and access techniques are making a big impact on the public sphere. Today, the users are applying internet platforms such as spatial querying, visualizing geospatial, and using 3D modeling and complex computations for decisionmaking in VR. Many organizations and individuals have developed world-changing geographic information-focused digital applications for use in open data platforms. Spatial knowledge and databases provide a computational-based methodology for city planning. The geospatial data from online geo-data repositories, web services, crowdsourcing through POI (Points of Interest), APIs, and mobile apps are being extensively used by GIS professionals and researchers in the country. Integration of advanced technologies, Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML), and Deep Learning (DL), Internet of Things (IoT)-based Smart sensors, Digital Twin (DT), and Geo-Intelligence can play a significant role in the development of smart data solutions. The concept of self-sustainable city or smart city is being implemented by various countries for providing smart citizen services. The smart city mission by the Indian government is developing 100 cities across the country in an effort to provide smart solutions to area-based city planning. Location intelligence is an integral part of the development of smart city mission. The smart sensors will provide location and seamless data using a sensor network that can be integrated with geospatial technology for better decision-making and planning. Emerging technologies like Digital Twin with Geo-Intelligence allow modelling simulated scenarios of complex spatial problems for arriving at possible solutions in smart city planning. Hemant Bherwani, Suman Kumar, Anju Singh, and Rakesh Kumar from India presented an assessment of urban microclimatic parameters in various urban landscape settings using computational fluid dynamics as a tool in the fourteenth chapter. Urbanization is happening at a great pace throughout the world. On one hand, the quality of life is improving through better job opportunities, better standard of living, but the environment in which people live is suffering due to increased pollution and extreme weather events. Recent advances in the field of urban science have created a focus on urban microclimate. Microclimate refers to the local climatic conditions of the city which are peculiar in nature and are distinct as compared to the surrounding environment. Cities are generally a few degrees warmer than their surroundings because of higher absorption of solar radiation due to the use of high heat capacity materials. In addition, the flow of the wind is obstructed leading to lesser dissipation

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of heat. Further, the green/open and water bodies also play a vital role in the overall energy and mass balance of the city, leading to reduced quality of the microclimate of the city. The paper discusses the evaluation of microclimatic parameters like wind speed, temperature, solar insolation using computational fluid dynamics as a tool. This study focuses on the variation in local climate characteristics in different urban landscapes. The study shows that urban green spaces, water sources, proper planning of the building and roads, materials help in improving urban climate which is crucial for sustainable development. The fifteenth chapter contributed by Nalin Bharti and Aditi Singh from India, deals with the restructuring of India’s energy sector. As a part of this initiative, secondary energy is generated from a blend of primary resources, such as coal and natural gas, and is converted into direct energy, i.e., electricity. Hence, the study tries to conceptually rectify the relevance of investment in renewable energy for triggering energy efficiency in developing sustainable cities in India through a content analysis method of various government and international organizations reports like IEA, NITI Aayog, World Bank, TERI institute report, etc. Further, an overview of government policies, FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) inflows on PPP framework, and cases of some foreign countries are also provided with a few recommendations in devising a robust energy policy for Indian cities. The sixteenth chapter presented by Ashok Kumar Lonavath and KarunakarVirugu, India, elaborates the economic activities of smart cities in Telangana. This chapter examines the changing patterns of economic activities of Hyderabad, Warangal, and Nizamabad towns in Telangana state from 1961 to 2011. The statistical tool used to find out the concentration of each economic activity in these cities is the Standard Deviation (SD) method. SD from the mean was, therefore, calculated for each economic activity of all the three cities and kept under appropriate categories. When this method is applied to smart cities, some cities showed more than one economic activity in outstanding proportions. In the fourth section, informative case studies on Indian smart cities were narrated by renowned authors. The seventeenth chapter is a case study about Varanasi city and explains about the assessment of Urban Heat Island (UHI) using the Satellite Data in Varanasi city, India, and was contributed by Sant Prasad and R B Singh, India. UHI was previously considered an anomaly due to human activities, it was found to be a part of the city that was unusually warm in the urban environment. For the past decade, Varanasi has been suffering from exponential growth. For this research, Landsat 8 satellite data of March and May 2018 was used to examine the effects of UHI in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. For this research, Landsat 8 satellite data of March and May 2018 was used to examine the effects of UHI in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. An algorithm was used to retrieve the LST distribution, along with normalized difference between vegetation index and normal vegetation image (NDVI) and normal land accumulation index (NDBI) were obtained Additionally, LST, NDVI, and NDBI were examined to investigate the potential effect on vegetation and built-up areas in green areas. As a result, the effects of UHI in Varanasi City are located mainly in suburban areas.

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Also, the study shows that a negative correlation between LST and NDVI suggests that a green area can reduce the effect of UHI, while a positive correlation between LST and NDBI indicates that the built-up land increases the effect of the UHI within the study area. The seventeenth chapter contributed by B. Srinagesh and K. Sudarshan, India, analyses the urban infrastructure and sustainability which is a comparative study of some smart cities of Telangana. Authors in this paper specify that in the decision of investors to locate in a city, the presence of infrastructure facilities is always a major factor. In order to ensure the successful running of the economy, comprehensive and productive infrastructure is crucial since it is a significant factor in deciding the position of economic activity and the kinds of activities or sectors that will grow in a specific case. In the modern digital age, the use of technology can lead to better manufacturing, higher performance, mobility, and usability, the factors that improve competitiveness. Therefore, the information and communication technology (ICT) and preparedness of the government is critical. Cities and large towns, in particular, are hubs of economic development, drawing investment and resources from their surroundings, clusters, and the provinces in which they are located. In general, smart city does things like enhancing transport and accessibility, reinforcing social care, fostering sustainability. Telangana has 3 smart cities, viz; Hyderabad, Warangal, and Karimnagar that have several infrastructural shortcomings. The paper aims at a comparative study of these three smart cities in terms of infrastructural facilities that includes the road network, the distance from the city to various points of entry, the amount of visitor accommodation facilities, basic services, and infrastructures like water and electricity availability, connection to ICT (Internet Service Providers, etc.) number of public transport vehicles, health, and educational infrastructure and access to ATM’s. The eighteenth chapter is an ideal case study drafted by Mijing Gwra Basumatary, Subhash Anand, and Usha Rani, India. This study entails a SWOT Analysis to determine the feasibility for Guwahati Smart City. The data collected through primary and secondary sources has been categorized into strength, weakness, opportunity, and threat for the city. It has been found that Guwahati city is highly feasible for the smart city. The strength of the city is its strategic location, numerous educational centers and institutions, medical facilities, affordable rent houses, recreational places and natural water bodies, the Brahmaputra River, and numerous small streams, heritage, and Culture. The cities need to develop into a regional hub for education, IT, and ecotourism destination. Urban Expansion/Urban sprawl, rising vehicular population, sewage, and pollution finding its way into this stormwater drainage, earthquake zone, underground water depletion, theft, disappearing of small enterprises are the main threats of the city. The main problem in the city is its sanitation facilities. When it comes to public health, the city’s technology is very primitive. In the rainy season, the biggest threat is flash flooding and landslides. While this issue is short-spanned during the monsoon season, it causes extensive losses for both life and property. Traffic is growing as with the recent rise in vehicles on the roads. The key reason for traffic problems is that there is not enough room on the narrow roads and not enough parking. More than a third of the road is taken up by parked cars, but the

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other two-thirds is reserved for residential, commercial, and delivery vehicles. Water supply to the part of the city gets affected during the rainy season, from April to June, but this issue can be solved by piping water from the Brahmaputra River because the city has the capacity to dig it out of the ground during that time. The nineteenth chapter on ‘Smart City Surat: A case study for urban health system and climate resilience’ raises the health issue in connection with Smart City. Flooding the city would be seen as having a significant impact on its health because of urbanization and global warming. The possible interventions in the form of integrated operational resilience action plan are developed. The twentieth chapter discusses Industrial Pollution and Soil Quality: A case study from industrial area, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India. As per the authors, the environmental and industrial emissions are both equally deplorable and have the potential to decrease both human and agricultural productivity. Rapid industrialization leads to a substantial increase in the generation of industrial wastes leading to contamination of air, water, and soil. The pollution of soils by heavy metals has a major impact on the production and the quality of food. The authors investigated some physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil around Hindustan Zinc (HZ) and agricultural fields in the most polluted areas of Vishakhapatnam, India. Paddy was chosen as the main cash crop to be grown in this location because of fallow soil nearby and non-exposure to effluents. These samples were obtained from areas such as paddy field where the effluents were not present. Results show that the soil quality of both fallow and agricultural land near Hindustan Zinc limited are severely affected by the effluent coming out of the industry and require immediate attention for the benefit of the people living in this area. The twenty-first chapter analyzes the urban extension and land use changes in Kalimpong Municipality using Remote Sensing and GIS and is contributed by Buddhadev Hembram and N C Jana, India. In this study, urban growth in the Kalimpong Municipality area is analyzed spatiotemporally using remote sensing and population change from 1991 to 2015. The objectives of this study are: (i) identifying the major land use changes in the Kalimpong Municipality area from 1995 to 2015, and (ii) study the pace of urban growth and its demographic change in the municipality from 1991 to 2011. Multi-temporal satellite images were used during the study period to identify and extract changes in land cover classes. Results show that the land cover classes with significant changes are the built-up land and the tea garden, with the former steadily increasing and the latter steadily decreasing. The twenty-second Chapter deals with the water aspects of cities. The study has been conducted with the objectives of analyzing the status of water availability toward agriculture and domestic uses, studying the socio-economic conditions of the farmers, analyzing the revenue, cost, and profit in the production of selected crops, the cropping pattern of the farmers and the factors influencing the shift in the cropping pattern, looking at the water resources and the impact of water scarcity on the production of crops in the study area.

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1.3 Conclusion and Way Forward ‘Smart City’ concept in India was initiated two decades before and formally ‘Smart City Mission’ was established in 2014. InIndia, initially, technological development was given prime importance but gradually many ambiguities drew the attention of policymakers to contemplate other issues. Critical gaps in the regulation of Smart City Mission were identified such as the mission limited to few large cities, delays in investments, coordination among the local, state and central government during the project implementation, timely completion of projects, and de allocation location of funds toward rural infrastructure instead of urban infrastructure. In addition to this, social and environmental issues in India, such as informality, absorption of migrants, inclusiveness, sustainable urbanization, green space, gender space, disaster resilience, livelihood guarantee, citizen’s participation in decision-making, and the enhanced role of intangible connectivity and innovation of technology are being considered as the subdomains of smart city development. The draft on ‘Climate Smart Cities’ was released in 2019 as an assessment of smart cities development. The major areas of concern are the responsibility of local bodies, air, water, waste, urban governance, energy, and green buildings. During the course, it was observed that instead of focusing on massive and high-tech investment, it is essential to focus on important issues such as health which has become a major area of concern. It was also felt that there is a need for strong coordination and micro-level planning involving all the stakeholders from bottom to top in order to include and resolve the emerging issues. However, investment is the base of smart city development and unless India receives huge funding from corporate and international donors to transform the existing cities into smart cities, Central or State Governments alone will not be able to bring the required changes. Smart cities are built on the pillars of sustainability; they try to build resilient cities and provide investments, livelihood guarantees, water, energy, transport, and built-in grievance redressal system. Also, there is a need to develop the fringe areas with basic resources to pull migration and sustain the migrants into their working places. Innovative methods for the proper implementation of land use planning are essential. Poverty, social inequality, occupational hazards, environmental concerns, namely availability of clean air, health and hygiene, absence of land use patterns are the greatest challenges. Municipalities in India should play a crucial role. Municipalities are very strong and well developed in countries like Germany and South Africa, because of which, urban development is very systematic. India needs to focus on strengthening the municipalities. It is pertinent to have a data-driven economy to reach the goals of smart cities. Successful regulation of smart cities is depending upon the availability of data. Therefore, data transparency and data availability are considered as two pillars of planning. The feedback should be collected from citizens of the region before and after creating any policy in connection with their native places, because smart communities are the main driving force of a smart city. People occupy space in the urban environment, so they should be accounted for decision-making process too.

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References Batty M, Axhausen KW, Giannotti F, Pozdnoukhov A, Bazzani A, Wachowicz M, Ouzounis G, Portugali Y (2012) Smart cities of the future. Eur Phys J 214:481–518 Danziger JN, Dutton WH, Kling R, Kraemer KL (1982) Computers and politics. Columbia University Press, New York Florida R (2002) The rise of the creative class: and how it’s transforming work, leisure, community and everyday life. Perseus Book Group, New York Fountain JE (2001) Building the virtual state: information technology and institutional change. The Brookings Institute, Washington, DC Kim B, Yoo M, Park KC, Lee KR, Kim JH (2021) A value of civic voices for smart city: a big data analysis of civic queries posed by seoul citizens. Cities 108 Kong L, Liu Z, Wu J (2020) A systematic review of big data-based urban sustainability research: state-of-the science and future directions. J Clean Prod 273 Landry C (2006) The art of city making. Routledge, London Nam T, Pardo TA (2011) Smart city as urban innovation: focusing on management, policy, and context. In: Proceedings of the 5th international conference on theory and practice of electronic governance, pp 185–194 Pierre J (2011) The politics of Urban Governance. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Scharp Urban Aff Rev 34(3):372–396 Pierre J(1999) Models of urban governance: the institutional dimension of urbanpolitics Thibault Werle, Rachid el Ameri (2021) Three steps for smart cities to unlock their full IoT potential. https://gulfbusiness.com/three-steps-for-smart-cities-to-unlock-their-full-iot-potential/ Zambonelli F, Salim F, Loke SW, De Meuter W, Kanhere S (2018) Algorithmic governance in smart cities: the conundrum and the potential of pervasive computing solutions. IEEE Technol Soc Mag 37(2):80–87

Part I

Smart Cities: Conceptual Background, Growth and Development

Chapter 2

Monocentric City Plans to Polycentric Structures Chris Johnson

Abstract The COVID-19 Pandemic will stimulate a rethink of the shape and structure of cities. A likely post-pandemic model will be to restructure cities as being a number of mini cities where there is a much closer relationship between where people live and where people work. This will reduce travel times and the congestion that comes with this. This paper will examine the traditional form of Indian cities and the role of geometry from ancient texts that gave structure to temples, towns and cities. Finally, the paper will promote the polycentric approach to city planning as a realistic response to the COVID-19 pandemic that manages large cities as being a combination of many mini cities. Keywords Polycentric cities · Traditional Indian city patterns · Mini cities · Walkable cities

2.1 Introduction India’s capital city of New Delhi evolved as a series of separate city centres focussed around the palace of the latest ruler to give a spider’s web of streets and boulevards that tied the parts together. The growing interest in the polycentric structuring of cities will be examined including case studies of city plans from different parts of the world. The city of Sydney in Australia is a case study of a city becoming polycentric based on a new metro rail transport system. The Indian mini city of Magarpatta at Pune will be examined as an example of a work/live structure that combines nature with a built environment.

C. Johnson (B) Urban Taskforce, Sydney, Australia Institute of Public Enterprise, Hyderabad, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 R. K. Mishra et al. (eds.), Smart Cities for Sustainable Development, Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7410-5_2

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2.2 Indian City Patterns from Traditions Indian architecture and city planning evolved from early texts that used geometry to give order to the built form. A good example is the temple town of Trichy in Southern India where the Sri Ranganathaswami Temple, located in the nearby town of Srirangam, becomes a mini city with seven walls that surround the inner sanctum. Dedicated to the Indian god Vishnu, the living history of the temple can be traced back over one thousand years. The temple and the city combine as a place for people to live, worship, trade, promenade and meet. At the time of the 1961 census, 42,000 people lived inside the walls (Fig. 2.1). The Sri Ranganathaswami Temple’s plan comes from a vast body of Sanskrit references on architecture that led to the Vastu Sashtra—the science of building— and from the science of building, the most applicable mechanism for the architecture of houses, temples or even whole cities was the Vastu Purusha Mandala. This was a square pattern divided into a number of sub-squares of an even or an odd breakdown. Most drawings of the mandala show a strange twisted form of an old man fitting into the square mandala. In an article on the Wisdom of the Ancients, Madhu Khanna outlined the myth behind the strange diagram. ‘The myth proclaims the victory of order over chaos, good over evil and light over darkness. The narrative of Vastu Purusha is recounted in the Matsya Purana. A drop of sweat, a condensation of Shiva’s fury trickled to the ground and assumed the form of a gigantic demon. Ugly and fierce, torn with ravenous hunger the demon

Fig. 2.1 Sri Ranganathaswami Temple with multiple enclosing walls. Source Phamplet given to author

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rose to devour the whole earth and covered it like a veil. All existence came to a stop. Distressed and frantic to save the world all the gods assembled their strength and pressed him down into the earth. They sat over his body and honed him to the ground. The earth was saved, the sky pegged in place at the four corners of the earth. Thereupon the gods were assigned their special functions over it.’1 The old man represents the ugly demon and the mandala grid the gods containing the demon. There are 32 versions of the mandala that can be used in particular circumstances with the simplest being a single square with no subdivisions; the largest has 1,024 subdivisions or padas; and the most sacred are the eight divisions giving 64 padas or the nine divisions giving 81 padas. When planning a town or a village, the Shastri, the architect/builder, has to decide which of the mandalas is appropriate. The ancient texts seem to prefer a square plan for a city with each unit of the subdivisions being for a particular professional group or even for various caste groups. The city of Jaipur in Rajasthan is the best example of a mandala city. The layout of Jaipur occurred during the Moghal rule in the eighteenth century but the Hindu tradition seems to have been carried on. It is a square of nine padas, but the north-western corner could not be accommodated due to rugged hills, so the ninth square was placed outside the grid to the south-east. Hindu writers of Indian history, such as Prabhakar Begde, believe that Shahjahanabad in Delhi was also laid down according to ancient Indian town planning manuals and was not primarily a Moghal design. Certainly, the design of the Red Fort—and of the surrounding city—has many of the geometrical orders evocative of the Vastu Purusha Mandala. Begde describes the palace at Delhi as being: …planned strongly according to the principles laid down in the Shilpa Shastras and if at all the European historians and archaeologists tried to find some Persian influence in the planning and architecture of these palaces it is mainly because of their lack of study in the field of the ancient Indian treatises on architecture.2

Another writer on Indian Architecture, E. B, Havell, has also criticised non-Indian authors like James Fergusson in his 1891 History of Indian and Eastern Architecture book for overly crediting the influence of Moghal architecture and planning principles in India. Havell also described how the planning of a typical Indian village comes from the Hindu Shilpa-Sastras and included a series of typical plans to explain this. ‘The general planning of the larger villages followed that of the cosmic cross and the so called magic square, representing the four corners of the universe; but the reader must not misunderstand this association of mysticism with the practical business of the Indian craftsman. The long streets were laid out on an easterly axis, which ensured that morning and evening sun swept through them. The shorter streets running north and south provided a perfect circulation of air and cool breezes.’3 While the Vastu Purusha Mandala and its variations were used in planning cities and villages in the capital in 1911, the British moved governance from Calcutta to Delhi to reflect the Moghal influence on that city and a fascinating overlay of various mini centres developed.

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2.3 Delhi as a Case Study of a Multi Centred City Delhi is well known for its seven cities ranging over a period of a thousand years and incredibly each of these cities is in a different location. Each version of the city was not built on the footings of the previous city but was deliberately set up in a new location where a new leader can demonstrate his grand vision. Y. D. Sharma in his book Delhi and its Neighbourhood defined the seven cities of Delhi as Qila Raipithora 1193; Siri 1303; Tughlaqabad 1321; Jahanpanah 1326; Kotaloa Firoz Shar (Firozabad) 1351; Purana Qila; 1530; Shajahanabad 1648.4 Other publications extend the seven cities to seventeen with the addition of Indraprastha from 1450 BC–350 AD, Surajkund of 1024 AD and of course New Delhi in 1911 amongst others. R. G. Irving includes all seventeen in his book Indian Summer: Lutyens, Baker and Imperial Delhi.5 His map clearly shows the different locations of each of these imperial centres in the triangle between the Aravalli Range and the Jumna River. Together they define a multi centred city with the geometry that radiates out from each centre creating a complex spider’s web pattern across the landscape. Two of the cities are worth looking at in more detail and they are Shahjahanabad and New Delhi (Fig. 2.2). The plan of the city of Shahjahanabad is certainly not an accident.6 Any analysis of the early maps of the city shows evidence of a very strong geometry and order, Fig. 2.2 Lahore gate of Shajahaanabad is on axis with the main street of the city. Source Drawing by author

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for example, if the various lines of this geometry are projected to one point, we end up in the middle of the palace. The power of Emperor Shahjahan and the control over his city has driven the layout focussed on the Emperor’s throne. Shahjahan could command the view from his throne to the grand entry gate and beyond. Unfortunately, protocol demanded that after an audience subjects would have to walk backwards paying their respects to the Shah until they reached the palace gate and possibly a further 1.5 kms along the main city street of Chandni Chowk. Fortunately, a barbican wall was constructed at the Lahore Gate to screen the palace itself. At right angles to this east–west axis is another major circulation system that begins in the palace as a north–south bazaar. With a central canal, this boulevard leads towards the palace gate to the south and continues down a major street called the Faiz Bazaar which leads out to the Delhi Gate on the edge of the city. Both of these wide streets had water canals down the centre and concluded at two major city gateways to the outside world. As well as the axis transferring from the palace to the surrounding city, the geometric patterns of squares, gardens and even the hierarchy of where trades occurred (or people of status lived) also carried from the palace to the city outside. The overall city plan reflected both Hindu and Islamic influences with the cosmic cross of the Hindu Shilpah-Sastras anchoring the plan and the Persian approach to garden courtyards overlaid on this. Shahjahanabad was not just the bones defined by streets but had a continuous flow of water pumping through its veins in the form of the canals. Water was sourced upstream from the Jumna River and channelled through the city walls at the Kabuli Gate. While the two major thoroughfares anchored the city around the presence of the ruler, the external gates took on the names of the important towns and cities relevant to the capital. In the north was the Kashmiri Gate, then the Kabuli Gate, the Lahori Gate, the Ajmeri Gate and finally the Delhi Gate connecting to the old city to the south. In her book Indian Maps from the Earliest Times to the Advent of European Surveys Susan Gole presents plans and elevations of Chandi Chowk drawn around 1762 showing the central canal and the significant buildings that lined the street. Similar drawings from 1754 illustrated Faiz Bazaar as an equally impressive street.7 The impressive formality and structure of Shahjahanabad became the setting for an important announcement in Delhi by the King of England on December 12, 1911. The city had increased in population by three-quarters of a million people for the occasion. The King then spoke to the crowd: ‘We are pleased to announce to Our People that on the advice that our Ministers tended after consultation with Our Governor General in Council, we have decided upon the transfer of the seat of the Government of India from Calcutta to the ancient capital of Delhi.’8 This announcement led to the need for a new plan for Delhi that established a new centre of government. As has happened so many times earlier a new site had to be found and a committee was established that included the architect Edwin Lutyens. Two other architects also became involved, one being Henry Lancaster and Herbert Baker. Between the three of them a design evolved on a site south of Shahjahanabad with various schemes connecting an axis with the Jama Masjid and Safrajang’s tomb with the new street layout. The British designers were keen to weave the new

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Fig. 2.3 India Gate and Lutyens Canopy define the major axis of New Delhi. Source Drawing by author

capital into the main monuments of previous city centres. Ultimately, a final plan evolved that incorporated a series of equilateral triangles and hexagons that Lutyens believed came from the Governor General’s request to have avenues leading to the Purana Qila and to the Jama Masjid in Shahjahanabad. So New Delhi reflected the diagrams of early Hindu towns with their cosmic cross formations. New Delhi has the Kingsway (Rajpath) and at right angles to this is the Queensway (Janpath). New Delhi has added yet another centre of governance to its planning form to continue traditions. This multi centred, polycentric approach to the structure of large cities is now becoming popular across the world (Fig. 2.3).

2.4 The Theory and Research Around Polycentric Cities Many urbanists and planning experts have written extensively about the form and structure of cities. There is a general consensus that the world is becoming more

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urbanised with projections by the United Nations that 68% of the world’s population will be living in urban areas by 2050.9 This is a big jump from the 55% living in urban areas in 2018. The impact of this urban growth is that most cities will become larger leading to more megacities and these cities will need to rethink their longterm planning strategies. A growing number of urban commentators are supporting restructuring of large cities into a network of smaller cities. The term ‘polycentric’ has been coined by planners to describe this new shape of large cities and urban areas. An important publication on this new approach to cities is The Polycentric Metropolis— Learning from Mega-City Regions in Europe by Peter Hall and Kathy Pain.10 Hall and Pain outline the POLYNET project funded by the European Commission to examine eight polycentric mega-city regions (MCR) across Europe. The research examined the MCRs of Southeast England with the network of city centres around London, the Randstad of interconnected Dutch cities, the network of city centres around Paris amongst other urban networks. The polycentric structure seems to be evolving from two directions. One is of a series of separate cities that grow together into an MCR and the other is of large sprawling urban areas developing new employment hubs that become mini cities.

2.4.1 Hall and Pain Explain the New Trend ‘A new phenomenon is emerging in the most highly urbanised parts of the world: the polycentric mega-city region (MCR). It arises from a long process of very extended decentralisation from big central cities to adjacent smaller ones, old and new. ….. These places exist both as separate entities, in which most residents work locally and most workers are local residents, and as parts of a wider functional urban region (FUR) connected by dense flows of people and information carried along motorways, high-speed rail lines and telecommunication cables.’11 Hall and Pain while focussing on European examples refer to a similar growing trend in Asian cities with specific examples being the Pearl River Delta and the Yangtze River Delta regions of China where networks of urban centres are interacting as co-ordinated economic systems. An interesting European example is the Randstad in Holland, where the city centres of Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Dordrecht, The Hague, Leiden, Utrecht and Amersfoort link together in a horseshoe-shaped urban area around a rural area called the ‘Green Heart’. The Randstad measures about 70 km by 75 km and houses around 6.6 million people. At the end of 2004, the region included 12 cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants and another 12 cities with between 70,000 and 100,000 people. The Randstad contains 45% of Dutch employment and has the international gateways of Schiphol Airport and Rotterdam seaport. It contains 54% of the jobs in business services and some city centres have specialised in certain jobs like Utrecht which is a focus for design engineering and for management consultancy firms. The individual city centres are well connected by fast train corridors and a dense network of road corridors. The POLYNET study looked at connectivity through

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office networks and inter-office linkages and found that there was a strong regional interconnectivity in the Ranstad.12 Another interesting example of a polycentric network of city centres is the Pearl River Delta in China, where Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Dongguan, Guangzhou, Foshan and Macau interact as a network of city centres. Andrew Ness of CBRE Research Asia has outlined three megacity regions in China including the Pearl River Delta (PRD), the Yangtze River Delta (YRD) and the Greater Beijing Economic Region (GBER) as being critical to China’s economy. In a publication titled Connecting Cities: China for the Metropolis organisation, Ness describes the rise of the PRD. ‘The success of the first priority region, the Pearl River Delta (PRD) was far beyond expectations. Tremendous waves of investment, first from Hong Kong and Taiwan and then from every major global economy, poured into the region, transforming farming communities into factory boom towns, Shenzhen, a fishing village morphed into a mega-city of ten million boasting China’s highest per capita GDP.’13 The CBRE Research Asia state that the Yangtze River Delta (YRD) is recognised as the most competitive region in mainland China based around the financial centre of Shanghai. Sixteen cities in the YRD generated 18.9% of China’s GDP from just one percent of the country’s land mass and only 6% of the population. These examples of the interaction of a number of city centres to become mega-city-regions demonstrate the economic gains that can come from a polycentric model of urban areas.

2.5 Sydney as a Case Study The New South Wales Government in Australia established a Greater Sydney Commission (GSC) to produce a plan for Sydney’s growth as the city grew past 5 million people. The plan proposed a 40-year vision for the city based on a polycentric model of three cities. One was the Eastern Harbour City which is the current urban centre. This was balanced by the Central River City based on the west at Parramatta and the Western Parkland City around the site of a proposed second airport located even further to the west. The aim of the GSC is to create 30-min cities where the community has access to jobs and services in three self-contained but connected urban centres. While the concept is one worth aiming for the reality could make this difficult. Currently, only 15% of jobs in Metropolitan Sydney are located in the traditional Eastern city with the remaining 85% scattered around in weaker secondorder centres and in smaller precincts. A more realistic approach is likely to be one that develops around 20 urban centres in a truly polycentric structure. To test this approach in a previous role as CEO of Urban Taskforce Australia, I undertook a research project to focus on new growth in key centres located at major rail stations. At the time of the research, in 2014, Sydney’s population was expected to increase by 1.6 million people over the next 20 years requiring 664,300 new homes. Over a 50 year period, 1.66 million new homes will be required which is the same number that currently exists in Sydney, So Sydney must double the number of homes over a 50 year period. The metropolitan area of Sydney is already extensively driven by

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Fig. 2.4 Three options for distributing growth in Sydney, Australia. Source Urban ideas, september 2014

low rise, two storey suburban housing, but this has led to excessive commute times to jobs. Therefore, the GSC proposed having three centres in its plans, but clearly, jobs are distributed across more centres than three. To open up a discussion on growth options, we proposed three options for where the new homes would go if the cities number of homes doubled. Option one was to double the urban footprint, option two was to double the density of all of the existing city and option three was to locate growth around major centres (Fig. 2.4). Option one assumes the existing city continues to live in the way it is currently living and that the city boundaries are expanded to accommodate the new growth. Sydney is located on the coast next to the Pacific Ocean, so the expansion would be mainly to the west. The difficulty is that there is a mountain range to the west and there are large national parks to the north and to the south. While there is some opportunity for fringe growth, this is minimal and certainly not sufficient to accommodate 1.66 million new homes. Option two was to double the density across all of the existing urban footprints. Most of Sydney’s metropolitan area is currently low density, two storey, suburban houses with large gardens. This gives a lifestyle that many families are very happy with. To double the density in these suburban streets would mean building three storey apartments as well as terrace houses. Much of the landscape would be lost and there would be far more cars on the streets. Existing communities are very much against change with action groups like ‘Save Our Suburbs’ fighting any loss of amenity from more density in the suburbs. Option three responds to the growing preference by many people to live in more bustling cosmopolitan environments where apartment living dominates. By locating the future growth in taller apartment buildings around existing centres and around transport nodes means the extensive suburbs can be protected. The centres approach for growth also reinforces a new metro style rapid rail system across the metropolitan city. It also supports a live–work relationship where many residents can walk to work. Interestingly in another Australian city, Brisbane, a survey was undertaken about options for accommodating future growth. The survey of 60,000 people found that 66% supported new homes in centres and corridors. Our research proposal then

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went on to allocate the 1.66 million new homes to around 25 centres and transport nodes across metropolitan Sydney in a range of urban densities and heights. Taller buildings were allocated to larger centres and the result demonstrated to community groups that most of the low-rise suburbs were protected but that suburban residents had many new amenities and jobs within their own centre. The trade off with the polycentric centres policy is that communities need to accept taller buildings in their local shopping centre. Sydney now has around a third of its homes as apartments and around 25% of these are for families. The centres policy is underpinned by a new more urban way of living for many people and an improved rapid transit rail system to link the centres. While the Greater Sydney Commission is focussing on the three city centres plan, the market is diversifying this to 20 or so other centres to create work/live environments. Another layer that is being reinforced in urban Sydney is a green network of parks and open spaces to balance the more urban centres.14

2.6 Magarpatta in Pune is a Mini City Magarpatta City in Pune is an excellent example of a mini city within the overall fabric of a larger city. Importantly, Magarpatta is a self-contained city where residents can walk to work in a pleasant healthy environment. In a post COVID world, a selfcontained mini city like Magarpatta has all the ingredients to keep residents and workers healthy through its focus on gardens, the use of solar energy, onsite food production and the significance of providing a walkable environment. I have visited Magarpatta city a number of times and spoken in depth with its founder Satish Magar. His inspiration and drive have produced an incredible result which should be a case study for other mini cities in India. Satish Magar became aware that the state government of Maharashtra was planning to expand the city of Pune by taking over farming land like that owned by Satish and his extended family of farmers. He organised a co-operative of the 120 families in the area and created a large 400 acre site which he then convinced the authorities could become a new urban development. The aim was for the farming families to learn new skills and for them to share in the economic gains that development would bring. After his visit to Silicon Valley in California, Satish set out to create high technology jobs as the core of the new city. But he also wanted to have workers living on the site with significant areas of parkland and landscape as well as environmental initiatives. The result is a new city with 50,000 jobs and 40,000 residents that include the original 120 families. On a wall in Satish Magar’s office is a photograph of representatives of the original 120 families with the men wearing white and the women in multi-coloured saris. They are now joint owners of the development that can be seen behind them in the photograph. The new city is arranged around a central circular park of 25 acres. Surrounding the park is a ring of gleaming glass office buildings that are 7 storeys high and they contain some of the world’s leading high technology

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companies. The next ring of development is the housing which reverts to rectangular street layouts with mid-rise apartment buildings au to 12 storeys in height as well as lower rise bungalows in some precincts. A total of 120 acres of the city is devoted to landscape with significant tree coverage. The central park supports the city nursery as well as the waste disposal centre. The farming families were involved in the building construction by suppling local sand, making their own bricks. The next generation of the farming families are learning new skills and have been actively involved in making the new city a success. The city includes all the facilities one would expect in a self-contained city. It has sports facilities like gymnasiums, golf ranges and tennis courts, there is also a hospital, cultural facilities, restaurants, retail outlets and shops. Following the success of Magarpatta City, other communities of farmers have shown interest in replicating the approach. An example is Nanded City, also in Pune, on the banks of the Mutha River. Magarpatta is a good case study of how more self-contained communities can live and work in a walkable environment filled with natural landscape and minimising its energy use. Recycling of waste, bio-composting and vermiculture all occur on site as well as significant rainwater harvesting and extensive use of solar collectors across all buildings. In a post COVID world, healthy environments that encourage walking and that can be self-contained will become more popular and this will lead to more mini cities within broader urban development areas. If this can be done by working with India’s large farming population on the edge of existing cities, then everyone gains. Satish Magar undertook a visit to the Silicon Valley in California, where he saw the value of clean green jobs so he set out to establish a Cybercity. Magarpatta’s key objectives then developed—walk to work, walk to shop, walk to school. All these capabilities, and many more health and wellbeing benefits, are incorporated into the new city. Yet without the Cybercity, the whole development could have been just another suburb. The design of the city is focussed on integrating buildings with nature. At the centre is a 25 acre circular park which symbolises the importance of nature and ecological issues. It is surrounded by the Cybercity circlr of gleaming glass office buildings, around seven storeys high. The 120 acres of the city are landscaped with 32,000 new trees. The landscape is planned around the concept of ‘Rutu Chakra’— the eternal time-wheel of nature, where every season gives a new character to the landscape. The central park is also the location of the city nursery and the waste disposal centre. This centre has bio compost pits, a worm farm and the careful separation of waste. Rainwater is harvested across the complex (Fig. 2.5). With the National Institute of Construction located in Pune youngsters from the farming families were sent to study there. The project decided to have its own quarries with sand supplied by the farmers. Magarpatta made its own bricks which included recycling fly ash from thermal power plants. The key to a walkable city is having jobs close to the residential areas. Cybercity comprises over six million square feet of high-quality office space with some of the world’s major IT companies located in the ring of buildings overlooking the central park. Magarpatta City includes all the facilities expected in a vibrant city. There are schools, a hospital, cultural facilities,

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Fig. 2.5 Plan of Magarpatta, a self contained mini city in Pune. Source Associated space designers

sports halls, restaurants, retail and shops all located within walking distance. The mini city concept that has driven Magarpatta is highly applicable to a post COVID19 world, where walking in fresh air replaces packed public transport and a supportive community carefully manages its environmental footprint.

2.7 Ways Forward for Polycentric Cities The dramatic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic across the world has had its biggest impact on cities. This has raised community concerns about the potential spread of disease in more compact urban areas and in compact commuting rail and bus systems. It is highly unlikely that the pandemic will dramatically change the world’s trend towards more urbanisation but it is likely to lead to some new models for the shape, form and operation of cities. The model that is being promoted by many urban planners is that of the polycentric city. This type of city will minimise long commute times by creating many mini cities where residents can walk to work. The example of Magarpatta in India is a good way forward as are the many city centres evolving in Sydney Australia. But the pandemic will require more change than this and one area will be to reinforce 15 the amount of greenery and parks in cities. These green lungs will clean the air and provide open spaces where people can separate from crowds. This paper began by looking at traditional structures for cities in India through the Vastu Purusha Mandala and its impact on city layouts and on city temples. While the diagram looks like a centred structure it is the subdivision into padas where up to

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1,024 distinct precincts can develop their own character within the overall structure that supports a polycentric approach. The multiple cities over a thousand years that have linked together to make India’s capital city of New Delhi also demonstrate a polycentric approach to the structure of the city. Even the 1911 plan for New Delhi by Edwin Lutyens acknowledges the earlier city centres of Shahjahanabad and Purana Qila by linking formal streets to the older centres. In Pune, the mini city of Magarpatta becomes a live–work city with a strong environmental green focus. A report on emerging cities in India by property group JLL in 2017 examined ten emerging cities including large townships by private developers including Magarpatta. They found that the model of creating satellite cities around the peripheries of tier 1 Indian cities is a positive approach in the spirit of the national government’s Smart Cities mission. The JLL report looked at Palava City in Delhi, Navi in Mumbai, Mohali in Punjab, Mahindra World City in Chennai as well as Magarpatta City and Pimpri Chinchwad in Pune. The report saw these cities as a new approach to Indian urbanisation. ‘We strongly believe that these emerging satellite cities will, in part or full, offer innovative solutions to challenges posed by urbanisation. In the process, these cities will attract an influx of aspirational residents and corporations, resulting in the creation of the next generation megacities that are much different from what we see today in India.’15 India is undergoing a major population shift to cities and it is battling a worldwide pandemic that is having an impact on urban areas. The growing interest in polycentric cities, where rather than one single urban centre dominating a megacity there are multiple small cities, is a direction that India’s smart city programme can champion. Cities are never static as can be seen by New Delhi’s evolving urban structure over a thousand years. The lessons from the past can help inform the future direction for urban development and a more polycentric structure is one with many benefits. Notes 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12.

Khanna (1991), p. 56, Wisdom of the Ancients. Begde (1978), p. 109. Havell (1915), p. 34. Sharma (1974). Irving (1981). Blake (1991), Has a good description of the planning of the city. Gole (1989), pp. 178–179. Irving (1981), p. 11. Anon, ‘68% of the world’s population projected to live in urban areas by 2050, says UN’, United Nations News, https://www.un.org/development/desa/ en/news/population/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html. Hall and Kathy (2006). Hall and Kathy (2006), p. 3. Lambregts, Bart et all, Randstad Holland: Multiple Faces of a Polycentric Role Model, in Hall, Peter, and Pain Kathy, The Polycentric Metropolis- learning from Mega-City regions in Europe, Earthscan, London, 2006, pp. 137–145

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13. 14. 15.

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CBRE Research Asia, Ness, Andrew and others (2008), p. 75. Johnson (2014), pp. 3–7. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/pala...avimumbai-mohali-top-emerging-cities-jll/articleshow/60842666.cms.

References Begde PV (1978) Ancient and medieval town planning in India. Shear Publications, New Delhi Blake SP (1991) Shahjahanabad: the Sovereign city in Moghal India, (1693–1739). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Fanshawe HC (1902) Shah Jahan’s Delhi—past and present. Summit Publications, Delhi, (reprint 1979) Fergusson J (1876) History of Indian and Eastern Architecture. John Murray, London, (Reprint by Low Price Publications, 1997) Gole S (1989) Indian maps from the earliest times to the advent of European surveys. Manohar Publications, New Delhi Hall P, Pain K (2006) The polycentric metropolis—learning from mega-city regions in Europe. Earthscan, London Havell EB (1915) The amcient and medieval architecture of India: a study of indo-aryan civilization. S Chand & Co, New Delhi, (reprint 1972) Irving RG (1981) Indian summer: lutyens. Yale University Press, New Haven, Baker and Imperial Delhi Johnson C (ed) (2011) Indian cities—managing Urban growth. Metropolis Publications, Barcelona Johnson C (2014) Urban ideas—towers and transport. Urban Taskforce Australia, Sydney Khanna M (1991) Space time and nature in Indian architecture, architecture and design Lang J, Dessai M, Dessi M (1997) Architecture and independence—the search for identity—India 1880–1980. Oxford University Press, New Delhi Nath R (1979) Monuments of Delhi: historical study. Indian Institute of Islamic Studies, Ambika Publications, New Delhi Ness A (2008) CBRE research and all, 3 mega-city regions in China, in connecting cities—China. Metropolis Publications, Sydney Reddy BN (1995) A glimpse of practical vastu. Virgo Publications, Hyderabad Sharma YD (1974) Delhi and its neighbourhood, published by the director general, archaeological survey of India. New Delhi Spear P (1943) Delhi its monuments and history. Oxford University Press, New Delhi, (updated in 1994) The Built Heritage—A Listing (1999) Indian national trust for art and heritage (INTACH) Delhi Chapter, vol 1 and vol 2. New Delhi Vale LJ (1992) Architecture and power and national identity. Yale University Press, New Haven Volwahsen A, Architecture L (1969) Indian. McDonald, London

Chapter 3

Intelligent Communities—Towards a New Ontology of Practice Gregor H. Mews

Abstract Cities are becoming an integral part of the human condition on a global scale. They hold the capacity to transform human life with increasing acceleration beyond what ought to be ever possible. However, at the same time, the everyday life experiences of humans in cities have become increasingly complex. These experiences need to be understood in order to shape urban conditions, and therefore, prevent crisis and consequently system collapse. Of particular concern is the doubt that we are able to achieve shared visions such as the New Urban Agenda and the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’s) in relation to the human-caused COVID-19 pandemic and associated setbacks. The dilemma is deeply rooted in the human condition; in the way how reality is being conceived, impacts our health and solutions being offered to solve challenges in cities from a smart city perspective. Undoubtedly, to achieve the SDGs, we need to undergo a transformational change. In order to resolve this dilemma, this contribution suggests urgently renegotiating our ontology of practice. This new ontology of practice may embrace the concept of Intelligent Communities which aligns ‘thinking’ with ‘doing’ and enables meaningful actions that enrich everyday life experiences in cities in a way that yet has to be collectively realised. Keywords Intelligent communities · Smart cities · Sustainable urban development · Health and well-being · Design ontology · Design practice · Production of space · Human condition · Design philosophy · COVID-19 · Build back better

3.1 Introduction This contribution deals with a complex problem that we as a community of researchers and practitioners in the urban context seek to understand and I attempt to G. H. Mews (B) QUT Design Lab, Queensland University of Technology & Urban Synergies Group, Brisbane, Australia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 R. K. Mishra et al. (eds.), Smart Cities for Sustainable Development, Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7410-5_3

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reconsile: Smart Cities linked to human health. According to Caragliu et al. (2011), the concept of Smart Cities functions as a strategic device that is strongly associated with the use of information technology in relation to modern urban production ecosystems. Therefore, urban areas seek to apply different types of electronic data collection in order to collect information which is then used to manage resources and assets more efficiently to monitor or manage dynamic elements of cities including transportation systems, waste management systems, power grids, deployment law enforcement, information systems, schools, libraries, hospitals and related community services. Instead of exploring the plethora of transformative possibilities of new emerging technologies, the Internet of Things (IoT) and Artificial Intelligence (AI), I briefly explore an underlying philosophical dilemma associated with a theoretical framing that can assist in critically evaluating the role of Smart Cities as part of everyday life while opening up space for further discourse. In essence, the contribution offers a perspective of how reality and meaning is created and introduces a philosophical dilemma that needs to be resolved within the practice domain linked to health and Smart Cities. Further, I continue to argue for the need to engage in discourse towards a new ontology of practice that embodies a paradigm shift from Smart Cities towards Intelligent Communities where potential solutions can transcend dualistic divisions (those how have and those how have not) and can achieve positive transformational change beyond the idea of being an enabling tool. If the reader seeks to find easy tools or models that can be applied to ‘fix’ an urban system, then this contribution might be conceived as meaningless or too abstract to comprehend. For others that intend and pursue the study of complex urban systems in a holistic and dynamic manner through a more than human-centred as well as axiology-informed design perspective, the contribution might be an enriching stimulus in relation to the human conditions in which sustainable development for all ought to be obtainable. This stimulus offers by no mean a complete position but rather a starting point and invitation for context-specific dialogue.

3.2 The Urban Condition at Large While the world is embracing promising possibilities that technological innovation may hold to the management of urban systems towards quantifiable outcomes in the name of progress, some contextual quantitative facts will function as a foundational pillar for the discourse. Facts from megatrends will point towards a design dilemma at heart that a Smart Cities approach won’t be able to easily resolve without substantially embracing a paradigm that is framed around health and based on a new ontology of practice as suggested by Fry (2017) within the design context. On an abstract level, humans on this planet increasingly experience everyday life as an urban and unsustainable condition. More than 50% of the world’s population is now living in cities (United Nations Environment Program 2015). While this number continues to increase two of the major pull factors, one is having a more promising economic outlook, and the other is enjoying perceived freedom that comes with

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urban life, can be confirmed through the fact that cities generate 70% of the Gross Domestic Products (GDP) (United Nations Environment Program 2015). However, at the same time, cities consume 80% of the global energy, produce 75% of global greenhouse gas emissions, while consuming 75% of the world’s natural resources and producing what many perceive as ‘waste’ at the same rate (United Nations Environment Program 2015). In this context, I’d like to highlight that almost one billion human beings on the planet still don’t even have access to electricity (World Bank 2020), and therefore, experience alienation and separation from technological advances and many essential human needs. While high-level documents such as New Urban Agenda depict a shared vision of cities for all in which present and future generations without discrimination of any kind can produce safe, just, healthy, resilient, accessible, affordable and sustainable cities, the chief economist of the United Nations (UN) most recently examined as part of the 75th UN General Assembly five human-caused megatrends that urgently need to be addressed if we as a species seek to pursue the sustainable development path. These are comprised of climate change, nature degradation, inequalities, urbanisation, rapid population changes and the technical revolution. The core message of the report ‘Shaping the trends of our time’ is clear, calling for a new integrated design approach that is based on the collaboration of seemingly unrelated areas such as planning and design, energy production and digitalisation (United Nations 2020). Further, it states that with regards to the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’s) and the COVID-19 crisis is presently in many nations off track and in some pressing cases progress has been even reversed. Tools and mechanisms to accelerate collective actions are available and include high-quality densification, strategically planned growth, biophilic design, eco-mobility, social inclusion, poverty eradication, distributed circular economy, social justice and climate change, but, in fact, they are products of western thinking and actions that created the global issues in the first place. Integrated approaches related to the urban condition could and need to go beyond traditional approaches if we seek to overcome the dissonance between three spaces: the human everyday life, the lived experience and the abstract policies, strategies and plans (Lefebvre 1991). Arguably, all three spaces are socially produced and can only be well understood by examining some underlying issues that are closely associated with the axiology (values, ethics and aesthetics), ontology (being in the world) and epistemology (knowledge creation) that inform human actions as we imbue them with meaning in which human perceive, conceive and act in the environment on multiple scales. Having access to a collective idealised abstract policy vision on a global level is a useful starting point for a discourse that needs to be proactively engaged, especially in light of the eminent crises ahead of us. As a species, we have become increasingly aware that a ‘one size fits all’ approach does not work, as history, climate and culture are diverse dynamic processes that lend themselves to holistic, non-linear, complex systems thinking, dialectics and relational approaches in relation to the environment in the broadest sense. In this context, environment encompasses all conditions in which all humans and non-humans live and biophysical processes operate at all

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scales. At the same time, we now know that humans when it comes to health are, in fact, all the same, pursuing a state of well-being in one form or another. The urban condition is on a trajectory of disaster and set for failure if we, as a global community, do not rapidly transition into a new paradigm. In the following section, I shall interrogate the concept of Smart Cities and create a foundation for a paradigm shift towards a new ontology of practice through the example of human health.

3.3 Smart Cities, Human Health and Reality COVID-19 demonstrated how important the health of the population is and how interconnected we as humans are. In the name of progress, technology and digitalisation is perceived a key solution to improve the conditions on hand (United Nations 2020). Contrary to popular views in this paragraph, I provide an argument that the Smart Cities concept cannot achieve transformative change with human health unless we pay careful attention and start to understand how people’s individual approaches to reality and their state of being can be transformed through positive, compassionate and meaningful actions. As meaning is a construct of the mind, life only becomes meaningful when the individual has a sense of agency and purpose. The sense of agency can only become tangible on a personal and community level as people can relate to each other in tangible ways. Purpose is a useful vehicle allowing people to target their attention based on reasons they can understand and align with their axiological believes. Hence, urban transformation must be targeted at that level and supports an ontology of practice that is conscious of hyper-complexities associated with the human condition in the urban context. In absence of a unified definition for Smart Cities as a concept, the aim is to provide technology-based solution as enablers that aim to ‘fix’ and make urban systems more efficient and consequently to improve human living conditions in them. At the same time, institutionalised proponents of the concept highlight that Smart Cities are inherently about humans and sometimes more (Beck 2019). Admittingly modelling of people’s behaviour on city scale and constructing meaning of the results can ideally enable efficient responses to dynamic human to ‘thing’ interaction (animated or inanimated). The power of Smart Cities solution lies in their position to become more than just ‘things’ as they respond to the dynamics of humans in a more organic manner. However, the way how humans make decisions on a large-scale system in order to manage these cities remains surprisingly ignorant of an understanding that the diversity and richness of the human condition negates progressive speculative design solutions and allows us to make heuristic guesses from top-down or from inequitably distributed power positions (decision makers) at best. Cities are inherently incomplete, highly complex and dynamic systems that essentially cannot be controlled (Sassen 2017). With the intend to change cities, decision makers bring their own set of axiological, ontological and epistemological views to the table and determine what the preferred pathway in the interest of all residents is.

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The challenge of how global agendas and visions such as the New Urban Agenda with a clear position on Smart Cities and the SDGs can be achieved remain unobtainable as long as these Smart Cities processes continue to remain unconscious of how ‘reality’ can be perceived and meaning created on an individual and community level. When exploring the way individual’s create meaning through language in spoken or written form then the work of Radden et al. (2007) suggest that it is the “transformation of a sensory stimulus into a mental representation is an instance of meaning construction, which is rooted in the interaction of human beings with their environment. The world around us is not meaningful per se but rather acquires meaning through the human mind.” An example of the continuous disconnect is that the New Urban Agenda represents a clear commitment to work towards a healthy future for current and future generations. According to the World Health Organisation (2006), health is defined as “A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” Noticeably the definition separates the physical, from the mental and social well-being. In order to obtain health at the individual level, it is important to understand that the concept of subjective well-being links the human experience directly with the environment as it entails a person’s cognitive and affective evaluations of his or her life (Diener et al. 2002). The cognitive lack and dissatisfaction of people’s ontological state of existence is an outcome of socially manufactured and crafted conditions that essentially led us all to the current COVID-19 pandemic. The cognitive dissonance between policies and technology in order to enable health for all is self-evident with the COVID-19 pandemic as we collectively still have not realised that ‘reality’ is a result of an accumulation of different interpretations related to the perception of experiences, unconsciously or consciously, and constructed by the user of things (animated and inanimated) in the world. The use of things can be validated and engage in the process of objectification through external users (humans) in space. Consequently, the possibility for action is generated internally by the capable human intellect through ideas and thoughts. An idea or thought eventuates into actuality (physical output) when certain environmental conditions are right (Hawkins 2011). Thereby actuality should be understood as the translation of a thought or construct in the human mind into an action. These actions can be directed in diverse and unpredictable subesquently non-linear ways forming temporary dynamic patters. Similarly, everyday life activities in cities manifest in patterns that are conducive to certain environmental conditions, making a person’s internal processes turn outward towards a perceivable activity if the observer’s eye has been conditioned. Arguably, these conditions have not yet been fully understood as data is more than just a merely a thing due its dynamic and non-physical nature. In addition, there is valid reason to doubt that shared idealised visions for cities such as the New Urban Agenda will remain unobtainable as long as the prevailing level of collective unconsciousness is unable to fully comprehend the impact and the underlying interconnectedness of all constituting dimensions of ‘reality’. Evidently, clues that can be directly linked back to the subjective wellbeing of humans can be found in psychology. For example, Jung (1973) described

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it as ‘synchronicity’ as it highlights the possibility of events that temporally and coincidentally occur in an acausal manner while being interconnected on a level or in a space that escapes the perceivable layer (things or material world around us) of reality on the surface level. Within the prevalent state of perceivable ‘reality’, no single absolute truth exists while engaging in relationality. Context-specific urban conditions evolve and change along with the state of the human condition that imbues it with life and consequently with meaning. Hence, there is scope to acknowledge, within research, that multiple perspectives on truth, whether we like it or not, depend on the construction and interpretation of a shared reality at a particular moment in time and space (Blaikie 2007). Within the context of cities, a realisation of the potential of this paradigm may contribute to a change in perception where ‘eureka’ moments and eye-openers can happen (Fischer and Altrock 2018). New knowledge through abstract conceptions of the urban condition is a set starting point for the exploration of the shared human condition within theory that opens up a pathway to challenging the dominant conceptions in the city discourse: namely that the urban condition is fixed, bound and universally generalisable (Brenner and Schmid 2015). In order to conceptual grasp and identify different ways to enable transformative change through knowledge, the following ontological design frameworks deal with complexities within the urban research context, for example, Deleuze’s and Guattari’s assemblage theory (Muminovic 2015; De Landa 2019), actor networks (Farías and Bender 2012) and the production of space (Lefebvre 1991; Harvey 1991). All of which enjoy increasing popularity among scholars to critically interrogate the Smart Cities concept. Sadly, none of them offer decolonised perspectives, and therefore, only offer a small insight into the complexities of cities. Despite the continuous creation of new knowledge, it remains questionable that one should and can strive for a single optimal state in cities as Gleeson (2014) eloquently put it. Basically, Smart City solutions related to health won’t resolve this challenge if they continue to follow the Newtonian paradigm that has been practiced well in the western research world. In essence, within this paradigm, the world can be understood as an external materialistic complex object in which everything works like a machine. Familiar characteristics associated with the paradigm include hierarchical and linear thinking, cause and effect, bureaucracy, alienation, predictability in which a society can be rationally ordered and explained. Luckily, the alternatives are available and found in other philosophical approaches. The holistic and integrated paradigm suggests an inherent connection between the ‘soul/spirit’, preferably ‘essence’ as Heidegger (1972) refers to it, and the physical world around us. For example, theories and well-established models in public health such as the human development model (Hancock 1993; Hancock and Perkins 1985) make the connection between human health and include the soul and spirit with the biophysical world. By soul and spirit, I consciously exclude any faith-based connections and follow the public health tradition that embraces determinants of health as a set of environmental influences also known as Hancock’s Mandala of Health. Characteristics of this paradigm include, for example, non-hierarchical thinking, complex and adaptive systems, states of uncertainty and flow, causes that can lead to many effects, co-operation and openness, non-alienating and integrative. As a practical example of fighting poverty and

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environmental injustice to improve health across the Global South, the Perlman principles became a testimony to integrated approaches to sustainable development that foster Intelligent Communities (Perlman and Sheehan 2007) at the time. When returning to the Smart Cities concept that creates solutions based on the Newtonian paradigm, idealised vision won’t be able to create benefits for all. However, when shifting the concept approach to Intelligent Communities, in which human can experience reality with a sense of agency by enabling conditions in which meaningful actions can take place, a collective mindset/ wisdom can have a chance to enable lasting transformative contributions to our shared human experience. This collective wisdom can inform decisions at scale situated within context, history and climate towards positive outcomes that lead to improved overall health. Associated tools offer a range of benefits including access to information for better knowledge exchange, education that includes all arts and crafts, mechanisms that enable deliberate democratic decision-making processes and simulations that help us to better understand and improve co-created living conditions at community scale. But what are the best tools and knowledge on hand worth if the individual practice does not embody and manifest the transformative change with a sense of immediacy and a sense of agency that enable us to elevate the human experience on a collective level. By embracing Intelligent Communities, only those elements of the Smart Cities tools will make substantial contribution to transform people’s everyday life on individual and community level that supports mechanisms in which meaning can be co-created. A departure from the ontological state of survival is necessary to fulfil policy aspirations such as the New Urban Agenda. A new state of being where everyday life and its multipicity in most aspirational shape becomes an non-reductive work of art also referred to as ‘oevre’ (Lefebvre 1967).

3.4 Towards a New Ontology of Practice For the remaining part, I briefly outline a pathway towards a new ontology of practice from a design perspective as this has been under-appreciated within the mainstream. Established knowledge and conventional wisdom indicates that in order to improve the health of people across the Global South, weak governance, violence and stigma, Anti-urban bias, counterproductive incentives and fear of change, as well as inadequate data for benchmarking, have been identified as common challenges (Perlman and Sheehan 2007) and the COVID-19 pandemic amplified issues that need to be addressed. All of this relates back to an underlying dilemma that is deeply embedded in the human condition: our ontological state of existence and the potential role of design at large. Following the rich ontological discourse in a city context, first Edmund Husserl (Moran 2005), then Martin Heidegger (Heidegger 1971) paved the way relating to the question of fundamental ontology. Lastly, Tony Fry enriched the discourse from a contemporary design perspective on the role of design in relation to our ontological

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state of existence (Fry 2017; 2013). According to Fry (2017), the strong theoretical foundation of ontology is composed of ontic, the totality of all things, and all the animated and inanimated beings in the world that operate with a certain mode of being. This mode of being can be studied and understood in relation to other beings and things in and of nature within their own history, context and dynamics at play. When applying a post-Marxist perspective, things in nature are represented in the form of material and receive meaning based on the use value they hold for human beings. Through the process of modifying material they receive a exchange value for transactional purpose and subsequently through accumulation generate a surplus value. On the contrary, things of nature receive meaning based on their design to obtain a desirable exchange value that is being projected onto them. The further we construct, refine and design, and therefore, shape the physical world that unconsciously prioritises exchange value over use value in order to generate surplus value beyond human need. We as a urban species become no matter, consciously or unconsciously, progressively further removed from nature and natural processes. At the same time, the cyclical effects of the underlying interconnectedness between humans and their environment could not be more evident as we collectively as a species have shifted into the Anthropocene—an geological earth epoch in which human actions is having a lasting impact on the earth system (Steffen et al. 2015). Quammen recently highlighted, in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic and the ecosystem interdependency, that: “We cut the trees; we kill the animals or cage them and send them to markets. We disrupt ecosystems, and we shake viruses loose from their natural hosts. When that happens, they need a new host. Often, we are it.” (David 2020). On city scale, evidence suggest that people have access to green spaces filled with high biodiversity has regenerative effects of physical and mental health (Dannenberg et al. 2011; Beatley 2011). The impact of the disconnect from nature in light of the ecological collapse accelerated by human actions continues to feed everyday life struggle for survival indicating dysfunctions that require learning to exist in a different way (Fry 2017). Fry questions the leadership of planners and designers to find solutions as long as viable visions continue to emerge out of established praxis bound to instrumental tasks, limited to existing knowledge and lack of political imagination. Cities are complex assemblages containing a plethora of different realities (Dovey 2008) and they are produced through social encounter (Stevens 2013; Lefebvre 1991; Harvey 1989) bound to the cycle of creation and destruction that is deeply embedded in the human condition. Yet the realisation that the urban conditions remove us from nature in its totality is not new. For example, The Situationist International with Guy Debord as a lead figure described this process as the Spectacle (Debord 1983). In essence, the Spectacle for me can describe a state of human existence that indeed is lost in materiality which is simply unsustainable. The experience of the Spectacle becomes tangible on an individual and community level as part of everyday life. At the same time, the everyday life experience contributes to a fragmented urban condition that according to Fry is profoundly ambiguous and manifested in a ‘world within the world’. In light of the Smart Cities concept and when examining contemporary megacities it becomes clear that the cities humans created are simply not sustainable and our current animated mode of being which

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focuses much on the external without undergoing some harsh, honest and critical reflections of our personal ontology and their axiological alignment. According to Fry (2017), the recognition of everyday life conditions ‘as it is’ in cities are the only starting point for transformation. Here the message from Fry in relation to the transmutational quality of technology is clear “Technology is not merely a thing, and things do not remain discrete- by degree they have an animatory existence.”(Fry 2017, p. 150). Arguably their perceived value proposition for better everyday life use within and outside of professional practice need to be taken with cautiousness, as in the worst case, they continue to remove us further from the ‘essence’, discourages agency and consequently contribute to what are now new leading causes of disease such as anxiety and depression worldwide (World Health Organisation 2020). This new blended state of existence being in this world and of this world raises questions of how we can transform out of the established design ontology and overcome the limitations of our current state of existence in which a return movement supported by a new ontology of design practice can unfold. In summary, a new ontology of practice is uneasy to depict as it requires to undergo a process of unlearning the learned. It needs to emerge out of an intrinsic realisation that the current system is in need of transformation. The pluralistic nature of our existence does not offer a quick linear fix but requires a moment of deep reflection and clarity in mind. Out of a transcendental state of clarity in the void of thought, preconceived ideas, symbolic representation of things, new speculative possibilities can emerge where meaning can be imbued, and healing conditions based on ethical axiological positioning can be co-produced. The everyday life practice of the planner and designer becomes embodied works of art able to continuously to inspire and elevate the interconnected human spirit at a individual and collective level.

3.5 Conclusion In summary, I depicted the established conception of the shared urban condition at a global scale in reductionist terms, then I attempted to highlight a disconnect from nonbinding global policies such as the New Urban Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals linked the current state of the human condition during the COVID-19 pandemic. In the context of Smart Cities and human health, I argued that there is a deep underlying dilemma that will continue to prevent us from reaching a transformed state of human existence. The dilemma is deeply embedded in the human condition and the way we understand reality, construct meaning based on axiological, epistemological and ontological approaches in the urban context at multiple scales. When accepting that, a paradigm shift towards holistic and integrated thinking and doing as part of our everyday life existence is possible and realising the potential of an Intelligent Community approach, a critical and honest discourse around what make us human in face eminent global crisis needs to take place. Unlike others, the solution might start on an individual level by questioning the existing ontology of practice in light of what the smart cities concept offers to ‘ advance’ our collective

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state of existence in cities. Under the Post-COVID-19 pandemic umbrella slogan ‘build back better’, I suggest outward directed actions in the form of cautious and conscious exchange at a community level is a next necessary step after completing the process of finding a new ontology of practice in which everyday life can be transformed. However, as any future vision that has yet to be co- created, it might only remain a possibility unless we start actively engaging in an open-ended process imbuing the Intelligent Communities paradigm with life as we commit to co-create an more-than urban future that leaves no one behind human and non-human.

References Beatley T (2011) Biophilic cities: integrating nature into urban design and planning. Island Press, Washington, DC Beck A (2019) Meet Arcadis’ new golabl smart cities lead. Smart Cities Council Australia New Zealand. https://anz.smartcitiescouncil.com/article/meet-arcadis-new-global-smart-citieslead. Accessed 30 Sep 2020 Blaikie N (2007) Approaches to social enquiry. Polity Press, Cambridge, UK Brenner N, Schmid C (2015) Towards a new epistemology of the urban? City 19(2–3):151–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/13604813.2015.1014712 Caragliu A, Del Bo C, Nijkamp P (2011) Smart cities in Europe. J Urban Technol 18(2):65–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/10630732.2011.601117 Dannenberg AL, Frumkin H, Jackson R (2011) Making healthy places: designing and building for health, well-being, and sustainability. Island Press, Washington, D.C David Q (2020) ‘We made the coronavirus epidemic’ The New York Times. The New York Times. New York, 28 Jan 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/28/opinion/coronavirus-china.html Debord G (1983) The society of the spectacle (trans: D. Nicholson-Smith). MIT Press , Cambridge, MA, London, UK DeLanda, M. (2019). A new philosophy of society: assemblage theory and social complexity. Bloomsbury Publishing Diener E, Lucas RE, Oishi S (2002) Subjective well-being: the science of happiness and life satisfaction. Handbook of positive psychology, vol 2, pp 63–73 Dovey K (2008) Framing places: mediating power in built form. Routledge, New York, USA and Oxon, Canada Farías I, Bender T (2012) Urban assemblages: how actor-network theory changes urban studies. Routledge Fischer, K. F., & Altrock, U. (2018). Windows upon planning history–general introduction. Windows upon planning history. Routledge, Oxon, OX, New York, NY, pp 21–30 Fry T (2017) Remaking Cities: an introduction to urban metrofitting. Bloomsbury Publishing Fry T (2013) Becoming human by design. A&C Black Gleeson B (2014) The urban condition. Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon Hancock T (1993) Health, human development and the community ecosystem: three ecological models. Health Promot Int 8(1):41–47 Hancock T, Perkins F (1985) The mandala of health. Health Educ 24(1):8–10 Harvey D (1989) The urban experience. University Press, Baltimore, MD, Johns Hopkins Harvey D (1991) Afterword. The production of space. Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA, USA, Oxford, UK, Carlton, VIC, Australia, pp 425–434 Hawkins DR (2011) Power versus force. Hay House Inc., Carlsbad, United States Heidegger M (1971) Building dwelling thinking (trans: A. Hofstadter). Harper & Row, London Heidegger M (1972) On time and being, trans. J Stambaugh. Harper and Row, New York

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Jung CG (1973) Synchronicity: an acausal connecting principle. (From vol 8. of the collected works of CG Jung) (New in Paper). Princeton University Press, New Jersey, United States Lefebvre H (1967) Le droit à la ville. Anthropos, Paris, France Lefebvre H (1991) The production of space (trans: D. N. Smith). Blackwell, Malden, MA, USA, Oxford, UK, Carlton, VIC, Australia Moran D (2005) Edmund Husserl: founder of phenomenology. Polity Muminovic M (2015) Places as assemblages: paradigm shift or fashionable nonsense? Athens J Archit 1(4):295–309 Perlman JE, Sheehan M (2007) Fighting poverty and environmental injustice in cities. State of the World, pp 172 Radden G, Köpcke KM, Berg T, Siemund P (2007) The construction of meaning in language. Aspects of meaning construction. John Benjamins Publishing Co. Amsterdam, pp 1–15 Sassen, S. (2017). The city: a collective good? Brown J World Aff XXIII(II). http://saskiasassen. com/PDFs/BrownJnl2017%20City%20Colectv%20good%20copy.pdf. Steffen W, Richardson K, Rockström J, Cornell SE, Fetzer I, Bennett EM et al. (2015) Planetary boundaries: guiding human development on a changing planet. Science 347(6223) Stevens Q (2013) Space for debate (Article). Policy Polit 41(3):453–455. https://doi.org/10.1332/ 030557313X669660 United Nations Environment Program (2015) ‘Cities and buildings report’. Nairobi, Kenya United Nations. http://www.unep.org/SBCI/pdfs/Cities_and_Buildings-UNEP_DTIE_Initiatives_and_ projects_hd.pdf United Nations (2020) ‘Report of the UN economist network for the UN 75th anniversary: shaping the trends of our time’. New York, United Nations, p 206. https://www.un.org/development/desa/ publications/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2020/09/20-124-UNEN-75Report-2-1.pdf World Bank (2020). World development indicators-electrictiy world bank. http://data.worldbank. org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators. Accessed 29 Sep 2020 World Health Organisation (2006) ‘Constitution of the world health organisation’ 45th edn, pp 1–18. http://www.who.int/governance/eb/who_constitution_en.pdf World Health Organisation (2020). Depression. World health organisation. https://www.who.int/ news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression. Accessed 2 Oct 2020

Chapter 4

Digital Governance for Smart City and Future Community Building: From Concept to Application Peng Weibin, Fang Liuqing, and Lin Xiaojing

Abstract The interaction between technology, community, and citizens is the core of smart city development. With the increasing penetration of Internet applications, digital governance is advancing constantly. As the basic carrier of smart city, future community is the embodiment of urban sustainable development. To change the situation of single national governance, the Chinese government has begun to integrate the concept of smart city into community construction, actively using big data to explore the digitization of community governance of the past five years. In some central cities of the eastern developed region, digital technology and community governance are gradually integrated to improve grassroots governance through community digital empowerment. Based on Hangzhou, Zhejiang, this paper discusses the necessity of using digital ways to promote the theory of grassroots governance; it expounds the importance of future community in relation to a citizen’s production and living, especially while responding to public health emergency (such as COVID-19), and proposals for achieving urban sustainable development. Keywords Digital governance · Smart city · Future community · Urban sustainable development

4.1 Introduction A city as an important carrier is a witness for the development of human civilization. Urbanization runs through the process of constructing modern society and becomes P. Weibin (B) Institute of Population Development and Health Governance, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China e-mail: [email protected] F. Liuqing · L. Xiaojing College of Economics, Hangzhou Normal University, 311121 Hangzhou, China e-mail: [email protected] L. Xiaojing e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 R. K. Mishra et al. (eds.), Smart Cities for Sustainable Development, Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7410-5_4

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a necessary way to change the structure of human society. Each new technology has an epoch-making impact, pushing forward the great transformation of urban form. In the age of steam and electricity, steam and electric technology brought the power of explosive development to cities. The wide application of information technology and internet is becoming the basis of lateral expansion of modern cities and longitudinal growth. The application of digital technology based on information technology (IT) and internet not only makes urban governance more and more intelligent, but also increases the complexity of urban social system. Smart technology requires smarter management. While technology is often considered a solution for building communities of the future, successful implementation of digital governance may depend more on realizing the significance and complexity of social interactions required by digital technologies (Hansen et al. 2019). In a digital government, there is a growing demand for cooperation forms and contents that can keep the same speed with the ever-changing environment related to technology and the needs of citizens (Jetzek 2015). In the process of building urban communities, which are smart city-oriented, it is urgent to explore the forms of social ecosystem cooperation in the digital environment. At present, many countries are exploring the application of digitalization to improve the level of community governance and make a better city and better life in the future.

4.2 Smart City Nowadays, Global urbanization is at a historic new beginning of the digital revolution and urban transformation. Intelligent technologies such as Internet of things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence(AI), and 5G have successively become the focus of new scenes and applications in urban life, and become engines for citizens to enrich urban experience and innovate life. When technology constantly integrates all aspects of the city, a smart city emerges. As a new model of urban development, it is the future blueprint of urban form and an important path to realize the sustainable development of human society. By using information and communications technology (ICT) and IoT, a smart city can collect and analyze data from multiple channels, perceive the urban environment, provide real-time information, and help public sectors, private enterprises, and families to make better decisions with more abundant information to improve the global quality of life. It mainly includes three aspects: livability (to enhance the attractiveness and competitiveness of cities), efficiency (to save resources and reduce operating costs), and sustainability (to plan and protect the environment with a focus on the future). It has been more than ten years since the concept of smart city was proposed. The response of urban development to ICT and other emerging technologies has penetrated every link of planning, construction, operation, and management, and is comprehensively changing the mode and concept of urban operation. Especially after 2015, with more and more construction of main body participation with the

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increasingly mature technologies, the concept of a smart city has ushered in a new development under the guidance of intensive central and local policies. In 2019, 5G was officially commercialized. Big Data administrations were successively established in various regions, and the smart city entered a new stage of data-driven development.

4.2.1 Sustainable Urban Development Today, there are about 7.6 billion people in the world, 55% of whom live in cities, and by 2050 that number will be 68%. Although cities account for only 3% of the earth’s surface area, they generate 80% of the world’s wealth, consume 60% of its energy, 80% of its food, and emit 70% of its carbon dioxide. Therefore, cities are the main battlefield for human beings to achieve sustainable development. Only by managing urban development well can we better human civilization and achieve long-term development. Sustainable urban development under the background of a smart city focuses on three aspects: society, economy, and culture. It aims to be recyclable and sustainable and emphasizes the establishment of a green garden city based on the living capacity. To realize sustainable urban development, it is necessary to rationally use its own resources, seek a friendly use process, and pay attention to the use efficiency, not only for the benefit of the current generation, but also for the benefit of future generations. JPI Urban Europe’s Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda points out that sustainable and livable city construction in the future needs to clear the five priorities theme, on the basis of using the methodological innovation and transformation path to achieve the target (Fig. 4.1). In recent years, rapid urbanization has brought many threats and challenges to freshwater supply, sewage treatment, living environment, and public health. The international community has attached great importance to urban governance and development, including cities as a whole in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The goal is to build inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable cities (Silva et al. 2020) and human settlements by 2030, which is goal 11 (Fig. 4.2). China is the first and most active country to commit to and implement UN sustainable development issues. On December 3, 2020, the Evaluation Report on China’s Implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the Blue Book on Urban Habitat in China (2020) was officially released, which objectively reflects the problems existing in China’s cities and puts forward targeted guidance or solutions. One third of the time will soon be over, and China will eliminate absolute poverty by the end of the year, which means achieving the goal ten years ahead of schedule. At the same time, the Chinese government will continue to strengthen the monitoring of other targets, so as to make clear the direction of future efforts. By 2016, 90% of the world’s city dwellers breathe air that does not conform to safety standards, 4.2 million people die from air pollution. More than half of the global urban population breathes 2.5 times higher than the safety (Silva et al. 2020) standards

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Fig. 4.1 Framework of JPI Urban Europe’s strategic research and innovation agenda. Resource China-EU Sustainable Development Research Group, Sustainable Urban Development: Challenges and Good Practices in Europe and China [M], Beijing, China Social Sciences Press, 2019

Fig. 4.2 UN sustainable development related issues goal 11. Resource Building inclusive, safe, disaster-resilient and sustainable cities and human settlements, https://www.un.org/sustainabledeve lopment/zh/cities/, 2019

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of air pollution. According to data from the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 2018, 408 out of every million molecules of gas in the global atmosphere are carbon dioxide, 147% higher than pre-industrial (1750) levels. As a major carbon emitter in the world, China is committed to sustainable development centered on ecological protection and green environmental protection. On September 22, 2020, Chinese President Xi Jinping promised at the UN General Assembly that China would adopt more forceful policies and measures to strive to peak carbon dioxide emissions by 2030 and achieve carbon neutrality by 2060 (Wu and Wang 2020). The Chinese government has the carbon emission reduction targets and wants to bring the green development concept into the grassroots social appraisal, in Shanghai, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, and some other eastern economic developed provinces, local governments have included carbon reduction in grassroots governance performance evaluation index system, which will further drive the green development of the Chinese society and promote the construction of low-carbon city. The development of 5G technology in China and the large-scale application of digital technology are also having an impact on carbon reduction targets and the green development process.

4.2.2 Digital Governance In the process of building smart cities, big data resources and technologies play an irreplaceable role. In the form of information society, data and information are inseparable from social life and public governance. The promotion of digital governance has become a global trend, providing a new approach to deal with various complex public issues. Improving the ability of digital governance is also regarded as an important way to the digital city by more and more city governments. Through the special mobile terminal of public affairs of city government, it is also regarded as an effective path for the digital transformation of modern government to provide citizens with more convenient, faster, smarter, and more humanized mobile public services. During the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, digital governance has played a very important role to carry out effectively epidemic prevention and control, enhance public security, help enterprises avoid market risks, and enhance urban resilience. Using digital technology to detect, analyze, integrate city core system with the key information, the smart city includes public security, citizens’ livelihood, city services, environment protection, various economic activities such as all kinds of requirements to make a smart response, maximize the realization of the rational allocation of resources, make the city become more efficient in terms of management and operation. GPS data, passenger flow data, maps and points of interest data, mobile phone data, video surveillance data, LBS location service data, environmental and meteorological data, as well as the mining and application of various social dynamic data including household registration, health care, energy consumption, etc., have profoundly affected and changed people’s daily lifestyle.

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At present, big data, cloud computing, and intelligent technology are regarded as the “troika” driving urban development in China, they are showing an unprecedented speed and energy in green urbanization and smart urban development. Faced with a series of traditional problems of urban development, more and more urban governments realize that only with the help of digital technology can the development of traditional cities smoothly transform into smart cities, in which humans and nature can coexist harmoniously and the economy will win long-term prosperity. The digital and intelligent development of cities is expanding the traditional concept of sustainable development.

4.2.3 Future Community The construction of the smart city is a process of deducing and defining the future urban form and operation mode. In this process, the future community, as the carrier at the grassroots level, connects technology, community, and citizens, and is the basic unit of urban governance, the symbol of urban quality development level, and the important carrier of people’s demand for a better life. It has rich characteristics and is the generalization of all kinds of community construction thoughts in the past. The Future community is a future living unit that integrates the mainstream social values such as low carbon, green and people-oriented into the life of community residents and follows the trend of the digital economy era with the goal of solving the social dynamic points and social difficulties such as endowment and property existing in the community. Compared with other community types, the construction of future community has more prominent social and economic utility. It highlights its unique features of history and culture, convenience, and environmental protection, and builds a more advanced spiritual space. It forms an internal cycle, highlights the role and development of human beings, and emphasizes the creation of a harmonious atmosphere of interaction and integration between human beings and the environment, in order to ease the demands of people’s livelihood. In the face of major emergencies, it can become a harbor community resident. It takes advantage of the future community, actively explores new areas, cultivates a new economic growth point. The future community is a new urban functional unit oriented by humanism, ecology, and digitalization, centering on the service demand of the whole life chain of the community (Huang et al. 2019). According to the “Pilot Work Plan for Future Community Construction in Zhejiang Province” released by Zhejiang provincial government, future community construction will construct nine scenarios of future: neighborhood, education, health, entrepreneurship, construction, transportation, energy, property, and governance. However, the concrete construction of the future community needs to explore diversified construction paths and implementation methods, including the following aspects. Firstly, the concept of future community needs to be clarified to distinguish it from “smart community” and “shared community”. On one hand, based on the concept of

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“open sharing” (Xu 2019), while combining collective innovation and social capital, the digital intelligence concept should be established to share scenes and use by relying on big data and intelligent facilities. On the other hand, one still needs to set up the concept of “win–win” (Zhang and He 2019), and guide the residents for the future community to change from “know” to “identity”, builders should have a reasonable layout to meet the demands of the aborigines in the context of their original real states which have been dismantled and the entrepreneurial needs of introducing talents, and to set up the system as a reward to guide residents, helping residents take the initiative to find the strength and vitality of the community in the future. Secondly, we should pay attention to the introduction of talents and promote the integration of families, schools, and communities. The future development of the community depends not on the individual efforts of the community, but on the establishment of a three-in-one integration system of school, family, and community (Lu 2020). The introduction of talent policy should be used to gather people, and social workers should be equipped to integrate people, and then people should be managed through the social governance model. Broaden the breadth and depth of community governance through the collaboration of young residents, college talents, and community workers (Qiu et al. 2019). Thirdly, draw on an excellent experience and apply the innovation model. The future community construction concept in China can be combined with local gold cards based on foreign precedents in order to build a future community integrating internationalization and localization, effectively solving the housing problems of residents, and increasing the satisfaction of residents and the simplicity of community management. Powerful “skeletons” that support the functioning of the community of the future are a series of new models. Trinity health and epidemic prevention, O2O, CIM model, the “1 + 2 + N” community governance model (Luo et al. 2016), university of manuscript community scene personnel transport mode, traffic scene TOD mode (such as Rice 2018) model is put forward, enrich the theory of construction, provide the possibility of the construction of the protection and direction. Fourthly, strengthen infrastructure construction and improve the application efficiency of digital technology. The improvement of infrastructure is the guarantee of community development. In the future community construction, digital technology should be integrated into infrastructure construction to realize the convenience and high efficiency. These smart city-oriented infrastructure constructions will promote the application and industrial development of many new technologies such as digital intelligence, energy conservation, environmental protection, and green prefabricated buildings, and directly drive the development of future community-related industries, thus promoting the transformation of urban governance concept and operation mode. This kind of smart city-oriented infrastructure construction is a kind of digitalized urban renewal, which requires a large amount of investment, and requires future community construction to attach equal importance to government and efficient market. On the one hand, the government will focus on top-level design, overall planning, policy guidance, and step-by-step promotion, to fully mobilize the enthusiasm of market players and investors. On the other hand, the government should use

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public policies to stimulate social vitality and explore the formation of a sustainable future community construction model supported by industrial alliances (Ling 2019).

4.3 Construction Status of Future Community Construction: The Application of Digital Governance in Urban Sustainable Development Nowadays, many countries/regions are exploring the possibility of using digital intelligent technology for urban renovation and construction to comprehensively improve the livability and sustainable development capacity of cities. In the face of the new challenges, each country has put forward a perfect urban construction concept and approach in line with its own national conditions.

4.3.1 Woven City in Japan As one of the few developed countries in Asia, Japan is confronted with such problems as small land area and concentrated population, poor natural resources, frequent natural disasters, and aging infrastructure. In response to this phenomenon, the smart city proposed by Japan pays more attention to energy saving and low-carbon sustainable development. In 2020, Toyota envisioned a demonstration city for future travel, named “Weaving City”, and will start construction in 2021. Weaving City is committed to enhance the overall diversity of transportation by harnessing solar, geothermal, and hydrogen fuel cell technologies to achieve a carbon–neutral society that creates new equality between vehicles, modes of transportation, and people and nature through connectivity, cleanliness, and sharing. It is an innovative space to test and advance mobility, automation, connectivity, hydrogenpowered infrastructure, and industry collaboration. The Weaving City aims to connect people and communities more closely through technologies based on history and nature. The weaving city focuses on the development of a two-dimensional model (Fig. 4.3). Its biggest advantage is the utilization of clean energy, while it is poor in intelligence, digital technology, three-dimensional space utilization, etc.

4.3.2 Valley in Amsterdam Compared with the weaving city suitable for the low-density development mode, the ravel Valley constructed in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, is inclined to the mass architecture (Fig. 4.4).

Fig. 4.3 The development path of woven city. Resource Depth observation: what is the difference between BIG’s “weaving city” and the future community in China, sohu, https://www.sohu.com/a/366380992_649686, January 12, 2020

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Fig. 4.4 The development path of valley. Resource Depth observation: what is the difference between BIG’s “weaving city” and the future community in China, sohu. https://www.sohu.com/a/ 366380992_649686, January 12, 2020

Valley based service facilities and personnel flow will be set in the same building, highlight agglomeration community which allows the concept of public service facilities to be improved, will function and the residential, office business together, blend in public space to private space, the whole building full of people, flowers, green plants, and outdoor seating, will make construction appear more open and outgoing.10

4.3.3 Present Situation of Smart City Construction in China The construction of smart cities is going on all over the world, and China is also actively engaged in the construction and development of smart cities (Fig. 4.5). According to the global statistics on the number of smart cities under construction, China is the country with the hottest smart city construction in the world, with the number of pilot cities accounting for 48%. Europe ranked second, accounting for 23.6%, followed by India (11%), the United States (7%), Oceania (5%), Japan and South Korea (2%), Canada (2%), and other countries. Based on the maturity of China’s rail transit construction and the background of large population gathering, high-density development has become the characteristic of China’s urban development model. Future community construction in China needs to emphasize the connection between blocks on the one hand, and stereoscopic development on the other hand. The former emphasizes the collective utilization of land resources, focusing on the construction of various forms of traffic network, such as underground commercial streets, corridors, bridges, wide platforms, etc. The latter

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Fig. 4.5 Distribution of smart city pilot areas in China

attaches importance to the use of THE TOD model and highly uses urban space, not limited to land (Fig. 4.6).

Fig. 4.6 Community development in China under TOD mode. Resource Depth observation: what is the difference between BIG’s “weaving city” and the future community in China, sohu, https:// www.sohu.com/a/366380992_649686, January 12, 2020

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4.4 Future Community in Zhejiang Province 4.4.1 Future Community Pilot Site, Innovation 139 Scenarios Zhejiang province, referred to as “Zhejiang”, is in the south areas of The Yangtze River Delta (Fig. 4.7) along the southeast coast of China, with the East China Sea to its east. Hangzhou, the capital of Zhejiang Province, is the venue of the 2016 G20 Summit, with a unique charm of intersection of history and reality. Zhejiang now consists of Hangzhou and Ningbo, 2 sub-provincial cities, 9 prefecture-level cities, 37 municipal districts, 20 county-level cities, 33 counties, 619 towns, 259 townships, and 482 streets. According to the released survey report of 5% population change in 2019, there were 58.5 million permanent residents in the province by the end of the year, 1.13 million more than at the end of the previous year. The annual birth rate was 10.51%; The mortality rate was 5.52%; The natural growth rate was 4.99%; The urbanization rate was 70.0%. In 2019, regional GDP reached 6,235.2 trillion CNY, an increase of 6.8% over 2018. Among them, the added value of the primary industry is 209.7 billion CNY, the added value of the secondary industry is 2,656.7 billion CNY, and the value increment of the tertiary industry is 3,368.8 billion CNY, and the increase rate is, respectively, 2.0, 5.9 and 7.8%. The value of the tertiary industry occupies 58.9% of the GDP growth. The value increment of the “three new” economies, characterized by new industries, new forms of business, and new models, accounted for 25.7% of the GDP. Zhejiang is one of the provinces with the most developed digital economy in China. The value added of

Fig. 4.7 The administrative map of Zhejiang Province

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Fig. 4.8 The four online digital service platforms. Resource the website of Zhejiang provincial government, http://www.zj.gov.cn/

core digital economy industries of Zhejiang Province in 2019 reached 622.9 billion CNY, increasing 14.5% over 2018 according to the comparable prices. In the past five years, Zhejiang Provincial government has carried out a series of practices of using digital scenes to improve the efficiency of public service and achieved very good results.There are four online digital service platforms named, respectively, as “Zhelikan” (浙里看, “Zheliban” (浙里办, “Zhelidu” (浙里督), and “Zheliwen” (浙里问, which are established by Zhejiang provincial government (Fig. 4.8). They integrate big data and other digital technologies into public services, improve service efficiency and city intelligence, and apply digital governance better in urban construction and development. Zheliban APP is based on the integrated platform capability of Zhejiang Government service network (Fig. 4.9). It includes three core functional blocks, namely, “Palm service”, “Palm consultation”, and “Palm complaint”, as well as hundreds of convenient service applications, such as checking and paying social security, withdrawing provident fund, dealing with traffic violations, and paying fines and tuition fees. It has launched 17 categories of public payment, birth registration, medical registration, social security certificate printing, provident fund withdrawal, traffic violation treatment, and more than 300 convenience applications, providing 168 provincial palm services, 452 municipal averages, and 371 county-level averages. Zhejiang province is a leading area of future community construction in China. In 2019, the Zhejiang government proposed to build future communities, and later released two lists of pilot communities for the future. According to statistics, these communities are mostly located along rivers and in economically developed areas (Fig. 4.10).

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Fig. 4.9 The application of Zheliban APP

Fig. 4.10 The pilot distribution of future community in Zhejiang

In future, the digital management of the community will be equipped with perfect public infrastructure and services, to accurately control the communication architecture, lighting, parking, public WIFI, security guarantee, traffic, and other aspects. For example, the public administration service mainly uses the means of “big data + management” to realize the optimization of the urban process. For example, the current government service reform of “all-in-one Network” by China advocates the principle of “run the most once” to make people’s life more convenient. But the rise of Internet equipment, available data sets being formed, which can be used in the city to provide intelligent, sustainable transportation solutions, the test results show that the Internet of things in the prediction of congestion on the road network

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Fig. 4.11 “1 + 3 + 9” future community application scenarios of Zhejiang Province. Resource Reading “future community” in an article. http://bj.lwcj.com/cases/show_0_0_2048.html, 202101-07

has the incomparable advantage (Sharmila et al. 2020), and possible future global intelligence and a critical part of sustainable urban transportation modeling method. The concept of “future community” proposed by Zhejiang Province covers nine scenarios including neighborhood, education, health, entrepreneurship, architecture, transportation, low-carbon, service, and governance, namely, “1 + 3 + 9” (Fig. 4.11),aiming to solve social pain points and difficulties. The future community pilot construction focuses on the people-oriented, ecological, digital three-dimensional value coordinates, with harmonious co-governance, green intensive, wisdom sharing as the connotation characteristics, highlighting the high quality of life. Among them, the low-carbon scenario of the future community focuses on solving the problems of single energy supply mode, low comprehensive utilization efficiency, and extensive resource utilization mode in the past and strives to build a new community model of “recycling without waste” in the future. Therefore, the successful construction of a low-carbon scenario is conducive to the realization of the interconnection and efficient utilization of various resources and energy in the community and constitutes a recyclable and sustainable community ecosystem. Digital technology is the foundation for the construction of a low-carbon community scene in the future. (Fang and Yu 2020) To successfully build a low-carbon scene, the collaborative development of three digital systems is needed (Zhang et al. 2019), namely, “digital integrated energy system”, “integrated energy and resource service system”, and “classified and graded resource circulation system” (Fig. 4.12). Digital integrated energy system focuses on the multi-source collaborative supply, smart energy saving, and healthy and comfortable environment experience. Using innovative new technologies of energy Internet and micro-grid, layout of intelligent interactive energy network, promotion, and application of near-zero energy buildings,

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Fig. 4.12 Low carbon scenario of future community. Resource New energy bus. What will “future community” look like when it comes to clean energy? Go to CEEC2019

achieving energy efficiency improvement and reducing energy cost; Comprehensive energy and resource service system which focuses on introducing comprehensive energy and resource service providers with good credit in order to improve the utilization rate of community comprehensive energy and resources and reduce the cost. The classified and graded resource and energy circulation system focuses on the “two networks fusion” system of domestic garbage reuse and water conservation. Under the intelligent application of digital technology, the three systems complement each other. Through digital technology, air quality detection and pollution prevention can be carried out, and renewable and recyclable resources in communities can be mined to improve the comprehensive utilization rate of resources (New Energy Bus 2019). At the same time, to solve the problem of low land intensive utilization efficiency, the future community innovates the intensive utilization of space and the integrated construction of functions from the perspective of space form, building products, and construction technology, and strives to create the future architectural scene of “art and style blending” (Infrastructure Construction and Comprehensive Office of Zhejiang Provincial Development and Reform Commission 2019). Supported by digitized digital technology and standardized building technology, it improves convenient community public building facilities, creates recognizable community landscape features, and constructs community space pattern of TOD mode, to realize rational sharing and elastic utilization of community space resources and promote its sustainable development.

4.4.2 Health QR Code Helps Community Supervise and Governance The construction of future community must carry out the principle of putting people first and injecting a steady stream of vitality into society. The high application of digital technology causes builders to pay too much attention to the application of intelligent technology while ignoring the core point that people are the main body of

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Fig. 4.13 Three health QR codes in Zhejiang

the community. In the era of digital city, more attention should be paid to the reverse application of acquired data to the city in order to drive the modernization of urban governance, the intellectualization of industrial development, and the convenience of citizens’ life. Future communities under digital governance will also be able to respond quickly to major public health events and achieve human development. In 2020, COVID-19 began to spread in China, putting unprecedented pressure on the economy and people’s health. On February 11, Hangzhou immediately activated the health Quick Response (QR) code system for the first time, using the “red, yellow, and green” two-dimensional code (Fig. 4.13) as a digital health certificate to curb the spread of infection and temporarily resume production. The Health QR Code (jiankangma健康码) is an open system that can be quickly rolled out according to the needs of different regions and the need for epidemic prevention and control in each region, in order to achieve application in the most efficient way. If the green code is displayed, the code can be lit up in the urban area, and the code can be scanned to pass in and out of the urban area. If the yellow code is displayed, centralized or home quarantine will be conducted within 7 days, and the green code will be changed after continuous health declaration and clocking for 7 normal days. If the red code is displayed, 14 days of centralized or home quarantine will be imposed, and after 14 days of continuous health declaration and clocking, the green code will be changed. The Health QR Codes are mostly posted at the entrances of residential compounds, companies, and other public places, and people who want to enter public places or take public transportation must show their green codes. People without smartphones, especially the elderly and children, can use valid paper documents for only eight days, the largest third-party payment platform of China, Alipay Health QR Code will be implemented in 100 cities in China, more to strengthen epidemic prevention and control and for the return of the labor force around the city work, factory for a quick resumed production. Based on the results of the pilot practice in Zhejiang Province, the General Office of the State Council of China on February 29 developed a national health standard system for Finance across China as a regional “traffic permit” to ensure the orderly movement of people during the COVID-19 outbreak. Although the epidemic prevention and control in China have achieved remarkable results, with the second global rebound of the epidemic, in order to strengthen the prevention and control of imported COVID-19 cases and cope with the increase in the number of imported

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novel Coronavirus infections from overseas, China has developed the international version of the health QR code system again and has put it into use quickly. During outbreaks, all visitors must report their state of health before entry. Passengers can use the built-in WeChat program or mobile phone application developed by China customs to complete the health status report and obtain the corresponding health code (Figs. 4.14 and 4.15), which can only pass through the customs when presented. The invention and use of the health QR code has helped the Chinese government and enterprises to monitor the epidemic situation in real time, to effectively prevent and control the spread of the epidemic in China, and thus continue to respond effectively and quickly to health emergencies. Applied to the construction of future community health scenario, the health QR code also can help the community grids management (Deng et al. 2020), considering data for accurate positioning, which implements a comprehensive health management system.

Fig. 4.14 The process of getting health QR code in WeChat APP

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Fig. 4.15 The process of getting health QR code in Alipay APP

4.4.3 Hangzhou Proposes the Integration of Three Technologies to Build a Data Governance Platform “Third integration” is firstly proposed by Hangzhou City Hall in the process of formulating “city data brain” (Fig. 4.16). Armed to digital governance of smart city, the important measures for the comprehensive application of the initiative are to be implemented by advancing digital industrialization, industry digitalization, digital urbanization, urban digitalization, and by constantly doing optimal inventory, stronger incremental, big flow, and by promoting the Internet applications. It is the fusion of big data, artificial intelligence, and the real economy. Under the digital, networked, intelligent “third integration”, the new pattern of social governance of future-oriented communities will be as a collection in the forefront of the future products and services, the collection of advanced science and technology, business model, proving ground, application field and transformation in the form of industry, the future community of nine big scene construction process of the intelligent application will provide innovative applications for new economic green shoots of the carrier, through the scene using the booster matures of the new economic growth

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Fig. 4.16 The framework of Hangzhou city data brain. Resource Thinking of Hangzhou urban data brain, transferred from. CSUs smart city pilot, https://www.sohu.com/a/285329352_468661, December 29, 2018

point. In the future, the community should give full play to its advantages, actively explore new areas and cultivate new economic growth points. Using “new infrastructure” to boost future community construction and digital governance, the new infrastructure is an infrastructure system led by new development concepts, driven by technological innovation, and based on information networks, which provides services such as digital transformation, intelligent upgrading, and integrated innovation to meet the needs of high-quality development (Zhang 2020). On the one hand, future communities will need new infrastructure to develop digital technology hardware. On the other hand, it is to rely on new infrastructure to develop big data governance “software”. In future, based on the development of new infrastructure, the future-oriented community will create a new urban governance pattern of “integration of three aspects”, so as to promote the modernization of social governance and promote the sustainable development of the city. Build a data sharing platform to simplify governance. At present, data has gradually become an indispensable factor of production and plays a deterministic role in the accuracy of analysis and decision-making efficiency. Big data and other technologies provide data support for the scientific development and precise policies of communities through real-time tracking, key screening, and effective monitoring of community economic development for building a governance internet to achieve economic sustainability. During the epidemic, the application of Internet plus played an extremely important role. For example, the use of the internet in online offices and online education has greatly promoted the development of the we-media industry, as well as the development of online courses and work software. The epidemic has not only ensured the normal operation of China’s education system in an orderly

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manner, but also forced the Chinese economy to get rid of the original path dependence, accelerate the transformation of the development model, and give birth to new economic forms of business (Li et al. 2009, 2019).

4.5 The Problems Found Based on the Investigation of Future Community Construction in Zhejiang Province The construction of future community will not be accomplished overnight. It needs a two-way control by managers and builders, and continuous adjustment and experience according to the actual situation. The future community construction in Zhejiang province is also facing some outstanding problems which need to be solved urgently.

4.5.1 The Concept is not In-Depth, and There Are Differences Between Theory and Practice As far as current construction is concerned, the construction of future communities in Zhejiang province lacks first-hand data on the needs of residents, neighborhood committees or streets. Moreover, most of the builders’ cognition of the future community is still not accurate and in-depth, coupled with the irreversibility of the actual construction, which makes the theoretical research idealistic with lack of practical experience. More attention needs to be paid to solve the contradiction between theory and practice.

4.5.2 The Subjective Consciousness is Vague, and the Balance Point Cannot Be Found Among the Elements Developers pay too much attention to the application of intelligent facilities in the construction process, resulting in the phenomenon of stacking facilities, low utilization rate of facilities, and waste of social resources. At the same time, the inherent negative attributes of technology have also brought negative effects to a certain extent: the rampant application of emerging technologies will have a strong discrete effect on neighborhood relations, which is not conducive to the construction of neighborhood scenes, and it will bring hidden dangers to the residents’ privacy.

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4.5.3 Internal User Efficiency Needs to Be Improved The future community reconstruction in Zhejiang province mainly relies on the reconstruction of old residential areas. It is particularly important to maintain stability and innovate in terms of residents’ experience and service quality after the future community is completed. For example, the policy should give preference to innovative entrepreneurs and original residents and introduce permanent residents to improve the frequency of use within the community in the future.

4.5.4 The Overall Construction Lacks Individuality The future community reconstruction in Zhejiang province mainly relies on the reconstruction of old residential areas. It is particularly important to maintain stability and innovate in terms of residents’ experience and service quality after the future community is completed. For example, the policy should give preference to innovative entrepreneurs and original residents and introduce permanent residents to improve the frequency of use within the community in the future.

4.6 Some Discussions The future sustainable development of city community programs around the world also arises at the historic moment, they are the future of the community in the research and construction has achieved initial results, but in some ways, there are many problems to be solved, thus we put forward the following relevant helps for advice, wisdom in order to better promote the sustainable development of the city (Silva et al. 2020).

4.6.1 Formulate Future Community Evaluation Indicators Under the trend of urban sustainable development, the establishment of future community assessment index system can help the construction of future communities and even future cities in the form of effective feedback, so that the construction results can have certain measurement standards and help builders and planners grasp and adjust the construction path. On one hand, the construction of the index system can start from the expected results of the overall construction of the community in the future and establish a new assessment standard. Based on the construction of nine scenarios, the sustainable development of the future community should be based on

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the common development of economic development, facility construction, community livelihood, resource utilization, and environmental protection. Therefore, the future community evaluation index system (Table 4.1) should be constructed in order to promote the sustainable development of the future community (Ruixin consulting, 2016). Table 4.1 Future community evaluation indicators Classification of the project

Constituent part

Index definition

The economic development

Income level

Per capita disposable income of community residents

Degree of innovation and entrepreneurship

The proportion of community entrepreneurs

Community population density

The population per unit area of a community

Community construction

Public Entertainment venues Public Entertainment area (percent)

The community and people’s livelihood

Resource utilization

The environmental protection

Public green space

Public green space area (percent)

Public water supply

Public water Supply coverage rate (percent)

Internet popularization degree

Household Internet Access rate (percent)

Popularity of communication facilities

Per capita Mobile phone ownership (per person)

Living level

Community per capita housing area

Employment resources

Community employment rate (percent)

Medical resources

Number of community health workers

Education resources

Education facilities

Energy consumption

Total energy consumption

Power efficiency

Residential electricity consumption

Water use efficiency

Domestic water consumption

Air cleanliness

Air quality acceptable days

Wastewater treatment capacity

Wastewater treatment ratio (percent)

Intensity of environmental protection

Proportion of environmental Protection Funds (percent)

Resource Ruixin consulting. Five evaluation indexes of urban sustainable development are indispensable). https://www.jiemian.com/article/631163.html, 2016–05-12.

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4.6.2 Pay Attention to the Participation of People, Show the Value of People Since entering the new century, China has put forward the scientific development concept of people-oriented, comprehensive, coordinated, and sustainable development, and adheres to the road of social sustainable development. With the continuous acceleration of China’s urbanization process, smart city, as a new urban form, must also change from closed-loop urban management to open-loop urban governance, and must be people-oriented, emphasizing the value orientation of respecting, liberating, relying on and for people. The future community is an ideal state that is most suitable for the development of smart city achieved in the process of community evolution. From the most primitive crowd gathering, and then merging culture, production, and other factors, it gradually develops into the future community. The community cannot be separated from the participation of the public, and it is necessary to regard whether it can show the value of people as the core of its development. Firstly, the community construction should take the profound historical and cultural foundation as the guarantee of humanistic value and highlight its uniqueness to show the existing value. With its unique cultural background, the region has formed a distinctive feature, which provides a good foundation for the construction of the future community. Compared with the mutual combination of the existing culture and community construction, a new culture or atmosphere will be more acceptable to residents. At the same time, the individualized construction also makes the community more dynamic and has the development potential. Secondly, focus on vulnerable groups (Li and Mao 2019), such as infants and children aged 0–3 years, and the elderly. The future community aims to meet the educational needs of the whole population, build a future education scene of “lifelong learning”, and provide “parents without worry” childcare services, “inclusive sharing” high-quality educational resources, and “high-quality standardized” preschool education services. At the same time, the future health scene of “national health care” is constructed for the whole population and the whole life cycle, to alleviate the contradiction between the absence of endowment facilities and services. Finally, gathering of human resources and showing self-worth. Finally, we should actively promote crowd gathering, promote community harmony by people, and promote human development by the community. It is mainly reflected in: gathering social workers and letting quality social workers guide residents to make better use of the future community; gathering managers and leaders who understand and love the future community to help coordinate the overall operation and problem-solving of the future community; gathering the service personnel of the future community to create a vibrant future community from the property, infrastructure, ecological environment, and other aspects; to prevent the loss of residents and talents.

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4.6.3 Explore Various Possibilities and Diversification of Construction The construction of smart cities covers a wide range of areas, is complex and systematic, and needs to rely on the coordination and progress of various forces. The construction of smart city emphasizes the alliance and cooperation between government enterprises, but in the actual construction process, there will be a variety of models. Therefore, in the future construction of a smart city, various factors such as project construction and operation will be analyzed and evaluated to achieve a win–win cooperation by centering on people and integrating multiple resources, presenting a trend of multiple development and construction combination modes. The multiple possibilities in the construction of a smart city will also lead to a diversified application direction. Future smart city construction will focus on three fields: smart economy, smart service, and smart resources in application. Through the application of digital technology in various fields, “smart economy” can improve the contribution rate of digital information to urban economic development and promote the optimization and upgrading of urban industries. “Smart service” is conducive to alleviating social contradictions and promoting the core development of urban civilization. Through digital technology, we will improve the utilization rate of service resources, expand the scope of service coverage, and promote urban employment, health care, and other issues. “Smart resources” focuses on the recycling of urban resources, fully exploiting and utilizing potential information resources through digital technology, reasonably allocating various kinds of energy resources, and achieving the balance of resource supply, in order to achieve the goals of resource-saving, environment-friendly, and sustainable development.

4.7 Conclusion Since the concept of a smart city was proposed, the world has experienced unprecedented technological innovation: unprecedented advances in a wide range of smart technologies, IoT devices, fast Internet connections, and increased data volume and storage (Zaheer and David. 2020). The future community digital governance under the background of smart city is an important way and basic method to realize urban development. Under the new circumstances, this paper discusses how to combine community and digital governance in the future in order to provide a brand-new path for smart cities and realize the comprehensive sustainable development of cities and countries. Based on the comprehensive interpretation of China’s future community construction, taking Zhejiang Province as an example, this paper probes into how digital governance affects and promotes the development of economy, industry, public health, and ecological environment. At the same time, based on the current situation of its future community construction, it also puts forward some problems such as the theory cannot fully support the actual construction and puts forward

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some relevant discussions. In such circumstances, China has now encountered future problems in the process of community construction which will also be our future research direction. This article may help to have a deeper understanding of China’s urban development, community governance process of constantly updated, wisdom for the world to provide a new way for city construction.

References Allam Z, Jones DS (2020) Future (post-COVID) digital, smart and sustainable cities in the wake of 6G: Digital twins, immersive realities and new urban economies. Land use policy China-EU Sustainable Development Research Group (2019) Sustainable Urban development: challenges and good practices in Europe and China[M]. China Social Sciences Press, Beijing Chuanglin F, Danlin Y (2020) China’s Urban agglomerations. Springer Science and Business Media LLC Deng L, Wang J, Chen CAI (2020) Accelerating the construction of smart community in the post epidemic era and building a future community [J]. Internet World (06):44–47 Depth Observation (2020) What is the difference between BIG’s weaving city and the future community in China [EB/OL], Sohu website. https://www.sohu.com/a/366380992_649686. Accessed 12 Jan 2020 Hansen P, Liu X, Zaman AU et al (2019) Smart technology needs smarter management: disentangling the dynamics of digitalism in the governance of shared solar energy in Australia[J]. Energy Res Soc Sci 60 Huang C, Chen K, Wu H, Zhu L (2019) The transformation path from the “four and a half” community to the future community—Xiawan village in Yiwu [C]. China Urban planning society, Chongqing municipal people’s government. Vitality of urban and rural living. In: Proceedings of 2019 China urban planning annual conference (02 urban renewal). China urban planning society, Chongqing municipal people’s government. China Urban Planning Society. pp 595–604 Infrastructure Construction and Comprehensive Office of Zhejiang Provincial Development and Reform Commission (2019) Building a new type of urban functional unit to help the construction of “two high levels” -- Interpretation of the pilot work of community construction in Zhejiang Province in the future [J]. Zhejiang economy (7):17–18 Jetzek T (2015) Frederiksberg: copenhagen business school [Phd], p 393 (PhD series; No. 24.2015) Jie L, Jing C, Liqing Z (2009) Some issues regarding China’s foreign reserves[J], China’s emerging financial markets challenges and opportunities Li H, Mao C (2019) On the exploration of “future community” in Quzhou [J]. Zhejiang Land Resources (06):59–60 Ling X (2019) Zhejiang: pilot of future community construction [J]. The masses (8):43 Lu Y (2020) Preliminary study on the value and realization path of community aesthetic education based on “future community” scenario [J]. J Aesthet Educ 11(03):37–43 Luo M, Gao J, He C (2016) Influence of college sports club education and teaching on future community sports [J]. Sports World (Academic Edition) (06):107–108 New energy bus (2019) What will “future community” look like when it comes to clean energy? Go to CEEC 2019 [EB/OL] Qiu Y, Wang C, Hu G, Hu C (2019) Exploration and suggestions on future community governance of Chinese cities [J]. Urban Constr Arch (08):93–95 Reading “future community” in an article. http://bj.lwcj.com/cases/show_0_0_2048.html [EB/OL]. Accessed 07 Jul 2021 Rice J (2018) Technological forecasting & social change [EB/OL]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tec hfore.2018.03.027

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Ruixin Consulting (2016) Five evaluation indexes of urban sustainable development are indispensable [EB/OL]. https://www.jiemian.com/article/631163.html Sharmila M et al (2020) Congestion prediction for smart sustainable cities using IoT and machine learning approaches. Sustain Cities Soc 64 Silva CN et al (2020) Local governance in the New Urban Agenda[M]. Springer Science and Business Media LLC Thinking of Hangzhou urban data brain, transferred from. CSUs smart city pilot [EB/OL]. https:// www.sohu.com/a/285329352_468661. Accessed 29 Dec 2018 United Nations (2019) Goal 11:Building inclusive, safe, disaster-resilient and sustainable cities and human settlements [EB/OL]. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/zh/cities/ Wu N, Wang J (2020, 23 September) Xi Jinping delivers an important speech at the general debate of the 75th SESSION of the United Nations General Assembly [N]. People’s Daily (1) Xu C (2019) Favorable time, place and people’s harmony in future community construction [J]. Zhejiang Econ J (22):62.6 Zang J, He L (2019) Integration of people and future communities [J]. Zhejiang Econ J (22):56–57 Zhang H (2020) Building a new governance pattern of “integration of three modernizations” by using new infrastructure [J]. Natl Gov (17):30–31 Zhang X, Lin J, Ye L Yu L (2019) Scenario of future community low carbon energy [J]. Gas Heat 39(12):19–21 + 42–43

Chapter 5

Smart Cities or Smart People: The Role of Stakeholders to Achieve Integrative Vision Attia Sahar, Ibrahim, and Asmaa

Abstract The smart city concept has emerged in Egypt in the last 5 years with the start of the fourth generation of new cities, creating a gap between the policies dealing with new versus existing cities. In fact, the proposed strategic master plans for existing cities lacked the components of smartness and the true engagement of stakeholders. It rather focused on meeting the challenges resulting from the over densification, and informalities by a participatory approach that is still missing an appropriate common language between all stakeholders. The authors argue that smart cities’ vision will contribute to solving the issues of cities if linked to the regional context, especially involving new cities while achieving local resilience. The case of New Alamein and old Alamein is a clear interpretation that will be discussed and analyzed to determine the way forward to achieve the integrative vision. This chapter addresses the importance of an integrated approach that would ensure the successful implementation of the smart cities’ initiative in both new and existing cities through empowering the utilization of physical, human, and economic resources of the country. Particularly, the chapter provides insights into how to engage the various stakeholders to contribute to the Egyptian agenda 2030 to place the existing Egyptian agglomerations on the map of sustainable smart cities. The authors will provide recommendations on how to achieve a dynamic inclusion of all stakeholders, emphasizing their role to build sustainable, resilient, and smart cities. This would imply to determine the difference of scale, and level of smartness required to achieve a smart integration. Keywords Alamein · Smart cities · Smart people · Integrative planning · Participatory planning

A. Sahar (B) · Ibrahim Cairo University, Giza, Egypt Asmaa Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 R. K. Mishra et al. (eds.), Smart Cities for Sustainable Development, Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7410-5_5

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5.1 Introduction Over the last decades, smart cities’ discourse has heavily anchored on technology with many governments initiating bold policies to make their cities smart. This can be remarkably noticed for Egypt’s policies in the planning of the fourth generation of smart cities. That said, components of smartness that embody technologically innovative solutions without incorporating an embedded culture of continuous learning, deep partnerships, and collaboration among stakeholders would not lead to achieving sustainable inclusive development. From that view, it is crucial to focus on integrating new and old cities to ensure the sustainability of the process rather than focusing on including technological characteristics in new cities in isolation from their regional context and geographically related old cities. This chapter will thus discuss the integrative vision for the strategic planning for old Alamein and New Alamein cities in Egypt as an illustrative example of the significance of true engagement of stakeholders with all their different categories in building the futuristic vision for the whole regional context rather than privileging a certain area/city with resources to represent a “smart city.” It is equally important to include “smart people” within a bottom-up approach with focus on their roles, together with the use of data and information to co-decide, co-plan and co-deliver. The chapter is structured in five sections. The first introduces the notion of smart cities with regard to the participatory approach. The second section presents an overview of the Egyptian new cities, and how they tackle the smart cities phenomenon, the process, and the expected outcome. The third section discusses Al Alamein regional context to engage the reader to understand the importance of regional context while thinking of smart cities. The fourth section debates the relationship between Al Alamein new city, and the old city known as old Alamein, the authors demonstrate that the success of a new city emerges from its complementarity with the existing context. The fifth section lays the foundation of how stakeholders can play an important role in achieving sustainable smart cities. Finally, the authors discuss future potentials for smart cities in Egypt, how policymakers should formulate the future visions, and how to achieve the paradigm shift regarding the notion of smart cities.

5.1.1 Redefining the Notion of “Smart City” In our rapidly urbanizing and globalized world, governments are thriving to achieve sustainable development especially in cities, which is expected to accommodate 70% of the world’s population by 2050 (Unhabitat 2019). Such cities play a key role in achieving the Sustainable Development Goal 11 proclaimed in the New Urban Agenda (Habitat 2016), to build more inclusive, resilient, and sustainable for people to live in. (UN 2016). The growing unprecedented levels of urban population residing in cities have made it necessary to focus on achieving such goals with emphasis on smart cities and communities and in relation to other closely related goals such as

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climate action or responsible consumption and production. This has strongly motivated decision-makers to be agile to tackle all related challenges within the “smart perspective” that implies big data, 5G, internet of things, and other computerized components. Bibri and Krogstie (2019) confirm that the urban world is expected to become largely technologized and computerized within a few decades, and ICT as an enabling, and integrative, technology of the twenty-first century will accordingly be instrumental, if not determining. But what about cities that do not have the capacity to provide “smart” solutions as they lack suitable infrastructure? Human ingenuity would thus have to provide concrete solutions. Egypt, as one of the developing countries, similarly suffers from overpopulation and urban migrations to cities that reduce life quality and cause overcrowding. About 43% of the population is concentrated in the Greater Cairo Region (GCR) and Alexandria (New York University 2016). The local government has thus been building new cities in response with focus on integrating smart features as the case in leading projects such as the New Administrative City, the New El Mansoura City, and in New Alamein City, which will be discussed in this chapter. The argument would thus be: “what about existing cities in its regional context? And how to integrate such policies to achieve both sustainability and local resilience within an integrative approach?” Failure to respond to such arguments might create spatial bubbles that would eventually heighten the gap between communities, promote inequalities, and stand against building safe and inclusive cities as aspired. Moreover, it should be mentioned that there is a large gap between new cities and existing cities in terms of urban systems, networks, data availability, and urban infrastructure platforms. This gap implies the adoption of sensitive urban planning approaches to achieve a shared smart vision. Hence, smart city concept should move beyond being tech-centric and adapt a more inclusive lens to mirror the diverse requirements and innovative solutions codeveloped by related stakeholders. Many city leaders and urban experts emphasize the fact that smart cities are about better decision-making not only better data to promote access, equity, and fairness in a participatory planning approach. Thus, smart cities should rely on people for insights and direction with technology amplifying this. According to Carbonnell (2019), urban transition pathways will impact people’s everyday life and will depend on their choices regarding mobility, energy use, consumption, and society needs. This valorizes the fact that smart cities should serve their citizens as a first priority goal. Accordingly, common characteristics of smart cities are expected to provide a clear vision for its economic, social, and environmental development; building trust and confidence in the city government gained through engagement, transparency, and stability, investing in continual learning and building on existing capacities, collaboration across actors, systems and resources, enhancing and creating inclusive and accessible urban spaces and services. This was evidently clear in the playbook on smart urban innovations recently released in December 2020 by GCTISD, UNDP. (UNDP 2020).

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5.2 Overview on Egypt New Cities Generations, and the Introduction to Smart Cities Based on the fact that urban population in Egypt is not evenly distributed among all its cities, the New Urban Communities Authority in Egypt (NUCA) started in the mid-1970s, to tackle the resulting urban challenges by establishing new cities. The first generation that lasts to 1982 produced seven cities. This version produced mostly industrial-based economic cities and regional services, which aimed at further attracting industry investments to be located on desert land away from existing cities. Examples of this include 10th of Ramadan, 6th of October, Borg El Arab…etc. The second generation that has taken place in 1982 and lasted for 18 years produced eight cities. It mainly targeted absorbing the high concentration in the Greater Cairo Region (GCR), such as New Cairo, Sheikh Zayed, Badr, El Shorouk, and others. The third generation created seven cities with regional services, light and basic industries, near existing cities. This version failed to attract the population of nearby dense cities. Finally, the fourth generation integrates 20 cities to be built on the total area of 243,600 hectares and is expected to accommodate about 30 million people. They are built in an architectural style based on modern technology and in line with Egypt’s 2030 Vision and its sustainable development strategy, according to the government. They are intended to represent integrated cities in terms of availability of services and the use of advanced technologies in infrastructure and facilities. Among them is the New Alamein City (ANC) (GOPP and UN-Habitat 2014). The development of the fourth generation of new cities was presented by the government as a vital need to conquer the desert and increase livable areas, while considering the challenges that have not been taken into account and addressed by planners in the first three generations (Attia and Toregas 2019). Attia (2017) states that since none of the previous cities reached the target population, there should be a new logic to build new cities in Egypt. In fact, Egypt is embarking to enter the era of smart cities by establishing 14 cities with international technological standards, for which the government has allocated a special budget, a specific timetable and following the international standards. Smart cities are one of the most important strengths that will lead to a major boom in the telecommunications and real estate sectors in Egypt. The government seeks to build all new cities with a “smart city” system that achieves technological development within the framework of the transformation into a digital society that facilitates services provided to citizens. The importance of smart cities will ensure innovation and qualitative shift in the citizen’s lifestyle. On top of the smart cities that Egypt seeks to establish, the new administrative capital, which is being built in cooperation with experts in the establishment of this type of city, in addition to the new city of Alamein, whose establishment is announced in an environmentally friendly digital climate, and a catalyst for learning and creativity, during the next 5 years. It is expected that the new cities will accommodate more than 30 million people after the completion of their construction. Among the most prominent steps taken by the state is the allocation of 7.8

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billion pounds in the 2019/2020 budget; to modernize the information infrastructure and digital content of the Egyptian state, the government has also established several councils concerned with the transition to the digital economy and attracting foreign investments—including the Supreme Council for Digital Transformation. (State information Sercice 2018).

5.3 Al-Alamein Regional Context Through the last decades, the regional plans in the eighties for the Northwest Coast and Alexandria urban region lack critical determination for linkages between new cities and existing settlements (GOPP 2010; Bassem and Kamiya 2017). Bedouins speculated the land, and for decades, the model of urban growth in the North Coast was not subject to a specific vision (Attia 2017). That said, in 1999, the development triangle plan “Alexandria–El-Alamein–Wadi Al-Natrun” (GOPP 1999) introduced new regional development zones with emphasis on the regional role of new cities’ axis. In 2007, El-Alamein New City (ANC) was proposed, subsequently—as a millennium city under the framework of the national project to resettle five million people in the Northwest Coast from Al-Hammam city to Salloum. It was intended to be the main development center at the Northwest Coast East region. Since then, all strategic plans such as the Northern Coast Development Plan, Egypt 2052 Urban Development Plan, and others consider that New Alamein is a main developmental hub. It is also among the main four proposed new cities (New Marsa Matrouh/New Borg El Arab/New Sidi Barany) and is intended to shift the gravity center of Alexandria urban region—at the same time, it is a coastal city that has the role to link the region with the Mediterranean basin. Moreover, it witnessed completions of the International Coastal Road and linking it to West Delta and Sinai, the investment in the new Borg El Arab and El-Alamein airports and Marsa Matrouh, which assigned it a leading role in the region. On the other hand, this came with less focus on its integration with existing settlements and communities. One of the closest existing communities to New Alamein is the old existing Alamein city, which is currently thriving to survive among the giant dominant development. See Fig. 5.1 showing the location of both new and existing Alamein. The red dotted line shows the boundaries of the existing city, and how it is embedded and connected to the new one. The figure also shows the difference of scale between both cities and their uses, which will necessitate to deal equally with them even if they are administratively under different authorities. The existing Alamein city has generally been influenced by the populations coming from Cairo and Alexandria seasonally in the summer for internal tourism. They are usually accommodated in the surrounding touristic villages and hotels. Despite its small size, it has a significant history for accommodating World War battles and thus many tourists visit the German and Italian cemeteries together with the war museum. The Commonwealth war cemetery is also located there, with graves

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Fig. 5.1 Relationship between existing (old) Alamein and ANC. Source Attia (2016) (Associated Consultants)

of soldiers from various countries who fought on the Allied side. It also accommodates the annual celebration held in October with the presence of representatives from different international organizations. That said, the city itself suffers from many urban deteriorations including high poverty levels, low quality of basic services including water supply and waste disposal, high unemployment rates, and the sprawl of informal settlements without adequate infrastructure, most of the city is being squatted by Bedouins. On the other side, it possesses highly competitive potentials as it represents the service core for many surrounding settlements in addition to the capability of industrial and agricultural expansion. However, the establishment of New Alamein will definitely challenge the regional and administrative role of the existing Alamein city. The smart vision adopted for the new Alamein city would thus overload the adjacent urban settlements and might lead the existing one to eventually demolish unless the smart vision incorporates within its commanding role the concept of viewing existing communities as “smart people,” which means that they are a main stakeholder within the decision-making process to find a creative way for their positive contribution without being left behind within this gigantic, impressive urbanism.

5.4 Relationship Between New and Existing Alamein Cities In 2015, the New Urban Communities Authority launched the Master Plan for New Alamein to occupy a large area on the west of the existing old Alamein. The master Plan considered the physical linkage between both cities, the debate was about

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whether they should be merged? or disconnected? The fact that both cities are adjacent, but administratively under different authorities, was faced with the unavoidable physical connection. Despite the gap between the aspirations of the Government for a new smart Alamein, and the aspirations for the citizens of old Alamein to obtain land tenure, adequate services, and similar attention had to be considered. Therefore, in 2016, the General Organization for Physical Planning (GOPP) in Egypt initiated in cooperation with UN-Habitat, the preparation of the strategic plan of existing Alamein as part of their small cities program. The Strategic Plan was conducted through adopting a bottom-up participatory approach to co-develop a vision and propose priority projects in cooperation with all related stakeholders: community, local and regional governmental entities, private sectors, and NGOs. The workshops gathering stakeholders identified the priority projects and showed the concern of stakeholders about the future of their small city and announced that they would prefer to keep their city as a separate entity, they also welcomed the idea of having regional service centers to separate and link both cities. Introducing the smart city concept in New Alamein was not a choice, as one of the fourth-generation cities, the government invested in smart technology regarding infrastructure, and mobility as a first step, expecting that citizens will benefit from the quality of services, and will even promote, and encourage Egyptians to move to New Alamein. Aiming for new information and communication technologies is to be introduced to improve the quality of urban services (mobility, housing, administration). The debate here is even stronger, should the government invest in technology and smart concepts as a priority in both existing and new cities? Will the people adapt, will they benefit in the long run? Or for existing cities, especially small size cities, the government should be concerned about solving current prevailing problems and issues? For old Alamein, introducing smart concepts can be seen as a solution to the vulnerability of citizens in urban communities. It allows to improve the living conditions and quality of life. Aiming for promoting participatory approaches through “Information and Communication Technologies.” Nevertheless, the inhabitants were not involved in this debate. In fact, the mechanism of the implementation of the smart city is based solely on the vision of the government, specialists, or experts. This sometimes justifies that a smart city set by public authority does not necessarily correspond to the aspirations of the inhabitants or may be. The next section tackles the participatory approach to highlight how “smart people” in existing Alamein may contribute toward having an integrative development approach with New Alamein city and then discussing the consequent challenges.

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5.5 Adopting the Participatory Approach in Existing Alamein The bottom-up approach adopted with the help of the UN Habitat for developing existing Alamein city and setting it a futuristic vision for the coming 20 years begins through a series of city consultations involving all stakeholders with all their categories as listed in the previous section. The consultants along with the GOPP and UN Habitat representatives start explanation for all existing challenges and opportunities in different sectors including demographics, local economy, shelter and informal settlements, services, and infrastructure. This is followed by a number of city consultations to agree on the futuristic vision for the city (see Fig. 5.2 showing photos or city consultations). From this, it was agreed that the main pillars for potential development would include better quality of life through enhancing the housing sector, working on clean environment, planning a proper collective transport system, and having more efficient services. This is certainly considered to be core principles for the development of any city. However, through discussion, it was made clear that this vision would never be achieved given the fact that the existing Alamein city will be eventually marginalized with the establishment of the ANC. Consequently, the perspective changed on how to better integrate functionally with the ANC and cope with its economic growth through building capacities of human resources that are required by the ANC and the whole Matrouh regions from one side and from another side develop the handicrafts to serve the touristic sector, and this valorizes the role of existing Alamein city in achieving the strategic plan for Matrouh Region through an integrative development approach with the region and with ANC. Therefore, the final vision was to achieve sustainable economic integration while achieving local resilience and valorizing the ingenuity of the original identity of the Bedouin community that is rich with its own lifestyle, housing character and distinguished history to make the best use of all its available resources and remarkable location (See Fig. 5.3). This would prevent it from being under-recognized within the huge adjacent development of ANC. It is worth to mention that this smart vision was reached through agreement between the community representative and other governmental entities. However, the implementation presents a challenge.

Fig. 5.2 City consultations

5 Smart Cities or Smart People: The Role of Stakeholders … Fig. 5.3 Future vision for existing Alamein City, as co-decided by all stakeholders

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The establishment of digital platforms in ANC may raise debates, especially regarding the digital divide, which can be geographical, generational, or social (privileged classes with better access to different technologies). Bringing technology everywhere in the city thus presents the risk of exacerbating these disparities.

5.6 Conclusion It is evidently clear from the above review that futuristic strategies for smart cities as planned by the government have to be integrated with local acceptance from surrounding communities who will not be the main enabler for all technological development planned but rather will play the role of facilitators through their effective contribution with the process and without marginalization for any stakeholder or for any existing small cities. The government role then will be to wisely valorize their role through respecting the cultural background, which remains one of the main poles for attracting foreign investments and that clearly puts value to any smart technological advancement planned and thus achieving “smart local resilience.” Currently, all actions toward establishing smart cities are often carried with a lack of citizens’ participation, their opinions are not taken into account in the early stages except for their needs, and aspirations, without emphasizing the importance of new tools for city management. To this end, we suggest setting up a mechanism to involve residents in the early stages of the design and construction of the smart city. To integrate smart concepts in the strategic plans of cities, yet the scale and size of cities will implicate various levels of smart interventions, decision-makers have to use adequate governance smart tools.

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References Attia S (2017) Al Alamein New City, a sustainability battle to win. In: Sahar A, Zeinab S, Asmaa I (eds) New cities and community extensions in Egypt and the Middle East, Ch. 1. Springer international Publishing Attia S, Toregas C (2019) Moving the capital to promote sustainability innovations: analyzing Cairo’s future plans. In: Robert O (ed) Capital Cities and Urban Sustainability. Routledge Bassem F., Kamiya M. (2017). “ Productive Urban Development: Linking Planning and Economy in Al-Alamein New City, Egypt.“ New Cities and Community Extensions in Egypt and the Middle East”. Ch. 2, eds. Sahar Attia, Zeinab Shafik, Asmaa Ibrahim, Springer international Publishing. Bibri SE, Krogstie J (2019) Generating a vision for smart sustainable cities of the future: a scholarly backcasting approach. Eur J Futures Res 7:5 Carbonnell J (2019) Smart-city: stakeholders roles and needs. medium.com GOPP and UN-Habitat (2014) A study of the location and components of the new city of ElAlamein—strategic plan for the development of the Northwest Coast and its desert hinterland until 2050–2073, UN-Habitat. Egypt GOPP (1999) The triangle development plan at the Northern Coast “Alexandria—El-Alamein— Wadi Al-Natrun” general organization of physical planning. Egypt GOPP (2010) Strategic planning of Matrouh governorate vision for the northwest coast development 2032. General organization of physical planning. Egypt New York University, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, and UN-Habitat (2016) Atlas of Urban expansion. http://atlasofurbanexpansion.org/ State information service (2018) Home-SIS UN (2016). Sustainable development goals. http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/cities/ UNDP (2020) GCTISD-Smart-Urban-innovations-playbook (“UNDP-GCTISD-Smart-UrbanInnovations-Playbook-compressed.pdf,” n.d.) UN-Habitat (2016) Achieving sustainable Urban development priorities project in Egypt. Egypt Unhabitat (2019) The strategic plan 2020–2023. Nairobi, Kenya

Chapter 6

Smart City Initiatives in Japan: Achievements and Remaining Issues Jun Yamashita

Abstract Since the term smart city was coined, theories and practices of smart cities have flourished. Regarding the practical aspect, smart cities have been built in various countries around the world in recent years, including in Japan, which has experienced the same global trends in the construction of smart cities since 2010. The present study identified achievements and remaining issues of smart city initiatives in Japan using a theoretical framework incorporating policy dimensions and stakeholders for these initiatives. In conclusion, Japanese smart city initiatives were characterized with environmental dimension based on ITC and chiefly implemented by the national and local governments. Further development is required in the health dimension and user-driven innovation as remaining issues for the coming smart city initiatives in Japan. Keywords Environmental sustainability · Energy management system · Society 5.0 · Smart city platform · Open innovation ecosystem · User-driven innovation

6.1 Introduction Since Gibson et al. (1992) coined the term smart city, research on and practices of smart cities have been activated. Regarding the theoretical aspect, definitions of a smart city have become more diverse as the number of smart city developments has flourished (Lazaroiu and Roscia 2012; Albino et al. 2015). Among such diverse definitions, Caragliu et al. (2011) considered “a city to be smart when investments in human and social capital and traditional (transport) and modern (ICT) communication infrastructure fuel sustainable economic growth and a high quality of life, with a wise management of natural resources, through participatory governance”

This chapter is the revised version of published works of Yamashita (2018) and Yamashita (2019). J. Yamashita (B) Kyushu University, Fukuoka 8190395, Japan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 R. K. Mishra et al. (eds.), Smart Cities for Sustainable Development, Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7410-5_6

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(p. 70). According to this definition, participatory governance including citizens’ participation is regarded as a part of the smart city concept. With the rapid development of ICTs including 5G technology, a number of smart city policies have been planned and implemented in recent years all over the world. While the implementations of these smart city policies have been summarized, these policies have also been classified in terms of their implementation (Alawadhi et al. 2012; Angelidou 2014; Marsal-Llacuna et al. 2015; Kourtit et al. 2017; Yigitcanlar and Kamruzzaman 2018). These studies addressing such summaries and classifications of policy implementation for smart cities could be regarded as the policy research for the stage of policy implementation, namely the Do stage in the policy cycle (PDCA cycle). Regarding planning and implementation of smart city initiatives, Japan has also experienced similar global trends in smart city development since 2010. While smart city initiatives in Japan have continuously planned and implemented, however, policy research on smart city initiatives in Japan is limited. Among the limited numbers of policy research on smart cities, Cao (2018) characterized Japan’s smart city initiatives by being led by the national government and implemented through subsidies to local governments. He also noted that while Japan’s smart city policies targeted disaster resilience, tourism revitalization, and international standardization of ICTs, stakeholder engagement and data security need to be considered in future smart initiatives in Japan. Ojo et al. (2015) and Quijano-Sánchez et al. (2020) also agreed with his argument on the environment-oriented smart city initiatives in Japan. On the other hand, Sato et al. (2020) used articles from national newspapers published in Japan and Slovenia to compare how smart city initiatives are reported in the two countries and attempted to identify similarities and differences in smart city policies. As a result, 14 themes were identified. Of these, the following four themes were found in Japan only: international transfer of smart city-related technologies, Society 5.0, government projects, and depopulation. Therefore, the Japanese smart city initiatives were also they characterized with ITCs and government-driven policies. By the aforementioned policy studies on smart city initiatives in Japan, however, it is difficult to conclude that characteristics and key stakeholders of these initiatives have been fully identified. In this chapter, therefore, it is aimed to reveal achievements and remaining issues of the Japanese smart city initiatives in consideration with the policy dimensions and key stakeholders of them. The history of the smart city initiative in Japan is briefed in the following section. In the third section, we present a theoretical framework of smart city initiatives to identify their policy dimensions and key stakeholders as achievements of these initiatives. On the basis of the findings on policy dimensions and stakeholders, remaining issues of the smart city initiative in Japan are discussed in the fifth section. Finally, some conclusions are drawn, and future research directions are showed in the final section.

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6.2 A Short History of Smart City Initiatives in Japan The national smart city policy started in 2008 in Japan. In this year, the Cabinet Office initiated the eco-model and future cities project on the basis of the “future city” initiative, while the Agency for Natural Resources and Energy, under the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, launched the next generation energy and social system demonstration project, also called the smart community project, in 2010 (Table 6.1). Although both smart city national policies aim at the construction of smart sustainable cities, their directions are slightly different. While the former is tightly connected to the term “smart,” namely ICTs, the latter is less oriented toward smartness but environmental sustainability. Two cities, Yokohama and Kitakyushu, were designated not only as model cities for the next generation energy and social system demonstration project, but also as eco-model and future cities. In the eco-model and future city project, 23 cities were designated as eco-model cities in total (13 cities in 2008, 7 in 2012 and 3 in 2013) and 11 cities as future cities in 2011. To extend the “FutureCity” initiatives, the Cabinet Office started the SDGs Table 6.1 Smart city-related major legislations, projects and events in Japan 2008

(P) Low-carbon city model project (MLIT and MoE) (P) Ecological urban development project (MLIT) (P) Eco-model and future cities project (CO)

2010

(P) The next generation energy and social system demonstration project (METI)

2011

(P) Future cities project (CO)

2012

(L) Low carbon city promotion act

(P) Project for promoting introduction of smart communities (METI) (P) Supportive project for building energy storage and saving models for towns, homes, and transportation (MLIT) (P) ICT Urban development promotion project (MIAC) 2013

(P) Pilot project for building low-carbon urban development plans based on public participation (MoE)

2015

(P) Promotion project for creation of ICT towns, people and jobs (MIAC)

2016

(L) The 5th science and technology basic plan (L) Basic act on the advancement of public and private sector data utilization (L) Comprehensive strategy on science, technology and innovation

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(P) Promotion project for data utilization driven smart cities (MIAC)

2018

(P) SDGs future cities (CO)

2019

(P) Smart city model project (MLIT) (C) G20 Ministerial statement on trade and digital economy (Tsukuba, Japan)

Notes (P): Projects, (L): Legislations and plans, (C): Conferences Affiliations: CO: Cabinet Office; METI: Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry; MIAC: Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications; MLIT: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism; MoE: Ministry of the Environment

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Future Urban project in 2018. In this project, the SDGs are utilized as a new tool to foster the creation of an economically and socially sustainable society across Japan. On the other hand, four cities, Yokohama, Toyota, Keihanna and Kitakyu-shu, were selected for experiments of the next generation energy and social system demonstration project. In this project, the smart community was defined as “a new form of social system that comprehensively manages the supply and demand of energy in the distributed energy systems, optimizes the use and application of energy, and incorporates lifestyle support services, including monitoring service for the elderly, through the energy management system utilizing ICTs and technologies for energy storage, while making use of distributed energy resources such as renewable energy and cogeneration” (Japan Smart Community Alliance 2015, p. 2). Simultaneously, some Japanese companies have transferred their smart cityrelated technologies overseas since 2010. The Becamex Tokyu, a joint venture between Tokyu Corporation and Becamex IDC Corporation in Vietnam, launched the Tokyu Binh Duong Garden City Project in Binh Duong province, Vietnam, in 2012. In 2013, construction of a mass rapid transit (MRT) began in Jakarta, Indonesia, by a joint venture between Shimizu Corporation and some Indonesian companies. As Yamashita (2019) pointed out, the experiences have resulted in some technologies being transferred to both domestic and international markets since the end of these smart community projects in 2014. The “second generation” of smart city initiatives has been introduced after the presentation of Society 5.0 concept in 2016. In this year, the Cabinet Office first proposed this concept in the 5th Science and Technology Basic Plan approved by the Cabinet. In this plan, Society 5.0 is characterized as follows: “Through an initiative merging the physical space (real world) and cyberspace by leveraging ICT to its fullest, we are proposing an ideal form of our future society: a “super smart society” that will bring wealth to the people. The series of initiatives geared toward realizing this ideal society are now being further deepened and intensively promoted as “Society 5.0” (Government of Japan 2016, p. 13). The most important feature of Society 5.0 is human wealth, and such a society comes after the hunting–gathering society, the agricultural society, the industrial society and the information society. Society 5.0 is similar to the notions representing the fourth industrial revolution based on ICTs, such as “Industry 4.0” in Germany, “Advanced Manufacturing Partnership” in the United State and “Made in China 2025” in China. Whereas these concepts chiefly address industry itself, Society 5.0 represents society as a whole. To create the Society 5.0, the following smart city initiatives were planned and ongoing: the promotion project for data utilization driven smart cities by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications in 2017 and the smart city model projects by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism in 2019.

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6.3 Policy Dimensions and Stakeholders of Smart City Initiatives: A Theoretical Framework To identify its policy dimensions and key stakeholders as achievements of smart city initiatives in Japan, a theoretical framework for these initiatives were employed. Regarding policy dimensions of smart city initiatives, Giffinger et al. (2007) presented a theoretical framework for these initiatives consisting of the following six dimensions: economy, environment, governance, mobility, living and people. This is the most widely adopted framework for the smart city policy dimension (Monzon 2015; Appio et al. 2019; Quijano-Sánchez et al. 2020). On the basis of this reference model, Ojo et al. 2015 added two dimensions: lifestyle and technology, while Alexopoulos et al. (2019) also proposed the following new dimensions: ICT infrastructure, energy, waste management and water resources, health, safety and security, tourism culture. For both cases, however, the additional dimensions are seemed to be integrated into the six dimensions presented by Giffinger et al. (2007). For Ojo et al. (2015), lifestyle integrated into living, and technology into economy, while ICT infrastructure could be included into economy, energy, and waste management and water resources into environment, and health, safety and security, and tourism culture to living for Alexopoulos et al. (2019). The aforementioned six dimension was employed as a part of theoretical framework for smart city initiatives here. Regarding stakeholders of these initiatives, on the other hand, the quadruple helix model was often utilized as the theoretical framework. The quadruple helix model, based on a collaboration between industry, government, academia, and society (Carayannis and Campbell 2009), was regarded as the theoretical basis for various national smart city policies because these policies targeted open innovation (Bibri and Krogstie 2017). Regarding applications of the quadruple helix model for smart city development, Martinez et al. (2016) discussed relationships between smart cities and the quadruple helix model in the context of health care. They pointed out the necessity of inclusive spaces, namely living labs, as a policy tool of the quadruple helix model. Such spaces comprising of health services and end-users such as citizens, patients, relatives, healthcare workers, and other professionals foster inclusive innovation, such as welfare technology, eHealth, telemedicine and mobile health solutions. Mora et al. (2019), moreover, discussed the superiority of the triple or quadruple helix model regarding smart city development involving four European cities. The quadruple helix model was also employed as a part of theoretical framework for smart city initiatives in this chapter. Fernandez-Anez et al. (2018) incorporated the six policy dimensions and for stakeholders of the quadruple helix model into one theoretical framework. This framework consists of three layers from the center to the outer layer, namely stakeholders, smart city dimensions, and global trends. In this framework, smart city policies are assumed to be decided and implemented by interactions among three layers and their elements. The inner layer is composed of the four stakeholders: political, social, economic and knowledge stakeholders. The idea of these four stakeholders, namely government,

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citizens, industry and research institutes, relies on the aforementioned quadruple helix model for innovation. The middle layer, the smart city dimension, consists of six elements: governance, economy, environment, mobility, people and living. Among the six elements, governance has the chief role to integrate the other five. Finally, the outer layer of global trends comprises six areas: cli-mate change, social polarization, new governance models, global urbanization, economic instability and technological innovations. Although this framework consists of the aforementioned three layers, each element on these layers is inter-related. Thus, stakeholders respond to challenges caused by global trends and prioritize and implement smart city initiatives in the six smart city dimensions. In the present study, Fernandez-Anez et al. (2018)’s theoretical framework was used to identify policy dimensions and key stake-holders as achievements of smart city initiatives implemented in Japan. The research subjects were the four cities, namely, Yokohama, Toyota, Keihanna and Kitakyushu, designated as pilot cities in the Smart Community Project run by the Agency for Natural Resources and Energy from 2010 to 2014 before the introduction of Society 5.0 concept. These cities were selected because the “second generation” of smart city initiatives after the introduction of this concept, such as the promotion project for data utilization driven smart cities by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications in 2017 and the smart city model projects by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism in 2019, are still ongoing so that it is difficult to clearly identify their achievements and remaining issues. A smart community was defined as “a new form of social system that comprehensively manages the supply and demand of energy in the distributed energy systems, optimizes the use and application of energy, and incorporates lifestyle support services including monitoring services for the elderly, through the energy management system utilizing IT and storage energy technologies, while making use of distributed energy resources such as renewable energy and cogeneration” (Japan Smart Community Alliance 2015, p. 2). A smart community was also regarded as a community where there was an “effort to change the social system of a defined area into a smarter state with technologies not only for electric power systems but also for a variety of public infrastructures including heat supply, water and sewerage, transportation, and communications” (ibid, p. 2). The reason for the smart community project was the intention of the Japanese government to change the energy supply system in Japan. Since the end of World War 2, ten electric companies have oligopolized the supply of electricity in ten large regional blocks. Furthermore, Japan is a country prone to natural disasters. After Japan experienced large-scale disasters, especially the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami, decentralizing the supply of power and introducing flexible power pricing at the local level has been emphasized in order to avoid large-scale electricity shortages, thereby bringing an end to the oligopolized electricity supply. Renewable energy resources have also become regionalized so that these resources may be incorporated into local energy supplies in smart communities using ICTs.

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6.4 Achievements of Smart City Initiatives in Japan In this section, first policy dimensions of the smart city initiatives are shown to identify achievements of these initiatives. Then, key stakeholders in these initiatives are revealed using the quadruple helix model.

6.4.1 Policy Dimensions The overviews and achievements of the four smart community projects are summarized as follows.

6.4.1.1

Yokohama City

The Yokohama Smart City Project (YSCP) was implemented in an existing metropolitan area. Yokohama City has a population of approximately 4 million. In this project, about 4,000 households had photovoltaic (PV) panels and other smart equipment installed. This equipment was managed by home energy management systems (HEMSs) (Table 6.2). Building energy management systems (BEMSs) were also established in 10 buildings. These HEMSs and BEMSs were connected to community energy management systems (CEMSs) to control peak cut and in turn conserve energy in order to reduce carbon dioxide emissions at the regional level. Table 6.2 Summary of the Yokohama smart community project HEMS – Solar power generation, fuel cells, solar heat, EV, etc., were introduced into existing housing complexes – Energy usage fell by approximately 40% through the utilization of renewable energy and distributed energy, interchange of electrical heat/integrated control, and the introduction of HEMSs – An 80% or higher rate of self-sufficiency in electrical power energy BEMS – Two buildings were managed using an “integrated BEMS” and such BEMSs were also connected with each other – Approximately 10% more energy was saved compared to ordinary energy-saving buildings CEMS – Large-scale demand responses were implemented Source (Komiyama 2012)

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Table 6.3 Summary of the Toyota smart community project Energy management – 67 homes equipped with solar panels, household fuel cells, Eco Cute, secondary cells, plug-in hybrid vehicles, electric vehicles, etc., were newly introduced in an urban district of Toyota City – From the perspectives of local prosumers and cutting back during peak hours, pseudo-dynamic pricing was implemented, and digital currency was awarded through smartphones, etc. HEMSs were also linked to an EDMS (energy data management system) to manage energy for the entire district – Plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHV) and electric vehicles (EV) were used as secondary cells Transportation System – The driving conditions of PHVs and EVs were monitored using the EDMS. Using this system, optimal driving routes to destinations were presented for each vehicle in accordance with road conditions, and point-based incentives were offered as rewards to energy-efficient drivers – Power supplies for fuel cell buses and schools, among others, were demonstrated in the event of natural disasters Source (Komiyama 2012)

6.4.1.2

Toyota City

Toyota City, which has a population of less than 420,000, is famous for being the location of Toyota Motor Corporation’s headquarters. This company took a leading role in the Toyota City Low-Carbon Society Verification Project (Smart Merit). Unlike the Yokohama Smart City Project, the project in Toyota City was implemented in a small town named “Toyota Ecoful Town.” This housing complex consisted of 67 newly built houses installed with HEMSs (Table 6.3). Along with the energy management in houses, this smart community project also focused on the transportation sector. Privately-owned electric and fuel cell vehicles were provided with the aforementioned HEMSs as storages and generators.

6.4.1.3

Keihanna City

The smart community project entitled the “Keihanna Eco City Next-Generation Energy and Social System” was run by a local government consortium under the auspices of an academia-industry-society collaboration (Table 6.4). This is partly because Keihanna City consists of eight municipalities spanning three prefectures with a population of approximately 240,000. Among these local governments, Kyoto Prefecture and three municipalities under this prefecture participated in this smart community project. Like the Yokohama Smart City Project, the smart community project in Keihanna comprised approximately 700 HEMSs with around 100 EVs, 1 BEMS and 1 CEMS to manage demand response and peak cut.

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Table 6.4 Summary of the Keihanna City smart community project HEMS – HEMSs measured energy consumption by electrical apparatus – HEMSs were also utilized as energy and storage battery management systems BEMS – Reduction of CO2 emissions through fuel optimization and suppression – DR (demand response) measures were taken for not only approximately 70 building tenants and common spaces but also hotel rooms CEMS – Identified the status of regional energy demand and supply, including energy and gas usage statistics for households, buildings, and EVs in the region, as well as PV energy generation – In order to draft an optimal energy usage plan, each EMS was developed and the effects of DR and balancing measures were verified Large-scale Demand Response – The energy demand suppression effect of price-induction was verified for approximately 700 households – Effects of energy-saving consultations based on energy-usage data were also verified EV Charging Management – This system collected and managed EV position, battery levels, and operation data – The effects of changing and energy suppression in harmony with the CEMS were also verified Source (Komiyama 2012)

6.4.1.4

Kitakyushu City

This city, with a population of under 1 million, has been recognized as one of the world’s most sustainable cities (OECD 2013). The Kitakyushu Smart Community Project focused mainly on hydrogen (Table 6.5). Houses in the project area were connected to a hydrogen factory using pipelines. These houses generated electricity using their own fuel cells, and sometimes electricity was stored as hydrogen. Using such innovations, this project also aimed to change electricity consumers to production-consumers known as “prosumers.” By the summaries of the four smart community projects, it is disclosed that the EMS, namely the environmental dimension of smart city initiates, was the main pillar of these projects, though some projects were related to the transportation sector, mainly concerning privately owned vehicles. This project characteristic may result from the fact that the Agency for Natural Resources and Energy managed the smart community policy. Therefore, the use of renewable energy was limited to PV and wind power. The utilization of biomass was not taken into account. For these reasons, neither the waste sector (including biomass rich sewage systems), as a part of environmental dimension, nor the transportation sector (including public transportation systems using biogas generated from these sewage systems), as the mobility dimension, was integrated into the Japanese smart community development program. The future smart city initiatives may bridge the gap between the

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Table 6.5 Summary of the Kitakyushu City smart community project results CEMS – Using a steel company’s distribution lines, flexible electricity pricing was implemented for approximately 230 households and 50 business establishments HEMS and BEMS – For business establishments, real-time pricing based on two-hour notifications was implemented – In a hospital, a large proportion of demand for heat was covered by solar heat panels Use of Hydrogen and Fuel Cells – By-product hydrogen generated in some factories was distributed to residential areas through pipelines and used by fuel cells at each household. Fuel cell vehicles were filled with such hydrogen at refueling stations – Surplus electricity was stored as hydrogen, and energy supply was managed using stored hydrogen and fuel cells Source (Komiyama 2012)

environment-oriented policy dimension of the smart community project and other five dimensions incorporated in the theoretical framework.

6.4.2 Key Stakeholders Using the final reports of the four smart community projects, it was revealed that the public were not heavily involved in the smart community projects. Table 6.6 shows all project participants except for the national government, which gave subsidies to these participants, in the four smart community projects. This table includes the municipalities and prefectures where the smart community projects were implemented and several organizations involved in the government-academia-industry collaboration. While many private companies participated in the smart community projects, no university in either Keihanna City or Kitakyushu City was involved with the projects as academia. Regarding citizens’ participation, PV panels, EVs, and HEMSs were newly installed in general houses and business establishments in the four project areas. It seems clear, then, that society played a part in the smart community projects. It is noteworthy that citizens and business establishments participated in the smart community project as production consumers (prosumers) in Kitakyushu City. However, it should be emphasized that citizens’ participation in the four smart community projects was quite limited to the installation process of existing innovation as users, and did not extend to the creation process of new innovation as collaborators.

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Table 6.6 Project participants in each smart community project (1) Yokohama smart city project (YSCP) Governments

City of Yokohama, Urban Renaissance Agency

Academia

Tokyo Institute of Technology

Industry

MM42 KaihatsuTMK (a subsidiary of Marubeni Corporation), Yokohama Smart Community, Accenture, NTT DoCoMo, NTT Facilities Inc., ORIX Corporation, ORIX Auto Corporation, Sharp Corporation, JX Nippon Oil & Energy Corporation, Sumitomo Electric Industries Ltd., Sekisui House Ltd., Sony Energy Devices Corporation, Daikyo Astage Inc., Taisei Corporation, Tokyo Gas Co. Ltd., TEPCO, Toshiba Corporation, Nissan Motor Co. Ltd., JGC Corporation, JGC Information Systems Company Ltd., NEC, Nomura Real Estate Development Co. Ltd., Panasonic Corporation, Hitachi, Ltd., Misawa Homes Co. Ltd., Mitsui Fudosan Co. Ltd., Mitsui Fudosan Residential Co. Ltd., Mitsubishi Estate Co. Ltd., Meidensha Corporation

Citizens

4,230 households

(2) Toyota City low-carbon society verification project (Smart merit) Governments Toyota City, Aichi Prefecture Academia

Nagoya University

Industry

Aishin Seiki Co. Ltd., Eneres Co. Ltd., KDDI Corporation, Circle K Sunkus Co. Ltd., Sharp Corporation, Shinmei Engineering Consultants Co. Ltd., Chubu Electric Power Co. Inc., DENSO Corporation, Toshiba Corporation, Toho Gas Co. Ltd., Toyota Motor Corporation, Toyota Industries Corporation, Toyota Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Toyota Smile Life Inc., Toyota Tsusho Corporation, Toyota Home, Dream Incubator Inc., Central Nippon Expressway Company Ltd., Nagoya Railroad Co. Ltd., Development Bank of Japan Inc., Hewlett-Packard Japan Ltd., Hitachi Ltd., Fujitsu Ltd., Mitsubishi Corporation, YAZAKI Corporation, Yamato Transport Co. Ltd., Yamaha Motor Co. Ltd

Citizens

67 households

(3) Keihanna Eco City next-generation energy and social system Governments Kyoto Prefecture, Kizugawa City, Kyotanabe City, Seika Town, Urban Renaissance Agency, (Kansai Research Institute), (Doshisha Yamate Sustainable Urban City Council) Academia

(Kansai Research Institute), (Doshisha Yamate Sustainable Urban City Council) (continued)

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Table 6.6 (continued) (1) Yokohama smart city project (YSCP) Industry

(Kansai Research Institute), (Doshisha Yamate Sustainable Urban City Council), Kansai Economic Federation, Kyoto Center for Climate Actions, Enegates Co. Ltd., i-Energy WG, Osaka Gas Co. Ltd., Renesas Electronics Corporation, OMRON Corporation, The Kansai Electric Power Company Incorporated, Keihanna Interaction Plaza Inc., Sharp Corporation, Nihon Unisys Ltd., Mitsubishi Motors Corporation, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd., Mitsubishi Corporation, Mitsubishi Electric Corporation, Fuji Electronic Co. Ltd., Furukawa Electric Co. Ltd., The Furukawa Battery Co. Ltd., Renesas Electronics Corporation

Citizens

Approximately 700 households

(4) Kitakyushu smart community project Governments Kitakyushu City, (Human Media Creation Center/Kyushu) Academia

(Human Media Creation Center/Kyushu)

Industry

(Human Media Creation Center/Kyushu), Azbil Corporation, lwatani Corporation, Uchida Yoko Co. Ltd., ORIX Corporation, Saibugas Co. Ltd., JXN Engineering Co. Ltd., NS Solutions Corporation, Nippon Steel & Sumitomo Metal Corporation, Sekisui Chemical Co. Ltd., Softbank Telecom Corp., Daiwa House Industry Co. Ltd., DENSO Corporation, TOTO, Toppan Printing Co. Ltd., Toyota Motor Corporation, Toyota Industries Corporation, Toyota Tsusho Corporation, Toyoda Gosei Co. Ltd., Nippon Steel & Sumikin Texeng. Co. Ltd., IBM Japan, Japan Telecom Information Service Co. Ltd., Higashida-Clinic, FamilyMart Co. Ltd., Fuji Electric Co. Ltd., Furukawa Electric Co. Ltd., The Furukawa Battery Co. Ltd., Hohkohsya, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd., Yasukawa Electric Corporation, Yasukawa Information Systems Corporation

Citizens

Approximately 180 households

Source (Japan Smart Community Alliance 2015)

6.4.3 Discussion: Remaining Issues of Smart City Initiatives Regarding the policy dimension, it was shown that the environment based on ICTs was outstanding rather than the other five elements. This finding confirms the environment-oriented smart city initiative characterized in the previous studies (Ojo et al. 2015; Cao 2018; Quijano-Sánchez et al. 2020). Along with the environmental dimension, the ICTs were also the foundation of the smart city initiatives in Japan. Further progress in the ICTs for smart cities is expected in the second generation of smart city initiatives presented after the Society 5.0 concept in Japan. In fact, the second generation of smart city initiative is centered on the ITCs, especially the smart city platform formation. The aforementioned promotion project for data utilization driven smart cities, chiefly addressing smart city platform using the advance ICTs, subsidizes a portion of the expenses for initial and continuous investments on cross-sectoral smart city development by local governments to solve various problems facing cities and regions and to revitalize local communities. In 2017, six cities, namely, Sapporo, Aizu-wakamatsu, Saitama, Yokohama, Kakogawa,

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and Takamatsu cities, were designated for this project. Likewise, the smart city model project was aimed to implement solutions for sustainable and cross-sectoral urban development using new technology and public–private data. Two types of projects, which are leading and priority projects, have been implemented since 2019. In the leading project, 15 cities were selected, while 23 were chosen in the priority projects. The leading projects were intended to support priority projects. In the leading projects, new programs were launched, and program results and bottlenecks are analyzed. In addition, project results are shared with other projects. The priority projects are given national implementation support so that experts are dispatched and planning is also supported by them. Experiences resulted from the smart city initiatives in Japan were anticipated to be shared not only in Japan, but also internationally, particularly in the Global Smart City Alliance. This alliance was approved in the G20 Ministerial Statement on Trade and Digital Economy in Tsukuba, June 2019, and established during the Asia Smart City Week in Yokohama, October 2019. This suggests that the international network of smart city policies could be expanded in the near future. Unlike the environmental dimension, it was also revealed that the living dimension including health was relatively less focused in the smart community projects in Japan. Actually, a few smart city initiatives other than the smart community projects addressed the living dimension in Japan (Trencher and Karvonen 2019). Although this dimension has not yet been mainstreamed in such initiatives, even Japanese cities with a huge population like Tokyo are characterized by the major challenges of the declining birth rate, an aging and shrinking population. In fact, the number of total population has been decreasing since 2012 in Japan along with the declining birth rate and aging population. The proportion of 65 years old and above among the total population was 28.7% in 2020. In such aging society and global spread of COVID-19 (De Araujo et al. 2020; Shorfuzzaman et al. 2021), it is easy to imagine that the living dimension become important in the coming smart city initiatives in Japan. In terms of stakeholders, it was revealed that the central and local governments led the smart city initiative in Japan. As mentioned above, Cao (2018) also pointed out government-led smart city initiatives. By the findings of the present and his studies, it could be inferred that the public sector in the quadruple helix model was the key driving force behind the smart city initiatives in Japan. Unlike the public sector of national and local governments, it was also shown that the citizen involvement into the smart city initiatives was very limited. Yamashita (2018) had also similar results of less development of user-driven innovation in the smart city initiatives in Japan. Regarding the citizen participation, Borkowska and Osborne (2018) examined the validity of the quadruple helix model for the smart city project implemented under the Future City Demonstrator Initiative in Glasgow. They revealed that various ICTs, such as smartphone apps and digital platforms, were introduced in this initiative; however, these technologies were not prepared to support citizen participation. Besides, a lack of digital literacy in a large part of Glasgow City led to citizens’ having problems with the aforementioned technologies, and, consequently, the learning process among the four helixes, which is essential for innovation (Brown and Duguid 1991; Powell et al. 1996), was also hindered in

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this initiative. Looking closely at the four smart community projects in Japan from the viewpoint of supportive ICTs for citizen participation, no ICTs were introduced to promote citizen participation. In these projects, citizens were regarded as users or prosumers in the energy management system solution proposed by private companies. Accordingly, citizens were not given a proactive role. For these reasons, it seems that neither learning processes were created, nor was the participation of citizens as co-creators observed in these projects. When Japanese governments newly create a smart city based on the theoretical framework of the quadruple helix model in future, therefore, the following two things may be necessary in the future: technological support, namely ICTs encouraging citizens’ participation, and organizational assistance such as living labs that foster the learning process.

6.5 Conclusion Using the theoretical framework for the smart city initiative consisting of six policy dimensions and four stakeholders, it was aimed to identify the achievements and remaining issues of these initiatives in Japan in this chapter. For the achievements, it is concluded that most of the smart city initiatives were oriented to ICT-based environment as the policy dimension, and that these initiatives were chiefly implemented by the national and local governments as stakeholders. For the remaining issues, it was also indicated that the living-oriented smart city initiatives should be planned and implemented, while citizen participation should be promoted in future smart city initiatives, especially in those addressing co-creation of innovation with the public. Regarding the ICTs for smart city initiatives, although the establishment of smart city platforms was planned to enhance data sharing among different policy domains about the impacts of smart city policies in Japan, sector-based projects are still observed among the second generation of smart city policies, just like in other countries (Mattoni et al. 2015). As installed in a theoretical framework proposed by Fernandez-Anez et al. (2018), governance is the key issue to bridge such sectorbased smart city projects/policies (Albino et al. 2015; Meijer and Bolívar 2016). Further studies are required to reveal how the smart city platform is utilized to foster governance in the second generation of smart city policies in Japan. In terms of stakeholders, especially citizen, in the smart city initiatives, partly based on the theories of smart city innovation ecosystems presented by Zygiaris (2013), case studies on user-driven innovation have been undertaken. These studies have mainly focused on the possibility of integrating open innovation platforms, namely living labs, with internet applications in various areas. Schaffers et al. (2011) proposed an integrated system of living labs with internet access under three EU FP7ICT projects, and, to a degree, verified the validity of this system, while Komninos (2011) showed that the combination of user-driven innovation and ITC made smart cities more efficient in city governance in the cases of Bletchley Park in the UK, Hong Kong, and Amsterdam in the Netherlands. The results of a case study undertaken in Vancouver, Canada by Lea et al. (2015), revealed that “community-driven ecosystems

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are more robust and self-sustaining,” whereas, ordinary “innovation ecosystems are fragile and need nurturing” (p. 1542). However, it is possible to argue that, to date, the research on smart cities based on user-driven innovation has limitations. Besides, these empirical studies were chiefly conducted in European cities with only a few studies being undertaken in other parts of the world. This indicates that further smart city research is necessary, especially in a non-European context including Japan. It is, therefore, necessary to deepen further studies on Japanese smart city initiatives in this research domain.

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Part II

Smart Cities: A Dimensional Look

Chapter 7

Smart Cities and Urban Deprived Communities: A Reflection on the Need to Re-think K. T. Suresh, Roshni Chakraborty, Andrew Lillywhite, and Louis Dexter

Abstract The Government of India launched the Smart Cities Mission in June 2015 to spearhead inclusive and sustainable development. In this chapter, we question the operational definition of ‘smart,’ arguing for a human rights-based approach to urban design. We examine the questions of democratic participation, based on the recognition of all people’s right to the city, and the failure of area-based development in providing critical urban infrastructure. With a focus on affordable housing and climate resilience, we show how the most marginalized communities have so far been sidelined in smart city proposals. Pan-city solutions and local deliberation provide two promising methods by which to achieve sustainable and inclusive urban growth. Keywords Smart cities · Area-based development · Democratization · Climate resilience · Affordable housing

7.1 Introduction For the first time in history, the majority of people on the planet live in urban areas (UN 2015). Urbanization is a ubiquitous phenomenon but increasing socioeconomic equality and climate risks call for the need to rethink how cities are designed. India’s urban population is projected to increase from approximately 400 million today to 600 million by 2030. While cities might be the engines of economic growth, planning should aim not merely to accommodate millions of people but also improve the quality of life for all. Indian cities were not designed for the most vulnerable and provide constant reminders of the stark inequality in the country. With the increasing risk of climate-related catastrophes, our cities need to become resilient to natural hazards. India’s approach to urban development has typically comprised disparate attempts to upgrade infrastructure and invest in water, sanitation, utility, education, housing, etc. The Smart Cities Mission provides the perfect opportunity to synthesize these different methods and integrate them into a plan that aims to build ‘smart’ cities, K. T. Suresh (B) · R. Chakraborty · A. Lillywhite · L. Dexter ActionAid Association, Delhi 110016, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 R. K. Mishra et al. (eds.), Smart Cities for Sustainable Development, Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7410-5_7

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which are sustainable and resilient, while keeping in mind the need to democratize access to services and infrastructure in order to protect the most vulnerable.

7.2 The Smart Cities Mission The Smart Cities Mission (SCM) was launched by the Government of India in June 2015 with the aim of creating 100 ‘smart’ cities by 2020. The stated focus of the SCM is ‘on sustainable and inclusive development, and the idea is to look at compact areas, create a replicable model which will act like a lighthouse to other aspiring cities’ (Government of India 2015). The SCM guidelines declared that the core infrastructure elements of a Smart City include: (1) adequate water supply, (2) assured electricity supply, (3) sanitation, including solid waste management, (4) efficient urban mobility and public transport, (5) affordable housing, especially for the poor, (6) robust IT connectivity and digitalization, (7) good governance, especially eGovernance and citizen participation, (8) sustainable environment, (9) safety and security of citizens, particularly women, children and the elderly, and (10) health and education. Although the core elements are comprehensive, the budget allocations and area-based plans reveal a very different picture. According to the guidelines, each Smart City proposal had to contain plans for retrofitting, redevelopment, and/or greenfield development in targeted areas (i.e. areabased development), in addition to plans for certain services and infrastructure that would be implemented on a city-wide level (i.e. pan-city development). This immediately points us to one of the fault lines in this proposal. The Smart Cities Mission takes a project-oriented approach, rather than an integrated urban development approach toward redesigning cities and making them sustainable. Approximately 80% of the budget of the SCM is allocated for ‘Area-based Development’ programs, which cover only 5% of land area of the selected cities. Almost all of the pan-city projects remain limited to information technology services like CCTV systems and the development of roadworks. A CFA report called ‘The Curious Case of Indian Smart Cities’ discusses this issue, arguing that the Smart Cities Mission often uses vague and convenient labels for development changes while failing to direct adequate resources toward pan-city development (Unni 2019). The report gives the example of the issue of transport, where although there is consensus that public transport must be improved to make cities more equitable, the Smart Cities Mission has favored improving private vehicle use, with only 20% of the transportation budget being directed toward public transport, and 2% being focused on buses. They also point out the concern that issues like walkability and cycling could be made sustainable, but this is not feasible with such a limited budget for pan-city projects. Not only does this forego the integrated approach that is needed to address the heavily intertwined issues of physical, social, and economic infrastructure but it also runs the risk of exacerbating inequality in smart cities.

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7.2.1 Evaluating the Methodological Approach of the Smart Cities Mission Before turning to qualitative questions about the SCM, this paper looks into methodological concerns. How can the Special Purpose Vehicles, which are in charge of each smart city proposal, make their plans more democratic in its processes and outcomes by including citizen participation? The Special Purpose Vehicles that drive the projects of each smart city have tended to function in undemocratic ways. The 2019 ActionAid report ‘Smart Cities and Urban Deprived Communities’ raises the concern that SPVs are often formed of independent expert groups involving representatives of corporations, as well as using government representatives at the state level, limiting the impact of local representation (Baindur et al. 2019). They also point out a lack of proper consultation from SPVs, with forms of ‘democratic participation often taking place online or in elite areas which exclude the urban poor. The city of Bhubaneswar fared particularly badly here, with residents of Shantipallibasti reporting that they were informed without proper consultation that their land would be redeveloped and they would have to move far away from their workplaces for 36 months while construction was ongoing. Many residents felt they weren’t given a choice in such proceedings and felt their needs and interests had not been considered in preparation for the projects. This appears to be a general theme within the Smart Cities Mission, rather than being limited to particular cities, with Khan, Taraporevala and Zerah pointing out how a very small minority of SPVs had used methods of outreach that weren’t digital, excluding the urban poor, while even methods that involved democratic consultation through print media often excluded disadvantaged groups, especially on the lines of gender and caste due to significant disparities in the literacy rates of certain demographics (Khan et al. 2018). There is little to no participation from residents and local actors who will be most affected by plans, which means that their concerns about the plans and their ideas for how to improve living conditions are going unheard. This is especially apparent in the fact that the plans are blind to gender and disability issues. One salient example of how this could hurt citizens is in transport. Women’s primary mode of transport is walking and public transport but only 20% of the transport budget is allocated to public transport. The huge focus on roads and parking lots (up to 40% of the transport budget) caters mostly to middle and upper class men, since some statistics find that women are only ~10% of drivers in the country. In addition, violence against women and girls is ubiquitous in India cities and the absence of improved safety measures in public transport plans is a glaring omission. Redevelopment projects also face similar issues because they do not account for gender-specific vulnerabilities. Property rights for women are yet to be realized in many cities. Women have restricted access to land, have a lower chance of receiving bank loans for property, and inheritance rights of women and widows are rarely upheld. If the redevelopment of slums does not account for this, many single women and widows might lose their housing because they cannot produce deeds and entitlements.

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Democratic participation is a good in and of itself, but it could allow for smart cities to build upon existing imaginings of the India city and on existing social networks. For example, low-income working women, particularly those living in slums or other dense urban dwelling, often share childcare responsibilities with others in the slums, which allows them to work outside their home. By moving them into apartments, this might hurt women’s social capital and reduce their available time for economic activities. Had women in the urban poor been consulted, the redevelopment projects might have been more focused on in-situ slum redevelopment or the creation of childcare facilities, and local participation should not be a one-time occurrence. Building in focus group feedback sessions or local meetings into the deliberative process for each smart city would allow the planners to be updated on the needs and concerns of their constituents as the smart city plans are being carried out. These methodological concerns open the door to more fundamental questions about the Smart City Mission. How do we define ‘smart?’ Who gets to define it? Is there a way to merge the typical understanding of smart (i.e. technological invention) with existing cultural practices and imaginings of the city? How can we approach such development efforts from a human rights-based approach such that no is left behind in these visions for progress?

7.2.2 ‘Smart Cities’ or ‘Smart Enclaves Within Cities’? Area-based development proposals are the key elements of SCM proposals. An areabased proposal identifies an area of the city that has been selected through desk research, analysis etc. as the appropriate site for either of three types of development: retrofitting (approximately 500 acres), redevelopment (approximately 50 acres) or Greenfield development (approximately 250 acres). This area is developed into a ‘smart’ area, which incorporates all the Essential Features/Elements prescribed in the Mission Guidelines and any additional features that are deemed to be necessary and appropriate (Government of India 2015). On the other hand, a pan-city smart solution benefits the entire city through the application of ICT and resulting improvement in local governance and delivery of public services. Here, ‘smartness’ refers to doing more with less, building upon existing infrastructural assets and resources, and proposing resource efficient initiatives. Unfortunately, Area-Based Development programs account for 80% of the budget of the SCM but cover only 5% of land area of the selected cities. In Table 7.1, we list some of the major cities covered by the SCM and show the percentage of the total city covered by the ABD proposal in terms of area.

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Table 7.1 ABD Coverage in terms of area City

Size of city (km2 ) Size of area-based Percent of total development under city covered under SCM proposal area-based development proposal (%)

Odisha

Bhubaneswar

135

Maharashtra

Nashik

Rajasthan

Udaipur

Gujarat

Ahmedabad

State

3.99

2.96

3.7

Aurangabad

2.33 56.92

3.35

5.89

468.92

2.39

0.51

152.53

3.01

1.97

Indore

172.39

3.01

Bhopal

285.88

1.42

Gwalior

423.35

3.25

0.77

Andhra Pradesh

Visakhapatnam 513.61

6.68

1.30

Karnataka

Shivamogga

6.07

Assam

Guwahati

219.06

2.82

1.29

Punjab

Amritsar

142

3.85

2.71

Uttar Pradesh

Kanpur

260.89

5.97

2.29

Lucknow

350

3.29

0.94

Madhya Pradesh Jabalpur

Jharkhand

Ranchi

0.50

1.38

Source City profiles, smart city mission, Government of India

7.2.3 What Infrastructural Elements Might Be Added to SCM Plans? In addition to the fact that the Area-Based Development plans account for a tiny proportion of the actual land area of the designated smart cities, some key infrastructural elements are absent from the plans as well. From the Mission Guidelines, the infrastructure elements covered by ABD programs are (1) adequate water supply, (2) assured electricity supply, (3) sanitation, including solid waste management, (4) efficient mobility and public transport, (5) affordable housing, especially for the poor, (6) robust IT connectivity and digitalization, (7) good governance, especially e-Governance and citizen participation, (8) sustainable environment, (9) safety and security of citizens, particularly women, children and the elderly, (10) health, and (11) education. Straightaway, we can point to crucial elements of urban design that have been missed, including (1) commercial districts and corridors, (2) history, culture, and identity, (3) public and open spaces, (4) beautification, (5) tourism, (6) disaster resilience, (7) relief for the most vulnerable. Still, some cities have included these

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Table 7.2 Presence of infrastructural elements in select smart cities

Source City profiles, smart city mission, Government of India

elements in their plans. Tables 7.2 and 7.3 show the infrastructure elements of the cities selected in Table 7.1. Sanitation (100%), sustainable environment (100%), water supply (93.75%), mobility and transport (93.75%), IT connectivity (87.50%), and public/open spaces (81.25%) were the most popular infrastructure components of the ABD plan for the above Smart Cities. Governance (12.50%), homeless/vulnerable people (12.50%), disaster resilience (18.75%), and health (18.75%) were the least popular infrastructure components of the ABD plan for the above Smart Cities. There are numerous examples where the neglecting of such issues by the Smart City Mission has had a detrimental impact on local populations and has been particularly unpopular. With regard to the issue of history, culture, and identity, the CFA’s case study of Indore Smart City has raised a variety of concerns, with their report being particularly critical of how some of the oldest residential areas of the city such as Biabani, Loharpatti, Malgani, Malhargani, and Ganesh Ganj were the focal sites of ABD, leading to the destruction of Indore’s unique identity through the redevelopment of historic buildings and marketplaces, which also involved the significant displacement of residents (Dwivedi et al. 2020). For the issue of beautification and tourism, on the occasion that this is integrated into smart city plans, it is often not done successfully, with the CFA report on ‘The Curious Case of Indian Smart Cities’ mentioned earlier discussing how many riverfront and lakeside development projects under the SCM involve significant and detrimental ecological changes, as well as the displacement of large networks of people who rely on such spots for their livelihoods, in favor of other recreational and commercial activities, suggesting a need to reconsider these infrastructure elements and how they can be more inclusive (Unni 2019). This shows that the ‘smartness’ is of the city is not as holistic as one might hope and misses out on the most vulnerable populations. With much of this work being done

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Table 7.3 Percentage of smart cities incorporating the following infrastructure components Infrastructure component

Total number of AA smart cities incorporating specific infrastructure components in their ABD plan (out of 16)

Percentage of AA smart cities incorporating specific infrastructure component in their ABD plan (%)

Water supply

15

93.75

Electricity supply

12

75

Sanitation, including solid waste

16

100

Mobility and transport

15

93.75

Affordable housing

11

68.75

Robust IT connectivity

14

87.50

Governance

2

12.50

Sustainable environment

16

100

Safety and security

10

62.50

Health

3

18.75

Education

9

56.25

Commercial

10

62.50

History, culture, and identity

9

56.25

Public and open spaces

13

81.25

Beautification

10

62.50

Tourism

4

25

Disaster resilience

3

18.75

Homeless and other vulnerable persons

2

12.50

Source City profiles, smart city mission, Government of India

by private actors and without consultation, key variables have been missed. What are ways to incentivize cities to include these missing parameters? Could they be made mandated topics that SCM proposals must contain in order to be considered at all? Could there be funds earmarked specifically for disaster resilience or vulnerable populations?

7.3 Case Study: Urban Resilience We find that the issue of incomplete infrastructural elements and focus on AreaBased Developments is salient when it comes to urban resilience. Resilience to natural disasters and other climate-related hazards is essential and is not the focus

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of any smart city proposals. While there is talk about sustainability and eco-friendly measures, there are barely any disaster preparedness efforts built into the plans. There needs to be a strengthening of early warning systems, improvement of emergency response services, education and awareness of disaster preparedness and response, as well as recovery measures such as emergency shelters, access to food and water, psychosocial support, etc. ABD as an approach itself is short-sighted when it comes to climate adaptation because building resilience to climate change requires city-wide urban design plans. Flood forecasting measures, early warning systems, shore protection, etc. have been not given enough of a focus and are limited to a few cities that are particularly vulnerable like Vishakapatnam. This has become particularly prevalent in the summer of 2020, with flash floods in the city of Delhi in July leading to housing collapses in Anna Nagar, and the deaths of four people. This sparked significant criticism from organizations like the New Delhi Traders Association, who questioned the effectiveness of the Smart Cities Mission if it could not cope with such important infrastructure demands (PTI 2020). Creation (and implementation) of more strict building codes is necessary since many slums and urban dwellings are not built to withstand natural disasters, but there exist no minimum standards which every city must adhere to. Urban resilience cannot be built merely in pockets. It requires citywide efforts, which mean that we should be planning to develop the entire urban ecosystem, including its institutional, physical, economic, and social infrastructure. If we fail to do that, we run the risk, as Shivani Chaudhry of the Housing and Land Rights Network argues, of making 100 smart enclaves within cities instead of making 100 smart cities (Chaudhry 2017).

7.3.1 Adopting a Human Rights Approach to the SCM Could the adoption of a human rights approach be the solution? One criticism of the Smart Cities Mission made most clearly by the Housing and Land Rights Network is that it fails to measure to net effects of plans (Chaudhry 2017). By looking only at what was created by the plans, we ignore what was destroyed in the process of building it. This paper discussed this earlier while talking about how redevelopment efforts could destroy social networks that low-income women are dependent on and how the SCM might be destroying the sociocultural imaginings of the city. The problem of failing to measure the net effects of plans if some plans run counter to others is also seen very obviously in physical infrastructure, which might be salvaged by adopting a human rights approach to all plans, recognizing people’s right to the city. To illustrate the above, we turn to the affordable housing component, where there is the glaring absence of a human rights approach. Under the pretext of ‘development,’ almost every smart city project has seen forced evictions of vulnerable socio-economic groups who cannot prove tenure because of a lack of documentation. Slum redevelopment projects in particular have often led to high rates of

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dispossession because many slum dwellers cannot produce deeds and titles to prove tenure. Cities like Bhopal, Indore, and Bhubaneshwar have already begun ‘demolition drives,’ which include a spate of evictions and destruction of livelihoods such as roadside shops (Bhattacharjee et al. 2016). The CFA’s case study of Indore expands on this issue, citing local sources that claim that under the Smart Cities Mission, homeowner rights have not been kept under consideration, with compensation not being provided for many who have had their property destroyed or damaged. A few citizens have been given accommodation, but most have had to rebuild their own houses without any state support, particularly in Jairampur and the cloth market. Speaking on an online webinar, journalist Chinmay Mishra goes as far to discuss experiences of police brutality directed at those who attempted to protest such development projects, while citizens have also been denied compensation which they are lawfully owed by the supreme court (Mishra 2020). The destruction of livelihoods and homes in order to redevelop the areas and make them ‘smart’ sets back development in one respect while attempting to advance it in another. While retrofitting, redevelopment, building resilience, and other goals are absolutely necessary; it should not come at the expense of the most disadvantaged. By recognizing their rights to the city and to housing, it would put the onus on SPVs to provide alternate housing or work with such groups for in-situ development. This example also explains the methodological concern. The way the SCM’s success has been measured is through what it has managed to create and develop, but it does not factor in what has been destroyed in the process. For example, Dharmshala’s plan contained the construction of 212 houses for slum dwellers but it did not factor in the 300+ houses which were demolished in order to achieve that (Chaudhry 2017). We need to approach redesign from an inclusivity angle, looking at the people that it is helping and hurting, instead of looking merely at technological advances. Unless there is frequent consultation with the affected groups and every step that is taken is done with the informed consent of all parties, these development plans might defeat their own purposes.

7.3.2 Affordable Housing We now take a deeper look into the affordable housing component of the SCM. Within the Indian context, affordable housing focuses exclusively on ratio approaches to the financial dimension of housing demand, ignoring other dimensions such as location, cultural suitability, and social dynamics. Nonetheless, India (High Level Task Force for Affordable Housing for All 2008) defines affordable housing as: Any housing that meets some form of affordability criterion, which could be income level of the family, size of the dwelling unit or affordability in terms of size or ratio of house price to annual income.

108 Table 7.4 House size by income group

K. T. Suresh et al. Income group EWS

Annual income (Lakhs) 0–3

Carpet area per house (m2 ) 30

LIG

3–6

60

MIG—1

6–12

120

MIG—2

12–18

150

Source Reserve Bank of India 2018

Recent housing policies and missions within India have applied the above definition to form the basis of their housing affordability framework. Within this framework, different families are separated into income groups, relative to their annual income. Based on a family’s income group, a house with a designated carpet area is assigned for development under the appropriate housing mission. The income groups and their nominated house size (defined by carpet area) can be seen below (Table 7.4). ‘Pro-poor housing’ differs from ‘affordable housing’ because it caters specifically for the EWS and LIG. This cannot be said for affordable housing because affordable housing refers primarily to the size (an indicator of the overall house price) of housing relative to the income of households in a wider cross-section of the population, which includes the middle class. Rather, pro-poor housing acknowledges the unique obstacles that apply specifically to the urban poor and promotes policies, which are more holistic in their approach, alleviating the variety of barriers that the urban poor experience within the housing market. Pro-poor housing cannot easily be defined; therefore, a list of its criteria is more fitting. After reviewing the literature, common attributes of pro-poor housing policy are: • • • • • •

Security of tenure, enabling protection against sudden and forced evictions. Access to all basic services, including sanitation, water, and electricity. Building materials, which are resistant to natural hazards. Access to civil infrastructure, environmental resources, and sources of livelihood. The right to participate in any decision-making related to housing policy. Prioritizing the needs of the most vulnerable demographics of the population.

The above criteria are in line with the UN’s New Urban Agenda, specifically regarding its policy on housing (UN Habitat III 2016). The New Urban Housing Agenda envisage cities that acknowledge everyone’s right to adequate housing, which is affordable, without discrimination, incorporates universal access to safe and affordable drinking water and sanitation, as well as tenable access to food, health, education, infrastructure, transport, energy, air quality, and livelihoods. Whilst the Indian Government supports the New Urban Agenda, their housing policy has taken the narrower approach of ‘affordable housing’ frameworks, which focuses primarily on the price and size of the physical structure of a house relative to family income. For this reason, ‘pro-poor’ rhetoric’s, as seen in multilateral organizations, including the UN Habitat, are absent in the current Indian housing policy.

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7.3.3 Supply and Demand of Housing As it stands, there is a large gap between demand and supply for housing within India, particularly for houses, which are attainable to the EWS and LIG, who make up the vast majority of informal settlements. According to the Institute of Company Secretaries of India (2017), the urban housing shortage in India was at 18.78 million in 2015. From this shortage, according to a report from the Technical Group on Urban Housing Shortage (TG-12), funded by the MoHUPA in 2012, 96% of the shortage in housing was from the EWS and LIG (Tables 7.5 and 7.6). Affordable housing should be one of the focuses of the SCM given the hardships faced by the Economically Weak and Low-Income Group sections of society, but instead of taking a pro-poor approach to housing, many cities have foregone such efforts or created housing without specifying income groups.

7.4 Response to COVID-19 and Conclusion The response to the COVID-19 pandemic also gives us a space in which to evaluate the SCM. The IT infrastructure of smart cities, one of the few pan-city initiatives, shone through. States like Maharashtra, Delhi, Kerala, and Madhya Pradesh used the integrated command-and-control centers to generate heat maps to visualize the spread of the coronavirus, used geospatial technologies to map COVID cases, monitored compliance with public health directives using CCTV surveillance, and more. These technologies were crucial in developing containment plans. However, the response to COVID cannot be said to have been inclusionary in any sense of the word. Millions of migrant laborers were forced to walk hundreds of kilometers back to their home because they did not have access to affordable housing or guarantee of tenure and were unable to pay for housing or transport. Due to the informal nature of their work, they could not access minimum wages, welfare benefits, or state services. Monobina Gupta points out that whereas policies in the past have attempted to render such urban poor invisible, such as through the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation’s attempts to build a wall in early 2020 to hide slums from the sight of Donald Trump during his visit, the coronavirus pandemic and mass migration have revealed in plain sight how smart cities fail to adequately address the issues faced by the urban poor, which must ultimately lead to some form of intervention.[7] Cities displayed little resilience as they were unable to provide basic services such as drinking water, food, and healthcare to its poorest. COVID spread rapidly in dense urban settlements and slums, most notably in Dharavi. Now, more than even, perhaps it is time to reevaluate what ‘smart’ means. Smart may not always require innovative technologies but might just involve the provision of infrastructure to all citizens in an inclusionary way. The SCM has been dominated by technical experts who are far removed from the realities of those who live and breathe there. Expanding the space for local participation might help overcome the challenges we find.

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Table 7.5 Housing infrastructure outlined in SCM proposals for ABD in selected cities City

Location of ABD

Strategy of ABD

Housing infrastructure plan/elements

Bhubaneswar (Odisha)

Bhubaneswar town centre district

Retrofitting and redevelopment

- Construction of 6000 houses under Mission Abaas—Slum redevelopment (transforming 24 slums into four integrated housing societies) - 4 Slum redevelopment projects—Bapuji Nagar Abaas Yojana, Kharavela Nagar Abaas Yojana, Shanti Nagar Abaas Yojana, Saheed Nagar Abaas Yojana with 6000 number of EWS units and 1200 number of HIG/MIG units for cross-subsidisation - Janpath government housing redevelopment - Redevelopment projects to provide 3800 houses with an average 1000 sq ft (~93 m2 ) carpet area - Houses to be created on 30 acres of government land - Rental housing for construction workers - Project Kutumb—social equity center with two working women hostels and two shelters for the homeless

Nashik (Maharashtra)

Retrofitting of old city Retrofitting and area (Old Nashik) and greenfield greenfield development development of open lands (Hanumanwadi), contiguous to the old city area

- Project NIVAAS—housing for all - 10% of greenfield development reserved for EWS housing

Aurangabad (Maharashtra)

Chikhalthana

- Mix of affordable and up-segment housing over 118.90 Ha - 1440 EWS housing - 692 LIG housing - 1360 MIG housing

Greenfield development

(continued)

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Table 7.5 (continued) City

Location of ABD

Strategy of ABD

Housing infrastructure plan/elements

Ahmedabad (Gujarat)

Within Wadaj Region

Retrofitting and redevelopment

-In-situ redevelopment of one of the largest slums (8000 slum dwellers ~30 Ha

Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh)

Wright and Napier Town

Retrofitting and redevelopment

- Housing Infrastructure plan - Redevelopment of slums - 12 slums - 2392 slum HH (3.29% of slum HH) - 9200 slum dwellers (3.43% of slum population) - Mixed income and high-density housing redevelopment

Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh)

Shivaji Nagar

Redevelopment

-20% of the housing would be in affordable category: -Which would have a mix of rental public housing for low income group and affordable studio/1 BHK apartments for outright sale

Gwalior (Madhya Pradesh)

Maharaj Bada

Retrofitting and redevelopment

- New construction of 1500 affordable housing units and 2000 other housing. The other includes: - MIG and HIG housing - Development of rental housing - Two night shelters - Three residential care homes - Two hostels for working women - 30 Acres slum redevelopment project to provide a mix of affordable housing units

Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh)

RK beach

Retrofitting and redevelopment

- Develop 1130 affordable housing units (continued)

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Table 7.5 (continued) City

Location of ABD

Strategy of ABD

Housing infrastructure plan/elements

Shivamogga (Karnataka):

CBD of the city and the scarcely developed land stretch along both the sides of River Tunga

Retrofitting and redevelopment

- Retrofitting of existing slums in CBD area - Relocation and rehabilitation of slums along the water bodies - MIG and HIG housing

Amritsar (Punjab)

The walled city

Retrofitting and redevelopment

- Development of affordable housing close to work center

Ranchi (Jharkhand)

Greenfield site, east of the core capital area

Greenfield development

- EWS construction 24,276 m2 for 1600 DUs for slum redevelopment proposal for parts of CBD area of Ranchi - Development of affordable housing and other housing: - 19% hostels - 13% HIG - 55% MIG - 13% EWS/LIG

Source City profiles, Smart City Mission, Government of India

References Baindur V, Chandra R, Ganguly D (2019) Smart cities and urban deprived communities: a study of Bengaluru, Bhubaneswar and Lucknow. ActionAid Association India, p 70. https://www.action aidindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Smart-Cities.pdf Bhattacharjee T, Dube S, Dube A, Patkar M (2016) Forced eviction and demolition drive in indore for Modi’s “smart city” India Resists. https://www.indiaresists.com/forced-eviction-demolitiondrive-indore/ Chaudhry S (2017) India’s smart cities mission: smart for whom? cities for whom? [Working Paper]. Housing and Land Rights Network Dwivedi G, Sarkulov F, Mishra C, Saxena A (2020) Smart city in indore: a case study. Center for financial accountability. https://www.cenfa.org/publications/smart-city-in-indore-a-case-study/ Government of India (2015) Smart city: mission statement and guidelines. Ministry of urban development. https://smartcities.gov.in/themes/habikon/files/SmartCityGuidelines.pdf UN Habitat III (2016) New urban agenda (A/RES/71/256). https://habitat3.org/the-new-urban-age nda/ Khan S, Taraporevala P, Zérah MH (2018) Mission impossible: defining indian smart cities. Econ Political Wkly 53(49) Mishra C (2020) The curious case of india’s smart cities. https://www.facebook.com/760481702/ videos/pcb.10164037184800254/10158684933471703 PTI (2020) Delhi: rains claim four lives; streets waterlogged and houses collapse. The Wire. https:// thewire.in/environment/delhi-rains-july-19-four-deaths-waterlog-collapse-houses

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Table 7.6 Types of housing in SCM proposals

Source City profiles, Smart City Mission, Government of India

UN (2015) World urbanization prospects: 2014 revision (ST/ESA/SER.A/366). UN department of economic and social affairs. https://population.un.org/wup/Publications/Files/WUP2014-Report. pdf Unni A (2019) The curious case of Indian smart cities. Center for financial accountability. https:// www.cenfa.org/infrastructure-finance/the-curious-case-of-indian-smart-cities/

Chapter 8

Environmental Sustainability of Smart Cities: Cues from Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City Movement Vinita Pandey

Abstract India is expected to be home to seven mega-cities with population above 10 million by 2030. Several innovations are taking place in the direction of making cities environmentally sustainable. Sir Ebenezer Howard is famous and acknowledged for his Publication Garden Cities of To-morrow (1898). The publication is description of a utopian city in which people amicably reside in harmony with nature. The idea of Garden City evolved as an effective response to ensure good quality of life in overcrowded and dirty industrial towns. The environs of these towns had deteriorated and posed serious health risks. There is need to understand the various facets of Garden city and adopt in contemporary urban planning in Indian context. The present paper based on review literature endeavors to present various aspects of Garden City and how they can be adopted by contemporary urban planners to make city life relatively pollution-free and provide green and safe public spaces as envisaged in Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2030. Keywords Garden city · Environment · Smart cities · Town planning

8.1 Introduction United Nations has envisioned seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with the aim of building and shaping a more prosperous, equal, and secure world by the year 2030. The 17 SDGs and 169 targets are part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted by 193 Member States at the UN General Assembly Summit in September 2015. This came into effect on 1 January 2016. The eleventh sustainable development goal is sustainable cities and communities. It is estimated that six out of ten people will be city dwellers by 2030. Further, the world will have 43 megacities with more than 10 million inhabitants each. Most of them will be in developing regions. (https://in.one.un.org/page/sustainable-development-goals/sdg-11/).

V. Pandey (B) Department of Sociology, Osmania University College for Women, Hyderabad 500095, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 R. K. Mishra et al. (eds.), Smart Cities for Sustainable Development, Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7410-5_8

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These estimates bring in to forefront the significance of cities with specific reference to environmental sustainability.

8.2 Sustainable and Smart Cities Cities are engines for sustainable development since in urban centres ideas, trade and commerce, culture, science, technology and economic productivity prospers. Urban spaces offer prospects to prosper economically and socially, but this is only possible in thriving and flourishing cities. Cities provide job opportunities and platform to grow and develop. On the other hand, urban areas are also emitters of greenhouse gases and contribute to climate change. According to the World Health Organization half of the global urban population breathes air that is 2.5 times more polluted than accepted standards. Such poor air quality index is a major challenge to the environmental sustainability of the cities. To address these challenges in urban spaces there is need to improve resource use and focus on reducing pollution and alleviating poverty. Sustainable cities should be able to offer opportunities to all its residents. There should beaccess to basic services, pollution-free energy, housing, transportation and more. Energy efficiency in cities can be attained by reducing energy consumption and adopting green energy systems. Rizhao in China for instance has become a solar-powered city. All its central districts and 99% of households already use solar water heaters. (https://in.one.un.org/page/sustainable-development-goals/sdg-11/). Smart and sustainable cities should provide and focus on clean and green environment, career and business opportunities, public transport, creating green public spaces, safe and affordable housing. Such cities should enable resilient societies by humanizing urban planning and management with a focus on participatory and inclusive means. However, there are serious challenges in meeting the production and consumption needs of urban populations for food, energy, water and transport. This is also influencing rural and urban ecosystems, locally and globally. There is no denial of the fact that cities are expanding physically which is compromising the urban ecosystem and also essential services which is required for sustenance. Ecosystem is also based on urban planning, governance and services like water, sanitation, waste management, transport and markets. There is also need to address gender and inclusion and promote equal opportunities to achieve greater social, economic and environment benefits. To build sustainability it is significant to build green city. (Beatley 2012). The 1987 report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, also known as the Brundtland Commission, defined sustainable development as development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The report included a chapter on urban issues. (United Nations 1987).

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In 1991, the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS) Sustainable Cities Programme attempted to define a sustainable city as one “where achievements in social, economic and physical development are made to last” (United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat 2002, p. 6)). The concept of sustainable cities and its links with sustainable development has been discussed since the early 1990s. It has been asserted by Environmentalists that sustainable cities should meet their development needs of its inhabitants without imposing unsustainable demands on local or global natural resources and systems. The concept of sustainable city was reflected in the 1992 Rio de Janeiro Conference on Environment and Development attended by more than 178 Governments. The 1992 Rio Declaration integrated various dimensions like economic, social, environmental and governance. The Declaration contended for the abolition of unsustainable patterns of production and consumption, poverty alleviation, and emphasized role of the State, civil society and international community environment protection. Agenda 21 was a significant outcome of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. Its goal was to prepare the world for the challenges of the twenty-first century. Agenda 21, which strengthened during subsequent United Nations conferences, defined sustainability in the context of economic, social, environmental and governance issues. It also emphasized the pivotal role of authorities and civil society at various levels for the implementation of sustainable development guidelines and strategies. The Habitat Agenda, adopted by the United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II), held in Istanbul in June 1996, reverberated the concerns voiced in Agenda 21 with specific reference to the multidimensionality of development. It was asserted that a symphonic combination of socio-economic and environmental issues is a prerequisite for urban sustainability. The nations deliberated on the progress towards achieving the sustainability of their cities. Irrespective of these deliberations, climate change as a critical concern for sustainable cities did not receive the required attention. (https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/ wess/wess_current/wess2013/). The world is urbanizing with each passing day and thus the need for sustainable ways of living is becoming more important. The urban governance is faced with maintaining equilibrium between urban planning and environmental management. There are challenges of reducing the ecological footprints, decentralized decision-making, and efficient resource allocation and management. The decentralized approach necessitates policy coordination between local and national authorities. Thus, the foundation of sustainable cities rests on four pillars i.e. social development, economic development, environmental management and urban governance. The goals promulgated by these pillars, willingness and capacity to adapt to changes keeping in view the historical milieu will determine the level of sustainability of the cities.

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8.2.1 The Indian Experience India is a member UN nation and has adopted the SDGs. It is interesting to note that between 2001 and 2011, the country’s urban population had increased by 91 million. It is projected that 416 million urban dwellers will be added between 2018 and 2050. By 2030, India is expected to be home to seven mega-cities with population above 10 million. To address the various challenges due to Urbanization, to ensure sustainable cities and communities and to accelerate the socio-economic development of cities, the Government of India has initiated several policies. For instance, initiatives such as Smart Cities Mission, the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), and the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) are working to address the challenge of improving urban spaces. The prime minister’s Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana aims to achieve housing for all by 2022. The SDGs 2030 with regard to India (sustainable cities and communities) include reducing the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by paying special attention to air quality, municipal and other waste management; to provide universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible, green and public spaces, in particular for women and children, older persons and persons with disabilities. Infact the smart cities mission is in consonance with eleventh SDG which focuses on sustainable cities and communities. Smart Cities seek to enhance the quality of living for its citizens through smart technology. They aspire to integrate information and communication technologies (ICT) to enhance and enrich the quality and performance of urban services. Some of the significant features of smart cities as envisaged in smart cities mission of Government of India include creating walkable localities—reduce congestion, air pollution and resource depletion, boost local economy, promote interactions and ensure security. The road network is created or refurbished not only for vehicles and public transport, but also for pedestrians and cyclists, and necessary administrative services are offered within walking or cycling distance; preserving and developing open spaces—parks, playgrounds, and recreational spaces in order to enhance the quality of life of citizens, reduce the urban heat effects in areas and generally promote eco-balance (http://smartcities.gov.in/ content/innerpage/smart-city-features.php).

8.3 Garden Cities Several innovations are taking place in the direction of making cities environmentally sustainable. In this context, this paper argues that taking cues from Sir Ebenezer Howard’s concept of Garden Cities, some of the environmental concerns of smart cities can be addressed. Howard published Garden Cities of To-morrow (1898). The publication is description of a utopian city in which people amicably reside in harmony with nature. The publication was instrumental in founding of the garden

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city movement. This in turn that led to establishment of quite a few garden cities in Great Britain at the beginning of the twentieth century. The notion of a garden city is not new. The images of Hanging Gardens of Babylon come to the forefront. The introduction of heavily planted cities has tried to capture the impressive nature of constructed urban density and scale but soften it into a picture of the natural landscape. (Caine 2017). The planted landscapes with clean water, air and less noise reflect the attractiveness of the imagery where both rural and urban worlds are present (ibid.) The Garden City Concept was developed at the beginning of the twentieth century as a solution to difficult social problems and challenges like overpopulation, devastating hygienic conditions and in general dehumanizing living for most inhabitants in big industrial cities. Howard proposed urban planning of self-contained settlements that would have the advantages of both urban and rural lifestyles while reducing and eliminating their disadvantages. The garden city was a social movement as well. (Corovic Dragana 2012) Howard also founded the Garden City Association which actively promoted the concept by emphasizing the need for well-designed houses for all classes built in a human scale environment; the ways to empower people and communities to participate in decisions related to their quality of life; and the ways to improve urban planning based on sustainable development. Thus, from the outset, the concept closely intertwined the principles of social welfare and urban planning. (Howard 1965). Howardexcelled in creating places which he called “magnets” where people would want to come to reside and work (Howard 1898). Interestingly Howard did not have any formal training in urban planning or design. Garden cities were planned, contained communities surrounded by a green belt (parks), encompassing proportionate spaces of residences, industry and agriculture. The aim of the Garden city movement was to address the urban problems afflicting the industrial cities of that time. Garden City Concept was an effective rejoinder for a better quality of life in overcrowded and dirty industrial towns. The environment and surroundings of these towns had deteriorated and posed serious health risks (Howard 1902). “Where will the people go?” the choices being “Town”, “Country” or “Town Country” was a critical concern which found possible solutions through the Garden city movement. Howard presented “The Three Magnets” to address the question. Howard hoped that a town built according to the Garden City concept would be “the Third Magnet” that would attract most of the unhappy inhabitants of congested industrial British cities. This would address one of the major national problems of those times. (Howard 1898). Howard opined that the attraction of “Town Magnet” was reflected in the opportunities for work and high wages, social opportunities, amusements and well-lit streets. However, it was not close to nature, offered isolation of crowds and distance from work. Towns had foul air, costly drainage, murky sky and slums. The Country offered natural scenic beauty, low rents, fresh air, and meadow. On the contrary, it had low wages and there was dearth of drainage facilities. Country has dullness, lack of society, amusements and wide-ranging deterioration. (Howard 1898).

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The Town- Country magnet was a combination of both town and countryside with purpose of providing benefits of both. This magnet offered beauty of nature, social opportunity, fields of easy access, low rent, high wages and field of enterprise. Thus, the solution to the distressed industrial cities was found in a combination of the advantages of Town and Country. It was proposed that a Town in the Country, with the amenities of natural beauty, fresh air and healthfulness. Thus, advantages of the Town–Country are seen to be free from the disadvantages of either. (Howard 1902). Howard suggested that an ideal garden city is a compact town of 6000 acres, 5000 of which is permanently reserved for agriculture. It accommodates a maximum population of 32,000 with parks and private lawn everywhere. The roads are radial, wide, ranging from 120 to 420 feet for the Grand Avenue. (Howard 1898) Within the town, there are well differentiated spatial zones like residential, commercial, industrial, and public uses. The other aspects are unified land ownership and co-operatives with no individual ownership of land. Local community also participated in the decisionmaking regarding development. After a city reaches its target population, Howard said, new interconnected nodes can be developed. The Garden city will grow by establishing another city some little distance beyond its own zone of “country”, so that the new town may have a zone of country of its own. (Howard 1965).

8.4 Cues for Contemporary Cities It has been argued that the concept of Garden cities is utopian in nature and is not appropriate in the present context. According to Peter Hall, due to its evolution over the course of the twentieth century, the garden cities model has often been partially interpreted or reduced to its morphological drifts, even by planning professionals (Hall 2014, p. 8). It is indeed not possible to exactly implement the Howard’s model which would obviously be inappropriate in a radically different historical, demographic and cultural context. But it is indeed worth analyzing its characteristics and its evolution in contemporary and future context. That is what Hall calls “the wisdom ofthe past” (2014, p. 170), considering that method as valuable to seek innovation as exploring academic researcher analyzing good contemporary working examples. As Saitta Dean and others opine that certainly, Ebenezer Howard’s concept of the Garden City is one of the most influential planning models produced by twentieth century urbanists. The concept was revitalized by Peter Hall who apprised the concept in his writing Sociable Cities: The 21st Century Reinvention of the Garden City, 1998 which was re-released in 2014 with co-author Colin Ward. (Dean 2016). There are several principles of the garden city model which are quite relevant in present times as well. Green Belts: Garden cities were envisioned to be planned, independent communities enclosed by “greenbelts”, containing proportionate areas of residences, industry, and agriculture. The concept of green belts was the foci of garden city. These belts

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served numerous benefits including the conservation of agricultural and rural life, nature and heritage protection, recreation, reducing pollution and managing growth. Several social and community dimensions were added as a result of garden city movement. The garden city awareness, displayed that both industrial assets and shared retailing spaces could be used within a comprehensive planning framework to serve public commitments. Green belts and Greenery indeed play an important role in curbing the adverse effects of urban life. Greenery keeps the city serene and cool in the summer. Their roots help in mitigation of storm water. Their canopy supports microclimates for urban wildlife. Green roof systems go one step further. In addition to these benefits, these layers of growing medium can drastically reduce urban heat in the summer while providing year-round insulating value to the buildings. (Caine 2017). Walkability: In all sustainable cities, one common thread is that of citizens preferring to walk. In Howard’s conception of Garden City, walkability was an important parameter which is the result of sustainable planning (Howard 1902).In India, walking is a very important mode of transport. Indians are also pedestrians and do enjoy foot traveling. The most indispensable, manageable andinexpensive form of transportation is indisputably walking. It is used extensively, irrespective of a person’s social status. Even people who regularly drive vehicles need to walk forvarying distances. Walkability is a measure of how friendly an area is to walking. Walkability has been defined in many different ways and is “the extent to which walking is readily available as a safe, connected, accessible and pleasant mode of transport” (Shamsuddin et al. 2012). A place is termed to be walkable when “the built environment supports and encourages walking by providing for pedestrian comfort and safety, connecting people with varied destinations within a reasonable amount of time and effort, and offering visual interest in the journey throughout the network” (Southworth 2005). Walkability will certainly characterize Sterling Ranch’s clustered, mixed use residential villages. It will also govern wider transportation planning (Dean 2016). Rural–Urban Migration: India is experiencing rapid urbanization. The economic reforms in 1990 have contributed ton the process of urbanization along with rural to urban migration. Migration in search of improved livelihoods is a key feature of human history. According to EncyclopediaBritannica, Howard suggested creation of a sequence of small, planned cities to address the problems of rural depopulation and related concerns. These small cities would combine the twin features of urban life and rural environments. The main features of Howard’s suggestionare: (1) a large area of agricultural land to be procured within a ring fence(2) a wide, expanded rural belt to surround the compact town; (3) facilitating and arranging for the accommodation of city residents, industry, and agriculture within the town; (4) the encroachment of the rural stretch has to be prevented by ensuring the limitation of the town (5) the value of the land increases over a period of time which can be efficiently utilized for the town’s general welfare. (https://www.britannica.com/topic/garden-city-urban-planning).

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Development of Suburbs: The garden cities model, though basically advocated the development of a network of interconnected cities, it also inspired the creation of a great number of suburbs throughout the world (Schuyler 2002). Suburbs in a way have become mandatory element of urban sprawls to accommodate the increasing population of the cities. Management of Territorial Resources: Howard strongly aspired to reconcile the urban space with rural space. This aspiration is clearly symbolized by Howard’s diagram featuring the three magnets. The garden city maintained a balance and equilibrium of territorial resources between rural and urban by a dynamic synergy. This synergy is extremely relevant in today’s time as well. The practicality of the model thus lies in the conversations and exchanges between these resources and the prospects for the local populations. The efficient management of territorial resources helps in enhancing health and the quality of social life. Rurbanization: Rurbanization is a process of rural transformation normally witnessed in developing countries. This transformation is being witnessed in agrarian economy, forms of settlements, lifestyles, social attitudes and values. Howard identified that economic and social factors respond to the different needs of the future inhabitants of the garden city. There is high possibility of urbanization of the rural space—in other words, the development of “Rurbanization” (Bauer and Roux 1976). It should be considered as an opportunity to develop new and sustainable solutions for contemporary and future rural and urban challenges. There is serious need to incorporate and secure a natural and productive space, which is integrated and utilizes appropriately the territorial space. Nicolas Vernet and Anne Coste opine for the twenty-first century the garden cities model could also become more productive in terms of renewable energies, thus contributing to the self-sustainability of cities and their surrounding territories. (Vernet and Coste 2017). Focus on Town Planning: Town Planning is physical, social and economic planning of an urban environment. It comprises of diversified disciplines and brings them all under a single umbrella. The simplest definition of town planning is that it is the organization of all elements of a town or urban environment. The ideals of town planning are beauty, convenience and health. The planning for beautification of a town incorporates ‘the maximum possible benefits of the natural conditions surrounding the town and also architectural framework to various components of town. The planning process also includes the socio-economic and recreational amenities to be provided to the urban residents. For healthy urban environment planner indeed concentrates on proper use of landuse by providing sufficient lung space through parks, playgrounds and evading all the polluting elements. These three objects of town planning should be implemented by maintaining the balance between them. In the present days of rapid urbanisation the planning of urban centres must attract: the highest attention (Pathak 1975). Today’s urban context and environment, though is not directly comparable to that of the industrial revolution of the nineteenth century in Great Britain, similar challenges are being faced in contemporary times. The land is scarce, prices rise dramatically, social inequalities widen, and the urban sprawl ever increases (Sadoux 2015).

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The role of town planners becomes extremely critical since through their creative skills and innovative thoughts have tremendous potential to improve social organization through effective spatial planning. The architectural design can be inventive to avoid the repetitions and monotony of urban forms. The Garden city recommends the vicinity between homes, services, jobs and the purposeful mix of amenities. The model avoids congested traffic flows. The same can also be incorporated in town planning. The concept of greenbelt keeps residential space within a walkable distance from the activities located in the city centre. Further the public and municipal parks, residential, colony and collective gardens provide residents a direct access to leisure, open lung spaces and socializing areas which are instrumental and beneficial for physical and mental health. Energy Ecosystem: According to Howard’s theoretical model of garden city, energy consumption and production should be well-adjusted. The local production of energy is a critical factor to address the domestic requirements. Building and planning garden cities provide the opportunity and platform for sustainable development by delivering manifold benefits. The prospects include housing, pollution-free spaces through the zero-carbon design (no carbon emissions are being produced from a product/service, e.g., zero-carbon electricity could be provided by a 100% renewable energy supplier), sustainable transport and local food sourcing. All these facilitate in maintaining energy ecosystem. New communities also offer a great chance to introduce governance and administrative structures that put residents in focus and enable the ownership of community assets. In urban areas, for a better management of energy ecosystem there is need to replace the conventional fossil fuels leading to pollution and climate change with solar energy. Ultimately, the objective is to shift to new territorialized energy ecosystem model. Fewer emissions and cleaner air aren’t the only reasons that cities should prefer renewable sources of energy. Using solar projects provides access to broader community benefits apart from addressing the environmental concerns. These community benefits include saving money, generating local jobs, expanding renewables access to low-income residents, and developing community resilience. Apart from the above, following components of Howard’s Garden city are very much relevant in contemporary times: • Size of the Town: The growth of towns to be restricted, to facilitate that their inhabitants may reside near work, shops, social centers, and each other and also near open country. • Amenities: The internal structure of towns to be open enough to facilitate houses with gardens and greenery, adequate space for schools, other functional services, and pleasant parks and parkways. • Town and Country Relationship: The town area should be clearly defined and a large area around it should be reserved permanently for agriculture; thus, assuring of a nearby market and cultural center, and to facilitate the benefit of a country situation to the inhabitants of town.

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• Planning Control: Efficient planning of the entire town framework, including the road and streets scheme, zoning; the fixing of maximum densities; the quality and designs of the building, skillful planting and landscape garden design. • Strong community and ordered development. • Environmental quality and architecture. • Socio-economic and psycho-cultural benefits of large-scale urban planning. • Ensuring a stable and balanced agricultural–industrial economy and simultaneously surrounding green belt to function as an agricultural recreational area. • Urban decentralization. • Series of concentric ringed tree-lined pathways which will form the streets for houses. • Comprehensive open spaces and gardens around all the inhabited houses and industrial units. • Sustainable cities have their own civic life and realize all daily needs with adequate spaces for all services. • Present day cities can be sustainable by strengthening community participation and community ownership by utilizing various participatory methods. Saitta Dean and et al. have elaborated on Sterling Ranch which is a planned, mixeduse; “live-work-play” development located about 30 miles southwest of downtown Denver, Colorado. Sterling Ranch is not overtly based on a Garden City model. Nevertheless, it indeed adapts to the model. It is planned for 3400 acres compared to 6000 acres as suggested in garden city model of Howard. Sterling Ranch is intended to serve around 31,000 people. Howard’s model suggested amenity-rich town center and community gathering place. This would transect outward in to concentric patterns. These patterns would lead into clustered, tightly knit villages culminating in rural, hillside ranchettes. Sterling Ranch follows similar model. It will also provide thirty miles of trekking, biking, and horse-riding tracks, community sports facilities, parks in residential areas, and access to three regional parks and two state parks. These services and amenities will offer the “Areas of Tranquillity”. Peter Hall, English town planner, urbanist and geographer opines that these areas of tranquillity are one of the twelve key strategic policy elements for building his model of the Sociable City. (Dean 2016).

8.5 Conclusion The contemporary cities are seeking sustainable approach that addresses diversified issues and concerns, such as environment (including energy requirements, pollution), housing, governance, economy, planning, mobility, agriculture, transportation (including traffic congestions), communication and health. The original garden city, as a theory (Howard 1898) and as experiments (Letchworth and Welwyn Garden Cities), can set a very appropriate precedent. The Wolfson Economics Prize and

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the many new garden cities and suburbs projects presently intended in the United Kingdom have validated the resurrection of this model in the urban planning domain, both in terms of theory and practice. As a model, it can in particular underpin the evolution of suburbs in an era of energy transition, since these areas require an ecosystemic rather than sectoral approach to design. (Vernet and Coste 2017). There is need to understand the various facets of Garden city and adopt in contemporary urban planning in Indian context. It can definitely be argued (and to a great extent it’s relevant) that how can the concept be adopted in Indian cities with such high population density. There is of course lot of scope to modify the concept to maintain equilibrium of environment, sustainability and development in contemporary scenario. At least the major takeaway from Garden city can be environmentsensitive development. Urban planners face challenges to make city life relatively pollution-free and provide green and safe public spaces as envisaged in Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2030.

References Bauer G, Roux JM (1976) La rurbanisation, ou la villeéparpillée. Éditions du Seuil, (Rurbanization or the Scattered City) Paris Beatley T (ed) (2012) Green cities of Europe: global lessons on Green Urbanism. Island Press, Washington, DC Caine T (2017). The Garden City versus the Green City Corovic Dragana (2012) The Garden City concept in the urban discourse of interwar belgrade (201– 222) from on the very edge: modernism and modernity in the arts and architecture of interwar serbia (1918-1941). In: Bogdanovi´c J, Robinson LF, Marjanovi´c I. Leuven University Press Hall P (2014) Cities of tomorrow: an intellectual history of urban planning and design since 1880, 4th edn. Wiley Blackwell, Chichester Howard E (1902) Garden cities of tomorrow. Kessinger Publishing, Montana Howard E (1898) To-morrow: a peaceful path to real reform (London: Swan Sonnenschein, 1898), 2nd edn. Id., Garden Cities of To-Morrow (London: Swan Sonnenschein, 1902) Howard E (1965) Garden cities of to-morrow. The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass, pp 45–47 Pathak CR (1975) District development planning in India. J Reg Sci VII(2) Sadoux S (2015) Ni ville, ni suburb: Le retour des garden cities en Grande Bretagne. Socioanthropologie—Revue interdisciplinaire de sciences humaines et sociales, vol 32, pp 123–138 Saitta D, Cascioli K, Throupe R (2016) Garden cities, sterling ranch, and sustainable urban development in the American West. J Urban Regen Renew 9(2):172-180 Schuyler D (2002) Introduction. In: Parsons KC, Schuyler D (eds) From the garden city to green cities: the legacy of Ebenezer Howard. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, pp 1–13 Shamsuddin S, Abu Hassan NR, Bilyamin SFI (2012) Walkable environment in increasing the liveability of a city. Proced Soc Behav Sci 50:167–78 Southworth M (2005) Designing the walkable city. J Urban Plan Dev 131(4):246–57 UN-Habitat (2002) Expert group meeting on Urban indicators. Nairobi, Kenya, November 2002 United Nations (1987) Report of the world commission on environment and development—our common future Vernet N, Coste A (2017) Garden cities of the 21st century: a sustainable path to suburban reform. Urban Plan. ISSN: 2183-7635 2(4):45–60 http://smartcities.gov.in/content/innerpage/smart-city-features.php https://in.one.un.org/page/sustainable-development-goals/sdg-11/

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https://www.britannica.com/topic/garden-city-urban-planning https://www.smartcitiesdive.com/ex/sustainablecitiescollective/garden-city-vs-green-city/21809/ Corov https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/wess/wess_current/wess2013/

Chapter 9

Linking Sustainability of Smart Cities to Education and Health: A Broad Study of Smart City Mission, India Daisy Singh

Abstract Based on the extensive review of literature and reports on Smart city initiatives, this paper is essentially focusing on understanding the need and importance of human capital for inclusion and sustainability. A review of SDG India Index (2.0), Government of India shows that the scores of education and health care have considerable influence on the composite scores of the cities, showing the resulting influence of the sectors on human capital generation and, thus, can help in the sustainable development of Smart Cities. However, the analysis of 10 smart city proposals reveals the less impetus on these sectors. The finding suggests that in addition to development of physical infrastructure, inclusiveness and sustenance, the smart city mission requires an adequate emphasis on development of social infrastructure particularly in respect of education and health care. Keywords Sustainability · Smart cities · Education · Health · Human capital

9.1 Introduction The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) report of UN declares the urgent need to shift the world on to a sustainable and resilient path and pledge that no one will be left behind. The present world population is 7.7 billion (United Nations 2019), which is heading drastically towards 8.5 billion mark till 2030 of which urban population accounts for 55.271% (United Nations 2019), which is estimated to reach 66% by 2050 according to United Nations population division. Similarly, India with 34% of its urban population, is having a total population of 1.34 billion (United Nations 2019). This indicates towards the noteworthy issues related to social and environmental sustainability (OECD 2012) and creates a prominent obstacle in the fulfilment of that pledge. The ignorance of the prevailing pattern of social, economic and urban development is imperilling the future life through worsening social deprivation, causing ecological D. Singh (B) Research Scholar, Department of Humanities and Social Science, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 R. K. Mishra et al. (eds.), Smart Cities for Sustainable Development, Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7410-5_9

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deteriorations and generating environmental crises, sown the seed of sustainability (Bibri and Krogstie 2017). And therefore, The Brundtland Report in 1987 familiarized the idea of “sustainable development in which it denotes development that meets the needs [and aspirations] of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED 1987). On the same line, urban sustainability has a broader connotation with an aim of achieving a balance between environment, economy and society with the long-term goal of integrating and protecting nature, regenerating and developing economy and building equitable society within cities through the premeditated process of sustainable urban development (Bibri 2018). Accordingly, the World has come up with new smart and sustainable ways of urban development in the form of eco-city, compact city and the topical smart city approach. In the absence of universal definition for the concept, a smart city, in general, can be characterized as an innovative city meant to improve quality of life and enhance the essential efficiency of cities through intelligent management of urban systems using ICT (ITU 2014). The paper is emphasising on Smart City approach with special references to Smart City Mission of India whose objective is “to promote cities that provide core infrastructure and give a decent quality of life to its citizens, a clean and sustainable environment and application of Smart Solutions”. The literatures, Indian government Smart city guidelines and proposals on Smart City, mainly emphasises on physical infrastructure (physical capital), and the human and social capital was found missing. This arose a simple question that whether the idea of Smart City can be a success without adequate and efficient human capital? This question became the motivation for this paper because Human Capital is having a positive impact on economic as well as social growth (Ogundari and Awokuse 2018). The Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA) Framework of Department for International Development (DFID) has very clearly emphasised on the need for five capitals for sustenance of livelihood (DFID 2008). The paper is analysing the importance of Human Capital generation with the development of different capitals and linked it with the sustenance, inclusiveness and sustainable development of a Smart City using the secondary data and reports especially the Sustainable Development Goals India Index (SDGII) and proposals of the 10 smart cities (GoI 2015) and analyse them.

9.2 Framework for Human Capital (Smart People) Generation “Sustainable urban development entails an intertwined triad comprising economy, society and ecology that eases the establishment of a socioeconomic system that does not pose any threat to the natural world” (Yigitcanlar et. al 2018).

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On the lines of other countries of the World to create sustainable urban areas from quite long time, Government of India also started its initiative of making 100 cities as Smart Cities under Smart City Mission (SCM) in 2015. From the study of smart city guidelines of Government of India and report of United Nation Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAPE) and Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) on smart cities, it can be summarised that the main aim of the Smart City Mission is to achieve a sustainable, holistic and people-centred livelihood using sustainable infrastructure and technology. The close study of proposals of some of these cities found that the main focus area of development in these cities is necessary physical infrastructure (roads, bridges, museums, amusement parks, auditoriums, ICCC, service centres, water treatment plants, etc.), for ease of living of citizens and progressive urbanization (Chavan et al. 2019) but somewhere the society part (human and social capital generation) seems missing from the Smart City Plans of Indian Cities. However, the studies suggests a positive impact of both physical and social infrastructure on economic growth in India (Kumari and Sharma 2017). The paper explains this gap using these questions: Q1. What parameters or priority areas need to be focused to enhance human capital and social capital as a result? Q2. Why we need to focus on these parameters in terms of Smart City in India? Q3. What can be done to boost these areas and how?

Q1. What parameters or priority areas need to be focused to enhance human capital and social capital as a result? “Human capital represents the skills, knowledge, ability to labour and good health that together enable people to pursue different livelihood strategies and achieve their livelihood objectives” (DFID 2008). Conferring to the same SLA framework, providing high-quality education, information technology and training and better nutrition and health both directly and indirectly help accumulate human capital. In the World’s most accepted Sustainable City Index (SCI) 2018 for 100 cities of the world prepared by Arcadis, London is the most sustainable city overall based on people (social), planet (environment) and profit (economy) parameters (Arcadis 2018). But, in People sub-Index, Edinburgh ranks first and the other top 10 cities are having their strengths and weaknesses but a common feature of these cities is their relatively high education scores (SCI 2018). The index indicates the role of education and health for the good ranking of Santiago (60th rank) and Buenos Aires (65th) making them as a role model of many cities in USA; simultaneously the low ranking of cities in Brazil (Rio de Jeneiro 90th), Mexico (Mexico City 78th) and Peru (Lima 88th) is a consequence of poorer educational attainment and digital provision. The cities from India in the list were—Chennai (86th), New Delhi (87th), Mumbai (94th) and Kolkata (96th), all in bottom 15. The bottom three cities again have low scores for health and education outcomes (SCI 2018).

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Thus, the above discussion clearly indicates that education and health are vital indicators for human and social capital generation apart from other influencing indicators such as—demographics, income inequality, affordability, work–life balance, crime, transport etc. directly or indirectly. Q2. Why we need to focus on these parameters in terms of Smart City in India? The goal of the India’s Smart Cities Mission is to promote physical capital, natural capital and technology but human capital part is missing. There are primarily three reasons to focus on education and health care: i. ii. iii.

To generate new future-oriented, competent human capital to boost other assets/capitals To prepare people to fight the future vulnerabilities/shocks/trends/seasonality Because the present status of these parameters is lagging far behind the World and hence, not future-oriented and need prioritisation.

9.3 Linking Human Capital with Other Capitals The people on the basis of assets available to them, they can enhance their assets/capital through sound health and education with policy support. The upper secondary and tertiary education has a strong positive association with labour productivity (Benos and Karagiannis 2016). Their education determines their knowledge and skills, which ultimately determines the activities/service that will enrich their physical (house, home durables, vehicles, etc.); financial (bank balance, precious metals); and social (network, connectedness, mutual trust, high social status) capitals; and also teach them how to deal with these. The more they have assets, the more they are capable of fighting the future vulnerabilities/shocks, which can be natural (earthquake, cyclone, drought etc.); medical (epidemics, deadly diseases); social (theft, social prejudices) and financial (job loss, recession, crop loss, debt). Figure 9.1 given below analytically explains this. The literacy rate of the cities through increased over time, but the quality of education system is not future-oriented. While a Smart City (SC) cannot be comprehended without professional support for equipping public spaces with digital information boards, sensors or control devices, the citizens being ready-mentally and educationally to handle these technicalities is the matter of further research. Moreover, the coming adult generation of next decade (children of age group from 9 to 18 years) is not getting such education. So, there are fears that “SC approaches become the playground of capitalist business interests, rather than serving local people’s real needs” (Söderström et al. 2014).

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Fig. 9.1 Smart city web

9.4 Linking Education and Health with Overall Sustainability and Inclusiveness The estimated cost of the Smart City project is Rs. 2,05,018 crores of which Rs. 164,204 crores (80.8%) is allotted for Area-Based Development (ABD) projects and Rs. 38,914 crores (19.2%) for Pan city projects to build better infrastructure, arrange the city components, develop open spaces, provide mechanism for sanitation and solid waste management and so on using existing sustainable technology in general and Information and Communication Technology (ICT), IoT, Big Data in particular. This conveys that the investment is far less for development of all (Pan City) and expended more for very few (ABD). The Sustainable Development Goals India Index (SDGII) 2.0 on the lines of UN SDGs provided scores to states on the basis of their overall sustainability. It ranks Kerala on the top with total score of 70 and Bihar at the bottom with overall score of 50 among the states with national average of 60. This shows that none of the Indian States is nearer to achieve the overall (100 score) sustainable development. Table 9.1 is showing the list of 28 Indian states and their respective scores and rank in SDG 3 (Good Health and well-being), SDG 4 (Quality Education) and SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities). Taking scores of other14 goals aside, on computing the Spearman’s rank correlation and Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient of states based on separate ranking of SDG 3, 4 and 11, it is found that at 99% confidence interval, the rank correlation is significant between SDG 3 and overall ranking; SDG 4 and Overall ranking; and between SDG 3 and SDG 4 as well but the same is not the case with SDG 11 (Tables 9.2 and 9.3 below). It is having significant relation with overall ranking at 95% confidence interval.

7 3

6 2

76

76

59

71

62

70

50

Tiruchirappalli + 11

Shivamogga + 5

Panaji

Namche

Ahmedabad + 5

Greater Mumbai + 76 9

58

Vishakhapatnam

Greater Hyderabad 66 +1

67

Dharamshala

Dehra dun

Ludhiana + 2

Imphal

New Town + 3

Bhopal + 6

Andhra Pradesh

Tamil Nadu

Telangana

Karnataka

Goa

Sikkim

Gujrat

Maharashtra

Uttarakhand

Punjab

Manipur

West Bengal

Madhya Pradesh

60

72

67

17

5

9

4

13

12

11

2

2

6

1

Himachal Pradesh

82

Kochi

Rank for SDG3

Kerala

Scores for SDG3

Name of city selected under Smart city mission

Name of states

Table 9.1 Rank and score of selected cities (SDGII 2.0)

54

50

70

67

66

65

47

58

71

67

64

70

52

81

74

Scores for SDG 4

13

16

4

6

7

8

18

11

3

6

9

4

14

1

2

Rank for SDG4

55

34

28

61

51

45

77

74

79

48

62

51

36

79

51

Scores for SDG 11

8

17

20

5

9

13

2

3

1

12

4

9

16

1

9

Rank for SDG 11

58

60

60

62

64

64

64

65

65

66

67

67

67

69

70

Overall sustainability scores

9

8

8

7

6

6

6

5

5

4

3

3

3

2

1

(continued)

Overall rank

132 D. Singh

34

55

44

Guwahati

Lucknow + 11

Shillong

Pasighat

Ranchi

Patna + 3

Assam

Uttar Pradesh

Meghalaya

Arunachal Pradesh

Jharkhand

Bihar

61

50

53

18

14

17

15

19

18

16

16

13

20

8

10

10

Rank for SDG3

58

19

42

58

55

48

44

61

52

51

47

68

55

40

Scores for SDG 4

Source SDG India Index & Dashboard (2019–20), NITI Aayog, Govt. of India

India

44

Aizawl

Mizoram

52

58

52

Jaipur + 3

29

Kohima

Nagaland

Raipur + 1

65

Karnal + 1

Haryana

Chhattisgarh

61

Agartala

Tripura

Rajasthan

Bhubaneshwar + 1 61

Odisha

Scores for SDG3

Name of city selected under Smart city mission

Name of states

Table 9.1 (continued)

22

20

11

12

17

19

10

14

15

18

5

12

21

Rank for SDG4

53

50

57

43

22

56

40

33

49

61

23

49

31

51

Scores for SDG 11

10

6

14

22

7

15

18

11

5

21

11

19

9

Rank for SDG 11

60

50

53

53

54

55

55

56

56

57

57

57

58

58

Overall sustainability scores

15

14

14

13

12

12

11

11

10

10

10

9

9

Overall rank

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Table 9.2 Spearman’s rank correlation between ranks of states Rank SDG3 Rank SDG4 Rank SDG11 Overall Rank Rank SDG3

Correlation coefficient 1.00 Significance

0.002

0.443

0.000

Rank SDG4

Correlation coefficient 0.550**

1.000

0.154

0.634**

0.425

0.000

1.000

0.371* 1.000

Significance

0.148

0.002

Rank SDG11 Correlation coefficient 0.148 Significance Overall rank

0.550**

0.443

0.154 0.425

0.048

Correlation coefficient 0.800**

0.634**

0.371*

Significance

0.000

0.048

0.000

0.800**

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed); total number of samples, N = 28 * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed)

Table 9.3 Karl Pearson’s correlation coefficient for scores of states Score SDG3

Score SDG4

Score SDG11

Overall Score

1.00

0.558**

0.219

0.745**

0.002

0.253

0.000

1.000

0.196

0.697**

0.307

0.000

1.000

0.411*

Score SDG3

Correlation coefficient

Score SDG4

Correlation coefficient

0.558**

Significance

0.002

Score SDG11

Correlation coefficient

0.219

0.196

Significance

0.253

0.307

Overall score

Correlation coefficient

0.745**

0.697**

0.411*

Significance

0.000

0.000

0.027

Significance

0.027 1.000

Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed); N = 29 (28 states and 1 India as whole) * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed) [Note 2: The results are calculated using SPSS.]

**

Interpretation i.

ii.

iii.

Health and education are having a significant impact on overall sustainability of states and hence on cities as well. So, for a sustainable smart city and generation of human and social capital, focus on health and education is most desirable. Health and education are also highly correlated to each other, which means a sound body produces an educated human capital and vice versa. So, these sectors should be the prime focus of policymakers. The initiative towards sustainable cities and communities is not significant as much as these two factors in the overall sustainability of states. So, instead of

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investing most of the Smart City allocation on the improvement of this goal (SDG 11), some share should be added to education and health care. Since, the calculation of score in SDG 3 takes into consideration different sections of people including married women, children, HIV and TB infected population as well; and SDG 4 encompasses students from primary to higher secondary level, disabled children and teacher also. So, it can be said that the calculated scores are measures of inclusiveness as well. Whereas calculation of score of SDG 11 includes parameters such as house under Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY), urban households living in slums, door-todoor waste collection and processing, and urban sewage treatment capacity.

9.5 Analysing Smart City Proposal (SCP) of Cities Under SCM Table 9.4 exposes that even though education and health are having a significant impact on the overall sustainable development, the focus of the concerned plan maker or city authority is mainly on development of physical infrastructures like roads, bridges, museums, auditoriums, service centres, amusement parks and others. The allotment on health and education infrastructure is either insufficient or does not exist at all. In the given Table 9.4, in the selected cities for study, 4 out of Table 9.4 Fund allocation by cities (SCP) and their literacy rate (%age) Serial Name (Table number 9.1)

Fund Percentage Fund Percentage Total Literacy allocated of total allocated of total allocations rate %* for fund for fund (in crores) health education (in (in crores) crores)

1

Kochi

40

2

Vishakhapatnam NA

–

NA

–

1601.00

66.91

3

Shivamogga

NA

–

NA

–

1517.38

87.78

4

Dehra dun

18

1.27

NA

–

1408.00

89.32

5

Ludhiana

NA

–

NA

–

1068.28

82.20

6

New Town

1.10

0.071

9.92

0.65

1532.44

89.69

7

Bhubaneshwar

9.60

0.26

1.50

0.04

3617.90

91.87

8

Aizwal

5.55

0.27

20.50

~1.0

2053.01

98.4

9

Shillong

NA

–

NA

–

1032.07

92.8

10

Patna

0.07

0.028

0.87

0.035

2498.80

70.68

1.96

5.50

0.26

2038.29

98.5

[Note 3-The amount is taken from cost of individual projects given in the SCP. The total value of SCP may additionally include other costs such as DPR preparation, PMC, O&M etc.] * Census of India (2011)

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10 cities have not proposed their allotment in health infrastructure and 5 cities in education. The number may be more if all 100 cities are taken into consideration. It is clearly visible that Kochi, although being good at health and education facilities (Table 9.1), is giving the highest share (40.00cr) in health among the selected cities to scale up Government Hospitals (GH) into super-speciality care centres (30.00cr) and integrated development of four hospitals in West Kochi for Excellence in Secondary care (10.00cr) and Aizawl being in education (20.50cr). The Patna city is dedicating very less amount in education (7 lakhs) and health (87 lakhs), which is very meagre and seems insufficient to handle the present situation. The cities seem reluctant in spending in these basic elements, which is a really a matter of concern for the developing country like India, which is having poorer medical (109th/167 countries) and educational (113th/167 countries) level [facilities] in the world (The Legatum Prosperity Index 2019). Moreover, in the World Happiness Report 2019 (2016–18), India ranks 140th out of 156 countries, being less than Bhutan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and far beyond Pakistan (67th). This means, India is among the bottom 20 countries in terms of Happiness. Even the country is not having good performance in terms of its indicators used to calculate the index, which are (India’s rank)—GDP per capita (103rd), social support (142nd), healthy life expectancy (105th), freedom (41st), generosity (65th) and absence of corruption (73rd). Besides these, this report also shows the degradation of happiness in India from 2005 to 2008 report. Apart from the globally periling situations, there are social challenges (inequalities, orthodoxy, lack of proper facilities in health and education, increasing trend of non-communicable diseases, huge gap in rural–urban scenario, etc.) that are still present in Indian society, and education has a very significant impact on eradicating them to large extent. For example, Barman and Shah (2020), in their study, have found that “Women’s education is positively and very significantly associated with the utilization of Maternal Health Care (MHC) services and reducing high fertility, pregnancy complication, maternal mortality as well as child mortality”, which is reflecting the impact of education on health as well. The government in its guidelines has facilitated for amalgamation of regional plans with National and State level sectoral plans, for example, the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), Housing for All, Swachh Bharat and Digital India but the preliminary study of Smart City Proposal (SCP) of different cities found that linking of sectoral plans for education and health and funds allotment in these sectors under mentioned plans have been largely ignored. Q3. What can be done to boost these areas and how? It is clearly evident from the above discussion that education and health sectors are the most important factors for upgrading human capital, and it needs more attention among all the factors of development. So, there are four levels at which attention is needed in order to improve these sectors: i.

Policy Level: At this level, the first and foremost thing needed is the willingness of the policymakers to make changes. Already there are so many quality

9 Linking Sustainability of Smart Cities to Education …

ii.

iii.

iv.

v.

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plans (T. S. R Subramanyam Committee Report, AISHE, ASER Reports, etc.) existing with the government prepared from time to time but the important thing is their implementation for which only the will of the government is needed. Moreover, the framework for investment by government or private sector or on PPP mode is needed. A study suggests that ‘there is negative impact of enrolment expansion on school conditions and learning without increase in number of teachers which can be mitigated—“by more efficient use of existing public resources and by expansion of overall educational resources through greater reliance on private management and finance”(Duraisamy et al. 1998). Attention is required in this field. The same is desirable for health sector as well. “Inter-sectoral sustainable levelbased collaborations integrated with third party-based collaborations are recognized as key importance for strengthening resilient health system in India” (Yasobant et al. 2019). Infrastructure Level: On the basis of different government reports (AISHE Report 2018; 19) and observation (Patna city), apart from building and sitting arrangements for schools and colleges, infrastructures such as computer lab, facilities for smart classes, playing ground and courts, toilets, parking, canteen, etc. are extremely needed at all levels of education (from KG to college) to support the delivery of quality content and extra-curricular behaviour in students to prepare them for coming competitive future. And to do this, more investment is needed from the government side. In health sector, studies find that increase in journey distance to health centres is associated with an increased risk of mortality. One of the studies suggests that “a 10-km increase in straight-line distance is associated with around a 1% absolute increase in mortality” (Nicholl et al. 2007). So, apart from Primary Hospitals within one kilometre of each household, there is a need for multi-speciality government hospitals with large carrying capacity as per the population of the area concerned, imbedded with all medical equipment and diagnostics, laboratories, ambulance facility, e-medical (consulting doctors online in case of emergency/or long distance), etc. within 10 km is the need of the time. For this, there is need to increase medical education and health grants. Content Level: At this level, apart from whatever is being taught till now, the need is to add some more important contents into the course design with changing paradigm. The separate subject has contents regarding merits and demerits of day to day important life experiences such as environmental awareness (e.g. sanitation, planting trees, creating less noise, creating less pollution of air and water, save water); sustainable use of vehicles (using more of public vehicles, use of cycles for shorter distances even by high-class citizens) and modern gadgets (avoid unnecessary investment in electronic gadgets to avoid the generation of e-waste, etc.); sex education; skill education; digital education (for old age, rural people, women, etc.); political education (value of voting, how to choose whom to vote, etc.); moral and ethical value education; social and emotional education (help others in need, don’t disturb others just for the sake of enjoyment, respect girls and women, etc.); cultural values; etc. are

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needed in all boards at all levels. These are the demands of the time to build the future generation of tomorrow with balanced lifestyle. Few innovative ideas can be learnt from other countries that are innovating new designs to upgrade their education system. Some of them are (source: Edutopia.org): • In 1988, National Curriculum Framework was introduced in England to standardise the learning so that all students should learn the same thing for Government Schools. Traverse talk is organised for Primary School children to develop their ability to debate and express their opinions. • The Istanbul CityHall is providing free service of digital education project where children of age 7, along with the school classes learn how to create their own cartoon animation instead of playing online or watching videos. At the age of 9, they are already programming and learning advanced robotics, and at 15, they are ready for the classes of entrepreneurship. • Shanghai is rated among the top scorer in educational systems in the world. Cooperation of high-performing schools with underperforming schools by providing them their best strategies and practices has demonstrated to be a successful strategy in bringing improvement to quality education. At the end, their main aim is to make students learn. • In Oakland (US), schools provide Co-Teaching with community experts to connect schools and communities and give some practical activities to teach science and mathematics, for example activities of designing sundial. • In one of the schools in Chicago, they use the system of Respond, Reflect and Review with 10–11 year students to help them understand how to give and receive constructive feedback. Another example is the activity called “Pom-Pom Jar”, which is a positive enforcement strategy to promote the act of kindness in students. • In a school in Washington, the teacher gives 5 min to each student for filling a small form containing questions related to what they are going to do today and by what time, how are they feeling today. It supports the social-emotional needs and academics with one tool. • In New Orleans (US), the primary school students are taught about respectful touch, to teach them about safe and gentle physical contact. • And similarly, there are N-numbers of ways in which students are taught around the world for their social, behavioural, and career-oriented upgradation. They are given priority and for that new innovation together with good investment in the field of imparting education is necessary. Education should not be solely aligned just to get job but it is a means to prepare a good human being, a better human capital. • Medical field is a very risky job, one single fault may take the lives of many. So, good learner with quality content without any prejudices is needed. The ethical behaviour and morality at the learning level are needed to teach the coming caregivers/doctors, the problems of patients and avoid indulging in any malpractices as increasing cases these days. Lack of good medical colleges and high fees of medical education seems to be the reason behind less competition (only those who can afford to compete). There is a need to look into these matters as well.

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Monitoring and Evaluation Level: Large Public investments in education have led to substantial improvement in school quality but the reduction in inefficiency of teachers is not remarkable (Muralidharan et al. 2017). Teacher absenteeism is a major cause and the salary cost of unauthorized teacher absence is $1.5 billion/year (Muralidharan et al. 2017). The study suggests that “reducing inefficiencies by increasing frequency of monitoring could be 10 times more cost effective than increasing the effective student–teacher ratio” (Muralidharan et al. 2017). So, this is one of the most necessary levels for proper implementation of education and health and their sustenance for long. At this level, technology can play a good role for both these sectors. Apart from periodic inspection from central authorities, app-based technology can be of great help for complaints/reporting from individuals. The software application can be accommodated with the list of local hospitals, care provisions given, list of medicines freely available/not available, their cost and other such facilities. Additional research and surveys are needed for further clarification on technicalities of these issues.

The above-discussed questions are explained analytically in the following Fig. 9.1. Figure 9.1 is representing a cycle of the existence of human civilization in the changing urban setup and explains that a sustainable and inclusive smart city is the result of interdependence of sustainable human, support and natural system with components of each system influencing the other. The education and health adding on with policies and sustainable technology acts as a tool that influences human capital generation, which on the other end help enhances other assets and capitals. The so created financial capital then impacts the development and growth. At the same time, it also helps fight future vulnerabilities and thus creating a web of interdependences of capitals in the sustenance of smart cities named Smart city web, and this cycle continues. Taking all together, the role of education and health care is quite inevitable in the sustainability, inclusiveness and sustenance of the Smart City. At the same time, it needs much attention in terms of infrastructure, investment, periodic content revising and monitoring in Indian context, especially for North India cities.

9.6 Summary and Conclusion The analysis of all 100 cities can be done to find out the level of importance being given to Human Capital under this mission. Further research is required for providing empirical evidences for the confirmation of this relationship; find the city-specific indicators for human and social capital; assess the indicators for checking the quality of teacher; assessment of citizens’ perception and their educational ability need further clarification. Above all one important thing which can led to success or failure of all the provisions at all the levels in all sectors—the mindset/the attitude of people towards life, city and its components; their sense of responsibility as a citizen is extremely needed which can be validated with further researches.

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By far the paper tried to provide immense qualitative evidences for the importance of prioritising human capital for the implementation of Smart cities in short run and sustenance of its components and eventually Smart City Mission in the long run. Moreover, analysis of the syllabus content and its reforms is needed periodically. Even proper research and survey (pilot study) is desirable by the implementing agencies and urban local bodies prior to implementation of any plan to find which plan is desirable and demanded by citizens. There is a need of policies that should decrease the inefficiency of public education spending, which are likely to yield significantly higher marginal returns than those that augment input (hiring more), just by improving monitoring and evaluation (Muralidharan et al. 2017). Together with the proper understanding, implementation and development of its six basic components (Boyd Cohen’s smart city wheel)—smart economy (financial capital), smart mobility (physical capital), smart governance (policies, institutions), smart environment (natural capital), smart people and smart living (human capital); understanding of smart solutions (using science and technology, ICT and data-driven infrastructure and services) under smart city also need consideration, which is ultimately driven by smart, educated and healthy people. New microsocial (individual/community level) and micropolitical practices (Wiszniewski 2014) are desirable for the acceptance and sustenance of any policy.

References Arcadis (2018) Citizen Centric Cities. The Sustainable Cities Index 2018, The Sustainable Cities Index. Available at: https://url2.cl/uwVCV AISHE Report 2018–19 (2019) Department of higher education, ministry of human resources development. Government of India Barman B, Shah J (2020) Impact of education on the utilization of maternal health care services: an investigation from National family health survey (2015–16) in India. Child Youth Serv Rev 108:104642 Benos N, Karagiannis S (2016) Do education quality and spill overs matter? Evidence on human capital and productivity in Greece. Econ Modell 54:563–573 Bibri SE, Krogstie J (2016) On the social shaping dimensions of smartsustainable cities: a study in science, technology, and society. Sustain Cities Soc Bibri SE, Krogstie J (2017) Smart sustainable cities of the future: an extensive interdisciplinary literature review. Sustain Cities Soc 31:183–212 Bibri SE (2018) Conceptual, theoretical, disciplinary and discursive foundations: a multidimensional framework. Smart Sustain Cities Future 39–131 Census of India (2011) Government of India. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India Chavan M, Chandiramani J, Nayak S (2019) Assessing the state of physical infrastructure in progressive urbanization strategy: SAP-LAP analysis Habitat International. Elsevier 89(September 2018) p 102002. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2019.102002 DFID (2008) ‘Sustainable Livelihoods Approach and its Framework’ pp 1–5 Duraisamy P et al (1998) ‘Is there a quantity-quality trade-off as pupil-teacher ratios increase? Evidence from Tamil Nadu India’ Int J Educational Development 18(5):367–383. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/S0738-0593(98)00022-4

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Government of India (GoI) (2015) Smart Cities Guidelines. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097 086-8.74017-7 Kumari A, Kumar Sharma A (2017) Infrastructure financing and development: a bibliometric review, Int J Critical Infrastructure Prot 16: pp 49–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcip.2016.11.005 ITU (2014) Smart Sustainable Cities, International Telecommunication Union. https://www.itu.int/ en/ITU-T/ssc/Pages/default.aspx Accessed: 25 February 2020 National Health Profile (2018) 13th Issue, Central Bureau of Health Intelligence, Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India. WHO collaborating centre on family of international classifications (ICD-10, ICF & ICHI) Nicholl J et al (2007) ‘The relationship between distance to hospital and patient mortality in emergencies: an observational study’, Emergency Medicine Journal. 24(9):665–668. https://doi.org/ 10.1136/emj.2007.047654 Muralidharan K et al (2017) ‘The fiscal cost of weak governance: Evidence from teacher absence in India’ J Public Econom Elsevier BV, 145:116–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2016. 11.005 OECD (2012) OECD environmental outlook to 2050. The consequences of inaction. https://www.naturvardsverket.se/upload/miljoarbete-isamhallet/internationellt-miljoarbete/ multilateralt/oecd/outolook-2050-oecd.pdf Ogundari K, Awokuse T (2018) Human capital distribution in sub-Saharan Africa: does health status matter more than education? Econ Anal Policy 58:131–140 Our Common Future (1987) Report of the world commission on environment and development (WECD). United Nations Sustainable City Index (SCI) (2018) Arcadis Sustainable Development Goal India Index 2.0, & Dashboard (2019–20) NITI Aayog, Government of India Söderström O, Paasche T Klauser F (2014) ‘Smart cities as corporate storytelling’, City 18(3): pp 307–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/13604813.2014.906716 The Legatum Prosperity Index (2019) Legatum Institute, London, U.K Wiszniewski D (2014) Ecosophic Urbanism: para situation (Olbia, Sardinia) World Happiness Report (2019) (2016–18), Sustainable development solution network. United Nations in partnership with Ernesto Illy Foundation United Nations (2019) Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Population Division. World Population Prospects 2019: Highlights (ST/ESA/SER.A/423) Yasobant S, Bruchhausen W, Saxena D, Falkenberg T (2019) One health collaborations for a resilient health system in India: learning from global initiatives. One Health 8:100096 Yigitcanlar T, Dur D, Dizdaroglu D (2015) Towards prosperous sustainable cities: a multi—scalar urban sustainability assessment approach. Habitat Int 45:36–46 Yigitcanlar T, Kamruzzaman M, Buys L, Ioppolo G, Sabatini-Marques J, Costa E et al (2018) Understanding ‘smart cities’: intertwining development drivers with desired outcomes in a multidimensional framework. Cities 81:145–160

Chapter 10

Celebration of Public Festivals Toward Sustainable Development: A Perceptual Study Shivkumar L. Biradar and Rima Hibare

Abstract India has rich culture and tradition of celebration of diversified festivals with belief and faith. It helps to inculcate cultural and traditional values in new generation. Now a days, nature of celebration of public festivals has been changed significantly; now public festivals are celebrated on mass basis with contesting way. The present nature of celebration of public festivals has socio-environmental implication in society. The present paper aimed to understand perception about the purpose of celebrating public festivals and present nature of celebration of public festivals in Solapur across demographic variables and its socio-environmental issues. It is found that there is a need to change the approach toward celebration of public festivals. It should be celebrated in eco-friendly, healthy, and peaceful manner. Keywords Celebration of public festivals · Socio-environmental issues · Ganesh festival · Navaratri · Dr. Ambedakar birth anniversary

10.1 Introduction India is a land of diversity; it has great diversified cultural values, traditions, and festivals. People of different religions, cultural values, social ethics, and traditions live together. Various types of religious, social, cultural, and national festivals are celebrated in India with belief, faith, and principles. Festivals play an important role in the development of nation and society; it connects the cultural values that followed by our ancestors to the new generation. It protects culture, ethics, humanity, heritage, and unity of the society. It is a kind of balancing factors, which nourish the lives of people in the society. Festivals are the cause for healthy and happy society; it also provides an opportunity to escape from routine life. Now a days, nature of celebration of public festivals has been changed. Festivals in India are celebrated widely at many public places with contesting manner. Public forums are formed to celebrate public festivals almost in each society. Public forums S. L. Biradar (B) · R. Hibare Hirachand Nemchand College of Commerce, Solapur, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 R. K. Mishra et al. (eds.), Smart Cities for Sustainable Development, Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7410-5_10

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are group of youth volunteers to organize public festivals. Solapur (Smart City) is one of the well-known cities for celebration of public festival extensively in Maharashtra—India. Here, many festivals such as Ganesh festival, Navaratri, Muharram, Eid, Dr. Ambedakar birth anniversary, Chh. Shivaji Maharaj birth anniversary etc. are celebrated with full of energy. It is observed that public forums have started collecting contribution forcibly to celebrate public festivals and maintain no accountability of income and expenditure of the forum. Largeness of public festivals celebration causes problems in maintaining law and order and contesting the nature of celebration leads irrational use of scarce resource and environmental issues. It is also found that sometimes members of public forum have indulged in antisocial activity and created stress in the society. From the above observations, it can be concluded that rationale of celebration of public festivals has been lagging behind day by day.

10.1.1 Conceptual Framework Public festivals refer to all festivals irrespective of any religion, which are celebrated by group of people at public places from public contribution, such as Ganesh festival, Navaratri, Muharram, Eid, other religious and social celebrations, and it also includes birth anniversary of national, social and religious leader like Dr. Babasaheb Ambedakar, Chh. Shivaji Maharaj, Mahatma Basaveshwar, Muhammad Paigambar, etc.

10.1.2 Research Statement Does civilians’ perception about celebration of public festivals differ as per their demographic variables?

10.1.3 Objectives of the Study The study is aimed to accomplish the following objectives: • To study public perception regarding the purpose of celebrating public festivals. • To evaluate the perception about the present nature of celebration of public festivals. • To understand perception about impacts of celebration of public festivals on socioenvironmental issues. • To suggest possible alternatives for present nature of celebration of public festivals for sustainable development.

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10.1.4 Research Hypothesis For the purpose of testing the civic perception about celebration of public festivals based on demographic variables of the respondents, it was stated that civic perception about celebration of public festival is independent of demographic variables of the respondents.

10.1.5 Research Methodology This study employs descriptive and exploratory research approach and has adopted survey method for data collection to understand perception about the purpose of celebrating public festivals and present nature of celebration of public festivals and also to evaluate perception about impacts of celebration of public festivals on socioenvironmental issues in line with demographic variables of the respondents. In order to address the research problem, a primary survey was conducted in several areas of Solapur city in Maharashtra with a total sample size of 300, and for this, a structured questionnaire was developed covering a variety of interrelated aspects, such as respondent’s gender, age and education. Data obtained through survey were analyzed using suitable statistical tools and techniques on the basis of three demographic parameters such as gender, age, and education of the respondents. Respondents are given in a five-point scale (strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, and strongly disagree) to express their views about given statement. In order to calculate weighted average, strongly agree is given weight as one, agree as two and so on, weighted total and weighted average are calculated and that have been analyzed based on various parameters. Analytical statistical techniques such as mean, percentage, rank correlation and testing of hypothesis (t-test and chi-square test) have been applied to analyze the data.

10.1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Study The present study falls under descriptive and explorative in nature. The scope of the study was defined by certain questions provided to the respondents in Solapur city. The present study is based on primary data collected in the month of September– October 2019. Findings and suggestions are based on the analysis of data collected by the respondents of Smart City Solapur.

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10.2 Data Analysis and Discussion 10.2.1 Socio-economic Profile of the Respondents In a culturally varied and fanatical country like India, people celebrate various festivals. Thus, to study the intricacy implications of celebration of public festivals and its effects on various stances of human life, an explorative investigation has been conducted. In order to capture insights from the diverse social structure, the study incorporated three basic parameters to select its participants such as: Gender, Age group, and Level of Education. Table 10.1 explicitly depicts the fact that more than half of the respondents were male (56.33%), while 43.67% were female respondents. The sample respondents were mostly young, 54% respondents have an average of up to 30 years, 40.33% respondents belonged to 30–60 years age group, and the remaining 5.67% respondents pegged with 60 years and above age group. It is interesting to note that the majority of the respondents (45.00%) were graduates, 34.67% respondents have their education up to HSC, and 20.33% were postgraduates and above.

Table 10.1 Demographic profile of the respondents

Demographic variable

Classification

Number of respondents

Gender

Male

169

Female

131

43.67

300

100.00

Up to 30

162

54.00

30–60

121

40.33

17

5.67

Total Age group

Above 60 Total Level of education

% 56.33

300

100.00

Up to HSC

104

34.67

Graduate

135

45.00

61

20.33

300

100.00

Postgraduate and above Total Source Primary data

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Table 10.2 Overall participation in public festivals Parameter

Yes F

Do you participate 228 in celebration of public festivals

No

Total

%

F

%

F

%

76

72

24

300

100

If yes…

01–05 years

05–10 years

10 and more years

Total

Since how many years

F

%

F

%

F

%

F

%

113

49.56

48

21.05

67

29.39

228

100

Source Primary data

10.2.2 Participation and Approach Toward Public Festivals 10.2.2.1

Participation in Public Festivals

Table 10.2 shows the overall participation of respondents in celebration of public festivals. Overall 76% respondents constantly participate in celebration of public festivals out of which 49.56% have been participating since the last 5 years, while 21.05% are participating since last 5–10 years and remaining 29.39% of respondents are participating since more than 10 years.

10.2.2.2

Participation in Celebration of Public Festivals on the Basis Gender

Table 10.3 presents the respondents’ participation on the basis of gender. Over all 76% respondents take participation in celebration of public festivals. From male category 82.25% and female 68% respondents involve themselves in celebration of public festivals. Participation ratio of male respondents is more than female in public festivals. 43.17% male respondents participate in public festivals from last 1 to 5 years, while 17.99% are participating from 5 to 10 years and 38.85% are from more than 10 years. Whereas 59.55% female respondents are participating in public festivals from last 1 to 5 years, 25.84% are participating from 5 to 10 years and 14.61% respondents are making their participation since more than 10 years. Mean participation of female respondents in public festivals is increasing since the last 5–10 years. Ho: Participation in celebration of public festivals is independent of gender of the respondents. X2 = 4.65 D.F. = 1 α = 0.05 Table value = 3.84

Male

60 (43.17)

Since how many years

Source Primary data

1–5 Years

If yes,

Male

Do you participate Yes in celebration of 139 public festivals (82.25)

Parameter

25 (17.99)

54 (38.85)

10 and above

169 (100)

30 (17.75)

5–10 years

Total

No

53 (59.55)

1–5 years

Female

89 (68)

Yes

Female

Table 10.3 Participation in celebration of public festivals on the basis gender

42 (32)

No

23 (25.84)

5–10 years

131 (100)

Total

13 (14.61)

10 and above

103 (45.18)

1–5 years

Total

228 (76)

Yes

Total 72 (24)

No

58 (25.44)

5–10 years

300 (100)

Total

67 (29.39)

10 and above

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Since calculated value (4.65) is greater than table value (3.84), so the null hypothesis is rejected and concluded that participation in celebration of public festival dependent of gender of the respondents. Participation of male is more than female in celebration of public festivals.

10.2.2.3

Participation in Celebration of Public Festivals on the Basis Age and Education

Table 10.4 represents the participation in public festivals on the basis of age and level of education of respondents. First age group, i.e. up to 30 years, 78% respondents take participation in celebration of public festival at the same time, 76% respondents make participation from second age group (30–60 years), and 53% respondents involve themselves in celebration of public festival from third age group, i.e. 60 years and above. It can be concluded that participation ratio decreases as age of the respondents increases. Speaking about participation on the basis of education, participation ratio of the respondents having education up to higher secondary is 67%, whereas participation ratio of graduate and postgraduate is 83% and 76%, respectively. It is observed that participation ratio of graduate respondents is highest, i.e. 83%. Ho: Participation in celebration of public festival is independent of age group of the respondents. X2 = 5.76 D.F. = 2 α = 0.05 Table value = 5.99 Since computed value (5.76) of chi-square statistics is below the cut-off value (5.99), so null hypothesis cannot be rejected and concluded that participation in celebration of public festival is independent of level of age group of the respondents. Ho: Participation in celebration of public festival is independent of level of education of the respondents. X2 = 5.19 D.F. = 2 Table 10.4 Participation in celebration of public festivals on the basis age and education, you participate in celebration of public festivals? Up to 30 years

30–60 years

Yes

No

Total

Yes

Yes

No

Total

Yes

Yes

No

Total

Yes

127 (78)

35 (22)

162 (100)

92 (76)

29 (24)

121 (100)

9 (53)

8 (47)

17 (100)

228 (76)

72 (24)

300 (100)

72 (24)

300 (100)

Up to HSC 70 (67)

34 (33)

60 and above

Graduate 104 (100)

Source Primary data

112 (83)

23 (17)

Total

Post graduate 135 (100)

46 (75)

15 (25)

Total 61 (100)

228 (76)

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Figures are in % 11.00

No

Celebration of public festival in essential Every one has right to celebrate public festival

12.67

Main purpose of celebration of public festival is left behind

11.67

There is need to change present nature of celebration of public festival Present nature of celebration of public festival is right

Yes

89.00 87.33 88.33

15.00

85.00 45.00 55.00

Fig. 10.1 Respondents approach toward public festivals

α = 0.05 Table value = 5.99 Since computed value (5.19) of chi-square statistics is below the cut-off value (5.99), so null hypothesis cannot be rejected and concluded that participation in celebration of public festival is independent of level of education of the respondents.

10.2.2.4

Respondents’ Approach Toward Public Festivals

Respondents approach toward public festivals is presented in Fig. 10.1, it is revealed from the chart that 89% respondents believe that celebration of public festival is essential while 11% think that celebration of public festival is not much essential. 87.33% respondents think that that everyone has right to celebrate public festival and 12.67% don’t think so. 88.33% respondents trust that main purpose of celebration of public festival is left behind. Majority of the respondents (85%) feel that there is a need to change present nature of celebration of public festivals, and 55% respondents say the present nature of celebration of public festival is right.

10.2.2.5

Analysis of Respondents’ Approach Toward Public Festivals on the Basis Gender

Table 10.5 illustrates the respondents’ approach toward statements regarding public festivals on gender basis. It is observed from the table that 91.72% male and 85.50% female respondents think celebration of public festival is essential. 89.94% male and 83.97% female respondents believe that everyone has right to celebrate public festivals. It means there is no much difference in opinion about celebrating public festival is everyone’s right. 87.57% male and 89.31% female respondents feel that

148 (87.57) 4 (85.21) 91 (53.85)

Main purpose of celebration of public festival is left behind

There is need to change present nature of celebration of public festivals

Present nature of celebration of public festival is right

Source Primary data

152 (89.94)

Everyone has right to celebrate public festival

78 (46.15)

25 (14.79)

21 (12.43)

17 10.06)

14 (8.28)

Total

169 (100)

169 (100)

169 (100)

169 (100)

169 (100)

74 (56.49)

111 (84.73)

117 (89.31)

117 (83.97)

112 (85.50)

Yes

No

Yes 155 (91.72)

Female

Male

Celebration of public festivals is essential

Statements

Table 10.5 Respondents’ approach toward public festivals on the basis gender (%)

57 (43.51)

20 (15.27)

14 (10.69)

14 (16.03)

19 (14.50)

No

131 (100)

131 (100)

131 (100)

131 (100)

131 (100)

Total

165 (56.49)

255 (84.73)

265 (89.31)

265 (83.97)

267 (85.50)

Yes

Total

135 (43.51)

45 (15.27)

35 (10.69)

35 (16.03)

33 (14.50)

No

300 (100)

300 (100)

300 (100)

300 (100)

300 (100)

Total

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the main purpose of celebration of public festival is lagging behind. 85.21% male and 84.73% female respondents consider that there is a need to change the present nature of celebration of public festivals. 53.85% male and 56.49% female respondents think that changing nature of celebration of public festival is right and 46.15% male and 43.51% female think it is incorrect.

10.2.2.6

Testing of Hypothesis

To test the dependency between respondents approach toward public festivals and demographic variables of the respondents, chi-square test has been applied. Some of the statements are asked to the respondents to express their approach toward public festivals, responses toward statements, and the result has been presented in Table 10.6.

10.2.3 Perception About the Purpose of Celebrating Public Festivals To understand respondents’ perception about the purpose of celebrating public festivals, selected statements have been asked to express their responses and it has been recorded in a five-point scale and same has been analyzed as follows.

10.2.3.1

Average Responses About Purpose of Celebrating Public Festivals

Table 10.7 reveals that approximately 40.72% respondents are strongly agree about all statements, while 39% respondents are simply agree with all statements, 9.50% responses are neither agree nor disagree, around 8.39% responses are disagree and 2.39% responses are strongly disagree.

10.2.3.2

Weighted Average of Responses About Purpose of Celebrating Public Festivals

Table 10.8 illustrates the weighted average and average response about some of the statements, which have been collected in a five-point Likert’s scale. Majority of the answers are two or close to two, which indicates average response is agreed about the statements. Respondents are neither agree nor disagree about the statement, public festivals give an opportunity to escape from routine life.

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Table 10.6 Testing hypothesis Ho: Responses about statement ‘The main purpose of celebration of public festival is lagging behind’ is independent of gender, level of education and age of the respondents Gender of the respondents

Level of education

Age of the respondents

X2 = 0.22 D.F. = 1 α = 0.05 Table value = 3.84 Since calculated value (0.22) is less than table value (3.84), so the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (accepted) and can be concluded that responses about statement. The main purpose of celebration of public festival is lagging behind is independent of gender of the respondents

X2 = 3.38 D.F. = 2 α = 0.05 Table value = 5.99 Since computed value (3.38) of chi-square statistics is below the cut-off value (5.99), so we cannot reject (accept) the null hypothesis, we can conclude that responses about statement. ‘The main purpose of celebration of public festival is lagging behind’ is independent of level of education of the respondents

X2 = 1.35 D.F. = 2 α = 0.05 Table value = 5.99 Since computed value (1.35) of chi-square statistics is below the cut-off value (5.99), so null hypothesis cannot be rejected and conclude that responses about statement, the main purpose of celebration of public festival is lagging behind is independent of age

Ho: Responses about statement ‘There is a need to change present nature of celebration of public festivals’ is independent of gender, level of education and age of the respondents Gender of the respondents

Level of education

Age of the respondents (continued)

10.2.3.3

Weighted Averages of Responses About Purpose of Celebrating Public Festivals on the Basis of Gender

The focus is being made on weighted average of the responses on the basis of gender along with the difference of these averages. It is understood that higher difference indicates more difference in responses about the statement. Table 10.9 represents correlation √ coefficient (r = 0.84) and t-statistics of correlation coefficient. T-statistics {t = R n – 2/1 – R2} has been used to test the significance of the obtained correlation coefficient. Since the calculated value of ‘t’ at 5% level of significance for 4 degree of freedom is greater than table value, so hypothesis is rejected and concluded that there is significant association exists between weighted averages calculated based on responses of male and female respondents.

154

S. L. Biradar and R. Hibare

Table 10.6 (continued) Ho: Responses about statement ‘The main purpose of celebration of public festival is lagging behind’ is independent of gender, level of education and age of the respondents X2 = 0.01 D.F. = 1 α = 0.05 Table value = 3.84 Since calculated value (0.01) is less than table value (3.84), so the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (accepted), and inferred that irrespective of the gender, people do accept that there is a need to change present nature of celebration of public festivals

X2 = 4.94 D.F. = 2 α = 0.05 Table value = 5.99 Since computed value (4.94) of chi-square statistics is below the cut-off value (5.99), so null hypothesis cannot be rejected (accepted) and concluded that irrespective of the level of education of the respondents, people do believe that ‘there is a need to change present nature of celebration of public festivals’

X2 = 8.30 D.F. = 2 α = 0.05 Table value = 5.99 Since computed value (8.30) of chi-square statistics is above the cut-off value (5.99), so we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that people believe that there is a need to change the present nature of celebration of public festivals and is dependent of age group of the respondents

Source Primary data

10.2.3.4

Weighted Averages of Responses About Purpose of Celebrating Public Festivals on the Basis of Age Groups of the Respondents

Result correlation coefficient between weighted averages calculated based on the responses of different age groups is provided in Table 10.10. √ To test the significance of the obtained correlation coefficient, t-statistic {t = R n – 2/1 – R2} is calculated and presented in same table. High degree positive correlation is found in first–second (0.78) age group as well first–third (0.60) age group. Weak correlation is in second– third (0.15) age groups. T-test is used to test the significance of the correlation coefficient, and their results are presented in the same table. Ho = There is no association between weighted averages calculated based on the responses of various age groups (R = 0). Since the calculated value of ‘t’ at a 5% level of significance for n – 2 = 4 degree of freedom is less than table value (2.77), so hypothesis cannot be rejected (accepted), it means there is no significant association exists between weighted averages calculated based on responses of respondents of different age groups.

36.00

42.33

31.33

108

Festivals improve 127 cultural values, heritage and lead to healthy and happy society

94

67

Public festivals are important to inculcate values in next generation

Public festivals give an opportunity to learn new things

Public festivals give an opportunity to escape from routine life

22.33

52.00

156

Public festivals are source of energy, happiness, enthusiasm in the life of human being

%

60.33

F

Strongly agree

Public festivals provide 181 platform to gather people together, to share their views and boosting unity among society

Purpose of celebration of public festival

89

145

130

128

119

91

F

Agree %

29.67

48.33

43.33

42.67

39.67

30.33

45

35

26

37

17

11

F

15.00

11.67

8.67

12.33

5.67

3.67

%

Neither agree nor disagree

Table 10.7 Average responses about purpose of celebration of public festivals

73

22

14

25

5

12

F

Disagree

24.3

7.33

4.67

8.33

1.67

4.00

%

26

4

3

2

3

5

F

8.67

1.33

1.00

0.67

1.00

1.67

%

Strongly disagree

(continued)

300

300

300

300

300

300

Total

10 Celebration of Public Festivals Toward Sustainable Development … 155

Source Primary data

Average responses

Purpose of celebration of public festival

Table 10.7 (continued)

117

F

40.72

%

F

122

Agree

Strongly agree % 39.00

28

F 9.50

%

Neither agree nor disagree 25

F

Disagree

8.39

% 07

F 2.39

%

Strongly disagree

300

Total

156 S. L. Biradar and R. Hibare

10 Celebration of Public Festivals Toward Sustainable Development …

157

Table 10.8 Weighted average of responses about purpose of celebration of public festivals Sr. No.

Statements

1

Public festivals provide platform to 1.56 gather people together, to share their views and boosting unity among society

Agree

2

Public festivals are source of energy, happiness, enthusiasm in the life of human being

1.60

Agree

3

Public festivals are important to inculcate values in next generation

1.95

Agree

4

Festivals improve cultural values, heritage and lead to healthy and happy society

1.79

Agree

5

Public festivals give an opportunity 1.99 to learn new things

Agree

6

Public festivals give an opportunity 2.67 to escape from routine life

Neither agree nor disagree

Average

Weighted average

Average responses

1.927

Source Primary data

10.2.3.5

Weighted Averages of Responses About Purpose of Celebrating Public Festivals on the Basis of Level of Education

Weighted averages calculated based on the responses of respondents of various groups of education and their correlation coefficient between are presented in Table 10.11. High degree positive correlation is found in first and second (0.85) group of education, high degree negative correlation is observed in first and third (−0.90) and second and third (−0.61) group of education. √ To test the significance of the obtained correlation coefficient, t-statistic {t = R n – 2/1 – R2} has been calculated, and results are presented in the same table.

10.2.4 Perception About the Present Nature of Celebration of Public Festivals An attempt has been made to understand perception about the present nature of celebration of public festivals. Now a days, nature of celebration of public festivals has been changed very drastically, festivals are celebrated extensively on large-scale basis by the people, which resulted into overcrowding, disturb routine of the residents, and antisocial behavioral practices. It is also observed that rules and regulations are not pursued; environmental standards are violated while celebrating public festivals.

158

S. L. Biradar and R. Hibare

Table 10.9 Correlation between weighted averages of responses about purpose of celebrating public festivals on the basis of gender and t-statistic of correlation coefficient Serial number Statements

Weighted average Male

Difference

Female

1

Public festivals provide platform to gather people 1.54 together, to share their views and boosting unity among society

1.60

−0.06

2

Public festivals are source of energy, happiness, enthusiasm in the life of human being

1.60

1.60

−0.01

3

Public festivals are important to inculcate values in next generation

1.95

1.95

−0.01

4

Festivals improve cultural values, heritage and lead to healthy and happy society

1.86

1.69

0.18

5

Public festivals give an opportunity to learn new things

1.96

1.82

0.14

6

Public festivals give an opportunity to escape from routine life

2.11

1.84

0.27

11.01 10.50

0.52

Total r = 0.84 Degree of Freedom (DF = N – 2) = 4 1 – r2 = 0.294 DF/1 – r2 = 13.79 SQRT = 3.68 Calculated value of –t = 3.09 Table value = 2.77

Ho: Two sets of weighted averages of perception about the purpose of celebration of public festivals are not significantly associated in population, and observed value of ‘R’ differs from zero by chance Result: Since the calculated value of ‘t’ at a 5% level of significance for 4 degree of freedom is greater than table value, so hypothesis is rejected, it means there is significant association exists between two sets, weighted averages calculated based on responses of male and female respondents in population Source Primary data

Selective statements are asked to the respondents and responses are collected in a five-point scale and are presented and analyzed.

10.2.4.1

Average Responses About the Present Nature of Celebration of Public Festivals

Table 10.12 refers to the overall analysis of the responses about statements, which collect perception about the present nature of celebration of public festivals, which

Public festivals provide platform to gather people together, to share their views and boosting unity among society

Public festivals are source of energy, happiness, enthusiasm in the life of human being

Public festivals are important to inculcate values in next generation

Festivals improve cultural values, heritage and lead to healthy and happy society

Public festivals give an opportunity to learn new things

Public festivals give an opportunity to escape from routine life

1

2

3

4

5

6 1.70

1.94

1.76

1.62

1.88

1.52

1.51

Up to 30 years (1)

1.87

2.00

2.06

1.98

1.98

1.68

1.58

30–60 years (2)

2.03

2.35

1.59

1.94

2.53

1.82

2.00

60 and above (3)

0.788

0.602

0.158

(1–2)

(1–3)

(2–3)

4

4

4

Degree of freedom (DF) N–2

0.98

0.64

0.38

1 – r2

4.10

6.27

10.56

DF/1 – r2

2.03

2.50

3.25

SQRT

0.32

1.51

2.56

Calculated Value of –t

2.77

2.77

2.77

Table value

Source Primary data

Ho: Two sets of weighted averages of perception about the purpose of celebration of public festivals are not significantly associated in population and observed value of ‘R’ differs from zero by chance Result: Since calculated value of ‘t’ at 5% level of significance is less than the table value, so hypothesis cannot be rejected (accepted), it means there is no significant association exists between two set weighted averages calculated based on responses of respondents of different age groups

‘r’ Value

Category

Correlation between weighted average of responses about purpose of celebrating public festivals on the basis of age group of the respondents and t-statistic of correlation coefficient

Average

Statements

Serial number

Table 10.10 Weighted averages of responses about purpose of celebrating public festivals on the basis of age groups of the respondents

10 Celebration of Public Festivals Toward Sustainable Development … 159

Public festivals provide platform to gather people together, to share their views and boosting unity among society

Public festivals are source of energy, happiness, enthusiasm in the life of human being

Public festivals are important to inculcate values in next generation

Festivals improve cultural values, heritage and lead to healthy and happy society

Public festivals give an opportunity to learn new things

Public festivals give an opportunity to escape from routine life

1

2

3

4

5

6 1.89

2.05

1.98

1.97

2.02

1.71

1.63

Up to HSC (1)

1.72

1.96

1.76

1.64

1.92

1.54

1.53

Graduate (2)

1.03

0.77

0.72

0.66

1.02

1.54

1.52

Postgraduate (3)

4

−0.904

−0.614

(1–3)

(2–3)

0.62

0.18

0.27

1 – r2

6.42

21.86

14.96

DF/1 – r2

2.53

4.68

3.87

SQRT

−1.56

−4.23

3.31

Calculated value of –t

2.77 (no significant association exists)

2.77 (significant association exists)

Table value

Source Primary data

Ho: Two sets of weighted averages of perception about the purpose of celebration of public festivals are not significantly associated in population, and observed value of ‘R’ differs from zero by chance Result: Since the calculated value of ‘t’ at 5% level of significance is greater than the table value, so hypothesis cannot be accepted (rejected) and concluded that significant association exists between weighted averages calculated based on responses of respondents of (1–2) and (1–3) education group

4

4

0.856

(1–2)

Degree of freedom (DF) N – 2

‘r’ Value

Category

Correlation between weighted averages of responses about purpose of celebrating public festivals on the basis of level of education of the respondents and t-statistic of correlation coefficient

Average

Statements

Serial number

Table 10.11 Weighted average of responses about purpose of celebrating public festivals on the basis of level of education of the respondents

160 S. L. Biradar and R. Hibare

105

100

49 69

65

72

Scarce resources like electricity, water, money etc. are heavily used during the celebration of public festivals

Activities/events undertaken during celebration of public festivals produce pollution and lead to environmental degradation

Public festival forums are engaged in unproductive and uncivilized activities

Transportation, law, and order problems are originated during celebration of public festival

Changing nature of celebration of public festival departs society in different sectors and creates social stress in society

Public festivals are celebrated in contesting manner, which causes problems in maintaining law and order

73

Income and expenditures (A/c. statement) are not disclosed transparently by public festival forums

24

22

23

16

33

35

24

126

112

161

112

129

127

121

89

F

22

%

F 67

Agree

Strongly agree

Donations/contributions for celebration of public festivals are collected forcibly

Statement %

42

37

54

37

43

42

40

30

58

80

43

82

40

32

60

45

F

19

27

14

27

13

11

20

15

%

Neither agree nor disagree

Table 10.12 Average responses about the present nature celebration of public festivals

39

34

25

47

26

28

35

73

F

Disagree %

13

11

8

16

9

9

12

24

5

9

2

10

5

8

11

26

F

2

3

1

3

2

3

4

9

%

Strongly disagree

(continued)

300

300

300

300

300

300

300

300

Total

10 Celebration of Public Festivals Toward Sustainable Development … 161

Source Primary data

Average

Total

Number of festivals celebrated at public place from public contribution are increasing day by day

Statement

Table 10.12 (continued)

76

687 22

203

3

127

1141

164

F

%

F 87

Agree

Strongly agree %

42

42

55

52

470

30

F

17

17

10

%

Neither agree nor disagree

36

324

17

F

Disagree

12

12

6

%

9

78

2

F

3

3

1

%

Strongly disagree

300

2700

300

Total

162 S. L. Biradar and R. Hibare

10 Celebration of Public Festivals Toward Sustainable Development …

163

gives an idea about perception of present nature of celebration of public festivals. 22% respondents support strongly for all statements, 42% respondents are agree with the all statements, 17% respondents are of neither agree nor disagree with the statements, while 12% respondents are disagree and 3% respondents are strongly disagree for all statements.

10.2.4.2

Weighted Average of Responses About the Present Nature of Celebration of Public Festivals

To understand perception about the present nature of celebration of public festivals, nine statements are asked to the respondents (given in Table 10.13), and responses are recorded in a five-point Likert’s scale to quantify the scale weighted average have been calculated by assigning weight. Table 10.13 Weighted average of perception about the present nature of celebration of public festivals Statements

Weighted average Average response

Donations/contribution for celebration of public 2.67 festival are collected forcibly

Neither agree nor disagree

Income and expenditures (A/c. statement) are not disclosed transparently by public festival forums

2.30

Agree

Scarce resources like electricity, water, money etc. are heavily used during the celebration of public festivals

2.02

Agree

Activities/events undertaken during celebration 2.02 of public festivals produce pollution and lead to environmental degradation

Agree

Public festival forums are engaged in unproductive and uncivilized activities

2.52

Neither agree nor disagree

Transportation, law, and order problems are originated during celebration of public festival

2.10

Agree

Present nature of celebration of public festival departs society in different sectors and creates social stress in society

2.37

Agree

Public festivals are celebrated in contesting manner, which causes problems in maintaining law and order

2.26

Agree

Number of festivals celebrated at public place from public contribution are increasing day by day

1.94

Agree

Average

2.24

Source Primary data

164

S. L. Biradar and R. Hibare

It is observed from Table 10.13, weighted average of majority responses statements regarding present nature of celebration of public festivals is close to ‘2’. This signifies that average responses of the respondents show agreement to the facts that number of public festivals celebrated increasing day by day, and there is heavy use of resources (electricity, water, money). The activities/events undertaken during celebration create pollution, law and order problem and also no transparency in accounts of public forums. It divides society in different part and creates social stress. However, weighted average of the statements,’ public festival forums are engaged in unproductive and uncivilized activities and the donations/contribution is collected forcibly is close to ‘3’, which signifies that respondents neither agree nor disagree with the given statements.

10.2.4.3

Weighted Average of Responses About the Present Nature of Celebration of Public Festivals on the Basis of Gender

Table 10.14 represents weighted average of the responses on the basis of gender along with the difference. It can be understood that large difference in weighted average indicates more difference in opinion about the statement. Correlation coefficient between weighted average of male and female responses √ is found to be r = 0.87, it is a high degree positive correlation. T-statistics {t = R n – 2/1 – R2} has been used to test the level of significance of the obtained correlation coefficient. Since the calculated value of ‘t’ at 5% level of significance for 7 degree of freedom is greater than table value, so hypothesis is rejected and concluded that there is significant association exists between weighted averages calculated based on responses of male and female respondents about the present nature of celebration of public festivals.

10.2.4.4

Weighted Average of Responses of Present Nature of Celebration of Public Festivals on the Basis of Age Group

To understand age-wise responses about the present nature of celebration of public festivals, correlation coefficient between weighted averages calculated based on the responses of different age groups is calculated and shown in Table 10.15. High degree positive correlation is found in first–second column that is 0.95; it implies that responses of respondents of age group of up to 30 years and 30–60 years are similar. On the other hand, correlation coefficient between first and third columns is 0.73; it indicates there is no much similarity in responses of respondents of age group of up to 30 years and above 60 years. It can be inferred that there is slight difference in the responses of young and old age group. √ To test the significance of the obtained correlation coefficient, t-statistic {t = R n – 2/1 – R2} has been calculated. For testing of hypothesis null hypothesis is formulated as follows. Ho = There is no association between weighted averages calculated based on the responses of various age groups (R = 0).

10 Celebration of Public Festivals Toward Sustainable Development …

165

Table 10.14 Correlation between weighted averages of perception about the present nature of celebration of public festivals on the basis of gender and t-statistic of correlation coefficient Sr. No. Statements

Weighted average

Difference

Male

Female

1

Donations/contribution for celebration of public festival are collected forcibly

2.78

2.53

0.25

2

Income and expenditures (A/c. statement) are not disclosed transparently by public festival forums

2.42

2.15

0.28

3

Scarce resources like electricity, water, money etc. are heavily used during the celebration of public festivals

2.12

1.90

0.22

4

Activities/events undertaken during celebration of public 2.16 festivals produce pollution and lead to environmental degradation

1.85

0.31

5

Public festival forums are engaged in unproductive and uncivilized activities

2.75

2.24

0.51

6

Transportation, law, and order problems are originated during celebration of public festival

2.25

1.91

0.34

7

Changing nature of celebration of public festival departs society in different sectors and creates social stress in society

2.45

2.26

0.19

8

Public festivals are celebrated in contesting manner, which causes problems in maintaining law and order

2.37

2.12

0.25

9

Number of festivals celebrated at public place from public contribution are increasing day by day

1.93

1.95

-0.02

21.23 18.91

2.32

Total r = 0.87 Degree of Freedom (DF = N − 2 ) = 7 1 − r2 = 0.24 DF/1 − r2 = 29.16 SQRT = 5.40 Calculated value of −t = 3.46 Table value = 2.36

Ho: Two sets of weighted averages of perception about the present nature of celebration of public festivals are not significantly associated in population and observed value of ‘R’ differs from zero by chance Result: Since the calculated value of ‘t’ at a 5% level of significance at 7 degree of freedom is greater than table value, so hypothesis is rejected and concluded that there is significant association exists in population between weighted averages calculated based on responses of male and female respondents. It means there is no difference in responses/opinions by the male and female respondents Source Primary data

Donations/contribution for celebration of public festival are collected forcibly

Income and expenditures (A/c. statement) are not disclosed transparently by public festival forums

Scarce resources like electricity, water, money etc. are heavily used during the celebration of public festivals

Activities/events undertaken during celebration of public festivals produce pollution and lead to environmental degradation

Public festival forums are engaged in unproductive and uncivilized activities

Transportation, law, and order problems are originated during celebration of public festival

Changing nature of celebration of public festival departs society in different sectors and creates social stress in society

Public festivals are celebrated in contesting manner which causes problems in maintaining law and order

Number of festivals celebrated at public place from public contribution are increasing day by day

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

2.24

1.91

2.28

2.35

2.07

2.48

2.03

2.00

2.38

2.68

Up to 30 years (1)

2.26

1.98

2.23

2.41

2.13

2.58

2.04

2.03

2.21

2.71

30–60 years (2)

2.20

2.00

2.35

2.24

2.12

2.59

1.82

2.18

2.18

2.35

60 and above (3)

Category

r Value

Degree of Freedom (DF) N−2

1 − r2

DF/1 − r2

SQRT

Calculated value of −t

(continued)

Table value

Correlation between weighted averages of perception about the present nature of public festivals on the basis of age group of the respondents and t-statistic of correlation coefficient

Average

Statements

Serial number

Table 10.15 Weighted averages and correlation coefficient of weighted average of perception about the present nature of celebration of public festivals on the basis of age groups of the respondents

166 S. L. Biradar and R. Hibare

0.73

0.77

(2–3)

7

7

7 0.40

0.46

0.11 17.36

15.09

65.95 4.17

3.88

8.12 3.22

2.84

7.68

Up to 30 years (1)

2.36

2.36

2.36

30–60 years (2)

60 and above (3)

Source Primary data

Ho: Two sets of weighted averages of perception about the present nature of celebration of public festivals are not significantly associated in population and observed value of ‘R’ differs from zero by chance Result: Since the calculated value of ‘t’ at a 5% level of significance at 7 degree of freedom is greater than table value, so hypothesis is rejected and concluded that there is significant association exists between weighted averages calculated based on responses of respondents of different age group

0.95

(1–3)

Statements

(1–2)

Serial number

Table 10.15 (continued)

10 Celebration of Public Festivals Toward Sustainable Development … 167

168

S. L. Biradar and R. Hibare

Since the calculated value of ‘t’ at a 5% level of significance for n − 2 = 7 degree of freedom is greater than table value (2.36), so hypothesis is rejected, and can be concluded that there is significant association exists between weighted averages calculated based on responses of respondents of different age groups.

10.2.4.5

Weighted Average of Responses of Present Nature of Celebration of Public Festivals on the Basis of Level of Education

It is observed from Table 10.16, high degree positive correlation coefficient is found in weighted average calculated based on responses of different education group respondents. It signifies that there is homogeneity in the responses of respondents of different level of education. It means responses are analogous irrespective level of education of the respondents. To test the level significance of the obtained correlation coefficient of weighted average calculated based on different education group, t√ statistic {t = R n – 2/1 – R2} has been calculated. Null hypothesis is formulated as follows. Ho = There is no association between sets’ weighted averages of perception about the present nature of celebration of public festivals calculated based on the responses of various education groups and observed value of ‘R’ differs from zero by chance. (R = 0). Since the calculated value of ‘t’ at a 5% level of significance for n − 2 = 7 degree of freedom is greater than table value (2.36), so hypothesis is rejected and can be concluded that there is significant association exists between weighted averages calculated based on responses of respondents of different level of education.

10.2.5 Perception About Impact of Celebration of Public Festivals 10.2.5.1

Perception About Social Impact

An attempt has been made to understand perception about social impact celebration of public festivals, social variables such as social unity, social leadership, social responsibility, family bounding, anti-social behavior, disturbance in normal routine have been identified and responses about social variable are presented in Fig. 10.2. It is understood from chart 02, 81.33% respondents believe that celebration of public festivals helps to increase social unity, whereas 15.67% respondents think that celebration of public festivals creates threat to social unity and remaining 03% responses are can’t say. It is also observed that 86.33% respondents feel that initiation in celebration of public festivals leads to development of social leadership. As per as social responsibility, belief and faith is concern 67.67% respondents trust that celebration

Donations/contribution for celebration of public festival are collected forcibly

Income and expenditures (A/c. statement) are not disclosed transparently by public festival forums

Scarce resources like electricity, water, money etc. are heavily used during the celebration of public festivals

Activities/events undertaken during celebration of public festivals produce pollution and lead to environmental degradation

Public festival forums are engaged in unproductive and uncivilized activities

Transportation, law, and order problems are originated during celebration of public festival

Changing nature of celebration of public festival departs society in different sectors and creates social stress in society

Public festivals are celebrated in contesting manner which causes problems in maintaining law and order

No. of festivals celebrated at public place from public contribution are increasing day by day

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1.84

2.35

2.38

2.12

2.63

2.05

2.08

2.38

2.63

Up to HSC (1)

1.93

2.19

2.38

2.03

2.39

1.99

1.91

2.34

2.67

Graduate (2)

2.13

2.30

2.31

2.23

2.64

2.07

2.18

2.08

2.75

Postgraduate (3)

(continued)

Correlation between weighted averages of perception about new nature of public festivals on the basis of level of education of the respondents and t-statistic of correlation coefficient

Statements

Sr. No.

Table 10.16 Weighted averages and correlation coefficient of weighted average of perception about the present nature of celebration of public festivals on the basis of level of education of the respondents

10 Celebration of Public Festivals Toward Sustainable Development … 169

0.78

(2–3)

7

7 0.40

0.35

0.14 17.62

19.82

48.62 4.20

4.45

6.97 3.26

3.58

6.45 2.36

2.36

2.36

Table value

Graduate (2)

Postgraduate (3)

Source Primary data

Result: Since the calculated value of ‘t’ at a 5% level of significance at 7 degree of freedom is greater than table value, so hypothesis is rejected, it can be concluded that there is significant association exists between weighted averages calculated based on responses of respondents of different education group

0.80

(1–3)

7

Calculated value of −t

r Value Degree of 1 − r2 DF/1 − r2 SQRT Freedom (DF) N − 2

0.93

Up to HSC (1)

Statements

(1–2)

Category

Sr. No.

Table 10.16 (continued)

170 S. L. Biradar and R. Hibare

10 Celebration of Public Festivals Toward Sustainable Development … Increase

Cant say

171

Decrease

86.33

81.33

73.00

67.67

28.67

15.67

8.67 5

3 Social Unity

Social Leadership

3.67 Social Responsibility, Belief and Faith

78.33

71.67

24.67

2.33 Family Bounding

24.33 4 Anti Social Behavior

17.33 4.33 Disturb Normal Routine

Source: Primary Data

Fig. 10.2 Perception about social impact (%)

in public festivals enhance responsibility, belief and faith, whereas 28.67% respondents does not think so. 73% respondents believe that family bounding has been augmented because of celebration of public festivals. In case of antisocial behavior variable, 71.67% respondents accept that celebration in public festivals leads to increase in antisocial behavior, and 24.33% says it decreases. Last but not least, 78.33% respondents think that celebration of public festival disturbs the normal routine.

10.2.5.2

Perception About Economical Impact

To understand perception about economical impact of public festivals, economic variables such as business profit, employment opportunity, opportunity to new business, demand the goods and service, prices of goods and services, cost of living have been identified and presented with the help of Fig. 10.3. Figure 10.3 represents that 71% respondents think that public festivals lead to increase in business activity and profit, whereas 26.33% respondents say that public festivals lead to decrease in business activity and profit, 2.67% responses can’t say. It is also observed that 59.67% responses think that employment opportunity increases because of public festivals, whereas 30.33% respondents think it decrease, 10% respondent in the opinion of can’t say. Public festivals lead to opportunity for new business, this statement accepted by 78% respondents, whereas 18.33% responses think opposite to it. As per as demand the goods and service is concern 94% respondents are believe that demand the goods and service increases, and 4.33% respondents are in the opinion of it is decrease. Celebration of public festivals leads to increase in prices of goods and services accepted by 95% whereas 3% respondents think prices decrease. 83% respondents state that cost of living increases, 13% respondents state that it decreases.

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Increase

Cant say

Decrease 95

94

83

78

71 60 30

26

18 10

3 Business Profit

13 2 4

4

Employment Development Opportunities of New Business

4

2 3

Demand for the Goods & and Service

Prices of Goods & Services

Cost of Living in Town

Source: Primary Data

Fig. 10.3 Perception about economic impact (%)

10.2.5.3

Perception About Environmental and Administrative Impact

To study civic perception about environmental and administrative impact, environmental and administrative variables have been identified and made to study environmental and administrative impact, which is given in Fig. 10.4. Chart shows the responses in percentage to environmental and administrative impact of celebration of public festivals. From this chart, it is found that 96.33% respondents believe that public festival leads to increase in pollution. 84% respondents feel that garbage Increase

96.33

Cant say 90.00

84.00

Decrease 93.00

88.33

89.33

49.00 49.67

13.67 3.33 0.33 Pollution Level

2.33 Garbage Disposal

10.33

9.33 1.33 Degradation of Eco System

1.33

0.67 Traffic Congestion and Overcrowding

Disturbance in Law & Order

6.00 1.00 Excessive Stress over Police, Fire Protection, and Civil Services.

Source: Primary Data

Fig. 10.4 Perception about environmental and administrative impact (%)

9.00 1.67 Unproductive and Excessive use of Resources

10 Celebration of Public Festivals Toward Sustainable Development …

173

disposal also increases, 13.67% respondents think garbage disposal decrease. 49% respondents believe that public festival leads to degradation of ecosystem. It is observed that 90% respondents feel that during the public festivals, traffic congestion and overcrowding increase. It is also observed that 88.33% respondents feel that there is disturbance in law and order during public festivals, and 93% respondents believe that there will be excessive stress over public utility services such as police, fire protection, and other civil services. 89.33% respondents say that unproductive and excessive use of resources increase during celebration of public festivals.

10.2.6 Opinion About Possible Alternatives for Present Nature of Celebration of Public Festivals 10.2.6.1

Opinion About Possible Alternatives for Present Nature of Celebration of Public Festivals

To study the perception about possible alternatives for present nature of celebration of public festivals, responses have been collected in a five-point scale and are presented in Table 10.17. Table shows that approximately 44% respondents strongly agree with all statements regarding possible alternatives, usual 38% respondents are agree with the all statements, normally 12% respondents are in the opinion of neither agree nor disagree, on an average 4.5% respondents are disagree with the statements and 1.5% respondents support strongly disagree for all statements.

10.2.6.2

Weighted Average of Responses of Opinion About Possible Alternatives for Present Nature of Celebration of Public Festivals

To understand average responses of opinion about possible alternatives for present nature of celebration of public festivals, nine statements are asked to the respondents (given in Table 10.18), and responses recorded in a five-point scale to quantify the scale weighted average have been calculated by assigning weight. It is understood that weighted average is one or close to one average response about the statement is strongly agree. If it is two or close to two means respondents are agree with the statements, three or close to three indicates average response is neither agree nor disagree to the statement. If it is four or close to four, it shows that respondents are disagree with the statements and are presented in Table 10.18.

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Table 10.17 Opinion about possible alternatives for present nature of celebration of public festivals (%) Serial number

Possible alternatives

1

There must be one 51.00 public festival forum in a society/colony/village?

36.00

8.00

2

Do you think that 46.33 women’s public festival forums to be given preference?

39.33

9.67

3

Public festival forums 43.00 should be punished and blacklisted if they do not follow stipulated rules

36.33

4

Strictly follow the environmental standards and rules

66.00

29.00

5

Strictly ban to raise funds from public contribution

28.33

35.00

21.0

6

Curtail the list of public 23.33 festival celebrated at public places out of public contribution

39.67

28.3

7

Compulsory audit of 46.67 income and expenditure of public forum

37.00

11.0

8

Festival forums should 42.67 undertake productive activities and contribute for public welfare

46.33

9

Festival forums should carry out social responsibility and commitment

48.00

46.33

44

38

Average Source Primary data

Strongly agree

Agree

Neither agree nor disagree

Strongly disagree

Total

3.33

1.67

300

3.33

1.33

300

4.33

2.33

300

2.00

0.67

300

3.67

300

7.67

1.00

300

4.33

1.00

300

9.00

1.00

1.00

300

4.00

1.00

0.67

300

4.5

1.5

300

14.0

2.33

12

Disagree

12.0

10 Celebration of Public Festivals Toward Sustainable Development …

175

Table 10.18 Weighted average responses of opinion about possible alternatives for present nature of celebration of public festivals Serial number Alternatives

Weighted average Average responses

1

There must be one public festival forum in a society/colony/village?

1.69

Agree

2

Do you think that women public festival forums to be given preference?

1.74

Agree

3

Public festival forums should 1.87 be punished and blacklisted if they do not follow stipulated rules

Agree

4

Strictly follow the environmental standards and rules

1.42

Agree

5

Strictly ban to raise funds from public contribution

2.28

Neither agree nor disagree

6

Curtail the list of public festival celebrated at public places out of public contribution

2.23

Neither agree nor disagree

7

Compulsory audit of income and expenditure of public forum

1.76

Agree

8

Festival forums should undertake productive activities and contribute for public welfare

1.71

Agree

9

Festival forums should carry out social responsibility and commitment

1.60

Agree

Average

1.81

Source Primary data

10.2.6.3

Weighted Average of Responses of Opinion About Possible Alternatives for Present Nature of Celebration of Public Festivals on the Basis of Gender

Table 10.19 represents the weighted average of the responses of opinion about possible alternatives for present nature of celebration of public festivals on the basis of gender along with the difference. Correlation coefficient between weighted average of male and female responses is found to be r = 0.94, it is high degree positive correlation. T-statistics has been used to test the level of significance of the obtained correlation coefficient. Since the calculated value of ‘t’ at 5% level of significance for 7 degree of freedom is greater than table value, so hypothesis is rejected and

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Table 10.19 Correlation between weighted averages of opinion about possible alternatives for present nature of celebration of public festivals on the basis of gender and t-statistic of correlation coefficient Sr. No. Possible alternatives

Weighted average

Difference

Male Female 1

There must be one public festival forum in a society/colony/village?

1.71

1.66

0.05

2

Do you think that women public festival forums to be given preference?

1.84

1.61

0.23

3

Public festival forums should be punished and blacklisted 1.95 if they do not follow stipulated rules

1.76

0.20

4

Strictly follow the environmental standards and rules

1.49

1.34

0.14

5

Strictly ban to raise funds from public contribution

2.35

2.18

0.17

6

Curtail the list of public festival celebrated at public places out of public contribution

2.34

2.10

0.24

7

Compulsory audit of income and expenditure of public forum

1.78

1.74

0.03

8

Festival forums should undertake productive activities and contribute for public welfare

1.69

1.75

-0.06

9

Festival forums should carry out social responsibility and 1.60 commitment

1.60

0.01

16.74 15.73

1.01

Total r = 0.94 Degree of Freedom (DF = N − 2) = 7 1 − r2 = 0.11 DF/1 − r2 = 60.13 SQRT = 7.75 Calculated value of −t = 7.30 Table value = 2.36

Since the calculated value of ‘t’ at a 5% level of significance for 7 degree of freedom is greater than table value, so hypothesis is rejected, it means there is significant association exists between weighted averages possible alternatives calculated based on responses of male and female respondents Source Primary data

concluded that there is significant association exists between weighted averages of responses of opinion about possible alternatives for present nature of celebration of public festivals of male and female respondents.

10 Celebration of Public Festivals Toward Sustainable Development …

10.2.6.4

177

Weighted Average of Responses of Opinion About Possible Alternatives for Present Nature of Celebration of Public Festivals on the Basis of Age

Table 10.20 represents the weighted average of the responses of opinion about possible alternatives for present nature of celebration of public festivals on the basis age along with the difference. It can be understood that large difference in weighted average indicates more difference in opinion about the statement. Correlation coefficient between sets of weighted average calculated based on age group has been √ shown with t-statistics. T-statistics {t = R n – 2/1 – R2} has been used to test the level of significance of the obtained correlation coefficient. Since the calculated value of ‘t’ at 5% level of significance for 7 degree of freedom is greater than table value, so hypothesis is rejected and concluded that there is significant association exists between weighted averages of responses of opinion about possible alternatives for present nature of celebration of public festivals of different age group respondents.

10.2.6.5

Weighted Average of Responses of Opinion About Possible Alternatives for Present Nature of Celebration of Public Festivals on the Basis of Education

Table 10.21 represents the weighted average of the responses of opinion about possible alternatives for present nature of celebration of public festivals on the basis of level of education. It can be understood that large difference in weighted average √ indicates more difference in opinion about the statement. T-statistics {t = R n – 2/1 – R2} has been used to test the level of significance of the obtained correlation coefficient. Since the calculated value of ‘t’ at 5% level of significance for 7 degree of freedom is greater than table value, so hypothesis is rejected and concluded that there is significant association exists between weighted averages of responses of opinion about possible alternatives for present nature of celebration of public festivals of various level of education of respondents.

10.3 Conclusion Civic perception about celebration of public festivals in Solapur (Smart city) has been studied. Residents of smart city believe that celebration of public festivals is important because it provides platform for unity and inculcates values in new generation. They have objections regarding the way (present nature), public festivals are celebrated. They think the present nature of celebrating public festivals creates problem in law and order; it also leads to heavy use of resources, environmental hazards, unrest in society. Chaos due to traffic congestion and law and order problem leads to stress on police and other administrative bodies. There is a fear among public about instances of antisocial behavior, increase in pollution level during public

There must be one public festival forum in a society/colony/village?

Do you think that Women public festival forums to be given preference?

Public festival forums should be punished and blacklisted if they do not follow stipulated rules

Strictly follow the environmental standards and rules

Strictly ban to raise funds from public contribution

Curtail the list of public festival celebrated at public places out of public contribution

Compulsory audit of income and expenditure of public forum

Festival forums should undertake productive activities and contribute for public welfare

Festival forums should carry out social responsibility and commitment

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1.85

1.61

1.78

1.80

2.23

2.32

1.45

1.98

1.73

1.74

Up to 30 years (1)

1.76

1.59

1.64

1.72

2.20

2.24

1.36

1.74

1.74

1.63

30–60 years (2)

1.81

1.59

1.65

1.65

2.47

2.12

1.65

1.71

1.88

1.59

60 and above (3)

‘r’ Value

0.97

0.79

0.87

Category

(1–2)

(1–3)

(2–3)

7

7

7

Degree of freedom (DF) N−2

0.24

0.37

0.07

1 − r2

28.90

18.83

103.66

DF/1 − r2

5.38

4.34

10.18

SQRT

4.68

3.44

9.83

Calculated value of −t

2.36

2.36

2.36

(continued)

Table value

Correlation between weighted averages of opinion about possible alternatives for present nature of celebration of public festivals on the basis of age group of the respondents and t-statistic of Correlation Coefficient

Average

Possible alternatives

Serial number

Table 10.20 Weighted averages of opinion about possible alternatives for present nature of celebration public festivals on the basis of age groups of the respondents

178 S. L. Biradar and R. Hibare

Possible alternatives

Up to 30 years (1)

30–60 years (2)

60 and above (3)

Source Primary data

Result: Since the calculated value of ‘t’ at a 5% level of significance for 7 degree of freedom is greater than table value, so hypothesis is rejected, it can be concluded that there is significant association exists between weighted averages about possible alternatives calculated based on responses of respondents of different age group

Serial number

Table 10.20 (continued)

10 Celebration of Public Festivals Toward Sustainable Development … 179

Public festival forums should be punished and blacklisted if they do not follow stipulated rules

Strictly follow the environmental standards and rules

Strictly ban to raise funds from public contribution

Curtail the list of public festival celebrated at public places out of public contribution 2.32

Compulsory audit of income and expenditure of public forum

Festival forums should undertake productive activities and contribute for public welfare

Festival forums should carry out social responsibility and commitment

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1.81

1.64

1.72

1.78

2.24

1.46

1.71

1.75

1.84

1.61

1.80

1.82

2.28

2.20

1.47

2.03

1.70

1.71

Graduate (2)

1.78

1.51

1.51

1.59

1.98

2.51

1.79

1.77

1.80

1.57

Postgraduate (3)

‘r’ value

0.91 0.72 0.65

Category

(1–2)

(1–3)

(2–3)

7

7

7

Degree of freedom (DF) N−2

0.57

0.48

0.17

1 − r2

12.25

14.48

41.46

DF/1 − r2

3.50

3.81

6.44

SQRT

2.29

2.74

5.87

Calculated value of −t

(continued)

2.36

2.36

2.36

Table value

Correlation between weighted averages of opinion about possible alternatives for present nature of celebration of public festivals on the basis of level of education of the respondents and t-statistic of Correlation Coefficient

Average

Do you think that Women public festival forums to be given preference?

2

1.72

There must be one public festival forum in a society/colony/village?

1

Up to HSC (1)

Possible alternatives

Serial number

Table 10.21 Weighted averages of opinion about possible alternatives for present nature of celebration public festivals on the basis of level of education of the respondents

180 S. L. Biradar and R. Hibare

Possible alternatives

Up to HSC (1)

Graduate (2)

Postgraduate (3)

Source Primary data

Result: Since the calculated value of ‘t’ at a 5% level of significance for 7 degree of freedom is greater than table value, so hypothesis is rejected, it can be concluded that there is significant association exists between weighted averages of possible alternatives of celebration of public festivals calculated based on responses of respondents of various levels of education

Serial number

Table 10.21 (continued)

10 Celebration of Public Festivals Toward Sustainable Development … 181

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festivals seasons. To avoid the negative aspects and effects of celebration of public festivals, they suggest that there must be one public festival forum in a society (one village one public festival forum). Women public festival forums must be given preference while licensing. Public forum should strictly follow the environmental standards and rules, productive activities and contribute to public welfare. Public forum must maintain transparency between the accounts of public forums. Public festivals should be celebrated not only for enjoyment but also celebrate with taking social responsibility for welfare of the society.

Chapter 11

Gendered Spaces: A Spatial Perspective to Women’s Fear of Violence and Smart Cities Rhetoric Anushka

Abstract Public space is gendered, where men have better access at all times of the day, while women have a purpose for their legitimate access to public spaces. City planning and public services are responsible for violence and intimidation faced by urban women, especially poor transportation and street-lighting make them more vulnerable. What indicates all this is that the fear of crime is continuously modifying a woman’s spatial realities. This paper, through a critical review of literature related to gender and urban planning, attempts to suggest directions for the planning of “inclusive cities” respectful to the specific needs of women, which can contribute to reducing violence and enhancing safety for women. Keywords Gendered spaces · Fear of violence · Crime · Gender-sensitive planning · Right to the city

11.1 Introduction Cities are often associated with greater independence and lesser patriarchal control over women (Tacoli and Satterthwaite 2013). However, Indian cities have been unsuccessful in achieving this goal of gender equality as the patriarchal norms have been transferred from rural to urban regions influencing their social structure (Bhagat 2017). “Gendered power relations” have an impact on women’s access to and use of different spaces, including public spaces in cities (Bhagat 2017). There are numerous studies from different disciplinary areas that show that women’s conception, experience, and use of space is different from men (McDowell 1983). “Disparate power equations” are embedded within social and geographical spaces which implicitly influences women’s use of space, particularly in the cities, where space is apparently structured by a “male-centric approach”; therefore, city spaces are being increasingly masculinized, and the very identity of “women” possibly pose restrictions on the use of public spaces (Paul 2011). Anushka (B) Public Policy and Management, Indian Institute of Management Calcutta, Kolkata, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 R. K. Mishra et al. (eds.), Smart Cities for Sustainable Development, Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7410-5_11

183

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Anushka

In this context, the paper explores the linkages between space and gender through examining the everyday negotiations of space by female bodies while they move through public spaces, and in the process how they participate in the production and reproduction of a gendered space? In what ways do the gendered-power relations in urban space constraints women’s freedom of mobility across diverse socioeconomic identities? Does the article intend to understand how socially created fear of crime affects women’s negotiation of public space? Does urban planning in India take into account gender sensitivity? Finally, the article evaluates the impact of all these processes on women’s “right to the city.” These questions have been answered through an extensive literature survey on the relationships between space, gender, public space, gendered space, “fear of crime,” “right to the city” and “production of space.” I argue that urban spaces are not gender-neutral as they are not equally accessible to men and women, so we need gender-sensitive urban planning. Women’s fear of violence is socially constructed and it is generally regarded as “normal,” and it is this fear which subtly contributes to the social reproduction of space, often unintentional. The paper is structured into five sections. The first section focusses on the interaction of gender and space and how gendered spaces are produced; the second section tries to unravel the role of public spaces in constructing “gender identities”; the third section explores the “fear of crime/violence” in general and among women of different socioeconomic backgrounds followed by looking at various cases of crimes in Indian cities; the fourth section examines the gender sensitivity part of urban planning in India; and finally, the fifth section evaluates the women’s denial of “right to the city” in light of all these contexts. This is followed by a conclusion.

11.2 Production of Urban Space Through Interaction of Gender and Space Before we analyse the relations of space and gender, it is essential to recognize the contributions of expansion of capitalist relations of production in the making of cities and creating opportunities for men first, then women, and in that process how it shaped the urban spaces. The spread of capitalism disrupted the prevailing relations between men and women; the different forms of economic structure in different places presented different challenges to the old patriarchal system; somewhere it imposed even more subordinate position to women and greater masculine supremacy, while somewhere patriarchal relations were confronted severely (Massey 1994). Capitalism resulted in the worsening of female’s position in places where it offered employment only to males and there were no paid jobs for females and they were only limited to unpaid works in the home, resulting in the strengthening of the predominant patriarchal system. On the other hand, where modern industry accepted women as waged labour, it presented “a direct challenge to the traditional sexual division of labour

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185

in social production” (Massey 1994, p. 195), and therefore, maintaining the patriarchal relations in such a situation became much more complicated than in the previous case. The involvement of women in “paid jobs,” going out from their secured domestic spaces for work, offered a greater challenge to the patriarchal order in two different ways (Massey 1994, p. 198). Firstly, women performing their domestic role adequately as a wife and mother were threatened, and secondly, working outside the home as a paid worker gave them access to public life—out of their confinement at home and family (Massey 1994, p. 198). However, the patriarchal order continues to operate even outside the home which posed several constraints on women’s movement. This shows that despite the traditional sexual division of labour has been challenged by capitalist relations, women have not become free from the gendered power relations in public spaces. So now, we need to understand the interactions of gender and spaces, and how gendered spaces are produced. Space is socially constructed and once bounded and shaped, in its turn, influences social relations (McDowell 1983). Space is the medium as well as the outcome of social practices simultaneously (Koskela 1999). Besides, spatial relations “are themselves social, socially produced and socially reproducing” (Urry 1981, p. 458). The concept of gender is tied to the concept of “social space”—a physical, social and psychological concept, all collectively defining a person’s sphere of aspirations and social interactions (Channa 1997). Space plays a significant role in governing gender relations, “shaping one’s social and cognitive maps” as well as directing individuals in negotiating their daily lives (Paul 2011, p. 413). Spaces and places are not gendered by themselves, but our perceptions of them and other associated things such as “degrees of mobility” are gendered, and they both affect how gender is constructed, which may also vary in many ways in different cultures, societies and over time (Massey 1994, pp. 179, 186). The cultural and social processes that postulate gender identities overwhelmingly endorse a “gendered sense of places” by attributing physical and emotional reactions to specific sites which ultimately gets visible in engendered constructions of space (Paul 2011). In the everyday practices of individuals shaped by gendered power relations, the role of space is not just a medium for interaction but is also created by this interaction (Koskela 1999). The relations between production and reproduction vary over time and in space with the social construction of gender and patriarchal domination (McDowell 1983). Spatial cannot be separated from the social (Urry 1981), which is well exemplified by the gender power dynamics which stay attached with space where the social practices of control and subordination are administered by power, expressed in spatial structures and forms (Paul 2011). The asymmetrical power relations are also evident due to the dualism of space, where men engage in public space for their productive roles and women come to occupy private space for their reproductive role (Paul 2011). Women and men are brought up in different ways as to how to behave in certain spaces and these results in their role differentiation and occupational segregation. Based on their social and cultural groundings, they see everyday dynamics of “large-scale spatial environment in terms of certain meanings, images, and symbolic significance” (Paul 2011). Consequently, these perceptions about the

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Anushka

larger spatial environment as well as their bodies modify women’s negotiation of spaces and then lead to “production of spaces” (Paul 2011). The implication of all these is that the use of space does not remain an independent free choice but a “product of social power relations” (Koskela 1999). Thus, urban space is produced by gendered power relations and reproduced in everyday lives where women experience constrained spatial mobility. It is almost the case that this “power” is taken for granted, and often it prevails unnoticed, and so “exclusions take place routinely without most people noticing” it (Koskela 1999, p. 121). When women feel uncomfortable about being in certain spaces, they become afraid and avoid using that particular space. So, unintentionally, they reproduce the manly supremacy over the space, “their subjective feelings participate in the inter-subjective power-related production of space” (Koskela 1999). The hierarchies of power are epitomized in the structure of urban forms and societal landscapes of gender and sexualities (Koskela 1997) indirectly remind women of their vulnerability (Mehta and Bondi 1999; Winchester 1992). All these contribute to normalizing the notions of women being afraid, not having the courage to walk anywhere they want; crime and its avoidance accepted as a part of everyday life, and even that women are meant to be subordinated. Because women’s fear is commonly observed as “normal,” and their courage is believed to be “risky,” the premise of “women as victims” is inadvertently reproduced (Koskela 2005).

11.3 Public Space and Gender Identities There are five crucial elements that build the “image of the city” in individuals’ mind: paths (represented by streets, sidewalks), edges, districts, nodes and landmarks, which essentially indicate the significance of public space as the primary component from which individuals gather their “representations of a city” (Tonnelat 2004, p. 3). Public space includes sites like streets, public transport, public toilets, marketplaces and recreational areas (Phadke 2007). Generally, it is agreed upon that “public spaces are an essential ingredient to the sustainability of cities for political, social, economic and public health reasons” (Banerjee 2001 c.f.; Tonnelat 2004, p. 1). However, the trend that is observed these days are the shrinkage of public spaces rather than expansion (Tonnelat 2004) driven by processes of suburbanization, highways construction, incorporation of “technologies of surveillance”, gated communities, all affirming to a constant enclosure of the urban spaces (Tonnelat 2004, p. 1). Public spaces can be defined as “where citizens create meaningful public space by expressing their attitudes, asserting their claims and using it for their own purposes,” which make it meaningful public resource and to “which public collectively values— space to which it attributes symbolic significance” (Goheen 1998). Therefore, the “public” is much ahead of its physical structures and attributes, and furthermore, it can be understood as “representational space” (Lefebvre 1991), that is, space as

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directly lived through its associations, symbols and images. Public space is appraised on the basis of its easy accessibility—“physical and psychological” (Tonnelat 2004). Gender divisions of space are pervasive in many societies resulting in a patterning of space by gender where women are restricted to “private” domains or domestic aspects of cities or urban life (McDowell 1983). The ideology that a “women’s place is in the home” is so dominant that in many of the rape cases, it is suspected that it is the women’s mistake if she is alone outside at night. As physical, material or concrete spaces, public spaces incite “disparate power relations” and appear as a “masculine site,” and fear of crime is hypothesized as the crucial reason behind its masculinization (Paul 2011). Sex-differentiated practices and certain spatiotemporal appropriate behaviour for women are tied to public spaces which effectively forbid their mobility (Hägerstrand 1969). Public and private divisions can be discovered to be “an important structuring principle upon which characteristics commonly associated with masculinity and femininity are arrayed” (Duncan 1996, p. 3). The public–private dichotomy is frequently employed to “construct, control, discipline, confine, exclude and suppress gender and sexual difference preserving traditional patriarchal and heterosexist power structures” (Duncan 1996, p. 128). Historically, womanhood has been treated as private, not fully capable of having an independent political thought, and very recently they have been given the right to vote (Duncan 1996, p. 129). However, in the case of men, they walk between public and private spaces with more rightfulness and legitimacy, less loaded with the tasks of caregiving to their children and elderly than the womenfolk (Duncan 1996, p. 129). There has always been a close relationship between the degree of women’s confinement in private space and their relative exclusion from the public sphere of organized social movements and political actions (Duncan 1996, p. 135). This association of “inside” or “private spaces” with women “brings with it assurances of safety, morality, shame and honour” and it also underlies the notions of an “appropriate place for women with associated moral codes” (Paul 2011, p. 418). It is through these very expressions of shame and honour, fear is operationalized within women’s consciousness. Fear has been inferred to be originating from “feelings of uncertainty, helplessness, and vulnerability,” while “fear of crime” is defined as “a wide range of emotional and practical responses to crime and disorder by individuals and communities” (Paul 2011, p. 413). All spaces are not clearly public or private but they are heterogenous, for example—the privatization of apparently public spaces into quasi-privatized, commercialized public spaces, including shopping malls and exclusionary suburbs. This has very uneven consequences for the population as a whole because groups with greater resources can more easily privatize spaces and such privatization of space is often accompanied by aestheticization, for example when urban space is cleaned of marginalized groups and “redesigned as a spectacle for the consumption of affluent classes” (Duncan 1996, p. 129). Consequently, cities provide an unfriendly environment for the prevalent use of public space; it becomes “a place where private interests increasingly compete against the public interest,” and so this fragmented nature of the “public” in the city poses difficulties for marginalized groups in expressing their interests in the public domain (Goheen 1998, p. 481).

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11.4 Fear of Crime/Violence in Urban Spaces Social thinkers (Harvey 1990; Lefebvre 1991; Soja 1989) have contended that “not only are material and social constructions of space are in a dialectic relationship with each other but space itself is an inherently embodied experience” (Ranade 2007, p. 1520). Access to space is based on sociocultural differences and depending on gender, class, age, sexuality and physical ability, different bodies experience space differently (Ranade 2007). There is a considerable difference in the way men and women use a space, for example, a playground nearby a residential neighbourhood; it is always men (of all age groups) who are found occupying public space, not just for playing but for hanging out, meeting with friends, standing near a paan shop, newspaper stands, sitting alone or in groups and even sleeping at night. Girls and women, on the other hand, use it rarely for hanging out or even for standing in public space and waiting for somebody, they just move across space from one point to another as a “purposeful movement,” which essentially means that “women occupy public space as a transit between one private space and another” (Ranade 2007). Therefore, “flanerie”—“an act of engaging with urban public space is not available to women” (Ranade, 2007). There are four potential risks to women in accessing public spaces (Phadke 2007). Firstly, risk of potential physical assault, including risk of life, physical and psychological trauma. Secondly, risk to “reputation” of getting into public space against a normative order which outlines private spaces of the home as women’s proper place, and it includes risks of loss of matrimonial prospects and suspecting sexual virtue. Thirdly, the risk of being responsible for presence in public space if a woman is sexually harassed, and it includes the risk of the implausibility of getting justice. Fourthly, the risk of not choosing to access public space, which includes the loss of the possibility to engage with city spaces and the risk of accepting or reinforcing the “gendered hierarchies” of access to public space. It has been observed that some parts of public spaces are designated “uncomfortable” for women, such as where there are bars, so-called unsafe, isolated lanes, dark footpaths, lottery shops, hence hang-out places for men as lottery play is primarily considered a male activity as it is associated with high risk, something which women are not supposed to be involved in. Women often avoid these spaces; a typical feeling that women describe in these circumstances is that of “discomfort” (Ranade 2007). The repetitive evading of some particular places by women is reinforced by the fear of strange men (Koskela and Pain 2000). Therefore, women’s decision about the routes and places they choose to go are shaped by the risk of violence and in the process of identifying “safe” routes and “dangerous” areas, women frame different spaces—specifically the night city—divided into “masculine” and “feminine” areas (Koskela 1999). In addition to it, women’s decision “not to go out” and “to go out” produces a different type of urban space. In the former, when women under the fear of violence restrict their mobility and stay indoor, they inadvertently reproduce masculine domination over spaces and so their oppressor gains more control of public space (Koskela 1999, p. 113). A woman’s choice of “not to go out” would be very

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different in case of absence of threat of male violence; there her behaviour/decision can be regarded as taken through “consent” not through “coercion” (Koskela 1999, p. 121) will be a matter of individual freedom of mobility rather than gendered power relations. At the same time, it is important to recognize that fear is a social construct. In our daily life, this is fed into our subconscious mind through several mediums such as parental warnings, discussions with friends, the transmission of cultural ideologies about women and family (Koskela 1999 p. 115), crime news (focussing on sensational matters and sometimes blaming the female victims) (Koskela 1999, p. 115), warnings in the forms of security education, crime-prevention advices, all these remind women to be prepared for anything uneven that occur to them (Koskela 1999, p. 115). So, feelings of fear are the consequences of women’s secondary position as well as their “own contributions to the perpetuation of gendered power relations” in public spaces (Koskela 1999). Hence, it is clear that women in their daily negotiation of street or any public space are making an implicit or often unconscious decisions about where to walk so that they could avoid that discomfort for them (Ranade 2007). Women through their everyday movement in public spaces, practice the “production of respectability” which is closely related to manufacturing safety for themselves so as to be seen as “good” women and also to legitimize their conditional claim to public space and claim a degree of protection (Ranade 2007). Their actions for the production of safety are sometimes purposeful and conscious while at other times, they arise from “an internalization of hegemonic notions of femininity which determine what is proper and what is not” (Ranade 2007). Safety for women is closely linked with actual physical violence on her, while “discomfort” falls “in-between space of implied threat—a sense of being made to feel that you are in the wrong place or time” which is done through staring, verbal assaults, etc. (Ranade 2007). The “discourse of safety for women is actually the discourse of sexual safety”—deep-seated in traditional class and communal structures (Phadke 2007). This notion of respectability sometimes supersedes safety—women feel compelled to guard the “honour” of their families at the cost of their own well-being or safety when they access public spaces; so this whole idea about women’s sexual safety does not help in keeping women safe in public, but it effectively pushes them towards violence (Phadke 2007). What implies all this is that the fear of crime is continuously influencing a woman’s spatial realities. With several constraints on her use of space, “living a spatially restricted life because of constant fear of violence reminds her of a relatively powerless position” (Koskela 1999, p. 112). Women who have experienced violence, the fear of another attack affect their social life as well as freedom of mobility and gradually they become excluded from public space. Hence, “violence inflicted on a woman by one particular man becomes fear of violence from any man,” and this fear of violence by any man in a public space turns it into a “masculine space” (Koskela 1999).

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11.5 Experience of Public Space Across Different Socioeconomic Identities of Women It is very much right that women are restricted from accessing public space, but it does not happen to women belonging to different socioeconomic identities in the same way. Women of lower-middle-class have to be much more concerned for their reputation and honour, particularly those who live in neighbourhoods of homogenous communities, such as housing societies, chawls, slum settlements, etc. which pose far more restrictions on the movements of women (Phadke 2007). Physical factors such as absence of private transport due to lesser earnings bring them even further towards fear and violence (Koskela and Pain 2000, p. 278). Migrant women are more prone “to violence and exploitation than their male and non-migrant counterparts” at the workplace (Bhagat 2017, p. 36). These poor migrant women living in slums and working as domestic and construction workers in cities experience greater difficulties compared to middle and upper-class women (Bhagat 2017). On the other hand, heterogenous spaces relatively facilitate women’s access to public spaces by way of “anonymity” rather than women’s political claim to public space as citizens, for example, single women who live in a city away from their families experience the highest degree of access to public space, but with no less compulsion of manufacturing their respectability and safety than a lower-middle-class women (Phadke 2005). Professional, upper-middle-class women passing through public space at night, particularly after office, confronting “risk” and “danger,” is considered as a “sign of their assumption of being masculine” (Phadke 2005). Women belonging to upper-caste Hindu, heterosexual, middle-class, married have the most privileged access to the public space as their body is symbolic of the narratives of modernity or global city (Phadke 2007). Their presence in the new spaces of consumption such as shopping malls, coffee shops is welcomed—as a marker of modernity of the city. However, these spaces are not purely “public” spaces, but privatized spaces where entry is open apparently, but regulated through various subtle acts of exclusion (Phadke 2007). This rhetoric of modernity suggests that “women are welcome in public spaces without acknowledging the invisible boundaries that keep women out” (Phadke 2005). Therefore, the class becomes an important determining factor not only of access to public space but also of how conceptions of threats or risks are constructed and contextualized about public spaces (Phadke 2005). In determining access to public space, age is an important factor; women of different ages negotiate their access to public spaces differently whichever is appropriate for them at that age, for example, going for education (younger women) or due to their role as mothers (middle-aged) (Ranade 2007). Besides age, there is another factor that contributes to the vulnerability—women with disabilities or illness who may experience more threats of violence. Disabled women are often “easy targets” for oppressors (Koskela 1999, p. 119). Physical or mental disability—both can give women a feeling of being more vulnerable and less able to resist an attack, which has a certain impact upon their spatial experiences—aggravating their mobility constraints (Koskela 1997). Also, this feeling of vulnerability makes them feel deprived and

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being “the other,” an outsider among “able-bodied people” (Koskela 1999, p. 119) and “cause fear of intentional violence and bullying” (Koskela 1997).

11.6 Crime Against Women in Indian Cities In public spaces, city planning and public services are responsible for violence and intimidation faced by urban women, especially poor transportation and street-lighting make them more vulnerable. The recent gang rape and murder case of Hyderabad of a 26-year-old veterinary doctor is another instance of violence against women in the city. This brutal incident took place in an isolated and dark place near a toll-booth on the Hyderabad-Bangalore highway. A similar incident happened in 2012 in the Nirbhaya gang-rape case and many other cases of sexual violence. The question remains to be answered: Do these incidences make any difference to the way government, police or urban authorities respond to them? The focus is always on the crime and how to punish the culprits, rather than focussing on how to prevent it from happening again or how to ensure women’s safety. The basic issues need greater attention to annihilate the threat to women’s safety on the streets on a daily basis such as improving public transport services, installing more street-light to ensure pedestrian safety. Also, in such incidences, the role of the patriarchal structure of society cannot be ignored; it is equally responsible. According to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) 2017 report (Report released in October 2019), the city of Kolkata has emerged as the safest city among 19 Indian cities in terms of overall crime rates, along with crimes against women. Cities of Coimbatore, Hyderabad, Kozhikode and Mumbai come next to Kolkata, while Delhi continues to top recording the highest crime rate (Crime rate = Number of cases reported/population in lakhs) and registers increased crime rate against women (compared to 2016 and 2015 figures) in the country. NCRB report on one hand and recent gang-rape case of Hyderabad on the other, we find a great contrast. Although Hyderabad is ranked as the third safest city in India, we get to see such atrocious crimes against a woman in the city. This shows that ranking does not matter; crimes can happen with any women in any of the cities. However, one thing that this ranking does is—creation of perception about a city to be safe or unsafe for women, which has consequences on women’s freedom of mobility and their access of public spaces without or less fear of violence, which is again related to the questions of re-defining and re-producing the space. Some places are feared because they hold a “certain reputation amongst women and such perceptions of places are central in decisions” about which areas have to be avoided (Koskela and Pain 2000, p. 275). Referring to Jane Jacobs in the book “The Death and Life of Great American Cities” can be important here. She highlights the benefits of having a mixed neighbourhood which encourage different kinds of people to walk around at all times of the day. Their presence provides a kind of surveillance of the area, which she called “eyes on the street” that discouraged crime in the city. She criticizes “federal

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urban renewal” and housing programs which produce high-rise tower complexes, long unwalkable streets; that discourage busy urban spaces, fewer pedestrians and because of this, crimes take place (Jacobs 1963).

11.7 Gender and Urban Planning The city environment has often been characterized as a precondition of female emancipation, providing freedoms and numerous possibilities, but nowadays cities are also portrayed as being hostile and dangerous for women (Koskela 1997, p. 308). Thus, the safety and security of women have become a matter of great concern in cities. Cities pose many challenges to women; for example, the built environment and urban planning especially of India cities, are not women-friendly—unavailability of public transport during non-peak hours, lack of street-lights, etc. (Bhagat 2017). Urban infrastructure and services planning in Indian cities are generally not gender-neutral or gender-sensitive (Mahimkar and Gokhale 2015), because in the male-dominated society, planning has been usually done by men for men, and due to the underrepresentation of women in planning or institutions, they have lesser control over city resources or to make them work according to their requirements (Khosla 2009). Public spaces of the city are mostly celebrated as the “spaces of modernism” (Massey 1994, p. 233) and their representations—boulevards and cafes, bars, brothels, the whole spatial organization of the city; everything is built from male perspectives. Therefore, “social spaces from which the generally cited central cultural products of modernism were made were the public spaces of the city—the spaces of men” (Massey 1994, p. 234). Cities have been designed from conventional patriarchal notions of families where males are the breadwinners, going for work, and women are housewives taking of children and the elderly at home. However, this no more conforms to the reality of lives today, since women are also equally participating with men in every sector and the functionally fragmented nature of cities make it hard for women to perform different everyday jobs (Beall 1996). The separation of home and work is thus confronted in both North and South to transform the urban environment conducive to both men and women, which is all about “gender-based urban development” (Beall 1996; Khosla 2009). The idea of “gender-sensitive cities” accepts a society’s diversity by trying to make barrier-free, interconnected urban spaces that cater to the diverse needs of the residents (Mahimkar and Gokhale 2015). We have several examples from different parts of the world—“Gender Mainstreaming Project” of Vienna, “safe city initiative” in Toronto which addressed several issues of public transportation like railway stations and bus services with female-friendly designs in the city, Seoul has also reformed its public transport services and is planning for women-friendly streets and women-only parking spaces (Mahimkar and Gokhale 2013). In India, the state of Kerala took the initiative of gender mainstreaming in urban development and planning which include “reservations for women in local governance and decentralization

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of development planning, training program for participatory process, housing allotments in the names of women and bottom-up approach for local area development” (Mahimkar and Gokhale 2015). Although JNNURM (Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission) promotes gender-fair and inclusive cities where women and men are treated as “equal users of urban spaces and who contribute to the city’s economic development as producers and providers of goods and services,” but while actual planning for service provisioning for each of them, it is rarely considered (Khosla 2009). The Constitution (Seventy-fourth Amendment) Act, 1992 allows that one-third of all elected representatives have to be women in local government institutions. Despite this reservation of seats, women are mostly seen as proxies for male members, who usually participate in meetings/decision-making; consequently, women issues never get prominence in urban local planning, which remains to be dominated by men and so gender “insensitive” (Khosla 2009).

11.8 Women’s Right to the City The right to the city is not merely a right of access to what already exists, but a right to change it after our heart’s desire.

(Harvey 2003, p. 939). “Right to the city” perspective advocates for achieving a just and equitable urban transformation against exclusion, deprivation and discrimination based on neoliberal urbanization (Bhagat 2017, p. 35). “A woman can enjoy her right to the city when she lives free from violence and fear of violence and free from rights violations that arise in the spaces where she lives and works” (ActionAid 2011). Women’s right to the city is an important issue as this group is most vulnerable to discrimination and exploitation within the city. Even though women by their labour—both paid and unpaid have contributed substantially to their home and families and city, they persistently face discriminations in terms of “access to decent work, mobility, physical and financial assets, personal safety, security and representation in formal structures of urban governance” (Tacoli and Satterthwaite 2013, p.3). The provision of public transport in cities has widespread implications for its residents for providing access to different urban spaces and a range of activities essential for everyday life, especially for women. Generally, women use public transport for their various activities—from work to shopping to school trips, unlike men whose movement is mostly between their home and their workplace (Tacoli and Satterthwaite 2013). For balancing paid work and domestic responsibilities, very frequent means of mobility is required, even in most separated or isolated urban spaces (Tacoli and Satterthwaite 2013). However, the increasing cost of public transport and the fear of sexual assault and physical violence for women while travelling in public transport or walking alone pose substantial limitations on their mobility and their right to the city (Tacoli and Satterthwaite 2013). For women’s well-being, the right to move has enormous significance in an urban society. Therefore, a gender approach on the right

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to the city envisioning secured movement for all women in both public and private city spaces, access to the social and economic resources, and their engagement in city building is very much required (Bhagat 2017). To make this happen, the ideology of a city only being a source of gross domestic product (GDP) and economic growth needs to be shifted to be a space that is also women-friendly, inclusive and environmentally sustainable (Bhagat 2017). Lack of housing in cities is another severe problem, especially for single migrant women. It is very difficult to find rental accommodation for a single migrant woman, and they have to fulfil a number of preconditions before they are accepted as residents. Due to lack of proper housing, migrants (poor women) who work in the informal sector (mostly as domestic servants or household workers, construction workers) with low pay have to live in informal settlements. Besides lack of housing, shortage of other urban amenities such as water, sanitation, electricity, ration card, creches in the neighbourhood, schools and hospitals increase their sufferings. Non-availability of toilet facilities and water supply within the residential premises increases the risk of violence for women in the cities, especially during night hours (Agnihotri et al. 2012 c.f.; Bhagat 2017). It is important to understand that women are not a homogenous group, but they have different identities based on religion, caste, ethnicity, economic and occupational status, and migrants and non-migrants; all of these intersect with gendered power relations in shaping the access or denial of the right to the city (Bhagat 2017).

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11.9 Conclusion It has become evident that public space is gendered, where men have better access to public space at all times of the day while women have a purpose for their legitimate access to public spaces. For maintaining the gender regime guided by a patriarchal system, the control on women’s movement is crucial and as long as women reproduce this discourse of the hegemonic gender regime properly through their sociospatial performance of femininity in public space, they are allowed to access it safely (Ranade 2007). Women are restricting themselves from accessing public spaces because of fear. The violent attacks and sexual harassment news spread by media evokes the fear among women every day that certain spaces are not meant for them (Rose 1993 c.f.; Koskela 1999, p. 111). Sexual assaults, threat of violence, or experienced violence or other such incidents intensify women’s feeling of vulnerability, and these also contribute to reinforcing masculine domination over space. Thus, public space may be considered as a “territory where men hold greater rights than women, and a territory from which women are excluded” (Gardner 1994 c.f.; Koskela 1999, p. 112). Against sexual violence, resorting instead to staying at home at night or encouraging wives, daughters and women friends to do so, men and women should organize themselves and ask the state for public funds for transforming public spaces to be safe and accessible for every person around the clock. Women representations are needed in urban planning offices because only they can bring a gender perspective for making cities’ infrastructure more “gender-neutral” and city spaces safer for women. At the same time, it is important to understand that it is “not only gendered roles of women that require attention in urban planning”, but the aim should be to make the city more safe, secure and user-friendly for everyone—women, men, disabled and for all age-group people (Healeys 1995, c.f. Beall 1996, p. 12).

References Action Aid (2011) Women and the city: examining the gender impact of violence and Urbanisation. https://www.alnap.org/help-library/women-and-the-city-examining-the-gender-impact-ofviolence-and-urbanisation. Accessed 19 Feb 2020 Beall J (1996) Participation in the city: where do women fit in? Gend Dev 4(1):9–16. https://doi. org/10.1080/741921946 Bhagat RB (2017) Migration, gender and right to the city: the Indian context. Econ Pol Wkly 52(32):35–40 Channa SM (1997) Gender and social space in a Haryana village. Indian J Gend Stud 4(1):21–34. https://doi.org/10.1177/097152159700400102 Duncan N (1996) Body space: destabilizing geographies of gender and sexuality. Routledge, Newyork and London. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004 Goheen PG (1998) Public space and the geography of the modern city. Prog Hum Geogr 22(4):479– 496. https://doi.org/10.1191/030913298672729084 Hägerstrand T (1969) What about people in regional science? European congress, Copenhagen 1969. Reg Sci Assoc Paper 24

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Harvey D (2003) Debates and developments the right to the city. Int J Urban Reg Res 27(December):939–941. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2427.00257 Jacobs J (1963) From the exploding metropolis (1958) by the editors of fortune (1958), pp 124–131 Khosla R (2009) Addressing gender concerns in India’s Urban renewal mission. UNDP India, pp 1–59 Koskela H (1997) “Bold walk and breakings”: women’s spatial confidence versus fear of violence. Gend Place Cult 4(3):301–319. https://doi.org/10.1080/09663699725369 Koskela H (1999) Gendered exclusions: women’s fear of violence and changing relations to space. Taylor & Francis 81(2):111–124 Koskela H, Pain R (2000) Revisiting fear and place: women’s fear of attack and the built environment. Geoforum 31(2):269–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7185(99)00033-0 Koskela H (2005) Urban space in plural: elastic, tamed, suppressed. A companion to feminist geography, pp 257–270 Mahimkar S, Gokhale VA (2013) Incorporating gender sensitivity in architectural design education in India. “Designing design education in India”: conference proceedings. IDC India Design Council, Pune, pp 450–461 Mahimkar S, Gokhale VA (2015) Inclusive cities : towards gender-sensitive. Tekton 2(1):26–36 Massey DB (1994) Space, place and gender. University of Minnesota Press McDowell L (1983) Towards an understanding of the gender division of urban space. Environ Plan D Soc Space 1(1):59–72. https://doi.org/10.1068/d010059 Mehta A, Bondi L (1999) Embodied discourse: on gender and fear of violence. Gend Place Cult 6(1):67–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/09663699925150 Paul T (2011) Space, gender, and fear of crime: some explorations from Kolkata. Gend Technol Dev 15(3):411–435. https://doi.org/10.1177/097185241101500305 Phadke S (2005) ‘You can be lonely in a crowd’: the production of safety in Mumbai. Indian J Gend Stud 12(1):41–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/097152150401200102 Phadke S (2007) Dangerous liaisons: women and men: risk and reputation in Mumbai. Econ Pol Wkly 42(17):1510–1518 Ranade S (2007) The way she moves; mapping the everyday production of gender-space. Econ Pol Wkly 42(17):1519–1526. https://doi.org/10.2307/4419518 Tacoli C, Satterthwaite D (2013) Gender and urban change. Environ Urban 25(1):3–8. https://doi. org/10.1177/0956247813479086 Tonnelat S (2004) The sociology of urban public spaces. Sino French Urban planning conference (SFURP), pp 1–10 Urry J (1981) Localities, regions and social class. Int J Urban Reg Res 5(4):455–473. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1468-2427.1981.tb00563.x

Part III

Economic and Technological Issues

Chapter 12

Crowdsourcing for Sustainable Smart Cities and Their ICT Practices K. Bhavana Raj

Abstract The “smart city” idea firstly referred in accordance with initiatives to that amount use digital or ICT-based innovation in accordance with enhancing the efficiency of urban capabilities and grow instant economic opportunities between cities. With the increase of humans residing in cities, the challenges confronted through Government, “Smart cities” is a current or modern approach to that amount allows the city according to use present-day infrastructure or resources more efficiently. The concept concerning “smart cities” has pretty these days inspired an alternative path over drawing near urban sustainability thru the sizeable arrival concerning ICTs, harmoniously mixed along human metropolis then city’s potential between rule current patterns on town improvement to lie emerged. Crowdsourced smart cities are proposed as a choice according to allow commons assignation among smart city debates yet decision-making—in particular when act along global digital corporations. A systemic decrial on the existing writing over Crowdsourcing systems used to be carried out then essential findings hold been summarized adequately. Crowdsourcing is defined as Crowd + Outsourcing. This paper describes Crowdsourcing for sustaining Smart Cities & their ICT practices. Keywords Crowdsourcing · Smart Cities · ICT · Practices · Information · Sustainable · Technology JEL Classification A0 · B0 · R0 · R1 · Y9 · Z0

12.1 Introduction ICT Platform includes open organization which will improve the efficiency and nature of the administration offered to its residents, organizations and is an urgent advance for straightforward administration. The six measurements, for example, keen K. B. Raj (B) Institute of Public Enterprise, Survey No. 1266, Shamirpet (V&M), Medchal-Malkajgiri District, Hyderabad, Telangana, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 R. K. Mishra et al. (eds.), Smart Cities for Sustainable Development, Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7410-5_12

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condition, shrewd individuals, brilliant economy, savvy living, shrewd administration, shrewd versatility associate with customary hypotheses of urban development and improvement, depending on speculations of territorial seriousness, interest of residents in the administration of urban areas, transport, and ICT financial aspects, characteristic assets, and personal satisfaction and gives us an image of what extent are formed network into keen city. Data advancements, and particularly the Internet, portable communications have empowered the improvement of the Information Society. Data and correspondence innovations (ICTs) are utilized in numerous fields, for example, general wellbeing, street security, web-based business and vitality, and so forth. ICT highlights a crucial job being developed customary city into a reasonable city. Publicly supporting originates from an open gathering which is less explicit, while re-appropriating is from a particular gathering. Advantages of Crowdsourcing incorporate improved quality, speed, and adaptability. A few types of Crowdsourcing, for example, in “thought rivalries” or “advancement challenges” give approaches to associations to learn past the “base of psyches” given by their representatives. It has additionally been utilized by not-revenue driven associations and to make regular products (for example Wikipedia). Publicly supporting is, basically, the way toward achieving a given undertaking through the association of a (huge) gathering of interconnected people that have no apriori restricting which, as per Howe (2006, 2009), in a general sense separates Crowdsourcing from redistributing models and which, in actuality, makes the sourcing ground a group as opposed to a group. As Viscusi and Tucci (2018) show, this equivocalness stems more from a hazy meaning of groups itself—a group is fundamentally an unclear system of specialists (Howe 2006). Nonetheless, to the extent that Crowdsourcing includes arranged members outside customary authoritative limits, it might be viewed as a worldview that falls between unadulterated intra-hierarchical groups on the one side and free open helpful undertakings on the other.

12.2 Review of Literature “Sustainable advancement” developed during the 1980s to incorporate different viewpoints (i.e., monetary, urban, country, mechanical, rural, innovative) (Hembd and Silberstein 2011). To accomplish maintainability, urban communities found a workable pace arrangement empowered by shrewd innovation. Savvy city activities need to include residents, government, organizations, and non-government foundations in coordinated effort and association. This social contribution needs to concentrate on arranging a group with a committed administrator, diagnosing the present circumstance as to urban moves explicit to the city and current ICT foundation, distinguishing shrewd mechanical arrangements, setting activity plan (i.e., objectives, calendars, expenses, and execution markers), financing the keen city activity plan, actualizing brilliant city venture, and assessing the savvy city venture (Bouskela et al. 2016). Social orders are getting progressively situated toward accomplishing

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maintainability and improving personal satisfaction. At that point, the idea of “shrewd practical city” is proposed to ensure that “manageability” isn’t ignored to the detriment of liking ICT (ITU 2015). It is estimated that 70% of the total populace will rest in urban communities by 2050 (ITU 2015). To oblige this development, there’s a prerequisite for advancement in dealing with urban communities’ assets. Afuah and Tucci (2012) provide a strong foundation of Crowdsourcing as a means for organizations to embark on exploratory searches (March 1991). When Jeppesen and Lakhani (2010) noted that the likelihood of solving problems was higher when the problem solvers hailed from areas distant to the problem, they were suggesting an extension of the learning-by hiring model of acquisition of distant knowledge (Song et al. 2003; Jain 2016) into the Crowdsourcing domain. On this basis, Afuah and Tucci (2012) suggest that the strategic decision to Crowdsourcing could be determined by (1) ability of the focal organization to articulate the problem to the outside world, (2) the problem–solution lying outside of the focal organization’s existing knowledge space, (3) the technical ability that the crowd is endowed with, and (4) the ease of integrating the Crowdsourced solution into the focal organization’s problem set. Zhang et al. (2019) add a further dimension to the enhancement by suggesting the inclusion of superstars which has been seen to further enhance the learning curve. Chua et al. (2015) observe those cultural aspects—both within and between countries of innovators and the audience—significantly affect creative output. They find that individuals hailing from tight cultures do not perform well towards foreign creative tasks and this impediment is heightened with increased cultural distance between the countries. Majchrzak and Malhotra (2016) clarify that Crowdsourcing projects tend to follow specific knowledge trajectories. O’Mahony and Lakhani (2011) indicate that Crowdsourcing—through the channel of amplifying rational capacity—serves to mitigate the bounded rationality that organizations suffer from. Boudreau and Lakhani (2013) contends, using crowds as innovation partners provides focal organizations with an opportunity to sense the frontiers of technological innovation by observing the solutions around which crowd submissions tend to cluster around (King and Lakhani 2013). Furthermore, the inclusion of crowds, to the extent that their creative inputs can influence managerial choice within organizations, has tended to reorient the thresholds of traditional decisionmaking (Ogawa and Nishikawa 2016). Also, by virtue of voluntary participation with high intrinsic motivation levels, crowds tend to redefine the concept of organizational identity with a blending of personal and professional identities (O’Mahony and Ferraro 2007). Owing to the various organizational aspects discussed above, the phenomenon of Crowdsourcing, by virtue of reorganizing and refashioning creative participation both in terms of individual dimensions and collective capacities, can be seen as adding significant strategic value to the innovative capability of organizations. Hence, we feel it is important to review some scholarly works that have dealt with various dimensions in the context of Crowdsourcing as a strategic dimension for organizations (Figs. 12.1 and 12.2 and Table 12.1).

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Source: Compiled Fig. 12.1 Definition of crowdsourcing

Fig. 12.2 Crowdsourcing is not brainstorming

Source: Compiled

12.3 Concept & Methodology of Crowdsourcing 12.3.1 Strategic Measures to Crowdsourcing 1. 2. 3.

Abstracting the problem: The need to clearly define the Crowdsourcing problem so as to appeal to the diverse creative levels of the crowd Clarity on incentives: Ensure clear and seamless mechanisms of coordination, authority, and control; establish pertinent reward structures Transparency: There should not be any IP-related gaps or assumptions. The IP-related implications should be transparently and objectively laid down

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Table 12.1 Crowdsourcing—modes Contributory

Collaborative

• Contributory engagement which involves • Collaborative engagement is when the those phenomena where participants from parties are driven by the pursuit of a the crowd contribute toward accomplishment collective goal that would, otherwise, be not of the objective merely as a means to achieve attainable. In this mode of participation, the other ends either of economic nature (such as parties experience high levels of alignment payments or returns on investment) or of and strive towards establishing a platform of noneconomic nature (such as social shared language and representation in order reputation). These are mainly driven by a to enhance effective accomplishment of the quid pro quo arrangement where alignment shared objective and engagement are geared towards each party realizing their own benefit from the participatory engagement • Medium coupled, high engagement, medium • Highly coupled, medium engagement, highly interaction, low alignment of purpose interactive, high alignment of purpose • Crowd-funding (e.g. Kick starter)

• Open innovation (e.g. Nine Sigma)

• Crowd-solving (e.g. InnoCentive, iConclude) • Customer-driven innovation (e.g. Lego Ideas) • Crowd-hiring (e.g. Amazon Mechanical Turk, Your Encore)

• Lead-user innovation

• User-driven content creation (e.g. YouTube, iStockphoto, Web Junk, Wikipedia)

• Open source software (e.g. VLC player)

• Platform-based user-driven development (e.g. Android play store, MySpace)

• Innovation contests (e.g. hackathons, Thread less)

• User-evaluation (e.g. reCaptcha, Amazon)

• Public-driven search (e.g. MH370 airline search, Goldcorp challenge)

Source Compiled

4.

Complement and integrate: Crowdsourcing is a complement for internal skills, and not a substitute for it. Hence, firms need to build channels to integrate external and internal activities/work.

12.3.2 Crowdsourcing in Marketplaces- Strengths Exchange Cost Effectiveness: The significant preferred position of commercial centers is that they make publicly supporting available to requesters with restricted money-related and specialized assets. The fixed expenses of publicly supporting (servers, record keeping, specialized help, and so on.) can be shared by numerous requesters and the specialized difficulties can be dealt with by devoted experts. Enrollment Flexibility: Worker enlistment on MTurk can be limited to occupants of a particular nation, or to laborers who have finished in excess of a specific number of undertakings with a predetermined pace of precision. In addition, as examined beneath, with negligible coding information requesters can make and allocate specially appointed “capabilities” to laborers dependent on any quantifiable quality

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that award explicit laborers access to errands. Subsequently, littler bespoke groups can be built out of the workforce to finish profoundly specific undertakings.

12.3.3 Publicly Supporting in Marketplaces-Weakness Subjective restrictions: Workers are individuals, and subsequently experience the ill effects of a long yet unsurprising arrangement of intellectual and perceptual inclinations. These inclinations productively lead to observations convictions and choices that are “adequate” under most conditions. These highlights may make publicly supporting less reasonable for certain undertakings where the requester looks for equitably right answers through the collection of laborer reactions since accumulation can’t expel deliberate predisposition. Guidance equivocalness: The equivalent intellectual capacities that make it workable for individuals to “program” a group with negligible guidelines can present issues for requesters in light of the fact that these procedures will draw upon all data—both purposefully and inadvertently conveyed—to comprehend an undertaking.

12.3.4 Crowdsourcing in Marketplaces- Ensuring Data Quality Different decision questions are as often as possible used to quantify information quality since they are handily scored. The supposition that will be that laborers who don’t pay attention to the undertaking, or who don’t comprehend the guidelines, will probably react aimlessly, and are along these lines liable to choose erroneous reactions. High unwavering quality scores between laborers is an element of both errand trouble and the quantity of raters and is an essential precondition for substantial reactions. On the off chance that unwavering quality is low, it could propose inadequately conveyed guidelines or a majority of worthy answers. Unwavering quality can be expanded by refining laborer directions and expanding the quantity of laborers who play out each undertaking. Cleaning and accumulating reactions: Responses by various specialists can likewise be consolidated. On the off chance that a dominant part of answers are indistinguishable however understanding isn’t autonomous—either in light of the fact that laborers have talked about their reactions in advance or on the grounds that care was not taken to dodge copy respondents (see restrictions segment)—at that point the estimation of the greater part’s assessment might be suspect. In like manner, accumulation won’t give a right answer for issues wherein laborers are methodically off-base; either they do not have the important data to arrive at a right resolution.

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12.4 The Study So as to additionally help to the advancement of fundamental procedures for creating and using resident contribution for savvy city development, we directed an exact contextual investigation examination taking a gander at the age and choice of thoughts produced during a publicly supporting task. This undertaking targets building up a city Living Lab on how ICT could improve their regular daily existence in the city. This task meets some basic criteria for this exploration to give some important outcomes. Right off the bat, the organization or association ought to want to enhance. Being a city in a quickly evolving condition, both at a specialized, monetary and social level. This was the situation for ideation just as determination of the thoughts. Besides, it was vital that the association driving this undertaking was happy to share the outcomes and to give an understanding in the choice procedures. The online association stage’s members can without much of a stretch submit thoughts and are likewise ready to remark on the thoughts of the others. Both the thoughts and the remarks can be evaluated utilizing a democratic framework. Every IP address is permitted to decide on three thoughts or remarks. Along these lines, clients need to contemplate what is extremely essential to them. The more votes a thought gets, the higher the thought is situated in the rundown. Around 6,300 individuals visited the site and 2,500 individuals enrolled themselves (which was important to have the option to cast a ballot, post remarks and submit thoughts). As referenced over, the conventional media gave the venture little inclusion; however the URL was dispersed through online life and sites. In this manner, it very well may be normal that the members’ profiles were not totally irregular, something which is about unthinkable in publicly supporting and thought rivalries. The task produced a sum of 186 thoughts. A first investigation of the submitted thoughts discovered that few thoughts were fundamentally the same as. To permit a decent investigation, the indistinguishable thoughts were blended and the decisions in favor of these thoughts were included. This procedure decreased the quantity of thoughts from 186 to 156 extraordinary thoughts. Both the master and the group determinations were produced totally free of one another. Of the 130 unique thoughts, just 26 thoughts happened in the two determinations, which imply that most of the two choices contrast from one another. To ensure each master had a similar meaning of the quality measurements, they got a point by point depiction of these ideas. This is fundamental for a decent, generalizable assessment. To make the correlation somewhat simpler, the thoughts were assembled specifically if conceivable. Toward the finish of the assessment, the specialists likewise got the chance to include general perceptions or comments, which gave some subjective information. To figure this dependability list, an uninhibitedly accessible large scale for SPSS was utilized. The alpha qualities for the components like plausibility, client advantage, and ingenuity are 0.256, 0.218, and 0.036 individually. The dependability esteems show that the concurrence on the practicality of a thought and on the advantage for the clients is a lot higher than the concession to the inventiveness of a thought. A first method to look at the contrasts between the two

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choices is to analyze the normal scores for each measurement for the two choices utilizing a t-test. A significant condition to have the option to utilize a t-test is that each gathering should be appropriated typically.

12.5 Findings A t-test is utilized to contrast the determination of the group with the choice of the experts. All gatherings have a p-estimate higher than 0.05 which implies all information is conveyed regularly. This implies it is permitted to utilize a t-test for all measurements (Table 12.2). The correlation of the normal scores on inventiveness of the two determinations utilizing a t-test appears there is no noteworthy distinction between the normal ingenuity of the two choices. The normal attainability of the thoughts doesn’t appear to vary essentially between the two determinations either. The one that differs altogether, in any case, is the normal advantage for the clients. The thoughts chosen by the group offer fundamentally more client advantage contrasted with the thoughts chosen by the experts. This affirms the speculation that clients fundamentally pick thoughts dependent on their apparent advantage (Table 12.3). Looking at the midpoints of the two gatherings is one method for breaking down the information. A significant confinement to this system is that it diminishes all information to a focal worth, which has as a result that awesome thoughts are remunerated by impractical notions. On the measure of useless thoughts in every determination, the theory would be that there will be no useless thoughts in the expert choice since this choice depends on an assessment by individuals of the city gathering and significant partners (Table 12.4). Table 12.2 P-test p-value

Selection by the crowd (N:120)

Selection by the professionals (N:120)

0.98

0.39

0.56

0.78

0.36

0.59

Table 12.3 Selection by the crowd and by the professionals on the quality factors-differences Selection by the crowd (N:120)

Selection by the professionals (N:120)

Mean

Mean

Standard deviation

Standard deviation

t-value

p-value

Feasibility

5.84

−1.08

5.98

0.88

0.66

0.689

Benefit to the user

6.89

−0.66

6.36

0.66

3.36

0.036

Innovativeness

4.65

−0.98

4.46

0.71

0.99

0.542

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Table 12.4 Differences between the good ideas and not so good ideas in both selections Feasibility

Benefit to the user

Innovativeness

Overall

Good idea

Not a good idea

Good idea

Not a good idea

Good idea

Not a good idea

Good idea

Not a good idea

Selection by the crowd (N:120)

29

41

50

0

38

52

26

84

Selection by the crowd (N:120)

26

48

38

12

42

18

14

36

Chiˆ2

1.50

0.020

0.90

0.68

p-value

0.473

0.000

0.573

0.686

12.6 Conclusion The developing convergence of transients into urban areas requires new agonizing about the best approach to fulfill the need for open administrations. Indeed, even where generally speaking increment is littler or perhaps negative, urbanization is expanding. Populace development in created nations might be 3% somewhere in the range of 2010 and 2050, yet the elements of the urban populace will increment by 18%. Also, in created nations where in general populaces aren’t developing as fast, urban areas frequently face a constrained and contracting resources, implying that a great deal of face the well-established test of accomplishing more with less. Creative governments and open associations embrace “brilliant city” activities to bring data and innovation (ICT) in contact in light of the pressure of an inexorably urban populace. Various inspirations exist for organizations to utilize Crowdsourcing to achieve their undertakings, discover answers for issues, or to gather data. These incorporate the ability to dump top interest, get to modest work and information, produce better outcomes, and get to a more extensive exhibit of ability than could be available in one association. In spite of the fact that Crowdsourcing entangled assignments are regularly troublesome, straightforward works errands are frequently Crowdsourced economically and successfully. Amazon has executed insignificant channels for transmitting data legitimately among requesters and laborers, and in a roundabout way between different requesters, a great part of the expanded straightforwardness examined right now an aftereffect of requesters and laborers finding their own methods for speaking with one another outside of Amazon’s foundation. Be that as it may, data trade is still moderately constrained. For requesters, fruitions times hence rely vigorously upon assignments that are credentialed in an outer gathering (Chandler et al. (2013). These issues ruin

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the adequacy of MTurk as a work market, and we foresee that laborers and requesters will keep on expanding data trade and straightforwardness Crowdsourcing, while at the same time giving advantages of different coordinated effort, can possibly involve issues with respect to security and possession. Further, Surowiecki (2004) and Vuculescu and Bergenholtz (2014) give experiences into approaches to oversee swarms, and the subsequent effect on organizations and, even the bigger economy, of the Crowdsourcing worldview.

References Afuah A, Tucci CL (2012) Crowdsourcing as a solution to distant search. Acad Manag Rev 37(3):355–375 Bernstein MS, Little G, Miller RC, Hartmann B, Ackerman MS, Karger DR, Crowell D, Panovich K (2010) Soylent: a word processor with a crowd inside. In: Proceedings of the 23nd annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology (UIST 2010). ACM Press, 313–322 Bhavana RK (2021) Sustainable smart cities and their ICT practices. In: Goyal D, Chaturvedi P, Nagar AK, Purohit S (eds) Proceedings of 2nd international conference on smart energy and communication. Algorithms for intelligent systems. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-981-15-6707-0_46 Boudreau KJ, Lakhani KR (2013) Using the crowd as an innovation partner. Harv Bus Rev 91(4):61– 69 Bouskela M et al (2016) The road toward smart cities: migrating from traditional city management to the smart city Brandt T, Feuerriegel S, Neumann D (2013) Shaping a sustainable society: how information systems utilize hidden synergies between green technologies. In: Proceedings of the international conference on information systems Chandler D, Horton J (2011) Labor allocation in paid crowdsourcing: experimental evidence on positioning, nudges and prices. In: Workshops at the 25th AAAI conference on artificial intelligence Chandler J, Paolacci G, Mueller P (2013) Risks and rewards of crowdsourcing marketplaces. Handbook of human computation. Springer, New York, pp 377–392 Chua RYJ, Roth Y, Lemoine J-F (2015) The impact of culture on creativity: how cultural tightness and cultural distance affect global innovation crowdsourcing work. Adm Sci Q 60(2):189–227 Collins A, Joseph D, Bielaczyc K (2004) Design research: theoretical and methodological issues. J Learn Sci 13(1):15–42 Couper M (2008) Designing effective web surveys. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY Deloitte (2015) Smart cities: big data Doran GT (1981) There’s a SMART way to write management’s goals and objectives. Manage Rev 70(11):35–36 Hembd J, Silberstein J (2011) Chapter 16 sustainable communities: sustainability and community development. In: Robinson JW , Green GP (eds) Introduction to community development: theory, practice, and service-learning. SAGE, pp 315 Hosseini M, Cox I, Mili´c-Frayling N, Kazai G, Vinay V (2012) On aggregating labels from multiple crowd workers to infer relevance of documents. Adv Inf Retr 182–194 Howe J (2006) The rise of crowdsourcing. Wired Mag 14(6):1–4 Howe J (2009) Crowdsourcing: why the power of the crowd is driving the future of business. rev. ed. Crown Publishing, NY Ipeirotis PG, Horton JJ (2011) The need for standardization in crowdsourcing. CHI

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Ishida T, Isbister K (2000) Digital cities: experiences, technologies and future perspectives. SpringerVerlag, Berlin ITU (2014) What is a smart sustainable city? ITU ITU (2015) Focus group on smart sustainable cities ITU-T Focus Group on Smart Sustainable Cities (2014) Smart sustainable cities: an analysis of definitions Jeppesen LB, Lakhani KR (2010) Marginality and problem solving effectiveness in broadcast search. Organ Sci 17:45–63 Jung HJ, Lease M (2011) Improving consensus accuracy via z-score and weighted voting. In: Proceedings of the 3rd human computation workshop (HCOMP) at AAAI Kapelner A, Chandler D (2010) Preventing satisfying in online surveys: a ‘kapcha’ to ensure higher quality data. In: The world’s 1st conference on the future of distributed work (Crowd Conf 2010) Kazai G, Milic-Frayling N (2009) On the evaluation of the quality of relevance assessments collected through crowdsourcing. In: SIGIR 2009 workshop on the future of IR evaluation, p 21 Kazai G, Kamps J, Milic-Frayling N (2012) The face of quality in crowdsourcing relevance labels: demographics, personality and labeling accuracy King A, Lakhani KR (2013) Using open innovation to identify the best ideas. Calif Manage Rev 55:41–48 Kittur A, Chi EH, Suh B (2008) Crowdsourcing user studies with Mechanical Turk. In: Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems. ACM, pp 453–456 Kittur A, Nickerson JV, Bernstein M, Gerber E, Shaw A, Zimmerman J, Lease M, Horton J (2013) The future of crowd work. In: Proceedings of the 2013 conference on computer supported cooperative work. ACM, pp 1301–1318 Majchrzak A, Malhotra A (2016) Effect of knowledge-sharing trajectories on innovative outcomes in temporary online crowds. Inf Syst Res 27(4):685–703 Mason W, Watts DJ (2009) Financial incentives and the performance of crowds. In: Proceedings of the ACM SIGKDD workshop on human computation. ACM, pp 77–85 Massa L, Gianluigi V, Tucci C (2018) Business models and complexity 6:70–82. https://doi.org/10. 5278/ojs.jbm.v6i1.2579 O’Mahony S, Ferraro F (2007) The emergence of governance in an open source community. Acad Manag J 50:1079–1106 O’Mahony S, Lakhani KR (2011) Organizations in the shadow of communities. Res Sociol Organ 33:3–33 Rochet JC, Tirole J (2003) Platform competition in two-sided markets. J Eur Econ Assoc 1(4):990– 1029 Sheerman-Chase T, Ong EJ, Bowden R (2011) Cultural factors in the regression of nonverbal communication perception. In: 2011 IEEE international conference on computer vision workshops (ICCV workshops), pp 1242–1249 Surowiecki J (2004) The wisdom of crowds: why the many are smarter than the few and how collective wisdom shapes business, economies, societies, and nations. Random House, NY Surowiecki J (2005) The wisdom of crowds. Random House, New York Von Ahn L (2006) Games with a purpose. Computer 39(6):92–94 Von Ahn L, Maurer B, McMillen C, Abraham D, Blum M (2008) Recaptcha: human based character recognition via web security measures. Science 321(5895):1465–1468 Vuculescu O, Bergenholtz C (2014) How to solve problems with crowds: a computer based simulation model. Creat Innov Manag 23(2):121–139 Wenger E (1998) Communities of practice: learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Zhang S, Singh PV, Ghose A (2019) A structural analysis of the role of superstars in crowdsourcing contests. Inf Sys Res Zhou DX, Resnick P, Mei Q (2011) Classifying the political leaning of news articles and users from user votes. In: Proceedings of the 5th international AAAI conference on weblogs and social media. The AAAI Press, Menlo Park, CA, pp 417–424

Chapter 13

Online Geodata Repositories, Geoweb Services and Emerging Geospatial Technologies for Smart City Planning Harish Karnatak, Kamal Pandey, and V. Raghavaswamy

Abstract Advancements in data processing Internet and broadband technology have emerged as a new paradigm shift for data generation, sharing and dissemination of Geospatial data and information. The online spatial data repositories and Geoweb services are providing various methods of data analysis and access to its users. These innovative data generation, sharing and access methods are enhancing the use of geospatial technologies across urban and other thematic domains. Today, the users of geospatial data are using internet platform for various geoscientific activities such as spatial queries, geovisualization, simple to complex computations for decision-making and by modeling for virtual reality. Besides, many organizations and individuals are hosting their data in online platforms as open data repositories which can be effectively used for development of smart geospatial solutions of realworld problems. Online geodata repositories and spatial information services provide a geocomputation framework for developing effective planning of urban areas. The geospatial data from online geodata repositories, web tool-services, APIs and mobile apps are being extensively used by GIS professionals and researchers in the country. Integration of emerging technologies such as Crowdsourcing through POI (Points of Interest), Internet of Things (IoT)-based Smart sensors, Digital Twin, Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML) and Deep Learning (DL) can play a significant role in development of smart data solutions. The concept of self-sustainable city or Smart City is being implemented by various countries for providing smart citizen services. The smart city mission by Indian government is developing 100 cities across the country is an effort to provide smart solutions to area-based city planning. The location intelligence is integral part of the development of smart city mission. The smart sensors will provide location and seamless data using sensor network which can be integrated with geospatial technology in better decision making. The emerging technologies like Digital Twin to model simulated scenarios and use of Geointelligence-driven possible solutions would help in smart city planning. In H. Karnatak (B) · K. Pandey Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Kalidas Road, Dehradun 248001, India V. Raghavaswamy National Remote Sensing Centre, Balanagar, Hyderabad 500037, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 R. K. Mishra et al. (eds.), Smart Cities for Sustainable Development, Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7410-5_13

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this chapter, we will discuss about WebGIS technology, GeoWeb services, online Geodata Repositories and Access methods and understanding of emerging Geospatial technology of Digital Twin and Geointelligence in the context of Smart city planning. Keywords GeoData · GeoWeb services · Geospatial technologies · Geointelligence · Smart city planning

13.1 Introduction Geospatial technology-based city planning is very effective for smart and selfsustainable citizen services. The availability of geospatial data from a variety of sensors and platforms is a paradigm shift in the use of geospatial technology in various thematic domains of expertise. The advancement in Internet technology has enhanced the use of geospatial technology by making it more accessible and reachable to wider range of users, planners and decision makers. Integration of Geographical Information System (GIS) with Internet technology has facilitated to develop Web or Internet-based GIS applications. The web-enabled GIS, facilitates decision making at the strategic, tactical and operational levels; supports performance of administrative operations; and serves as a gateway for decision-makers and general users to access the system conveniently and effectively Karnatak et al. (2007). Internet is emerging as a perfect means for accessing, analyzing and transmission of GIS database. The combination of GIS and Internet offers great possibilities, such as the interactive access to geospatial data, real-time data integrations and transmission, enhancement of functions of geographic information and access to platform-independent GIS analysis tools. The advanced GIS technologies are highly influenced by the latest developments in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). GIS plays a critical role in urban and regional planning due to its ability to better understand current needs of urban areas, and then to design an effective development plan to fulfill those needs. The geospatial data generated by processing satellite imageries, aerial photographs or images captured by drones, provide a detailed perspective of land and infrastructure. As urban populations grow and disperse the paramountcy of GIS lies in its capability to pull together the large amount of information required to balance competing priorities and solve perplexed quandaries, such as optimizing new building placement or determining the feasibility of a waste disposal site. The geospatial technology provides very effective software tools to analyze the geospatial data which helps the planner to understand different needs of densely populated areas in the cities. The ability to run a variety of queries and analytics on GIS data, allow the experts to evaluate new developments in order to fit with existing infrastructure and the regulatory demands. The spatial modeling and simulation techniques of GIS facilitates the planners and decision maker to generate possible scenarios for better understanding of future needs of city development. Some of the most popular applications of GIS in urban planning includes review

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and analysis of plans for development, checks on regulatory compliance, review of environmental impact and preservation of historic sites, regional planning beyond the borders of a city or town, mapping the delivery of utilities and planning for service interruptions. During last one decade, the availability of geospatial data from online geodata repositories and development of various techniques on data access and sharing has opened new challenges for its users. Today, large amount of geospatial data from space and ground-based sensors are available to its users in various formats and methods of data access. The online GIS or Web GIS technology is one of the most popular techniques in advanced GIS which facilitates innovative tools and methods of geospatial applications (Arul Raj et al. (2008), Karnatak et al. (2012)). The Web GIS technology is providing GIS data as web service (e.g. OGC WMS, WFS, WCS, OWS, etc.). Application Programming Interface (APIs), data deification languages such as XML, GeoJSON, etc. These data access methods are allowing to integrate real-time data from ground observations, spatial models and simulations, participatory and crowdsourcing techniques and data from public platforms such as social media. Due to these advancements in availability of geospatial data, GIS is becoming one of the perfect user of big data analytics. Different variety of data from various sensors with high updation frequency and due to its large volume it is becoming a challenge for researchers and data scientists to analyze. The advancements in computation techniques and algorithm developments using Artificial Intelligence (AI) are helping data scientists in analysis and in providing smart geospatial solutions for various geographical problems. The concept of self-sustainable city or Smart City is being implemented by various countries for providing smart citizen services. The smart city mission by Indian government is developing 100 cities across the country is an effort to provide smart solutions to area-based city planning. The location intelligence systems are integral part of development of smart city mission. The smart sensors will provide location and seamless data using sensor network which can be integrated with geospatial technology for better decision making and planning. The emerging technologies also allow to model simulated scenarios using digital twin concept for handling complex spatial problems to mitigate disaster and emergency response in the cities.

13.2 Overview of Web GIS Technology The Web GIS technology has emerged from the requirement of providing the access of core GIS functionalities to masses. It has been made into realization via the prevailing web technology. In the Web 1.0 era, the architecture of Web GIS contained a centralized server where all the data was stored and it was disseminated via various internet protocols like http, ftp, etc. Being static in nature it poses a challenge to provide all the basic functionalities of desktop-based GIS over Internet. Over the period of time, the web technology had gained the most from the advancement in

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information and communication technology. The data dissemination to a large audience is now no more a challenge. The transition from Web 1.0 to Web 2.0 has revolutionized the World Wide Web (WWW) by allowing features like content syndication, web services and user-generated content (UGC), interoperability, etc. This transition has surged into the Web GIS as well. In the web 2.0 era Web GIS offers extended functionalities like exchange of remote data and application programs, GIS analysis on internet browser, interactive data visualization over the Internet. The concept of Object-Orientation and distributed architecture are other typical characteristics of Web GIS.

13.2.1 Concept of Web GIS in Client/Server Network System The core concept of a client/server network system is based on the approach of disseminating the data and information to a larger number of people known as clients from a centralized system known as server. There are three components in this concept viz. clients, server and the connection between the clients and sever, i.e. network. A typical architecture consists of many clients and many paths but a single server (Fig. 13.1). The client sends a request to sever via network and receives the response from the server via the network. The exchange of data request and response in a client server system is in a standard format, the client interprets the data received from the server and presents it to the user in an easily readable format. The same concept is extended to GIS data exchange as

Fig. 13.1 Flow of data and information in a basic client server system

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well in the Web GIS system. The client can request for data, analysis tools or modules from the server. The server either performs the job itself and sends the results back to the client through the network, or sends the data and analysis tools to the client for use on the client side.

13.2.2 User Interaction in WebGIS System Multiple clients are able to interact with the server via a unique internet address of server known as uniform resource locator or url. The clients send data request via the url to the server and the server delivers the response data to the clients at their respective addresses. Multiple clients can ask different data at the same time, e.g. in WebGIS environment the client from different parts of a country can request maps of their respective area, the server caters to all the requests and responds to each request differently. This all is possible through the standards and protocols implemented for such systems. One of the very popular interactivity mechanisms in the client–server system is hypertext linkages (Fig. 13.2). In the context of WebGIS, this becomes very useful as the users at the client end need to perform basic visualization tasks like zooming/panning the maps at their respective areas. Apart from the basic visualization, different maps published in the server provide different types of services like shopping centers, medical services, public transport, etc. These maps Fig. 13.2 Interactivity in WebGIS via hyperlinkages

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are published as static maps and can be accessed by multiple clients via the urls presented as hypertext linkage in a single page.

13.2.3 Distributed Web GIS System As discussed above web 2.0 provided the feature of content syndication which allows fetching information for multiple sources and integrating them in a desired application. Thus, the concept of distributed computing can be easily implemented in the internet domain. In a distributed computing the data and processes can reside in different computer across the internet and can be accessed via different internet access protocols like Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secured (https), File Transfer Protocol (ftp), Remote Procedure Call (rpc), Web Sockets, etc. Web GIS makes use the distributed computing for GIS data analysis and decision making. There are multiple stakeholders across the globe for different data sets and processes, and they disseminate the data and process over the web and can be integrated to develop a custom Web GIS application (Fig. 13.3). For Example in order to develop a Web GIS-based decision support system for forest fire alert system, the data requirement on whether information collected by ground sensors can be met via the web service

Fig. 13.3 Typical distributed Web GIS system

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and ready to use product available at https://openweathermap.org/, socioeconomic data available at https://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/maps/services and active fire data available at https://firms.modaps.eosdis.nasa.gov/active_fire/. These data sets can be syndicated for the desired web-based forest fire decision support system. Distributed Web GIS-based systems allow development of quick and high-performance web application.

13.2.4 Dynamic Structure of Web GIS The very basic phenomena of a modern world wide web is its dynamic nature, the published content gets updated at regular interval. The managers of the data and the databases update the data as and when required and make them available to all the users at one go. Sometimes, the user are also able to contribute to the published web content, update them and provide point of view on them. A user can send query string to update visible web content visible as per the requirement, and at the same time another user can send another query string to update the web page at his/her requirement, so at a particular point of time different views of a webpage are visible to different uses. The same concept applies to web GIS as well wherein different users are able to visualize different component of the GIS application at the same time. The distributed nature of the web GIS allows data update at different sources and making it available to all the users at the same time. In other words, Internet/Web GIS is dynamically linked with the sources. The GIS is updated as soon as the sources are updated. This dynamic linkage with the sources always keeps the data and software live. The Internet/Web GIS can also link with a near real-time information from satellite images besides, traffic flows and accident information from relevant sources. The major differences between a static and dynamic web map are given in Fig. 13.4.

Fig. 13.4 Dynamic versus static web maps

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Fig. 13.5 Web GIS availability across different platform

13.2.5 Cross-Platform Availability of Web GIS The availability of the Web GIS through a web browser makes it accessible across any platform. There is no requirement of any platform-specific software for Web GIS, it can be executed over any Operating System (OS) via a simple web browser. The standardization of the data dissemination in web platform makes the Web GIS independent of any specific platform (Fig. 13.5). As long as one has access to the Internet, one can access and use Web GIS and the tools published by the providers. It follows the philosophy of build once and execute across different platform.

13.2.6 Architecture of Web GIS Application The architecture of a Web GIS application is based on the typical client–server architecture wherein there are many clients and a server system. The server system consists of a webserver (Table 13.1), an application server (Table 13.2) and a database server (Table 13.3) whereas the client consists of an internet browser. The clients send spatial request to the web server which passes it to the application server, i.e. GIS server which in turn prepares the spatial output using the spatial database server. The spatial output is then disseminated to the browser of the client machine by the web server. The spatial input is mainly in the form of a url along with a spatial query string and output is the geometry or a map as an image (Fig. 13.6). This architecture is monolithic in nature and provides satisfactory performance when the number of

13 Online Geodata Repositories, Geoweb Services and Emerging Geospatial … Table 13.1 Popular web server for Web GIS

Table 13.2 Popular GIS database server software

Table 13.3 Popular GIS/Map server products

S. No.

Web server

1

Apachehttpd

Apache

2

Apache Tomcat

Apache

3

IIS

Microsoft

4

nginx

NGINIX

5

GWS

Google

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Provider

S. No.

Database server software

Availability

1

PostgreSQL + POSTGIS

Open source (Freeware)

2

Oracle Spatial

Commercial

3

My SQL

Open source (Freeware)

4

SpatiaLite

Open source (Freeware)

S. No.

Map/GIS server software

Availability

1

Geoserver

Open source (Freeware)

2

UMN Mapserver

Open source (Freeware)

3

Arc GIS Server

Commercial

4

SkylineGlobe

Commercial

5

Mapguide

Open source (Freeware) and Commercial

6

Degree

Open source (Freeware)

7

ERDAS APOLLO Server

Commercial

8

Intergraph Geo web server

Commercial

Fig. 13.6 Typical architecture of Web GIS application

users is less, as the number of users increases the performance deteriorates and entire system becomes slow. In order to overcome this performance issue, the computer hardware at server end needs to be scaled up.

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Fig. 13.7 Service-oriented architecture of Web GIS application

Service-oriented architecture is another option to handle the performance of the Web GIS application as the number of users increases (Fig. 13.7). The serviceoriented architecture is based on the concept of web services, which are selfcontained, self-described modular component of geospatial application which can be accessed through standard protocols. A typical web service is a piece of code that runs on the server and can perform some action in response to a client request. The concept of web services is extended in the spatial domain as well and case studies across literature suggest that the spatial web service provide a quick and effective mechanism for geospatial data dessimination and online processing (Karnatak et al. (2005), Karnatak et al. (2014)). For example, a spatial web service might receive some bounding coordinates and an image format from a client, draw a map image and then send the image back to the client.

13.3 Online Geodata Repositories The geospatial data from various data providers are available as online geodata repositories in internet domain. These geodata may be effectively utilized for smart city planning. A report of various online geodata repository for urban and regional planning is shown in Table 13.4.

13.4 Emerging Geospatial Technologies for Smart City Planning The computer technology is primarily used for automation of various human activities. The automation process using computation methods is done by software programmes which enables transfer of human intelligence into the computer systems. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a broad area of computer science which enables

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Table 13.4 Online geodata repositories for urban and regional planning S. No. Product

Coverage

Data availability

1

Gateway to Indian https://bhuvan.nrsc. Earth gov.in/data/dow Observation-Bhuvan nload/index.php Geoportal

URL

India

Satellite data visualization and download Thematic data available as web service

2

DIVA-GIS Country Data

http://www.diva-gis. org/gdata

Global

Gazetteer and population data download

3

Global High Resolution Soil Water Balance

http://www.cgiar-csi. Global org/data/global-hig hresolution-soil-wat erbalance

4

World Bank Geodata https://velluminform Human geography General ation.com/2012/01/ 28/google-earth-wor ldbank-data-and-kml files

5

Natural Earth

http://www.naturalea Human geography Administrative rthdata.com boundaries

6

Human Influence and Footprint

http://sedac.ciesin. columbia.edu/data/ collection/wildar eas-v2

Human geography Land use

7

ESPON Urban Morphological Data

http://database. espon.eu/db2/res ource?idCat=43

Human geography Urban Morphological data for European cities

8

Global Terrorism Database

http://www.start. umd.edu/gtd

Human geography Wars, conflict and crime

9

Gridded Population of the World

http://sedac.ciesin. columbia.edu/data/ collection/gpw-v4

Human geography Population

10

WorldPop

http://www.wor ldpop.org.uk

Human geography Population

11

Large Urban Areas 1950–2050

https://nordpil.com/ resources/worlddata base-of-large-cities

Human geography Population

12

Global Urban Extent http://nelson.wisc. edu/sage/data-andmodels/schnei der.php

Human geography Population data

13

GeoHive

Human geography Population data

http://www.geohive. com

Ecology

(continued)

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Table 13.4 (continued) S. No. Product

URL

Coverage

14

OpenStreetMap

http://www.geofab rik.de/data/dow nload.html

Human geography Buildings, roads and points of interest

Data availability

15

OSM Metro Extracts https://mapzen.com/ data/metro-extracts

Human geography Buildings, roads and points of interest

16

POI Factory

http://www.poi-fac tory.com

Human geography Buildings, roads and points of interest

17

SimpleGeo’s Places

http://s3.amazonaws. Human geography Buildings, roads and com/simplegeo-pub points of interest lic/places_dump_2 0110628.zip

18

Open Flights

http://openflights. org/data.html

19

Global Roads Open Access Data Set

http://www.ciesin. Human geography Transport and columbia.edu/conflu communications ence/display/roads/ Global+Roads+Data

20

Undersea http://www.cab Telecommunications lemap.info Cables

Human geography Transport and communications

21

Geonames Country Information

http://download.geo names.org/export/ dump/countryInfo. txt

Human geography Gazetteers (place/feature names) Data as web service is available

22

GRUMP Settlement Points

http://sedac.ciesin. columbia.edu/data/ set/grump-v1-settle mentpoints

Human geography Socioeconomic Data and Application Data across globe Data as web service is available

23

World Urban http://www.wud Database and Access apt.org Portal Tools

Urban geography

Urban form and function

24

UN-Habitat Urban Data

http://urbandata.unh abitat.org

Urban geography

Urban Indicators

25

Urban Development (World Bank)

http://data.worldb Urban geography ank.org/topic/urband evelopment

26

DLR’s Global Urban https://urban-tep.eu/ Footprint

Human geography Transport and communications

Urban geography

Urbanization, traffic and congestion, and air pollution Urban footprint (continued)

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Table 13.4 (continued) S. No. Product

URL

Coverage

Data availability

27

Google maps

http://maps.google. com

Global

Global satellite images and maps (2D and 3D) at street level with various applications

28

Bing Map

http://www.bing. com/maps/

Global

Global satellite images and maps (roads and POI)

29

MapMyIndia

http://www.maps. mapmyindia.com

India

Rich POI and detailed maps of India

30

Open Government Data (OGD), India

https://data.gov.in/

India

Open data from government of India for various themes and applications

31

Sentinel-1, 2 and 3 Data

https://scihub.copern Global icus.eu/

The Copernicus Open Access Hub (previously known as Sentinels Scientific Data Hub) provides complete, free and open access to Sentinel-1, Sentinel-2 and Sentinel-3 user products, starting from the In-Orbit Commissioning Review (IOCR)

32

USGS Earth Explorer

https://earthexplorer. Global usgs.gov/

Source of free satellite data (aerial imagery, AVHRR, commercial imagery, digital elevation, Landsat, LiDAR, MODIS and Radar) and allows downloading data over chronological timelines, wide range of specifying search criteria and a long list of satellite and aerial imagery to choose. USGS Earth Explorer now warehouses Sentinel-2 data

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machines to think without any human intervention. AI systems are having three major types (i) Artificial Narrow Intelligence (ANI) which is goal-oriented and programmed to perform a single task; (ii) Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) which allows machines to learn, understand and act in a way that is indistinguishable from humans in a given situation; and (iii) Artificial Super Intelligence (ASI) which is a hypothetical AI where machines are capable of exhibiting intelligence that surpasses brightest humans. In the recent past, another advancement in the technology which has greatly influenced the computer automation system is a Machine Learning (ML). ML is a subset of AI that uses statistical learning algorithms to build smart systems. The ML systems can automatically learn and improve the accuracy and performance of the computer system (s) without explicitly being programmed. The machine learning algorithms are further classified into three major categories, i.e. supervised, unsupervised and reinforcement learning. The supervised learning algorithm takes a known set of input dataset and its known responses to the output data to learn the regression or classification model. A learning algorithm then trains a model to generate a prediction for the response to new data or to the test datasets. In the unsupervised learning, the computer system learns more about the data by inferring patterns in the dataset without any reference to the known outputs. It is called unsupervised because the algorithms are left on their own to group the unsorted information by finding similarities, differences and patterns in the data. It is most commonly used to find clusters of data and for dimensionality reduction. In the reinforcement learning, the computer system learns by continuous interaction. It is a type of machine learning algorithm in which learning is carried in an interactive environment in a trial and error way by continuously using feedback from its previous actions and experiences. The concept of Deep Learning (DL) is being used for development and computation of smart solutions. Deep Learning systems help a computer model to filter the input data through spatial data layers to predict and classify information. Deep learning algorithms process the information in the same manner as the human brain. Deep learning network architectures are further classified into Convolutional Neural Networks, Recurrent Neural Networks and Recursive Neural Networks. The conceptual framework of AI, ML and DL is shown in Fig. 13.8. The deep learning techniques are very effective in the classification of remote sensing imagery. For example detecting a specific geographic object such as a ‘swimming pool’ (Fig. 13.9) in a residential locality, similarly location of commercial activities or detecting green spaces in an urban areas from satellite, aerial, or drone imagery and plotting it on a map could be one of the possible application of deep learning. It can be used for mapping infrastructure, anomaly detection (deviation from normal) and urban feature extractions for smart city planning. Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) is an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) that is most widely used in the field of Computer Vision for analyzing and classifying images. It is a Deep Learning (DL) algorithm that takes the input image and assigns weights/biases to various aspects or objects in the image, so that it

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ArƟficial Intelligence (AI) Machine Learning (ML)

Deep Learning (DL)

Fig. 13.8 Conceptual framework of AI, ML and DL

Fig. 13.9 Swimming pools are detected within residential parcels. Source https://www.esri.com/ about/newsroom/arcwatch/where-deep-learning-meets-gis/

can differentiate one from the other. The hidden layers of a CNN typically consist of convolutional layers, pooling layers, fully connected layers and normalization layers. Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN) is a type of neural network architecture that is used in sequence prediction of problems and is heavily used in the field of Natural Language Processing (NLP). The RNNs are called recurrent because they perform the same task for every element of a sequence, with the output being dependent on

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the previous computations. A Recursive Neural Network (RNN) is more like a hierarchical network where there is really no time aspect to the input sequence but, the input has to be processed hierarchically in a tree-like fashion. The advancements in sensor and communication technologies enable to carry various innovative smart software applications. The Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) is an innovative technology which is a self-configured wireless network to monitor physical or environmental conditions in an urban area, and transfer the data to central server system for its analysis and utilization in smart planning and decision making (Flammini and Sisinni (2014), Peng and Tsou (2003)). Typically a wireless sensor network may contain hundreds or sometime thousands of sensor nodes. The communication between sensor nodes is established by using radio signals. These sensor nodes have limited computation capabilities but, are designed to take observations of defined task and receive instructions from the control center. The location sensors such as Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receivers can also be deployed in the sensor nodes to develop location-aware software applications, based on geographical locations. The emerging technology of Internet of Things (IoT) can be considered as an extension of Wireless Sensor Network where many electronic devices are equipped with sensors to communicate to each other for providing smart solution and services. IoT is a collection of devices that work in a collaboration with each other to transmit data and carry out operations without human intervention. The WSN and IoT can be a path-breaking technology for development of smart cities in India. The integration of three technologies, i.e. WSN, IoT and GIS can be very effective for providing location-specific smart citizen services. Planning smart cities that use IoT and GIS can help to create self-sustainable ecosystems. Deploying GIS and IoT at planning level will facilitate effective utilization of available resources, reduce pollution and the stress on the environment to meet the increasing demand of resources in cities. It can also help to build strategies to safeguard against threats of the future due to human actions and create an efficient system for public services, and reduce financial wastage. Integration of above discussed advanced technologies with GIS is very important for development of geo-enabled smart solutions in smart city planning. The concept of Digital Twin (DT) technology provides the virtual replica of physical assets using information collected from, IoT devices and sensors and applying advanced computation algorithms of AI, ML and DL to understand its real-time deployment and usability. Michael Grieves coined the term “Digital Twin” in the year 2002. According to Söderberg et al. (2017) defined the digital twin as “using a digital copy of the physical system to perform real-time optimization”. Another researcher Saddik (2018) defined DT as “a real time digital replica of a physical device”. In smart city planning, the Digital Twin technology may be used to develop simulated or virtual repilica model of proposed “smart city” to make it a reality. An attempt was made to use digital twin to model new capital city Amaravati of Andhra Pradesh state (Fig. 13.10). The data was collected from aerial drones, ground sensors, IoT tools and ML software analytics (Smart Cities World Forum, January 2019). By implementing it would be

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Fig. 13.10 3D City Model: The Digital Twin of Amaravati, a Smart City of Andhra Pradesh. Source https://www.smartcitiesworld.net/special-reports/special-reports/the-rise-of-digital-twinsin-smart-cities

possible to understand, better the operation and performance of each sensor node and its utilization in providing smart citizen services. In smart city planning, the intelligent automated system is envisaged to provide various services. The term “Geospatial Intelligence” or “GeoIntelligence” (GI) is another important development in geospatial technology which is an integration of various advanced technologies with GIS. In other words, geospatial intelligence consists of imagery, imagery intelligence, geospatial information and other advanced technologies. The geointelligent services are location-aware system. It analysis geospatial data and information to describe, assess and visually depict various geographical features and geo-referenced activities in a special area(s), for example, smart city. The geointelligence systems use advanced computation techniques such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine learning (ML) and Deep Learning (DL) and can integrate with IoT and Digital Twin for providing smart citizen services in a smart city environment.

13.5 Conclusion From concept to reality the Smart City mission program has become an important and inclusive component of City planning and development in the country. It is all about using a combination of Geospatial and ICT and contextual data to make the cities, more livable. One of the key features of Indian smart city mission is to apply

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smart solutions to better the infrastructure, develop efficient citizen services through online and bring sustainable development that is “area-based” and also inclusive. Today, a smart city is also being looked into as a “climate smart city”. The availability of data from online geodata repositories, through sensor network of IoTs and integration with emerging technologies in GIS environment, have the potential to offer effective platform in smart city planning. GeoWeb services and Geointelligence application will provide further value to citizen services. The challenge lies in selection of appropriate geospatial technology, its effective use and implementation. Further, availability of skilled human resources, scalability of solutions, citizen participation and policy are some of the key issues. Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the encouragement and motivation extended by Dr. Prakash Chauhan, Director and Dr. S. K. Srivastav, Dean (Academic), Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS), Dehradun. The authors also acknowledge the World Wide Web for hosting wealth of information and data portals, some of which are specifically referred in this book chapter.

References Arul Raj M, Karnatak H, Murthy YVS, Venugopala Rao K, Raghavaswamy V (2008) Urban information system for Jaipur, India: an open source WebGIS approach. J Geomat 2(2):53–58 Flammini A, Sisinni E (2014) Wireless sensor networking in the Internet of things and cloud computing era. In: EUROSENSORS 2014, the XXVIII edition of the conference series. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2014.11.577 Karnatak HC, Saran S, Roy PS (2005) Spatial services, a click away. Geospat Today 3(5):42–46 Karnatak HC, Saran S, Bhatia K, Roy PS (2007) Multicriteria spatial decision analysis in web GIS environment. GeoInformatica 11(4):407–429 Karnatak HC, Shukla R, Sharma VK, Murthy YVS, Bhanumurthy V (2012) Spatial mashup technology and real time data integration in geo-web application using open source GIS—a case study for disaster management. Geocarto Int 27(6):499–514 Karnatak H, Pandey K, Oberai K, Roy A, Joshi D, Singh H, Raju PLN, Krishna Murthy YVN (2014) Geospatial data sharing, online spatial analysis and processing of Indian Biodiversity data in Internet GIS domain – A case study for raster based online geo-processing, Int Arch Photogramm Remote Sens Spatial Inf Sci, XL–8: 1133–1137.https://doi.org/10.5194/isprsarch ives-XL-8-1133-2014. Karnatak H, Raju PLN, Krishnamurthy YVN, Senthil Kumar A (2015) E-learning based capacity building in geoinformatics. ISG 21(1–2):4–13. ISSN: 0972-642X Peng Z-R, Tsou M-H (2003) Internet GIS: distributed geographic information services for the internet and wireless networks. ISBN: 0-471-35923-8m Saddik AE (2018) Digital twins: the convergence of multimedia technologies. IEEE Multimed 25(2):87–92. https://doi.org/10.1109/MMUL.2018.023121167. ISSN 1070-986X.S2CID51922497 Söderberg R et al (2017) Toward a digital twin for real-time geometry assurance in individualized production. CIRP Ann 66(1):137–140

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Web URLs https://content.techgig.com/understanding-the-difference-between-ai-ml-and-dl/articleshow/754 93798.cms. Accessed 02 Nov 2020 https://medium.com/@thegeospatialnews/the-role-of-iot-and-gis-in-transforming-lives-728eb4 dd4b02. Accessed 02 Nov 2020 https://towardsdatascience.com/understanding-the-difference-between-ai-ml-and-dl-cceb63 252a6c. Accessed 29 Oct 2020 https://towardsdatascience.com/understanding-the-difference-between-ai-ml-and-dl-cceb63 252a6c. Accessed 25 Oct 2020 https://www.e-education.psu.edu/sgam/node/91. Accessed 29 Oct 2020 https://www.e-education.psu.edu/sgam/node/91. Accessed 02 Nov 2020 https://www.esri.com/about/newsroom/arcwatch/where-deep-learning-meets-gis/. Accessed 02 Nov 2020 https://www.networkworld.com/article/3280225/what-is-digital-twin-technology-and-why-it-mat ters.html. Accessed 02 Nov 2020 https://www.smartcitiesworld.net/special-reports/special-reports/the-rise-of-digital-twins-insmart-cities,2019. Accessed 04 Nov 2020 http://osgeo.in/foss4g2012 http://smartcities.gov.in/writereaddata/smartcityguidelines.pdf-Govt. of India http://www.informit.com-Digital Learning Platform http://openstreetmap.or-Open Street Map www.bhuvan.gov.in-Earth Observation Gateway of ISRO www.opengeospatial.org-Open Geospatial Consortium

Chapter 14

Assessment of Urban Microclimatic Parameters in Various Urban Landscape Settings Using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Hemant Bherwani, Suman Kumar, Anju Singh, and Rakesh Kumar Abstract Urbanisation is happening at an incredible pace throughout the world. On the one hand, the quality of life is improving through better job opportunities, better standard of living, but the environment in which people live, is suffering due to increased pollution and extreme weather events. With the increasing frequency and intensity of extreme climatic conditions, sustainable urban design is becoming more critical. Urban microclimate refers to the city’s local climatic conditions, which are peculiar in nature and are distinct compared to the surrounding environment. Cities are generally a few degrees warmer than their surroundings due to high heat capacity materials, reduced albedo, reduced open and green landscape. Besides, the flow of the wind is usually obstructed, leading to lesser dissipation of heat. The green/open areas and water bodies play a vital role in the city’s overall energy and mass balance, and the reduction of such spaces leads to extreme microclimatic conditions, rendering urban areas unhealthy. The current chapter discusses the assessment of microclimatic parameters like wind speed, temperature and humidity using computational fluid dynamics as a tool. This study focuses on the variation in local climate characteristics in different urban landscapes. The study results showed that urban land surface temperature is highly influenced by land use factors such as built environment, soil conditions, green cover, and urban and street canopy. The chapter also shows that regulation of microclimate parameters is possible through proper planning of urban spaces, which is crucial for sustainable development of the urban environment and healthy living for city dwellers.

H. Bherwani (B) · R. Kumar CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur 440017, Maharashtra, India e-mail: [email protected] H. Bherwani · S. Kumar Academy of Scientific and Industrial Research, Ghaziabad 201002, Uttar Pradesh, India A. Singh National Institute of Industrial Engineering, Mumbai 400087, Maharashtra, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 R. K. Mishra et al. (eds.), Smart Cities for Sustainable Development, Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7410-5_14

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Keywords Microclimate · ENVI-met · Remote sensing · Land use land cover (LULC) · Land surface temperature (LST) · Urban Heat Island (UHI)

14.1 Introduction The climate in urban areas is greatly affected due to different landscapes, built features, human activities, heat sink and sources etc. The urban environment continues to affect the local climate in different ways (Bherwani et. al. 2021a, Jin et al. 2018). Research interest in local climatic factors and related issues is increasing because they are important factors linked to achieving sustainability within cities that are serving an increasing number of the world’s population. Urban microclimate (air temperature, humidity, wind speed etc.) influences the behaviour and decisionmaking of living beings (Jin et al. 2018). The micro or local climate is the local air region of a small area, where the climate differs from the surrounding region. It includes local variations in humidity, wind, solar radiation, humidity and temperature due to several factors. The city’s local climate factors are strongly influenced by urban heat. UHI relate to the phenomenon of atmospheric and land surface temperatures that occur in urban areas and are greater than in surrounding rural areas (Agnihotri 2018). This occurs because of high density of buildings, urban geometry, surface properties that absorb and trap heat, and increasing ambient temperatures in dense urban areas (Shishegar 2013). Further, with the increase in urbanisation, the natural vegetation is usually removed, leading to change in factors of microclimate such as surface roughness, albedo, moisture etc. The green patch of the urban area can reduce the impact of the local climate (Bherwani et. al. 2021b, Swain et al. 2016). Open spaces along with cooler environment are an important part of any urban area, providing pedestrian access and a place for outdoor activities. Thermal comfort and microclimate depend on urban design (Yan et. al. 2012, Yahia et al. 2018). In tropical cities, the influence of UHI effect is becoming a serious concern. UHI effect plays an important role to affect energy consumption in urban areas. Rising urban temperatures aggravate the cooling load of buildings, thereby reducing the efficiency of air conditioning systems (Santamouris 2013). In the current study, it is estimated that there is a variation of 5–10 °C in commercial, residential and green/open areas in the Chandrapur city, measured at the same time of the day. Presently, 50% of the world population stay in cities and consume two-thirds (2/3) of the world primary energy (Gaitani et al. 2011). Due to an increase in temperature in commercial and residential areas, there is an increase in electricity consumption for conditioning. This uses more electricity and aggravates the problem further, with an increase of GHG emissions and associated air pollution (Tumini et al. 2016). The urban area is responsible for more energy consumption and GHG emission, which is 40 and 30% globally (Ignatius et al. 2015). Besides affecting air quality, the UHI surface can also affect water quality, as the stormwater temperature increases.

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When this hot rainwater flows into water bodies, it tends to upset the balance of aquatic ecosystems (URL 01). There are various mitigation techniques that have been proposed to reduce the effect of heat islands. The most important technique is to increase green/open with proper planning (Yang et al. 2018), an increase of water bodies and the use of heat-resistant materials in an urban area. Using appropriate materials in urban areas can reduce surface as well as ambient temperatures and cooling load of the buildings.

14.2 Study Area Chandrapur is located at the eastern end of the Maharashtra region. It lies between N’s 19.30 “N to 20.45” and 78.46 “E”. The area borders Nagpur, Bandara and Wardha in the north, Yavatmal on the west, Gadchiroli on the east and Adilabad in Telangana on the south. Chandrapur is located on average 189.90 m above sea level and spreads over an area of 11,443 km2 . The province is located in the Wainganga and Wardha basins, respectively, and flows to the eastern and western borders of the province, which constitutes a tributary of the Godavari river. The climate of Chandrapur is warm and dry. The minimum average temperature varies between 11.6 and 28.2 °C in the winter season and the maximum average temperature varies in the range of 28.2 and 43.6 °C in the summer season. The maximum temperature was recorded in Chandrapur in the month of June 2007, which was 49 °C and a minimum of 2.8 °C in January 1899. The annual average rainfall is 1420 mm in the Chandrapur (URL 02). The study area is shown in Figs. 14.1 and 14.2. For the study of microclimatic parameters, three areas are selected representing three different local climatic zones.

14.2.1 Commercial Area To study the microclimatic parameter for commercial area, Japura Gate is selected, where many commercial buildings, shopping centres, roads (Asphalt and concrete roads) and transport are available. The satellite view of the study area is given in Fig. 14.3a.

14.2.2 Residential Area For residential area, a bazaar ward is selected. The satellite view of the study area is given in Fig. 14.3b.

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Fig. 14.1 Study area

Fig. 14.2 Site map of the study area

14.2.3 Green/Open Area Ramala Garden is selected for green/open area, which is a comparatively green and open area of the Chandrapur city and also represents a water body. The satellite view of the study sites is in Fig. 14.3c.

14 Assessment of Urban Microclimatic Parameters in Various …

(a)

(b)

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(c)

Fig. 14.3 a–c Satellite map of study sites

14.3 Materials and Methods The study included simulation models for the above three different case studies of the city: commercial, residential and green/open area, to reach the depth of influence of urban climate. The study further examined the microclimatic parameters over the region. For microclimate study two numerical models are used, especially for UHI analysis, namely ENVI_MET and RayMan (URL 05). Both are urban microscale model which provides high spatial and temporal predicted thermal stress condition of the city. The result of this model is very useful for urban planning. It can estimate the possible thermal impact of the city before construction (Égerházi et al. 2013). In this study for simulation, the ENVI_MET model is used, which is a type of CFD model specifically designed for urban microclimate simulations and deals with temperature, humidity, wind direction and wind speed of the area and gives a better understanding of the local environmental characteristics.

14.3.1 Tools ENVI_MET is a microclimate model in which all the different components of an urban or natural environment interact. The computational modules of this model cover a variety of scientific disciplines ranging from fluid dynamics, thermodynamics to plant physiology and soil science (URL 04). The key of ENVI_MET model theory is that by combining all these different systems into one, all the elements interact with each other and in practice, recreate the synchronisation which people observe (Sharmin and Steemers 2017). ENVI_MET is broadly used for the study of thermal comfort and urban design and produce microclimatic conditions of Urban Canopy Layer (UCL). It is famous to provide high temporal and spatial resolution of the city and its advanced 3D modelling technique has an interface that models coordinate temperature, air temperature, solar radiation and relative humidity. The latest version of ENVI_MET has the ability to consider the heat capacity of the building materials

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(Bherwani et. al. 2020). ENVI_MET provides a solution to how urban environments can be designed to provide the best microclimate conditions for citizens, which is very important for human health (Elnabawi et al. 2013). For the simulation of the microclimate parameters, ENVI_MET 4.0 model is used, which is developed by ENVI-MET GmbH, Essen, Germany. ENVI_MET simulates elaborate calculations of short and long-wave radioactive flows, including shadows, reflections, re-radiation of building systems and vegetation. It has a few limitations. It cannot evaluate anthropogenic heat, which is generated through traffic, air conditioning and different type of human activities (Berardi and Wang 2016).

14.3.2 Data For simulation of the microclimatic model, climatic data is used (temperature, wind speed, and direction, humidity CO2 , NO2 , O3 , surface roughness, PM2.5, PM 10 etc.), which is taken from different sources (CPCB, Yahoo Weather, Google weather etc.) for Chandrapur city as of date 10 April 2019. Table 14.1 shows the data used as the input for the simulation of the ENVI_MET model for the Chandrapur city.

14.3.3 Processing Data processing is an important task in microclimate study. In this study, the model runs for 9 h. The simulation was started at 9 am to evening 6 pm on 10 April 2019. Meteorological parameters, weather condition, vegetations, physical properties and structure are the main input parameter of the ENVI_MET model and it calculates microclimatic parameters of the urban area. Table 14.1 The following data are used as input for all sites (URL 03)

S. No.

Parameters

Values

1

Temperature

26–43 °C

2

Wind speed

2 m/s

3

Wind direction

248°

4

Humidity

27%

5

CO2

600 (default)

6

NO2

4

7

O3

8

8

PM10

70

9

PM2.5

112

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14.4 Results and Discussion The results of the study, based on maxima of all the microclimatic parameters, show that the surface temperature and air temperature of the commercial and residential areas are higher than green/open area of the city. On average, the difference is about 3.98 °C (15.04%) between green/open to residential area and an average of 7.87 °C (29.73%) from green/open to a commercial area. Air temperature is also higher by an average of 1.76 °C (5.38%) from green/open to commercial and average 0.66 °C (1.95%) from green/open to residential areas. While the effect is not only limited to temperature but it is found that humidity and wind speed are also decreasing from green/open to residential or commercial areas. Maximum humidity is observed in the green/open area, whereas minimum is observed in the commercial area. From green/open to residential it is decreasing by 19.72%, and from green/open to commercial it decreases up to 22.36% at the same time. Other parameters like air temperature changes and wind speed are also. Table 14.2 and Fig. 14.4 show the output of microclimatic parameters (maximum) of the different landscapes of the study area. Table 14.2 Output microclimatic parameters (maximum) after stimulation of the different landscapes of the study area S. No. Parameters

Study area Commercial Residential Green/open

1

Temperature (T) [°C]

47.5

37.16

32.87

2

Air temperature (AT) [°C]

37

35.99

33.81

3

Air temperature changes (ATC) [kelvin(k)/h] 3.25

3.66

2.42

4

Wind speed (WS) [m/s]

2.21

1.51

1.32

5

Relative humidity (RH) [%]

45.53

47.73

48.41

MICROCLIMATIC PARAMETERS (MINIMUM)

35 30

VALUE

25

22.58 22.3 21.24

25.58

Commercial

31.83 28.4

Residential

Green/open 32.89

25.61 26.28

20 15 10 5

1.52 -0.04 -0.07

0 -5

T

AT

ATC PARAMETERS

0

0 0.35 WS

Fig. 14.4 Microclimatic parameter in commercial, residential and green/open area

RH

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Table 14.3 Output microclimatic parameters (minimum) after stimulation of the different landscapes of the study area S. No.

Parameters

Study area Commercial

Residential

Green/open

1

T

22.58

22.30

21.24

2

AT

25.58

28.40

31.83

3

ATC

−0.04

−0.07

1.52

4

WS

0.0

0.0

0.35

5

RH

25.61

26.28

32.89

Similar to the maximum values, as shown above, the minimum values indicate a comparable trend. Commercial areas having the lowest wind speed and humidity have the highest temperature. Ranges in microclimatic parameters of residential area fall in between the commercial and green area. The outputs are shown in Table 14.3 and Fig. 14.5. Average values of the areas have also been assessed and the values have been shown in Table 14.4 and Fig. 14.6. Table 14.5 and Figs. 14.7 and 14.8 show the change and change % (percentage) of microclimatic parameters of the study area. While the average, maximum and minimum values have been shown in the tables and figures above, it is necessary to understand how and where the shift related to these microclimatic parameters are happening. Further analysis has been done in terms of understanding the parameters at various coordinates of the regions. The results and coordinate points are given below. MICROCLIMATIC PARAMETERS (MINIMUM)

35 30

VALUE

25

22.58 22.3 21.24

25.58

Commercial

31.83 28.4

Residential

Green/open 32.89

25.61 26.28

20 15 10 5

1.52 -0.04 -0.07

0 -5

T

AT

ATC PARAMETERS

0

0 0.35 WS

RH

Fig. 14.5 Microclimatic parameter (min) in commercial, residential and green/open area

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Table 14.4 Output microclimatic parameters (average) after stimulation of the different landscapes of the study area S. No.

Parameters

Study area Commercial

Residential

Green/open

1

T

34.34

30.45

26.47

2

AT

34.48

33.38

32.72

3

ATC

1.58

0.88

1.85

4

WS

0.24

0.08

0.81

5

RH

27.09

28.01

34.89

microclimate parameter (average) 40

value

30

Commercial 34.34 30.45 26.47

34.48 33.38

Residential 34.89

32.72 27.09

28.01

20 10 1.58 0.88 1.85

0.24 0.08 0.81

ATC

WS

0 T

AT

RH

parameters

Fig. 14.6 Average microclimatic parameter in commercial, residential and green/open area

Table 14.5 Microclimatic parameters changes and change % (percentage) S. No.

Parameters

Green/open commercial

Green/open residential

G→C

G→R

% Change (G → C)

% Change (G → R)

1

T

7.87

29.73

3.98

2

AT

1.76

5.38

0.66

2.02

3

ATC

−0.27

−14.59

−0.97

−52.43

4

WS

−0.57

−70.37

−0.73

−90.12

5

RH

−7.8

−22.36

−6.88

−19.72

*

15.04

R: Residential area, C: Commercial area, G: Green/open area

14.4.1 Microclimate Parameters in a Different Location in the Commercial Area See Table 14.6.

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changes

10

3.98

5 value

G→C

7.87

1.76 0.66 0 T

-0.27-0.97

-0.57-0.73

ATC

WS

AT

RH

-5 -10

-6.88 -7.8

parameters

Fig. 14.7 Changes of microclimatic parameters

% CHANGES 40

% Change (G→C)

29.73

20

15.04 5.38 2.02

CHANGES %

0

T

AT

ATC

-20

WS

RH

-14.59

-22.36-19.72

-40 -60

-52.43 -70.37

-80

-90.12

-100

PARAMETERS

Fig. 14.8 Changes percentage (%) of microclimatic parameters Table 14.6 Microclimate parameters of commercial area Sample site

Coordinate

Parameter

X

Y

T

AT

ATC

WS

RH

Asphalt road

15

30

46.98

36.15

2.17

0.32

27.08

25

33

47.10

36.23

2.16

0.27

26.48

Concrete road

17

38

36.69

36.24

2.09

0.09

26.54

Trees Buildings

32

24

36.64

36.36

2.13

0.37

26.42

5

16

23.99

36.04

2.22

0.20

28.09

41

34

23.59

35.76

1.88

0.19

27.93

32

32

29.85

29.59

0.01

0.00

NA

34

8

29.85

29.50

0.02

0.00

NA

14 Assessment of Urban Microclimatic Parameters in Various …

14.4.2 Microclimate Parameters in a Different Location in the Residential Area See Figs. 14.9 and 14.10; Table 14.7.

Fig. 14.9 Spatial map of the microclimatic parameters for commercial area

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Fig. 14.10 Spatial map of the microclimatic parameters for residential area

14.4.3 Microclimate Parameters in a Different Location in the Green/Open Area Figures 14.9, 14.10 and 14.11 and Tables 14.6, 14.7 and 14.8 show the microclimate parameters in different locations in the commercial, residential and green/open

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Table 14.7 Microclimatic parameters residential area Sampling site

Coordinates

Parameter

X

Y

T

AT

ATC

WS

RH

14

24

36.48

29.49

0.07

0.00

NA

42

16

36.37

35.73

1.56

0.01

26.77

Trees

44

4

24.32

35.57

1.77

0.12

28.65

48

4

25.82

35.50

1.72

0.19

28.62

Building

24

40

29.85

29.49

0.07

0.00

NA

28

10

29.85

29.49

0.07

0.00

NA

Concrete road

areas respectively. The coordinate-based analysis shows that the maximum temperature is observed in the asphalt road with an average of 47.04 °C followed by a concrete road with an average of 36.42 °C. The minimum temperature is observed in the regions near to green space and water body, indicating that the green space and water body play a very important role to decrease the urban heat. A high density of roads and buildings absorb and traps more heat, which increases ambient temperatures in dense urban areas compared to their rural counterparts. These are the main causes of urban heat island, which traps the heat and increases the temperature surrounding the area.

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Fig. 14.11 Spatial map of the microclimatic parameters for green/open area

14.5 Conclusions The microclimatic assessment conducted in the study indicates that the land use and land cover of the region play a very important role in maintaining its local physical parameters. The local climatic parameters like temperature, wind speed, humidity etc. are dependent on LULC of the region. It has been observed that, in general, open/green areas along with water bodies have a lower temperature and higher humidity and wind speed. The residential areas which are compact and contain a lot of concrete structures, tend to have a higher temperature and lower wind speed

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Table 14.8 Microclimate in green/open area Sampling site

Coordinates

Parameter

X

Y

T

AT

ATC

WS

RH

23

26

28.54

32.79

1.76

0.82

34.85

27

22

28.77

32.98

1.74

0.86

34.19

Concrete road

37

33

32.38

33.36

1.99

0.40

34.74

41

28

32.87

33.62

2.02

0.36

33.64

Trees

30

40

21.34

32.53

1.82

0.97

35.09

45

14

21.64

32.87

1.89

0.80

35.57

10

23

24.38

32.98

1.75

1.16

36.25

30

46

24.01

32.61

1.82

1.15

34.76

Grass

Water body

and humidity as compared to open spaces. However, the commercial area, being the most compact and experiencing the highest human activity, has the highest temperature and lowest wind speed and humidity. The wind speed is lesser in the built-up regions due to the fact that the profile is broken and there are a lot of dead spots leading to loss of energy and momentum. Similarly, green spaces, due to vegetation, have higher humidity and consequently lower temperature. The open and green areas can reduce the surface temperature by 15–29% and air temperature by 2–5%. They can increase the humidity by 19–23%. While it is important to study these characteristics for different regions of the same city, it is of even more importance that the interlinkages of these parameters are studied in the same region and the same can be studied in future. These studies of interlinkages between various microclimatic parameters will help in maintaining these microclimate parameters for a region and help in designing better and sustainable cities. Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), India and its constituent laboratory National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) for providing the support for the research. The manuscript is checked for plagiarism using licensed iThenticate software.

References Agnihotri AK (2018) Impact of green spaces on the urban microclimate through landsat 8 and TIRS data, in Varanasi, India. Int J Environ Sustain 7(2) Berardi U, Wang Y (2016) The effect of a denser city over the urban microclimate: the case of Toronto. Sustainability 8(8):822 Bherwani H, Singh A, Kumar R (2020) Assessment methods of urban microclimate and its parameters: a critical review to take the research from lab to land. Urban Climate, 34: 100690 Bherwani H, Anjum S, Gupta A, Singh A, Kumar R (2021a) Establishing influence of morphological aspects on microclimatic conditions through GIS-assisted mathematical modeling and field observations. Environ Dev Sustainability 1–24

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Bherwani H, Indorkar T, Sangamnere R, Gupta A, Anshul A, Nair MM, Singh A, Kumar R (2021b) Investigation of Adoption and Cognizance of Urban Green Spaces in India: post COVID19 scenarios. Curr Res Environ Sustainability 3: 100088. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crsust.2021. 100088 Elnabawi MH, Hamza N, Dudek S (2013) Use and evaluation of the ENVI-met model for two different urban forms in Cairo, Egypt: measurements and model simulations. In: 13th Conference of international building performance simulation association, Chambéry, France Égerházi LA, Kovács A, Unger J (2013) Application of microclimate modelling and onsite survey in planning practice related to an urban micro-environment. Adv Meteorol Gaitani N, Spanou A, Saliari M, Synnefa A, Vassilakopoulou K, Papadopoulou K, Lagoudaki A (2011) Improving the microclimate in urban areas: a case study in the centre of Athens. Build Serv Eng Res Technol 32(1):53–71 Ignatius M, Wong NH, Jusuf SK (2015) Urban microclimate analysis with consideration of local ambient temperature, external heat gain, urban ventilation, and outdoor thermal comfort in the tropics. Sustain Cities Soc 19:121–135 Jin H, Cui P, Wong NH, Ignatius M (2018) Assessing the effects of urban morphology parameters on microclimate in Singapore to control the urban heat island effect. Sustainability 10(1):206 Santamouris M (2013) Heat island research in Europe: the state of the art. In: Advances in building energy research. Routledge, pp 137–164 Sharmin T, Steemers K (2017) Understanding ENVI-met (V4) model behaviour in relation to environmental variables Shishegar N (2013) Street design and urban microclimate: analyzing the effects of street geometryand orientation on airflow and solar access in urban canyons. J Clean Energy Technol 1(1) Swain D, Roberts GJ, Dash J, Vinoj V, Lekshmi K, Tripathy S (2016) Impact of rapid urbanization on the microclimate of Indian cities: a case study for the city of Bhubaneswar. In: Land surface and cryosphere remote sensing III, vol 9877. International Society for Optics and Photonics, p 98772X Tumini I, Higueras García E, Baereswyl Rada S (2016) Urban microclimate and thermal comfort modelling: strategies for urban renovation. Int J Sustain Build Technol Urban Dev 7(1):22–37 Yan H, Wang X, Hao P, Dong L (2012) Study on the microclimatic characteristics and human comfort of park plant communities in summer. Procedia Environ Sci 13:755–765 Yang W, Lin Y, Li CQ (2018) Effects of landscape design on urban microclimate and thermal comfort in tropical climate. Adv Meteorol Yahia MW, Johansson E, Thorsson S, Lindberg F, Rasmussen MI (2018) Effect of urban design on microclimate and thermal comfort outdoors in warm-humid Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Int J Biometeorol 62(3):373–385

Webistes https://www.teriin.org/sites/default/files/2018-03/urba-heat-island-effect-report.pdf http://www.imedpub.com/articles/a-preliminary-survey-of-cyanogenic-plants-of-family-euphor biaceae-from-chandrapur-district-of-maharashtra-india.pdf https://www.yahoo.com/news/weather/india/chandrapur-sub-district/chandrapur-sub-district-908 97718 https://www.envi-met.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/ENVI-met-brochure.pdf https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/urban-microclimate

Chapter 15

Foreign Investment in Energy—Mix: An Assessment of Sustainable Indian Cities Aditi and Nalin Bharti

Abstract “Energy mix” is the combination of different primary energy resources, i.e., coal or natural gas to produce secondary energy for direct use, i.e., electricity. There is a rising demand–supply gap in energy demand of Indian cities due to its expanding urbanization and requires revamping cities energy-mix for inclusive growth and resilience to climate change. Hence, the study tries to conceptually rectify the relevance of investment in renewable energy for triggering energy efficiency in fostering vision for developing sustainable cities in India through a content analysis method of various government and international organizations reports like IEA, NITI Aayog, World Bank, TERI institute report, etc. Further, an overview of government policies, FDI (Foreign direct Investment) inflows on PPP framework and cases of some foreign countries is also provided with few recommendations in devising a robust energy policy for Indian cities. Keywords Energy-mix · Renewable energy · FDI · Urbanization · Conceptual framework

15.1 Introduction Since the dawn of twenty first century the cry for modernization, inclusiveness, and sustainability captured the agenda for shared prosperity and building internationally competitive and inclusive cities for billion people of India. Energy has become the biggest requirement for today’s modern life. From charging a mobile phone, watching television, using electronic gadgets, washing clothes to work in biggest offices like that of Microsoft and Reliance industries and producing goods and services in factories, everything runs on energy consumption. This leads to importance of energy Aditi · N. Bharti (B) Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology (Patna), Patna, India e-mail: [email protected] Aditi e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 R. K. Mishra et al. (eds.), Smart Cities for Sustainable Development, Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7410-5_15

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production and transmission to the India’s burgeoning population and their growing needs for electricity in urban areas whether at homes, schools, factories, hospitals, offices, airports, railway stations, hotels, recreational places, street lights, shopping complexes, use of Internet or even for electric vehicles nowadays is expanding fast and hence require an urgent need to invest more in capacity of power generation in India to meet this increasing demand and meet the ambitious objective of sustainable cities. India has 275 GW of installed electricity generating capacity where capacity of coal generation is more than its peak demand. India faces acute power shortage due to coal supply shortages, poor energy infrastructure, unregulated price of imported coal, crude oil, and high transmission and distribution losses and cities are worst hit as load shedding and poor electricity supply is impeding the efficiency of the existing power system (NITI Aayog 2015). Due to large electricity demand Indian government is targeting to add huge conventional power generation capacities as in thermal, nuclear, and coal and also power trading has been on the rise where crude oil is being imported from oil producing countries like UAE, Iraq, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, etc. for power generation spending huge amount of foreign exchange in it. The alternatives were far too costly which makes the government to focus on conventional power generation. Today, wind and solar energy are emerging as commercially viable option in comparison to imported coal or nuclear-based generation and they can keep pace with the economic growth and serve as additional choices for policymakers taking into account of the economic, technical, and environmental concerns for future power system (NITI Aayog 2015). Thus, to reap benefits of renewable energy, India would need necessary capital and FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) could be that one source if finance that can little bit reduce the burden on government expenditure. African countries, Vietnam, Bangladesh, Indonesia, etc. have received FDI in the infrastructure sector especially energy. Countries like Sweden, Germany, Copenhagen, Uruguay, Denmark, UK, and USA have invested heavily in renewable energy and are very energy efficient countries. Their energy consumption can be also correlated to their level of development whether industrialization, research and development, level of education, healthcare, research and development, urbanization, etc. Urbanization is growing at an unprecedented rate in India. According to United Nations Development Programme (UNDP 2017) report by 2050 about 6.5 billion people will move to cities and 90% of urban expansion will be in developing countries. According to UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) as of 2015, 60% of greenhouses gases are produced through energy. Cities could be new growth engines for economic growth and McKinsey & Company (2010) report emphasizes that “cities may have 70% of new jobs created by 2030 which will add as much as 1–1.5% to annual GDP growth in India. The government aspires to give boost to the Indian government vision of making India a 5 trillion economy”. There is also the possibility of “Green growth” means “fostering economic growth and development and ensuring that natural resources continue to provide the ecosystem services on which our wellbeing relies and to channelize this it must catalyze investment and innovation which will underpin sustained growth and give rise to new economic opportunities (OECD

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2011).” It will also ensure Energy security and energy efficiency by using more renewable resources and reduce excessive fossil fuels consumption. The exceeding demand for energy in the cities for sustainable living and for faster industrialization, investment in renewable energy seems crucial in the path of India’s economic development. “India’s solar energy has the potential of more than 750 GW and wind energy is 302 GW, respectively, (NITI Aayog 2015)”. The eleventh five-year plan (2007–2012) initially envisioned inclusive growth in India with its flagship program of Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) for cities and Bharat Nirman for rural development with major focus on infrastructure like water supply, telecommunication, housing, roads, electrification, and irrigation. Energy has become essential for daily activities at home whether to charge your mobile phones at home, watch television or study, for production input in industries and even engine of our service sector from telecommunication offices to online booking of your air tickets, rail tickets, food order or a room booking in a hotel. So, the ambition of “Digital India”, “Make in India” or “Smart city” mission or “Inclusive growth” is only possible when there is cost effective accessibility and availability of electricity for all with an obligatory need to revamp energy policy in India. Cities in India still fail to deliver basic standard of living due to underinvestment in physical infrastructure. At present “annual capital spending of India is $17 which is less than 6% of New York’s $292 and just 14% of China’s expenditure of $116, in per capita terms” (McKinsey & Company 2010). Sustainable development goals (SDGs) have also recognized the importance of clean and affordable energy for all. So, the paper basically conceptually discusses the importance of renewable energy in energy mix of the cities through a theoretical framework, in context to availability, accessibility, and efficiency for reshaping low carbon Indian cities. It further tries to examine the prospects for private finance in form of FDI for reducing financial deficit in energy sector. The developing world requires a balanced mix of energy to improve efficiency between centralized and decentralized technologies where Centralized technologies such as oil, gas, nuclear power widely distribute electricity produced at a single location while decentralized technologies like hydroelectric dams or solar panels produce energy in small amount and distribute it to nearby places (Reddy and Goldenberg 1990). Least-cost supply curve for available technologies possibly makes it to weigh the potential and costs of energy contributions and determine the least expensive combination of technologies in order to achieve an energy-supply goal. This energy efficiency hugely contributes in economic growth of a country In U.S. lighting, water heating, refrigeration, air-conditioning, cooking stimulates GDP keeping energy consumption and as a result the annual investment required in energy decreases and is more affordable. The paper also outlines various government policies undertaken for reforming energy sector for developing smart cities in India. The paper basically tries to assess the way forward for revamping energy sector in India.

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15.2 Literature Review and Methodological Approach The investment challenge for energy infrastructure puts lot of burden on government and creates financial gap for the infrastructure development but nowadays it has been recognized that foreign investment can mitigate this capital crunch along with some modern technology deployment. The FDI inflows in renewable in India have increased but also need much government regulations to provide them taxation benefits or subsidies to induce them invest more. In this regard, Kirkpatrick et al. (2006) provide an empirical study depicting of the association between the (FDI) in infrastructure quality and the regulatory framework in the middle and lower income developing countries especially taking the case of China’s investment in Africa. FDI along with financial support of the World Bank is also prevalent in countries like Bangladesh, Pakistan, Indonesia, Vietnam, etc. Moreover, Infrastructure like energy, transport, irrigation, or Telecommunication has turned out to be catalyst for economic growth and biggest impediment as well. Majumdar (2005) empirically examines regional imbalances in India and addresses the problem of underinvestment in infrastructure through the lens of cost benefit analysis. The Smart city is hence not only technologically advanced but should be sustainable and inclusive. Government of India envisaged a vision of a city through a flagship program of urban renewal named “Smart City Mission” where it aims to build 100 smart cities to surge economic growth. The conceptualization of these cities manifests the vision for policymakers of “an area replicating facilities like assured electricity supply, adequate water supply, sanitation, solid waste management, affordable housing, efficient public transport, good governance, robust IT connectivity and digitalization, security and safety of citizens, sustainable environment, equal participation of children, women and the elderly, employment opportunities and modern health and education facilities.” Gramlich (1994) analyzes deficit in infrastructure investment and its macroeconomic impact on productive capacity through Cobb–Douglas production function. Energy plays the pivotal role in achieving the dream of this smart city whether to run modern gadgets, transport, and office or for environment sustainability. The conventional resources like coal and natural gas mitigate this growing energy need that seems implausible amidst the climate change and carbon emissions in the city. Hence, the growing energy demand in the city can be met by huge investment in renewable energy infrastructure like solar and wind energy and off grid connections. Kumar et al. (2010) address the need of energy sources and technologies to meet the challenges of energy problems through expanding the solar, wind, geothermal, and biomass energy in India through more emphasis on energy efficiency and carbon emissions. Luthra et al. (2015) discuss 28 barriers in adopting green energy technologies such as financial, market, technological, governance geographical, etc. Nowadays, Renewable energy has been a major area of Focus of Indian Government as the demand is growing and the coal-based electricity is not sufficient looking at energy consumption in India and if investment is needed in electricity generation then renewable is best option looking at environmental aspect as well. Bhattacharya and Jana (2009) outline the various factors that

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are prospective of enhanced use of renewable energy in India like a possible future oil crisis, reduction in emission of greenhouse gas, widespread rural electrification program, etc. The paper advocates that the only practical options for reducing coal consumption and enhancing energy security would be improving energy efficiency by promoting renewable energy. Phadke and Ranjan (2003) discuss on energy sector transformation for environment protection, electricity access to the poor, and import dependence along with foreign private ownership. Dincer (2000) provided discussion about the relationship between renewable energy and sustainable development with descriptive cases which could be of great help to energy scientists and policymakers.

15.2.1 Methodological Approach The method of content analysis and case studies textual analysis as an exploratory research has been used to analyze secondary data collected from various sources such as reports by IEA (International Energy Agency), World Bank, UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), McKinsey and Company and NITI Aayog reports. The reports are contextually analyzed to understand the impact and need of renewable energy. Some of the data are also presented in tables and charts to understand the current scenario of Energy sector. Then, Economic theories have been used to provide a theoretical background to produce a conceptual framework based on putting the importance of Energy on socio-economic scenario of a city and how investment in renewable energy will help in promoting sustainable development in cities.

15.3 Theoretical Considerations and Conceptual Framework Smart cities concepts are still in nascent phase with a range of variations like the concept of an Intelligent City and a Digital City (Hollands 2008). The concept of smart city is significant for India because cities are engines of growth, production, and consumption. Energy is the lifeline of the city but India’s energy sector is dominated by non-renewable resources mostly coal and petroleum. The rising level of pollution in cities, agglomeration of economic activities, and expanding levels of energy consumption in modern life calls for revamping of energy sector in cities. The smart cities will be digitally sound and hubs of manufacturing activities. This would hence create more employment opportunities and spur income levels in the society. This rising income will improve standard of living and access to better education and health thus boosting labor productivity and better allocation of resources. The renewable energy will enhance the energy efficiency by meeting growing energy demand of the cities and will control the rising pollution from conventional sources of

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energy generation. The amalgamation of renewable energy with that of conventional energy will thus reduce energy demand deficit in the city and will help in sustainable development and alleviation of poverty (Calderon and Serven 2014). Hirschman (1958) in “Doctrine of unbalanced growth” highlighted the role of infrastructure in the strategy of unbalanced growth and advocated for investment in infrastructure first and foremost to make the country come out of backwardness and poverty. He argued that low levels of income, productivity, huge unemployment, backward industrial sector, and agriculture lead to poor economic growth. He argued that unequal development means investing more in infrastructure can reduce this imbalance in the economy as infrastructure will act as a facilitator for creating more jobs, providing employment, developing industries and when industries grow agriculture also develop as it provides raw materials to industries and eventually makes people earn their living. He also cited the example of steel industry that through backward linkage develop mineral industry and by forward linkage develop automobile industry as an intermediate good. So, electricity helps in production process and transportation helps in easy access to market and raw materials and facilitation of trade. Myrdal (1957) in his envisaged theory “Theory of circular causation” discusses the cycle of backwash and spread effects and took the above debate forward. He showed that there is a cyclical pattern of development. When people earn more money they acquire a purchasing power and saving capacity and increased demand which they further invest on goods and services. This investment further through spread effect leads to market expansion creating more jobs and employment opportunities and leads to industrial expansion and economic development. So, when people earn more income, they demand more goods and services which eventually from demand side raises aggregate demand (AD) and from supply side raise aggregate supply (AS) because more demand induces more production of goods and services reaching to full employment (AD = AS). Rostow (1960) in his theory of “Stages of Economic Growth” also emphasizes the importance of huge investment in physical infrastructure mentioning the importance of “take off stage” to serve urbanization and attain high economic growth and revive from traditional society depended on agriculture to more technologically advanced and industrial society. The World Economic Forum report (2012) comprehensively emphasized the importance of energy in economic growth with vividly explaining the role of renewable. The energy sector directly employs people in oil and gas industries and indirectly through “employment multiplier effect” created through manufacturing activities in which energy is production input. Energy is also a great facilitator of cluster-based development and industrial diversification which facilitates supply chain management, job creation, knowledge spillover, regional development, optimum allocation of available factors of production, for example, “tech hub” like in Silicon Valley in U.S.A and Norway and Brazil that developed around oil and gas production. The wave of development continues in allied industries and complements growth of agro-based industries, automobile industry, shipbuilding, information technology, natural resource extraction and processing, financial services, logistics, engineering,

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consulting Tourism warehousing. Solow model’s Cobb–Douglas Production function, i.e., Q = f (L, K) = A. Lα . K1−α where Q is total output, L is labor, K is capital, and A is total factor productivity will be crucial in understanding the energy efficiency in industries as energy is an important input in production and today’s cities should be developed on the basis of a production base for the county as well. The enhancement in labor productivity, physical infrastructure, and capital technologically transforms a city and contributes in GDP (Gross domestic product) of the country on micro level. AD (Aggregate demand) and (AS) Aggregate Supply model help a nation to analyze the level of output and employment for long run economic growth when their intersection at a point takes economy to full employment level where whatever is produced is hence consumed. Figure 15.1 depicts a self-explanatory flowchart of Smart energy infrastructure that mainly comprises renewable energy sources like solar, wind, or biofuel energy options for narrowing the energy demand and supply gap in the city. It also leads to less carbon emissions and promotes Green growth in the city. Figure 15.2 illustrates the circular path of channelization of renewable energy in the city. The widespread use of renewable energy in the city’s energy mix can be boon for reconstructing a sustainable environment for providing better and equal participation of the people. The creation of more jobs and the exaggeration in industrial activities will optimally achieve higher economic growth but not at the cost of environmental degradation. This whole conceptualization of sustainable growth and financing urban infrastructure can be understood from economic theories of development which illustrates the importance of infrastructure especially energy, transport, telecommunication, irrigation, etc. in context to growing urbanization and how it facilitates economic growth in the cities through backward and forward linkages and boosts agriculture, industrial development and service sector through the channels of increased saving

Renewable energy infrastructure investment : Solar energy, biofuel, wind, hydro energy addition in Energy mix of city

Equal opportunities and sustainable development

Smart grid : Smart buildings, Smart transportation, Internet of Things, smart street lights, Smart health, E-education, E-agriculture market, E- Governance

Digital Economy and Low carbon footprints and developmnet of a resilient city with better economic opportunities propelling the idea of 'Green growth'

Fig. 15.1 Conceptual framework for smart energy visualization for cities: social, economic and environmental impact of renewable energy of a smart city through AD-AS model framework. Source Authors

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Aditi and N. Bharti Mitigate energy deficit in urban areas which leads to expansion of industrialization and service sector because energy serves as input in production process and create more jobs in cities More employment opportunities and reduction in poverty which give rise to income and aggregate demand(AD)

Energy efficiency and Energy security in cities with less carbon emissions

Rise in aggregate demand needs more production and rise in aggragate supply(AS)

Investemnt in renewable energy infrastructure

Equity and welfare in city with better productivity creating smart, inclusive and resilient city

Optimum allocation of resources stimulates economic growth

Fig. 15.2 Framework for impact on city growth. Source Authors

and increased investment. An improvement in regional infrastructure facilities in certain Indian regions saw a reduction in the share of below the poverty line people and an improvement in overall standard of living (Majumder 2012). The electricity at home can also involve female workforce in GDP of the nation. Dinkelman (2011) evaluates the effect of electrification on female employment as now they can use electricity for lighting and cooking and replace wood burning at home and can save their time for work. Electricity can stimulate the growth of small-scale industries (iron and steel, agro based, aluminum, textiles, paper, rubber, chocolate, toys jute, beauty and organic products, glass and cement, etc.) which can upgrade unskilled workers employment opportunities, and contribution to export basket in India and hence, spur industrial sector and export diversification. So, in this relation we can understand the impact on welfare of people through energy consumption. The digitization whether at schools or hospitals, for E-commerce or for metros rails, charging laptops or phones or just using air conditioners and television at home energy is required in huge amount to have a better standard of living which is more the case in urban areas. It has become quite imperative for cities to have energy mix with more

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Electricity consumption in MWh/capita /yearwise/India Electricity consumption/population

Year

0.95 0.87 0.64 0.47 0.39 0.36 0.27

2017 2015 2010 2005 2000 1995 1990 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Electricity consumpƟon/populaƟon

0.27

0.36

0.39

0.47

0.64

0.87

0.95

Year

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

2017

Source: International Energy Agency (IEA, 2019), World Energy Outlook Fig. 15.3 Electricity consumption

energy generation capacity from renewable seeing the energy consumption level and the effects of climate change. Then, better energy access makes people skilled and more productive via better education. Figure 15.3 shows the rising trend in the energy consumption in India from 1990– 2017. For instance, if people in urban areas have electricity for almost 24 h, students can study for long hours, service sector like banks, railways, airport, hospitality, and industries workers become more efficient and economies of scale can be achieved through more hours of production. So, energy consumption has a great impact GDP and national productivity. This is how the investment in infrastructure especially energy will connect households with firms and expand the market to accelerate the wave of development in the circular economy.

15.4 Discussion India’s energy sector is vast and diverse comprising of energy generation sources ranging from non-renewable sources like natural gas, coal, nuclear, hydro, etc. to renewable sources like solar, wind, agricultural, domestic waste, etc. Total installed capacity in Central Sector is 92,797 MW (megawatt) that is about 25.3%, State sector it is 103,815 MW, i.e., 28.5% and for Private sector it is 170,668, i.e., 46.6%. So, the total installed capacity turned out to be 3,67.281 MW (Central Electricity Authority 2019). At present India rank third in terms of production and consumption of electricity (BP Statistical Review 2016; Tripathi 2018). In India Gross electricity generation was 1,372 TWh (terra watt hour) by utilities in 2018–19 and the total

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electricity generation was 1,547 TWh with 1,181kWh per capita gross electricity consumption (Central electricity Authority 2019; BP Statistical Review 2019). Power sector in India lacks adequate distribution infrastructure. In 2016, Government of India 2016 has launched a program named “Power for All” with a target to provide uninterrupted electricity supply to industries, households, recreational facilities, rural development, and commercial establishment funded by the “Government of India” in collaboration with constituent states. Fossil fuels dominate India’s electricity sector particularly coal but efforts have been made by the government to enhance investment in renewable energy. According to the “government’s National Electricity Plan of 2018,” 50,025 MW coal-based power plants are already under construction and more non-renewable power plants are not needed until 2027 (CEA 2018). The above Table 15.1 clearly reflects that the conventional source of electricity generation has been coal which produces 1733 GWh in 1947 itself and it increased to 986,591 in financial year 2017–18. Every plan period the consumption of coal produced electricity is showing an increasing trend. Gas and Diesel are also showing continuous increasing trend but comparative to coal a little less. Hydro has also emerged as the most used power generation mode in India ranging from 2195 in 1947 to 38,346 GWh capacity in 2017–18. The trend reflected in the renewable capacity showed no development in 1947 but slowly at the end of 7th five-year plan in 1989–90, 6 GWh generations capacity was recorded for it. After 8th fiveyear plan the growth in renewable capacity showed an upward trend in consecutive years and in 2017–2018 reached to 101,839 GWh. This trend is important from policy perspective as it shows the extending significance of renewable energy in current Energy mix of India. Its contribution in the total energy generation capacity in India has also increased which has been depicted in Table 15.2. The percentage of renewable energy in energy mix has been presented from 2012 and is estimated till 2047. Renewable has emerged as a key solution for developing a sustainable energy system that offers clean, and affordable energy help reducing CO2 emissions and air pollution, and highly compatible with modern life that depends on ICT (Information and communication technologies), energy security, and electric transportation. The cost of renewable energy is and awareness toward it is growing (i.e., smooth and easy way to access finance) which renders great opportunity to uplift renewable share as Indian cities are vulnerable to huge air pollution and enhanced use of air conditioners, refrigerators, modern electronics, transportation, and industrial emissions are worsening environment degradation as still cities energy comes from coal and petroleum products. Moreover, as per recent estimates “if the proportion of renewable in the global energy mix is doubled by 2030, then it can potentially add millions of new jobs, improve health and boost the global economy by up to USD 1.3 trillion (IRENA 2016)”. India’s electricity security has shown significant improvement by creating a single national power system and huge investments in thermal and renewable capacity and currently experiencing a major shift with higher share in renewable energy. The Government of India is promoting affordable battery storage and integration of solar and winds PV. India is making energy security a priority and important steps have

1947

1950

1955–56 (end of the 1st plan)

1960–61 (end of the 2nd plan)

1965–66 (end of the 3rd plan)

1968–69 (end of the 3 annual plans)

1973–74 (end 4th plan)

1978–79 (end of the 5th plan)

1979–80 (end of annual plan

1984–85 (end of the 6th plan)

1989–90 (end of the 7th plan)

1991–92 (end of the 2 annual plans)

1996–97 (end of the 8th plan)

2001–02 (end of the 9th plan)

2006–07 (end of the 10th plan)

2011–12 (end of the 11th plan)

2016–17 (end of the 12th plan)

2017–18

2018–19*(provisional)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

1,022,265

986,591

944,022

612,497

461,794

370,884

289,378

197,163

172,643

96,957

55,720

52,024

34,853

26,711

17,765

9100

5367

2587

1733

Coal/lignite

69

0

0

0

0

49,834

50,208

49,094

93,281

64,157

47,099

26,985

11,450

5962

1834

500

515

343

124

Gas

212

348

401

2649

2539

4317

679

95

85

45

53

55

125

194

324

368

233

200

144

Diesel

1,072,311

1,037,146

993,516

708,427

528,490

422,300

317,042

208,708

178,690

98,836

56,273

52,594

35,321

27,029

18,158

9468

5600

2787

1877

Total

134,894

126,123

122,378

130,511

113,502

73,579

68,901

72,757

62,116

53,948

45,478

47,159

28,972

20,723

15,225

7837

4295

2519

2195

Hydro

Source CEA (Central Electricity Authority 2019), Report on Growth of electricity sector in India from 1947–2019

Financial year

SL No

Table 15.1 Growth of gross electricity generation in India-5-year plan wise from 1947 to 2019

101,839 126,800

37,813

81,548

51,226

9860

2085

876

38

6

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Renewable

38,346

37,916

32,287

18,802

19,475

9071

5525

4625

4075

2876

2770

2396

0

0

0

0

0

0

Nuclear

1,371,817

1,303,455

1,235,358

922,451

670,654

517,439

395,889

287,029

245,438

156,859

104,627

102,523

66,689

47,434

32,990

16,937

9662

5106

4073

Total GWh

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Aditi and N. Bharti

Table 15.2 Energy-mix in India (in percentage) Years

2012

2047

TWh

BAU scenario

Ambitious scenario

Nuclear

1

2

4

Renewable energy

3

7

12

Agriculture/waste

15

5

8

Coal

46

50

42

Oil

27

28

23

Natural gas

8

8

10

Source NITI Aayog (2017), Energizing India report

Table 15.3 Energy production through commercial sources Year

Coal

Lignite

Crude oil

Natural gas

Electricity

Total

2008–09

7,455.41

368.63

1,402.90

1,265.38

550.39

11,042.71

2009–10

8,049.80

387.39

1,410.60

1,829.55

574.71

12,252.04

2010–2011

8,059.66

429.02

1,577.82

2,011.46

647.74

12,725.70

2011–2012

8,169.44

481.31

1,594.81

1,831.96

770.49

12,848.02

2012–2013

8,418.36

528.17

1,585.28

1,566.96

734.53

12,833.31

2013–2014

8,560.02

503.36

1,582.20

1,363.87

844.54

12,854.00

2014–2015

9,266.07

548.72

1,568.49

1,296.48

860.07

13,539.83

2015–2016

9,671.55

498.46

1,546.75

1,242.24

808.46

14,090.50

2016–2017

9,953.57

514.27

1,507.69

1,228.66

870.63

14,074.82

10,218.80

525.92

1,494.10

1,257.65

958.71

14,455.19

2017–18 growth rate over 2016–17 (%)

2.66

2.27

−0.90

2.36

10.12

2.70

CAGR 2008–09 to 2017–18 (%)

3.20

3.62

0.63

−0.06

5.71

2.73

2017–2018(P)

Source Energy Statistics (2019), Ministry of statistics and Programme Implementation, Office of Coal Controller, Ministry of Coal, Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas, Central Electricity Authority Note P = Provisional and Electricity comprises of electricity generated from hydro, nuclear and other renewable (IEA (2020), Energy policy review)

been taken to improve energy efficiency and the major target is industry and businesses that rely on procurement of efficient products such as LEDs and this can radically reduce the global market price of the products and will create local manufacturing jobs. There is large number of small and medium-scale industries across various cities in India such as ceramics, textiles, agro based, steel, and jewelry with rising energy use in cities and thus have rescued millions of people out of poverty but at the cost of increased use of fossil fuels. 70% of man-made CO2 emission comes from cities and also have lack of planning and infrastructure capacity with

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scanty financial resources (IRENA 2016). (Table 15.3, demonstrates energy production capacity). The use of renewable in the cities depends on various factors like road and rail transport like electric public buses, railways whether trains or metros running on 100% energy, water heating, lighting, electric appliances, cooking, washing, etc. Moreover, rooftops of the building can be greater source of solar energy in India. Urban policymakers through implementing supportive policies for innovative technologies and financing or inducing foreign finance can play pivotal role in achieving energy security in India.

15.4.1 Trends in Different Countries and Cities The Chinese city of Rizhao through government regulations, information campaigns, and subsidies, SWH (Solar water heating) is provided in residential buildings for the past 20 years. District cooling networks have been used in cities like Copenhagen and Stockholm in cold climates by seawater-based district cooling. In Nepal biogas for more than 60 years has been used in cooking in rural areas and now it aims that between 2012 and 2017 they would construct 2500 biogas plants in urban areas (IRENA 2016). San Francisco is the first city in U.S that has now made solar PV rooftop installation compulsory for the new buildings. Electric mobility could turn out to be the viable solution to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and popularizing renewable energy use for the smart cities worldwide. Electric-powered public transport such as trams, trains, metro systems, and electric buses are becoming popular and improvements in battery performance have widely reduced the cost of hiring technology and in future can have a great impact on smooth urban mobility of congested Indian cities with better transportation policy (Table 15.4).

15.4.2 India’s Challenges for Deploying Renewable Energy in Cities Energy Mix The challenges for India in realizing 100% renewable energy for Indian cities have come with lot of challenges and these include not only the financial need with timely availability of alternative finance, affordable technology across sectors but also accelerated development of supporting infrastructure, regulatory and institutional frameworks, appropriate skill sets, adequate renewable manufacturing capacities and the availability of land wind and solar power plant installation in desired areas is another key challenge (Mathur et al. 2014). Overall, the study reveals that a renewable energybased economy could theoretically be achieved, where as much as 90% of primary commercial energy supply of India’s total could technically depend on renewable sources and the remaining 10% still be fueled by fossil fuels (Mathur et al. 2014).

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Table 15.4 Countries promoting renewable energy in the world Technology/Source

Area/Country

Example

District heating (residual heat, Austria, Sweden, Germany, solar, bioenergy, Waste) Denmark

Residual heat for city’s “district heating network, solar thermal flat plate collectors provide 7 300 m2 of heat” to 260 houses and waste incinerators used

Decentralized boilers (solid biofuels)

Public buildings, hospital, primary schools have biomass boilers installed

Aberdeen

Rooftop soar PV, building Tokyo (Japan), Bangalore integrated PV (for electricity) (India), Cape Town (South Africa)

Tokyo, solar PV with target for 1 GW by 2024 “Bangalore, a metering policy is adopted with the 14 MW of solar PV has been installed by state and Local organizations between 2014 and 2016” Cape Town, South Africa a program of “grid-connection of 4.5 MW through net metering is commissioned with small-scale solar PV”

Improved cookstoves using bioenergy (ethanol, biogas, solid biomass)

Cities in Africa

A scheme where slaughter-house is used to produce biogas from waste with generation capacity of 1 MW power which is lower than market price and fertilizer for low-income farmers. This contributed hugely in creating local jobs and boosting small-scale industries

Electric cooking

Cities in Ecuador

Financial support along with one-month free electricity by the government for electric induction cooking

Renewable energy use

Korea

Funds of USD 6 billion allocated in Korea to promote (LED) lighting in public facilities, in schools, and green homes

Source Author; Adapted from various sources such as International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA 2016), Renewable Energy in Cities; OECD (2011), ENERGY report

There are also technological challenges because if we consider Concentrated Solar Technologies (CST) which involves commercially viability for meeting the target of all industrial heating requirements up to 7000 C through by 2051 even for small to medium manufacturers. Moreover, transforming transport sector to run on 100% renewable needs proper channel for sector’s energy demand through biofuels. As if now, there is no credible data available of offshore wind potential for India. A

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large renewable base would also be needed for large energy storage facilities with smart grid design which would require additional costs. The financial challenges embodied in the estimated need of US$22 trillion for the renewable is through total undiscounted investment for the next 40 years between 2011 and 2051. This could be achieved through higher international cooperation in deploying best technology and needed fund in spreading renewable energy development in cities. The estimated need for India is around US$55 trillion in renewable between 2011 and 2051 (Mathur et al. 2014).

15.4.3 FDI in Renewable Energy and Other Financial Options There is a high risk in financing renewable energy infrastructure as it is an expensive and lumpy investment with the drawback instilled in its lack of proper awareness and significance about the use of renewable technologies efficiently. There is through a current rise in the inflows of FDI in power sector as Indian Government has allowed 100% FDI in renewable. Government of India has also decided an ambitious target to increase the installation capacity of renewable energy to 175 GW by 2022. This very target is also seen as the proposition to reduce the energy demand deficiency of cities and using solar panels on rooftops of city houses to acquire energy conservation and efficiency. Increasing share of renewable between 2014 and 2019 in India’s total energy mix from 6 to 10% has been seen with $42 billion FDI investment since 2014 (World Economic Forum 2020) spread across solar and wind energy for generation capacity augmentation. “Cumulative FDI equity inflows (remittance-wise) during January 2000–December 2018 were 2,304,616.04 crores (US$409.81 billion) for India out of which From FDI equity inflows into the Indian Power sector is Rs. 77,391.19 crores or US$14.26 billion (DIPP 2018).” Moreover, the highest FDI received by top five recipient countries in the world for power sector is Mauritius up to 51.31%, Singapore up to 21.69%, Netherlands 5.19%, U.S.A 4.12%, and U.A.E 3.88% from 2000 to 2018 (DIPP 2018). The current trend of FDI inflows in various sectors has been depicted in Table 15.5. The table also drives our attention toward small amount of FDI coming to the power sector. On the contrary, the service sector is getting about 18% of FDI and Telecommunications attracted 10% of FDI in the year 2020. The FDI inflows can be a great source of alternative finance with advanced technology to mitigate the scarcity of capital or an extra source for investment in power sector. Government should hence diligently work on taxation policies and interest rate incentives to attract more FDI in power sector. The economic growth of Indian cities with the dream to capitalize on expansion of industrial hub to boost “Make In India program and smart city mission is enough reason to increase the untapped opportunity for renewables in India with backing of Indian government with programs like AMRUT, Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti

262 Table 15.5 Sectoral FDI inflows in India

Aditi and N. Bharti Sectors

Percentage

Service sector (financial, banking, insurance, courier, etc.)

18

Telecommunication

10

Trading

8

Construction (township and build-up infrastructure)

6

Automobile

6

Power

3

Construction

4

Drugs and pharmaceuticals

4

Source Adapted fromDIPP (2020) Note Power sector receives very low percentage of FDI inflows of 3% compared to service and telecommunication sector which receives 18% and 10% of FDI inflow respectively

Yojana (DDUGJY), SAUBHAGYA-Pradhan Mantri Sahaj Bijli Har Ghar Yojana, Integrated Power Development Scheme (IPDS), Ujwal DISCOM Assurance Yojana (UDAY) and amendments in SHAKTI Policy”. According to World Urbanization Prospect report (2018) “For planning and managing sustainable urban growth there is need of government that can ensure equitable share of benefits to all. The commitment of ‘Sustainable Development Goal 11’ is to transform cities into safe, inclusive, resilient, and sustainable where sustainable urbanization embodies adequate income and decent employment opportunities in cities provided with the necessary infrastructure like sanitation, energy, transportation, water, and communication with equitable access to housing and preservation of a healthy environment. There is no one left behind and government policies should ensure equal access to education, employment, political participation, women and disabled equal opportunities and rights with huge emphasis on reduction in poverty, inequality, and environment protection.” India’s urban areas are transforming at an unprecedented rate and cities will be the center of economic growth, job creation, industrial expansion, and poverty reduction and will create 70% new jobs by 2030 producing more than 70% of GDP with the potential of unlocking investment in new markets—infrastructure, health care, education, and recreation where 590 million people will live in cities by 2030 (McKinsey Global Institute 2010).

15.4.4 Government Initiatives and Way Forward According to Rahiman et al. (2019) there are subsidies and grants, fiscal incentives, financial access, and tax breaks by governments to facilitate huge foreign investment for energy sector that will promote business and civil society. The media campaigns

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through television, press, etc. and printed materials like advertisements, posters or brochures, social media national campaigns, and conferences will be helpful in promulgating awareness for renewable energy uses. There should be initiatives to generate energy through waste like the practices in Brazil, where a large landfill biogas plant capturing methane became operational in 2010 from a 30-year-old site (Rahiman et al. 2019). For Solar technology, proper implementation of efforts to be made by the National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE) which is identified by MNRE (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy) for testing PV modules and making Certification of modules mandatory with improvement in availability of skilled manpower and capacity building NITI Aayog (2015). Solar rooftop in the cities should be made compulsory for new buildings at cost effective incentives for builders along with budgetary allocation by government. Viability Gap Funding (VGF) should be encouraged which could benefit investors. The facilitation of availability of low-cost green bonds should be promoted to support debt repayment. More Capital cost intensive like soft loan or interest subvention scheme for renewable technologies especially for wind and solar to ensure “a viable Debt Service Coverage Ratio” which is similar to setting up coal tariffs (NITI Aayog 2015). Indigenous manufacturing of renewable energies should be the focus areas of the Government especially for cities where the probabilities of solar energy deployment is high. The concept of “Green growth” as discussed by OECD (2011) in which renewable are the most important source of energy generation in the cities with less carbon emissions and more energy efficiency. We also have homegrown energy capacity from solar, wind and hydro, etc. without depending too much on oil imports. For example, “smart grid, smart metering, smart lighting, solar rooftop, and smart HVAC systems should be hugely promoted to achieve a smart architecture for the buildings.” Table 15.6 shows some more initiatives taken by Indian government to facilitate the enhanced use of renewable energy to achieve higher energy efficiency across India.

15.5 Conclusion Manufacturers should be financed on similar path like produced by a company in China where a subsidy is provided for the first wind turbine of capacity 50 MW and 600 RMB/kW. A Renewable Energy Manufacturing Fund can also be proposed on same platforms for India depending on the particular project requirements where procedures must be simplified (NITI Aayog 2015). Energy research can also serve as strong catalyst of India’s energy policy goals contributing to broader priorities such as the “Make in India” manufacturing initiative for which government of India is constantly striving to attract global companies with an endeavor to produce solar charging infrastructure, solar PV, lithium batteries and other advanced technologies in India (Mathur et al. 2014). To facilitate green growth on large scale in Indian cities require supportive policies in various domains like construction, transport, industry,

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Table 15.6 Government initiatives in promoting renewable energy in India The Energy Conservation Act, 2001

The Act mandates “the Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) standards and labels for equipment and appliances, energy consumption norms for commercial buildings and energy intensive industries for reducing consumption by 50% by 2030” for achieving energy efficiency in all sectors in the economy

The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), 2002

Energy saving initiatives such as energy management in commercial buildings, home lighting, home appliance labels use which aims at energy efficiency across India

The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), 2001

An Electricity Law was created to meet the country’s energy demand and enhanced Energy Efficiency

Draft National Energy Policy, 2017 The National Energy Policy (NEP) prepared by NITI Aayog

It targets to make the country self-reliant in energy generation by 2040 and promote integrating energy management for the transport, ICT, buildings, promotion of electric and hybrid vehicles, shift toward energy efficient buildings and better urban planning and household (cooking) sector for sustainable cities

Ujjwal DISCOM Assurance Yojana (UDAY) It is the financial revival package with the intent to find a permanent financial support to the power sector in India Source Adapted from, TERI (2019). Report titled making Indian cities energy smart and IEA (2020), Energy Policy Review

agriculture, investment, environment, taxation, and technology. There should be initiation of carbon tax which could give value to environmental externalities and set a price for overexploitation of a scarce resource. There is an urgent need of policies to have green innovation overcoming the market failures OECD (2011). Smart city vision is incomplete without smart energy technologies that can mitigate the growing gap between demand and supply of energy in cities but can also provide an environment friendly solution of electricity generation to meet the growing need of urbanization in India. Solar and wind energy with integrated micro or nano grids can be the best option for the near future with FDI as source of investment in deploying these facilities along with robust governance. Transport, commercial buildings, education, ICT, health, residential buildings, industries, offices, and electronic appliances all need energy. So, energy generation along with energy conservation could be new the definition of new sustainable cities in India with less dependence on conventional sources of energy. In Bengaluru, some buildings have “smart water metering facilities” which facilitates remote management of hourly water tracking which is such an innovative step and can also be promoted in other Indian cities to stimulate a sustainable development.

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Myrdal G (1957) economic theory and underdeveloped regions. University Paperbacks, Methuen, London NITI Aayog (2015) Report of the Expert group on 175 GW RE by 2022. https://niti.gov.in/writer eaddata/files/175-GW-Renewable-Energy.pdf NITI Aayog (2017) Energizing India. A joint project report of NITI Aayog and IEEJ. Retrieved from. https://smartnet.niua.org/content/570dbbef-ed57-44ea-9bbc-a7221095b126 OECD (2011) Energy. OECD green growth studies. https://www.oecd.org/greengrowth/greeningenergy/49157219.pdf Phadke A, Ranjan CS (2003) Electricity reforms in India. Econ Polit Wkly 38(29) Rahiman R, Yenneti K, Panda A (2019) Making Indian cities energy smart. TERI-UNSW Policy Brief, the Energy and Resources Institute. https://www.teriin.org/sites/default/files/2019-04/Mak ing-Indian-Cities-Energy-Smart_UNSW-TERI.pdf Reddy KNA, Goldemberg J (1990) Energy for the developing world. Sci Am 263(3):110–118 Rostow WW (1960) The five stages of growth-a summary. The stages of economic growth: a non-communist manifesto. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 4–16 TERI (2019) Making Indian cities energy smart. https://www.teriin.org/sites/default/files/2019-04/ Making-Indian-Cities-Energy-Smart_UNSW-TERI.pdf Tripathi B (2018) Now, India is the third largest electricity producer ahead of Russia, Japan. Business Standard India. https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/now-indiais-the-third-largest-electricity-producer-ahead-of-russia-japan-118032600086_1.html UNDP (2017) Rapid urbanization: opportunities and challenges to improve the well-being of societies. Human development report. http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/rapid-urbanisation-opport unities-and-challenges-improve-well-being-societies. Accessed 25 Sept 2020 World Economic Forum (2012) Energy for economic growth. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/ WEF_EN_EnergyEconomicGrowth_IndustryAgenda_2012.pdf World Economic Forum (2020) Why India is the new hotspot for renewable energy investors. https:// www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/01/india-new-hotspot-renewable-energy-investors/ World Urbanization Prospect (2018) World urbanization prospect revision. https://population.un. org/wup/Publications/Files/WUP2018-Report.pdf

Chapter 16

Understanding Economic Activities of SMART and AMRUT Cities of Telangana State Ashok Kumar Lonavath and Karunakar Virugu

Abstract The growth and development of a town basically depend upon the presence of different types of economic activities at various levels. Economic activity precisely replicates the significance of a town. When the concentration of any one type of economic activity is at a greater proportion, then it dominates the town’s economic life and thereby becomes the major livelihood of the people. When more than one type of economic activity is present at a higher proportion in a town, such towns illustrate the outstanding economic performance and thus they can be identified as economically potential hubs. Towns that have a strong economic hold will achieve phenomenal growth and experience an accelerated rate of development. Digital technology has created a platform for the public to avail smart services quickly and effectively. It has also helped to obtain quality infrastructure and effective governance. Economic activity and smart services play a key role to escalate the city’s spread. A town that does not show much significant performance in any type of economic activity will not contribute much impact on the growth of the town and they are categorized as a single diversified group. This paper examines the changing patterns of economic activities of Hyderabad, Warangal and Nizamabad towns in Telangana state from 1961 to 2011. The statistical tool used to find out the concentration of each economic activity in these towns is the standard deviation (SD) method. Standard deviation (SD) from the mean was therefore calculated for each economic activity in each town and put under an appropriate category. This method has been applied to SMART and AMRUT cities selected for the study and the level of economic activity of these towns is studied and analyzed. Keywords SMART · AMRUT · Economic activity · Mean · Standard deviation method

A. K. Lonavath (B) · K. Virugu Department of Geography, University College of Science, Osmania University, Hyderabad 500007, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 R. K. Mishra et al. (eds.), Smart Cities for Sustainable Development, Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7410-5_16

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16.1 Introduction National Smart City Mission program was introduced by the Indian government under the Urban Development Ministry in collaboration with the state government to develop smart cities across India, making cities citizen-friendly and sustainable besides developing the entire urban eco-system with a comprehensive planning system by involving institutional, physical, social, economical and infrastructural aspects. Under this program, three cities have been identified from Telangana state, i.e., Hyderabad, Warangal and Karimnagar. The Government of India has introduced the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) program with an objective to provide basic civic amenities such as water, sewerage, transportation and parks in urban areas in order to enhance the living standards in urban areas, especially for poor and the disadvantaged group under this program. The nine cities which have been identified from Telangana state, i.e., Nizamabad, Ramagundam, Mahabubnagar, Nalgonda, Adilabad, Khammam, Suryapet, Miryalaguda and Siddipet. Telangana state was formed on June 2, 2014 as 29th state of India. The percentage of urban population in Telangana state is 38.12%. Government of India has identified three SMART cities and nine AMRUT cities from Telangana state. The Census of India specifies the economic activities with respect to gainfully employed workers and grouped them into different categories from 1961 onwards. During the 1961 census, the Government of India has identified nine economic activities, viz., cultivators, agricultural laborers, mining and quarrying, household industry laborers, manufacturing, construction, trade and commerce, transport storage and other services, respectively. Though they made few changes in the classification of economic activities during later decades, they broadly compose the same. When employment is created to a certain percentage of the total working force by economic activity, it is treated as more significant. The present study is confirmed to only a few urban centers where the agricultural activity is insignificant, hence these nine economic activities are categorized as primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary and quinary. Primary activity includes cultivators, agriculture laborers and animal husbandry, livestock, fishing and hunting, mining, quarrying and poultry activity, plantation orchards and allied activities. The secondary activities comprise construction, household industry, manufacturing, processing, servicing and repairs in household industry and manufacturing in other household industries. The tertiary activity consists of trade and commerce, transport storage and communication, and other services, respectively. The growth and development of a city depend on its economic potential which generates employment for urban dwellers and migrants. Development begins when an economic activity is transformed to the next higher levels, e.g., primary to secondary, secondary to tertiary, tertiary to quaternary and quinary. During this process, the city might notice uneven growth and development which may result in social and economic inequality among urban dwellers. Therefore, it is necessary to understand

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the performance levels of each economic activity in each. Cities must facilitate full and productive employment and decent work for all to make cities inclusive growth centers. In order to attain sustainable development goals, cities must adopt the smart city concept and develop civic amenities with the help of technology usage. With the support of technology, sometimes cities may gain priority in more than one economic activity, however, the main economic activity dominates over the other economic activities. The vital services may not be performed adequately in identical proportions in all the cities. Geographer around the world would identify manufacturing city as Detroit, port city as Glasgow, industrial city as Manchester and trade city as Beijing, which indicates that one city does more its share of manufacturing while another provides trade and other facilitates the market for the finished goods. Aurousseau (1921) identifies the functional importance of cities based on Marinelli’s work on certain Italian and American cities which describes the occupations of the inhabitants as per census data. Harris (1943) recognizes that cities differ in their function and he identifies industrial, commercial, mining, university and resort etc. as economic activities. He mentions that all the large cities are more or less multifunctional. According to Singh (2008) cities are the dominant economic, cultural and administrative centers and are classified based on their functions. Phule et al. (2002) viewed that the towns are important central places for performing economic, political, social and administrative activities. According to Maira (2011), urbanization in India is slower than the other developing countries. The pace of urbanization would be accelerating along with economic and demographic growth. Kothwale (2011) identifies the nature of functions of towns and he classified towns according to the economic activities as primary activity, agriculture laborers, transport centers, mining centers, trade and commerce centers, industrial centers, household industry, other than household industry etc. Raja (2012) states that functions are the driving forces of cities and influence to a large extent of its growth and morphology. In India, “Inclusive cities” is an important concept of recent times and it is viewed through the growth perspectives of the Indian cities. This research paper gives an observation and the direction to understand the growth and development patterns of SMART cities and AMRUT city in Telangana state. The total percentage of urban population in Telangana state is 38.12% and the total number of urban towns is 160 as per 2011 census. The towns are categorized into six classes based on the population and the economic activities are categorized into nine. The study is attempted to understand the degree of variation from the mean for each economic activity. As per the census of India, the classification of towns is done on the basis of population size. Class town’s

Population size

Class I

100,000 and above

Class II

50,000–99,999

Class III

20,000–49,999

Class IV

10,000–19,999 (continued)

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(continued) Class town’s

Population size

Class V

5,000–9,999

Class VI

Less than 5,000

16.2 Study Area 1. 2. 3.

Hyderabad—Smart City Warangal—Smart City Nizamabad—Amrut City

Hyderabad is a twin city comprising Hyderabad and Secundrabad and is the capital city of Telangana state with a population of nearly seven million in 2011 (excluding UAs of adjoining districts). It is the fastest growing city with a huge concentration of quaternary and quinary activities apart from existing secondary and tertiary activities. Education, health, tourism, pharma, science and technology, and IT services were well developed. Nearly 60–70% of the state revenue is generated from Hyderabad city alone. Warangal town is located in the Northeast direction from Hyderabad. The Greater Warangal Municipal Corporation (GWMC) comprises three towns Khazipet, Hanamkonda and Warangal. Having the second biggest railway network and other means of transportation after Hyderabad, GWMC has been the fastest urbanizing geographical area in the state. Warangal, being the historical city and having been located at the center point, is the connecting spot between North and South India. Warangal city is well developed in terms of secondary and tertiary activities and in recent decades it has also developed in terms of quaternary and quinary activities. Both the Hyderabad and Warangal cities are recognized as smart cities. Nizamabad town is located toward the north direction of Hyderabad. Having grown very fast in terms of secondary and tertiary activities, it is recognized as AMRUT city by the Government of India. Table 16.1 indicates that though there was some variation regarding increasing and decreasing pattern of population growth rate over different decades, the overall population growth rate has been increased in all the three cities during 1961–2011. About 20% of the Telangana state population is concentrated in Hyderabad itself. The reasons for the increased population growth rate are many. The main reason is the impact of globalization policies in the state from 2001. GLP policies have attracted huge investments in the state particularly in Hyderabad; it has encouraged interstate and intrastate migrations, thereby the population, as well as the geographical area of Hyderabad, has been increased enormously. The percentage of urban population in Telangana state is 38.9, and it is higher than the all India average of 31.2% during 2011. The adjoining areas of Warangal town are growing more rapidly and the number of economic activities is also increasing. GWMC constitutes 2% of the Telangana

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Table 16.1 Decadal growth rate of population: 1961 to 2011 S. No.

Class

City name

1961

1971

% growth

1981

% growth

1

I

Hyderabad

1,118,553

1,797,000

60.65

2,546,000

41.68

2

I

Warangal

160,000

210,040

31.27

338,910

61.35

3

II

Nizamabad

79,093

115,640

46.20

183,061

58.30

1991

% growth

2001

% growth

2011

% growth

1961–2011

3,059,262

20.15

3,637,483

18.90

6,809,970

87.21

508.81

447,657

32.08

530,638

18.53

830,281

56.46

418.95

241,034

31.66

288,722

19.78

311,152

7.76

293.40

Source Census of India

Table 16.2 Area in sq. km (1971 and 2017) S. No

City name

1971

2017

Difference

Variation %

1

Hyderabad

172.00

650.00

478.00

277.91

2

Warangal

14.84

57.60

42.76

288.14

3

Nizamabad

8.05

23.65

15.60

193.79

Source Compiled by author from Toposheet and Google earth maps

population. It is noticed that due to the dominance of Hyderabad, the growth and development is slow in medium class towns which are 60 km apart from Hyderabad and it is high in those towns which are 100 km apart from Hyderabad city. A slow population growth rate was noticed in Nizamabad city until 2011. All three cities have unique geographical features and climatic conditions because of which the development is also unique in these cities. The infrastructure and technology and the concentration of various economic activities are the key parameters of development in these towns (Table 16.2). The area of Hyderabad, Warangal and Nizamabad towns has been digitized with the help of the toposheet in 1971 and satellite imageries during 2017. It is found that the area has increased from 1971 to 2017. The percentage of the area increased is high in Warangal, followed by Hyderabad and Nizamabad.

16.3 Objectives 1. 2. 3. 4.

To study the growth and developmental aspects of the cities. To examine the functional classification of the cities. To analyze the transformation of economic activities. To evaluate the role of economic activities for city growth and development.

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16.4 Methodology The workforce of each individual activity is proportionately calculated with the total workers and the average of each economic activity is calculated in order to find out the standard deviation value. The standard deviation method is applied to find out the degree of variation from the average (MEAN) for each economic activity and they are grouped into appropriate categories. The towns having more than one type of service in outstanding proportions are organized systematically. Geographical information system (GIS) is used for mapping and analysis purposes. The classification is done based on output values and divided into three categories: i.e., (i) Mean to Mean + 1σ, (ii) Mean + 1σ to Mean + 2σ, (iii) Mean + 2σ to Mean + 3σ.

16.5 Analysis In spatial literature the uneven growth of towns is an existing reality. The growth of the towns basically emphasizes the performance of its economic activity. The transformation of economic activities from primary form to modern form emphasizes the rapid rate of the spatial extent of a city. All the towns do not perform a specific economic activity at the same levels. The performance of any one type of economic activity at an extraordinary level in a city portrays the growth inequalities of a town. The growth patterns and economic activities in Hyderabad, Warangal and Nizamabad have been studied in order to understand the role of economic activities in urban growth. Hyderabad city is the capital of Telangana state. The city was built by the Nizam rulers around 425 years ago on the bank of river Musi which passes through the center of the city. It served as British residency between 1700 and 1947 AD. Hyderabad city ranks first in “Best of the World 20 places you should see” by National Geographic, San Francisco in 2015 and New York Times named Hyderabad as “Must Visit City in the world. Rediff Business recognized Hyderabad city as India’s second “Hottest IT destinations” and the World Bank identified Hyderabad as the second most attractive destination for “Doing Business in India”. When the performance levels of various types of economic activities in Hyderabad city is observed from 1961 to 2011, it is found that the primary type of economic activities such as cultivators, agriculture laborers, mining and secondary type of economic activities such as household industry and constructions do not have much significance. The value derived for these economic activities is less than the MEAN value. Hence these factors do not play a significant role in city growth. The manufacturing activity shows little significance from 1961 onwards and the value derived for this economic activity is at + 1σ. The value derived for tertiary activity such as trade and commerce, transportation and other services is + 1σ, + 2σ and + 3σ. The concentration of tertiary type of economic activities in Hyderabad city is high and

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these economic activities play an important role in the growth and development of the city (Table 16.3).

16.5.1 Hyderabad City The first phase of Hyderabad city growth started in the 1970s due to a large scale of people started migrating from the Andhra region to Hyderabad and its adjoining areas in search of employment and other livelihood activities. The second phase of city growth started as a result of subsequent globalization policies introduced in India during the mid-1990s. During this period, tertiary activities such as trade, commerce, transportation and construction sectors have gained much priority. National and international institutions have been established and acquired modern infrastructure. Manufacturing, chemical, pharma, information technology industries also have been setup. World-class institutions in the field of education, health, science and technology, research institutes, banking, housing have been equipped with qualitative infrastructure. Basic services and amenities like world-class airport, rail and road network, power, sewerage and drainage, street lighting, drinking water, green spaces and software technology have been improved a lot to meet the requirement of the public for providing quick and effective services. As a result, Hyderabad had been transformed into a smart city (Figs. 16.1, 16.2 and 16.3). Warangal is the second largest city in Telangana state. Historically, it was the capital of the great Kakatiya kings of the thirteenth century. The Indian government has given the status of “Heritage city” to Warangal as it is having great historical importance. Warangal fort and thousand pillar temple are some of the archeological surveys of India protected as world heritage assets, which attract nearly 23 million people annually, as reported by Telangana government tourism department report 2015. Warangal emerged as an economic hub for local trade and commercial activities in the region. It is known as the key producer of long-staple cotton in the state. Enumamula market is Asia’s biggest cotton market located on the outskirts of Warangal city. The city had good water resources. Endowed with a number of lakes, the city provides water for drinking and irrigation purposes.

16.5.2 Warangal City When examining the values derived for various types of economic activities of Warangal city from 1961 to 1981, it was found that the primary activities such as cultivators, agricultural laborers, livestock, fishing and mining do not have much significance. The value derived for these economic activities is less than the MEAN value. These economic activities’ role is the least in terms of growth and development of the city. The secondary type of economic activities such as household industry and