Skis in the Art of War 9781501747427

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Skis in the Art of War

A volume in the NIU Series in Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies Edited by Christine D. Worobec For a list of books in the series, visit our website at cornellpress.cornell.edu.

Skis in the Art of War K. B. E . E . E im e leus

Tr ansl ation and Commentary by

William D. Frank with

E. John B. Allen

Northern Illinois University Press an imprint of Cornell University Press Ithaca and London

Copyright © 2019 by Cornell University All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, New York 14850. Visit our website at cornellpress.cornell.edu. First published 2019 by Cornell University Press Printed in the United States of America ISBN 978-1-5017-4740-3 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN 978-1-5017-4742-7 (pdf ) ISBN 978-1-5017-4741-0 (epub/mobi) Cover design based on the art of K. B. E. E. Eimeleus. Book design by Yuni Dorr Librarians: A CIP record is available with the Library of Congress. Cover illustration: Original cover of Lyzhi v voennom dele (1912), artwork by K. B. E. E. Eimeleus.

Contents List of Illustrations vii Acknowledgments xi Introduction: Skiing in Europe prior to World War I  |  E. John B. Allen xiv Introduction: The Life and Times of “K. B. E. E. Eimeleus”  |  William D. Frank xxiii From the Editor 5 Preface 7 Sources 9 I. The Hygienic and Physiological Significance of Skiing   11 II. A Short Outline of Skiing History   13 III. The Evolution of Skis   15 IV. Various Types of Skis   17 V. Material for Skis   24 VI. Fabrication of Skis   26 VII. Upkeep and Preservation of Skis   29 VIII. Repairing Skis   31 IX. The Effect of Snow on Skis and How They Run   33 X. Poles   36 XI. Methods of Attaching Skis and Footwear for Skiing   38 XII. Clothing   44 XIII. Ski-Running: Its History, Theory, Method, and Technique   47 XIV. Riding behind a Horse   55 XV. Riding with a Sail   59 XVI. Turning in Place   61 XVII. Hill Climbing   63 XVIII. Mountain Descent   66 XIX. The Pole as a Brake   68 XX. Skis as a Brake   70 XXI. Turns on the Move   73 XXII. The Proper Execution of Jumps   77 XXIII. A Chronicle of Ski Competitions   84 XXIV. Systematic Instruction of Skiing in the Military   88

XXV. Instruction of Ski Detachments with Marching and Company Battle Formation, Referencing “Infantry Drill Regulations”   94 XXVI. Suggested Schedule of Ski Instruction in the Military   98 XXVII. Essential Rules for Skiers on the March   103 XXVIII. “Stunts” and Ski Games   109 XXIX. General Setup of Ski Competitions   116 XXX. Scoring and Rules of Ski Competitions   120 XXXI. Significance and Application of Ski Detachments in Time of War   124 Conclusion   132 MAIN GYMNASTICS-FENCING SCHOOL PRESS   138 THE “SPORTSMEN” COMPANY St. Petersburg  139

Notes 141 Bibliography 215 Index 235

Illustrations Figure 0.1   Lieutenant Carl “Kalle” Bror Emil Aejmelaeus-Äimä   (K. B. E. E. Eimeleus) ca. 1913  xxii Figure 0.2   Eimeleus fencing at the 1912 Stockholm Olympics  xxviii Figure 3.1  Truga 15 Figure 3.2   Snow skis  15 Figure 3.3   The left side ski (lyly)  16 Figure 4.1   Indian ski  17 Figure 4.2   Vologod skis  17 Figure 4.3   Lapland ski  18 Figure 4.4   Military ski  19 Figure 4.5   Telemark ski  19 Figure 4.6   Puolanko ski  20 Figure 4.7   Muhos ski  20 Figure 4.8   Haapavesi ski  21 Figure 4.9   Ylitorneo ski  21 Figure 4.10   Ii [Ijo] ski  21 Figure 4.11   Forest ski  22 Figure 4.12   Normal skis  23 Figure 5.1   Best material for skis  24 Figure 6.1   Profile of a ski showing camber  26 Figure 6.2   Cross-sections of skis  26 Figure 6.3   Sag of a weak ski  27 Figure 7.1   Method of ski storage  29 Figure 7.2   Methods of bending tips  30 Figure 7.3   Bending camber with steam  30 Figure 8.1   Splicing broken straps  31 Figure 8.2   A selection of ski tools  31 Figure 8.3   Attachable tip for Telemark skis  32 Figure 8.4   Mending skis  32 Figure 8.5   Mending skis  32 Figure 8.6   Mending skis  32 Figure 10.1   Ski poles  37 Figure 10.2   Double poles  37 Figure 11.1   Binding  38 Figure 11.2   The “Bollnäs” binding  39

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Figure 11.3   Military binding  39 Figure 11.4   Cane or wire binding  39 Figure 11.5   The “Huitfeldt” binding  39 Figure 11.6   Binding with buckle-lever  39 Figure 11.7   The “Balata” binding  40 Figure 11.8   The “Ellefsen” binding  40 Figure 11.9   The “Sigurd” binding  40 Figure 11.10   Ski blades and Norwegian heel straps  40 Figure 11.11   Old Finnish boot  41 Figure 11.12   Räsänen boot  41 Figure 11.13   The Eimeleus “golovka”  41 Figure 11.14   A sewn-welt boot  42 Figure 12.1   A leather toe-gaiter  44 Figure 12.2   Helmet (Balaklava)  45 Figure 13.1   Foot position on Indian skis  47 Figure 13.2   Intermediate type between racquet and ski  48 Figure 13.3   Basic three-cadence, www.youtube.com/watch?v=iTnDbGoppfk&t=10s. Figure 13.4   Basic two-cadence on the same foot, www.youtube.com/watch?v=  iTnDbGoppfk&t=10s. Figure 13.5   Basic two-cadence on alternating feet, www.youtube.com/watch?v=  iTnDbGoppfk&t=10s. Figure 13.6   Compound three-cadence, www.youtube.com/watch?v=  iTnDbGoppfk&t=10s. Figure 13.7   Two-cadence with a crossover of the right (or left) hand, www.youtube.  com/watch?v=iTnDbGoppfk&t=10s Figure 13.8   Thrust of the ski pole forward  53 Figure 13.9   Four-cadence (left or right), www.youtube.com/watch?v=  iTnDbGoppfk&t=10s. Figure 14.1   Lapp [Sami] on skis behind a reindeer  55 Figure 14.2   Skijoring  56 Figure 14.3   Ride behind a horse  57 Figure 14.4   Skijoring  58 Figure 15.1   Ski sail  59 Figure 16.1   Turn in place (second method)  61 Figure 16.2   Turn in place (third method)  61 Figure 16.3   Turn in place (third method)  62 Figure 17.1   Climb with “scissors”  63 Figure 17.2   Gentle uphill with “scissors”  63 Figure 17.3   Steep uphill with “scissors”  64 Figure 17.4   “Staircase” climb  64 Figure 17.5   Forward uphill with “staircase”  64 Figure 17.6   “Staircase” climb  65 Figure 17.7   Ski with incisions  65 Figure 17.8   Brakes  65 Figure 18.1   Telemark descent  66

Illustrations

Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure

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19.1   Incorrect body position while braking with a pole  68 19.2   Correct body position for first method of braking with a pole  68 19.3   Another method of braking with a pole  69 20.1   Braking with two skis  70 20.2   Braking with two skis  70 20.3   First method of braking with one ski (right side)  71 20.4   First method of braking with one ski (left side)  71 20.5   Second method of braking with one ski and a turn on the move (right)  71 20.6   Second method of braking with one ski and a turn on the move (left)  72 21.1   Christiania turn to the right  73 21.2   Christiania turn to the right  73 21.3   Christiania turn to the right  74 21.4   Telemark turn to the left  75 21.5   Initiating a Telemark turn to the right  75 21.6   Finishing a Telemark turn to the right  76 21.7   Telemark turn to the left  76 22.1   Hill profile for ski jumping  77 22.2   Relationship between the jump-platform profile and length of a jump  77 22.3   Profile of the hills at Livbakken and Feldberg-Hügel  78 22.4   Apparatus for determining the slope angle of a hill  79 22.5   Schematic representation of a ski jump  80 22.6   The moment before takeoff  81 22.7   Correct position during flight  81 22.8   The flight  82 22.9   Incorrect position while in flight  83 23.1   Ski-running behind a horse in Switzerland  85 25.1   Norwegian soldier-skiers on the firing line  97 27.1   Skiers of the Finnish Rifle Battalion in halt formation  103 27.2   Skiers of the Finnish Rifle Battalion on the march  104 27.3   Skiers moving in doubled-up platoon files  106 28.1   The double gorelki game  110 28.2   The day and night game  112 29.1   Team run—third method  117 29.2   Team run—fourth method  117 31.1   Sled for machine guns of the Austrian Army  128 31.2   Sled for machine guns and mountain cannons  129 31.3   Ehrhardt Norwegian artillery sled  129 31.4   Sled fashioned from skis  130 31.5   Sled fashioned from skis with portable chair  130 31.6   Sled on skis  131 31.7   Small sled with long runners  131 31.8   Small sled with long runners  131 c.1   Austrian military skiers  133

Acknowledgments E. John B. Allen

Many people have had a hand in making my contribution to this book possible. Some have sent me articles and photocopied materials, others helped in translation and answered questions. From Austria I have had assistance from Michael Huber; from Estonia Enn Mainla; from Finland Merja Heiskanen, Suvi Kuisma, Irina Lukka, and Colonel Niklas von Bonsdorff; from Norway Matti Goksøyr, Thor Gotaas, and Halvor Kleppen; from Sweden Leif Yttergren; from Switzerland Luzi Hitz; and from the United States Ann Blair, William and Ki Clough, Stephen Hegner, Jeff Leich, and Ingrid Wicken. I am grateful to Kari Ellen Gade for help with Old Icelandic. Plymouth State University’s Joyce Bruce of Inter-Library Loan has, as usual, worked her marvels, and I am grateful for technical computer aid— given with endless patience—by Michael Cousma and the students who work at the university library’s help desk. Special recognition must go to three people who were always a computer click away or at hand: Norwegian American Einar Sunde, whose vast bibliographic expertise and understanding of nineteenth-century Norwegian ski history were so freely given; Fabian Rimfors, whose intimate knowledge of Swedish skiing and culture was always ready with unfailing courtesy and humor to answer any query; and last but not least my wife, Heide, whose eagle editorial eye has caught many an infelicitous phrase along with lazy writing and careless spelling. Happily, she was on that bus ride in Finland when Bill Frank and I first talked about this project . . . and she has seen it through to the end. To all, so many thanks. Errors that remain are my responsibility. William D. Frank

From an off-the-cuff conversation with E. John B. Allen on a Finnish night bus

in 2017, the work of translating, editing, and annotating this volume has evolved into the most challenging and gratifying project I’ve ever undertaken. This book in its final form would not exist were it not for John’s sustained work and our shared

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obsession with K. B. E. E. Eimeleus, whose name he first brought to my attention in 2009. His introduction and extensive contributions to the chapter commentaries reflect decades of research and a dedication to the historiography of skiing. With unflagging encouragement (even as I was losing confidence that I could ever possibly complete my translation), John bolstered the effort at every stage with additions to the endnotes, with editorial suggestions, and with his eagerness to read each subsequent chapter. Our collaboration turned out to be its own reward. I have received editorial help and translation advice from an exceptional group of scholars. My thanks go to Laurie Moshier (Central Washington University) for her many ideas on the art of translation, assistance with French and German, and careful reading of each successive draft; to Dinara Georgioliani (Central Washington University) and Miriam Brown for their opinions on the most difficult passages in Russian; to Fabian Rimfors (Kristianstad University) and Leif Yttergren (Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences) for proofreading and correcting in Swedish, Norwegian, and Finnish; and Nadine Cohodas for her incisive editorial suggestions on the final version. I am indebted as well to the manuscript’s peer reviewers, Annette Hofmann (Pädagogische Hochschule Ludwigsburg) and Bruce Menning (University of Kansas), and to David Glantz (Journal of Slavic Military Studies) for his review of my introduction. Eimeleus’s extraordinary life and the wide-ranging subject matter detailed in his book required extensive reading and research, much of it outside my limited areas of expertise. This entailed a nearly endless stream of queries and pleas for help to specialists around the world, including Mari Aaltonen (Finnish National Board of Antiquities); Anders Ahlbäck (University of Gothenburg); John Barany (JSB Arts); Michael Biggins (head of the Slavic and East European Section of Suzzallo and Allen Libraries, University of Washington); Rebecca Houze (Northern Illinois University); Suvi Kuisma (Lahti Ski Museum); Jason Lavery (Oklahoma State University); Jouni Lavikainen (Sports Museum of Finland); Harold Leich (Library of Congress); Cecil Longino (Salle Saint-Georges); Frank Lurz (La Spada Nemica); Anita Michalak (Slavisches Seminar Bibliothek, University of Zürich); Janice Pilch (Rutgers University); Douglas Smith; John Styles (University of Hertfordshire and the Victoria and Albert Museum); Paul Thomas (Hoover Institute Library at Stanford University); Pinar Üre (Istanbul Kemerburgaz University); André Wessels (University of the Free State of the Republic of South Africa); the research staff at the New York Public Library; and the Inter-Library Loan staffs of Central Washington University, Reed College, Stanford University, University of Washington, and the Yakima Valley Regional Library. My thanks to Jeff Leich (New England Ski Museum) and Ingrid Wicken (California Ski Library) for providing me with facsimiles of Eimeleus’s book and for the loan of the originals residing in their collections. Also, special

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acknowledgment goes to Gordon King (Gordon King Photography) for his assistance in preparing images for publication; to Ed Marquand (Paper Hammer Studios) for advice on cover art; and to Amy Farranto, Nathan Holmes, and the talented team at Northern Illinois University Press. Finally, there are three people to whom I am most indebted but for whom it is too late to convey expressions of gratitude: William S. Moran, my professor of Latin and Greek at the University of Michigan, who took me under his wing when I was a freshman and instilled the fundamentals of language learning; T. B. L. Webster, whose seminars and directed readings on the Greek dramatists at Stanford University informed my approach to translation; and Betsy Shaw Frank, my partner and wife of thirty-two years who taught me a most profound lesson by her example: that one person’s life—no matter how brief—can make another’s blossom.

Introduction:

Skiing in Europe prior to World War I

The history of Russian skiing prior to the modern era (up to 1880) was written by and for the aristocracy and the church. Since both were heavily involved in fighting, it is hardly surprising that most of what we know in the pre-modern period has to do with various military endeavors. In winter, the importance of troops on skis was vigorously reported century after century. In the present volume, Skis in the Art of War, K. B. E. E. Eimeleus discusses briefly a dozen actions on skis, and in the recent Everyone to Skis! William Frank cites about twenty occasions when soldiers on skis took to battle, an account covering six centuries from the thirteenth to the eighteenth.1 Perhaps it was their descendants who harassed Napoleon in his retreat from Moscow in 1812 and made up the four-man groups of okhotniki established for scouting and reconnaissance in 1886.2 Lieutenant Eimeleus’s book shows that he was both heir to those past Russian aristocratic accounts and also very attuned to what was new information and how instructive it could be for the sport and the country. And, indeed, a great deal was new in the thirty years from about 1880 until the time he published his book in 1912. Skiing had come to the fore almost entirely because of Scandinavians (especially Norwegians), well illustrated in Eimeleus’s list of sources, which includes the Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen (1861–1930) and early ski mentor Fritz Huitfeldt (1851–1938); two Swedish pamphlets, one by L. A. Jägerskiöld (1867– 1945) and one by P. Möller (1858–1951); and three Finnish books, by forester Hugo Sandberg (1845–1930) and gymnasts Ivar Wilskman (1854–1932) and Viktor Heikel (1842–1927). Although there were already a few books in Russian on skiing as a sport,3 Eimeleus hoped that his work would appeal not only to military skiers but also to civilian outdoorsmen and help promote skiing among the young. Every general history of skiing in Europe, indeed the world,4 starts on the wings of myth and speculation about gods and at least one goddess, evidenced by palaeolithic Ostiak myths of the skier Tunk-Pox and strange rock figures on skis that can be found from northern Scandinavia to Russia. Similar rock images in China provide an unsubstantiated claim to the Altai as the birthplace of skiing, a notion currently stirring a great deal of debate.5 Ullr and Skade, folkish Norse kings such as Eyestein, made-up heroes such as the Finns’ Lemminkäinen,6 along

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with tales of derring-do from the Sagas, are all the foundations for modern skiing. We also have the remains of ancient skis, many of them over a thousand years old, found mostly in bogs of northern Scandinavia and Russia.7 These furnish support for whatever nationalistic cause required, although no ancient ski remains have been found in the Altai. In the early 1960s the oldest extant ski fragment—with a moose head carved underneath its tip—was unearthed at the Vis 1 site 480 miles east-south-east of Archangel near Lake Sindor. Grigoriy Burov, an archaeologist at the site, interpreted the carving as a symbol of speed while it also had the practical value of acting as a brake. The fragment has been carbon-dated to 8300–7000 BCE.8 Already, then, in those ancient times, skiers must have developed what we now so scientifically call technique. This ski technique was also important in military endeavors. To move twenty men on skis, let alone 120, required knowing how to propel the ski and how to control it to avoid impeding other soldiers. Eimeleus emphasizes understanding how to stride—or even run—on skis within a military unit: “it doesn’t suffice just to know how to ski along haphazardly: we must understand this type of training thoroughly and on a level equal to the other branches of the military arts.”9 It was well known by 1912 that Norwegian units were divided into three rows, each man eight paces from the one in front and three paces from his neighbor to the side.10 Military and civilian explorers provided another crucial source for the history of Russian skiing as they moved ever eastward past the Urals, on to the endless expanses of what became Siberian Russia, to end in Kamchatka and, eventually, the port of Vladivostok. The military commanders acted in normal imperial fashion, garnering land as they traveled, providing garrisons to secure that land, and exploiting economic possibilities. In their romantic way, civilians were eager to understand the tribes they encountered, those Rousseauian children of nature. Westerners such as botanist Johan Gmelin, specimen collector Peter Pallas, and physician Adolf Erman came from an urbanized and by the late nineteenth century industrialized western Europe, to find out how the natural man in a natural state survived.11 Among the Yenesei Ostiak (Kets), Tungus (Evenki), Samoyed (Nenets), and Ostiak (Khanty), they found what they were looking for and marveled at these peoples’ expertise, strength, and stamina while hunting on skis, the simple skills displayed by men—and women—on two boards of plain wood. However, the publication of Fridtjof Nansen’s Paa Ski over Grønland (On skis over Greenland) in 1890 proved the watershed moment in modern skiing, evoking “Nansen fever” among Europe’s well-to-do who enjoyed the great outdoors of God’s natural world. They were in awe of Nansen’s exploits while crossing Greenland with five others, two of whom were Lapps (now called Sami), “children of nature,” as Nansen described them, but who actually came for the money.12 Nansen devoted his lengthy third chapter to the ski. Citing a number of historians

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across an entire millennium, from ancient authors Procopius and Jordanes, on to Saxo Grammaticus of 1200 and Olaus Magnus of the sixteenth century, Nansen laid the foundations for the use of skis for travel and for exploration. Although he shrouded his Greenland crossing in an aura of scientific inquiry (he was, after all, finishing up his doctoral thesis on the central nervous system), he merely wanted to get away from his microscope for a ski trip. Various funding agencies such as the university and the government would have nothing to do with him, and it was only at the last moment that Augustin Gamel, a Danish coffee merchant, provided about half the cost of the expedition. But when Nansen returned, he became “this proud Viking.”13 Since skis and skiing had played the major role in his “conquest” of Greenland, a factor he emphasized throughout the tale he told, skiing quite suddenly came into a wintertime vogue. But Nansen’s skiing was not just skiing: it was ski-idræt. “I know no form of sport which so evenly develops the muscles, which renders the body so strong and elastic, which teaches so well the qualities of dexterity and resource, which in an equal degree calls for decision and resolution, and which gives the same vigor and exhilaration to mind and body alike.” Here is idræt for the individual, but Nansen goes on in the same passage to conclude that “there is something in the whole which develops soul and not body alone, and the sport is perhaps of far greater national importance than is generally supposed.”14 Nansen’s translator used the English word “sport” for the Norwegian concept of idræt.15 In the nineteenth century, idræt became associated with activities in the outdoors that the ancestors had enjoyed. The bookish leaders of the romantic ideal in Norway felt it would turn their compatriots into better people spiritually, morally, and physically. These men, clean in body and mind, would then be bound to affect their wives and children, kith, kin, village, region, and even nation as Nansen had posited. This tie to a national Norway played well to the educated leadership and, in fact, to most Norwegians; even the illiterate knew of Trysil Knud16 and in 1863 could rhyme along with Andreas Aabel’s poem “East of the Border” (Der øst ved grensefjeldets side): Vel an! I starte, gjeve trylser!

Hurrah for skiing! Trysil folk,

Lad stevne nu i bygden staa

Train: be ready to rid the yoke

Og øv med flid de vante sysler,

With gun and bullet be ye free

La ski og kuler flitting gaa!

When Norway calls to fight on ski.

—forat om gang til alvors stevne

Brave band of brothers firm and good

vort gamle Norge rober ud

Take courage from your Trysil Knud.

I mote maa med mod og evne Og staa stødt som Trysil Knud.

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Although Knud came from Østerdal, the call was for Norway’s freedom, destined to be gained through skiing and war. This conflation of skiing with militant nationalism was palpable all over the skiing world. Britain’s ambassador to Sweden, for example, described skiing at the Nordiska Spelen (Nordic Games) as “all mixed up in the fighting business.”17 And Norway sought to be free from Swedish control; it took another one of Nansen’s trips, this time an attempt to reach the North Pole, to achieve this. It was clear that the Swedes could do nothing to denigrate Nansen’s accomplishment, and in 1905, independence was achieved without war, thanks to accommodations on both sides by Norwegian prime minister Christian Michelsen and Oscar II of Sweden. England—as self-appointed world adjudicator—could only lionize Nansen when he came to the court of St. James as the first Norwegian ambassador. Meanwhile imperial Russia had feted this tall, lithe Norseman in his explorer’s outfit and hat in the twilight of Romanov rule, before Rasputin ever whispered in the ear of the tsarina and revolutionary sentiment was just beginning to stir among the proletariat.18 This formed the context for skiing in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, often portrayed as the long century of peace—bookended by the two global wars of Napoleon and the Great War (later to become World War I). But one should factor in the political changes wrought by wars in the Crimea, the American Civil War, the Prussian-Austrian War, the Franco-Prussian War, the many conflagrations under the title of “Victoria’s little wars,” the Russo-Japanese War as well as the revolutions in France in 1830, 1848, and 1871, in the German states in 1848, and the Russian revolution of 1905, precursor to Lenin’s Bolshevik takeover. By the time Eimeleus was learning the military trade, troops no longer went into “winter quarters” to await “spring offensives.” Winter war, now, was a real possibility, and Eimeleus felt the need to prepare the tsarist army; after all, it had not performed well against the Japanese. Fitness in freezing temperatures was something that all armies had to worry about since the time Hannibal had lost some twenty thousand of his men and not a few elephants to frost.19 Eimeleus clearly realized that the health of the troops was vital, and he also had much Scandinavian military expertise to draw upon. When he looked at the rest of Europe’s military on skis, he found examples in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, in Germany, France, Italy, and Switzerland. Even the British contemplated controlling recalcitrant tribes in the Hindu Kush along the Indian–Afghan border by equipping troops with skis. Eimeleus thought that Belgium, Luxembourg, and Holland had ski units as well, but who knows where he found that information? He also included Spain in the list, but there is no evidence that any unit was formed.20 Eimeleus chose to emulate Scandinavian military know-how, as did all the other countries. This may not, in fact, have been the best course to follow since Norwegians, Swedes, and Finns were brought up on skis and, therefore, did not

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have to be taught how to use them. Nonetheless, the Russians had one advantage over the non-Scandinavian ski troops of Europe: they could always rely on their Finnish duchy for experienced ski men, and Eimeleus, born and raised in Finland, is one very good example. After the Russian debacle in the war with Japan, ski instruction for increasing numbers of recruits was vital. Of thirty-one sections of Eimeleus’s book, fourteen are devoted to instruction. There were other considerations. In Scandinavian units, the relationship between officers and men was not strictly defined. In central European countries there were differences of class, something only the world war would shake up. What right-minded Junker would want to bivouac with some peasant lad from the Allgäu, what monarchist French officer would want to share the bad food of the poilu on skis? Certainly no officer from the Nicholas Officers Academy or the Main Gymnastics-Fencing School in St. Petersburg would want to forsake his sword and spurs, parades, and soirées for the bodily odors of too many men who may have been infected by the spreading socialist call, sleeping in too small tents?21 But ski troops had to be raised and trained. Trained for what? Certainly not defense. Military doctrine before the war considered only offense: the infantry would break the line and then the cavalry would dash through to victory. This élan vital was based on the belief that the spirit of the individual soldier was of far greater importance than mere weapons22—hence the continued use of the sword in a world of machine guns. In winter, troops would maneuver through impossible conditions, hold the heights of mountain chains, and then sweep down the other side driving the enemy to oblivion. It was necessary, then, to have fit troops prepared, like the Norwegians, to make long marches in the snow on the flats, over the foothills, and beyond to reach the heights. In Europe, ski troops were measured by length of march accomplished and altitude achieved. The French were particularly enthused about training marches accomplished in the environs of Briançon, the garrison town of the “Quinze-Neuf,” the well-known 159th Alpine Infantry Regiment. Captain Clerc, the major influence in the development of skiing sections of mountain troops, publicized how the ski was more efficient than the snowshoe. Commandant Bernard was proud of the 80-kilometer trek with 1,800-meter altitude difference in twenty hours with men equipped for combat.23 Norwegian officers were seconded to the Régiment de la Neige (Snow Regiment), not so much to instruct as to inspire the men.24 In Russia, after Nansen’s Greenland crossing, there was excitement for skiing as a sport, albeit one only for the wealthy. The first ski club in Russia had been started in 1889 by ex-pat Englishmen in the Toksovo hills, twenty kilometers from St. Petersburg.25 The Russian Poliarnaia zvezda (Polar Star) club built their first ski jump there in 1906, site of the Russian ski-jumping championship six years later.26 This skiing as sport, involving meticulous organization and particularly

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competition rules and records, was anathema to Nansen, so imbued with the skiidræt ideal. Armies, in these times, did not promote individual endeavor but group action, so the general staffs were wary of the interest shown in the sport of skiing. Eimeleus realized that an activity like ski jumping (certainly of no use whatsoever in any military capacity) would, however, cultivate individual qualities of “courage, bravery, valor, composure, agility, and determination,” so he listed record leaps27 and endorsed competition prizes, long an established practice in Norway. In Grüner’s regulations of 1765, prizes were awarded according to the military value of the event: Slalåm (slalom: turning around obstacles on a descent) and Hopplåm (hoplaam: a downhill run with jumps) rank in the middle at 10 Riksdaler (Rdr). Cross-country, obviously the easiest, received 2 to 4 Rdr. Shooting on the run was the most difficult at 20 Rdr. Considering that a horse at the time was worth about 10 Rdr and a milking cow about 5 Rdr, these were no mean prizes.28 In Siberia, the indigenous peoples had made practical skis: shorter ones for going into the woods, longer ones for distance travel. Most of these skis had the skins of elk, deer, bear, horse, even otter affixed to the underside.29 Toward the end of the nineteenth century, more sophisticated skis began to appear in a number of Norwegian valleys and in Finland too. Simen Rustad (1858–1925) began factory production at Fåberg, near Lillehammer, Norway, in 1882.30 Scandinavian, and particularly Finnish, equipment was near at hand. There was an assortment of locally made skis from which to choose and whose reputation rested on the success of the local ski-runners in competitions. It was not merely because Eimeleus had Finnish roots that he made special reference to Finnish skis; it was that Finnish skis from ca. 1880 suited the Russian terrain and snow conditions better than the skis from Norway’s Telemark hill country or the valleys of Gudbrandsdal. If organized skiing began in Trondheim (far from Christiania) and specialized downhill skiing began in Telemark, Finland’s center of skiing for some twenty years was at Oulu, six hundred kilometers north of Helsinki almost at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia. And from that region came the famous racing names of Luomajoki and Ritola, competing on locally made skis, of which the most successful were those from Haapavesi.31 This happened in the late nineteenth century, just at the time of “assembling a national folk culture,” a core element of which was Oulu/ Haapavesi skiing.32 Eimeleus describes with care a number of the best-known skis, but always with an eye to their military use: hardiness and the ability to be handled in differing snow conditions and over a variety of terrain. He mentions countries like France whose Chasseurs Alpins had their own ski factory, obviously hoping that Russian authorities would follow suit. Once on skis, the Finnish pieksu, the boot with the upturned knob at the front, was the preferred footgear. It enabled the skiing soldier to get in and out of his skis quickly while also providing some sort of control. This control was aided by the

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general acceptance of Fritz Huitfeldt’s binding—much appreciated by Eimeleus— one that also held the ankle somewhat firmly. The single pole was usual in the years up to 1900, and in some areas up to 1914, but not in Finland where the flat terrain—comprising forests interspersed with lakes—favored the use of two poles. In military matters elsewhere, one pole was preferred, because this left the other arm and hand ready for rifle use and, if the occasion presented itself, for using the pole as a steadying post while firing. Snow conditions were always changing, therefore some of the skis’ running surfaces fashioned from one certain type of wood might have advantages on a particular day but not on the next. One solution was to strap on the centuries-old “skins.” Alternatively, a person could rub concoctions (now called wax) on the underside of the skis, such as the ones Eimeleus mentions, Bercolin and Skiolin. Just after his book was published, Norwegian Peter Østbye secured the first patent in 1913 for the famous Klister wax.33 Eimeleus, then, was writing his book knowing full well that traditional ski culture would have great effect on what he was proposing. With personal knowledge of skiing developments in Scandinavia and a reading knowledge of skiing elsewhere, Eimeleus suggests a standardization where none had existed before. It was clear in 1912 that the Russian Empire might have to fight on snow for its future. He outlines the why and how of skiing, relying on his own Finnish background for much of his extremely detailed analysis. Although not averse at all regarding Norwegian and Swedish sources, most of all he recounts stories of Finns and their ski successes, on their own skis, using their own poles (in the plural). His analysis of required clothing and his knowledge of frost and weather, in general, show keen attention. This sort of information would be virtually unnecessary for Norwegians and Swedes and other Finns, but for prospective Russian ski units it was vital. And he keeps right up-to-date with praise for the thermos, very recently on the market. Eimeleus’s modernism—now over one hundred years old—combines thoughts and ideas from traditional Finnish skiing as well as innovations from Scandinavia, such as wax and Fritz Huitfeldt’s bindings. He transferred this knowledge, both practical and theoretical, to recruits and officers in the tsarist army in the years just prior to the Great War. His analysis is of interest in two significant ways: he was the first to incorporate word and photograph into the description of movement on skis, and his book was the first major work on the development of skiing in Russia, one that was geared to the military but also, he hoped, useful to civilian outdoorsmen. For readers today, unfortunately, he has nothing to say about women’s skiing. But this should come as no surprise since this was a military ski manual published in an overtly male-dominated era.34 Jim Riordan’s Sport in Soviet Society, published in 1977, contained a limited analysis of skiing.35 Very little since then had been written in English or other

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western European languages on the history of Russian skiing until William Frank’s specialized work on Russian biathlon came out in 2013, the first to use Eimeleus as a source. And therein lies the root of our collaboration. Some fifteen years ago, I was thumbing through copies of La Montagne, the official journal of the Club Alpin Français, when I came across this listing in the bibliographic section of the March 1913 issue: Lt. Eimelejous—Le Ski dans l’œuvre militaire (en russe): édition rédigée par le cap. Th. GOSTEW; Saint-Pétersbourg, 1912. At the time, I was gathering material for a cultural history of skiing as well as building the library of the New England Ski Museum, so I was extremely interested in finding a copy. I approached the Library of Congress, Harvard University, and specialized Russian collections: there was not a single copy in the United States. Then I met William Frank at a conference in Mammoth, California, in 2009: his recollection of that meeting is that my very first question to him was whether he had knowledge of Eimeleus. He hadn’t, but I did pique his interest, and—a few years later—we located a copy on an Ebay site in St. Petersburg, Russia. We bought it for the museum, and William was able to use it for his dissertation and subsequent book, Everyone to Skis! Fast forward to a bus ride to Lahti, Finland, in late February 2017 when both of us were presenting papers at a ski conference at the University of Jyväskylä. William was entertaining the idea of translating Eimeleus and asked if I would consider writing some annotations to the complete text. This time it was he who piqued my interest, and we began working together on the project in the spring of 2017. Then came a jolt that pulls academics up excitingly short. Through an obscure footnote to an even more obscure Russian journal, William discovered that Eimeleus was no Russian; he was Carl Bror Emil Aejmelaeus-Äimä, a Finn! This propelled us headlong into the Finnish archives to uncover an astounding tale of deep knee bends, stints with the US Cavalry, and service to two Finnish presidents (detailed in William Frank’s short biography in this volume). So here is an annotated translation of a work that gives a view on pre–World War I skiing—something we have had from the western European and American perspective but never before from the Russian side, and never with such detail. E. JOHN B. ALLEN

Figure 0.1: Carl “Kalle” Bror Emil Aejmelaeus-Äimä (K. B. E. E. Eimeleus), staff instructor at the Nicholas Cavalry School, St. Petersburg, Russia, ca. 1913. Inscribed in Swedish: “To our dear old home with many merry Christmas greetings and heartfelt congratulations . . . , 1913.” Historian kuvakokoelma, Museovirasto (Historical Images Collection, Finnish National Board of Antiquities).

Introduction:

The Life and Times of “K. B. E. E. Eimeleus”

The full citation for Skis in the Art of War (Lyzhi v voennom dele1) from

the general catalog of the National Library of Russia lists the author as Karl Edvinovich Eimeleus, an unusual name in Cyrillic suggesting familial ties with Baltic Germans from the imperial Russian governates of Estonia or Livonia.2 This transliteration, however, belies the true identity of K. B. E. E. Eimeleus, born in Porvoo, Finland, in 1882 to Edvin Aejmelaeus (thus his Russian patronymic, Edvinovich) and Johanna Simolin, who christened him Carl (Kalle) Bror Emil.3 That he spent his youth in the Grand Duchy of Finland at the turn of the last century not only explains his proficiency on skis but also his fluency in Swedish, Finnish, and Norwegian, the languages comprising the majority of his source material for his book. Besides this handbook on skiing, Eimeleus also composed a short autobiographical article in 1913 for Sila i zdorov’e (Strength and health), one of St. Petersburg’s many sports journals.4 Based mainly on these two documents, newspapers and journals on file at the national libraries of Finland and Russia, and a memoir published in a Russian ex-pat journal, a brief biography of Eimeleus comes into focus up to his death in Kiel, Germany, on 13 July 1935. If we lend credence to some of his barracks tales, he led an astounding life; and yet other more reliable sources provide just as many—if not more—incredible stories. As Georgii Tanutrov, one of his early colleagues at the Nicholas Cavalry School in St. Petersburg remembered him in his memoir from 1954: “he was a person who understood the value of time and how to make use of it.”5 In his Sila i zdorov’e article, Eimeleus writes that in his youth, he was “frail and sickly,” but with guidance from his late brother—a “well-known” gymnast and athlete—he gradually gained enough strength to be considered “normal” by his contemporaries. He further states that, in school, he took up gymnastics at the age of eleven, but with only “an average amount of effort,” and when he turned fifteen, he began to take his gymnastic and sports “career” seriously.6 At the turn of the century, this type of training was common in military gymnasiums throughout Europe and would also have been part of the required coursework for students at the institutions that prepared officers for the Imperial Russian

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Army, known as the Cadet Corps.7 However, Eimeleus’s school was the rather more pedestrian Suomalainen Reaalilyseo in Helsinki, one of Finland’s oldest Finnish-language schools, from which he graduated in 1901.8 These were difficult times in the Grand Duchy of Finland. From 1899 to 1905 Tsar Nicholas II had imposed a strict regime of Russification over his Finnish subjects so as to curtail their nation’s independent status within the Russian Empire. This systematic program to eliminate Finnish culture met with strong resistance among native Finns and set the tone for interaction between the two countries throughout most of the twentieth century.9 The resentment engendered by Russia at home had a significant effect on Eimeleus who apparently left Finland sometime right after graduation. In his article he notes that he did not enter Russia proper until 1906—probably in the year that he enrolled at the Nicholas Cavalry School and met Tanutrov (who remarks that his Russian was not very good). Thus, there is a five-year period best described in Ogonek, St. Petersburg’s most popular weekly magazine, as “a [Thomas] Mayne Reid-esque life with puzzling discontinuities,” during which Eimeleus managed to engage in a number of colorful activities all around the world.10 His tale is certainly a jumble to piece together. Departing Finland, Eimeleus immediately volunteered to fight on the side of the Boers in South Africa, perhaps with John Hassell and the American Scouts or as a member of the Scandinavian Corps in the Transvaal.11 Following the end of the war in 1902, he made his way to the Americas by traveling through the Portuguese possessions in Africa, in all likelihood crossing the South Atlantic to spend around two years in Argentina and Brazil. A court document from the Eastern District of New York shows that the twenty-two-year-old Eimeleus arrived in the United States around 20 April 1904 with the intention of becoming a citizen by forswearing all allegiance to “the Emperor of Russia.”12 At this point, his story gets puzzling and convoluted indeed: listing his occupation as a sailor (perhaps as a result of working his way across the Atlantic or in reference to his position as an open-ocean captain noted below), Eimeleus joined the US Army on 23 June 1904, attended garrison and noncommissioned officers’ schools, and served as a sergeant with the cavalry at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas, until 6 January 1906.13 Ogonek reports that he mustered out of the military to become a cowboy; and he ostensibly took to this new lifestyle with gusto, wrangling wild mustangs and mastering the art of throwing the lasso. But it was not all fun and games, since there were “continuous dangers on the plains that involved skirmishes with Seminole Indian tribes who were stealing entire herds of horses from the cowboys.” Conflicts with Native American horse thieves were not the only perils faced by Eimeleus: “The environment was rough and violent. At cards in the saloons, drunk cowboys shot at one another, carried off the corpse, and continued on with the game.” According to Ogonek,

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it was at this point that he grew weary of his life among “half-wild horsemen” and signed up for military service once again, this time in Argentina.14 Tanutrov recalled that Eimeleus said he had worked as a gaucho while in South America, managed plantations in Brazil, and piloted a river steamer. Most significantly, though, he also claimed to have “fought in the revolutions of South America,” which—during the period 1901–1906 (and given his time with the US Cavalry for the latter two years)—could only refer to La Guerra de los Mil Días (1899–1902), a conflict along Brazil’s border with Colombia. Therefore, it stands to reason that Eimeleus was in South America after his stint with the Boers in South Africa and before traveling north to the United States in 1904 to join the cavalry. No matter the sequence, life on land was apparently growing tedious for Eimeleus on either side of the equator: thus, he became enamored of seafaring. After attaining credentials as a blue-water captain, he sailed off to Australia and India. His photograph in captain’s garb appears in the Ogonek article, which reports that he once had to single-handedly put down a mutiny by “sailors recruited from vagrants and vagabonds of all nations” and, on two separate occasions, fell overboard and had to swim for several hours in the ocean just to save his life. But it is possible that Ogonek has this part of Eimeleus’s story out of order as well: the perilous stretch on the open sea may be what he refers to on his 1904 entry in the US Army’s Register of Enlistments.15 After all of these escapades—undertaken in a time span that beggars belief— Eimeleus returned to Russia in 1906 and enrolled for a two-year term at the Nicholas Cavalry School, graduating with the class of 1908.16 As of 1 January 1909, he was serving as a junior lieutenant, or cornet, in the Imperial Russian Cavalry with the 9th Hussar Regiment of Kiev, stationed in the Ukrainian city of Vasil’kov.17 Tanutrov remembered that, while engaged with the Kiev Hussars, Eimeleus received a leave of absence to go on a hunting excursion to Persia. This was in addition to the many journeys throughout these early years during which he competed in athletic contests in the Americas, Scandinavia, England, Africa, and all across continental Europe.18 To be sure, Eimeleus took to his youthful sport training with a vengeance: he provides a list of disciplines he had mastered by the time he returned as an instructor to the Nicholas Cavalry School in late 1911 that reads like an athletic encyclopedia. Besides garden-variety endeavors such as cycling, running, jumping, and swimming, he also included in his repertoire racewalking, sculling, speed skating, skiing, mountain climbing, shooting (rifle, shotgun, pistol, and revolver), parachuting, wrestling (both French and English styles, plus “Catch, as catch, can”—that is, no holds barred), boxing (both English style and French kickboxing, or savate), weightlifting (live- and dead-weight cargo), weightlifting with teeth, arm strength, cutting, fencing (foil, épée, and saber), and distance running.19

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As a cavalryman, he was most adept at equestrian events such as flat-track racing, jumping, steeplechase, dressage, and acrobatic horsemanship.20 Tanutrov relates one especially remarkable display of his abilities during a “carousel,” a grand showcase of gymnastics and horsemanship held in St. Petersburg on 26–27 December 1907: “Holding the reins of six horses while standing on the backs of two of them, he started at a trot, then hurdled barriers at a gallop.” Finsk idrottsblad, a Helsinki sports journal, also reported on this event, remarking that the crowd went wild as Eimeleus coordinated another round of multi-horse jumping with one of his Nicholas Cavalry School colleagues.21 In his spare time as an instructor at the School, he also managed gymnastics and served as chairman and leader of the Zaria (Dawn) sports club, which he founded in 1907.22 Weightlifting and bodybuilding were also part of his program, evidenced by the bulging muscles he displays in two photographs located above the text in Sila i zdorov’e, exemplifying Russia’s fin-de-siècle infatuation with these two sports.23 In one of the images, he flexes his bare torso with arms clasped behind his back; in the other, he proudly wears a bandoleer bristling with medals and ribbons, his countenance just as rigid as his upright handlebar moustache. “In his footlocker,” Tanutrov remembered, “he had a huge pile of posters and a box with medals and badges from all kinds of sports . . . and his enormous muscles were hard as rocks.” In Finland in 1899, Eimeleus became world champion in the two-legged squat, an accomplishment he repeated in England in 1901, “by doing 4,444 deep-squats, without stopping in two hours, sixteen minutes and thirty seconds; and on one leg (holding the other extended forward seventy-five times (on the other 105 times).”24 In 1904 he won the title of “champion athlete” by setting a record moving a specified weight over a set distance that was the equivalent of 8,500 kilojoules. “I developed muscles not just in my arms,” Eimeleus told Tanutrov, “I developed them all over, and now, one muscle helps the other. A system combined with persistent work creates miracles.”25 Russia’s official government list of officers compiled as of 1 January 1910 still records Eimeleus as a member of the Kiev Hussars. However, we know that he enrolled for the academic year 1910–1911 as a student at St. Petersburg’s Main Gymnastics-Fencing School (MGFS), which had just opened in 1909: he had obviously shown an aptitude for his saber drills while stationed in Ukraine and would have been recommended by his superiors for further instruction in saber, foil, and épée with Petr Zakovorot, Russia’s premier master of fencing and, in 1910, a recently commissioned instructor at the school.26 Eimeleus clearly excelled in his athletic studies there: he was on staff as a ski instructor while still a student and, in 1911, won the prestigious Emperor’s Prize in fencing as well as several other school awards for his saber drills, fencing, skiing, and gymnastics. After graduating first in his class and receiving an appointment to the staff at the Nicholas

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Cavalry School as a training officer, he battled his way to become All-Russian champion in French foot-boxing. The following year, Eimeleus also represented Russia at the 1912 Stockholm Olympics in modern pentathlon. This five-day competition—a combination of pistol-shooting, swimming, fencing, horseback riding, and cross-country running—was devised specifically for the Stockholm Games by the founder of the modern Olympic movement, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, as a test for the ideal, well-rounded military officer-courier, albeit one firmly ensconced in the battlefield milieu of the late-nineteenth century.27 Without stating it explicitly, the Ogonek article—published just prior to the Games—implies that Eimeleus had acquired his Olympic skills in extraodinarily dashing and daring ways: marksmanship during the Boer campaign; equitation in the US Cavalry and later as a cowboy; swimming when he fell overboard as a sea captain; and agility with an épée as an officer of the Imperial Hussars. Clearly, modern pentathlon was an event custom-made for his proclivities as a multi-sport athlete and swashbuckling global adventurer. It’s no surprise that Eimeleus states matter-of-factly (in a combination of English and Russian that reflects time spent in North America): “‘The All-Around Sportsman’ always was and always will be my ideal.”28 Writing in December 1911 with an eye toward the Stockholm Games, E. E. Teviashov, sports journalist for St. Petersburg’s daily newspaper Novoe vremia, was dubious about the prospects for this new sport of modern pentathlon: “We doubt that many participants would turn up for such a competition. In St. Petersburg, at any rate, we might find just one suitable athlete, and then only on condition that he’s not too lazy to train for shooting.”29 His skepticism changed to enthusiasm, however, after the Main Gymnastics-Fencing School hosted the Modern Pentathlon Olympic tryouts a week later: “Hope lies in Junior Lieutenant Eimeleus, a multi-faceted athlete who has received many prizes in a variety of sports contests in America, England, Sweden, Switzerland, and Finland.”30 In preparation for the Games, Eimeleus competed against the nation’s top fencers in foil at the Russian Amateur Championships in March and in épée at the Main Gymnastics-Fencing School in May; he was eliminated before reaching the finals at both events.31 Matters took a turn for the worse in Stockholm: after a middling stage in pistol-shooting on the first day and an even poorer performance in the 300-meter swim on the second day, Eimeleus dropped out midway through the fencing program on the third day. Afterward, neither he nor the Russian press made much mention of his participation in modern pentathlon again.32 For the empire’s top athletes, similarly tepid results at the Stockholm Olympics proved motivational: at the first Russian Olympiad held in Kiev on 23–24 August 1913 (an event Eimeleus’s Olympic squad mates and acquaintances from the Main GymnasticsFencing School, Vladimir Sarnavskii and Aleksandr Mordovin, helped organize),

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Figure 0.2: On the left, Eimeleus competes against Bror Karl Anton Mannström of Sweden in the first round of Modern Pentathlon épée matches at the 1912 Stockholm Olympics. The Olympic Games of Stockholm 1912 Official Report, ed. Erik Bergvall, trans. Edward Adams-Rey (Stockholm: Wahlström and Widstrand, 1913), plate 237.

Eimeleus won first prize in saber. Despite the fiasco in Stockholm (figure 0.2), his interest and devotion to fencing would continue throughout his life.33 On 19 November 1912, as the tsar and his government contemplated mobilizing for war in the Balkans, a group known as the Society of Advocates for Winter Troops met at the Main Gymnastics-Fencing School to hear a series of lectures from four members of the Russian Olympic Team.34 Three of the speakers gave their reflections on the Stockholm competitions and Russia’s mediocre showing there, focusing on events that were of particular importance to the military: shooting, equestrian, and fencing. At the 1912 Olympics, the vast majority of participants in these contests—as well as in modern pentathlon—were military officers: therefore, the results from Stockholm’s global stage were parsed by armies all around the world for comparative indications of military preparedness. Rather than focusing on modern pentathlon, Eimeleus, the featured speaker, presented information from his newly published book, Skis in the Art of War. E. E. Teviashov was in the audience and, in his Novoe vremia piece that ran three days later, he quoted extensively from the text of Eimeleus’s “Conclusion” concerning ski training in the armies of Norway, Sweden, Spain, Italy, Switzerland, Japan, France, and

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the Austro-Hungarian Empire, even citing the “15,000 well-trained skiers” available for the military in Germany.35 For a war that now seemed inevitable, these reports indicated a dismaying lack of preparation in the Imperial Russian Army. His reticence to discuss the Olympic debacle notwithstanding, why did Eimeleus choose to focus on skiing during this November gathering? One significant factor was recent news from Antarctica. As Eimeleus composed his book in the winter of 1911–1912, Roald Amundsen of Norway was on his way to the South Pole and back on skis in a race against the Englishman Robert Falcon Scott. By the time Eimeleus’s book was typeset and ready for publication in March 1912, Amundsen had telegraphed to the world that he and his ski team had reached the South Pole first and returned safely. Seven months later, as the book came off the press, a search party was on its way to look for Scott: his body was found that November. The Englishman had disparaged skiing in favor of man-hauling sledges, arrived at the South Pole a month after Amundsen, and perished on the return journey along with his four chosen companions.36 Lost in the subsequent reporting of the tragedy in February 1913 was that Amundsen’s successful expedition had demonstrated the utility of Scandinavian methods of ski travel and its application to a quasi-military operation, the very point Eimeleus was hoping to make to the Imperial Russian Army. Unfortunately, these details had come too late to include in his book. It is interesting to note that around the same time as this meeting of the Society of Advocates for Winter Troops at the Main Gymnastics-Fencing School, several members of the Viipuri (Finland) Court of Appeals had been arrested inside their homes and transported to St. Petersburg for trial because they refused to recognize laws allowing the substitution of Russians for Finns in their nation’s civil administration.37 This development raised a furor in Finland, stirring strong nationalist sentiments and, evidently, a shift in Eimeleus’s devotion to Russia: in mid-January, he twice posted a notice in Suomalainen Wirallinen Lehti, Finland’s official government newspaper of record, that he was changing his name from Aejmelaeus to Aejmelaeus-Äimä, a more Finnish version of his family name.38 A few weeks later, twenty-three of the Finnish jurists were sentenced to prison for their actions in Viipuri.39 In February 1913, close to the publication date of Eimeleus’s article in Sila i zdorov’e, a contingent of Finland’s top skiers, fresh from a successful turn at the Nordic Games in Sweden, came to St. Petersburg for a series of races against Russia’s national ski champion, Nikolai Vasil’ev. The races attracted a huge crowd of proud Finnish ex-pats to the Lesnoi district of St. Petersburg, just a short interurban train ride from Eimeleus’s residence at the Nicholas Cavalry School.40 It’s possible to imagine him in the audience, cheering on his compatriots as they demonstrated the latest ski techniques from the West, humiliating their Russian hosts in the process by taking the top three places.

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At the outbreak of war with the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires in August 1914, Eimeleus was enrolled in the St Petersburg Institute of Archaeology while still holding his commission with the King Edward VII Hussars of Kiev.41 From that location he served with the Trans-Amur Cossacks Cavalry Regiment patrolling the region between the Dnieper River and the Romanian border from 1916 to 1918. Prospects for his survival would not have been good: cavalry duty was especially deadly in the early stages of World War I, when the noble nineteenth-century skill set codified in modern pentathlon by de Coubertin encountered the concentrated fire of twentieth-century machine guns. Against long odds, though, Eimeleus made it through Russia’s tenure in the war alive.42 In the aftermath of the 1917 Russian Revolution, the Bolshevik government, now in control of the Russian state, issued a decree in December that granted independence to Finland. Eimeleus returned immediately to Helsinki to join the Finnish Army on 5 August 1918: he served on the state war crimes prosecution tribunal and then set about reforming instruction for the Karelian cavalry regiment garrisoned at Lappeenranta in 1919.43 Subsequently his political career skyrocketed. In 1919, he was chosen as adjutant to the new president of the Republic of Finland, Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg. During his time serving Ståhlberg he was stationed in the London embassy and awarded the title of Commander of the British Empire, Commander of the Order of the Crown of Italy, as well as Commander of the Order of the White Rose of Finland. Eimeleus continued in his position as adjutant under Ståhlberg’s successor, Lauri Kristian Relender, through 1925. Relender sent him to Moscow as a Finnish military attaché from 1926 until 1928, then to the Hague between 1929 and 1931.44 His last appointment was the command of the Viipuri garrison as of 1 July 1933. Eimeleus married Astrid Hagström that year and later moved to Kiel, Germany, where he died in 1935. This may explain why Tanutrov mistakenly writes that he was serving in Berlin after the war as a military representative “who always rendered assistance to Russian émigrés seeking his help.”45 In addition, Eimeleus participated in a wide variety of endeavors outside of his official governmental duties: he was a member of the Finnish Olympic Committee, representing Finland at the 1920 Antwerp Olympics as a military official and referee; he was a founding member of the Helsingin Miekkailijat (Helsinki Fencers, Finland’s oldest fencing club) in 1923, working as an instructor for the organization and serving as president from 1923 to 1925; he was a member of the Tampere Riding Club; a Freemason; a Rotarian; a founding member of Finnish archaeological and genealogical societies; and continued to write for a variety of Finnish military journals and newspapers.46 Why Eimeleus left Finland for Germany toward the end of his life is unclear. Perhaps it had to do with the relationship between language and nationalism that became a focal point in the Finnish military in the 1920s: the home-grown

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German-trained Jägers who fought during World War I promulgated a campaign against upper-class officers who had served in the imperial Russian armed forces prior to the revolution and civil war. They sought to purge any remnants of “Russianness” from the military that paralleled a growing bias against Swedishspeaking soldiers.47 Certainly, Eimeleus had solid Finnish bona fides: but there is no question that he was fluent in Swedish and Russian as well. This uncomfortable notion of Finnish ethnicity notwithstanding, it is astounding that Eimeleus was able to write so clearly in a language that was not his native tongue. As mentioned earlier, Tanutrov thought Eimeleus spoke Russian poorly when he first met him at the Nicholas Cavalry School in 1906: “He translated the lectures from Russian into Swedish and studied them after class.” Nonetheless, Eimeleus was already a prolific writer, working as a correspondent for magazines in Sweden and Finland to earn extra money for books, the theater, balls, and museum visits.48 That he was able to master Russian well enough to write a book as complex as Skis in the Art of War in a mere five years is a testament to his intellect and stature as a pioneering sports author. As one 1912 Finnish book review (noting in particular how such a book might benefit Finland’s ski industry) exclaimed with obvious pride in a native son: “A well-crafted, expertly written presentation.”49 Equally impressive is his detailed analysis of the movements that comprise cross-country skiing over flat terrain in section XIII. Eimeleus states that previous authors on the subject had been negligent in their work because they only included the most basic descriptions. Employing terminology never before used in Russian to describe movements with which few were familiar, he nonetheless gives a cogent breakdown of the latest techniques from Scandinavia and Finland, bolstered by a whole series of photographs to illustrate his prose. This is perhaps the first attempt in any language to do so. It is a remarkable effort, given that skiing was—and still is—a dynamic sport that must be demonstrated to be learned: no amount of reading or studying photographs can possibly substitute for the real-time observation of a skier in motion. Eimeleus acknowledges this, noting that a demonstration is always better than an explanation. But, he reasons, if there is a dearth of qualified instructors, one must have some sort of written handbook even though photographs and text could never explain clearly enough the sequence of successive motions necessary for moving on skis. He does offer one solution, however: “cinematography has tremendous potential.”50 This notion was confirmed in 1925 with the immediate success of cinematographer Arnold Fanck and skier Hannes Schneider’s book Das Wunder des Schneeschuhs (The Wonders of Skiing), which featured fourteen hundred photographs selected from Fanck’s 1920 film of the same name—as well as his Eine Fuchsjagd im Engadin (A foxhunt in the Engadine) and Der weisse Rausch (The white ecstasy)—to explain Schneider’s technique. Further validation came almost eight decades later, from the authors of

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Langrennsteknikk (Cross-country technique), a Norwegian ski manual filled with descriptions, graphs, and action-sequenced photomontages of the world’s best skiers circa 1981, who qualified their own work by suggesting that the study of film and video in combination with photographs would produce better results.51 Eimeleus was also far ahead of his time with his advocacy of ski training in the Russian armed forces. Nearly three decades after he wrote his book, the Finnish Army—employing many of the ideas first proposed by Eimeleus in 1912—used mobile ski troops to hold the Soviet Union at bay during the Winter War of 1939– 1940.52 In response to the success of the Finns, the Soviet government organized a massive ski mobilization effort prior to the German invasion in 1941. The subsequent Soviet counteroffensive during the winter of 1941–1942 owed much of its success to the Red Army ski battalions that had formed as a result of the mobilization the previous year. The Kremlin’s propaganda machine transformed the Soviet skier into an icon of national defense during the Great Patriotic War and well into the post–World War II era.53 The sport of biathlon—a combination of cross-country skiing and rifle marksmanship—was very much the product of the war years across the battlegrounds of Finland and the Soviet Union. After the war, both nations lobbied hard for the inclusion of biathlon into the Winter Olympics program. In the twenty-first century, biathlon has evolved into one of the most popular winter spectator sports in Europe.54 As you read the present volume, it will be easy to trace Eimeleus’s early influence on this intriguing and multifaceted competition.

Geopolitics in Eastern Europe: 1904–1914 The first decade and a half of the twentieth century—the period during which Eimeleus came of age as an officer in the imperial cavalry—was fraught with momentous change in Russia. Abroad, the great power alliances of the late nineteenth century were shifting; at home, revolution was in the air; and on every border, neighboring states were continually on the edge of war if not actively engaged in hostilities. Outcomes that stemmed from the Crimean War half a century earlier affected three crucial events between 1904 and the outbreak of World War I in 1914: The Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, the Bosnian Crisis of 1908–1909, and the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913. Each of these had a profound influence on the course and development of the Imperial Russian Army and, thus, on the outlook of Lieutenant Eimeleus as he composed his military handbook. For centuries, one of the principal goals of Russian foreign policy has been to gain access into the Mediterranean from the Black Sea through the Turkish Straits (the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles). In the nineteenth century, this manifested itself in a series of wars involving Russia, the

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Ottoman Empire, and various allies on either side. In the 1850s France and Great Britain put aside their rivalry to ally with Sardinia to counter Russian aggression against the Sublime Porte, which resulted in the Crimean War of 1853–1856. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, during which a Russian-led coalition of Bulgarian, Serbian, Montenegrin, and Romanian forces battled the Ottomans in the Balkans and Caucasus, the great powers of Europe—Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire in addition to France and Great Britain—aligned at the Berlin Conference of 1878 to contain Russia. This group united once more to stymie Russia in the aftermath of the Bulgarian Crisis of 1885–1888, an armed conflict between Serbia and Bulgaria that served as a proxy war between the Russian and Austro-Hungarian Empires. In Russia, this fomented intense anti-German sentiment because the country’s pro-Slavic press considered the Austro-Hungarian Empire—aided and abetted by Germany—to be a greater threat than the Ottomans to fellow Slavs in the Balkans. Concurrently, the relationship between Germany and Great Britain was improving, as the former supported the Austro-Hungarian position in the Balkans and the latter pursued forays into areas bordering Russia elsewhere: Afghanistan, Persia, and China. Great Britain was beginning to lose interest in supporting the Ottoman Empire, which created a power vacuum soon filled by Germany in the 1890s. Nonetheless, suspicion about Russian intentions over control of the Turkish Straits continued to influence British concerns in the region and, therefore, fostered implicit approval of Germany’s increasing commitment to the Ottomans. Thus, two crucial elements informed Russia’s diplomatic worldview at the turn of the century, both of which created hostility toward Germany: blocking Austro-Hungarian aggression in the Balkans; and the confrontation with Great Britain all along Russia’s Eurasian border as that nation maintained its support of the Ottoman Empire, Germany’s new protégé.55 At the same time, other problems loomed, far removed from the complexities on the Balkan Peninsula. Since the early 1880s, the tsars—both Alexander III and, as of 1894, Nicholas II—had envisioned a vast East Asian domain beyond Siberia’s borders. As Russia pushed farther into northern China and Korea it eventually bumped up against the Japanese Empire’s own colonial expansion. During China’s Boxer Rebellion of 1898–1901 (a reaction by Chinese militants to the establishment of just such foreign spheres of influence), Russia sent a contingent of troops into Manchuria, ostensibly to protect the railway system. In the aftermath of the rebellion Russia ignored the demands of other powers to withdraw the troops, and by 1903 it was evident that Russia intended to stay in Manchuria indefinitely. The Russian government repeatedly ignored formal diplomatic requests from Japan to clarify its potential spheres of influence in Manchuria and Korea. Heartened by a military alliance with Great Britain signed in 1902, the Japanese navy attacked

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and sank Russian battleships at anchor near Port Arthur in February 1904. The ensuing Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905 was an unmitigated disaster for the Russian Empire: two out of its three fleets were destroyed; the Russian Army was overrun and defeated in Manchuria in 1904 and again at the Battle of Mukden in 1905; Port Arthur was besieged for nearly six months and surrendered in 1905; and back home, massive strikes, mutinies, and political uprisings helped instigate the Revolution of 1905 and a half-hearted change on the part of Tsar Nicholas II from an autocracy to a monarchical democracy.56 One of the most important outcomes of the Russo-Japanese War was the curtailment of Russia’s further expansion into areas beyond Siberia. As a direct result of Germany’s growing influence in the Middle East and its affiliation with Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the Triple Alliance of 1882, a momentous shift occurred as Russia and Great Britain signed the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. This accord limited Russian influence in Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet and forced St. Petersburg to focus all its projections of imperial might into the Balkans where Germany was now firmly established as the new power broker. Simultaneously, there was a rising tide of pan-Slavic sentiment among most Russians who saw themselves as the protectors of the Slav peoples on the Balkan Peninsula against the depredations of Germanic forces from the west. Access through the Turkish Straits for the Black Sea Fleet—the only Russian flotilla remaining above water after the debacle with Japan—continued to be a top priority. This chain of events virtually guaranteed future confrontations in the Balkans between Russia and the Triple Alliance.57 These confrontations occurred soon enough. When the Austro-Hungarian Empire annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina from the Ottoman Empire in October 1908, it provoked a diplomatic uproar in Europe, otherwise known as the Bosnian Crisis of 1908–1909. The Treaty of Berlin, signed in April 1909, formalized the annexation nonetheless, which damaged relations between the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Italy on the one hand and Russia and Serbia on the other. The Bosnian Crisis was a turning point in Balkan affairs: it shattered the willingness of the Austro-Hungarian and Russian Empires to come to terms on regional problems and reinforced the Russian notion that Austria was working hand in glove with Germany. The annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina was yet another humiliation heaped on top of the Japanese fiasco and an unacceptable provocation in a sphere of vital interest to Russia. In the aftermath, the imperial Russian armed forces underwent a major reform and investment program in 1910 so significant that it hastened a corresponding military buildup throughout the rest of Europe.58 Certainly, Junior Lieutenant Eimeleus would have followed these developments with interest from his post in Vasil’kov, a

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short four-day canter from the Austro-Hungarian border in Galicia. His commentary on ski expansion in Austria and that nation’s plans to introduce skiing into Japan is perhaps a reflection of the disturbing currents swirling through the Balkan periphery.59 Whereas the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Germany worked together in the Triple Alliance, Italy tended to go its own way, and—against the advice of its two allies—initiated war with the Ottoman Empire by invading Libya in late 1911 (the Italo-Turkish War of 1911–1912).60 Emboldened by this development, Serbia and Bulgaria joined forces to attack the Ottoman Empire in October 1912, having formed a secretive Balkan league in the months prior with the intention of expelling the Ottomans from the peninsula once and for all. This Balkan league was supported by a Russian foreign policy that was both anti-Ottoman and anti-Austrian. As Serbia and Bulgaria swept through European Turkey in the six weeks that followed their initial attack, the Russian council of ministers and members of the military command tried to persuade the tsar to issue orders for mobilization against the Austro-Hungarian Empire, concentrating forces along the Galician border. Throughout December 1912 and into the early months of 1913, the mood in St. Petersburg was increasingly belligerent with proposals for reinforcement of frontier cavalry units in the Kiev and Warsaw districts, a call-up of reservists to bring troop levels to war strength, and the transport of horses to the Galician border. The Austro-Hungarian Empire responded in kind, mobilizing troops in Galicia; and any incursion by Russia across the border would have brought Germany into the conflict as well.61 In the last days of December, however, cooler heads prevailed and by February 1913 both sides had deescalated the standoff. Yet, this was as close to all-out war as Europe had ever experienced in the twentieth century. It would take another clash in the Balkans and the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo eighteen months later to push the continent over the brink.

Reform of the Army and Eimeleus’s Vocabulary Russia’s humiliating defeat at the hands of Japan in the war of 1904–1905 prompted major revisions in military planning for future wars. While the Russo-Japanese War indicated that battlefield engagements would remain a standard feature of future military operations, the experience of the siege of Russia’s defensive position at Port Arthur and the subsequent shame of surrender had a major impact on tactical planning. First and foremost, advances in the technology of ammunition and firearms made frontal attacks such as those experienced during

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the five-month-long siege at Port Arthur more lethal. To avoid similar situations where long and grinding battles resulted in steep casualty rates, the Russian General Staff revamped tactical doctrine to emphasize offensive operations, specifically seizing the initiative by attacking while both sides were still maneuvering into battle position. Commanders were encouraged to avoid firepower from the front by engaging in flanking operations, rear attacks, and enveloping maneuvers to turn the enemy out of potential defensive placements. In addition, waging war far from major supply centers and in the harsh weather of the Russian Far East suggested that a successful war plan would depend on consideration of all objective factors, especially geography, climate, and lines of communication. This meant that preparation for potential combat in winter conditions would have to be part of the training at Russia’s military academies. All of these factors played an important role in Russian military planning between 1906 and 1914.62 Thus, it is understandable that Eimeleus wrote his book on the use of skis in the military while serving as an officer in the imperial Russian cavalry just six years after the end of the Russo-Japanese War. Modifications in the strategic use of horse-mounted troops for establishing lines of communication and for attacking the enemy in the rear and on the flanks had proved quite effective for the Confederate cavalry during the American Civil War of the early 1860s.63 These lessons were not lost on European military theoreticians in the latter half of the nineteenth century when the armed forces of most nations transformed cavalry regiments from heavily armed shock troops into mobile and stealthy field units. Nonetheless, experiences from the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 made it clear that, in winter, cavalry operations were limited: heavy snowfall and icy roads severely restricted the use of mounted troops and wheeled vehicles. Some armchair generals in the press suggested that, based on the inability of mounted dragoons to pursue Swedish ski troops during the Napoleonic Wars, the Prussians would have had more success in winter combat against the irregular troops of the French Army had they been equipped with skis in northern France.64 As John Allen points out in his introduction to this volume, skiing had just come into its own in the decade prior to the Russo-Japanese War as a means of winter transportation with significant military potential. As both a skier and a cavalryman, Eimeleus understood better than most the possibilities that this new sport offered to the army. This is evident from his frequent references to the utility of ski troops as winter replacements for equestrians in the normal functions of the cavalry. It is no surprise that Eimeleus published his book and delivered his lecture on the importance of skiing in the military to the Society of Advocates for Winter Troops as the First Balkan War was reaching a fever pitch in November 1912. The Balkan Crisis of 1908–1909 over the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina indicated to Russia that, since war with the Austro-Hungarian Empire appeared

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imminent, the imperial army would have to be strengthened. This required a restructuring of the army that had, for all intents and purposes, remained the same since the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878.65 As of 1910, the year Eimeleus entered the Main Gymnastics-Fencing School and began composing Skis in the Art of War, the troops deployed in the three western military districts of Vilnius, Warsaw, and Kiev (which had accounted for nearly 45 percent of Russia’s entire land-based forces) were redistributed more evenly all across the empire. This entailed a vast reorganization of the army into different groupings. The ensuing displacement of the regiments is reflected in the language used by Eimeleus throughout his book to describe the various parts of the 37th Russian Army Corps now newly configured. In these instances, Eimeleus’s prose can sometimes be complicated and inconsistent, perhaps as a result of his own confusion with the changing context of the military. Simply put, as of 1910 when Eimeleus moved from Kiev to St. Petersburg, the army corps contained approximately seventy divisions (divizion), with each of the divisions consisting of two brigades (brigada). Each brigade was made up of two or four regiments (polk), for a total of 236 regiments in all. A colonel (polkovnik) commanded each regiment. Within each of the infantry regiments there were either two or four battalions (batal’on), each consisting of 800–1,000 men led by a lieutenant colonel (podpolkovnik). Each of the battalions contained from two to six companies (rota), each with a captain (kaptan) in command of 100–215 enlisted men. Comprising each company were four platoons (vzvod) with a total of four lieutenants (poruchik) in command of five noncommissioned officers and around 40 enlisted men each. The platoon was divided into four sections (razdel); or into sixteen or more sections (otdelenie) for infantry drill. In addition, each regiment had 100 mounted and 64 unmounted scouts (razvedchik chosen from the ranks of volunteers and okhotniki), one machine-gun detachment (either komanda or otriad) of eight guns divided into four platoons, one detachment of 13 orderlies for communication, one noncombat service company, and one telephone detachment. The cavalry divisions consisted of two brigades made up of two regiments each. The regiments were divided into six squadrons (eskadron) of 128–160 horsemen. Squadrons (equivalent to the infantry rota) were divided into two half squadrons of four platoons made up of sixteen to twenty detachments (riad). In each division there were also two artillery batteries with six cannons apiece.66 Other military terms Eimeleus uses are dozor for a small patrol; otdel for either a division or a section, depending on context (often used interchangeably with razdel); chast’ for an unspecified military unit; otriad for a division, depending on context; partiia for a detachment (such as a small scouting party of 3–5 men); sostav for a squad; komanda for a special detachment or, in the context of sport, a team; and voisko, a Cossack term for an army.67

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Weights and Measures. Dates and Temperatures. Currencies. In addition to the metric system, Eimeleus frequently references Russian imperial weights and measures. These were standardized under Peter the Great and maintained all across Russia up until 1925. The most common term throughout the text is versta (verst), the Russian Empire’s standard measure of linear distance, equivalent to 0.66 miles or 1.07 kilometers. Other lengths encountered are diuim (inch), equivalent to 1 inch, or 2.54 centimeters; vershok (plural, vershka or vershki), equivalent to 1.75 inches, or 4.44 centimeters; fut (foot), equal to one foot (12 inches) or 30.48 centimeters; arshin (plural, arshiny), 2.33 feet or 71.12 centimeters; shag (pace), around 2.5 feet or 76.2 centimeters; and sazhen’ (plural, sazheni), 7 feet or 2.13 meters. Eimeleus refers to two measurements of weight: funt (plural, funty), equivalent to 0.903 pounds or 409.52 grams; and pud (plural, pudy), equal to 36.12 pounds or 16.38 kilograms. He also gives temperatures according to the Réaumur scale (degrees Ré). This was a system devised by René Antoine Ferchaulte de Réaumur in the eighteenth century that was widely used in France, Germany, and Russia throughout the first half of the nineteenth century, and subsequently in Russia through the first decades of the twentieth. In Réaumur, the freezing point of water is 0 Ré, equivalent to 0 degrees Celsius (0 C) or 32 degrees Fahrenheit (32 F); the boiling point is 80 Ré (100 C or 212 F). Dates in the Russian Empire followed the Julian, rather than the Gregorian, calendar. At the turn of the century, this required an adjustment of thirteen days to align with most of the rest of the world. Finally, Eimeleus states prices in Russian rubles. In 1914 one ruble (containing 100 kopeks) was worth fifty cents US or two shillings British currency (twenty shillings to one British pound). As a point of comparison in various sections of the book, I use prices from the Grand Duchy of Finland where one Finnish markka (100 penniä) was worth around 35 kopeks. Thus, in the first decade of the twentieth century, the approximate value of 1 US dollar was: 2 Russian rubles; 4 British shillings; or 5.72 Finnish markkaa.68

A Note on Translating The most challenging aspect of translating this text has not been the dictionary-and-grammar-book work most often associated with such a task. Rather, it has been suppressing my twenty-first-century knowledge of Russian while immersing myself in the prewar/prerevolutionary vocabulary and milieu of the empire to comprehend how Eimeleus transferred his thoughts and concerns onto the written page. As you will see, this book is far from a simple monograph on

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skiing: the author touches on various aspects of history, snow science, woodworking, physical education, textile manufacturing, children’s games, military parades, and myriad other topics in the course of his writing. Many of these subjects are obsolete and uncommon today; and Eimeleus often describes them using archaic and unfamiliar terminology. Consulting A. Aleksandrov’s turn-of-the-century Polnyi Russko-Angliiskii slovar’ has been helpful, but the simple entries do not provide enough contemporary context, an essential element for conveying this book’s wide-ranging information into a translation for the modern reader. More useful has been Brokgauz and Efron’s Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, an eighty-six-volume universal encyclopedia published in St. Petersburg between 1890 and 1907. Between 1911 and 1916, this encyclopedia appeared in a new updated version, in twenty-nine of a planned forty-eight volumes. The well-written articles within both versions are a wonderful resource for re-creating the scientific, historical, and artistic zeitgeist of late imperial Russia. Similarly, Genrikh A. Leer’s Entsiklopediia voennykh i morskikh nauk and Ivan D. Sytin’s Voennaia entsiklopediia provide insight into the complexities of the Imperial Russian Army. I have also found that extensive reading in St. Petersburg’s newspapers and magazines—such as Niva, Gazeta-Kopeika, and Novoe vremia—provides the best frame of reference for Eimeleus’s turn-of-the-century prose. Especially useful is the weekly pictorial Ogonek, one of St. Petersburg’s most popular journals, publication of which began in 1899 and ran continuously through 1916 (and resumed again in 1923). Each issue is chock-full of illustrations, photographs, cartoons, and line drawings with accompanying captions; the advertising sections in particular provide a treasure trove of late-nineteenth and early-twentieth-century terms and phrases. Such alignment of pictures with vocabulary is an extremely efficient means of learning any language, employed in nearly all forms of elementary instruction. WILLIAM D. FRANK

MAIN GYMNASTICS-FENCING SCHOOL PRESS.

Lieutenant Eimeleus,

a graduate of the School.

Skis in

the Art of War. E D I T E D

B Y

School Instructor Lieutenant Gostev.

S t. P e t e r s b u r g ,

Office of Periodical Publications

1912.

Press: Ministry of Finance

De dicat e d to t he Russian A rmy. The Author

From the Editor1 The author of this work is a first-class athlete who won a number of prizes

across a variety of sports and graduated first in his class while attending the Main Gymnastics-Fencing School (MGFS) during the 1910–1911 school year.2 Lieutenant Eimeleus was assigned to train MGFS officers in skiing and he did a sensational job: the School’s competition results are a testament to his abilities. He put forth a great deal of time and effort training a cadre of officers previously unfamiliar with skiing in theory and technique and at the same time managed to collect a variety of decorations and awards: First prize, the gold medal in cutting clay and switches.3 First prize, the gold medal in ski-running 10 versts in 51 minutes, 27.33 seconds.4 First prize, the gold medal in running 1500 meters in 5 minutes, 7 seconds.5 Second prize, the grand silver medal in saber fencing and in bayonet. Fourth prize, the grand bronze medal in gymnastics and in field gymnastics.6

While still enrolled and at the command of the MGFS administration, Eimeleus began to compile this handbook of skiing. Using his knowledge of works written in Swedish, Norwegian, and Finnish, the author has produced a full and comprehensive manual. He’s even incorporated Russian sources into this composition: he includes a short checklist of the most important writings he consulted. Motivating Eimeleus and the MGFS Press was the absence of a serious scientific treatise on skiing in Russian. But truly, an abundance of illustrations makes this publication a visual textbook. The School trusts that individuals, even those with scant knowledge of the sport, can learn skiing thoroughly: and this holds true not just for our military platoons but also for the country’s clubs and organizations.7 This is appropriate for our dear Motherland, possessing as she does “the cold, wild crags,” yet, up until now, lagging behind foreigners in this sphere of winter sport.8 Scandinavian governments already have instruction manuals for teaching troops about skiing; the French instruct skiing in their military units and also organize ski competitions through the Club Alpin Français; in Switzerland, nearly everyone skis. But we, who live almost half the year choked by snow, do not know how to cope with winter when there are no roads, or how to dispatch scouts into areas

6

From the Editor

far afield: we collapse on the march, trudging along up to our knees in it as if the snow itself were the foe. But we’re hopeful that we can turn the mantle of winter to our advantage; and that, in the not too distant future, we will see that this book has aroused interest in a healthy and extremely important sport for the military; and that it becomes one of the sources for establishing regulations for our troops.

ILLUSTRATIONS 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, AND 55 REFERRED TO ON PAGES 53 THROUGH 56 ARE INSERTED AT THE BACK OF THE BOOK IN THE FORM OF A FREESTANDING APPENDIX.9

Preface Very little written in Russian addresses skis in their many forms and how to

use them. The goal of my present work is to supplement this omission (which the troops have acknowledged for quite a while) and to acquaint the Russian military with the theory of skiing and, in particular, the application of skis to the army.1 My tenure at the Main Gymnastics-Fencing School convinced me that, on the one hand, officers of the School had little experience with skis and, in the majority of cases, had only a perfunctory understanding of skiing, especially as it pertains to the military. On the other hand, their splendid results, despite a very brief period of training, indicate the measure of a Russian officer’s capabilities when he incorporates energy, willingness, and interest. Using skis efficiently and handling them correctly in any situation for skillful travel, knowing what we can demand of a skier, and so on—is so monumentally important in military matters, that it doesn’t suffice just to know how to ski along haphazardly: we must understand this type of training thoroughly and on a level equal to the other branches of the military arts. Foreign history, as well as our own, brims with examples demonstrating how such an understanding rendered tremendous service in defeating the enemy. Even though skis have been used in winter warfare from ancient times right up to the present, here at home their use is insignificant in the training of troops and, more often than not, completely forgotten. The military views skiing as an amusement, as an agreeable pastime, or, in the best-case scenario, as a sport, with no direct relationship to the art of war. Only a few units take it seriously. This defect in peacetime preparation cannot continue unchallenged in the army during the difficult days of its battle tests.2 Such a state of affairs exists because of a lack of books, manuals, and texts as well as scant awareness of the relevance of skiing. To correctly organize and develop skiing in the army requires the study of theory, technique, methodology, mechanics, and the history of skiing, and most of all, you have to practice it in the field. Despite the practical advantages, skiing has huge potential to affect development of the human body. Few activities provide such multifaceted and beneficial aspects. The use of skis should attain its own place alongside other military activities as a source of strength and health in preparing troops for battle.3 Putting myself into the position of a beginner, I have endeavored to include in my work everything that is crucial for a presentation

8

Preface

on skiing, to give answers wherever possible to current questions, and to provide practical advice for empowering education. In short, it has been my goal to compose an outline or handbook with explanations for every misconception, both from the perspective of the skiers themselves and that of the MGFS instructors. Whether I have successfully resolved this task, only the future can tell. I would consider myself fully recompensed—if only temporarily before the appearance of a new, more comprehensive and detailed work—should this book help someone who is interested, and contribute even in the smallest way to the development of skiing in the military, so useful and dear to my heart. It is difficult to express all of my deep feelings to the many people who rendered assistance with advice and comments. I am profoundly grateful to the commandant of the MGFS, Colonel Mordovin,4 who showed spirited interest in my work; and to the Secretary for Academics and the Adjutant of the School, Captain Sarnavskii,5 who helped me in every way and was always ready to explore research questions; and, in particular, to Lieutenants Gostev6 and Bezak7 who contributed a lot of time and put in an equal amount of work during the production of this book. Prior to the composition of this work, I studied primarily Norwegian, Swedish, and Finnish sport literature, which is filled with information on skiing.8 I tried to use all the works listed below, in so far as they encompassed details pertinent to my thesis. This study is the result of my labor: may it stir in the troops a love for skiing and may they use it as a handbook for the study of the correct and rational adaptation of skis into the art of war. Accept the humble work of one of your sons, my beloved Russian Army. K. B. E. E. EIMELEUS St. Petersburg,

1912

Sources Norwegian:  Nansen, F. “Paa ski over Grönland”1 Huitfeldt. “Laerebog i skilöbning” Swedish:     Jägerskiöld. “Om skidor och skidlöpning”2 Möller. “Om skidlöpning”3 Finnish:    Sandberg. “Den finska skidan”4 Wilskman. “Idrotten i Finland”5 Heikel, V. “Gymnastikens teori”6 German:   Schottelius. “Der Schisport” Fendrich. “Der Skiläufer”7 French    Bernard. “Guide du Skieur” Russian:    “Military Digest” 18918 Komets. “Concerning Skis and Skiing”9 Borodin. “Ski-Sport”10 Ogorodnikov. “Guidelines for Using Skis with Military Goals”11 Bokin. “Outdoor Games”12

I. THE HYGIENIC AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF SKIING1

Running on skis requires no special hygienic rules.2 Regarding nutrition, you

should not overeat before a run just as generally you shouldn’t before any gymnastic exercise. Because running on skis takes place only in the winter, that is, at the time of year when temperatures are low, those who are taking up skiing should pay special attention to clothing. With vigorous walking or running on skis, a person sweats profusely and so clothing should correspond to the intensified effort. Best of all, of course, are fabrics such as wool (shirts, mittens, etc.) like Lahmann’s or Jäger’s that are porous and capable of absorbing and releasing moisture well.3 On the move, a person is at risk of serious heat loss; before stopping, you should shield yourself from the wind and direct exposure to cold air. Therefore, ski aficionados recommend warm fur capes or other similar items for protection from rapid cooling of the body at rest stops. Otherwise, you risk catching a cold in the end. Still better, if possible, is to change clothes damp with perspiration for fresh, dry ones. For this, it is recommended that you have a linen rucksack on your back—you can also stow provisions there. When it is cold, pay attention to the possibility of a general cooling off as well as to the chilling of specific body parts: that is, freezing ears, cheeks, nose, and extremities. One of the first signs of freezing is the loss of feeling, then the frozen part turns white, becoming hard and cold to the touch. Before such symptoms appear, it is better to start massaging the affected body part with snow until feeling returns: this is almost always accompanied by strong and unpleasant pain. In the unfortunate case of freezing, with the appearance of blisters in combination with these other problems, avoid a warm room at all costs.4 For general chills, try to restore a feeling of warmth with hot drinks and other products. Warm milk with cocoa works best of all, kept in a so-called Thermos—this is a bottle that keeps drinks hot for many hours. Later on, a solution of sugar in water (sugar syrup) is beneficial.*5To prevent common chilling, fats work well, especially butter. Alcohol—in all its forms—not only hinders warming but, to the contrary, lowers the body temperature.6 Although skiing can have its unpleasant side, it does provide so much benefit that you shouldn’t pay attention to these insignificant drawbacks. Through skiing * At this point, we should mention the recent development of the Grelka, a metal bottle 7–8 centimeters in diameter with an enclosed pad saturated with methyl alcohol. Evaporation takes place through perforations with a special platinum compound set inside, creating heat. Placed for example inside a pocket or hand muff such a Grelka can sustain a temperature of 40º C over the course of six hours. Editor.5

12

SECTION I

it is possible to absorb prodigious amounts of oxygen, that substance so essential to the human body. It develops a person’s hardiness, adroitness, and dexterity. Three types of locomotion constitute skiing: walking, running, and jumping. These activities require immense effort from all the muscles of your body, causing extreme fatigue at first. But, after that, through gradual and deliberate preparation, you become powerful and strong both in terms of exercise as well as in tolerating low temperatures. How wonderful and beneficial to go skiing on a clear, crisp day and how much delight you’ll have on the downhill run.7 Just as with any sport, accidents can happen while skiing, although these are few and far between: more often than not, it’s the dislocation or fracture of an arm or leg. Should this occur, you can offer first aid if it is carried out (for the most part) with complete knowledge and composure: if you can’t, better to keep your hands off and send for medical help. In that case, pay attention to the injured person, settling him comfortably and safeguarding against the cold and other troublesome trauma.

II. A SHORT OUTLINE OF SKIING HISTORY1

We do not know precisely when skis first appeared. In ancient times, long

before the Christian era, only a few people walked on skis as a means of transportation.*2In a manner of speaking, it’s plausible that other populations used them regularly for hunting and warfare. Employing ethnographic research and comparing ski descriptions from populations in Europe, especially in its northern and eastern borderlands (among the Finns, Karelians, Laplanders, natives of Perm, Mordovians, etc.) as well as those in northern Asia (among the Chukchi, Samoyeds,3 Tungus,4 Mongols, etc.), we conclude that the birthplace of skis must be the Baikal and Altai mountain regions as far back in time as the Finno-Ugric period.**5 The nomadic peoples of Northern Asia spread skis to the east across the Bering Straits into North America and to the west into Sweden and Norway.6 We can say with certainty that in present-day Finland using skis was common earlier than anywhere else in Europe. Even before the Finns arrived there, the indigenous inhabitants—the Laplanders—knew how to ski and accomplished amazing results, outperforming the skill of their Finnish persecutors.7 By the fifth century, the Greek historian Procopius was already writing about the proficiency of the “skrithifinai” as did Jordanes (Jornand) about the “screrofennae,” both no doubt having in mind the Laplanders.8 At the end of the seventh century, Warnefrid the Lombard describes skis in detail, the act of running on them, and the skill of the Finns in the pursuit of wild animals on skis. Paulus Diaconus (770)9 substantiates this.10 The ancient epic “Kalevala” makes clear that the Finns knew how to prepare and use skis early on and that the preparation and use of skis were known to the Finns long ago; skill on skis has passed so deeply into Finland’s concept of nationalism that it is an accepted truism that a Finn could catch any type of animal.11 From this it follows that the Finns did not learn skiing from the Laplanders. Rather, it is much more likely that this was the case for the Scandinavians.12 It is true that at the time of the Finns’ migration into their current location, the Swedes and Norwegians were accomplished skiers: but many older writers believe they acquired that knowledge from the indigenous inhabitants of the north, the Laplanders, and possibly from the Finns. In 1555 Olaus Magnus detailed the use * Xenophon, writing about his own travels in Asia Minor (four hundred years before the Christian era) says that mountain dwellers in Armenia attached sacks to the hooves of horses so that they would not break through the snow. Strabo, twenty years after the birth of Christ, says that Armenians used circular planks (with nails attached) for snow travel. Modern-day mountain people are using devices very similar to these in function and form.2 ** Fridtjof Nansen: “Paa Ski over Grönland” [sic].5

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of skis by Norwegians for hunting, competition, and for life in general. In 1644 the Danish historian Saxo provided the first illustrations of skis.13 The Norwegians, in their turn, transferred skis to Greenland, Iceland, and North America.14 Europeans conveyed skis into South America and Australia.15 Mention of skiing in Russia occurred for the first time in the mid-sixteenth century (Herberstein).16 It is clear that for sportsmen who are generally interested in the history of skiing, these remarks are insufficient, but my goal is an account of the practical side of acquiring ski skills and, therefore, I cannot dwell on history in more detail. Rather, I refer the reader to Fritdtjof Nansen’s book “On skis across Greenland.”17

III. THE EVOLUTION OF SKIS

It stands to reason that the ski—just like everything else in the entire world—

did not appear in its modern form immediately; it evolved and improved step by step as people needed and then developed a convenient means of transportation. In its primitive configuration it hardly resembled a contemporary ski: it was a circular slat or willow frame with wicker netting—the so-called truga (figure 3.1)—whose purpose was to prevent the foot from sinking into the snow.1 Even today, similar skis are used in Scandinavia and other snowy regions of the world, for example in Canada. In Armenia they even use them on the feet of horses. Sometimes, truga were made from elongated slabs of wood or leather in the shape of a huge sole. This archaic form in all likelihood had much in common with the “snow skis” found in Asia, for example among the Chuchki (figure 3.2). These devices were comparatively slow and awkward. According to some researchers, these skis—affixed with cleats to prevent slipping—are still Figure 3.1: “Truga.” See Jägerskiöld, Om skidor, 4. in use by a few mountain tribes. On the one hand, the so-called Indian ski found currently in the northern parts of America developed from these “truga” with certain improvements. On the other hand, an elongated and slideable apparatus made out of wood evolved, often covered with fur on the lower side or base: on the whole, these were similar to what we have grown accustomed to calling “skis” today.2 It is likely that the transition undergone by truga from an apparatus for walking slowly to one for sliding happened much earlier among the Finns than among the Scandinavians. They used truga in a primitive form as early as the fifteenth century (Olaus Magnus).3 Beyond that, we have no evidence that indicates the Finns had knowledge of them. So as the foregoing demonstrates, the evolution of skis from this primitive beginning went in two completely different directions: among the natives of America the Figure 3.2: “Snow skis.” See Jägerskiöld, Om skidor, 5. excellent Canadian ski evolved from the unwieldy truga just as in Europe the splendid and efficient ski arose (although in quite a variety of forms). The types of skis are extraordinarily diverse, depending on specific climactic situations, localities, and functions.4 Ancient skis were shorter and wider than the more advanced forms of contemporary skis. In addition, they were of unequal lengths for either foot.5 For a long time, skis were covered with reindeer fur underneath, just as today it is customary among several

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Siberian peoples; these skis enable climbing a steep slope because the hair—with the nap positioned from front to rear—does not slide backward. In all other aspects they are inferior to European skis. Despite their drawbacks (when the skis get wet they become heavy, the skin wears thin over a short period of time, etc.) they have nonetheless been in extensive use up to the last century.6 One important reason is that skis covered with skin would glide with comparative ease in thawing weather and materially aided movement through crust and snow frozen by rain. As I have said, this type of ski is found now only rarely here and there in regions of Siberia. Soon, smooth-based skis came into use. The left-side ski “lyly”*78was usually big, up to eight arshiny in length;9 it was fashioned out of hard pitch-pine. The right-side “kalhu” was shorter and as a general rule always covered in fur (figure 3.3). It was made from birch wood. For the most part, the right foot made a push, and glide was sustained on the left. If the “kalhu” was smooth, it was called “sivakka” (gliding). The relationship of the length of the right ski to that of the left varied, but generally it was 2:3.

Figure 3.3: “The left-side ski (lyly)—3.3 meters in length; right-side (kalhu)—1.9 meters with very negligible camber. Width of both skis 8 centimeters.” Shown is the left-side ski only, top view, side view, and cross-section.

* The word lyly in Swedish, and tennar in Norwegian, signifies “pitch- pine”; kalhu in Swedish is “gliding” (ski).8

IV. VARIOUS TYPES OF SKIS1

Today, both skis in a pair are the same length and have smooth bases.2 There

are two main categories of skis, each drastically different from the other—namely, Indian (Canadian) and European (Norwegian, Finnish). The main function of Canadian skis is to keep a person on the surface of the snow; travel is accomplished by stepping.3 The Indian ski consists of a wooden oval ring interlaced with cords, thongs, or willow plaits, with two crossbars (figure 4.1). The front part is turned up just a bit. There is a half-round opening in the netting for the toes behind the forward crossbar and along the side are two holes for straps with which the skis are attached to the feet. The length is 95 to 110 centimeters and the width between 30 and 45 centimeters. A similar kind of ski evolved with the substitution of a circular plank of wood having an oblong taper turned up at the Figure 4.1: “Indian ski.” A front. This was the precursor to European skis, which in turn word for “snowshoe” did not branched into five main groups: Lapland, Russian, Swedish, exist in Russian at the time Eimeleus was writing his book. Norwegian, and Finnish. A few of these have further subdivisions as well depending on different conditions. These skis are divided again into two basic categories in terms of their special functions: mountain and running.4 Both categories have a multitude of variations. Out of all the purely Russian skis, the best is the Vologod ski (figure 4.2). But it is quite rough and clumsy and doesn’t offer anything of interest to us, just like others of this sort: the Novgorod, Zyrian, and the Lapland are additionally unimproved and undesirable from a military point of view (figure 4.3). In its original state, the Swedish Figure 4.2: “Vologod skis.” The dimensions of the ski on the left are 3 vershka (5.25 inches or 13.34 centimeters) in width at the tail; 1 arshin, 6 vershki (3 feet, 2.5 inches or 97.79 centimeters) from the tail to the foot-strap groove; 1 arshin, 5 vershki (3 feet, 0.75 inches or 93.35 centimeters) from the foot-strap groove to the tip; the curvature of the tip rises 5–6 vershki (from 8.75 inches or 22.23 centimeters to 10.5 inches or 26.67 centimeters). The dimensions of the ski on the right are 3 vershka wide at the tail and 4 vershka (7 inches or 17.78 centimeters) wide under the “birch bark” foot platform; the thickness of the ski at the tail is 0.5 vershok (0.875 inch or 2.22 centimeters); 1 arshin, 10 vershki (3 feet, 9.5 inches or 115.57 centimeters) from the tail to foot-strap groove; 1 arshin, 1 vershok (2 feet, 5.75 inches or 75.56 centimeters) from footstrap groove to tip; the curvature of the tip rises 5–6 vershki.

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ski is perhaps an intermediate step between the Lapland and the Finnish ski. This type of ski is much improved (see, for example, those manufactured by Mr. Sahlin of Östersund) and currently boasts many excellent features, certainly the equivalent of a Finnish ski.5 The Stockholm and Selbu skis are a cross between a mountain and a running ski.6 Of special interest for our troops are the so-called military skis (figure 4.4), which have had wide distribution in the Swedish Army. They are made out of birch wood and are heavier in the front. They are suitable for the mountains as well as for running. Out of three sizes, the more useable are the first two—the short ones of 8.0 and 8.5 feet. It would be preferable to test this ski here at home in Russia on a wider scale: all evidence indicates it would be the best choice.7 We will now turn our attention to the Norwegian mountain and Finnish running skis, with a bit more detail. Both of these have wide distribution throughout Russia and are absolutely the best examples of either category.8 The Norwegian running ski resembles those from Finland Figure 4.3: “Lapland ski.” The ski cross-section corre- and Sweden: so, let’s have a look at the best examples of sponds to the line а–б. Norwegian mountain skis, such as the so-called Telemark model, the archetype in this category according to most people.9 Peculiar to this type of ski is that the greatest width occurs at the front near the curved tip; its smallest width is around the middle just under the foot; then, toward the back, it increases again but not as much as on the front part. Sometimes, the skis are configured a little differently: the inner edges are carved more deeply, so that you can bring the skis closer together. But this gives you different skis for either foot. (This special quality does not appear among other types of skis apart from a few regions where lyly and sivakka are in use).10 Generally, the ski is short (around 2.25 meters in length and around 8–9 centimeters in width; the surface area is around 16 square decimeters). The platform upon which the foot rests lies behind the center of gravity.11 There is not a lot of camber:*12around 2 centimeters or none at all. The tip is more pronounced than on other skis. The center of gravity is in the middle or just a little bit forward; the length forward is greater than the length toward the back. The base (the under surface) is flat with sharp edges and coated for the most part with pitch resin. The center groove is rounded off (figure 4.5). Because * Normally, if you look at a ski sideways, it doesn’t take the form of a straight line with the curved end toward the front (tip): rather, the middle part is arched so that the base of the ski is raised up off the ground a little bit. The author uses the word “vygib” for this. Editor.12

Various Types of Skis

19

of its design, the Telemark ski is indispensable in rough and mountainous regions and, of course, in the woods. Another advantage is that it allows you to make all kinds of turns and jumps inconceivable on other skis, significantly expediting a mountain excursion. But this ski has limitations: it glides poorly through crusted snow; the tip plows down into deep snow and sometimes does not glide through wind-drifted snow banks, requiring extra effort on the part of the skier. Trainees will find it a good choice because it is short, stable, and not particularly slippery.

Figure 4.4: “Military ski (width 7.5–8.5 centimeters, thickness 2.75 –3.0 centimeters, width 7.5–8.5 centimeters; length 8.0, 8.5, and 9.0 feet).”

Figure 4.5: “Telemark ski (greatest width [by tip] 95 millimeters, thickness 7 millimeters; width at foot platform 80 millimeters, thickness 40 millimeters; [by tail] width 87 millimeters, thickness 7 millimeters; length 228 centimeters overall; 103 centimeters to balance point.” Jägerskiöld, Om skidor, 11.

We have now examined in broad outline all the types of skis that interest those of us with an eye toward military matters. All that remains is to examine Finnish skis. We will concentrate on them in more detail because it’s critical for us to get better acquainted due to their wide distribution in Russia and popularity in the army. It’s difficult to say exactly which of these is the best—everything is relative: we need to understand the limitations and benefits of the different types and then choose the one that suits the given location and task at hand. One type may be appropriate for travel through crusted snow and across level ground; another, for

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use in the woods where the snow is loose and all manner of turns are required; a third type may be more useful around open regions and lakes where constant wind compacts the snow and creates an undulating surface; a fourth, preferable for mountain regions where descents are interspersed with climbs—you might even be better off with a mountain ski there; and so on. While Finland has many kinds of skis, here we are concerned only with those that have extensive distribution and are suitable for military ends. We will distinguish two main groups: (1) those with narrow tips and (2) those with wide tips (both, of course, have pointed ends). The Kajana and Pudasjärvi belong to the first group.13 Under the designation Kajana we recognize that there are many types of skis based on a single configuration (for example, Puolanko, Muhos, Paltamo, and others), which generally have taken their names from the regions where they are manufactured. The Puolanko, the quintessential Kajana ski (figure 4.6) has wide distribution and enjoys tremendous popularity because of its low price and many good qualities. It’s made from birch wood, and you won’t find a more supple and lightweight ski relative to its size. It travels well around a prepared track, through crusted snow, and over a firm trail. It is less suitable for deep snow and dense forest. The base is flat and the center groove is cut at a square angle. The length is around 3 meters with a width of around 8 centimeters. Its weight is about 2.25 kilograms Figure 4.6: and the surface area is 19–21 square decimeters. “Puolanko ski.” There are holes for straps near the middle or a little toward the front. The next ski belonging to this main group—the Muhos—has greater width and is more robust. It has a beautiful tip and, in general, is constructed with great attention to detail (figure 4.7). The Haapavesi is an example of a racing ski and belongs to the second, or wide-tip, group.14 This ski distinguishes itself from the others by its narrow profile (around 6.5–7 centimeters) and minimal surface area. It is intended for fast running through crusted snow, along a road, or on a prepared track. It is less useful in loose snow. The base is flat with a center groove cut square and rectilinear. Fastening straps for controlling its maneuverabil- Figure 4.7: “Muhos ski.” ity are located a little bit forward of the middle of the ski. The

Various Types of Skis

21

camber is quite pronounced with its maximum height just behind the foot rest area (figure 4.8). The length is around 2.75 meters. The Ylitorneo ski is another example from the wide-tip ski category (figure 4.9). Its handling is certainly more versatile since it is shorter than other types of skis and a little wider. The base is either flat or rounded off with either a square-cut or half-round center groove. On the running model, the foot rest area is somewhere around the middle; and for the hunting model, a little toward the tail. The Ylitorneo has less camber than the Haapavesi. The length of the running model is around 2.75 meters, its width is from 7.5 to 8 centimeters. Measurements for the

Figure 4.9: “Ylitorneo ski.” The dimensions are 8.5 –10 feet in length; 3.5–3.75 inches in width (just behind foot platform). The ski cross-section corresponds to the line г—г.

Figure 4.8: “Haapavesi ski.”

Figure [Ijo] ski.”

4.10: “Ii

hunting model are 2.5 meters by 8.5–9 centimeters. The surface area is 19 square decimeters and it weighs 2.25 kilograms. I should also mention the Ii ski, manufactured by Kalle Jussila, a famous athlete and record holder from Ii.15 This ski has a lot in common with the Kajana although the tip and surface area are different. It’s a racing type of ski (figure 4.10). Now let’s say a few words about forest skis. Considering how commonly Russians use this type of ski in and around the countless stands of trees that blanket the countryside, there’s probably no reason to mention them at all. In order

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to move freely through the densest woods, the forest ski must be shorter than other types. The center of gravity is right at the binding straps or sometimes just forward. In figure 4.11, we see a ski that measures 2.25 meters in length with a width of 10 centimeters. The surface area is 18 square decimeters and it weighs 2.2 kilograms. It’s a good ski in loose deep snow, convenient when a hunter has to carry a load or drag something from behind. For mountain travel or running it is less suitable. There are other forest skis, for example, that are 2 meters in length and 15 centimeters wide: these dimensions make the foot rest area larger, yet the weight is the same. There is just one last special type of ski to consider, called the “normal.”16 This is the most recently developed ski out of all the ones in current use but it is nonetheless the most advanced. Manufacturers have lately tried to build a model suitable for every possible region and for any imaginable situation.17 Of course, such a ski must have a lot in common with the other types of skis I’ve written about by combining, through the elimination of all shortcomings, only their good qualities. Mr. Otto Brandt—an Figure 4.11: “Forest ski.” authority and expert on skiing—has made a big step forward in the resolution of this problem and has constructed an ideal, universal archetype. Here’s what the inventor himself has to say: Invoking a ski that in many respects resembles the Ylitorneo style, it is cast in the same mold—elegant yet sturdier at the tip. It has the agility and strength of Haapavesi skis and it’s suitable for difficult and rugged terrain. The length of one of my skis is 285 centimeters, width at the foot rest area is 7 centimeters [figure 4.12]. Another version, intended for even more difficult and rugged terrain (and also for hunting) is a little shorter and wider. Its length is 240 centimeters, front width of 9 centimeters, tail width 8.2 centimeters and, at the foot rest area, 7.5 centimeters. The center groove is a little broader and its base is more square-cut than on the running type and it has less camber. The ski’s center of gravity is toward the front. The top surface of both types of skis is half-round: the curvature gradually grows less toward the front and the back; and at the tail of the ski it becomes flat. Such construction lightens the ski while at the same time preventing snow from accumulating on the surface. The tail of the ski is straight with just a touch of a rounded edge: this strengthens the ski while also facilitating an ascent over a steep slope. The width of the foot rest area is similar to the Ylitorneo; the center of gravity is placed a little behind. The base of the ski is completely flat. The center groove has a depth of 5 millimeters under the foot rest area and then gradually decreases both front to back while at the same time it

Various Types of Skis

23

Figure 4.12: “Normal skis.” This illustration appeared in a 1906 article by Wilskman, later reprinted in his Idrotten i Finland, 109. See “Normaalisuksi,” Suomen Urheilulehti 2 (March 1906): 127–28.

slightly narrows incrementally toward the tip and widens toward the tail: thus, at the tip the center groove has a width of 20 millimeters, in the middle 22 millimeters, and at the tail 24 millimeters. The edges of this ski are much thicker and sharper than other types, with the advantage that it glides well and is more controllable, lighter, more stable, more resilient, more robust, doesn’t warp, and follows a straight track.

In consideration of our discussion, a good ski should possess the following qualities:18 it should not fatigue the skier; it should be lightweight and easy to use; it should have good glide providing the minimum coefficient of friction from the snow; it should be durable without succumbing to abrasion from ice crust; it should not absorb water; it should have sufficient camber; it should be flexible so that it doesn’t break during a run through rugged terrain; it should have ample surface area to bear the weight of the skier without penetrating too deeply into the snow; it should have a perfectly flat and level base; it should not have a lot of defects and knots in the wood, at least around the tip and tail and near the foot-rest area. The center groove must be straight and not too deep so as not to compromise the durability of the ski.19 There are two types of center grooves: the rectilinear and one that gradually widens; either can be straight-cut or rounded. It is clear that the best of all is the one that is rounded and gradually widens to the tail because snow cannot get compacted so easily and has an unrestricted exit to the rear thus reducing the coefficient of friction (as skis drag over snow). Twisting and warping from side to side and bowing up and down is a major defect: and quite often, it cannot be fixed. This undesirable occurrence compromises the speed and precision of the ski’s movement.

V. MATERIAL FOR SKIS

A few aspects of ski manufacturing are worth discussing because this type

of work really is a complete science, and not everyone takes to it with the same degree of seriousness. The proper manufacture of skis is the business of specialized craftsmen, and while we don’t have space to go into all the details here, we need to be able to ascertain when skis are well made from appropriate material so we can tell the good from the bad. Concerning the quality of raw material, the most useful timber comes from pine or hardwoods. It has to be a hard, lightweight, supple, and durable type of wood. Of the pine varieties, the most common is Scots pine, especially on the side facing north where the layers are more compact and thin—the perfect material for skis. A pine bend (lylymänty) is far more compact than normal pine and very resinous: one finds it rather rarely.1 Some people even train trees into artificial bends, but you have to wait many years for them to form. Skis made from such wood are smooth but heavy and become fragile during a frost (20 to 25 degrees Ré).2 In Sweden and Norway, pine has wide distribution, but spruce not so much: even though it yields a light ski, it wears down too soon. In figure 5.1 we see clearly which part of the tree is suitable for ski manufacturing. In Scandinavia, several ski makers use primarily deciduous trees: aspen, ash, and even goat willow.3 In most cases, a ski made of aspen glides better than birch and even has the advantage of being lightweight, a good quality in loose snow. But it wears down quickly on frozen crust and it’s not useful at all if it gets wet. Elm, beech, maple, ash, and oak all yield excellent material suitable for skis. The one drawback is their weight. Some people make skis from these types of wood for travel in rough terrain and for mountain descents. Ash is used predominantly: beech skis, although they weigh the same as ash, are less flexible and break sooner. Skis made out of elm are very smooth: the common folk in Norway say: “The devil himself stands behind you on skis of elm.”4 Birch is used extensively in Finland because the countryside has almost no other species of trees. It’s hard to say whether birch is better, Figure 5.1: “The best material for skis during manufacturing: from pine, A and B; from birch, C because it has some notable drawbacks: it’s diffi- and D. Squared timbers, taken from section E, are cult to find suitable material, so choose a young absolutely worthless for skis. The double lines indicate the bottom side of the ski. (a)—the best pair sapling from a shaded and dry location with as of skis (grain of the wood is perpendicular to the few knots as possible. An older birch yields wood base).” See Jägerskiöld, Om skidor, 7.

Material for Skis

25

that is more compact but heavier. From figure 5.1 we see that pine and birch yield square timbers suitable for skis from all parts of the trunk.5 Manufacturers have tried to build many kinds of metal skis, but they haven’t had much success because metal’s friction greatly increases as temperatures drop.6 In western Europe they make skis out of two types of wood: the base from a hardwood and the top from something lighter, for example, spruce. Certainly, ash has a great advantage over all the other materials: during a frost it changes very little (the cold can affect wood’s flexibility); it’s relatively lightweight; it’s very flexible; and it lends itself easily to manufacturing.7

VI. FABRICATION OF SKIS

Above all, material for making skis has to be absolutely dry, otherwise we

can never be positive that the ski won’t warp. Skis that are subject to dry steam under high pressure during the manufacturing process are positively guaranteed not to deform and, furthermore, become 30 percent lighter than skis seasoned by ordinary means.1 There are master craftsmen who plane down crooked mateFigure 6.1: “Longitudinal profile of a ski, showing camber.” See Sandberg, Hiihrial and improve upon the tourheilo Suomessa, 23, and Jägerskiöld, Om skidor, 6. curve of the ski, but this only works until the time it gets soaked and warps again. It’s possible to avoid accidental warping if the skis get a coat of tar prior to the manufacturing process rather than afterward. To apply tar to a new ski, hold it over a fire until small bubbles appear: wipe them away and heat up the ski again, just as long as the tar doesn’t completely soak into the wood. Either plane down the ends of the skis or bend them: if the tips are tapered, use the first method; for wide tips, use the second. The wood fibers in the first method go crosswise over the length of the ski and consequently can break sooner. In general, the fibers should run parallel to the length of the ski as we can see in figure 5.1, a.2 The front end of the ski should rise in a gradual slope that enhances durability and facilitates glide as opposed to a sharply curved tip, which acts like a plow and breaks easily. A ski with too little curve at the front dives beneath the snow rather than staying on top. For a running ski, the height of the tip is 8–10 centimeters, and for a mountain type, around 15 centimeters. The tail section sometimes curves 2–3 centimeters so that the ski does not go backward under the snow. The advantage of such a ski is that in case of a broken tip you can turn it around and, without too much extra trouble, get back home. One drawback is that during a climb in the mountains, the ski slides backward because it has no check device against the snow.3 A long tapering tip is not desirable, especially during turns and in thick woods, nor does it benefit the skier’s base of support. The tip should be more flexible than the tail. The camber of the ski comes in a variety of heights, and sometimes there is no camber at all. Just like the tip, some manufacturers curve camber over a fire (after smearing the skis with tar). Camber Figure 6.2: made deliberately in this way rather than occurring naturally disap- “Cross-sections of pears quite suddenly, especially after the skis become waterlogged. skis.”

Fabrication of Skis

27

The height of the camber ranges from 1 to 10 centimeters depending on the type of ski. The crown is a little behind the foot platform. Thus, a nonloaded ski rests on the ground in two places: at the back and in a place just behind the curve of the tip (figure 6.1). The crucial role of camber is to support the weight of a skier so that the base of the ski comes into contact evenly with the snow: otherwise, the middle would collapse, especially in loose snow, thus inhibiting forward movement. Thanks to camber, gravity is distributed equally along the entire surface and the ski wears down evenly. It also provides another benefit: working like a coiled spring, camber allows us to bound off without sliding backward, which is quite helpful when climbing a mountain. Using springy, flexible material provides a lighter and more cambered ski. The foot platform is placed a little behind the center of gravity.4 This is natural because the skier always bends forward slightly as he walks, shifting his Figure 6.3: “Sag of a weak ski.” Possibly a sketch by Eimeleus. center of gravity forward from the midpoint of the ski. For convenience, the foot platform is part of the ski itself. This is why the binding straps, threaded through slots just under the foot platform, don’t protrude from the sidewalls and inhibit movement. The thickest part of the ski is here, gradually tapering to the tips and tails: the degree of stiffness and thickness depends on the weight of the skier. On the smooth base there is a groove or furrow—or sometimes several— whose function is to enhance the lightness and resilience of the ski without lessening its strength. This guide-way channel is made parallel to the longitudinal axis of the ski, prohibiting lateral sliding and appreciably improving control. Earlier, we talked about the size and form of the groove.5 Skis without a groove have the disadvantage that only vertical resistance affects them by compaction, while those with a groove are augmented by radial resistance.6 There is a wide variety of top surface configurations (figure 6.2). In the cross-sections you can see either domed or ridged types. Such unique designs enhance carrying capacity, resilience, and lightness, a similarly important principle in the manufacture of iron rails, steel girders, and so on.7 When selecting a pair of skis, remember that the carrying capacity depends most of all on the middle part, along both sides of the foot platform approximately two-thirds of the length down the ski. If the carrying capacity turns out to be weak—that is, the width, length, and lateral cross-section proves inadequate— then the ski will dive deep into the snow and even sag (figure 6.3). For a person of medium height and weight (4–5 pudy [144–180 pounds]), an adequate ski length is 9–10 feet. For every twenty funty [0.9 of a pound], one should add or subtract half a foot.8

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Location, weather, and snow conditions also govern the dimensions and type of ski used. So, for example, over hard snow and a prepared trail, eight feet is a suitable length in a racing ski for the average person. For a forest ski, take a foot or two off the length of a normal ski; and for a half-run ski, a foot less than a running ski.9 For mountain skis there are other factors: standing them upright, an extended hand should reach the tips. If used exclusively for jumping or for very rough terrain, then the ski can be even a little shorter.

VII. UPKEEP AND PRESERVATION OF SKIS1

A good skier should relate to his skis as a cavalryman does to his horse: con-

cern for them should be his top priority. All skis need detailed and conscientious upkeep regardless of the type of wood used in their manufacture, even if it was the driest and best conditioned available. You have to look after new skis more than old ones no matter how many times they’ve been waxed. A new ski cannot sufficiently absorb wax and other oleaginous agents right away. That’s why we must be careful with our skis so that they don’t warp while drying them out after getting soaked. During their first winter, run on new skis only as long as the first application of tar has not worn off: after that, coat the skis with liquid tar and dry them in the sun a few times, even in the summer. In general, you should wax your skis at least once a year. Use a mixture of wax or tar and fat; for example: fish oil, tallow, linseed oil, turpentine, etc., and apply it so that the skis are well saturated. The snow absolutely will not stick to a ski prepared in this way.

Figure 7.1:“Method of ski storage; indentations in the ends of bar AB.” See Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 26.

In summer, skis should be kept either standing upright with tails on the ground and supported in the middle by a cross piece so that the tips are not touching the walls; or, even better, lay the skis horizontally on two supports close to their tips and tails with the bases up (if the camber is too great, then bases down). If the skis are damaged with an oily coat, you have to saturate the skis with kerosene and wrap them in kerosene-soaked paper. Bind up your skis so that they don’t lose their indispensable camber (figure 7.1). Between the tips, insert bar AB, equal in height to the ends of the curves. Between the foot platforms, also insert a bar with completely level and smooth sidewalls so that the skis don’t warp: it should have dimensions a little greater than the camber you would like to achieve. After that, tightly bind the tips and tails together either with metal clamps or simply with wooden sticks and ropes. If skis are brought home wet, it’s better to store them as indicated above, otherwise they can easily become warped and lose their camber. Always clean off the snow in advance before bringing them into a room

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and placing them in a cool spot. As the skis thaw out properly, wipe them with a dry rag. The room designated for storing skis should be dry but also cool: under no circumstances should you set them near a stove. Ski tips often lose their curve: in order to restore it, you must warm them from below and above and then quickly set them out for air cooling. Afterward, the tip takes on its original shape again (figure 7.2.A). In the majority of cases, it is impossible to put a ski right when it has warped, but if it’s made from good material it can be fixed after drying. If your skis lose camber, rub them with linseed oil and tar over a fire, lash each ski to a plank on either side of where you want to increase the camber, and tamp in a shim. When the skis cool down, the repair is complete. Figure 7.3 shows a somewhat different method of achieving the same result. For most skis, cover the tops with varnish, linseed oil, or a thin layer of tar. There are two reasons for doing this: first, the ski will buckle less and weigh less

Figure 7.2: “Methods of bending tips—(A) hot: heater with wood charcoal—(Б) cold: moisten the ski then, sliding or pushing the crossbars, impart the desired curve.” Illustration Б appeared in Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 24, and Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 29.

Figure 7.3: “Bending camber with steam.”

when it gets saturated with water; and snow won’t adhere so much. An added benefit is that while you’re looking down, your eyes rest pleasantly on the top of a ski whose dark surface provides a brilliant contrast to the surrounding snowwhite sea. At all costs, you should avoid scrapes on the bottom of the ski: but if they build up over time, you can certainly fill them in with any manner of tallow, stearin, wax, etc., so that the base once again becomes even, flat, and slippery, or I might even say, glassy.

VIII. REPAIRING SKIS

A skier, if he’s really a genuine sportsman, will not replace his skis until it

is absolutely necessary. At least, that’s the way it was in the old days, when skis were home-made or purchased from well-known master fabricators for a lot of money. We know that in earlier times, some people waited decades for the formation of good ski materials (burls).1 So, it’s clear why they repaired skis if at all possible. Nowadays, of course, if there’s Figure 8.1: “Splicing broken straps.” serious damage, you simply discard the skis and buy new ones—it only amounts to a few rubles.2 But sometimes even a roughly repaired ski is better than a broken one, especially if you’re a long way from home and you can only rely on yourself. Lately, our modern and complex ski-binding systems frequently sustain damage. Broken binding straps, especially if they are wet, are impossible to tie with the usual knot: if they are too short, use the method shown in figure 8.1. A single knife doesn’t suffice anymore: we have to have a greater number of tools in order to avoid that unpleasant situation when we encounter damage to some part of our skis or their accessories. Figure 8.2 displays a selection of tools suited especially for this circumstance. In the case of a broken ski tip, we have already described a method of repair—namely, turning the skis around (if the tail has some curvature).3 Otherwise, you’ll have to perforate the broken part with holes and fasten it to the ski from the underside: all it has to do is hold you up on top of the snow. The Norwegian mountain ski (Telemark) sustains more damage to the tips because of continual shocks and blows than other types. For this reason, you can find tip replacements for sale (figure 8.3). Figures 8.4,

Figure 8.2: “A selection of ski tools.” This illustration is from an advertisement for a forerunner to modern multi-tools such as the Leatherman or Swiss Army knife: the “Bonsa” tool-instrument manufactured by Böntgen & Sabin AG Stahlwarenfabrik, Solingen, Germany.

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Figure 8.3: “Attachable tip for Telemark skis.”

Figure 8.4: “Mending skis.”

8.5, and 8.6 show various methods of mending ski fractures in different sections. Understandably, a repair with home remedies cannot be durable and accurate nor does it eliminate the chance of a new break in that very same place. It also causes an increase in friction because of irregularities in the repaired area. Needless to say, it’s inconceivable to set out in a competition with a repaired ski, or even with one that is slightly flawed. Nonetheless, skis fashioned from valuable types of wood must be given over for repair since this costs far less money than purchasing new ones; all the more so since today, they can mend broken skis without impairing either their beauty or their speed.

Figure 8.5: “Mending skis.”

Figure 8.6: “Mending skis.”

IX. THE EFFECT OF SNOW ON SKIS AND HOW THEY RUN1

The quality of snow and its behavior are the most influential factors affecting a ski run: everyone knows how both can change depending on the time of year and the weather. A skier’s speed and stamina are closely bound to these two factors. Snow and weather exert more influence than one might think: for example, in nice weather a good skier can cover from 80 to 100 versts in a day but in bad weather his daily distance could be less.2 Now let’s have a look at how much of an effect weather has. Unlike other languages, Finnish and its cognates have many different names for snow.3 In Russian, we can categorize snow briefly as powdery,4 loose,5 granulated,6 thick-packed crust,7 thin-layer crust,8 floury,9 springtime,10 and waterlogged.11 Powdery snow—that is, snow that falls when there’s a frost and also drifts deposited by the wind—creates a rather difficult path for skis.12 Loose snow, which we get in the forest where wind cannot consolidate it, slows movement because its low density does not keep the skis, especially the running styles, from diving deeply into the snow.13 On the other hand, granulated snow is magnificent if the under layer is solid.14 Thick-packed wet-crust snow provides us with an excellent trail but can be destructive to skis (their bases are abraded and get ragged); additionally, in those places where the crust is more like ice (for example, on a river), control of the skis becomes difficult because the skis slide sideways and apart from one other. In this situation we see that the crust creates major problems. The most favorable snow of this type is covered on top with a thin layer of powdery snow.15 Most of the time, a thin-layer crust will break under the skis, especially during any kind of twisting and turning motion, which makes forward progress difficult and damages the edges of the skis.16 Floury snow makes for hard work especially when moving along a prepared track, which accounts for its unusual character. It’s easier to lay a different track over the top of it.17 Springtime snow is especially slick, because of the alternation of thawing and freezing, but provides a very fine surface when it congeals with a newly fallen, thin layer of snow.18 It often happens that during a frost of 5 degrees Ré or more, the snow contains a lot of moisture; therefore, since the snow is waterlogged, it adheres to the skis, which, in response to refreezing, ice over.19 The same thing happens during a thaw: the skis won’t glide at all because the wood swells and becomes porous and impregnated with moisture. The result is a slow and heavy ski. In severe cold every single ski becomes brittle and tends to break easily.

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Now let’s have a look at what can be done to reduce such pitfalls. The selection of an appropriate ski is the most important factor: In powdery snow, a light wide type of ski that is fairly stiff with a flexible tip and tail works best. Loose snow demands a relatively short ski, especially in the woods. For added surface area, it needs a proportional width right up to the ends of the ski itself. It’s also important that the mortise for the bindings be a little behind the center of gravity because this tilts the ski forward allowing the ski tip to remain on the snow. Narrow running skis with good camber are best of all for crust.20 Not all species of wood are affected to the same extent by wet weather: a less susceptible one, we have observed, is a ski crafted out of hard impermeable wood, well-tarred and coated in the summer. In such weather the ski motion itself should be a sliding one and under no circumstance should you let the ski disengage from the snow. There are many methods for eliminating the inconveniences experienced during a thaw or damp weather . . . [sic] there are various remedies and patented waxing materials that keep wet snow from adhering to skis while at the same time enhancing glide.* Some of these—like Skiolin and Berolin—can be applied to a ski that is already wet; Blixten, Varma, Khario, and others need a dry base for application.21 A few of these waxing materials are suitable for either wet or fine weather exclusively, but others are universal and adaptable to a ski for either condition. The difference is only in the application. I will give details here on a method of coating a ski with, as an example, Blixten wax. Each piece of this wax is enough for a onetime application on five pairs of skis. After the coating, it’s possible to run on smooth skis for some 50 to 100 versts.22 Waxing one pair of skis costs around 5 kopeks. The method of application is as follows: if the skis were coated earlier with some other sort of wax or oily substance, remove that first. Next, heat up the base of the ski in front of a slow-burning fire. Swipe the wax along the bottom and then, holding the ski before the fire, smear the wax along the base in a thin layer with some sort of tool or object—best of all, use the palm of your hand. After that, warm up the ski one more time and then immediately take it out into the cold. After a cool-down period, the ski is ready to use.** * Adherence is the result of moisture on the base of the skis. When frozen, the moisture forms an icy crust to which the snow will stick. This happens more easily the deeper the moisture has penetrated into the ski itself and the greater the frozen state of the exterior layer of wood. Sealing the base with a smearing of oleaginous agents eliminates this drawback. ** If the temperature of the ski is higher than that of the snow, then, as the snow melts, an ice layer appears on the wood. To prevent this, it’s necessary to place the skis outside for cooling before setting out on an excursion.

The Effect of Snow on Skis and How They R

35

If you don’t have special waxes on hand, you can use butter, stearin, lard, beeswax, kerosene, even herring fat, and similarly, other compositions containing fat. All of these are suitable for cold conditions but won’t last long and wear off after 2 or 3 versts.23 According to an old method, waxing a warm ski with lard and damp salt wrapped up in a wet rag increases distances up to 5 versts.24 Resin with fish fat is also a reasonably good mixture. In the process of smearing skis with one of the methods mentioned above, don’t forget that they become very slippery, something you don’t want when ascending a hill. In varying terrain, one often leaves part of the ski uncoated (the back half). In the case of thawing out a wet ski, remove any ice with a blunt instrument in order not to damage the base; best to defrost skis in a warm location.

X. POLES1

The primary function of poles is to help a skier accelerate his speed of move-

ment. Unfortunately, we often hear that their purpose is for balance: that notion is absolutely incorrect (we’ll talk more about it later) because that’s their secondary use, essential in climbing and descending mountains. Poles are made out of different kinds of wood, just like skis. But it’s important to pay attention more to their weight than to their strength in relation to running skis. As an accessory to mountain skis, they should be sturdier since they are often used as a brake.2 Hunters and those who travel in forested terrain—where skiing fast is impossible—often make their pole out of solid and heavy wood fashioned into a spear so it can serve as a weapon at the same time. The most useful wood varieties are ash, oak, maple, beech, pine, elm, and bamboo. Bamboo’s distinct advantage is its light weight, but its major drawback is that it will crack during a sudden change in temperature or when you hit a tree; and, when a strong wind blows from the side, it takes a lot of arm effort to keep the poles parallel to the direction of the skis. All the other types are more or less the same, some sturdier, others heavier or lighter, and so on. You can use one pole or two poles: neither method is universal. In Norway and Lapland, skiers mostly use one pole and in Sweden and Finland, two.3 A pair should be a little shorter than the singles, about shoulder high. In broken terrain, in the woods, or in the mountains one pole is totally sufficient, with a length of around 1.6 or 1.7 meters or, in more visual terms, up to the skier’s ear. At the lower end of the poles small circles are attached made of wood, iron, willows, reeds, or cane: some are solid, others are interlaced with tawed leather, thongs, or willows.4 They can either be tightly attached or flexible. The purpose of the little circles is to keep the poles from penetrating too far into the snow. In the forest, it’s better to have a solid wooden disc because the other types of baskets get easily entangled in the tree branches. During a mountain descent, the baskets often serve as a brake and therefore they are generally made of iron. The lower end of the pole is pointed and covered in iron for durability. The upper end is sometimes wrapped in rubber or leather and may have a looped strap to keep it from slipping off the hand (figure 10.1). The so-called double pole has the advantage of combining the two separate poles into one: they are very popular with Norwegian sportsmen. To see how they are joined together into a single “double” pole, refer to figure 10.2. Of course, an ordinary pair of poles can be joined together into a single by passing one pole through the basket of the other. At the top, the latest poles are oval rather than round since the grip of the hand around a pole has a definite ovoid shape. Often there isn’t a fixed basket on the

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pole: the skier puts on baskets made of hard leather as appropriate. In that case, the poles need protrusions to hold the baskets. Solid baskets are good for travel in snow that’s not especially deep, but it’s difficult to pull them out of the snow especially on a fast run over frozen crust; and, except for the ones made from aluminum, they are heavy. A cane basket is light, flexible, and almost always maintains a horizontal position: if it breaks through the snow, it’s easy to drag it back out because the basket is only fixed in the center, which allows it to tilt and shift up or down. Keep in mind that you ought to make use of your poles as little as possible, especially as a beginner. In the section on ski-running, I will discuss in more detail how and when to rely on poles.5 For now, let me just say: use the poles during a run to enhance your gait; use them while turning, stopping, and less commonly while climbing; but never use them when jumping from a hill.

Figure 10.1: “Ski poles.”

Figure 10.2: “Double poles.” See Möller, Om skidlöpning, 9.

XI. METHODS OF ATTACHING SKIS AND FOOTWEAR FOR SKIING1

I have to say that methods for attaching ski to foot have been through just as many changes as those undergone by skis themselves. Although currently we don’t have a single definitive type of binding that is the unanimous best choice, there are still many quite satisfactory ones meeting the following requirements: (1) to give as much solid support for the feet as possible so that foot and ski are a complete unit, that is to say, so that the foot is always aligned with the ski; (2) to allow for more movement of the foot along the longitudinal axis of the ski without causing restriction when kneeling; (3) to be put on and taken off quickly and conveniently; (4) to be durable, uncomplicated, and easy to repair; (5) to have just enough evenly distributed pressure without making your feet cold; (6) to be adjustable for a variety of footwear; (7) to be moderately priced. Almost all types of bindings have a metal clamp that clasps the sole of the shoe at the toe. From above, the clamps are joined on either side by a strap; the foot is pushed forward into the clamp and held there from the back by another strap that goes around the footwear. With such a vast quantity of bindings available it won’t be necessary to talk about all of them. Indeed, many are already outmoded and others simply too complicated to have any kind of importance to us. I will choose a handful of characteristic bindings in this section. We can categorize two main groups of bindings: one for running and the other for mountain skis. A binding for a running ski doesn’t have to be as stout as one for a mountain ski, so two straps for toe and heel are sufficient. During adjustment remember that the toe strap should just rest over the toes and not any deeper since that impedes movement. The heel strap should not press on the Achilles tendon—this is extremely fatiguing: it should clasp the heel itself. A method of tying in is shown in the accompanying figure 11.1. It’s cheap, strong, and easily repaired. Other bindings worth mentioning are the “Bollnäs,” which has an iron toepiece (figure 11.2) and Figure 11.1: “Binding. (a)—yoke strap [a loop passing through the the military (figure 11.3), which has ski just under the foot to keep the heel straps in place on both sides]; the advantage of being easy to put on (b)—toe strap; (c)—heel strap with over-windings.” See Jägerskiöld, and to remove.2 The binding of Mr. Om skidor, 14.

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Skoglund is also a good one, but it requires a metal strap and toepiece, a cross between the running and mountain methods of attaching skis.3 Short skis, especially if they are intended for use while jumping, require a sturdy and solid binding that keeps the foot from dangling loose. This is particularly important for maintaining proper control of the skis. In the old days, skis were attached to the foot with simple flexible birch plaits: later, skiers began to substitute cane or Figure 11.2: “The ‘Bollnäs’ binding.” See Möller, Om skidlöpning, 7. a wire faced with leather or some other material. Just as with all of the other bindings, you can attach special protective socks in front of the toe strap, which prevent snow from getting under Figure 11.3: “Military binding.” See Möller, Om skidlöpning, 7. the strap and sole of the boot. The main advantage of the cane or wire-wound binding is its low cost (it comes to around fifty kopeks) and relative strength (either one holds up for a year or two).4 The drawback is that it doesn’t entirely eliminate the lateral movement of the foot, diminishing control of the ski (figure 11.4). One of the best and most up-to-date binding systems is the Huitfeldt (figure 11.5), widely accepted among sportsmen because it controls the skis well. The Figure 11.4: “Cane or wire binding.” See Jägerskiöld, Om skidor, 17. Huitfeldt requires special footwear with double projecting soles and adjustment to the boot (now, though, there are clamps that you can narrow down or widen as needed).5 A new improved model has a buckle-lever (figure 11.6).

Figure 11.5: “The ‘Huitfeldt’ binding.” See På Skidor (1902– 1903) and Jägerskiöld, Om skidor, 17.

Figure 11.6: “Binding with buckle-lever.”

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Figure 11.7: “The ‘Balata’ binding.”

Figure 11.8: “The ‘Ellefsen’ binding.”

The “Balata” system (figure 11.7) has its own footplate and clamps for both toe and heel. This provides much better control, but it does have drawbacks: it allows snow to accumulate between the footplate and the ski, which greatly restricts the movement of the foot and thus the motion of the ski.6 The “Ellefsen” binding (figure 11.8) belongs to the group of systems with a footplate. It’s made of aluminum, so consequently, it’s a little cold underfoot, but very simple and not too cumbersome. A lot of skiers use the Ellefsen.7 The “Sigurd” system (figure 11.9) is equipped with a vertical lever that automatically tightens both the toe and heel straps with one movement. Disadvantages are its weight and the danFigure 11.9: “The ‘Sigurd’ binding.” Lever forward is the ger of the lever opening during a mountain closed position: lever up is “open.” descent.8 All of the above-mentioned systems can be furnished with moveable (rather than fixed) metal side guides (clamping irons) that you widen or narrow depending on the sole of the boot. There’s still innovation in ski-sport: the patented ski blade. Let’s have a look at what Mr. Komets,9 the inventor himself has to say: They operate like curved steel split-apart skates attached to both sides of the center zone of the skis [figure 11.10]. They hang over the edge of the ski about ½ to 1 centimeter and easily cut into ice-covered snow crust and even into solid ice. This eliminates any lateral movement of the skis which can impede the run and becomes

Figure 11.10: “Ski blades and Norwegian heel straps.” See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 20.

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annoying, especially for beginners. Thanks to the sharpness of the thin front ends they do not hinder the gait.10

All of the straps on these various systems need upkeep, just like the skis themselves. As soon as they dry out after use in the spring and especially at the end of the season, you must always wax them well with a special balm. Now let’s consider the method of attaching skis to feet used mainly in Finland and northern Sweden. There’s just one toe strap: and you might think that such a system would be no good at all if it weren’t for a special type of footwear. (The question about footwear is so closely tied to this section on bindings that I’ve decided to stay on it here rather than in the following section on clothing.) So for this method of attaching the skis you wear simple, lightweight, reliable, and lowcost boots of plain waxed leather or reindeer hide with hard turned-up toes. The boots don’t have a nailed-on sole because there is a good connection with the ski that feels wrong when the foot is out of position. You fasten up the boots either with straps or with buckles (figure 11.11) or by lacing (figure 11.12). The purpose of the up-turned toe is to keep the foot from slipping out of the strap. The old version of the Finnish boot (figure 11.11) had a spiked toe, which allowed you to make long steps and bounds; but, because of this narrow tip, the ski would hang

Figure 11.11: Finnish boot.”

“Old

Figure 11.12: “Räsänen boot.”

Figure 11.13: “The Eimeleus ‘golovka.’” Possibly a sketch by Eimeleus.

from the big toe alone and teeter off to the side. If you made the strap tighter—on all of the toes—then the larger size of the aperture allowed the ski to slide off the boot more easily. Boots devised by Mr. Resenen, the well-known skier and recordholder (figure 11.12) have blunt, sharply curved-up toes.11 The strap is worn more tightly, clenching down on all of the toes, thus distributing the pressure of the strap more evenly. The foot assumes a more stable position, improving the connection with the ski. Through this, control of the skis becomes more manageable, and the length of the stride increases. My own invention is the so-called golovka (figure 11.13). Generally speaking, it operates like the cut-off forward part of the Resenen boot with the addition of a heel and lateral attachment strap. The sole is made from thick leather so that the golovka doesn’t buckle and shrink after

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getting wet. The upper part is made of thin leather reaching as far as the upward turn of the foot and then from thick leather up to the second joint of the big toe so as not to impede the flex of the foot; at this point, the golovka has sewn-in felt so that snow cannot penetrate. Notice. These golovki were tested at the Main Gymnastics-Fencing School. They proved functional because you can put them on over boots, directly eliminating the need for special footwear. Ideally, there would be a wider distribution among the troops since they don’t alter the military uniform. They are low-cost, take up very little space (they can easily fit into a pocket), and are quick to put on and remove.12 The Finnish-style boots from Lapland made from undressed hides are good in the cold, light in weight, and warm, but they require diligent care so that they don’t deteriorate (mothballs). Tall boots and boots with high heels are not suitable, since they are heavy and restrict the movement of the foot. This is especially the case with high, tight bootlegs that can cause the calf and knee to swell. Skis that have more rigid bindings require boots with a thick, slightly projecting sole (figure 11.14). To keep the heel strap from sliding up, it’s necessary to sew on a loop or button of leather; and to keep them from falling down, there should be either a strap or projecting heelpiece on the boots. These kinds of boots should not be too high—around a vershok higher than the ankle—otherwise, they will be heavy.13 Don’t oil them in a frost because the cold Figure 11.14: Note how the sewn welt of will penetrate more easily through oiled footwear. Oil the sole extends slightly beyond the upper them while they’re still damp; or heat them over a fire section of the boot. Also, the picture shows a strap attached at the heel to accommodate in advance and apply oil while still warm. a ski binding. Using simple methods of attaching ski to foot, snow clogs and clings to the ski under the heelpiece causing the foot to slide off to the side. To eliminate this problem at the foot platform, attach birch bark that has been waxed and kept in brine before the start of winter. Sometimes, we’ve seen the platform covered with skin from a reindeer’s hoof or with a sole cut from galoshes or special rubber plates. The latter suggestion is absolutely the very best method: while fashioning this plate remember that it should be a little wider than the foot platform and that it should be nailed down so that it sits just behind the middle.14 As the foot creates pressure through movement it won’t allow snow to adhere. In some cases, these plates prevent lateral motion, but the main factor here is the correct position of the foot relative to the ski. Some people who use heel straps install metal footplates that are very smooth and don’t allow snow to adhere.

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To conclude this chapter, I will say a few words about the advantages and drawbacks of these two different methods of attachment—the Norwegian and the Finnish—which should be of interest to those who must try to make sense of this important question. For running on the flats or slightly varied terrain, the Finnish boot is far preferable: it lacks the heel strap that can create foot fatigue. The disadvantages of the Finnish boot are: (1) all a skier has to do is fall during a mountain ascent or descent and then the skis come off, skittering away in all directions: it takes a lot of time and effort to gather them up; (2) during a leap from a jump hill, the skis are not held horizontally in midair: without that, a jump is impossible. It’s even worse if you are using running skis, because, given their construction, the tails are heavier than the tips, slanting them away from the horizontal even more.15 For areas that have varied terrain, and especially during a mountain descent, the Norwegian method of attachment is recommended because it facilitates complete command over the skis. But this method has quite a few detractors who say that having skis tightly bound to the foot is dangerous. Without a doubt, unfortunate accidents have happened—and continue to happen—although very rarely. On the other hand, experience shows that you have a better chance of hitting your skis during a fall using skis with free rather than fixed bindings. Firmly attached skis are dangerous when crossing thin ice, or in places where you can fall in: you should loosen the straps ahead of time. Nonetheless, in order to preclude unfortunate accidents, you are not allowed to take part in jump competitions on free skis in Norway and, lately, in Sweden as well.16

XII. CLOTHING1

Footwear, arguably, is the most important gear in a skier’s ensemble. In the

previous section we talked about various kinds of footwear and their advantages and disadvantages. Now we have to address the requirements for each of them to fulfill their purpose. First of all, the material and workmanship should be of the very best quality. Second, they should be roomy enough so that you can put on two pairs of warm stockings or footwraps and still freely wiggle your toes, thus preventing frostbite.2 For the fixed binding, the boot has a thick and stout sole as I noted above; and for the free binding, the boot is better without a sole. In spite of waxing, boots will scarcely ever be waterproof. Figure 12.1 shows us a boot with a covering—put on over the front—made out of slick material that makes it difficult for snow to adhere. The underside of this covering is made of leather, or even better, reindeer skin. The method of attachment is shown in the illusFigure 12.1: A leather toe-gaiter to keep tration. Such a combination works well because you snow from accumulating at the front of the can fit the coverings over ordinary sport boots and boot. See Möller, Om skidlöpning, 10. they will not become cold. The foot remains dry and warm; one pair of socks is sufficient. Sometimes woolen insoles, hay, straw, or some newspaper gets stuffed into the boots.3 While wearing short trousers to the knee, use spats or gaiters of cloth and leather (puttee leggings) on the lower leg: they’re better than long stockings.4 If your trousers are long, tuck the ends into the boots and tape them up with woolen leg wrappings so that snow can’t get in over the edges. Military riding pants are less functional but, as long as they do not hamper leg movement, can be made out of either ordinary material or canvas or tricot; best of all is wool.5 In general, clothing should be lightweight, loose, not too long, and at the same time, warm. You don’t need to dress yourself in too much clothing since you almost never get cold during a run. Your outfit should be made of smooth, impermeable, and pliant material so that snow doesn’t adhere: when you thaw it out in a warm place, clinging snow can soak your clothing. Remember that all pliable and porous fabrics are warmer than those that are thin and dense. Loose cotton and wool fabrics absorb a lot of moisture, appreciably increasing heat loss: the faster such soggy garments soak up water, the greater the cooling effect. Loose woolen fabrics merit more consideration than those of smooth cotton and linen. Clothing of Jäger wool, Lahmann’s wool,6 and Faudel’s tricot7 promotes air circulation and easy vapor transfer. Canvas is not recommended, because even though this fabric quickly absorbs sweat, it evaporates it just as fast. This promotes a serious cooling of the body, which can bring

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on the symptoms of a cold. It’s clear that the more layers of fabric a person puts on, the warmer he will be: the air trapped between the layers insulates him. The more tightly the clothes fit, the thinner the air layer underneath them and, consequently, the colder they are. For clothes to stay warm, they should fit closer to the body along the edges so that the cold outer air cannot penetrate underneath them. Next, woolen or silk undergarments that retain warmth and let perspiration pass through are superior.8 The best way to fend off the wind is to put linen underwear on over the wool. In the wind or during a blizzard, don leather or duck clothing (a durable, tightly-woven heavy cotton or linen fabric) or something made from tight, lightweight material: for example, raw silk.* An Irish jacket9 or Swedish leather coat is less desirable because neither one allows perspiration to pass through, and both are often heavy and too warm. In colder weather, you can put on a knit sweater with a high neckband under the outer clothing.10 For a short excursion when you can change clothes afterward, an English “sweater [sic]” fits the bill best of all.11 Normally, you shouldn’t dress in a lot of thick clothing: better to have a few thin layers to put on or take off depending on the conditions. There’s nothing worse than being too warmly dressed during a run. When it’s critical to accomplish a specific mission as quickly as possible, such clothing will create severe fatigue while you’re in motion: a person perspires horribly, grows weak, and loses endurance. In this case, it’s a good idea to unbutton your coat or jacket as long as you don’t forget to button it back up during a pause. Figure 12.2: “Helmet.” In English, Don’t wear too much on your head—it will always be this hat is more commonly known as a balaclava, a full-face woolen mask hot. A cap should be warm and light: a nice one is the popularized in the West by British forces during the Crimean War (after Nansen hat with its visor, earflaps, and neck flap. The the Battle of Balaclava, 25 October visor protects the eyes from the sun and partially from 1854, during the siege of Sebastopol). snow glare (it’s preferable, though, to wear snow gogThis image appeared previously in a 1909 Helsinki newspaper advertise- gles).12 Even better is a hat in the shape of a helmet that ment for G. F. Stockmann’s departprotects most of the face (figure 12.2). ment store. See Uusi Suometar 293, 18 Snow goggles. The most harmful light exposure for the December 1909, p. 7. eyes comes from the sun in hazy weather: it can make you blind (of course, only temporarily). The glasses should be sufficiently large, not too dark, and adjusted so that white light does not penetrate from the side (“Gogles” [sic] are automobile glasses).13 * When the body is frequently exposed to drenching from the outside, it is advisable to use impregnated (impermeable) non-porous woolen fabrics.

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Leather mittens with cuffs (the traditional kind) with wool gloves worn underneath them are the best of all choices. Now, there are Samoyed mitts of reindeer hide, but remember that our rule is a few thin items are better than one thick one as long as they don’t fit the body snugly.* It’s a good idea to have gloves and mittens that are long and wide so that you can tuck your sleeves into them: it’s useful to tie them with lacing or fasten with buttons because snow gets in everywhere. For the military man, of course, it won’t be necessary to make use of the clothing described above: replace it with a thick tunic, bashlyk (Cossack: hood), blacked boots, and wool puttees, etc.14 However, don’t forget that while you’re in motion you never get cold, but afterward—during a pause, rest, or bivouac—the cold is noticeable: have something at hand to put on at that time. In his book “Guidelines for Using Skis with Military Goals,” drafted and updated in 1895, Staff Captain Ogorodnikov recommends clothing that does not conform to set orders established by the military.15 We can look to the Norwegian Army for a list of top-ofthe-line accoutrements worked out through long-established practice. The entire kit weighs fifteen kilograms and consists of an Irish sweater; a knapsack of canvas on a wooden frame (here at home, a type of knapsack considered unsuitable for skiers); a dry bag for provisions; a waterproof canvas sleeping bag; a section of a pup tent (instead of a greatcoat); an ammunition pouch; a small water flask; gear for starting a fire; smoke-colored glasses; and for a few of the enlisted men, it’s a good idea to have a small axe for work in the woods. Carrying the rifle is very important: you need quick access to it when necessary. For the convenience of the skier, it should be carried on the back when battle isn’t anticipated, with the bayonet either in its sheath or on a belt: in order to be ready when in proximity to the enemy, fix the bayonet. While traveling in a battle zone, carry the rifle in your right hand (poles in the left). During a long-distance run far from the enemy, when you don’t have to be on full alert, sling the rifle over your right shoulder in a horizontal position across the right hip, muzzle back. It’s a good idea to secure it with an extra strap (similar to that used by the cavalry) attached to the belt; keep the bayonet in its sheath.

* By no means should you put on two pairs of gloves if they are tight because enclosing the fingers too snugly will obstruct proper blood circulation. I was an eyewitness to an event during which an officer who didn’t know this managed to freeze all ten fingers in only fifteen minutes. All the rest of us were in one pair of gloves and—despite 21 degrees Ré of frost [-26.25º C]—happily survived it.

XIII. SKI-RUNNING: ITS HISTORY, THEORY, METHOD, AND TECHNIQUE1

No one has ever written down the history of the evolution of a skier’s motion; however, taking into account all available information, we can assume that skiing’s present state of development has had a few intermediate steps. In prehistoric times, skis served exclusively to keep from floundering in deep snow with a motion that hardly differed from normal walking or running.2 As we’ve known for quite a while, skis in certain locales soon acquired a more elongated form and, subsequently, assumed a more sophisticated role as a means of rapid transportation. The transition of the ski from a primitive plodding apparatus into a sliding type facilitated different methods of walking; some of which, there is every reason to believe, have survived several millennia right up to the present day. Many of the ancient Scandinavian writers mention glide when talking about skis. For example, in the eighth century (770 CE) the historian Paul the Deacon wrote: “The Finns, bobbing up and down on curved wooden staves, hunt down wild animals of the forest.”3 This vertical bobbing movement was nothing other than the running method currently in use, witnessed some twenty-five years ago, when skiers of the North took part in competitions and, from their swift running style, gave the impression that they were bounding more than gliding.4 Another indicator that ski technique has remained unchanged is that the use of skis for communication during the last millennium neither increased nor decreased. Only in the present day, after the development of better communication and transport systems, has skiing ceased to evolve so extensively, with some regions eliminating it entirely. In others, though, the inhabitants have continued to employ skis; therefore, we can say with almost certain confidence that old techniques with historic roots are still currently in use. Now let’s take up the theory and technique of various methods for walking. We’ll start with Canadian skis, which represent an archaic form of locomotion and its application. These skis—or racquets as they’re known— obviously have some value because of their portability. In the chapter on the history of skis we became acquainted with their construction: now let’s analyze how to move about on them.5 Figure 13.1: “Position of the sole of the foot while walking on Looking at the form of these first skis, Indian skis.” See Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 18–19. it’s clear that they are only good for

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walking with alternating steps.6 They aren’t hinged at the toe at the forward crossbar—otherwise, the crossbar would break; rather, they bypass it through an opening in the webbing by which the skis are lifted forward and the tails get dragged along in the snow (figure 13.1). You can run a short distance but the speed will be minimal, approximately one verst in ten minutes, rarely more.7 Although they don’t allow a lot of speed when running, these skis provide other benefits: they’re simple and quite handy for walking around bogs, forests, and mountains in loose and wet snow. There is a modified type (figure 13.2) that resembles a slideable version, providing a transitional link between the two types of skis: it combines a ski with a racquet. The running surface is covered with reindeer fur and sometimes has a metal brake attached to eliminate sliding backward. At this point, we will review movement on two other representative types of skis: the running and the mountain. All turns, stops, slowing down, and climbing and descending mountains are described with great detail in the ski literature and clearly shown in illustrations: but I found neither technique nor methodology in the works of any of the authors other than the most basic descriptions. The authors were negligent, saying that you have to show by exam- Figure 13.2: “Intermediate type between racquet and ski.” Eimeleus uses “racple in order to instruct ski-run- quet” to distinguish a snowshoe from a ski. ning. I agree that it’s always preferable to receive a demonstration rather than an explanation. But if such an explanation could manage to show graphically how to ski, then I think we might do without a personal example, all the more so since—like it or not8—we rarely resort to this, due to a lack of competent instructors. Photographic images are not clear and comprehensible enough because they only show distinct moments, not the sequence of successive positions comprising a skier’s single continuous motion, crucial for complete understanding and mastery of any type of ski movement. In this case, cinematography has tremendous potential. Carefully studying every moment in a single series of movements, it might be possible to learn well enough the elements of the complex techniques of skiing in all its variations. Since I will take up the subject of walking on skis over varying terrain in a later section,9 I will now move on to an examination of walking and running on the flats. After you’ve picked out your skis and provisioned yourself with all the requisite accoutrements, you will still have to wait for suitable weather and choose an area for your first attempt. For this, snow on level ground that’s not too deep will be best. Placing the skis parallel (approximately half a ski width apart), put them on: that is, insert your feet into the foot harnesses all the way to the toes and fasten the

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heel strap (if the skis have them). With Finnish boots, it’s more convenient to put them on by kneeling on the skis and pushing them back in one at a time.10 Keep the distance between your skis consistent while in motion: parallel tracks indicate your proficiency, although for many good skiers the trail looks less-than-perfect when it comes to fast running. To be sure, a beginner will feel quite unstable on narrow skis because they move sideways constantly until maintaining equilibrium has become ingrained. Or, as the famous Norwegian Huitfeldt succinctly put it: “Ski-running is the art of balance.”11 You have to learn this without using poles, which, in a manner of speaking, are the equivalent of stirrups: just as a novice equestrian trains without stirrups, so must a skier learn to stand and balance the body while running. Developing balance, a skier will gain confidence and learn correct positioning.12 1. Symmetrical walking. Starting position: one foot just a little in front of the other, knees slightly bent, body tilted forward a bit; then alternately slide the feet forward transferring bodyweight first to one foot then to the other—at the same time, try to keep your balance (hands are allowed in the beginning) and don’t pick up your skis from the surface of the snow. 2. Asymmetrical walking. (a) While learning this, try to give a more powerful push with one foot and, transferring weight to the other foot, slide it along the snow until motion decelerates: at that point, you have to carry forward the foot which is behind and give a push with the other foot. With proper study, you will find that the step grows longer than the normal gait. (b) Another type of asymmetrical walking is to push off with the same foot each time, sending that foot forward for another push while gliding on the other. 3. Symmetrical running. As the power of the push and transfer of bodyweight accelerates, walking becomes faster and borders on running. However, you should avoid giving the push more often than necessary for maintaining a smooth gait: after every push you need to glide a little bit, otherwise energy gets wasted. Running differs from walking in particular because at the beginning of each push, the ski separates from the snow increasing its power. By projecting forward, the arms will help in the transfer of bodyweight and enhance speed. 4. Asymmetrical running. Sometimes, it’s good to alter these methods a little: for example, make a few powerful pushes and then, while distributing weight equally on both skis, glide without moving your feet; or, glide on one foot, while pushing continuously with the other from behind without bringing it forward; or, after a few running steps, glide on one of the skis and then, reducing the gait, repeat the same thing either on this same foot or on the other.

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When in motion, keep in mind that skis should always be parallel as much as possible: often, they veer off in the wrong direction or even cross each other.13 The reason for this is either a change of direction or a change of circumstances: either improperly adjusted bindings or positioning of the sole of the foot along the longitudinal axis of the skis. Once you have mastered making a narrow and even track with a smooth, effortless, and fluid gait—without jerky motions and loss of balance—you can pass on to exercises with poles and develop a very fast run. With poles it is much easier to maintain balance because the width of the support area increases and you can make the ideal track. So let’s do a bit of studying on how to use poles to promote faster forward motion. In the woods or on rough terrain, a single long pole is recommended for soldiers and okhotniki. Usually, they hold the pole with both hands on one side or the other and make a powerful push with it when the ski of the opposite foot is moving forward. Of course, for recovery of balance you can dig in with the pole from the other side as well. On flat ground, traveling slowly, you can hold the pole in one hand. In the following paragraphs, we will only be talking about the use of two poles. 5. Diagonal running.* It’s clear from this title that the right arm pushes off when the left foot glides forward; and the left arm, in turn, pushes off when the right foot goes forward. For example, if the running begins with the left foot, keep the right pole next to the right foot; then move the body forward and, at the same time, slide the left foot forward as far as possible and push off hard with the right arm. Just before speed diminishes, you must carry the left pole forward and, as soon as the left foot draws even with it, transfer bodyweight to the left foot in order to set up a push backward with that foot and a slide forward on the right ski; at the same time, the left arm gives an energetic push. You should plant the poles close to the skis themselves, at a distance of one basket width, and not too far off to the side. 6. Running using both arms. This method is a good one and doesn’t require special skill, just strong arms. It’s recommended over a crust, along prepared tracks or when skis tend to slide backward as a result of good wax or weather conditions.**14The technique is as follows: the skier distributes his balance equally on both feet while one of them is just a little bit forward, knees slightly bent, body leaning somewhat forward so that the center of * My terminology, because there are no commonly accepted names in Russian for various methods of moving on skis. ** Using this method exclusively, the author came in first one time in open races over 16 kilometers. Editor.14

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gravity always falls just over the middle of the support area.15 Give a sharp powerful push with the arms, each time squatting a little in order to increase the force while straightening for the extension of the forward thrust with the help of the poles. The poles should not project too far forward; it’s better to try to hold them behind while pushing until you can develop maximum speed. 7. Basic three-cadence16 (two strides without poles)—has been in use throughout Finland and Sweden ever since 1892, after the Finns first introduced it at national competitions. It consists of the following (figure 13.3):17 propel your feet forward one right after the other with an energetic sliding motion; then—almost at the same time as you angle your body forward— thrust both poles far out in front, keeping the legs slightly bent. Now, using all the power in your arms, give a hard push off with the poles to extend the glide as far as possible; as soon as it starts to diminish, repeat the propulsion forward with your feet and then glide on both skis with the help of your poles and so on. This technique as well as the previous one requires a hard frozen crust and flat terrain for developing all-out speed.18 Obviously, it is less suitable in wet snow even if there are tracks because the arms are working as the main driving force for maintaining momentum, and you can’t depend on poles that sink deep down into the snow. If we do only one sliding foot thrust without poles instead of two, still gliding on both skis after a push with the poles, we end up with a basic two-cadence (of two types): 8. Basic two-cadence on the same foot (figure 13.4).19 Under such circumstances, it’s best to use two-cadence on alternating feet or on one foot. From history we know that in ancient times skis were of unequal length: the right ski, often covered with skins, was shorter and designed for pushing. The left one was smooth and long, designed for gliding.20 Because of this configuration, the skier had only one way of walking on them: pushing off with one foot and gliding with the other. This one-sided movement developed the right side extremities to the detriment of the left, so that the old master-walkers sometimes had a limp. Nevertheless, the results from this gait were phenomenal: a good skier, after each push, would glide twenty to thirty meters and sometimes even extended that to thirty-five or even up to fifty meters (of course, over frozen crust and flat terrain).21 There is no basis to think that this technique applies only to skis of unequal length: in our own era we can use it advantageously on skis that are smooth and of equal length. Giving a push with one foot—let’s say, with the left—you have to lift the ski just a little and jab it into the snow with extra force so it doesn’t slide back. At the same time, lean against your poles and push off with all your might, bending over from your lower back and sliding your feet forward so

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that it feels like the skis are taking off underneath you. Using your poles to propel yourself as far as possible, thrust the left foot forward. Advancing the right foot beyond it, repeat the push once more and so on. 9. Basic two-cadence on alternating feet (figure 13.5).22 If we push off with the right foot then the left foot, one after another, keep in mind that the foot that’s pushing should be in advance of the gliding foot just before we are about to make the forthcoming push. Applying this technique, we avoid the problem of the one-sided development that was a drawback for this type of ski gait in ancient times. 10. Compound three-cadence (three steps aided by poles). When glide is bad over varying terrain or along a poor trail, you can employ a variation of the technique described above [in subsection 9] (figure 13.6).23 The difference is that in place of two pushes made only by the feet, we use the poles as well. That is, we take two steps with the left and right feet, each time helping to boost the gait with the pole of the opposite hand; and we finish the movement with a push with two poles immediately as we glide on both skis holding the body bent forward and bodyweight equally distributed on both feet. 11. Two-cadence with a crossover of the right (or left) hand (figure 13.7).24 Two-cadence with a thrust from the left or right leg, I believe, is the bestloved ski technique. Although this method is suitable for frozen crust and so on, it’s extremely efficient along a more difficult trail or through a base of soft snow where you can’t plant your poles with force. Two-cadence is most often used by skiers especially over long distance because it requires appreciably less power from the arms than the three-cadence method. While learning this technique—apart from the different tempos in the mechanics of the movement—it’s necessary to remember that: (1) the push with the foot is made gently, smoothly, and without jerking—a slight kind of bounding; (2) bodyweight is shifted to the forward-gliding ski with a swinging movement from a pivot of the body through the hips to the opposite side (right leg forward, pivot the hips to the left and vice versa) so that it promotes a longer ski glide during each step; (3) the pole is thrust forward just enough to develop the required speed without placing any support on it. The technique involves the following: for example, if the left foot goes forward supporting bodyweight, the left hand thrusts the pole into the snow a little bit forward of the foot. Then with a powerful push off this leg and an energetic push on the pole, the right ski glides forward as the right hand gets thrown forward as far as possible. The glide continues on the right ski up until the right pole is at the side of the body. At that moment, using every ounce of power in your arm, push with the pole, elongating the push with

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a twist of the upper torso to the corresponding side. The left foot and hand go forward quickly for a new sequence of pushing with arm and leg. At that point, the position of the skier looks like this: he has his left foot and hand forward, the right foot is a little behind bearing the bodyweight; the right pole in the extended hand is far behind, the angle of the torso is forward and to the right, the shoulders are almost parallel with the longitudinal axis of the skis. In this position, the motion continues. While the body—due to inertia—has not drawn up parallel to the left pole, one can carry out the next push. Bodyweight is transferred onto the left leg as the right ski gets drawn up next to it and is pushed forward. The left hand carries the pole across the body to the side and forward in a semicircle for the next thrust and so on. It’s the same motion on the left. The semi-circular movement (об) of the pole forward is more convenient because during a rectilinear action you would have to lift the hand each time, which, of course, is more tiresome. In the forest, where trees get in the way, the motion of the pole is rectilinear (oа) (figure 13.8). 12. Four-cadence (left or right). Four-cadence (figure 13.9)25 is similar to the technique described above: just add two steps without any additional arm motion. The formula and framework for four-cadence are the same as two-cadence with thrust. Because the movements are so similar, I won’t repeat all of the movements in detail, but I will focus on guidelines for the addition of these two intermediate steps. Let’s assume that our left foot and hand are forward: we push the right foot forward and thrust the right hand forward simultaneously and add two steps by making powerful

Figure 13.8: “Thrust of the ski pole forward: [dotted line] oа—rectilinear (in a vertical plane), [dotted line] oб—semicircular (in a horizontal plane).” This simple line drawing, probably sketched by Eimeleus, illustrates the hand movements in his description of “two-cadence with a crossover of right (or left) hand.” See figure 13.7 in “Skis in the Art of War by K. B. E. E. Eimeleus—ski motion pictures 1912,” 5:30—7:26.

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hops forward on the left and right foot without using the poles. We finish the movement with a lunge of the left foot and thrust of the corresponding hand while at the same time pushing off on the right foot with assistance from the right arm just as in the two-cadence. The motion is the same when starting on the right side. This method is useful because the arms are working less relative to the legs in contrast to the previous techniques—and that’s a distinct benefit. In terms of physiology, lunging movements are magnificent because they involve muscles of the entire body and you can choose how to use them, interchanging their functions according to demand—that is, to go either from the right or from the left combination of arm and leg. Concerning a run, remember that any excessive strain of the body’s muscles, as well as abrupt sharp movements of the extremities will have an adverse effect on the results. Proper breathing that is deep and even—ideally, through the nose—has great value.26 Movement should always begin slowly and then accelerate little by little as the breathing opens up. Generally, you should try to work smoothly and methodically without pushing the entire body: this greatly alleviates the work of the heart as observed, for example, during sculling and boxing where the torso is actively engaged.

XIV. RIDING BEHIND A HORSE1

Riding behind a horse—which we’re seeing everywhere lately (at least in those

places where skiing is popular)—has its own developmental history, just like the ski itself. Of course, it occurred quite a bit later; still, it’s impossible to pinpoint exactly where or when this type of transportation first took place. We can say definitively that it was first practiced among the nomadic populations. We know how passionately the Laplanders—especially the youths—respond to this sport. Even though it doesn’t have exactly the same form, to give it any other name would be impossible—the Laplanders simply replace the horse with a reindeer and travel behind it in this way: with his left hand, the rider grasps a rope that is wrapped once or twice around the neck of the reindeer, and with his right, he grips the reins used to guide it (figure 14.1). The reindeer doesn’t pull away until the reins get thrown onto the other side: and then, they take off at a gallop. For

Figure 14.1: “Lapp [Sami] on skis behind a reindeer.” See Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 20–21.

beginners, it’s very difficult to stay balanced. It’s also rather tricky and dangerous for skiers traveling through the woods. Laplanders have achieved such skill and dexterity in riding behind reindeer that they don’t stop for any kind of obstacle: wherever the reindeer goes, that’s where they go, too. Say, for example, that during a ride in the woods a downed tree is in the way: the reindeer leaps over it and the rider follows right on its heels. So, the Laplanders chase after one another keeping hold of the reins, springing over obstacles, crashing. And sometimes, all this ends with a fractured arm or leg and even worse injuries.2 We can divide riding behind a horse into two categories: (1) purely sporting and (2) having military application. As a start, let’s analyze the first type. Ordinarily, for a ride behind a horse you use a yoke consisting of a breast collar, breech band, back pad, traces, and reins.3

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Braided cord made of regular hemp or English wool serves just as well as leather for this purpose, and, I suppose, it’s cheaper. The traces are attached to rings or buckles on the breast collar: similar rings are attached to the back pad through which the reins are passed. The breech band consists of a crupper strap fastened with a buckle to the back pad and a breastplate having two pairs of rings: the upper ones are for the reins and the lower for the traces.4 The traces are around six meters long: they either have a ring with an attached small-diameter rope, which the skier holds with his hands or coils around himself, or they have a wooden bar attached with a hook on the end that catches onto a ring in the skier’s belt (figure 14.2).5 The stance is a little wider than during a regular ski run: you have to keep

Figure 14.2: Compare this placid illustration of a couple skijoring through the forest with the racing action photograph from Switzerland in figure 23.1.

the tilt of the body a little straighter, forward from the point where the traces get attached. While riding behind a horse, the lower back and lower leg muscles will fatigue most of all, but after a little practice, these symptoms disappear. To stay upright on the skis, keep one foot just a little ahead of the other with both legs slightly bent—and don’t look down. It’s best to learn this sport holding on to a sleigh because it’s not as dangerous for the skier, it’s easier to control the horse, it provides something to stop against during a pause or while slowing down, and finally, it eliminates the sharp quick turns of an unencumbered horse. You should choose a gentle horse, accustomed to walking in a draft harness. The number of skiers that one horse can pull is a function of many factors: weather, trail conditions, the range and strength of the horse: on average, perhaps two to three people and, under favorable conditions, four, connected together with a rope. The best skier should handle the reins; the

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length of the traces should be six or seven arshiny, otherwise it’s possible to fall under the horse’s hooves (figure 14.3).6 Short wide mountain or forest skis are best since they are more stable and make turns easily without the skier having to lift them off the ground. The half-run or running skis glide too much, lack stability and, therefore, are a bad choice for beginners. A firm ski binding is best in case jumping becomes necessary. If you need to slow down, you have to hold the horse back and draw the tips of the skis nearer to one another, placing them at an angle (the plow), or overshoot the horse, or lean on a pole Figure 14.3: “Ride behind a horse: (а)— horse; (б)—the best skier; (в)—skiers.” Possibly (brake).7 a sketch by Eimeleus. But without special equipment, riding behind a horse is almost impossible, especially if the horse isn’t so gentle. This question interested me quite a bit, so I tested a few of the different methods for braking while in motion. To do this, you can use your poles as well as special devices known as “ski brakes.” The most practical method (leaving the hands completely free) has the top end of the poles attached to a belt. You let them pass between your legs and then tie them to the belt in the back so that the lower ends of the poles from the basket on down sit just over the surface of the ground. All you have to do is squat just a little bit to begin braking. A second method is to attach the poles to your belt on either side so that the upper ends are chest high. These ends are tied together with a rope that passes through the armpits and around the back. As you bend your body backward, the waist goes forward, the rope tightens and forces the lower ends of the poles to go forward and down in a braking motion. One more method of slowing down is to use my own invention: brakes that you fasten to the foot platform of the skis. On the exterior edges near the heel, you attach a single-arm lever; with pressure from your heels, the brakes dig into the snow and stop your forward motion. With skis attached to the feet, it’s impossible for the heel to turn outward. You can apply the brakes simultaneously by joining them into a double-arm lever with a rope attached to the belt, which you can also pull on if necessary. In this case, you’re better off to install a brake on the interior side of both skis: that way, you can bring both brakes into operation with one hand. A cotter pin acts as the pivot for the brakes, so they can be removed easily at any time. Now, let’s examine the application of this mode of transportation from a purely military point of view. In Sweden and Norway, a similar method has attained wide use in the army: thus, here at home, there is no question that we are well

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advised to expand it into our army, posing something to contemplate for the near future. Currently, we are allotting a lot of resources to mounted infantry based on the experiences of the Boer and the Russo-Japanese campaigns.8 But to achieve this goal, it would be especially advantageous for the cavalry—given its pulling power—to work together with the infantry. To resort specifically to the cavalry for this purpose doesn’t seem appropriate and should only be employed under extraordinary circumstances. Actually, the cavalry, having been drawn back when conditions are favorable, would not find this detrimental; nor would they be disturbed that the infantry benefits over time and gains military readiness. The speed of the infantry doubles—some 8–10 versts per hour—and its strength is preserved because there is very little exertion, breathing remains normal, and arms don’t become fatigued.9 At a stroke, a single squadron could transfer almost an entire battalion.10 The cavalryman throws a loop made from forage cord over himself or fastens it to the saddle;11 still better is to attach a looped cord to the breast collar rigged up from three hobbles (as recommended for hauling or transporting artillery pieces). The first skiers hold onto the looped cord and, putting their poles together by passing one through the basket of another, extend them back to the next comrade in line: he does the same with his poles so that behind one cavalryman several can proceed (figures 14.4 and 14.3). At the present time, each regiment has been allotted so few skis that there would only be enough to transport one company.12 But, where convenient, this could be handled if two infantrymen stood on one pair of skis, which you can do without a great deal of difficulty: one soldier puts on the skis, the other stands on them holding onto the shoulders of the first from behind; or each has a single ski on one foot while with the other foot he stands on the ski of his comrade. It’s easier to proceed at a trot rather than at a walk when any undulation of the ground or jerking by the horse is transmitted too forcefully and disturbs the skier’s balance.13

Figure 14.4: Eimeleus incorporated this photograph into his artwork for the back cover of Skis in the Art of War.

XV. RIDING WITH A SAIL1

Riding on skis with a sail—as we understand it—is a special kind of sport, but

it’s hard to believe this activity will ever be adapted into the army. Ski sailing has a lot going for it, but many drawbacks, too. You certainly can develop tremendous speed, so much so that several people can travel under one sail while preserving strength and vitality. On the other hand, the weight of the sail amounts to extra cargo, which has great significance in the military, where every funt counts.2 During a headwind, it becomes cumbersome and an inefficient deadweight; tacking into the wind takes a lot of time, disrupting operational plans, and revealing us to the enemy prematurely. There are several kinds of sails. Here, though, I only intend to deal with this question briefly: for those who would like more information, I recommend consulting the work of Borodin.3 Figure 15.1 shows us a simple and, I suppose, very common trapezoidal sail weighing around ten funty, with bamboo poles 6–7 arshiny in length.4 The surface area for a medium-weight skier (around five pudy) is between 90 and 100 square feet.5 Of course, everything is relative: weather, location, snow conditions, etc., are significant factors. We won’t describe the apparatus Figure 15.1: “Ski-sail.” See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi itself and the tightening of the sail here: sport, 59. this is only of interest to sportsmen, not to military skiers.6 If necessary, a soldier’s greatcoat can take the place of a sail quite well. To do this, put the rifle strap on over your head in the port-arms (or diagonal) position across the chest. With your greatcoat removed, unbutton the flaps, and put your rifle through the sleeves. Secure your poles to the lower edge of the greatcoat and, to increase its wind-resistance, grab the lapels with both hands. A tent sheet—carried by the infantry—or any kind of canvas yardage or sack can also substitute for a sail; together with these items, a bush or sapling can serve as camouflage and contribute to a clandestine approach on the enemy. If you have to deal with a genuine sail, remember the following: only those who know how to control their skis without a sail, make a competent turn, reduce speed and stop, and are familiar in a general way with movement in a variety of wind conditions should travel with a sail. We will describe here the most commonplace and characteristic methods encountered at every step. For travel before the wind, the skier stands with his back to the wind and lifts one end of the sail—holding it sideways so that it

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presents a smaller surface area—then quickly positions it behind his back. A turn in place is executed very simply; the only difference between one done with a sail and one done without is that you have to bend over so that the sail, as much as possible, assumes a horizontal position.7 That way, the wind, which in this position can’t catch the sail, won’t impede shifting the skis toward the direction you want to take. While holding a sail, though, this shifting of the skis has to be carried out more quickly. When tacking, keep the sail sideways, tilting it to the windward side; as you turn, the sail becomes loose downwind and gets a new bearing to which you must readjust the skis right at that moment. Don’t forget while you’re doing this that leaning your body to the appropriate side helps: the sharper the turn, the greater the tilt. Sometimes, since the wind’s force can be rather powerful, the skis won’t always go in the desired direction, especially on icy crust. To eliminate this, many people recommend that skis have two or even three grooves, but this is impractical because it reduces the durability of the skis. Others promote metal blades, which, however, are unnecessary in my opinion.8 The best solution is to cant the skis on edge while you’re in motion: as they cut into the snow edgewise, the deviation in direction is eliminated. But not all skis are equally suitable for this. First of all, they require edges that are sharp, not rounded off; and second, they have to be straight, not warped (Telemark and mountain skis would be best in this context). The most favorable terrain for this type of locomotion includes frozen lakes, rivers, bogs, fields, and generally flat, unrestricted locations where wide open spaces are plentiful and winds can get strong; and if, in addition, there is good hard snow, the friction is lower and phenomenal speeds are possible. But in wooded, hilly, or even slightly rough terrain as well as in squally, gusty winds and bad snow conditions, you lose all sense of control resulting in extremely poor outcomes.9

XVI. TURNING IN PLACE1

Strictly speaking, we distinguish four methods of turning in place. But you can’t

do all of them on certain skis: that depends on the skis and how you attach them to your feet. The first method is only suitable for long skis without heel straps. It’s done this way: take off your right ski (for example) and turn it in an arc of 180 degrees, placing your right foot on the left ski, especially in deep, loose snow. Now, move your right foot to the right ski and stand on it; then, with a sweep, shift your left ski around placing it just to the left of the right ski. Reattach the right ski and the turn is complete. This method works regardless of ski length and location, whether flat terrain or slope; also, it’s faster than the others. While using the next method, the skier leaves the ski-tails in place* while shifting the skis in a sequential fanlike motion to either the left or the right side, committing bodyweight slightly back and alterFigure 16.1: “Turn in place (second method).” nating from right to left ski. If poles are available, use them to keep from falling and to speed up the turn (figure 16.1). This method is applicable to long skis that are firmly attached to the foot. But it’s slow and better suited to flat terrain. The third method is much faster, requires very little space, and is easily executed even on an incline.2 However, it’s only suitable for short skis that are securely attached to the foot. For example: if it’s necessary to make a turn to the right, join your two poles together and plant them on your left side (figure 16.2). Lift your right foot up and a little forward so that, during the up-coming turn of the ski back and to the Figure 16.2: “Turn in place (third method).” right, its tail doesn’t hit your left foot. Swinging the ski from its elevated tip back the other way, place it side by side and parallel to the left one (figure 16.3). Then, transferring your bodyweight * The idea here is just like in the cavalry—[changing direction by a wheeling manoeuver] around the back feet of a horse.

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to the planted ski only, transfer the left ski in a semicircle and place it next to the right one (figure 16.3), with the elevated tip on that side. You should practice this on both sides, with and without the help of poles. This method is possible on skis of unequal length provided that it’s done on the short-ski side. The fourth method of turning is the fastest: the skier, with a powerful push-off with both feet, jumps into the air and twists the torso energetically in the desired direction while kicking the skis around the same way. You can use your poles to increase the height of the jump and the turn. This method is suitable for all kinds of skis but requires a lot of practice and agility. The binding system is unimportant as long as the skis are balanced.

Figure 16.3: This photograph features the same skier as in figure 16.2.

XVII. HILL CLIMBING1

The following discussion will only concern mountain skis that are securely

attached to the foot. Such skis allow various methods of hill climbing because they are easier to control than running skis that have no heel straps.* You have to know how to climb a hill, ski back down while making turns, and in general control your skis, since only then can you move about in variable terrain and perform jumps with confidence. You can surmount a small slope without special exertion simply by lifting the front part of the skis and driving them back into the snow more forcefully, thereby preventing a slide backward. (It’s the same idea as during the double cadence.)2 Your torso should be inclined a little bit forward: transferring your bodyweight from one foot to the other, take a small step pushing more on the heel than the toe. The skier should get a sense of what size step he can take without negative results, because the slightest slide backward invariably leads to a fall, an exhausting prospect. For longer and steeper climbs, it’s better to use a zigzag method. At the start of each zigzag, you have to place your skis horizontally across the slope to keep them from sliding backward, using one of the turns we discussed in the previous section.3 This method is awkward and takes a lot of time because of all the turns required. But you may be in a hurry, Figure 17.1: “Climb with ‘scissors.’” More comor in the wrong place, so you have to resort to a monly known today as “herringbone.” climb with “scissors” (figures 17.1 and 17.2). As seen in the illustrations, the skis are placed askew and to the outside, forming an angle between them: the steeper the hill, the wider the angle (figure 17.3). During each step, you have to lift the ski and then—with a slight cant to the inside—force the ski inward into the snow along its entire length in order to gain a sufficiently

Figure 17.2: “Gentle uphill with ‘scissors.’” Possibly a sketch by Eimeleus.

* If the skier has poles, he should use them in moderation, otherwise he won’t internalize balance and acquire control over his skis.

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Figure 17.3: “Steep uphill with ‘scissors.’” Possibly a sketch by Eimeleus.

secure foothold for the body while moving forward with the other foot.* For an experienced hiker, this method of hill climbing is the fastest and enables him to ascend fairly steep inclines; but then, it’s exhausting and only possible on skis with short tails—otherwise, they can get crossed.4 When going up a very steep incline that’s not too long, use the “staircase” climb (figures 17.4 and 17.5). The skier stands sideways to the slope, setting his skis horizontally; then he takes the uphill ski and sets it forcefully into the snow a little higher and parallel to the previous position. Transferring bodyweight to that foot, he brings the other one up to it. In this way, he continues to climb straight up or diagonally (figure 17.5 and 17.6). To prevent the skis from sliding backward during a climb, press the heel into the snow from the inner edge of the ski. As far as your poles are concerned, some recommend hold- Figure 17.4: “‘Staircase’ climb.” More coming them on the uphill side, while others suggest the monly known today as “sidestepping.” downhill side. As mentioned earlier, skis lined with skin are still in use to prevent the skis from slipping backward during these climbs.5 Sometimes, fur strips (usually made from the skin of reindeer hooves) are attached to the base of the ski, which is

Figure 17.5: “Forward uphill with ‘staircase.’” Possibly a sketch by Eimeleus.

* Depending on the location, you can choose more or less slanting of the ski direction along the slope; also, the skis can be arrayed outwards as needed.

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Figure 17.6: “‘Staircase’ climb.”

Figure 17.7: “Ski with incisions,” possibly a sketch by Eimeleus. The base incisions are similar to modern patterned waxless cross-country skis.

convenient because you can put them on or take them off at will. Plus, there are special devices: “brakes.” Figure 17.8 clearly shows their construction, method of application, and function. Sometimes a few transverse indentations are cut into the base of the ski on the back section, which keeps the ski from slipping (figure 17.7). Nonetheless, I have to say that the best method for climbing is to know how to employ various ways to ascend on normal skis with smooth bases since skis with all manner of devices attached are disadvantageous during a descent or while moving about on flat terrain.6

Figure 17.8: “Brakes.” These are similar to modern Harscheisen or ski crampons.

XVIII. MOUNTAIN DESCENT1

Skiing down is far more interesting than climbing up. But it requires prac-

tice, agility, determination, and quick problem-solving skills because a fortuitous outcome on the descent often relies on proficient control over your skis. In the past, there were two methods for skiing down although one is already outmoded; nonetheless, it is worthwhile to become acquainted with both. For the first one, the skier takes a wide stance with legs bent at the knees while pushing down on a pole that he drags behind. He bends his body backward—increasing the support area—and descends in that position. If you break a pole while doing this, you’re bound to fall; therefore, it’s only used now on very hard snow. Another style, formulated in the Telemark region of Norway, is embraced universally these days wherever skiing is practiced as a form of sport. The skier places his skis parallel and close to one another (a ski-width apart) and bends his legs slightly at the knees for flexibility pushing one of them forward (no more than necessary depending on the steepness of the descent), leaning back more on the trailing foot (figure 18.1). Without Figure 18.1: “Telemark descent.” bending at the small of the back, he leans forward (the steeper the hill, the greater the lean) so that the body is always perpendicular to the slope. Often, we encounter the opposite: a skier who leans back—but then, the skis take off downhill and a fall is inevitable. You should look forward and never down at your feet because you need to see obstacles along the trail in advance—especially in unknown terrain—in order to bypass them in time or at least to cope with them. The position described above is modified during a descent as needed, depending on the steepness of the slope, snow conditions, and terrain. If, for example, the snow in one place is faster than in another, or because of the wind, recently fallen snow is unevenly covered by a hard crust—that creates one of the most difficult hills you can possibly imagine. In order to keep your balance on such a slope, you have to remember that skis slide really well on frozen crust and decelerate in fresh snow: in such a case, you should sit back, in a manner of speaking, and squat down a bit as the trail situation changes; it’s also a good idea to cant the skis so that your velocity is more uniform. Now, let’s assume that the slope’s steepness and the consistency of the snow remain constant, but the terrain changes: for example, a

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steep slope becomes a gentle flat or a small climb. Then, in order to keep your balance, you need to throw your body back more for the uphill and less for the flats. While descending a slope overgrown with forest it may sometimes be necessary to fall down intentionally to keep from crashing into a tree and breaking your skis. The main thing is not to lose your composure during a descent, even on a steep hill: remember that speed helps maintain your balance.

XIX. THE POLE AS A BRAKE1

In the forest or on rough and unfamiliar terrain, you will often need your poles

to decrease your speed and for steep turns. In this situation, you should join them together and hold on with either one or both hands, either in the front or to the side, with the ends pointing backward.2 The most useful pole for this is one fitted with an iron disc. Sometimes on a difficult slope, you have to lean on the pole to keep from losing your balance. During a mountain descent, the poles aren’t used as much. To brake, hold the pole either between the skis or to one side of them. Laplanders use the first method more often. They sit straight down on the pole and sometimes push down with their heels into the snow from the inner edge of the skis: but in that case, the binding straps should be fairly loose. When holding the pole to one side of the skis—let’s say on the left—grab it with the left hand around the middle of the pole and, with the right, just underneath its top end. This isn’t such a difficult procedure, but a common mistake is sitting back Figure 19.1: “Incorrect body position while braking with a pole.” See Möller, Om skidlöpning, 15. too far (figure 19.1): with all the bodyweight resting on the pole, the skis can shoot forward and out from underneath the skier, who then falls over backward. Figure 19.2 shows the correct stance. Putting your bodyweight on a pole held to one side will cause the skis to turn in an arc to that side. You can use this phenomenon for stopping: just lean harder on the pole and transfer more bodyweight onto the corresponding side (you can increase resistance by bringing your ski tips together). The skis will make an arc (more or less) around the pole and then stop. Figure 19.3 shows the other way of braking. To do Figure 19.2: “Correct body position for first method of braking with a pole.” See Möller, Om this, bring your pole skidlöpning, 16. between the skis and

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Figure 19.3: “Another method of braking with a pole.” See Jägerskiöld, Om skidor, 24.

place your hands so that the right forearm leans against the lower part of the thigh. You can also put pressure on the pole from the inside of the knee and then hold on to it with the left hand only. The advantage of this method is that your center of gravity is located over the support platform of the feet at all times. You can decrease the speed of the descent without using any kind of brake at all by skiing down on the diagonal. During a long descent, it will be necessary to go zigzagging down. Before turning around, you have to set your skis across the slope (horizontally, or with the tips even a little uphill) and make a turn just as we explained earlier.3 While doing this, always hold your pole on the uphill side. If you are descending from a very steep mountain covered with iced-over snow, use the following method: set both skis evenly on the snow parallel to the slope and distribute your bodyweight equally on both skis. Now, lean your torso ever so slightly to the side opposite the slope as the skis start to slip down the hill sideways.4

XX. SKIS AS A BRAKE

For a skier-sportsman, braking with skis is a more suitable solution, but it requires better command over your equipment than braking with poles. You can brake with both skis, or just one (in two distinct styles). When braking with two skis, the tips draw together while the tails tend to split apart. The feet are turned to the outside so that the inner edges of the skis penetrate into the snow and bodyweight shifts forward (figures 20.1 and 20.2). Bindings should be as solid and

Figure 20.1: “Braking with two skis.”

Figure 20.2: “Braking with two skis: [above] direction of movement and slope; [below] cross-section of skis.”

tight as possible for the best control of the skis. This method works well on hard snow; in soft snow, you have to employ it gradually, otherwise a large pile of snow accumulates in front of the skis, movement stops abruptly, and a skier tumbles forward from his momentum. A variation of this is braking with one ski, which offers two possibilities: both of them are twisting motions. During the first, the uphill ski holds a line following the direction of travel and the downhill ski functions as a brake: you have to position it as in the two-ski method above, that is, in a twist but just a little behind the uphill ski upon which you have put your bodyweight. The lower ski only slightly supports the body. Move your torso a little bit forward for braking (figures 20.3 and 20.4). The steeper the hill, the more you twist the base of the downhill ski outward so that it assumes an angle facing back from the direction of the ski. If, on the other hand, you transfer more of your bodyweight onto the braking ski, keep in mind that both skis will begin to turn toward the uphill side; increasing the pressure on the downhill ski even more forcefully will cause both to move

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Figure 20.4: “First method of braking with one ski (left side); [above] direction of slope; [below] cross-section of skis.” Figure 20.3: “First method of braking with one ski (right side).” Water-based paint used to enhance definition.

in an arc and stop. Consequently, while making a zigzag traverse, you can stop at any time; and, while changing direction, you won’t have to stop for a turn: just make a small arc on the move (figures 20.5 and 20.6). Let’s suppose that we need to make a turn to the left (figure 20.6). For the initial position, the left ski is tilted at an angle to the inside and a little behind the right ski with bodyweight forward on the left ski. During the first half of the turn, both skis are flat on the snow; the tails are at an angle, just as in the “plow” method with bodyweight distributed equally on both skis. Applying greater pressure to the right ski, try to change its direction, then transfer your bodyweight to the left ski, which has now become the leading ski. At this point, the right ski takes over the role that the left ski performed at the start of the turn, that is, it tilts at an angle and goes behind as a brake. The pole gets shifted before the Figure 20.5: “Second method of braking with one ski and a turn on the move (to turn to the uphill side for supthe right).” Water-based paint used to enhance definition. port and as an aid in turning.

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Figure 20.6: “Second method of braking with one ski and a turn on the move (to the left); [left] cross-section of skis; [right] direction of slope.”

XXI. TURNS ON THE MOVE

Once we have become familiar with the preceding maneuvers both in theory

and in practice, we can focus attention on the difficult, yet daring and beautiful, turns on the move with the right or left shoulder aligned with the corresponding ski. We will distinguish three important techniques that have gained currency in the world of sport. One of them pertains only to running skis while the other two require mountain skis with stable bindings. In studying these methods, we gain complete control over our skis with the result that neither precipice nor forest nor any other obstacle presents a danger to us as we hurtle lightning-fast down a steep slope. Let us now analyze these three techniques one at a time in order to acquire the prerequisite background: without it, mastery is virtually inconceivable or quite difficult, and you’ll probably make many mistakes as well as take some fairly elegant falls. While descending from a mountain or over flat terrain on running skis, or on any skis that lack a stable binding and have a posterior center of balance, use the method for turning in place, modified, of course, for turning on the move. Let’s say you want to turn to the left: you can make a small change of direction simply by transferring your bodyweight to the desired side. During a more substantial turn, the skis are lifted alternately (starting with the left) and placed more or less in a leftward direction depending on the steepness of the turn (figure 16.1).1 While you’re doing this, you have to lean your torso back a little bit: this enhances the motion, that is, it

Figure 21.1: “Christiania turn to the right.” See Huitfeldt, Lærebog i Skiløbning, 55; Möller, Om skidlöpning, 18; and Jägerskiöld, Om skidor, 25.

Figure 21.2: “Christiania turn to the right; [left] cross-section of skis; [right] direction of slope.” See Jägerskiöld, Om skidor, 25.

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eases the circular movement and allows the possibility—especially in deep snow— to lift the tips higher out of the snow and thus shift the direction of the skis. Of course, one should practice this on each side, both with and without poles. Your poles help you avoid falls quite a bit and partly support your bodyweight. It’s a good idea to learn beforehand how to extend your balance on one ski while holding the other in the air since this turn is made up of many such similar movements. As noted earlier, the characteristics of the turns can be attributed to the varied construction of the skis: so, a turn in the mountains (the Telemark turn) is done without separating the skis from the surface of the snow. The Christiania turn is carried out on the inner ski, that is, on the right ski when the turn is done to the right-hand side (figures 21.1 and 21.2). The initial position is a normal stance, but as soon as the turn begins, the right foot is pushed forward (20–30 centimeters). The skis remain parallel and the distance between them doesn’t vary: bodyweight is distributed equally on both skis. At the same moment in the turn, one should push the heels out to the left while the toes turn right: the skis will also turn together with them. Tilt the body to the right and back (onto the heels), with knees slightly bent. As the skis are canted to the right, the tails will move to the opposite side. You can help maintain balance by using your arms. A turn to the left is done in a similar manner. While executing the Christiania, it’s imperative to stay calm, maintain smooth movement, and retain the correct relative position of the skis, just as if the turn were no major effort at all. From figure 21.3, it is evident that the idea of the Christiania turn is just the same as braking on ice skates, although there are, of course, certain differences due to the smooth surface of the ice.

Figure 21.3: “Christiania turn to the right.” Today, this turn is known as the Stem-Christie, or Christie.

Turns on the Move

Figure 21.4: “Telemark turn to the left.” See Huitfeldt, Lærebog i Skiløbning, 55; Möller, Om skidlöpning, 18; and Jägerskiöld, Om skidor, 25. The Telemark turn enjoyed a revival in the late 1970s among backcountry skiers using Nordic three-pin bindings, boots, and touring skis.

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Figure 21.5: “Initiating a Telemark turn to the right.”

The Telemark turn (figure 21.4) also allows a skier to make a sudden stop as he is descending. Let’s have a look at what’s necessary for the successful completion of this elegant yet difficult turn. During a turn to the right (figure 21.5), the left foot is pushed forward until the tip of the right ski is almost against the middle section of the left; the skis are now close together; the right knee is bent; all the bodyweight is on the left foot which—along with the torso—leans to the right. At the same time, the tail of the left ski rotates to the left, bodyweight is transferred forcefully to the right, and in front of the torso as it leans, and comes around into the side of the turn. Use your arms to maintain balance (figure 21.6). The right leg is dragged behind with the heel separated from the ski and off to the left; the right knee is bent and, in a manner of speaking, it looks like you are taking a giant step forward (figure 21.6). Now, bring the right leg up. It’s clear that this turn has much in common with the one-ski braking method we learned earlier, and which is to a certain extent a preparatory exercise.2 A turn to the left is done in a similar fashion (figure 21.7). The faster you are moving, the more forcefully you must propel the foot, bend the knee, and increase the torso’s tilt toward the inside of the turn. It’s interesting as well as instructive to prove your skill in descending from a mountain by executing a figure-S maneuver employing the Telemark and the Christiania turns one after another. You should practice without a pole, keeping in mind, however, that it can be indispensable when you have to carry out a steep turn or make a sudden stop by forcefully jabbing it into the snow near the ski on the side of the turn.3

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Figure 21.6: “Finishing a Telemark turn to the right.”

Figure 21.7: “Telemark turn to the left; [left and below] direction of slope; [above] cross-section of skis.”

XXII. THE PROPER EXECUTION OF JUMPS1

Jumping, as it has evolved in competition recently, rarely has direct practical

application, but the educational value of the sport is tremendous. Jumping fosters bravery, dexterity, courage, and a strong spirit, all of which results in a ski jumper’s acquisition of self-confidence, composure, and resourcefulness—traits that are crucial while skiing over varied terrain. In addition, the skier experiences enjoyment and pleasure after the completion of a successful jump. So, let’s have a look at jumping exclusively from an athletic point of view. The jump itself takes place from a jumping platform located somewhere around the middle of a hill (this allows the skier to lengthen his launch; figures 22.1 and 22.2). The worst place to construct a jumping platform is at the bottom of a hill because the skis strike the ground at a right angle and the skier receives a powerful jolt, which leads to a fall in Figure 22.1: “Hill profile for ski-jumping: (аб) in-run; (б) jumping platform; (бв) out-run.” the majority of cases, to say nothing of the sudden deceleration. It’s essential to maintain the correct relationship between the in-run, the jumping platform, and the out-run. From figure 22.1 we see the impact of the out-run’s steepness on the flight distance, and figure 22.2 clearly illustrates the impact of the jumping platform’s slope on the flight trajectory. You can always control the speed of travel by increasing or decreasing in-run acceleration.2 There are various jumping platform profiles on the horizontal plane, 22.2: “Relationship between the jump-platform profile and length of a jump; trajecsloping up or down. Figure tory of flight at the point of the jumping platform: [solid line] from the horizontal; [dashed The height is usually line] from an incline below; [dotted dashed line] from an incline above.”

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around one meter, sometimes two: but for a beginner’s training jump, it should be no higher than 40 centimeters. A skier should transition from a smaller jumping platform to one of greater height only after he has sufficiently practiced maintaining proper body position in flight. Of course, everything depends on the steepness and length of the run-out: the steeper the run-out, the smaller the jumping platform (and vice versa) to achieve an equivalent length of flight. You measure this distance from the lower edge of the jumping platform to the skis’ point of contact on the ground after the flight. Sliding from the jumping platform, the skier describes a parabolic trajectory in the air, whose highest point can be quite substantial: from 8 to 18 meters, that is to say, the equivalent of a fall from the third or fourth story of an ordinary house.

Figure 22.3: “Profile of the hills at Livbakken [dotted line] and Feldberg-Hügel [solid line].”

A hill should conform to the measurements and specifications seen in figure 22.3: the relative steepness, length, and height of its various parts. A dotted line denotes the hill profile in Livbakken in Norway and a solid line represents the one at Feldberg-Hügel in the Schwarzwald [the Black Forest].3 As the illustration shows, the flight range is similar at both locations, around 30 meters; however, a jump from the hill at Livbakken achieves a height of 18 meters, but only 13 meters at Feldberg. Here we see clearly the significance of the hill profile and the reciprocal relationship of its various parts. A slope of around 30 degrees is just about the limit for the in-run of a ski hill. The slope angle is quite easy to determine with the help of three ski poles (figure 22.4). For beginners, understandably, a hill should be shorter and sloped more gently, and the jumping platform should be considerably smaller. It’s easy to construct such a small platform out of snow: for durability, interlay the snow with fir branches. Initially, the jumping platform should have a slight downward angle to make the jump easier. For a big jumping platform, the hill should not be too steep and the run-out should not have the same incline all along its length, nor should it be especially short. When greater exactness is required (for example, at competitions) then it’s necessary to build the jumping platform out of wood or stone

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Figure 22.4: “Apparatus for determining the slope angle of a hill.”

with a width of around three meters so that skiers can make new tracking ruts. The transition of the upper run-out at the jumping platform should be gradual, and the jumping platform itself should have a length of at least seven meters or an even surface that spans two skis: this facilitates the jump quite a bit. If this level surface is too long, it’s easy to lose your intended speed; too short, and there’s not enough time to generate propulsion. It’s a good idea to mark the edge of the platform with something like a flag or birch branches so the skier knows where to make his jump. The snow should be packed down and deep with absolutely no loose snow; skis won’t handle correctly on granular or iced-over snow, which makes it more difficult to jump. On the out-run, below the jumping platform, snow should have a depth of 40–50 centimeters, otherwise it’s better not to jump. It’s also a good idea to allocate around 5 meters of width and 20 meters of length to the landing area. At the landing zone, the snow has to be compacted, not loose; otherwise, the skis will dive down deep and tangle up the jump considerably. At the jumping platform and along the entire length of the out-run, it’s a good idea to have a thin layer of loose snow over the hard layer, which gets crushed as the skis pack down the snow (but if it’s too loose the snow gets eaten away). After each jump, the snow should be leveled and smoothed out. The out-run below the jumping platform should not become shallow-angled all at once, because that increases the difficulty of the landing. But, at the same time, it should not be especially steep either: better if it’s smooth with a gradual transition into a flat area so that the jumper can make a stop with a turn.

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Here’s another possible mistake: the jumping platform is slanted, that is, one of its edges is higher than the other, or it becomes crooked after several jumps. Then, the skis don’t leave the surface of the jumping platform at the same time, and the jump gets skewed. When this happens, the landing area is going to be wider than 20 meters. So that the sun has less effect on the snow and doesn’t blind the eyes, it’s better to construct the jumping platform on a slope that faces north. To summarize, the best possible outcome requires: 1. A very detailed construction of the out-run, especially the lower portion of the upper slope, as well as the entire lower part, especially in the landing area. 2. A proper profile of the jumping platform. A strictly horizontal jumping platform throws the skier high into the air and, to some extent, complicates his flight. Plan perhaps for a downward slope of five degrees. It’s difficult, of course, to measure the incline of a slope with the naked eye, but with the help of three ski poles as shown in figure 22.4, this is quite easy to accomplish. 3. A steeper slope, as far as possible, below the jumping platform, because the stronger the launch of the skier, the more critical the angle formed by the arc of his descending flight trajectory. Now, there remains the question of the technique of the jump itself—that is, the proper way to make a beautiful and successful jump. I will concern myself with the essential positions of the skier during his downhill run, consistent with

Figure 22.5: “Schematic representation of a ski jump.” See Möller, Om skidlöpning, 21. A similar diagram appears in an article on ski jumping in “Lyzhnyi sport,” Gerkules 18 January 1915, pp. 7–9.

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Figure 22.6: “The moment before takeoff.”

the principles accepted by the Organization of Amateurs in Ski-Sport of Sweden.4 Figure 22.5 clearly shows a jump during its various stages moment by moment. Starting position. In-run: torso slightly angled forward, arms hanging down loosely, legs straight with one foot a little in front of the other, skis parallel and close to one another (figure 22.5 А). Before the jump. Around twenty meters before the jumping platform, lean the torso forward a little more, increase the bend in the knees gradually while getting ready for the jump (figures 22.5 Б and 22.6). The jump. At the far edge of the jumping platform, it’s necessary to push off in a manner that entails more than simply jumping into the air with extension only from the legs at the ankle and knee joints: you have to jump a bit higher with the whole body, throwing your arms up and pushing your torso forward with a jerk. The position of the skis is the same as on the in-run but now your feet come together.5 Flight through the air. The body is completely erect and angled slightly forward. Balance is maintained by making fluid arm motions (normally, hold them outstretched and down or to the side at shoulder height). At first, the skis are horizontal, Figure 22.7: “Correct position during flight.”

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Figure 22.8: “The flight.”

but during the descent they are parallel to the out-run with tips lowered. Hold them next to each other on the same plane (figures 22.5 Г, 22.7, and 22.8). There’s another jumping method, but it is not nearly as beautiful and powerful as the previous one. The difference is that the legs are bent considerably at the knees and the upper part of the torso is inclined forward even more.6 The position of the skis relative to each other and to the slope remains the same. During any jump look forward, never down. The landing. That is, the contact of the skis with the ground, should be relaxed: bend the legs at the knees, push one of them forward just a little, and slightly raise the heel of the one behind. Keep the skis parallel and in close proximity to one another (figure 22.5 Д). At the conclusion of the jump, as soon as balance is established, quickly straighten the torso and the knees, put your arms down and the upper part of your body a bit forward: in other words, assume a normal posture. The exercise is finished with a turn.7 Don’t try to do long jumps exclusively, because confidence, jumping style, and also torso position at the different points of the landing suffer from enthusiasm; above all else, these characteristics should count first and foremost. Many mistakes in any new exercise happen during the initial attempts: to mitigate this situation, it’s imperative to maintain a gradual methodology in training and to pay close attention. Sometimes, while in flight, the tails of the skis drop down (figure 22.9) or the torso isn’t tilted forward enough: then, the skis shoot forward at the landing and the skier falls on his back. The faster your movement, the more your torso goes forward. The best position is one that is perpendicular to the out-run. Sometimes, the forward lean is too great and, during the landing, you can pitch over the front of your skis. The same

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Figure 22.9: “Incorrect position while in flight.” See Möller, Om skidlöpning, 20.

thing happens at the landing if there’s not enough speed or from drastic extension of the torso. Another mistake is taking off too early or delaying the takeoff from the jumping platform and incorrectly finding your direction, which results in crooked jumping. All these mistakes will usually lead to a fall; but it’s not dangerous because the skis are attached tightly to the feet and you’re not using poles. Therefore, no freewheeling pieces of equipment can harm you. Accidents are rare, so you don’t need to fear or resist a fall. In this situation, as elsewhere, you need to know how to fall. It’s important to stand confidently, to stay on track, to internalize balance and the forward lean of the torso, and to never jump with poles. In the case of a fall, repeat the exercise as long as it takes to finally complete a successful jump. While in the air, don’t flap your arms forcefully and abruptly. Don’t take off from the edge of the jumping platform passively: push off aggressively. Then, the start of the flight will gain in elevation or at least run parallel to the jumping platform, resulting in a proper and beautiful jump.

XXIII. A CHRONICLE OF SKI COMPETITIONS

Of interest to the reader, of course, are ski results achieved over a variety of

terrain and under various conditions. It’s the rare person who develops into a good skier without engaging in the sport since childhood, because only through extensive practice can you gain sufficient limb and muscle strength for the essentials of skiing. It’s difficult to compare results across different locations, because variations in trails, weather, place, time of year, time of day, and many other less important considerations can lead to discrepancies of several minutes. Therefore, when a question arises about minutes and seconds, pay attention to all of the circumstances in order to make a reasoned evaluation.1 Let’s have a look in turn at every type of ski practice: ski sailing; Indian skis; ski-running behind a horse; mountain descents; and ski runs over distance both for speed and endurance.2 Up to this point, ski sailing hasn’t become too widespread, so races are sporadic and therefore data about them rather scarce. Komets talks about the time that the Pfeffer brothers—together under one ski sail—completed a trek in the span of 1 hour 12 minutes across the snow-covered Gulf of Finland from Kronstadt to St. Petersburg’s Free Island near Petrovskaia Kosa, a distance of around 35 or 40 versts.3 In 1911, without any training, Lieutenant Danich traversed that same distance in 55 minutes.4 Granted, he had ideal wind and weather conditions. There are more examples like this, but because of ambiguities in the details they become less relevant. In general we can say that a skier can reach a considerable speed of up to 25 versts per hour (or sometimes even more) with a strong wind and all advantageous conditions.5 I have to say a few words about Indian skis, although their use in Europe is limited and, consequently, the data gathered here is not the best. As I have discussed earlier, the birthplace of this type of ski is America. Indians and “trappers” (that is what they call hunters who catch wild animals with traps) manage to walk on them with complete expertise.6 It’s well established that they can travel from 6 to 8 versts per hour on them.7 Ski-running behind a horse does not interest us particularly, because any results we know about were achieved at special competitions involving optimal conditions and thoroughbred horses. The Swedish, the Norwegians, and the Swiss (see figure 23.1) are quite enthusiastic about this sport and often organize large races. In the military realm, where each horse must carry a rider as well as tow a few skiers, the norm is perhaps around 8–10 versts per hour.8 Results in ski jumping are nothing less than incredible. In the art of war, this type of skiing scarcely has any significance because the style as practiced in the world of sport is completely irrelevant. However, because ski jumping can foster

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Figure 23.1: “Ski-running behind a horse in Switzerland.” The blurred image may be a result of reproduction from a stereoscope card. The terminology “ski-running”—rather than “riding”—behind a horse indicates a fast-paced competition rather than the plodding methods shown in figures 14.2 and 14.4.

courage, bravery, valor, composure, agility, determination, confidence in one’s own strengths, etc., it is interesting to know the lengths of the jumps made by the sport’s best competitors. Norway is the birthplace of jumping, but accomplished jumpers come from Sweden and Finland too. And recently Switzerland is ascendant with absolutely astonishing results.9 In 1879 the longest jump was 23 meters. In 1902 Gistran (Norway) jumped 41 meters. In 1904 a young girl of twelve—Stan (Norway)—jumped 14.5 meters, while the longest jump by any German was 15 meters; but by 1907 Harald Smit had already jumped 36 meters. In 1909 Jakobsen (Kristiania) jumped over 37 meters in Germany.10 The next record of 41.5 meters was set by Bratten.11 Harald Smit made the greatest jump—45 meters—in Switzerland in 1907.12 It is also interesting to have information about climbs and descents in the mountains:13 In 1889, the Frenchman Pilet climbed the Feldberg in the Schwarzwald.14 In 1893, skis were used for the first time to trek in the Alps (Gotthard, Grimsel, and Furka passes). In 1896, Dr. Paulcke climbed to the summit of the Oberalpstock in the Alps.15 In 1904, Mylius climbed Mont Blanc.16 In 1905, Leif Berg covered the distance from the Titlis-Gipfel to Trübsee in 29 minutes, with a difference in elevation of 1,489 meters.17 Now let’s turn to the final and most important segment—namely, running on skis over various distances: it has significant implications and is of great interest to those of us in the military. Many people know about the trek of the Laplanders Tuorda and Rassa in 1883.18 As participants on the expedition of Adolf

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Erik Nordenskiöld, the famous professor and Arctic explorer, they covered 460 kilometers (420 versts) in 57 hours. But in 1884 these two went from Jokkmokk to Kvikkjokk [Sweden] and back: a distance of 220 kilometers (209 versts) in 21 hours and 22 minutes, if we count 2 hours of rest along the way. The entire distance of the trail was over flat terrain with the better part of it crossing ice. Not only did these two prizewinners put on a display of endurance, but a third prizewinner showed that he was none the poorer in his ski abilities: he arrived at the finish line only 16 minutes behind the leaders, despite his one ragged ski that had cracked en route. On the day before the competition, this same skier ran 90 kilometers and after that an additional 15 to the start; on the following day, he took off for home—a distance of more than 100 kilometers. This means that he went over 400 kilometers in four days; all of this through deep snow, which was the only mode of travel possible.19 In 1886 a surveyor named Eriksson traveled 780 versts in 6 days and 17 hours (161 hours); in 1888 Hemmesved, a Norwegian, went 50 kilometers over rugged terrain in Norway for the first time in 4 hours, 26 minutes, 30 seconds.20 At competitions in Stockholm in 1892, the Finn Ritola ran 30 kilometers in 2 hours, 23 minutes, 13.4 seconds;21 and in the same year at Helsingfors, forty-seven-year-old Luomajoki did 28 kilometers in 1 hour, 54 minutes, 56.75 seconds.22 In 1901 the Finn Hepoaho ran 60 kilometers over flat terrain in 4 hours, 40 minutes.23 That same year in Stockholm at the Northern Games, the Finn Jussila managed 30 kilometers in 2 hours, 9 minutes, 13 seconds over somewhat varied terrain.24 In Finland that same distance was covered in 1 hour, 58 minutes, 12 seconds.25 In 1903 the Norwegian Hovelsen traversed 55 kilometers of extremely rough terrain in 4 hours, 17 minutes, 6 seconds.26 The world records over a variety of distances established by the Finns are as follows:27 8 kilometers by Dahlström: 21 minutes, 39 seconds.28 10 kilometers by K. Merikoski: 27 minutes, 15 seconds.29 20 kilometers by S. Vesa: 1 hour, 6 minutes, 5 seconds.30 30 kilometers by A. Autio: 1 hour, 46 minutes, 15 seconds.31 50 kilometers by J. Aitamurto: 4 hours, 20 minutes, 17 seconds.32 60 kilometers by M. Sieppi : 4 hours, 12 minutes, 55 seconds.33 80 kilometers by Z. [sic] Peltola: 6 hours, 42 minutes, 45 seconds.34 The first record was set on totally flat ground,35 but the others were completed more or less on the sort of terrain generally found in Finland, encompassing lakes, meadows, rivers, forests, swamps, and so on.36 The foregoing numbers, as we have already observed, sum up the records set by the best skiers in the world and consequently, due to huge variations in conditions, cannot serve as criteria in assessing our results. We are better off taking

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skiers of average ability, without special training over less advantageous conditions, carrying a load, and so on, and above all, examples from the military realm. These will better reveal to us—and with more precision—the importance of skis as a means for transportation. Dr. Fridtjof Nansen’s celebrated 1889 ski traverse of Greenland is common knowledge.37 In 1895 two untrained men on fairly heavy, mediocre skis traveled 80 kilometers in Sweden in one day without excessive fatigue. Once, a Finnish farmer went 100 kilometers on his way to a neighboring village in one day and returned via the same route on the next. Another took his child to the priest for baptism pulling him behind in an ahkio (or veturi—a sled fashioned from thin spruce slats into the shape of a boat). The trail distance was 30 kilometers, but because the weather was good the trip out and back—with baptism included—took only half a day. As evidence of the extraordinary impact that weather conditions can have on results, I offer the following example: in 1897 it took 12 hours and 36 minutes to traverse 95 kilometers in a downpour. The rain caused the snow to melt and impeded the skier’s extended sliding gait because the snow caked on so thickly. As a comparison, it took only 7 hours and 45 minutes to cover the very same distance in good weather. In 1891, at ski competitions in full combat gear for the Finnish Rifle Battalions, the following results were achieved: in Helsingfors, 5 kilometers in 23.5 minutes, average speed 25 minutes; in Uleåborg, 10 kilometers, greatest speed 56 minutes, 15 seconds with average speed of 1 hour and 3 minutes; in Åbo, 18 kilometers, 1 hour, 34 minutes, 26 seconds, average speed: 1 hour and 37 minutes.38

XXIV. SYSTEMATIC INSTRUCTION OF SKIING IN THE MILITARY

It’s difficult to produce a well-practiced skier in a short time of service. Therefore, prior to enlistment, we should choose a detachment from the lower ranks who are familiar with skiing and distribute them equally among the companies. But even the most uncoordinated can become acquainted with ski-running through professional and systematic instruction within a relatively short period of time—in about one month. Progress and quality of exercises depend on the skill of each individual. It’s a good idea to get familiar with the theory of ski-running as much as possible beforehand, in order to make it more comprehensible and easier to grasp in practice. Along with theory, we have plenty of preparatory exercises that can accelerate as well as facilitate the study of running and produce good results. Until the start of winter, we should strengthen and develop our muscles so that as soon as the snow falls we can get to practice. But we also need to train our inner organs—the heart and lungs, etc.—in order to open up our breathing; to broaden the chest, strengthen the shoulder girdle and abdominal muscles in addition to our spirit, nerves, and strength of will; and to learn how to turn and hold onto our poles.1 You can develop the techniques of movement effectively by learning them as gymnastic exercises in formation and grouped with your division. Students will learn how to handle poles correctly while coordinating arms and legs. Subsequent training will benefit from this because the student will be able to focus attention solely on his skis while his limbs work together instinctively. You can study turning on skis in a similar way. While performing movement and exercises with equipment, concentrate on the following muscles:2 1. 2. 3. 4.

The shoulder girdle The upper arms—triceps The torso—abdominal muscles and lateral back muscles The lower extremities—anterior hip muscles, the Sartorius muscles, and the quadriceps.

The most important factor is training the lower extremities (quick swinging of the legs back and forth and movement with resistance for the hamstrings using kettlebells).3 To learn how to run fast requires training in quick movements aimed at advanced performance: producing the greatest energy but with the least expenditure of strength.* Fatigue occurs in direct relationship to the duration and time * In addition to muscle strength, normal training promotes performance efficiency to the utmost while reducing fatigue, augments intensity and speed of work, and provides the experience of complex muscular exertion without heightened pressure or commitment.

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of exercise. You should not strain a muscle to the point of extreme exhaustion; it takes too much time to recover its working capacity compared to muscles that have been taxed just slightly. In addition, weary muscles at work require considerable exertion of willpower, leading to rapid and total exhaustion. In establishing a practical standard of exercise, one should consider difficulty in breathing as the primary characteristic of complete fatigue at which point rest is necessary. Breathing is crucial to running. Daily repetitive deep inhalation and total exhalation enlarges the chest area and develops the corresponding muscles, making all of them flexible and expansive. As a result, blood circulation and its cleansing is improved, facilitating the heart’s activity. The value of deep inhalation/total exhalation exercises becomes apparent when you notice that during deep breathing a person takes into his lungs a quantity of oxygen seven times greater than usual. Learn this type of breathing if it’s not habitual. I recommend that you practice breathing exercises throughout the day between gymnastics or other sports rather than isolating them to a particular time or training period. Systematic breathing exercise even over a brief period of time will acclimate a person to rational, proper breathing, as if it were second nature. The governing principle is to breathe in through the nose and then exhale that breath completely. It’s better to perform the exercise for a shorter duration, and more often, rather than less often but for a longer time. You have to breathe in slowly and heartily, just as if oxygen were a tasty, nutritious substance and breathe out as if the spent, putrid exhale were some sort of unclean, offensive element. The muscles most integral to the act of breathing—the diaphragm and deep chest muscles—are strengthened through these exercises while simultaneously developing their coordination.4 If we consider deep breathing in its own right, we can divide it into three groups: 1. Simple breathing: (a) slow, even, and deep inhale and a similar complete exhale; (b) slow inhale and quick exhale, and vice versa; (c) retention of the breath after inhaling or exhaling for a more prolonged period (from .5 to 2 minutes); (d) abdominal or chest breathing (in both cases not raising the shoulders). 2. Breathing with activities that make it difficult: (a) while inhaling: through a tube with one nostril; or in some sort of position that makes lifting the ribs and lowering the diaphragm difficult—for example, leaning forward and to the side, breathing more from a single lung, with one foot positioned behind the other and toes pointed; (b) during the exhale: carry on a loud conversation, drink, or play some sort of wind instrument (try to blow out a match from a faraway distance). 3. Breathing with secondary activities: besides the gymnastics exercises described in the lessons for training the troops, I will mention a few more.5 Active exercises

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that expand the chest while inhaling: upward extension of the arms with elbows bent, clasping them behind your head; circular motion of the arms. Passive exercises during the exhale: narrowing the chest, crossing arms on the chest; compressing the chest from the sides using your arms, severely leaning the torso forward, squatting with knees together.

One should exercise moderately and consistently, avoiding excessive endeavor and exhaustion. Only after breathing exercises have already been built up gradually, should you try inhaling in a more prolonged manner, allowing the breath to penetrate into the smallest and furthest corpuscles of the lungs. And exhaling, in turn, can be made to last longer, allowing the greatest release of contaminated oxygen from the lungs. Both speed and endurance running can enhance training for breathing because they foster the vigorous development of the chest, lungs, and all respiratory muscles. With the application of running in all its forms and levels of difficulty, we can bring normal lungs up to their greatest perfection. In particular, you should try to avoid a powerful palpitation while training the heart. You have to get used to working the heart to the point of fatigue; and when that happens, it’s a good idea to lie down on your back with arms and legs spread wide: soon, your breathing will calm down as your pulse rate falls to a normal level. There’s a close link between the abdomen, the lungs, and the heart; and if the first two are in good condition then it’s easy to strengthen the latter. Running long distance also has a huge impact on the heart’s development. But you should alternate endurance running with a brisk walking pace at the first sign of general fatigue or heart palpitation (shortness of breath). To protect your heart during an endurance run (over a long distance), don’t immediately increase your speed to that of a short run. Once you synchronize your cardiac performance proportionally to your breathing (approximately four beats to one breath), then you can regulate your speed during the distance run, breathing slowly at first. At races, these instructions often get neglected forcing you to drop out of competition; but sometimes, this may indicate a heart condition. Proper and progressive training will strengthen many of the heart muscles and improve cardiac performance: that is to say, the heart becomes accustomed to a more complete and powerful contraction thereby lowering the heartbeat. Observations show that for those who are in training, the morning resting pulse rate is around sixty-three beats per minute, whereas during a workout it’s sixty-nine. A muscle that works automatically does not fatigue as quickly as one that has to function through intense willpower. This is easily observed when comparing deep breathing with normal breathing. I’m inclined to think that long-distance

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running depends more on strength of nerve and mental fortitude than on muscle development. One time when I had not trained sufficiently, I took part in a competition in England and set a world record for squats, doing 4,444 without a break in 2 hours, 16 minutes, and 30 seconds.6 I was exhausted early on, but a persistent desire to beat the old record helped me attain my goal. That’s why we have to exercise our nerves and willpower along with the other organs mentioned above. Physically, we notice that after repeated exercises, the body begins to work more automatically while expending less energy: in other words, we have gained endurance. Each physical exercise develops the muscles as well as the nervous system. Every new combination of exercises or active situation increases conduction along the separate nerve paths. Just like our physical organs, willpower presumably can be strengthened with exercises that deliberately strain it. Consequently, physical activities also influence our moral courage: the changes in our body caused by these activities govern our spiritual life indirectly through the nerves and mind.7 Having accomplished this preparatory training, it’s possible to proceed with practical instruction in ski-running at the onset of winter with high hopes for success. Don’t forget that endurance plays the principal role in traveling on foot—the capacity to keep going for a long time, so essential to prolonged and fast running while on the march, on the advance, and on the attack. Habituation to this should be developed through extended training on an individual basis to start with, and then through group exercises. The goal of individual training is to teach a skier how to walk and run on skis, to prepare for collaborative operation in various formations, and to adapt to the terrain both day and night. 1. In the process of learning balance, the skier gains confidence in himself by walking with consistently increasing speed on a straight track, starting without poles and then with poles (since long-distance travel at constant speed requires skillful pole handling). 2. To learn balance and gain self-confidence requires exercising in zigzag movements and turning without a pole in maneuvers with increasingly smaller radii and gradually more speed. It’s difficult to determine exactly the limit because the exercise depends on the skill and strength of each individual. It’s possible to make sharp turns only after sensible, progressive training. 3. Learn how to transfer the pole from one hand to the other in advance of each turn during single-file movement. 4. Vary exercises in climbing up, alternating them with other basic movements already learned previously and well understood, for example:

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one time, the plow climb; another time, the staircase climb along a diagonal direction, and so on. 5. Be practiced in various elementary exercises, sometimes interrupting them and doing ordinary walks. 6. Gradually practice jumping, starting with small elevations, then moving on to higher jumping platforms along a prepared track and also surmounting natural and man-made obstacles such as ditches, fences, etc. 7. Apply the principles of exercises previously learned when on a run along a well-chosen path. In mountainous terrain, ski students should above all be practiced in turns and change of direction along an ever-diminishing circle. There is a very noticeable difference between those who know how to do the Telemark and Christiania turns and those who don’t: whereas the former bravely, quickly, and elegantly descend straight down a steep slope— often overgrown with trees—the latter slowly and tentatively make two or more half circles until reaching the bottom of the mountain. Group exercises drill field movement, operation in battle, and the skill to maneuver quickly while crossing over from one formation to another. During a course of individual instruction, each soldier should be taught to run in ranks and close formation: this will prepare him for movement by detachments over intervals and distances made routine through practice. Begin instruction in the platoons and divisions, and then by regiments, starting out on the flats and then over broken terrain. Get accustomed to marching both day and night over wide open spaces as well as those arrayed with artificial obstacles. Short wide skis are recommended for the troops—the forest type; but if operating in the mountains, then use a mountain-style ski. One or two poles are useful and best with a basket. For fast communication of orders and dispatches, it’s a good idea to have a few experienced skiers on long running skis.8 During the participation of a large group, Indian skis (racquets) are more practical.9 They weigh between 1.0 and 1.25 kilograms and are of such dimensions that, when necessary, every soldier can carry them. There are also collapsible skis invented by Lieutenant-Colonel (Retired) Bek-Marmarchev, recommended for the troops in the Circulars of the General Staff.10 They have been put to the test with the permission of the August Commander in Chief of the Guards Troops and the St. Petersburg Military Command.11 The testimonials given afterward by representatives of the companies speaking on behalf of the units were quite complimentary to the inventor. A few of the regiments completed ski tours of 100 or more versts on them;12 others tested them on the march time and again, and also in jumping. In the Finnish Border Guards, the skis fulfilled expectations over broken terrain. But it was brought to my attention that some regiments noted equipment failures.

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The collapsible ski’s future is questionable now. Portability is their best attribute; but, on the negative side, after continual daily use they become unstable and loose despite the quality of their construction. The slits and boltheads on the bottom of the skis increase the coefficient of drag on the snow, and consequently there is an excessive drain on the skier’s strength. When water gets inside, during a thaw and hard frost, folding and unfolding the skis becomes difficult. Summing up, we can hope that if these folding skis are to be of a military type, improved construction will eliminate the shortcomings. They may have a future in the army, but in the sporting world, among genuine skiers, it’s doubtful they will ever gain enough popularity to displace “whole” skis.13 Here are two modifications to this idea of folding skis. 1. The ski is cut across the middle; the foot platform, which is made from a detachable wooden plate, pivots on the vertical axis on the back end of the forward half of the ski; on the bottom of this foot platform there are two projections that penetrate all the way into a groove on the back half of the ski; in this location, the foot platform gets attached by a strap. 2. The foot platform, which is located on the rear half of the ski, won’t pivot but is positioned into metal sockets. In the forward position, it becomes stabilized with a projecting prong that inserts into a specified groove. To fold the ski, the prong is withdrawn and the foot platform is retracted backwards.*14 Oddly enough, skis can be used in the summer as well as the winter. Thanks to their wide surface area, skis offer solid support so that impenetrable regions such as swamps and bogs can be simply and easily traversed.15 Of course, in such situations there won’t be any running, just walking without gliding while lifting the feet: the Canadian ski (racquet) is the best type for that.16 You have to wax them in advance from top to bottom so that they don’t get soaked and increase in weight; the bindings should be good and tight. Forest and mountain skis can be adapted for travel over water: join a few pairs of skis together in the shape of a raft and attach a seat. For such a situation, there should be ample wax on the skis.

* This assembly is already in use on the “Telemarken” [sic] ski. With a careful alteration, almost all drawbacks are eliminated.14

XXV. INSTRUCTION OF SKI DETACHMENTS WITH MARCHING AND COMPANY BATTLE FORMATION, REFERENCING “INFANTRY DRILL REGULATIONS”1 I. Platoon instruction. 2 Parade formations:3 a. Forming up: Skiers stand in two ranks at an interval of no more than a half ski length, or two paces. The distance between the ranks is one and a half ski lengths, or six paces. The platoon commander is one and a half ski lengths, or six paces, to the center and in front of the platoon. The section noncommissioned officers are six paces behind and along the middle of the sections.4 b. Turning in place: Turns to the right and left are carried out from the beginning of movement on the corresponding side in sequence by files (equivalent to aligning the formation by files right and left) at the command: “platoon to the right (or left) by files, march.”5 An about-face is carried out at the command “about-face, march.” At the initial “about-face,” the commanders and the number ones of both ranks move forward three ski lengths or twelve paces.6 At the command “march,” everyone turns in place left about-face, after which the commanders and the number ones take their previous positions.7 An equivalent turn in formation by files8 is carried out at the command “to the left and to the right about-face (or vice versa), march.” The first rank makes an about-face turn to the left, and the second rank turns right. In a formation with double files,9 at the command “to the left and to the right about-face” (or vice versa, depending upon which flank the platoon is turning), the entire platoon advances three ski lengths, or twelve paces, while at the same time the number ones of the first rank and the number twos of the second rank depart on the respective sides at an interval of one ski length, or four paces. Then, at the command “march,” the men of the first rank turn to the left about-face and those of the second rank turn to the right about-face. After this, the entire platoon, taking twelve paces forward, or three ski lengths, recovers the previous array. c. Turns on the move: in parade formation, at the command “to the rear, march,” the officers walking behind and the number twos of both ranks stand still and turn, letting the number ones pass by. The number ones and the officers who are proceeding forward continue their movement three ski lengths, or twelve paces, to the front, stop, make a turn, and fall into place. Then the command “forward, march” is given. A turn to the right or to

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the left begins with the command “Left (or right), six steps open ranks.” After the ranks have spaced out, at the command “right march,” everyone stops while maintaining alignment, turns, and continues moving in the new direction. In formations by files, or grouped into fours, the about-face takes place just as it does when turning in place, except that on the command “to the left and to the right, about-face,” the platoon stops: the turns left and right are carried out just as in the spread-out line, with open ranks. d. Doubling up of the files is carried out only during a turn to the left or to the right, either at the start or in the middle of movement. At the command “to the right by double files, march” the first file turns right and goes forward; then after them, the second file turns (the number twos) and, catching up to the first file, they stand further to the right (if it’s the right column) than their number ones, and so on.10 Forming up takes place either as the double files initiate movement or on the march. At the command “files fall in,” the number ones increase the pace and the seconds gradually get into their positions right behind the firsts. e. Movement and change of direction in a parade line takes place in accordance with infantry drill regulations for wheeling and aligning the platoon (possible only during movement from a formation by files).11 f. In formation by files it is only possible to proceed at the start of movement: (1) in a forward direction at the command “right by files, march,” the right flank moves straight ahead while all others, taking a half turn to the right, form up into two ranks, one behind the other; (2) to the side (turn in place) and to the rear, before doing an about-face. This type of formation is best suited to moving over broken terrain. The platoon column and its composition right and left are according to platoon sections; the platoon column’s movement and change of direction is carried out according to the regulations.12

II. Company instruction. 13 Company formations:14 a. Parade line—according to regulations and composition of the platoon. The company commander is three ski lengths, or twelve paces, in front and to the middle of the company, or wherever it is convenient. b. Platoon and half-company columns fall into line at the beginning of movement at the command “right and left by platoon, march,” conforming

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to the column of platoons by section; the distance between platoons is five ski lengths or twenty paces; change of direction is according to regulations.15 c. Formation by platoon in files out of the parade line is achieved at the start of movement, according to the composition of the parade line by platoon; the right flank maintains the intervals and alignment; the intervals between platoons are equal to the length of the front of the platoon, or as directed.16 d. As just stated, formation by platoon is in accordance with regulations, with the exception that all intervals should be doubled.17 In all forming up of the platoon and company, the intervals and distances between individuals are the same as those indicated for the platoon parade line.

III. Company battle-array. 18 All matters are carried out according to Part III, section ii of the Infantry Drill Regulations.19 Intervals between riflemen should be increased. Under live fire during actual battle, particular importance accrues to prolonged, rapid running. On the firing line, a rifleman can either be on skis or have skis removed and then drag them behind, according to his preference. You can attach cumbersome munitions to your skis and use them as a support for shooting. A running advance is carried out on command, or if the rifleman is coming under immediate fire, he can change position himself. You can move on skis, or without them while crawling forward. With skis on, at the time of assault during the running advance from the firing line, the faster the riflemen run across the danger zone, the less they will suffer casualties: the same is true during the final attack on a position.20 Sometimes it is necessary to resort to removing the skis when either the disposition of battle requires it or snow conditions and terrain are such that you cannot use them. In this case, after taking cover and lying down, the skier binds his skis together passing the tips and tails through the pole baskets; he lays his rifle on the skis, pushing the bayonet into the pole baskets with the rifle barrel forward and up; he lies down with his chest on the ski bindings and, using his hands, slides forward. A second method: the rifle with bayonet attached is on the back; skis are not bound together; the rifleman lies down on them, grabs the poles near the baskets and moves forward by pushing off with them. You can shoot standing, kneeling, or lying down with skis on. When shooting from the kneeling position, the rifleman puts the left foot and ski forward and sets the knee of the right leg on the right ski (still attached). In order to lie down, the

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rifleman pivots the tips of his skis to the right, propping the left hand on the pole or straight into the snow, kneels down, and then lies on the left hip (figure 25.1). Divide the reserves into three parts: the strongest support the flanks and the weakest are positioned in the middle of the firing line. For the defense of the flanks, designate a patrol of from five to seven individuals.21 Maintain contact through signals.

Figure 25.1: “Norwegian soldier-skiers on the firing line.”

XXVI. SUGGESTED SCHEDULE OF SKI INSTRUCTION IN THE MILITARY

Below, I provide a suggested instruction schedule with a sequence of exercises for the troops that is sufficiently complete for them to understand ski-running while simultaneously producing the very best results in the shortest possible time. As with any other skill, of course, complete mastery of this sport requires continuous practice outside of the class sessions. Knowledge of the theory of skiing facilitates our task. The entire course of instruction is divided into forty lessons of one hour each: therefore, it will take just over a month to complete the training.1 1st session: Movement without poles over flat terrain (best accomplished on a frozen lake or meadow): the value of the exercise is to develop balance and the correct transfer of bodyweight from one ski to another without excessive sideplay and see-sawing. 2nd session: Same as in the 1st session. 3rd session: Movement using poles over the same flat terrain. The goal is to make a track. Pay attention to the parallel nature of the tracks, the spacing of the skis one from the other, and get accustomed to looking straight ahead, not at your feet, and rigorously maintain your initial direction. 4th session: Repetition of the 3rd session. During this exercise, the poles can serve as supports in case you lose balance. The main concern should be maintaining a proper track. 5th session: Walking and running over somewhat uneven terrain without poles. The goal is to work on balance. 6th session: Study methods of walking and running on flat and uneven terrain; and turns in place. Practice the methods possible depending on bindings and types of skis (see section “Turning in Place”).2 Practice stopping. 7th session: Study of walking and running with forward extension of the opposite hand. This method of walking and running is known as “diagonal.”3 8th session: Running with the help of each arm. Poles are for assisting movement rather than for balance (see section “Ski-Running”).4 9th session: (a) Study of hill-climbing methods. To begin with, choose a slightly inclined area and then gradually move to a steeper one. Climb up with a strong push into the snow with each motion of the ski while zigzagging or using the “scissors” or the “plow” (see section “Hill Climbing”).5 (b) Study of hill descent (skis as a brake): (1) brake with both skis in the plow position (apply on direct descent); (2) brake with one ski (divide into two methods—see section “Skis as a Brake”).6 10th session: Study of hill-climbing methods and descents with the help of poles. Steeper terrain. The “staircase” climb; using the heels to brake. Loose bindings. While descending, practice the following methods: heel as a brake;

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pole on one side with upper hand grasping high, lower hand grasping low; pole between the legs; descent along a diagonal direction or by zigzagging; method of sliding down iced-over snow (see section “The Pole as a Brake”).7 All of these techniques decrease the speed of descent depending on how much energy the skier applies. 11th session: Walking and running over variable terrain with one or two poles. Pay attention to the proper method of sticking the pole into the ground (not too far from the line of the skis). 12th session: Walking and running across appreciably uneven terrain. The goal is similar to that of the 3rd and 4th sessions. Apply that which was learned in the 10th session. 13th session: Two-cadence on the same foot.8 14th session: Two-cadence on alternating feet.9 After studying the two double-cadence methods, use them in a short-distance competition over flat terrain. 15th session: Three-cadence (two steps without poles).10 16th session: Three-cadence—all three steps with poles (see section “SkiRunning”).11 After mastering these techniques, use them on broken terrain as a method of travel. 17th session: Riding behind a horse. At first, behind sleighs down a road (this is convenient because you can move along with several others simultaneously. In addition, it’s easier to maintain balance and is less dangerous). 18th session: Riding behind a horse. At first, one person behind a mounted rider, then several as described in the section “Riding behind a Horse.”12 It’s preferable on a lake over hard snow where you can make mistakes without consequences. 19th session: Two-cadence with kick on right and left side, then combining them and, every now and again, changing sides without slowing down.13 20th session: Four-cadence right and left, change sides as soon as the arm gets tired.14 21st session: Run of one verst over flat terrain at speed, using the techniques you find more suitable and faster. 22nd session: Two-verst run over varied terrain in full battle gear. 23rd session: Mountain descent without any sort of braking. Negligible slope. The goal is to develop balance and self-confidence. Learn to turn on the move; methods that pertain to skis with a loose binding. 24th session: Mountain descent. Mountain skis. Steeper slopes. Downhill terrain that is varied and irregular in order to learn balance, not only side to side but also forward and back. During the descent, jump across any sort of obstacles that might serve as preparation for jumping from a platform. Learn to make a turn by the Christiania method (see section “Turns on the Move”).15 25th session: Mountain descent. More rigorous instruction than in the preceding session. Learn to do the Telemark turn (see section “Turns on the Move”).

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26th session: Five-verst run over considerably broken terrain for endurance. Pay less attention to speed. The main point is proper technique for movement and intelligent use of methods for traveling over the given terrain. Watch out for exhaustion of the skier: it’s important that he arrives at the finish area fresh and capable for battle. Individuals should be in full infantry gear. It’s preferable to undergo all twenty-six of these class sessions with every enlisted man; and, if time allows, it would be helpful and instructive to pass along platoon and company drills to the more capable ones. The commands are delivered from the front in a long-drawn-out manner, similar to those delivered to riders in the cavalry. Also practice quick setup of the battle outpost. In class session, learn how to maintain communications and to carry out orderly and reconnaissance duties. 27th session: Riding behind a horse. One or several skiers without a mounted rider. The special harness. This exercise is purely for sporting purposes and is hardly applicable to military matters. It develops courage and benefits the leg and lower back muscles. 28th session: Riding with a sail. Suitable location and wind conditions are required. Practice with special sail and also with a variety of appropriate devices that could be encountered in a wartime scenario (see “Riding with a Sail”).16 29th session: Mountain descent with jumps. Increase the size of the jump platform depending on the success and skill of the students. During the execution of the jumps, pay attention as much to their correctness from the very start right up to the end as to the flight distance. Practice doing the Christiania or Telemark turns after the landing, narrowing their radius. 30th session: Ten-verst race over fairly broken and forested terrain. Objectives are the same as during the five-verst run, except that instead of running a race for individuals, the entire division should participate, each person arriving at the finish line without falling behind. 31st session: Platoon instruction. Parade line formation. Movement. Halt. Turn about-face in place.17 32nd session: The same as in the preceding session. Forming-up into a column from parade formation by files forward, on the sides (right and left), and behind.18 33rd session: Platoon instruction. Turning and forming up columns by files according to section. Changing direction of the parade line formation by wheeling and aligning the platoon.19 34th session: Platoon instruction. Turn on the move. Repetition of the preceding session. 35th session: Platoon instruction. Review: forming into fours by files from the start of movement. Forming into fours and aligning the platoon.20 36th session: Company instruction. Parade line formation. Turn in place, on the move, and from the beginning of movement. Aligning files according to platoon and then out of these, configuring the front.21

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37th session: Company instruction. Repetition of the preceding session. Forming-up of platoon and half-company columns and then out of these configuring the front. Company formation by platoon. 38th session: Loose formation.22 39th session: Transition from marching formation into battle formation. 40th session: Military marksmanship in winter. In the future, we should hold races for the entire company over the distance covered in one march—no less than 25 and no more than 50 versts23—and field maneuvers lasting several days committed to tactical problems of screening, scouting, and so on, especially laying out bivouacs, increasing endurance, determining how much clothing suffices for a given objective, and preparing the troops for winter operations. Of course, the instructor has complete freedom to change the program as he sees fit. We need only to disseminate instruction in ski-running as soon as possible, in open fields where there’s plenty of elbow room for applying techniques and principles of ski-running over very broken terrain. In contrast to the Norwegian school, the German school follows this view, the so-called Lilienfelder Schule, established on that principle and the methodology of Captain Bilgeri of Austria.24 The first thirty class sessions of the foregoing program served as a guidebook for ski-sport during school instruction at the Main Gymnastics-Fencing School in the winter of 1910–1911. Despite the fact that two classes were joined into one, we achieved good results. Many of the school officers had never seen skis, and scarcely anyone had a correct understanding of how to use them. Nonetheless, in trials at the end of the winter season—thanks, of course, to the zeal, willingness, and enthusiasm of the officers—the following speeds were posted during a 5-verst race over varied terrain:25 Second Lieutenant Ezerskii of the 140th Zaraisk Infantry Regiment: 34 minutes, 16 seconds.26 Sotnik Boldyrev of the 12th Don Cossacks Regiment: 34 minutes, 40 seconds.27 First Lieutenant Shmakov of the 3rd Finland Rifles Regiment: 35 minutes, 51 seconds.28 First Lieutenant Filatov of the 40th Artillery Brigade: 36 minutes.29 On the same day, outside of the competition, Staff Captain Almqvist of the 1st Kronstadt Fortress Artillery Regiment ran over the same course in 31 minutes, 20 seconds.30 It should be noted that apart from the difficult terrain the weather was gruesome—strong winds and wet snow that adhered to the skis in clumps. More favorable conditions prevailed for a 10-verst race, although 4 versts were rather difficult due to grimy snow (a result of the course being set too close to factory smokestacks).31 Results were as follows: Staff-Captain Almqvist: 58 minutes, 44.2 seconds.

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Khorunzhii Khokhlachev of the Don Cossacks Regiments competing as a unit: 1 hour, [0 minutes], 43 seconds.32 Second Lieutenant Ezerskii: 1 hour, 1 minute, 52 seconds. Staff-Captain Davidov of the 198th Infantry of the Aleksandr Nevskii Regiment: 1 hour, 2 minutes, 10 seconds.33 Outside of competition on the same day, First Lieutenant Borzentsov of the 28th Artillery Brigade: 57 minutes, 18.6 seconds.34 Afterward, there was a relay race between sections of the School, in which the best skiers of every section took part by fours. The terrain was somewhat varied. There was wind but the trail was good. A pole had to be transferred [as a relay baton]. Five-verst distance. The winners turned out to be: Staff-Captain Almqvist, Lieutenant Borzentsov, Khorunzhii Khokhlachev, and Second Lieutenant Ezerskii who covered the course in twenty-five minutes.

XXVII. ESSENTIAL RULES FOR SKIERS ON THE MARCH

Observing certain skills and rules assists everyone’s work to a certain extent

and provides the opportunity to fulfill the tasks placed upon skiers. These are especially useful for larger divisions where skiers of differing abilities are thrown together. It’s essential, of course, to maintain the structure of the detachments and their regulations as far as possible and then modify them as required by local conditions or by the skis themselves . Weather conditions greatly influence how far a division can travel. For example, a severe frost makes it difficult for people to move about and tires the horses; a blizzard interferes with organization and sometimes even makes it downright impossible to continue moving. In figure 27.1,we see a company of skiers in halt formation; and in figure 27.2, skiers on the march. These formations are just fine on an open, relatively wide field, but we must learn how to travel under other less favorable circumstances. I’m not going to get into the details on all kinds of formations here (see above),1 on the order of movement of large marching forces, or on the relative position of various kinds of troops in a marching column: all this is subject to the authority of more competent personnel for whom it is necessary to work out regulations for military operations in wintertime. For now, I will deal only with the general marching formation of small detachments and skiers in platoon sections. Before the start of a march, it’s necessary to carefully check your equipment: whether the gear for attaching skis to your feet is in working order, the ski bases are in good shape, wax is applied, and so on.

Figure 27.1: “Company of skiers of the Finnish Rifle Battalion (currently disbanded) in halt formation.” Note the reindeer-drawn ahkio in the foreground. Eimeleus emended the captions for illustrations 27.1 and 27.2 at the end of his book, replacing “skiers of the Swedish Army” found in the original text with “skiers of the Finnish Rifle Battalion,” adding the sardonic comment, “currently disbanded.” See section IV, n. 7.

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Figure 27.2: “Company of the Finnish Rifle Battalion (currently disbanded) on the march.”

As in any formation, the most important consideration is maintaining complete discipline, but it should be even stricter for a group of skiers. Sometimes, the formation gets disrupted, especially during travel across variable terrain, but this is not considered a breakdown in marching discipline if it occurs only as a consequence of local conditions and doesn’t impede the overall goals. Nonetheless, it’s necessary to require that troops move strictly in columns because travel becomes quite a bit easier that way.2 Give your preliminary and execution commands clearly and in a long-drawn-out manner, as a commander does in a cavalry formation. Under no circumstances should you come to a halt in the column (during a fall or while adjusting equipment): pull away from the column immediately, keeping it clear for those who are coming behind; and, if it’s not required to maintain complete silence, give a loud warning for those coming next in line during a mountain descent over broken terrain, or even on the flats during a brisk march—for example, shout “Watch your step!” and quickly clear out of the way. You shouldn’t undertake a run alone—especially in mountainous terrain— because accidents are always a possibility and no one will be present to help. Carrying dispatches and other messages, scouting, and sentry duty all require groups of several men together. During any run, the most important factor is breaking trail. Consider this the most difficult work and take the lead by turns. In good weather you can easily take on this task alone, but when snow conditions are less favorable, two or even three men may be insufficient. A group of six to eight skiers allows switching out the lead and allocating more equally the pack-load necessary for the trail, such as materials for repairing skis, or kits for administering first aid. The officer in command of the group arranges the troops (depending on the overall objective) into several relatively independent sections separated one from the other, sometimes by fifty (or even more) paces. Make sure

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that a good skier is at the head and tail of each section. Contact between sections is maintained either by voice or by keeping within sight of each other. When there is imminent danger, the sections communicate with whistle or bugle. Generally, the officer of the detachment takes position at the head of the first section. Route finding, crucial in all aspects of military matters, has primary value here as well. While moving in several sectional columns, don’t lose sight of that part of the group not lucky enough to proceed down the track, who lagged behind those moving along it and, inevitably, had to break trail for those columns. In order to be a good commander, it’s not enough to be courageous and run fast: you should also know how to manage your speed and choose a line of march that matches the strength of the weakest skiers, to use a normal gait on the march and during all travel in close formations, and to resort to movement that only in extreme cases requires strenuous effort on the part of your subordinates. Goals that require speed and short-cuts are suitable only for scouts, patrols, and in general, for groups made up of the best skiers. The commander chooses the path depending on the goals and strength of his company; he’s responsible for the accuracy of directives and regimen. He travels a little bit out in front and dispatches patrols for basic screening, reconnaissance of the terrain, and for breaking trail; depending on information collected, he can change direction. It’s the responsibility of a good skier coming from behind to help a straggler or someone who has fallen and to let the commander know about accidents and any sort of hazard.

Rules on the March 1. Trail conditions and the general terrain establish the sequencing order for travel on skis. Usually, the formation is one at a time in a single file or in single platoon files because the track from the sleds is narrow and snow often lies in irregular snowbanks on either side of the trail. Along a wide trail, it’s more convenient to move along by doubling up the platoon files (figure 27.3).3 For the cavalry, it’s single-file, but each rider can draw two or three skiers behind; under favorable conditions, he can even pull four infantrymen for a short distance.4 It’s always necessary to leave a few riders without skiers behind, so they can gather up those who have fallen or who have lagged behind for whatever reason. During travel off-trail, the order of marching—apart from tactical considerations—depends on the nature of the terrain, on the skiers themselves, their preparation, and whether or not a track has been prepared. 2. The distance between skiers depends on the speed of travel and the terrain. In general, it should not be less than two paces and, during a mountain

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Figure 27.3: “Skiers moving in doubled-up platoon files.” Gal’ includes this same photograph in his brochure. See Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 12–13. Eimeleus incorporated it into his artwork for the front cover of Skis in the Art of War.

descent, should extend up to twenty paces. Under normal conditions, a skier keeps six paces back; and a mounted rider with a skier doubles that distance; a wagon, fifteen paces; a platoon one at a time or by single files, from 375 to 200 paces; a platoon in doubled-up files, 115 paces; a platoon divided into sections, from 200 to 100 paces; a platoon divided into sections and in doubled-up files, sixty paces; a company in files, 550 paces; a company in doubled-up files, 335 paces; a company in platoons, from 375 to 200 paces; a company in platoons and doubled-up files, 115 paces; a company divided into platoon sections, from 200 to 100 paces; a company divided into platoon sections and doubled-up files, sixty paces. 3. In case of an accident, the whole group halts; only after the leader issues directives does it continue forward. For a halt, the command “stand by” is given and movement gradually decreases. 4. Interchange the file leader and patrols. 5. Groups should be composed of the best skiers all of equal strength because frequent stops for helping those who have fallen down, those who don’t know how to ski, and the weak only create more fatigue and inhibits travel. 6. Choose a march route that’s easy to traverse even though it might be a little longer than others. Better to expend extra time and to arrive all in one piece than expose yourself to the perils of some kind of accident or damage to your skis. This would not only increase the time of travel but also hamper achieving your goal. Follow the valley bottoms, where the snow lies smooth and is easy to ski over. If it’s necessary to go across a slope, it’s better to stick to the northern exposures: southern slopes are often subject to the thawing

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and freezing effects of the sun. Forest travel is hard because it’s difficult to find your bearings, and the path is more tedious because the tree canopy keeps snow from accumulating on the ground.5 7. Regulate the speed and difficulty of the march by factoring in the strength of the weakest skiers. In general, you shouldn’t misuse speed if it’s not required for the goal you have established. 8. For terrain that’s impassable or difficult to traverse (lacking in snow, rough, plastered with icy crust, or mixed with water), take off your skis immediately. 9. During a climb, pause every half hour for three or five minutes, and during a descent or travel over flat terrain, stop for a rest every hour for five or ten minutes. On a long trek, after a few hours of travel allow a stop of a half hour or more to take a meal. If there’s no structure or open building, then choose a sheltered place or one that faces into the sun. An open clearing in the woods is the best place for a bivouac (but not for the cavalry); the edge of the forest is less suitable because a lot of snow accumulates there. While at rest, remove your skis and stick them into the snow near at hand and close to your rucksack. 10. Inspect your skis, especially the binding system, at every stop. Mend whatever is necessary for traveling right away, then think about food and rest. 11. In case of an approaching storm, either cease travel or speed up the tour as much as possible in order to get to the nearest shelter. 12. You should never attempt anything that exceeds your strength and adhere to the rule: “all for one, and one for all.” Out of all these rules, the most difficult, I suppose, is observing a speed that corresponds to your given situation and choice of route. Even the best skiers who don’t command groups never transgress against these precepts, or in the rare circumstance when it’s necessary, they do so with regret. Every commander can always acquire more knowledge. For example, when embarking on a trail after dark, the moon in the first of its four phases shines in the first half of the night, and so on. Traveling at night during a snowstorm, in the fog, etc., is always difficult, especially off-trail. These difficulties multiply with an increase in the amount of troops and the number of inexperienced skiers. In order to mitigate these unfavorable circumstances, increase the distances to avoid delays and use closer formations. Lay out tracks earlier (if travel is off-trail) and also avoid steep slopes: otherwise, under the conditions outlined earlier, there will be a great loss of time, especially with poorly trained troops.

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A commander should understand the prevailing winds and their effect on atmospheric conditions in a given location, the idiosyncrasies of the time of year, and various weather signs. He should not forget about morning fog in the valleys when it’s cold. That’s almost always a predictor of fair weather at elevation later in the day and, consequently, a good path for travel.

XXVIII. “STUNTS” AND SKI GAMES1

Games on skis have great impact, just as they do in any other field of sport.

In addition to benefiting mental health, they are an important factor in physical training and the development of dexterity, strength, and the well-being of participants. The educational significance is well-known to all: if one person plays against others, he has the chance to demonstrate his art, his resourcefulness, ingenuity, and skill to overcome obstacles that occur, and to rely only upon his own resources; in a team game—one side against another—each should play with a common goal in mind: the ultimate success of his team. So, many good qualities are fostered through participation in games: attention, presence of mind, self-confidence, fairmindedness, willingness to help one another, self-denial, and composure. On the physical side, we can show how proficiently we manage our skis; physiologically, blood circulation accelerates, breathing intensifies, the nervous system gains strength, and a person grows strong and hardy. Don’t forget the value of a game as entertainment, recreation, and as a means of mood enhancement. Generally speaking, the absence of any sort of games during our long, boring winter is quite tangible; and any attempt to fill this gap should be welcomed. Everyone needs games, but few exist that are specific to skiing: the literature on them is extremely poor. But we can invent some suitable ones from common children’s games. First of all, I will introduce “stunts” on skis, analogous to those done on horseback:2 1. When descending a mountain, take off your jacket, coat, hat, etc., and toss them aside. Then, during the next descent, pick them up and put them back on again. Throw your hat into the air and catch it on the move. 2. Along a downhill, scatter a few different objects, for example: gloves, hats, etc., either straight down the hill or in an uneven line or zigzag, depending on the nature of the terrain. Set it up so that retrieving the items is more difficult on one side, and your skis have to stay on the other. 3. Climb uphill on only one ski and then without poles. 4. Ski downhill standing on one ski. 5. Ski downhill with passengers who stand behind the skier holding on by the shoulders. 6. Descend sitting on the skis either in a squat or as if on a sled. You can sit alone or with a few other skiers. 7. Descend in a stretched-out line holding onto ski poles extended from one person to another or with arms linked. 8. Descend on a ski raft, that is, on several pairs of skis bound together, either sitting or lying down. For the raft, join from five to fifteen pairs of skis side by side then lay another five or ten pairs crosswise and on top of them. The skiers who are participating are seated in rows.

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9. Make jumps over obstacles during a descent: the height and distance can be increased gradually. Any object that you encounter can serve as a jumping platform: a bush, a tree, or a depression in the terrain. While negotiating the obstacles, the skier should push off from the ground according to the rules for jumping.3

Ski Games 4 Gorelki5 Players take position two by two. One player stands out front as a catcher: he is forbidden to look back or to the side. On the count of “three,” the back pair runs forward on either side of the column in order to reunite in front of the catch-player—if he doesn’t manage to block the way by catching one of the pair. If the catch-player does capture one of them, then he combines with the other as a new pair. Double gorelki.6 (figure 28.1) Players line up in two columns (a, a), which are situated opposite one another and separated by a distance of from fifty to one hundred paces. In the middle of the field between the columns stand two catchplayers (b, b). At the count of “three,” the players of the last pair of each column run forward on both sides of the column. The goal of each runner is to join up as a pair with a player from the opposite column.

Figure 28.1: “The double gorelki game,” possibly sketched by Eimeleus. See a similar illustration in Bokin, Podvizhnyia igry, 59.

Tag 7 1. Standard tag.8 By drawing lots, one player is designated the tagger; the others scatter. The tagger chases after them and tries to catch someone. Before the start of the game, mark out a “home,” where one can take a break. Rules The new tagger doesn’t have the right to tag the old one: the one who has made a tag should loudly call out by name the one who has been tagged so that the others know. A player who is being chased can reach safety at “home.”

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The players can evade the tag by falling, crouching, standing behind some kind of object, and so on. 2. Cut tag.9 With a loud voice, the tagger calls out the name of the player he wants to catch and chases him for as long as it takes to tag him. If one of the other players cuts across the path between the tagger and the one being pursued, then the tagger has to abandon chasing the first to pursue the second. Rules First of all, as the tagger starts to chase the player who has cut across his path, he has to call his name out loud. Second, multiple players should not cut off the path of the tagger: in that case, the one who cuts across incorrectly becomes the new tagger. 3. Turkish tag.10 This differs from standard tag in that there’s no “home”: a player is safe from the pursuer by squatting down and touching the ground with his hand. To avoid lengthy pursuits, the game field is restricted.

Hit the Bear 11 A small balloon or bag is attached to the back of one player: the others receive braided switches of straw with which they try to hit the balloon or bag. The bear should try to evade the hits: there are three lairs (bases) designated within whose boundaries it’s forbidden to touch him. For good maneuverability, the bear can use ski poles while the others can’t.

Day and Night 12 (figure 28.2) Players divide into two groups and each chooses a leader. One group is designated the “day” group, the other the “night.” A line is drawn across the playing field or yard, and some thirty paces from it two bases are established (р, р1). They are shaped either like a circle or rectangle with enough room to hold all the players inside. At the start of the game, each group stands in a row with backs to the middle line about ten steps away. The distance between players is no less than two outstretched arms. The groups are standing with their backs to each other and oriented by facing their opponent’s base, so that any player who wants to get to his own base inevitably has to pass through their opponent’s row. The leaders (А, Б) take up positions at the outer edges of the middle line.

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Figure 28.2: “The day and night game,” perhaps sketched by Eimeleus. See a similar illustration in Bokin, Podvizhnyia igry, 81.

One of the leaders throws a disc into the air: one side is painted black (night), the other side white (day). If the disc falls black side up, the other leader shouts “night.” Then, the night group spins around and pursues the day group whose players try to slip through the gaps in their opponents’ line, making a dash for their own base. The pursuit continues until the entire group of evaders has finished running to its base. Every captured player—depending on the situation—either exits the game entirely or crosses over to the opponents’ side, moving from his base to the former opponents’ side up at the line. Then, both groups take their places, the second leader throws the disc, and the first leader shouts out instructions. Thus, the game continues up to its natural conclusion: that is, when all the players of one group have been captured. Rules 1. To differentiate one party from another, the day group players wear white armbands. 2. No one should turn around to look at the disc: you can only spin around after the leader shouts instructions. 3. No one can pursue an opponent until he has crossed the line: the leaders monitor who has not made the run across the line. Because it’s difficult to run across the line when players of the opposing team have faced around, you can modify this game. The pursuing group does not get to turn around but must wait and listen carefully for the passage of the other group. As soon as one of the players edges into a gap, then the pursuit begins. Often, several pursuing players rush after that player all at once, allowing others to take advantage and make a run for it.

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Here at home in Russia, this game is played in a simplified way. The group stands at the line facing one another rather than back to back with their own base behind them.13

For the Prize 14 Dividing equally into two groups, players take up position at two opposing short sides of a yard or hall.15 Each group marks off the borders of its base, and no one can move across it. In the middle between the two bases, mark off a ring or circle. A leader stands here with a small flag or kerchief held aloft.16 From each side, one at a time, a player comes forward to enter into the competition. They both stand at the line with one foot, the other held behind at the ready: with a signal from the leader, they run from their left side to the flag. Drawing level to the flag, each player makes every effort to jump up and snatch the flag out of the leader’s hand. The player who finally takes possession of the flag should run as fast as he can back to his base, because his rival has the right to catch him. Rules 1. The player who gains possession of the flag and safely returns home to his base is considered the winner and receives the prize: he gets to exit the game. 2. If the player who gains possession of the flag gets caught, then the competition is a tie and the players return to their base and wait for another turn. A new pair enter into the competition. 3. Those who have already played to a tie have the right to enter into the competition, but only after all the others have had a chance. Those who have taken the prize cannot take part in the competition any further. 4. The group that has more winners is considered the victorious side.

Sheep Pen 17 Two bases are set up around 100 paces from one another. Players divide into two groups, even both in number and strength, taking up position between the two bases. The goal of the game is to drive a ball into the base of the opposing side (football match) and to keep it out of their own base.

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One player is stationed in the middle between the bases and tosses the ball into the air; when the ball hits the ground, the game is underway. Rules 1. Players throw the ball with their hands. 2. The winning group retains the taken base and cedes theirs to the rival team. 3. The leader of the winning group places the ball at the line of his new base and tosses it to the rival team’s base. This game can be conducted according to the rules of football.18 Ski games can be conducted following the rules of hockey19 and Canadian cross.20

Fox Hunt 21 1 Two foxes are chosen from the participants and given “fore”1*[sic] of 40 to 200 22 sazheni. Then, at a signal, all the skiers rush off to hunt down the foxes who are running away. The goal of the foxes is to choose the most varied and difficult path for the pursuers and to execute a variety of turns and maneuvers on the trail while evading capture. The goal of the pursuers is to cut off the foxes’ path to the varied terrain and force them to move out into an open meadow where it’s easy to surround and capture them.

Spider and Flies 23 Here, the spider is a group of people who have hidden all around the forest or some other place; the flies are another group of skiers whose goal is to search for the spider. It’s preferable that in a given location, many tracks would head off in all directions, so that, first of all, the goal is made more difficult; and second, so that the flies get practice in tracking. That is, the flies would grapple with: which tracks are fresh; the approximate time when they were made; in which direction they are going; with which method and, consequently, by which gait the skier went; whether one skier or many went by; what is evident all along the track and in the wake of the poles; what type of skis, what kind of poles (or if it’s just one), what sort of footwear based on how often the skis slipped off; whether they stopped to *“To give fore”—to give a head start.

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rest and how often (tired out); if they fell down; whether they cleared snow off their bases; whether the skis were waxed well (whether snow adhered to the skis or not); methods of climbing uphill, the descent, and so on. Any given scout who has tracked down movement on skis indicates just how good he is, with skills in observing these factors and any others you might encounter.

XXIX. GENERAL SETUP OF SKI COMPETITIONS

Competitions represent one of the primary means of advancing the study of

ski-running. They are the benchmark by which success is determined and therefore certainly should be included in the program of instruction. In the following section, I will delve into the question of ski competitions within the context of their proper execution and subsequent evaluation. I will also list their various types here. In the previous section on ski games, I described one called “For the Prize.” Perhaps this game could be set up for each player to challenge another; and if every single participant competes, then only one victor will receive the bulk of the prizes. This variation of “For the Prize” would be an example of a competition. Run with competitors chasing each other over one verst.1 The run takes place over flat terrain. All participants form up in a single line setting one foot forward: they can shift their skis around in place forward and back to keep snow from sticking to them until the command “Get set!” After that, the skiers stand still, leaning on their poles in whatever way seems best to increase their acceleration at push-off, with one foot out front and body slanted forward. At the command “Go!” they give a powerful push in order to shoot out as far and as fast as possible to gain the most favorable track. Run for speed over two versts. The start is as described above. If the run is over varied terrain, then release the participants one at a time over specified intervals for better uniformity of conditions.2 In such a situation, though, the chances are not the same: the first one out will expend considerable energy breaking his own trail. You can resolve this with a lottery for the run order and a track that has been prepared prior to the race; or give the lead to a good skier who is not a participant in the competition. After that, skiers can compete in running for speed over three, four, and five versts, etc., over the flats, over more varied terrain, in battle dress, and another time, with a special task.3 The rules are the same as for the two-verst race. Handicap. The best skiers give the worst a head start either in time or distance, taking into consideration results established previously. Participants take off either at the same time or each with his own start: the latter is more interesting, because it gives a clear visualization about the relative advantage each has to the other in strength as well as time and distance.4 Consider the relay run as preparation for “flying mail.”5 This type of competition requires only a small area and can involve a great number of people over a short period of time. We distinguish four methods depending on the arrangement of the participants in the field. You can set up a square with each side equal to one verst, or arrange all the participating groups in a circle (although in this case, it

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generally takes the shape of an unequal polygon). If four people are in each group, arrange them at the four corners of the square, or, with the participation of more than four, at the corners of the polygon. For uniform conditions, lay out the tracks earlier, and then release the groups one after another by lot, noting the speed of each transfer with a stopwatch. A third method is to arrange all the groups as shown in figure 29.1. A verbal order can serve for the transfer; or use a packet or any sort of object. Alternatively, you can arrange beforehand that the touch of the runner coming from behind will serve as the transfer signal for the one to follow. A fourth method (figure 29.2) is the most convenient: it requires a small area and allows many participants to compete all at the same time. Let’s assume a layout of one verst from point 1 to point 2; the interval between point 2 and point 4 can narrow down to any distance. As a general rule, the best skiers in each group should take the first and last positions, because the winner of the first stage often has a decisive influence on the race; in the last stage, a skier can make up for time lost by those teammates who went before.6

Figure 29.1: “Team run—third method; [above] starting line; [below] finish line.”

Figure 29.2: “Team run—fourth method; [middle point circled on left] endpoint.”

Subsequently, it’s crucial to practice a flying mail relay because in winter battle conditions, skiers often take control of such posts. In this case, it’s better to keep the distance between posts relatively short because it’s difficult to gather enough skiers who have the capacity to run a great distance without losing the speed of delivery for orders and reports.

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Ten-verst distance run (for endurance) over very rugged terrain: for this competition, it’s advisable that the overall environment and style of clothing replicate a wartime context.7 For example, navigate by map or compass or take bearings at night by the moon or stars. While carrying out a goal with the entire company, the advance should include taking appropriate protective measures. Speed of travel should be from 6–8 versts per hour. Carry out riding behind a horse with goals and in an environment that more closely resemble those situations encountered in battle. Since jumping has no practical application in its current form, it’s better to deal with it purely as a sporting exercise with all its characteristic features, adaptations, and turns. In all endurance competitions, a skier shouldn’t plunge straight in with a full gait: he should build up speed gradually as soon as breathing opens up and stabilizes. You need to breathe through your nose as deeply and as evenly as possible. Move along using any technique you like, or combine them as terrain and snow conditions dictate. Approaching the final leg of the course—the “finish”—it’s unnecessary to get all flustered: just continue to move along with that same technique. Of course, you should increase your pace as much as possible, straining every muscle and change over to a technique that reduces the chance of a fall or a ski slipping off (when using an unfixed binding).8 Drink as little as possible, and only enough to freshen your mouth. Under no circumstances should you consume alcoholic beverages, which take away a great deal of warmth and make you weak. The best way to warm up, quench your thirst, and replenish your strength is with a drink of hot milk mixed with sugar. Following are my suggestions for rules essential to skiers who are in training for competition and who want to achieve the best possible results: 1. As already pointed out, a gradual increase in daily training; skin care; sobriety and moderation in all things, for a month, at the very least, leading up to the competition. 2. A good disposition. 3. Sufficient sleep and rest before competitions. 4. Cool weather. 5. Muscle massage. It has been observed that muscle fatigue subsides much faster through massage rather than with rest: a five-minute massage functions more beneficially on a tired muscle than a half hour of rest. Although a tired muscle gains strength through massage, it’s more likely that this is due to strengthening of blood flow and refreshment of the nerves (Zabludovskii).9

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That said, don’t forget that the work of your muscles will diminish with: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Physical or mental (spiritual) lassitude. Insomnia. Insufficiently nourishing compounds in the blood. Insufficient training and idleness prior to the competitive season. Too much solid food and overburdening the stomach before competition (incomplete digestion). 6. Smoking immediately before a distance run. 7. High air temperature and humidity. 8. Too much sexual activity. 9. Consuming alcoholic beverages, even in a small amount, can provide an exhilarating lift and develop muscular power lasting for no more than half an hour (with a subsequent extended and overall exhaustion of the body). 10. Grief, despondent mood, anxiety.

XXX. SCORING AND RULES OF SKI COMPETITIONS

We should say a few words about scoring and rules for ski competitions. As an

example, I will cite the rules established in Sweden by the Association of Amateurs in Skiing: these refer to competitions in general.1 We distinguish three main types of competitions: downhill;2 a run over varied terrain; and a competition combining downhill with an endurance run over varied terrain of, for example, thirty kilometers.

(I) Scoring the downhill a. The judges, their position and number. Three judges should be placed so that they can monitor the jumps for the entire time. Scoring is conducted according to a twenty-point system; after each run, a judge can supply no more than one grade.3 The number of points for the competitor is combined: the sum is divided by the number of his descents and by the number of judges; this averaged score indicates his placement among the other participants. If two or more competitors receive an identical number of points then the length of the flight determines the placement. b. Jump measurers: two of them. They should measure the length of the jump from the jumping platform down to the first imprint of the ski tails. No announcement about the measurements is made until the competition ends. c. The scoring schedule. The highest grade that each judge can award is 20 and the lowest is 0. The entire system is divided into four categories: 20 to 16: outstanding run 15 to 11: excellent 10 to 6: satisfactory 5 to 0: unsatisfactory. To receive an “outstanding” grade, the skier should fulfill the following requirements: (1) During the in-run: a straight torso, with a slightly forward incline; skis next to each other. Anyone who tries to accelerate with leaps or steps will receive an “unsatisfactory” grade. (2) Make a powerful push-off at the outer edge of the jumping platform; anyone who pushes off too early or too late and thereby loses his balance receives a low grade. (3) During the flight, pay attention to the beauty of the skier’s carriage, the art of maintaining balance with small, smooth hand movements, and the positioning of the

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skis. Anyone who doesn’t have control of his body, uses brusque arm movements, loses balance and poise, and spaces his skis out widely or lowers their tails should receive a grade from the last two categories. (4) During the landing, watch to see that balance is recovered as soon as possible: afterward, the body should straighten with hands held down along the pantseams. Anyone who is unable to establish balance after a good long while should receive a bad grade.

d. One should place less importance on the turns (which can be done on the inner or the outer ski depending on the preference of the skier). An elegant and masterful turn goes on the record as a plus. e. A fall. Anyone who falls down prior to reaching the jumping platform receives a grade of 0. Anyone who crashes after the jump can enter into the scoring with a grade from the last categories, if the run was well executed— without visibly losing control of the skis and maintaining poise. Otherwise, he would receive a null grade. f. Distance of the jumps. A minimal distance for the jump must be established: if not, then the top prize might go to someone who jumps with insufficient courage and fortitude. As an example, perhaps three meters. If no one achieves the established minimum distance, take the average distance of the three best jumpers. So, if the first best jumps were twenty and sixteen meters, and then one of fifteen, the average distance would be seventeen meters: subtract the three-meter minimum to calculate a final competition minimum of fourteen meters. A jump less than this will not enter into the scoring.

(II) Scoring a run over varied terrain. a. Judges, their place and number. Two judges are located in spots unknown to the competitors and in such a way that one of them can score the run uphill and through the varied terrain, and the other can score the downhill run and across the flats. Each should have one or two assistants. b. Scoring schedule. After the run, the judges score each skier. The highest grade is 20. All the grades are divided into four categories just as they are for the jumps. The judges determine a grade that falls into the “outstanding” category according to (1) surefooted running and adept handling of the skis; (2) noteworthy skill in path choice; and (3) speed. During the run across flat terrain, a judge should watch the smoothness and efficiency of the gait. Anyone who falls down receives a grade from the last category; that

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also includes demonstrating an uncertain stance and poor command of the body and skis. c. Time as a factor of speed of movement is scored as follows: he who posts the lowest time receives 20, and the longest time—0. The rest of the field receives a grade on a scale between 20 and 0, in proportion to their speed. d. Order of finish. To designate placement according to best to worst grades, add together the scores of the two judges and the time. Divide this sum by three to get an average score. For an identical average score, the one who has a better grade for speed receives precedence. First prize is awarded to the participant with the highest average.

(III) Scoring a combined competition: downhill with a 30-kilometer run across varied terrain. 4 a. The trail should be measured and marked out on the ground. b. Scoring is carried out as described earlier, but it’s necessary to pay attention to the following rules as well: the racer who has the fastest time receives a grade equal to the highest average grade during the jumps on the hill (which the competition’s best participant received during the downhill). Each participant who has run the course with a time of five minutes more receives one grade less. These two grades for the jump and for speed are combined and the sum of the two determines the placement in order of precedence. If there are identical sums, the higher placement is awarded to the skier with a faster time. For example, let’s say the best jumper of the competition received 17; another received 9—but then posted the fastest time, covering the 30-kilometer course in 2 hours, 18 minutes. So for this he received a grade equal to the highest average after the jumping. Therefore, the sum of his grades after the entire competition is 26.5 The first skier covered this distance in 2 hours, 20 minutes, 30 seconds;6 and those following achieved times of 2 hours, 28 minutes, 2 hours, 32 minutes, and so on.7 For their efforts—calculating for each five minutes a lesser grade—they receive 16.5, 15, and 14.8.8 Calculating the grade for time in this way, we see that a skier who runs the course in 3 hours, 43 minutes or more will receive a grade of 0.9 As norms for times over a variety of distances, we have estimated averages of records set by the top runners in 200 official competitions:10 1 km: 4 minutes, 25 seconds. 2 km: 8 minutes, 27 seconds.

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3 km: 11 minutes, 47 seconds. 4 km: 16 minutes, 29 seconds. 5 km: 22 minutes, 17 seconds. 6 km: 26 minutes, 1 second. 7 km: 31 minutes, 15 seconds. 8 km: 36 minutes, 11 seconds. 10 km: 42 minutes, 9 seconds. 15 km: 1 hour, 14 minutes, 5 seconds. 20 km: 1 hour, 33 minutes, 1 second. 30 km: 2 hours, 13 minutes, 16 seconds. 50 km: 4 hours, 35 minutes, 3 seconds. 60 km: 5 hours, 11 minutes, 9 seconds.

The times for races between one and five kilometers are averages set by children and women; the average for the 10-kilometer distance was calculated from seventy-one competitions. We can use these statistics as minimal norms for scoring organized competitions, or instead, we can determine the speed using the variable gait of the cavalry, that is, 8–10 versts per hour.

XXXI. SIGNIFICANCE AND APPLICATION OF SKI DETACHMENTS IN TIME OF WAR1

Skis are indispensible to small, self-sustained squadrons for winter guard duty, reconnaissance, and communications, as well as for all partisan and irregular war operations, with additional benefits for the sanitary service and even for border guards and railway brigades.2 The journal Russian Invalid (no. 39, 1912) documents clearly the need to know how to travel fast and also, how that knowledge can greatly influence the outcome of battle.3 Let me quote an excerpt from the article “The Secret of Victory on Foot:” The significance of rapid troop deployment became evident at the start of the last century. Tactics have changed but the concept is still relevant today. No one can argue against it: every soldier—whether faceless or renowned—acknowledges that troop mobility is a very important factor in the success of a single action as well as in that of an entire campaign. The victor is the one who turns out to be more powerful than his opponent at the decisive moment and at the decisive point: and who, with greater troop agility, more quickly reaches parity on other terms and conditions. A soldier’s stamina and ability to carry out a long march without losing energy and power—crucial for the battle to come—are key elements in troop maneuverability.

The results of many battles and military engagements have proved this statement; and perhaps all the more will it be true during a winter campaign because of that season’s inherently difficult weather. Skis have been in use on a rather wide scale from history’s earliest days and, in battle, often proved a magnificent benefit to the side that employed them. In 1199 the Danish historian Saxo recounts how the Finns used skis in wartime.4 During an engagement near Oslo in 1200, the Swedish king Sverre (Sverker) ordered his skiers, under the command of Voivoda Belte, to carry out reconnaissance of the enemy.5 Afterward, more often than not, Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish commanders used ski detachments for maneuvering on the battlefield.6 Their numbers were fairly large, although they weren’t properly organized. Thus, for example, the Swedish commander De la Gardie7 led up to four thousand skiers in the 1610 war with Russia.8 We encounter entire ski battalions for the first time in the war between Sweden and Norway in 1718.9 In the Encyclopedia of Military and Marine Science, Lieutenant-General Leer has this to say about skis in the military:10 In pre-Petrine Rus’, during winter campaigns, ski troops were formed from those familiar with skiing. In 1499, Grand Prince Ivan III11 dispatched an army of skiers

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under the leadership of Prince Semen Fedorovich Kurbskii12 into the Yugra region.13 Kurbskii was triumphant while traveling on skis all winter long. During the winter campaign of 1534 there was also a ski army among the Russian troops in Latvia.14 Subsequent to that, there is no further mention, and the idea of using skis in wartime is now generally forgotten. It is apparent, however, that ski troops might provide a great benefit.

From the report of Second-Lieutenant Grendal’15 we learn that, during the war of 1808–1809 with Sweden, both sides used skis occasionally in Finland.16 On 4 April 1808 at Pyhäjoki, the Russian side employed skis quite effectively. The battle there played out at thirty degrees of frost. Fast ski travel on the skirmish line and a few opportune flanking maneuvers forced the Swedish troops to change one position to another with great losses. At the same time, attacks by Kul’nev’s Cossack cavalry failed.17 On reconnoiter, Sweden’s detachments from the 20th Infantry and 18th Dragoons were surrounded by Russian skiers and barely eluded capture. At Revolaks on 14 April 1808, the battle began at 3 a.m., when a Swedish division of around 150 men under the command of Colonel Adlercreutz18 attacked the forward detachment of General Bulatov at the village of Kitee.19 The Russians received reinforcements and Adlercreutz retreated. At the same time, he dispatched messengers on skis through the woods to Colonel Graf Cronstedt, who was on his advance from the south, with a report on the battlefield situation and the outcome of the counterattack.20 Count Cronstedt advanced in two columns: at the front of each, a patrol chain on skis made up the vanguard.21 From LieutenantColonel Aminov’s right column, two Jäger battalions were assigned to carry out an encircling maneuver on the left flank of Bulatov who took up position at a rectory.22 Part of this flanking column, under the command of Captain Aminov, was on skis—and he mentions in his report that some of these skiers were among the most courageous.23 The encircling maneuver was a complete success, thanks to the skiers who maintained continuous communication between the two columns. A simultaneous attack from front and flank compelled the Russians to retreat, with appreciable casualties. General Bulatov himself was taken prisoner, along with 5 officers and 450 enlisted men. The organization of a good detachment of skiers is impossible in the middle of a war. Practice in peacetime is essential in order to develop cohesion, ease of maneuvering, a set of skills for commanding such a squadron, and methods that are handy and convenient. With this goal here at home, back in 1893, the Memorandum of the General Staff No. 193 was published and stated: It is crucial to direct special attention to ski training, extending these studies not only to the okhotniki, but also to the other enlisted men, as far as possible.24 These

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studies should be introduced into the courses of training teams and groups of scouts from all branches of the army. During the winter, conduct platoon and company drills in the infantry on skis; and for the cavalry and artillery, undergo exercises while dismounted.25

In all the previous sections I wrote about the preparation of skiers in peacetime for the purpose of improving their operation under battle conditions. But it’s not enough to have a well-trained body of skiers: it’s necessary to know what can be demanded of them, and where and how to deploy them to the best advantage. 1. Guard duty. In winter, the character of the terrain changes complicating this type of service. Big rivers, lakes, and swamps freeze over, losing their value as barriers. Deep and unconsolidated snow negates the movement of large divisions because it obscures roads and hampers the activity of flanking patrols. However, small detachments and quasi-independent, self-contained ski divisions, with no reliance on the terrain, can more often than not carry out ambushes, appearing unexpectedly on the flanks and at the rear, and can harass a division at its night quarters. In view of this: a. For safeguarding the movement of a column on the march, it is sound practice to use a scouting patrol of skiers. They are not governed by the lay of the land and therefore can move along either side of a road to survey all local topography. It’s worthwhile to send such a patrol of skiers—no less than five of them—forward as well: they can reconnoiter the road and make a preliminary survey of unforeseen issues in order to facilitate the column’s smooth and unimpeded progress. On open terrain, the patrol can head out over an entire verst (on rough ground, not quite as far) and warn the column in plenty of time about an ambush or other activities of the enemy. b. During a halt—where, in summer, one would organize a single watch—it will often be necessary in winter to set out a line of sentries to ensure complete rest for the division: winter makes deployment, rotation, communications, and roll call and its verification more difficult. However, skiers on sentry duty, in addition to carrying out their assignment, will ease deployment and rotation of the posts by making paths for the foot soldiers with their ski tracks. c. In battle, especially during the winter, the flanks and rear become quite vulnerable. In that case, it makes sense to have a ski patrol along with the cavalry to protect these areas; if there are none, they should be added.

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2. Reconnaissance duty. Winter constrains the main apparatus of reconnaissance, the cavalry—the eyes and ears of the army. To be sure, horse patrols can only move along a road. But a team of okhotniki on skis or separate, specialized patrols of skiers mitigate this drawback and often gain information that under ordinary circumstances would be unimaginable. Such ski patrols can take advantage of their fast pace, heeding no barriers, and leaving behind scarcely a trace. Just like a cavalry patrol, they can scurry to the front, flanks, and rear of the enemy with impunity, even in the middle of battle. They should only number between five and ten people and include only hand-picked, clever, brave, and competent skiers, knowledgeable in the use of map and compass and familiar in general terms with the organization and functions of the enemy.26 For determining transitions in the terrain from a significant change in temperature or falling snow, for reconnoitering old and recently laid-in trails, and even for reconnaissance of general topography and how to move infantry across it, you’re better off to allocate this sort of work to skiers in order to guarantee success. 3. Communications service. In present-day tactics, communications along the front, at the rear of a column, and in the middle of battle play a very important role: often, the fate of a particular regimental unit depends upon it, as does the partial and sometimes even the final outcome of an entire battle. In winter it’s difficult to maintain communications, and so one ought to entrust it to a company of skiers who will eliminate these seasonal difficulties. Quick movement by ski teams of telephone and telegraph operators and messengers unrestricted by terrain facilitates the swift establishment of communications along the shortest possible route and the rapid delivery of dispatches and orders. So, in this case, it’s just the same as in reconnaissance: skiers entirely replace the service provided by cavalry divisions. 4. Guerilla action. Sometimes the character of war and, at other times, terrain that interferes with sustained communications between independent divisions compel small, totally self-contained detachments to carry out guerilla war. This sort of war calls for fast travel, unexpected raids on columns, bivouacs, transport, and so on. But it’s not just irregular warfare that demands such organization: as history shows us, almost every war included detachments of this nature. They were designated for action principally on the flanks and at the rear of enemy positions. In winter only swift-footed ski detachments can carry out such duties successfully. Here’s an example from Finland during the War of 1808–1809 between Russia and Sweden. The Swedish Army benefited by using skiers from the Savelaks Brigade of Major-General Sandels.27 The guerillas gave the Russian troops no rest: they appeared quickly then scurried off on their skis. On May 2, at the village of

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Pulkkila, Sandels attacked General Obukhov from the rear and on the right, thanks to the mobility of the okhotniki on their skis.28 So as we see, the strength of a ski detachment lies in its mobility and indifference to topography. But these activities should not be restricted to daytime: because of winter’s curtailed daylight hours, skiers can and should pursue their activities at night. One can undertake nighttime operations that would be far too risky during the day. Sudden and incessant attacks during the night can fatigue and frustrate the enemy, while at the same time allowing the skiers to escape with impunity. For such duty, designate detachments of around twenty or fifty enlisted men under the command of from one to three officers. They should take food supplies to last for a couple of days. Remember that these teams are subject to the weather so don’t let them depart too far from base: the entire time they must preserve communications with their division via periodic dispatches. 5. In battle. Detachments of skiers will carry out the pursuit of a fragmented foe successfully or, while inhibiting the enemy, facilitate the retreat of our troops. A few detachments such as these can be combined into one for accomplishing a more independent goal that requires strength in addition to mobility: for example, sweeping around or encircling the flank or serving as a large mobile reserve. Sometimes, for executing a more difficult and independent assignment, mountain cannons or machine guns are required. Since such a detachment often has to travel without benefit of roads, the ordnance is placed on special sleds. In his book, Borodin describes small sleds for machine guns used in the Austrian Army (figure 31.1). The sleds

Figure 31.1: “Sled for machine guns of the Austrian army.”

break down into three sections to be carried in their disassembled state on the backs of three skiers. The team joins the separate sections together with skis and clamps. Another type of sled, although very complicated and heavy, is nonetheless quite useful for transporting mountain cannons. In figure 31.2, we see that, instead of clamps, special wooden platforms are pulled up to the skis by using their bindings or special straps. In Norway, they have adopted a system of Ehrhardt sleds for transporting cannons that fits the bill best of all (figure 31.3).29 In the artillery, it’s a good idea to set up a telephone detachment and scouting division on skis that can carry out reconnaissance and the layout of

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Figure 31.2: “Sled for machine guns and mountain cannons: [left] in the ready position (assembled); [right] in disassembled position.”

Figure 31.3: “Ehrhardt Norwegian artillery sled.” A photograph based on an original 1904 image from Norway. Water-based paint used to enhance definition.

positions more quickly and successfully. They set up a trail with their tracks, pack down a path for going out to positions, and establish rapid communications; all of which would otherwise take a lot of time because of the deep snow. However, telephone stations, wire spools, command angle meters, and other implements are better carried on small sleds. Besides all of the above, skiers can help repair established roads and install new ones, construct ski trails useful for infantry and cavalry as well as false trails for misleading the enemy. 6. In sanitary service. Skis are quite useful for rendering quick aid to the wounded, especially in the winter when freezing is a concern. Service provided by sanitary workers can be divided into two parts: (1) on the march with special vehicles for transporting the sick and (2) in battle.30

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In modern warfare, battlefields tend to cover vast expanses, rendering sanitary service quite difficult, tedious, and slow, especially in winter. Using skis greatly enhances the efforts of sanitary workers while retrieving the wounded. But it isn’t enough to simply find the injured quickly: they must be transported to the ambulance station on the double to receive first aid.

Figure 31.4: “Sled fashioned from skis for transporting the wounded.”

In order to facilitate this, I recommend the following sleds for transport of the wounded: bind together one or two pairs of skis by using two poles (figure 31.4) and, laying a stretcher over the top, transfer the wounded. If the injured person can sit, attach a portable Figure 31.5: “Sled fashioned from skis with a portable chair chair—which a sanitary worker attached.” can carry on his back—to a pair of skis (figure 31.5). With a third type of sled (figure 31.6), two or three wounded can be transported at one time. A sled like this should have accessories for protection from the cold. Better yet are the long, light, small sleds (in Swedish—sparkstötting, in Finnish—potku-kelkka) with extended runners placed on edge (figure 31.7);* these have a seat with a backrest attached. The sanitary worker stands with one foot on one of the runners while keeping his hands on the backrest and pushes the sled forward with the other foot (figure 31.8). The speed attained using such transportation can easily reach 10 versts per hour or even more while hardly exhausting the operator.31 These sleds can also be used effectively to transport light cargo (five to six pudy), for example cartridges, shells, and so on. In the latest Russo-Japanese War sanitary workers had skis and also used them for foraging. But, in fact, up to this point, scant attention has been paid to the army’s use of skiers in battle on the offensive. * In Swedish: sparka is “to kick,” stöta is “to push.”

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7. Border and coastal guards are responsible for keeping watch on vast regions, controlling posts, pursuing, capturing, and sometimes engaging in battle with smugglers and other suspicious characters. For the most part, skis would facilitate this service in winter.

Figure 31.6: “Sled on skis.”

Figure 31.7: “Small sled with long runners set edgewise; in Swedish— sparkstötting, and in Finnish—potku-kelkka (potkuri).”

Figure 31.8: “Small sled with long runners set edgewise; in Swedish—sparkstötting, and in Finnish—potku-kelkka (potkuri).”

CONCLUSION

At this point, let’s have a look at how other countries are developing and orga-

nizing skiing from a military perspective. We’ll start with Norway. By some accounts it was in 1710 (others say 1717) that the military established the first regular ski divisions, from which instructors were recruited for all other infantry units. By 1747 the country had six ski-running detachments each numbering 100 men; and another four with 250 members each emerged from the defunct Norwegian Dragoons Regiment in 1768. The first service manual written for skiers of the Norwegian Army appeared in 1774.1 In 1826 all detachments were eliminated and ski instruction subsequently took place in the infantry units. During the second half of the eighteenth century, two military ski schools opened in Trondheim and Kongsvinger, an opportune development for the coming war with Sweden in 1808, when these institutions mobilized 2,000 skiers. In 1865 General Wergeland published his book on ski-running, a notable document from a cultural and military point of view.2 Military skiers in Norway are closely associated with the nation’s ski clubs, the Ski Union of Norway and the Central Union of Devotees of Sport.3 On Sunday ski outings, officers show up as leaders for school-age youths; and at the most important ski competitions in the world, the Holmenkollen Games near Kristiania, officers comprise almost the entire staff.4 Of course, this profound fascination with skiing among the officers is in a league of its own, but the motivation lies much deeper: ski-running has held a prominent position in the education and upbringing of Norwegian princes and noblemen from time immemorial.5 In Sweden, rifle units carry out company-wide drills on skis every winter. Division maneuvers for troops of the Stockholm garrison took place on 2 (14) February 1891 during which sentry and patrol duties were carried out exclusively on skis.6 We can judge how seriously Sweden takes military skiing from the procedures for winter troop operations devoting a lot of attention to skis. Generally speaking, Sweden has less favorable conditions than Norway, since there is no winter service (the service career is different from Norway’s).7 In Stockholm’s Guards Infantry Regiment, in the units of the 6th Division in Norrland, and in a few other garrisons, stand-alone ski units focus on winter reconnaissance, battle conduct, and military marksmanship, and they undertake long ski treks following all the norms of warfare. Often these units make trips behind horses and take part in all manner of military-style competitions. Just as in Norway, the Swedish military command as far as possible promotes the development of ski-running among the nation’s youth—often the officers lead ski rambles and races. Local ski clubs have adopted programs for shooting and the conduct of winter warfare, with the sanction of the Ministry of War, of course.8

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The Scandinavian countries, certainly, have no shortage of knowledgeable and experienced skier-reserves who can bring a powerful ski division up to strength at will. The Finnish Guards Rifle Battalions were a perfect example. Every section of a battalion had five hundred pairs of skis. Each company had six pairs of Indian skis;9 from four to six sparkstöttings;10 and around twenty or thirty pairs of skates. In every battalion, members took to the skating rinks and slopes for downhill sledding. Every company dedicated one day in the week (the morning session) for ski-running exercises with additional training for both individual and squad. Some practice was always allotted to guard duty on skis. Without exception, all the officers skied well and were excellent teachers for training the enlisted men. All of this training was carried out right up to the abolition of the Finnish military in 1900–1901.11 Elsewhere, following the example of the Scandinavian countries, the AustroHungarian Empire began to pay attention to skis, recognizing their potential as an excellent means of transportation and encouraging greater expansion of their use with all kinds of competitions. The rifle divisions, as well as the reconnaissance and engineering divisions, have all received skis: at present, the military is finding increased utility for them continually in all aspects of their operations. In 1891 one battalion of skiers numbered one thousand men (figure C.1).12 In 1895, at competitions near Krakow, the program included an attack on skis of a snow fortification from a distance of eight hundred paces. The assault was completed in

Figure C.1: “Austrian military skiers.” Note the single-pole method of skiing as promoted by Mathias Zdarsky.

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just a few minutes. But skis have only received wider use among the troops since 1900, when other armies began to think about skis with conscious and serious deliberation. Austria recruited some famous instructors to organize military ski courses in 1906, with familiar names such as Zdarsky, Captain Bilgeri, Lieutenant Rosmann,13 and others.*14Zdarsky especially assumed the bulk of the work in training officers and enlisted men to ski.15 Captain Bilgeri has gained wide recognition for his treks through high mountain ranges and his service in the alpine regions as commandant of the XIV Corps . . . [sic].16 Now, thanks to Austria’s geographic and environmental conditions as well as the empathy of its military high command, ski-running is quite popular. All of this has come to pass more or less in the past twenty years: that is to say, from the day when Captain Roll of Norway first arrived in Vienna at the invitation of the Austrian Ski Association. As an instructor at the Wiener Neustadt Officer’s Gymnastic and Fencing Society, he laid the foundation for contemporary military ski-running in Austria.17 The first appearance of skis in France was almost simultaneous with their adoption into its military, with neither resources nor effort spared. During the winter of 1901–1902, on the initiative of the 159th Infantry Regiment, a school opened in Briançon using Commandant Bernard’s “Guide du Skieur” as a ski handbook.18 By the winter of 1903–1904, one Swedish and two Norwegian officers began instructing there, and their efforts produced astonishing results. Every winter since 1900, French alpine troops have been studying skiing in Briançon, at Col du Lautaret, and in Gérardmer in special schools—the “Ecoles normales de ski [sic].”19 Skiers in the auxiliary serve their training periods in special ski divisions. Just as in Scandinavia and Switzerland, the military is enthusiastic about encouraging young people to take up ski-running. There are several races of a military character among the competitions organized by the French Alpine Club (Club Alpin Français), and, starting a few years ago, military ski teams from Italy, Switzerland, Spain, Belgium, Luxembourg, Holland, Sweden, and Norway have been taking part in them.20 Now in its third year, the club is inviting us to take part in its exceedingly instructive competitions as well. There are a lot of officers in the Alpine Club; those who set forth on these races take advantage of cheap railway tickets and a great many reduced payments on-site (this is particularly true for foreign officers and teams). Spain, following the example of France, is attempting to incorporate skis among the troops stationed at suitable altitude, for example at garrisons in the Pyrenees.21 Italy has offered military ski courses (skiatori) since 1902. The Ministry of the Military invited the famous Norwegian Harald Smith to serve as an instructor for these courses: one might consider him the founder of Italian military skiing.22 * Article by Carl Luther, “Militär-Skilauf,” in “Illustrierte Zeitung,” 28 December 1911.14

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The English are currently conducting trials with skis in the mountains of Scotland. They plan to introduce them to their troops serving in those regions of their vast empire where local conditions are conducive to skiing (for example, the Himalayan outposts of India).23 Canadian troops use their “Canadian” skis.24 Before long, Austrian officers are going to introduce ski-running into the northern garrisons of Japan. But in the meantime, the Japanese have already put skis to use in the last war (the one with us).25 Switzerland enjoys an especially favorable situation thanks to local conditions and the efforts of ski clubs. Military and civic organizations work together to prepare proficient ski-soldiers from an early age. There are no specially organized ski units so far, with the exception of the mountain guards who help with winter communications at St. Gotthard and St. Moritz. Nonetheless, there is no shortage of good skiers, and since all of them are in the militia, they are easily summoned to winter drills and maneuvers (and they fulfill those duties quite willingly). Fardistant nations flock to the military ski competitions put on by the Swiss Ski Union whose handsome prizes invigorate the results, the best in the entire domain of military skiing (apart from Norway). The cultivation of ski-running is encouraged financially: discounted railway tickets are available for participants, a per diem of from four to eight francs (one and a half to three rubles), and so on. It is no surprise that the number of participants in these competitions is quite large, and therefore, since officers are the administrators, the races maintain considerable significance in the army. Today, all of Switzerland is passionate about the sport: you might even say that it has gone national. The business of ski-running in the military doesn’t fare so well in Germany: it is barely tolerated and often depends entirely on the sporting inclinations of the unit commander.26 The War Ministry has done nothing as yet to introduce ski training into the army or for the encouragement of the activity in general. I have heard that the high military command has nothing to do with national ski clubs and the German Union of Skiers, despite the fact that Section One of the Union’s regulations (among other things) states that the goal of the Union is to cultivate skiers for the army.27 Still, the Union has had no acknowledgment or encouragement from the military command. It’s all the more gratifying to see that there are small units of skiers in almost every mountain garrison and that officers and enlisted men are allowed to enter competitions organized by private clubs. I would be remiss if I did not mention Professor W. Paulcke who has accomplished quite a lot for the promotion and growth of ski-running within the military and has organized divisions of ski enthusiasts under officers’ leadership.28 Concurrently, in civic society there is a favorable attitude toward skis, and the clubs do a good job providing instruction. In 1911, the German Ski Union alone

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had 22,634 members. And it would be no exaggeration to state that in present-day Germany there are—at the very least—15,000 well-trained skiers.29 In Russia, far better conditions exist for the potential use of skis than in most other nations because of our geographic location and the character of our terrain. The majority of our territory is flat and situated in moderate to cold climate zones. Our winters are generally cold and snowy and last no less than three months; in the northern regions, they can last up to half the year. One might think that nature itself cries out for sledge runners and skis in the winter. In Siberia and the north, the inhabitants use skis all the time for working in the forests, on the hunt, and as a means of transportation; but in the west and south, there is only the slightest concept of their utility. As an illustration of this, here’s something that happened to me about four years ago. During one of my ski treks, I was about five versts from the city of Vasil’kov, in the Kiev district, and my appearance as I arrived in a nearby village brought panic and terror to the local population. I encountered two boys standing near a well, who became so afraid that the older one shouted: “Run, Vanko! The forest is coming for us!” As he ran away, the younger one fell into the well. I stopped to rescue the boy, and in the meantime, his older friend had raised a general alarm throughout the entire village. Soon, a crowd of agitated peasants armed with shovels, pitchforks, and cudgels surrounded me. The men threatened to beat me while the women moaned and prayed. My persuasive arguments didn’t work, and I barely got out of there alive, only because my strong cursing proved to them that I was a living human being. I completely understand the boys’ confusion because, as I was dressed all in white with a matching white helmet on my head, it was difficult to see me; and I was indeed traveling fast while stirring up a cloud of snow in my wake. A year later, I was passing by that same village and saw those boys with barrel staves attached to their shoes, skating along on their “skis.”30 So, the nature of our country demands the wide use of skis. We need to boost and regenerate the forgotten and neglected art of skiing. We must devote the time, means, and effort to this endeavor, and we’ve got to get with it—the sooner the better. In Norway, even though every person—male or female—knows how to ski from the earliest age, several special schools nonetheless offer training conducted from a purely military point of view; and a large country like ours ought to consider the fundamentals of such a notion. It’s true that the Main GymnasticsFencing School has already put this idea into action: they develop skiing on a theoretical basis as time allows. But still, this is not enough. The art of skiing is so difficult and complex that the acquisition of good results requires much more practice. We have to establish special schools for skiers or organize courses at the officers’ schools where we can prepare instructors for the army at the same time. The challenge for such hypothetical institutions would be not only to provide good leaders but also to produce a uniform type of ski suited to our country;

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to advise on accoutrements, clothing, and shoes; to determine useful regulations and methods of operation for ski divisions in conjunction with the army; and to monitor trials for all types of new ski products and innovations in order to stay on the cutting edge. For such an important undertaking we need a group of leaders well versed in skiing in addition to specialists and competent teachers. If we don’t have them, we have to send for them from other countries; in due time, clever and skillful instructors will develop here at home who will then be capable of carrying on independently in the future. It’s a good idea to introduce skiing into the physical instruction of the boys’ brigades and into student institutions, especially among the cadet corps and military training schools.31 Students who graduate as officers will benefit from learning about the application of skis to the art of war, putting them on equal footing with the rest of the world. The administrative command should strive to increase practice for teams of skiers, making wide use of them for winter training and maneuvers. To increase interest we have to arrange competitions for prizes awarded to both individuals and entire teams. On the day of competition, make it look more festive: this will help attract attention since wintertime activities are much less entertaining than those of summer. As incentive, award individual competitors prize money or some sort of token; and for teams, provide a traveling trophy. Announce the race results throughout the division. In general, we should accord equal weight to this type of peacetime preparation as we do to shooting, equestrian training, saber drill, and so forth. This type of military training had been well established for quite awhile in the Finnish Rifle Brigades. A step in this direction has already been taken in the St. Petersburg District with the establishment by royal decree of ski competitions for the Imperial Prize among the Guards units. A year ago, a team from Her Majesty’s Cuirassier Regiment won it. I think it’s a good idea to expand these competitions for the Imperial Prize to all of the military districts where skiing has potential (as far as climatic conditions allow). This will serve as a great incentive for the development of ski-running and its sustainability at the top level.32 The army should take the initiative immediately for renewing our long-forgotten skiing heritage: make it a breeding ground and render it the domain of the nation’s broad social strata just as it was in days of old.

GYMNASTICS-FENCING SCHOOL PRESS1 Colonel Mordovin, Commander of the School.2 Supervision: rules of supporting and helping during the performance of exercises on equipment according to instruction for training troops in gymnastics 1910; and practical advice for instructors. Orders for the troops of the Guards and the St. Petersburg Military District, no. 22, 15 February 1910, intended for instruction in all units and companies of the District (Circular of the General Staff, no. 206, 1 November 1911). Price: 25 kopeks. Erben, an instructor of the School.3 Systematic selection of freestyle movements and exercises on equipment. Price: 1 ruble. Tyrsha, Doctor.4 The Sokol system of gymnastics. Price: 5 kopeks. N. Baikov, an instructor of the School.5 Working knowledge of the bayonet, fourth edition. Price: 15 kopeks. Kiaveri, an instructor of the School.6 Lessons in fencing with sabers. Lithograph. Price: 5 kopeks. Barbazetti.7 Fencing with sabers. Price: 1 ruble, 50 kopeks. Demeni.8 Mechanics of movement and general pedagogies of physical development. Price: 1 ruble. P. Bokin, an instructor of the School.9 A short historical survey of physical development. Circular of the General Staff, no. 206, 1 November 1911. Price: 40 kopeks. As above. Walking, running, jumping, and other naturally occurring movements of man: their mechanics and significance in physical development. Circular of the General Staff, no. 206, 1 November 1911. Price: 80 kopeks. Vsevolozhskoi [sic], Doctor of Medicine, an instructor of the School.10 A course on hygiene. Circular of the General Staff, no. 206, 1 November 1911. Price: 1 ruble. As above. A course in methods of supplying first aid. Circular of the General Staff, no. 206, 1 November 1911. Price: 1 ruble, 50 kopeks.

Works by graduates of the School Lieutenant Nechaev. A chart of rifle fencing.11 Price: 75 kopeks. Staff-Captain De-Pollini.12 First training manual for track and field. Price: 1 ruble, 25 kopeks. Lieutenant Eimeleus. Skis in the art of war. Price: 1 ruble, 75 kopeks.13 Manokhin.14 Sokol gymnastics course. Price: 2 rubles, 50 kopeks. Colonel Grekov. Instruction in slash and riposte.15 With twenty-four illustrations. Price: 50 kopeks. General Butovskii.16 Method of physical exercises. Price: 1 ruble. Burtsev. A course in anatomy. Price: 1 ruble, 80 kopeks.17

Address order forms to: Staff-Captain Gostev, librarian of the Main Gymnastics-Fencing School. St. Petersburg, Spasskaia 18. Telephone 52526 or 187-90.18

Through the School, you can order (1) Russian and foreign books and journals covering all areas of physical training; (2) aids, gear, and paraphernalia for all types of sports, gymnastic equipment, fencing necessities, skis, clothing, etc.

Pocket grelka for skiers and automobilists retains a temperature of 40 degrees for six hours. Price: 1 ruble, 80 kopeks.

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Notes Introduction: Skiing in Europe prior to World War I

1. William D. Frank, Everyone to Skis! Skiing in Russia and the Rise of Soviet Biathlon (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2013), 14–18. 2. Letter, Napoléon to [Hugues-Bernard] Maret, duc de Bassano, ministre des relations extérieures, Doutorna, 18 November 1812, in Napoléon Bonaparte, Correspondance Générale, publiée par la Fondation Napoléon, XII: La campagne de Russie 1812 (Paris: Fayard, 2012), 1260. On the okhotniki, see section XXXI, n. 24. 3. A. A. Zaitsev, Winter Sport (St. Petersburg: n.p., 1904) and O. K. Razgon, Running on Skis (Moscow: n.p., 1911) are two examples. See M. A. Agranovskii, Bibliograficheskii ukazatel’ nauchnoi i metodicheskoi literatury po lyzhnomu sportu (s 1896 g. po 1957 g.) (Moscow: Gosudarstvennyi tsentral’nyi ordena Lenina institut fizicheskoi kul’tury im. I. V. Stalina, 1957), 5. See also “Sources,” nn. 9, 10, and 11, below. 4. The two most recent are E. John B. Allen, The Culture and Sport of Skiing from Antiquity to World War II (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2007); and Roland Huntford, Two Planks and a Passion: The Dramatic History of Skiing (London: Continuum, 2008). 5. Rune Flaten, “Hvem var skiguden Ull?,” Årbok (1999): 38–55; Flaten, “Skigudinnen Skade,” Årbok (2000): 58–71; Szerafim Paktanov, Die Irtysch-Ostjacken und ihre Volkspoesie (St. Petersburg: L’Académie Impériale des Sciences, 1897), 118–19; W. J. Raudonikas, Les gravures rupestres des bords du lac Onéga et de la mer Blanche, 2 vols. (Moscow and Leningrad: Izd. Akademii nauk SSSR, 1936, 1938); Shan Zhaojian and Wang Bo, eds., The Original Place of Skiing—Altay Prefecture of Xinjiang, China (Beijing: People’s Sports Publishing House, 2010); Shan Zhaojian and Ayiken Jiashan, eds., 2015 Altay, China International Ancient Skiing Cultural Forum Report (n.p., 2016). The latest analysis by Paul S. C. Taçon, Tang Huisheng, and Maxime Aubert concludes that a probable date lies between 5250 and 4000 BCE. See “Nationalistic Animals and Hand Stencils in the Rock Art of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, Northwest China,” Rock Art Research 33, no. 1 (2016): 1–13. 6. Kaarle Krohn, “Der Hansakaufmann in der finnischen Volksdichtung,” Finnisch-ugrische Forschungen 16 (1923–1924): 103–45, especially 125–29. See also Erwin Mehl, “Der erste Skiläufer in der Weltliteratur war ein Deutscher,” Olympisches Feuer 3 (March 1957): 11–14. 7. Gösta Berg, Finds of Skis from Prehistoric Times in Swedish Bogs (Stockholm: Generalstabens Litografiska Anstalts Förlag, 1950). There are many articles on individual ski finds in Scandinavian ski journals. 8. Grigoriy M. Burov, “Some Mesolithic Wooden Artifacts from the Site of Vis 1 in the European North East of the U.S.S.R.,” in The Mesolithic in Europe: Papers Presented at

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the Third International Symposium, Edinburgh 1985, ed. Clive Bonsall (Edinburgh: John Donald, [1985?]): 392–95. 9. See the preface. 10. Dr. H. von Auer, “Beitrag zur Geschichte des Militär-Skilaufs,” in Ski [Jahrbuch des Schweizerischer Ski-Verbandes] 9 (1913): 44. 11. Johan Georg Gmelin, Voyage en Sibérie: contenant la description des mœurs & usages des peuples de ce Pays, le cours des rivières considérables, la situation des chaînes de montagnes, des grandes forêts, des mines, avec tous les faits d’Histoire Naturelle qui sont particuliers à cette contrée, trans. Louis-Félix Guynement de Keralio (Paris: chez Desaint, 1767); P. S. [Peter Simon] Pallas, Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des Russischen Reichs (St. Petersburg: Kaiserliche Academie der Wissenschaften, 1776; repr., Graz, Austria: Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt, 1967); Adolf Erman, Reise um die Erde durch NordAsien und die beiden Oceane in den Jahren 1828, 1829 und 1830: Vol II: Reise von Tobolsk bis zum Ochozka Meere im Jahr 1829 (Berlin: G. Reimer, 1838); also in English: Erman, Travels in Siberia (London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1848). See Frank, Everyone to Skis!, 22–24. 12. Fridtjof Nansen, Paa Ski over Grønland (Kristiania: Aschehoug, 1890), 18. 13. F. Wedel Jarlsberg, Reisen gjennem livet (Oslo: Gyldendal, 1932), 109. 14. Nansen, Paa Ski over Grønland, 78. 15. Åke Svahn, “Idrott und Sport. Eine semantische Studie zu zwei schwedischen Fachtermini,” Stadion 5 (1979): 20–41; Allen, Culture and Sport, 18–19. 16. Bernt Lund’s poem first published in Nytaarsgave for Illustreret Nyhedsblad Abbonnenter 1861 (Christiania: H. J. Jensen, 1861). 17. Letter, Cecil Spring-Rice to Lady Helen Ferguson, Stockholm, 31 March 1909 in Spring-Rice, The Letters and Friendships of Sir Cecil Spring-Rice: A Record, ed. Stephen Gwyn (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1929), 2:134–35. On the Nordiska Spelen, see the introduction “The Life and Times of ‘K. B. E. E. Eimeleus,’” n. 40, below. 18. V. A. Serebriakov, “Teoria i Praktika Fizicheskoi Kultury,” 3–4, cited in Iwona Grys, “Foreign Influences on Russian Sport in the 19th Century,” Studies in Physical Culture and Tourism 6 (1999): 70. For Nansen’s 1898 grand tour of Russia (the same year Leon Trotsky was sentenced to prison for union-organizing activities), see Frank, Everyone to Skis!, 25–26. The Romanovs ruled for three centuries from 1613 to 1917. 19. Jackie Rosenhek, “The Coldest War,” Doctor’s Review (December 2013), www. doctorsreview.com/history/history-medicine-frostbite/. 20. Carl Luther had talked to a pioneering Norwegian who claimed to have instructed Spanish officers. Carl J. Luther, Schneeschuhläufer im Krieg (Munich: Lindauer, 1915), 48. No Spanish source gives any information of this encounter. On Luther, see the conclusion, n. 14, below. 21. Vladimir Littauer, Russian Hussar (London: A. J. Allen, 1965), 23–24; E. John B. Allen, “L’avventurosa vita del marchese Nicolò degli Albizzi,” Aquile in Guerra 25 (2017): 40–58. 22. The military in France especially, but also elsewhere, was impressed by the philosopher Henri Bergson who published Évolution créatrice in 1907. It was translated into English as Creative Evolution and published in 1911. 23. Capitaine Henri Clerc, “Rapport des expériences de skis exécutées dans les environs de Briançon par le 159me. Reg. D’inf. au cours des hivers 1900–1901 et 1901–1902,” handwritten document in Musée Dauphinois, Grenoble, p. 67; Commandant G. Bernard, Guide du Skieur; fabrication et théorie du ski, le ski dans la montagne (Paris: R. Chapelot, 1910).

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24. Henrik Angell, “Paa Ski in den franske Alpen,” Morgenbladet (27 March 1903). 25. J. F. Baddeley, Russia in the ‘Eighties’ (London: Longmans, Green, 1921), 38, 253. See also the hand-drawn map by Baddeley, in the Ski Club of Great Britain Archives at De Montfort University Special Collections, Leicester, England. 26. Der Schnee 7, no. 8 (2 December 1911): 5; “Sprungschanzen Ski Archiv,” www. skisprungschanzen.com; “Lyzhnaia sostiazaniia v Iukkakh, 19-go fevralia, na gor ‘Obshchestva poliarnoi zvezdy,’” Ogonek 9 (25 February [9 March] 1912); “Maslenitsa v Peterburge—katan’e s gor na sankakh i na lyzhakh v Iukkakh,” Ogonek 8 (24 February [9 March] 1913); Novoe vremia, 16 (29) January 1911, p. 7; Novoe vremia, 3 (16) February 1912, p. 7. 27. See section XXII. 28. Tor Hjelm, “En hærordning-forendring offentlig premiering av skiløpning, og opprinnelsen til den modern skisport for 200 år siden,” Hærmuseet Akershus Årbok (1965): 1–37. 29. Arthur T. Hatto, The World of the Khanty Epic Hero-Princes: An Exploration of a Siberian Oral Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 58n1. 30. Thor Gotaas, Skimakerne (Oslo: Gyldendal, 2011), 13. 31. Anterro Heikkanen, “Urheilijat ja heidän Yhteisönsä-Haapaveden hiihto menestyksen tausta Suomen hiihtourheilen alkuvaiheessa” (Sportsmen and their community—Background of their success in skiing in Haapavesi), Scripta Historica 5 (1977): 81–118 (English summary, p. 118). 32. Orvar Löfgren, “The Nationalization of Culture: Constructing Swedishness,” Ethnologia Europaea 19, no. 1 (1989): 5. Skis made by L. L. Frabritius of Uleåborg (Swedish name for Oulu) were advertised in Germany in 1894. See Der Schneeschuh 1, no. 2 (16 April 1894): n.p. That same year, Finnish skis competed with Norwegian and Swedish models at the exhibition held in conjunction with the ski races. The following year the Finns donated ten pairs of birch skis to the new Styrian Ski Association. See Katalog (of Winter Exhibition), 5–10 January 1894 (Mürzzuschlag, n.p.), in Mürzzuschlag Winter Sport Museum archives; “Schneeschuhen,” Allgemeine Sport-Zeitung 16, no. 4 (27 January 1895): 89. Here was an effort to capture a new market. 33. Patent, now hanging on the wall of the reconstructed Østbye workshop at the Norske Skieventyr in Morgedal. As early as 1761 a Lieutenant Hals in Om Skismøring recommended ister (the fat found in the stomach of animals) be readily available for application on the gliding long ski. See Oberstløytnant C. Hals, Om Skismøring, cited in Jakob Vaage, “Milepeler og merkedager gjennom 4000 år,” Norske Skiløpere: Østlandet Nord (Oslo: Erling Ranheim, 1955), 14. 34. Nonetheless, many women participated in skiing especially around St. Petersburg at the turn of the century. See Frank, Everyone to Skis!, 32–34; Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 36, 42–43; Gerkules (10 February 1914): 29; Gerkules (24 December 1914): 10; Gerkules (18 January 1915): 8; and Gerkules (8 March 1915): 9. St. Petersburg entrepreneur Konstantin Komets made an effort to address both male and female skiers in his self-published book, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport (see “Sources,” n. 9, below)—see illustrations on pages 9, 12, 17, 21, 27, 44, 47; recommended ski dimensions for women on pages 14–15, 46–47; and gender-specific terms to differentiate female from male skiers on pages 11, 24–26, 33, 42, 43, 54 (similar to an advertisement for Iu. Gotlib in Novoe vremia, 5 [18] January 1912, p. 1). A whimsical piece promoting Komets’s store suggests that women on skis pose a “threat” to dedicated bachelors afraid of change (under a photograph of a comely female skier in a short jacket and plus-four knickers: a daring outfit compared to the ankle-length dress of an ice skater pictured in Ogonek just a few weeks later), with the suggestion that

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all skiers head to Komets for special fitting of skis and ski sails. See “Otchego muzhiny ne zheniatsia!,” Ogonek 49 (4 [17] December 1910); “Kogda ona probegala na kon’kakh [. . .],” Ogonek 1 (1 [14] January 1911). Women outnumbered men (138 to 107) on a ski excursion organized by Komets for the “Bogatyr” ski club of St. Petersburg to Imatra, Finland in Februrary 1909, just as they had on the same trip the previous year. This may have been a selling point for the numerous outings he organized throughout the year in St. Petersburg. See “Ekskursii iz Peterburga na Imatru,” Finliandskaia gazeta 14, 6 February 1909, p. 2; “Ekskursiia na Imatru,” Finliandskaia gazeta 30, 7 March 1909, p. 2; “Trekhdnevnaia ozernaia poezdka na Imatru,” Finliandskaia gazeta 71, 25 May 1909, p. 3. For women’s ski clothing à la mode, see I. Mikeev’s advertisements in Ogonek 44 (3 [16] November 1913) and Ogonek 45 (10 [23] November 1913); “Na snegu sredi leta,” Ogonek 18 (5 [18] May 1913); “Moda i zimnii sport,” Ogonek 5 (2 [15] February 1914). For women’s skiing in Europe, see E. John B. Allen, “‘With a Minimum of Fatigue’: Women’s Skiing before World War I,” in The 2nd FIS Historical Ski Conference, ed. Ulla Palmgren (Lahti, Finland: Esaprint, 2001), 117–23; Allen, Culture and Sport, 146. 35. James Riordan, Sport in Soviet Society: Development of Sport and Physical Education in Russia and the USSR (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 13, 78, 138. Introduction: The Life and Times of “K. B. E. E. Eimeleus”

1. The literal translation of the original Russian title would be “Skis in military matters,” “Skis in military business,” or, as I have chosen, “Skis in the art of war.” 2. Rossiiskaia gosudarstvennaia biblioteka, “Eimeleus, Karl Edvinovich, Lyzhi v voennom dele,” http://search.rsl.ru/ru/record/01003799529. 3. Also Aejmelaeus-Äimä. See this section, n. 38, below. Although Carl Bror Emil used this Finnish last name exclusively after World War I, for simplicity and consistency, we will use the prewar Russianized “Eimeleus” throughout the book. Thus, his full name transliterated from Cyrillic—according to the intitials and spelling he himself chose— would read Karl Bror Emil Edvinovich Eimeleus. 4. K. E. Eimeleus, “Avtobiografiia sportsmena,” Sila i zdorov’e, no. 8 (1913): 191–93. Note that there is a typographical error for the pagination on 192. 5. Georgii Ferdinandovich Tanutrov, “Iunker Eimeleus,” Voennaia byl’. Le Passé Militaire, no. 10 (July 1954): 14. In imperial Russia, the title Iunker (from German Junker) was applied to any student or cadet enrolled in a military academy. Voennaia byl’ was published in Paris from April 1952 through September 1974 by members of the White émigré community who had been anti-Bolshevik loyalists during the Russian Civil War (1917–1922). 6. We know that Eimeleus was rather slight: his military records from 1904 indicate that he was 5 feet 6.5 inches tall (see this section, n. 13, below), although this was about average for a European male ca. 1900. The brother he refers to in his 1913 article is probably Karl Edvin Johannes Aejmelaeus (1879–1902). Two competitors named Aejmelaus (H. and K.) took part in a ski race sponsored by Helsinki’s Kamraterna sports club in March 1899. “Skidtäflan,” Hufvudstadsbladet 75, 17 March 1899, p. 3. 7. See L. G. Beskrovnyi, Russkaia armiia i flot v xix veke: voenno-ekonomicheskii potentsial Rossii (Moscow: Nauka, 1973), 173–82, 194–95; John L. H. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar: Army and Society in Russia 1462–1874 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), 344–45; Gérard Gorokhoff and Patrick de Gmeline, La Garde Impériale Russe 1896–1914 (Paris: Charles-Lavauzelle, 1986), 10–13; Bruce W. Menning, Bayonets before Bullets: The Imperial

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Russian Army, 1861–1914 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992), 34, 103; Robert F. Baumann, “Universal Service Reform: Conception to Implementation, 1873–1883,” in Reforming the Tsar’s Army: Military Innovation in Imperial Russia from Peter the Great to the Revolution, ed. David Schimmelpenninck van der Oye and Bruce W. Menning (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 21–23. 8. Y. S. Hämeen-Anttila, Puolustusvoimiemme upseeristo ja virkamiehistö 1934 (Helsinki: Otava, 1933), 9; Hufvudstadsbladet 133A, 19 May 1901, p. 5. 9. C. Leonard Lundin, “Part Five Finland,” in Russification in the Baltic Provinces and Finland, 1855–1914, ed. Edward C. Thaden (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981), 357–457. See Eimeleus’s comments on the dissolution of the Finnish Guards Rifle Battalions in the conclusion, and his correction to figures 27.1 and 27.2 in section XXVII. Russification of Finland received considerable international attention. A May 1910 St. Petersburg magazine lists two pages of books and pamphlets published between 1890 and 1910 in Russia, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Italy, France, Germany, Belgium, and Great Britain on “The Finnish Question,” available for sale through the magazine and two bookstores in Helsinki. See “Knigi po finliandskomu voprosu,” Finliandia 10, no. 23 (May 1910): inside back cover and back cover. 10. “Neobyknovennaia kar’era russkago ofitsera,” Ogonek 12 (17 [30] March 1912). Thomas Mayne Reid (1818–1883) was an Irish author of hair-raising action novels set— from a Eurocentric perspective—in exotic locations around the world including the western United States and Mexico. His works were especially popular in translation in Russia at the turn of the last century, underscored by the fact that he merited his own entry in Brokgauz and Efron’s monumental Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’. See “Main”-Rid [Майнъ-Ридъ],” in K. K. Arsen’ev and F. F. Petruschevskii, eds., Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’ (St. Petersburg: I. A. Efron, 1896), 18:385. An excellent example of his writing style (and perhaps the source of the “cowboys-and-Indians” motifs in this Ogonek article) is The Scalp-Hunters (1860). See “The Scalp-Hunters,” https://archive.org/details/Captain_Mayne_Reid_The_Scalp_ Hunters. For other examples of Mayne Reid’s influence on Russian adventurers of this period, see Apollon Davidson and Irina Filatova, The Russians and the Anglo-Boer War (Cape Town: Human and Rousseau, 1998), 52, 181. 11. Records of foreigners who volunteered for service with the Boers were only kept during the first two months of the war, so fewer than fifty of the Russians who participated are known by name. Nonetheless, public interest in the Anglo-Boer War was keen throughout the Russian Empire at the turn of the century. Involvement in the conflict became an integral part of the Russian self-image, perhaps as a result of the Great Game cat-andmouse with England and a thirst for exotic adventure by soldiers and officers bored with military drudgery and routine. See Davidson and Filatova, The Russians and the Anglo-Boer War, 45, 59–61, 177–79. One such volunteer (and perhaps a model for the young Eimeleus) was Aleksandr Guchkov (1862–1936), a future influential member of the Russian Duma, He spent fourteen years from 1891 to 1904 on “spectacular trips to distant parts of the world, mixed with adventure and danger,” fighting alongside the Boers in 1899, taking part in the Boxer Rebellion in Manchuria in 1900 as well as the nationalist revolt in Macedonia in 1905. Guchkov also managed to cross the Gobi desert and the Tian Shan mountain range on a six-month trek through China, Mongolia, and Central Asia. See William Gleason, Alexander Guchkov and the End of the Russian Empire (Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society, 1983), 8; Douglas Smith, Rasputin: Faith, Power, and the Twilight of the Romanovs (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2016), 271–72; A. S. Senin, Aleksandr

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Ivanovich Guchkov (Moscow: Skriptorii, 1996), 11–14. Evgenii Maksimov (1849–1904) was another Boer War veteran who followed a similar track. He began his peripatetic service to the Russian state fighting in Serbia in 1875. Afterwards, he took part in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 and was a member of the Russian expeditionary force of 1880 sent to subdue the Akhal Tekke Turkmens in Turkestan. Maksimov covered the First Italo-Ethiopian War of 1895–1896 as a correspondent for Novoe vremia then sailed across the Red Sea from Djibouti to Aden to join the Greek army fighting the Ottomans. Returning to St. Petersburg, he left for service in Iran and Afghanistan in 1897. His subsequent exploits in the Transvaal and as a duelist in St. Petersburg are as dramatic as those professed by Eimeleus himself. Too old to serve in the cavalry at the age of fifty-five, Maksimov lost his life as an infantryman at the Battle of Shaho during the Russo-Japanese War. See “Maksimov, Evgenii Iakovlevich,” in Arsen’ev, Novyi entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 25:471–72; Davidson and Filatova, The Russians and the Anglo-Boer War, 68–103; Stellan Bojerud, “Scandinavian Volunteers in the Anglo-Boer War, 1899–1902,” Military History Journal 14, no. 5 (June 2009), “The South African Military History Society,” http://samilitaryhistory.org/vol145sb.html; Benjamin N. Brown, “Americans Who Fought in the Anglo-Boer War,” Military History Journal 15, no. 6 (December 2012), “The South African Military History Society,” http://samilitaryhistory.org/vol156bb.html; André Wessels, A Century of Post-graduate Boer War (1899–1902) Studies (Bloemfontein, South Africa: Sun Media, 2010), 103; Lars Ericson, “The Boer Vikings of South Africa,” Popular Social Science, https:// web.archive.org/web/20181124032729/http://www.popularsocialscience.com/2013/10/15/ the-boer-vikings-of-south-africa/; “AngloBoerWar.com,” https://www.angloboerwar.com/ name-search; André Wessels, e-mail correspondence, 3 and 9 April 2018. 12. Document, US District Court for the Eastern District of New York, sworn to and signed 6 June 1904 by Carl Bror Emil Aejmelaeus and the district court clerk. www. ancestry.com. 13. Hämeen-Anttila, Puolustusvoimiemme, 9; US Army, Register of Enlistments, 1798–1914, for 1902 June–1904 June, Name: Carl B. E. Aejmelans, www.ancestry.com. Eimeleus served with the 1st Cavalry Regiment, which was on a five-year hiatus in the United States between deployments to the Philippines. An accompanying photograph in “Neobyknovennaia kar’era” shows Eimeleus in his US cavalry tunic with sergeant’s stripes on the arm. 14. “Neobyknovennaia kar’era.” The skirmishes with the Seminoles must refer to the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma. 15. Eimeleus, “Avtobiografiia,” 192–93; Tanutrov, “Iunker Eimeleus,” 14; “Matrikkelit 1900–1902,” http://www.helsinki.fi/keskusarkisto/matrikkelit/1900_1907/Yo matrikkeli_1900_1902.pdf, 42. Eimeleus could not have served in the Argentine Revolution of 1905 since he was stationed in Texas with the US Cavalry that year. La Guerra de los Mil Días (1899–1902) featured brutal guerrilla-style raids and warfare focused on destroying coffee plantations in Columbia’s rural areas; and Eimeleus claimed to have managed coffee plantations in Brazil. There was a lag of around six months in 1902 between the ends of the Boer War in May and of La Guerra de los Mil Días in November. Following the time line suggested in Ogonek, Eimeleus’s experiences in South America and then as a sea captain would have taken place between the time he left cavalry service with the US Army in June 1906 and his return to St. Petersburg later that year to enroll in the Nicholas Cavalry School, a fair amount of activity and travel to accomplish in a very short timespan. The two-year course of study at the Nicholas Cavalry School commenced on the first of October of the

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first year and continued until the fifteenth of August of the second. Enrollees studied riding and horsemanship, equine physiology, blacksmithing, the care and training of horses, tactics and history of the cavalry, handling of small-arms, telegraphy and the destruction of communication lines, mapmaking and surveying, and routefinding. See “Kavaleriiskaia ofitserskaia shkola,” in K. K. Arsen’ev, ed., Novyi entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, (St. Petersburg: Brokgauz-Efron, 1914), 20:256; “Kavaleriiskiia uchilishcha,” 20:256–57; “Nikolaevskoe kavaleriiskoe uchilishche,” in Voennaia entsiklopediia, ed. K. I. Velichko (St. Petersburg: I. D. Sytin, 1914), 16:616–17; Vladimir Littauer, Russkie gusary: Memuary ofitsera imperatorskoi kavalerii 1911–1920, trans. L. A. Igorevskii (Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 2006), 17–39. 16. “En gymnastik- samt riduppvisning i St. Petersburg,” Finsk idrottsblad: officiellt organ för Helsingfors gymnastikklubb (1 January 1908): 8–9; “Ofitsery RIA [Officers of the Russian Imperial Army website]: Nikolaevskoe kavaleriiskoe uchilishche: Vypuskniki 1908,” http://ria1914.info/index.php?title=Николаевское_кавалерийское_училище. 17. Obshchii spisok ofitserskim chinam russkoi imperatorskoi armii, sostavlen po 1-e Ianvaria 1909 (St. Petersburg: Voennaia topografiia, 1909), 566–67. The city’s current name is Vasylkiv. Tanutrov also mentions that, after graduation from the Nicholas Cavalry School, Eimeleus was serving near Kiev. Tanutrov, “Iunker Eimeleus,” 14. Eimeleus’s photograph in the uniform of a junior lieutenant of the Kiev Hussars appears in “Neobyknovennaia kar’era.” 18. Eimeleus, “Avtobiografiia,” 192–93; Tanutrov, “Iunker Eimeleus,” 14; “Matrikkelit 1900–1902,” 42. 19. “Cutting” was a cavalry saber drill. See “From the Editor,” n. 3, below. 20. It is interesting to note that, with the possible exception of mountain climbing, Eimeleus mentions no team sports, although he started a football club as well as a rowing and swimming club in St. Petersburg when he was a student at the Nicholas Cavalry School. See “En gymnastik- samt,” 8. 21. Tanutrov, “Iunker Eimeleus,” 14; “En gymnastik- samt,” 8–9. Eimeleus told a Finnish journalist in 1909 that he could also manage trick-riding controlling eight horses at a time. See “Suomalainen sotilasvoimistelun uudistajana Venäjällä,” Helsingin Sanomat 258, 7 November 1909, p. 11. For a demonstration of trick-riding see “Romanovs. Tsar Nicholas II & the Russian Army,” www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ctF8IrOfak, 21:22–22:46. 22. Eimeleus, “Avtobiografiia,” 193. Tanutrov mentions that Eimeleus was also the founder of many sports clubs in Finland. As a student at the Nicholas Cavalry School, he had organized a “Sokol” sports group to compete against other clubs and schools in St. Petersburg. Tanutrov, “Iunker Eimeleus,” 13–14. On the Sokol movement, see “From the Editor,” n. 2, below. 23. Otto Boele, Erotic Nihilism in Late Imperial Russia: The Case of Mikhail Artsybashev’s Sanin (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009), 172, 183. 24. “Rekordi Setin,” Kotkan Uuitiset 29, 11 April 1901, p. 3; Wuoksi 41, 11 April 1901, p. 3; Päivälehti 55A, 7 April 1901, p. 3; Eimeleus, “Avtobiografiia,” 193; Tanutrov, “Iunker Eimeleus,” 14. Eimeleus apparently set this 1901 record while still enrolled as a student at Suomalainen Reaalilyseo. 25. Eimeleus, “Avtobiografiia,” 193; Tanutrov, “Iunker Eimeleus,” 14. A kilojoule in this context represents a unit of energy: one joule is equal to the energy transferred when a force of one newton moves an object over one meter. Or, put another way, a joule is the energy required to lift a hundred grams one meter off the ground. Eimeleus’s record must have been set in some type of cargo-hoisting contest. Since Eimeleus arrived in New York

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in early June 1904, this hoisting competition must have taken place somewhere in South America; on board the deck of his northbound ship; or in the United States in the latter half of the year. 26. See “From the Editor” above; Obshchii spisok, 592. There were officer cadres studying fencing and gymnastics in certain regiments of the Russian Imperial Army beginning in the 1860s. The General Staff established the Main Gymnastics-Fencing School (MGFS) in St. Petersburg for the academic year of 1909–1910 for the development of officer-instructors who followed a ten-month course of study in practice, theory, and methodologies. See “Gimnasticheskiia uprazhneniia ofitserskoi fekhtoval’noi shkoly v Novom Petergofe, 30-go iiulia” and “Smotr sokol’skoi gimnastiki v Vysochaishem prisutstvii v Krasnom Sele, 31-go iiulia,” Ogonek 32 (7 [20] August 1910); “Vysochaishii smotr gimnastiki ofitserov gimnastichesko-fekhtoval’noi shkolu v Petergof, 30-go iiulia,” Ogonek 32 (6 [19] August 1911); “Velikii kniaz’ glavnokomanduiushchii na ekzamene ofitserov,” Ogonek 12 (17 [30] March 1912); “Ofitserskaia gimnatichesko-fekhtoval’naia shkola v SPb,” Ogonek 31 (29 July [11 August] 1912); “V Rossii,” Gerkules (10 April 1913): 29; “Vypusknyia ispytaniia ofitserov glavnoi ofitserskoi gimnasticheskoi i fekhtoval’noi shkoly v Peterburge,” Ogonek 30 (28 July [10 August] 1913); “Gimnastika,” in K. K. Arsen’ev, ed., Novyi entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, (St. Petersburg: Brokgauz-Efron, 1913), 13:544–45; S. V. Pokhodiaev and V. A. Masliakov, “Voennye reformy serediny XIX–nachala XX vv. v organizatsii sistemy boevoi podgotovki voisk,” in Politologiia, istoriia i obshchestvozanie, interactive-plus.ru/e-articles/collection-20131216-1/collection-20131216-1-567.pdf, 5. Ukrainian native Petr Antonovich Zakovorot (1871–1951) represented Russia in fencing at the 1900 Olympics in Paris (placing seventh in saber) and again at an international tournament there in 1910, placing third. Zakovorot was born in the Ukrainian village of Kup’evakha-Guty (Kupjevakha-Guty) and remained a long-time resident of near-by Khar’kov (Kharkiv), some 400 kilometers by rail east of Kiev. It is quite possible that Zakovorot and Eimeleus had met at fencing tournaments in Ukraine and established a student-mentor relationship prior to both men arriving at the MGFS in 1910. After the Bolshevik Revolution, Zakovorot taught fencing for the Red Army in Petrograd until 1920 and, after returning home, continued to teach in Khar’kov at the Institute of Physical-Culture. See P. A. Zakovorot, “Slava russkogo klinka,” in Rasskazy starykh sportsmenov, ed. D. Samoilov, 2nd ed. (Moscow: Fizkul’tura i sport, 1951), 8–18; William D. Frank, “‘Glory of the Russian Blade’: Petr Zakovorot and the Paris Olympics—1900,” lecture presented to the International Society for the History of Physical Education and Sport, Université Paris-Est, Paris, France, June 2016. 27. Novoe vremia, 15 (28) December 1911, p. 7; “Urheila,” Työväenliitto 128 (6 June 1912): 2. 28. Eimeleus, “Avtobiografiia,” 191. See also “Neobyknovennaia kar’era.” 29. Novoe vremia, 11 (24) December 1911, p. 8. Evgenii Evgenevich Teviashov (often E. E. T. in Novoe vremia) was an athlete and member of the Russian Olympic Committee. He died during the blockade of Leningrad in 1942. See “Rodovid,” http://ru.rodovid.org/ wk/Запись:895048. Prior to his comment about the desultory shooting practice among St. Petersburg’s potential modern pentathletes, Teviashov had bemoaned the lack of proficient Russian marksmen in comparison to foreign competition at recent club matches. See Novoe vremia, 31 August (13 September) 1911, p. 6. 30. Novoe vremia, 18 (31) December 1911, p. 7. 31. Novoe vremia, 17 February (1 March) 1912, p. 7; Novoe vremia, 18 February (2 March) 1912, p. 15; Novoe vremia, 19 February (3 March) 1912, p. 8; and Novoe vremia, 20 May (2 June) 1912, p. 7.

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32. See “Kiertopalkinnon nykyaikaisessa 5-ottelussa,” Suomen Sotilas, no. 10–11 (12 March 1921): 172–73. The official report from the Stockholm Games includes Eimeleus (spelled Aejmelaens) under the results for the first two days of events: duel-shooting with pistols (for which a full-figure mannequin target was used) and the 300-meter swim. He finished in 19th place out of thirty-one competitors at the firing range and in 24th place out of twenty-nine swimmers in the pool. Although a photograph on plate 237 shows Eimeleus during his épée match with Sweden’s Bror Karl Anton Mannström on the third day (figure 0.2), his results are not listed, indicating that he dropped out of competition midway through the fencing rounds thus eliminating his participation in the subsequent cross-country equestrian and foot-racing events. See “Modern Pentathlon,” in The Fifth Olympiad: The Official Report of the Olympic Games of Stockholm 1912, ed. Erik Bergvall, trans. Edward Adams-Rey (Stockholm: Wahlström and Widstrand, 1913), 640–57; Novoe vremia, 23 May (5 June) 1912, p. 6. It is likely that Eimeleus became frustrated with the judging during the fencing bouts. Because he was paired with Sweden’s Mannström early on, perhaps Eimeleus felt that the judges were biased in favor of the Swedish fencers. Petr Zakovorot was convinced that anti-Russian bias was rife among the judges during the twomonth-long elimination rounds at the 1900 Paris Olympics, something that still rankled nearly half a century later. He would certainly have given his student Eimeleus an earful as he departed for Stockholm. See Zakovorot, “Slava russkogo klinka,” 16; Novoe vremia, 23 May (5 June) 1912, p. 6. Modern pentathlon’s 351 épée matches took a full two days to complete, with judging scored by the forty officials working at the fencing venue. The official report acknowledges that there were problems: “[there were] difficulties obtaining fully competent judges . . . [and] of bringing about uniformity in all these international juries, whose members speak different languages and have different customs” (460). In the regular fencing competition at Stockholm, there was so much controversy about rules and regulations that the Italians refused to compete in épée; the French completely withdrew from all three disciplines. See “Fencing,” in The Official Games of Stockholm 1912, 457, 460. Eimeleus’s frustration may have been justified: in the final results, Swedish pentathletes took eight of the top ten positions and won all three medals. 33. On Mordovin and Sarnavskii, see the preface, nn. 4 and 5, above. As chairman of the National Association of Amateurs in Sport, Sarnavskii would have been present at the Russian Olympic Committee’s meeting in St. Petersburg prior to the Olympiad on 22 July 1913; Mordovin gave the opening signal to the start of the Games on 20 August 1913. See Gerkules (10 August 1913): 31; Gerkules (25 August 1913): 38–40; Gerkules (10 September 1913): 16–19, 29; Ogonek 35 (1 [14] September 1913); Ogonek 36 (8 [21] September 1913); Ogonek 37 (15 [28] September 1913); Novoe vremia, 14 (27) August 1913, p. 5; Novoe vremia, 18 (31) August 1913, p. 5; Novoe vremia, 21 August (3 September) 1913, p. 5; Novoe vremia, 23 August (5 September) 1913, p. 5; Novoe vremia, 24 August (6 September) 1913, p. 13. The following year, the Second Russian Olympiad took place in Riga: both Mordovin and Sarnavskii were “honored members” of the organizing committee. The Games, which began in early July, were impacted by poor planning and the tsar’s declaration of war against Germany on 20 July 1914. See Gerkules (25 May 1914): back cover; Gerkules (10 June 1914): inside back cover; Gerkules (25 June 1914): 23; Gerkules (31 July 1914): 18–23. 34. On mobilization during the First Balkan War, see the following sections of this introduction. 35. Novoe vremia, 22 November (5 December) 1912, p. 8. The other lecturers that evening were A. A. Tillo, a competitor in large-bore military rifle shooting, who spoke about the rifle events in Stockholm; T. E. Vishniakov, another large-bore rifle competitor,

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who also discussed the shooting competitions at the Games; and G. Bertren, a contestant in foil and épée at the 1912 Olympics, who presented his reflections on the equestrian and fencing competitions. See The Official Games of Stockholm 1912, 464, 470, 471, 683, 685, 686, 689, 690. 36. See Roland Huntford, The Last Place on Earth (New York: Modern Library, 1999), 386–540; “Kapitan Skott u iuzhnago poliusa,” Ogonek 19 (7 [20] May 1911); “Otkrytie iuzhnago poliusa,” Ogonek 11 (10 [23] March 1912). 37. “Konflikt v Finliandii,” Ogonek 38 (16 [29] September 1912); “Under december,” Åbo Underrättelser 3, 3 January 1913, pp. 3–4. 38. Suomalainen Wirallinen Lehti 10, 14 January 1913, p. 2; and Suomalainen Wirallinen Lehti 11, 15 January 1913, p. 3. The suffix “–Äimä” refers to the ancestral home of the Aejmelaeus clan, Äimälä. Many Finnish nationalists reappropriated older family names as Finland struggled against and then emerged from Russian rule at the turn of the century. In 1913, Eimeleus inscribed a plaintive note in Swedish—evocative of his love for Finland— on a formal photograph of himself as a staff instructor at the Nicholas Cavalry School. See figure 0.1. 39. “Målet mot Viborgs hovratts ledamöter,” Västra Nyland 11, 30 January 1913, 1–2. 40. See William D. Frank, “Mud in the Tracks and Soviet Wax: Nikolai Vasil’ev at Russia’s First International Ski Race 1913,” Journal of Sport History 44, no. 3 (2017): 421–37. The Nicholas Cavalry School was located at Lermontovskii Prospekt 54. The Nordic Games (Nordiska Spelen) was a multisport winter cavalcade of athletics held every two to four years in Scandinavia from 1901 to 1926. The rest of Europe immediately dubbed them the Northern Winter Olympic Games; and they were, in fact, the template for the subsequent Winter Olympics. See Allen, Culture and Sport, 180–85. A complete listing of all the cross-country ski results from the Nordic Games appears in “Kilpailut ‘Pohjoismaisissa kisoissa,’” Suomen Sotilas 9 (6 March 1926): 160–61. 41. The St Petersburg Institute of Archaeology was founded in 1878 with the express purpose of combining science and statecraft. For the furthering of pan-Slavic imperial ambitions, especially in relation to the Ottoman Empire and the Balkans, the Russian government considered on-site research into Byzantine and early Slavic archaeology a potent foreign policy tool. Courses on diplomacy were integral to the Institute’s two-year program of instruction. At times, military reconnaissance was carried out in the guise of archaeological expeditions. In Eimelaeus’ case, perhaps the study of archaeology in service to the state appealed to his sense of wanderlust as well. See Alex Marshall, The Russian General Staff and Asia, 1860–1917 (New York: Routledge, 2006), 123–25; Alexander Smirnov, “The Impact of State Power on Archaeological Science in the Russian Empire,” Complutum 24, no. 2 (2013): 121–30; Pinar Üre, “Byzantine Heritage, Archaeology, and Politics between Russia and the Ottoman Empire: Russian Archaeological Institute in Constantinople (1894–1914),” (PhD dissertation, The London School of Economics and Political Science, 2014), 52, 67–8, 125–69; “Arkheologicheskie instituty v Rossii,” Novyi entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, book 3, ed. K. K. Arsen’ev (St. Petersburg: Brokgauz-Efron, 1911), 853–55; Hämeen-Anttila, Puolustusvoimiemme, 9. 42. Hämeen-Anttila, Puolustusvoimiemme, 9; Littauer, Russkie gusary, 200–201; Davidson and Filatova, The Russians and the Anglo-Boer War, 142. Current estimates place total Russian casualties in World War I at over two million, around 5 percent of the population. According to socialist propaganda justifying the Bolshevik Revolution, a Russian

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officer had an 82 percent chance of being killed by 1915. See “Part Six: Tsarist Russia and the War,” https://www.marxist.com/wwi-part-six-tsarist-russia-and-the-war.htm. 43. Tammerfors Aftonblad 132 (12 October 1918), 2; Hämeen-Anttila, Puolustusvoimiemme, 9. The Court on the Crimes Against the Finnish State was set up on 29 May 1918 to investigate activities by Bolshevik sympathizers during the Finnish Civil War (from 27 January to 15 May 1918). Around seventy-six thousand cases were adjudicated of which sixty-seven thousand led to convictions for treason: of these, 555 resulted in death sentences with 265 actually carried out. Each court had five members: two with legal training, two with established Finnish bona fides, and one army officer appointed by Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces Gustav Mannerheim. See Anthony Upton, The Finnish Revolution 1917–1918 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1980), 520–21; Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, The Memoirs of Marshal Mannerheim, trans. Count Eric Lewenhaupt (London: Cassell, 1953), 180–81, 216–17; Lauri Hannikainen, Raijka Hanski, and Allan Rosas, Implementing Humanitarian Law Applicable in Armed Conflicts: The Case of Finland (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1992), http://www.mannerheim.fi/06_vsota/e_punvan.htm. In addition to the Karelian cavalry, Eimeleus was enrolled as a member of the Uusimaa cavalry regiment (URR) also stationed in Lappeenranta. Photographs from a variety of cavalry training exercises there illustrate many of the principles he advocated in his book: skijoring (and summer skijoring on roller skis), ski racing, winter maneuvers combining cavalry and skiers, in addition to horse acrobatics and cutting clay. See Lappeenranta Cavalry Museum, “Hei Hoplaa!” photographs 76, 77, 78, 171, 175, 176, 177, 206, 225, 249, http://www3.lappeenranta.fi/museot/verkkonayttelyt/heihoplaa/sivut/thsota.html; Liisa Nordman “Lappeenrannan Rakuunat” photographs captioned: “Näin harjoiteltiin miekalla osumista vauhdissa” and “Tässä ollaan menossa talvimanööverille talvella 1931,” http:// www.helsinki.fi/kansalaismuisti/lappeenranta/rakuunat.htm. 44. “Sotalaitos,” Aamulehti 192, 23 August 1919, p. 3; Liitto 193, 24 August 1919, p. 1; Länsi-Savo 94, 25 August 1919, p. 2; “Armeija,” Suomen Sotilas, no. 35 (30 August 1919): 496; “Sotalaitos” Uusi Suomi 6, 9 January 1920, p. 5; “Sotalaitos,” Uusi Aura 8, 10 January 1920, p. 2; “Sotalaitos,” Maaseudun Sanomat 43, 24 December 1920, p. 3; “Armén,” Dagens Press 298, 23 December 1920, p. 2; “Aejmelaeus-Äimä,” Aikalaiskirja: Henkilötietoja nykypolven suomalaisista (Helsinki: Titeosanakirja Oy, 1920); “Aejmelaeus-Äimä,” Vem och vad: Upplagsbok över samtida finländare (Helsinki: 1920); “Uusi tasavallan presidentin adjutantti,” Sattuma: Riihmäen garnisoonin sotilaslehti, no. 5 (5 March 1926): 3; M. Epstein, The Statesman’s Yearbook for 1931 (London: Macmillan, 1931), 835; “Matrikkelit 1900–1902,” 42; “Finnish President Lauri K. Relander in Estonia 1925,” 1:15–1:19, www.youtube.com/ watch?v=pATyk-YIvh4&t=105s. In 1925 Eimeleus also received the Estonian Cross of Independence for his service with the Finnish Army against the Bolsheviks during the Estonian War of Independence, 1918–1920. See “III liigi 2. Järgu kavalarid,” https://et.wikipedia. org/wiki/Eesti_Vabaduse_Risti_III_liigi_kavaleride_loend. He is wearing the Order of the White Rose of Finland in a photograph taken in Naantali near Turku, Finland, in 1920. See Finnish National Board of Antiquities History Collection, HK198301122: 1361, https:// www.finna.fi/Record/musketti.M012:HK19830122:1361. Eimeleus also received awards from Poland, Sweden, Holland, and France. See Hämeen-Anttila, Puolustusvoimiemme, 10. 45. Tanutrov, “Iunker Eimeleus,” 14. 46. Helsingin Miekkailijat granted Eimeleus honored member status in 1926. He taught fencing for the club until 1928 and promoted the inclusion of bayonet sparring as part of its program. Miekkailu Suomessa: En garde! Prêts? Allez!, ed. Markku Varjo

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(Helsinki: 2013), 29–42, 136–37, 214, 222; Helsingfors Fäktare 1923–1973: Helsingin Miekkailijat Jubileumspublikation (Helsinki: 1973), 8–9, 13, 20; Hämeen-Anttila, Puolustusvoimiemme, 9–10; “Luettelo Suomen vapaamuurareista,” www.genealogia.fi/ hakem/vapaamuurarit1933s.htm; “Toimituksen pöydän takaa,” Suomen Sotilas, no. 32 (7 August 1920): 538; Suomen Sotilas, no. 20 (21 May 1921): 13; “Fäktning,” Nyländska skyddskåristen: organ för Nylands och Helsingfors skyddskårsdistrikt, no. 23 (15 December 1923): 6. 47. See Anders Ahlbäck, Manhood and the Making of the Military: Conscription, Military Service and Masculinity in Finland, 1917–39 (Farnham, England: Ashgate, 2014), 85–91; Ahlbäck, “Ethnicity, Military Service and Male In/Exclusion in Finland, 1918– 1928,” in A Man’s World? Political Masculinities in Literature and Culture, ed. Kathleen Stark, Birgit Sauer, and Krzysztof Olszewski (Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014), 53–66. 48. Tanutrov, “Iunker Eimeleus,” 13–14. Apparently, Eimeleus was more comfortable in Swedish than Finnish, based on Tanutrov’s comment and the list of Finnish books in his “Sources” section, all of which have Swedish rather than Finnish titles. See “Sources,” nn. 4, 5, and 6, below. The copy of Skis in the Art of War in the collection of the California Ski Library includes an inscription in Swedish by Eimeleus to his cousin Kalle dated Christmas 1912. See also the Swedish inscription dated 1913 by Eimeleus in figure 0.1. 49. For quote, see “Suomalainen julkaissut hiihtokirjan Venäjällä,” Aamulehti 300, 28 December 1912, p. 6. See also: “Skidorna i militärens tjänst,” Hufvudstadsbladet 354, 28 December 1912, p. 6; “Urheilu,” Wiipuri 300, 28 December 1912, p. 4. 50. See section XIII. 51. See “From the Editor,” n. 8, below; Arnold Fanck, Das Wunder des Schneeschuhs (1920), 31:32, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qVzsoNjJz8s; Arnold Fanck and Hannes Schneider, Das Wunder des Schneeschuhs (Hamburg: Gebrüder Enoch, 1925); Halldor Skard and Olle Larsson, Langrennsteknikk (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1981), 11–12. Fanck and Schneider’s book was so popular that it was translated into French in 1931 and English in 1933: Les Merveilles du Ski (Paris: Fasquelle Éditeurs, 1931), and The Wonders of Skiing (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1933). 52. The front covers of the Finnish armed forces’ weekly journal, Suomen Sotilas, document visually the emphasis placed on national ski training in the decade after Finland’s independence. See Suomen Sotilas, no. 8 (21 February 1920); no. 15 (10 April 1920); no. 8 (26 February 1921); no. 10–11 (12 March 1921); no. 5–6 (11 February 1922); no. 11 (18 March 1922); no. 12 (25 March 1922); no. 9 (23 March 1923); no. 10 (31 March 1923); no. 2–3 (12 January 1924); no. 6 (9 February 1924); no. 10 (8 March 1924); no. 12 (22 March 1924); no. 11 (21 March 1925); no. 12–13 (4 April 1925); no. 6 (13 February 1926); no. 9 (6 March 1926); no. 6 (5 February 1927); no. 15 (9 April 1927); no. 1 (7 January 1928); no. 7 (16 February 1929); no. 12 (23 March 1929). 53. Frank, Everyone to Skis!, 88–113. 54. Christa Case Bryant, “Winter Olympics: Why Biathlon Is the Most Popular Sport in Europe,” Christian Science Monitor, 13 February 2010, https://www. csmonitor.com/World/Olympics/2010/0213/Winter-Olympics-Why-biathlon-is-themost-popular-sport-in-Europe. 55. Christopher Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (New York: HarperCollins, 2012), 126, 129–30, 250; Donald Quataert, The Ottoman Empire 1700–1922, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 58–59, 123–26.

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56. Marshall Everett, Exciting Experiences in the Japanese-Russian War ([Chicago]: Henry Neil, 1904); Ronald Grigor Suny, The Soviet Experiment: Russia, the USSR, and the Successor States (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 24–25; Clark, The Sleepwalkers, 152–53. 57. Clark, The Sleepwalkers, 87, 159. 58. Menning, Bayonets before Bullets, 222–30; Clark, The Sleepwalkers, 86–87. 59. See section XXXI. 60. Although relegated to a historical footnote post–World War I, the Italo-Turkish War received extensive coverage in Russia at the time. A cartoon on the front page of Ogonek titled “The Formidable International Gatekeeper in Danger” illustrates why. An Italian hunting-fox, his rifle at the ready and a dead Tripoli-fowl slung in a game bag over his shoulder, wades up from the Mediterranean Sea to the Dardanelles with battleships in tow, threatening the Ottoman fortifications at Sedd el Bahr and Kumkale. A frightened Turkish rabbit, clutching the keys to the Dardanelles, is about to lose his fez as the Russian bear (weaponless) looks on from the Black Sea; Europe’s imperial powers (warships tucked under their arms) observe dispassionately from the shore below Constantinople. A wellworn terlik (slipper) equipped with toy sail and mast drifts aimlessly in the Sea of Marmara, a symbol of the decimated and toothless Ottoman navy. See “Groznyi mezhdunarodnyi privratnik v opasnosti,” Ogonek 16 (14 [27] April 1912). Especially evocative of the North African conflict’s extraordinary nature are the photographs and illustrations featured regularly in Ogonek from the end of September 1911 through early August 1912. 61. Clark, The Sleepwalkers, 250–52, 266–68. Ogonek fanned the flames with pictorial spreads from all fronts of the Balkan War beginning in late September 1912, as did Gazeta-Kopeika with its blaring full front-page war-font headlines in the fall of 1912: “Voina!,” 30 September (13 October), “Voina!,” 2 (15) October; “Voina!,” 3 (16) October; “Voina!,” 6 (19) October; “Voina!,” 14 (27) October; “Voina!,” 15 (28) October; “Voina!,” 22 October (4 November); “Voina!,” 24 October (6 November). 62. A. Neznamov, Tekushchie voennye voprosy (St. Petersburg: T-vo Khudozhestvennoi Pechati, 1909), 104–20; Bruce W. Menning, “The Offensive Revisited: Russian Preparation for Future War, 1906–1914,” in Schimmelpenninck van der Oye and Menning, Reforming the Tsar’s Army, 216, 218, 222, 225; John W. Steinberg, “Reforming Imperial Russian General Staff Education,” in Schimmelpenninck van der Oye and Menning, Reforming the Tsar’s Army, 242; Menning, Bayonets before Bullets, 204, 213. 63. Douglas Southall Freeman, Lee’s Lieutenants: A Study in Command, vol. 1, Manassas to Malvern Hill (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1946), 282–302. 64. “Snowshoes in Warfare,” The Graphic (March 1894): 247; Konstantin Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 53. See “Sources,” n. 9, below. 65. Menning, Bayonets before Bullets, 222. 66. Littauer, Russkie gusary, 280–83; “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav, 1908 goda, s ispravleniiami po 1916 god” (Petrograd: Berezovskii, 1916), http://militera.lib.ru/regulations/0/g/1916_su-pehota.pdf; “Vzvod,” in Arsen’ev and Petruschevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 6:167; “Vzvod,” in Arsen’ev, Novyi entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 10:395; “Batalion,” in Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, ed. I. E. Andreevskii (St. Petersburg: I. A. Efron, 1891), 3:169–70; “Batalion,” in Arsen’ev, Novyi entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 5:382–83; “Eskadron,” in Arsen’ev and Petruschevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 41:55; “Komanda,” in Arsen’ev and Petruschevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 15A:811; “Komanda,” in Arsen’ev, Novyi entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 22:295; “Rota,” in Arsen’ev and Petruschevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’,

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27:152; “Otdelanie,” in Arsen’ev, Novyi entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 29:895. For okhotniki, see section XXXI, n. 24. 67. Neznamov, Tekushchie voennye voprosy, 53; A. A. Kersnovskii, Istoriia russkoi armii (Moscow: Golos, 1994), 3:120–69; A. Iu. Bezugol’nyi, N. F. Kovalevskii, and V. E. Kovalev, Istoriia voenno-okryzhnoi sistemy v Rossii 1862–1918 (Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 2012), 263–355; O. Leonov and I. E. Ul’ianov, Reguliarnaia pekhota: boevaia letopis’, organizatsiia, obmundirovanie, vooruzhenie, snariazhenie (Moscow: Izd. AST-LTD, 1998), 230–43; Bruce W. Menning, e-mail correspondence, 11 July 2017; Menning, Bayonets before Bullets, 228. 68. “Mery: Tablitsy,” in Arsen’ev and Petruschevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 20:326–30; “Pribavlenie: Tablitsy dlia perevoda metricheskikh (desiatichnykh) mer v russkiia i russkikh—v metricheskiia,” in Arsen’ev and Petruschevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 5: [11 pp. after 468]; “Reomiur,” in Arsen’ev and Petruschevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 26A:597; “Termometr,” in Arsen’ev and Petruschevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 33:1–5; “Portal for Historical Statistics, historical currency converter,” www.historicalstatistics.org/Currencyconverter.html. The relationship between the Finnish markka and Russian ruble is based on postal rates in the Grand Duchy of Finland. “Postitiedonantoja,” Osoite- ja ammatti- kalentri Kuopion kaupunkia ja ympäristöä varten 1904–1905 (Kuopio: Osakeyhtiö kuopion uudessa kirjapainossa, 1904), 80–82. From the Editor

1. The editor, Lieutenant Fedor Pavlovich Gostev (dates unknown), was an officer of the 29th Artillery Brigade. See “Ofitsery RIA,” http://ria1914.info/index.php?title=Гостев_ Федор_Павлович; “Fail: glavnaia gimnastichesko-fekhtovalnaia shkola,” http://ria1914. info/index.php?title=Файл:Главная_гимнастическо-фехтовальная_школа.jpg. Gostev served as editor of Vestnik glavnoi gimnastichesko-fekhtoval’noi shkoly, the Main Gymnastics-Fencing School’s journal. See Novoe vremia, 26 February (10 March) 1912, p. 7; Advertisement MGFS, n. 18. 2. It was not unusual for European armies to rely on gymnastics and fencing to enhance training, particularly among officers. Certainly, foil, épée, and saber were evocative of the sword’s aristocratic connotations. Gymnastics, ever since the days of the Enlightenment, reflected the development of a healthy body, and the military especially valued the discipline it required, gained through a group effort. By the end of the nineteenth century, two strains of gymnastics had developed in eastern Europe: one, the Sokol movement, originated in 1862 in Prague, the Czech center of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. By the end of the century, the Sokol movement had spread to Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Poland, and Russia. At the time of Eimeleus’s writing in 1910–1911, international solidarity in the Sokol movement had reached its zenith. Sokol promoted an all-round improvement of body and mind among men and women of all ages through group, rather than individual, activity. The template for Sokol was the German Turnverein, but in the Czech lands after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, it emphasized military training and Slavic identity as well as a revolutionary nationalism, a development that was anathema to the imperial government in Vienna. As the Sokol movement spread east and south into the Balkans’ political maelstrom, it assumed aspects of the pan-Slavic movement promoted by the Russian Empire. Eventually, the Austrian government allowed a union of the Sokol clubs to form in 1887 that included some sections from the Russian-ruled districts in Ukraine. In 1901, at the fourth communal meeting of all Sokols (Slet), there were around eleven thousand participants from Poland, Ukraine, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Russia, France,

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and America. In 1907 twelve thousand members took part in a mass gymnastics performance, and in 1912 (the year Eimeleus published his book), the communal gathering numbered thirty thousand. See Ogonek 26 (23 June [6 July] 1912); Ogonek 27 (1 [14] July 1912); Novoe vremia, 16 (29) November 1911, p. 7; Novoe vremia, 30 June (13 July) 1912, pp. 8–9; Novoe vremia, 29 August (11 September) 1913, p. 5; Gerkules (25 October 1913): 23–24; Gerkules (10 November 1913): 10–11; Major Oskar Schadek von Dagenburg, Anleitung für den Gebrauch der Schneeschuhe und Schneereifen (Vienna: Kaiserlich-Königliche Hof- und Staatsdruckerei, 1897); Frank, Everyone to Skis!, 30–32. 3. A saber drill unique to the Russian cavalry corps, derived from Cossack exercises: the swordsman slashes back and forth with his weapon at a block of clay (or a bundle of switches) placed chest-high on a stand. A photograph in Ogonek shows Eimeleus cutting clay at an MGFS demonstration in 1911. See “Vysochaishii smotr gimnastiki ofitserov Gimnastichesko-Fekhtoval’noi shkolu v Petergof, 30-go iiulia,” Ogonek 32 (6 [19] August 1911): photo. 2. See also “Zimnyi den’ stroevogo armeiskago ofitsera,” Ogonek 9 (2 [15] March 1914): photo. 5; “Cutting clay/рубка глины,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xL6zZ7McaO4, 0:00 to 0:12. 4. A distance of 10 versts is 10.7 kilometers. This was not an exceptional time: as one of Eimeleus’s own sources reports, a Swedish skier had run 10 kilometers in 27 minutes, 15 seconds in 1902; and in 1905 Sweden’s E. Friis covered the distance in 31 minutes, 29 seconds. See Ivar Wilskman, Idrotten i Finland III: Cykelsport, Hästsport, Vinteridrott (Helsingfors: Förlagsaktiebolaget Helios, 1906), 143. However, Eimeleus was fully aware that changing weather, snow conditions, and different topography would produce faster or slower times: see section IX. 5. In 1912, Abel Kiviat of the United States set the world record running 1500 meters in just a fraction over 3 minutes, 59 seconds. 6. “Field gymnastics” included an obstacle course. See “Romanovs. Tsar Nicholas II & the Russian Army,” 11:17–11:40. 7. In the early days of skiing’s modern era, military officers played a formative role. From the perspective of many European armies, especially among the officer corps, the military provided the backbone of the nation, a bulwark against the physical, moral, and political degeneration of the population. In the imperial era, war and revolution required stronger armies, with operations that might continue into the winter months; thus, ski troops were vital. Since young men who could already ski were among the most desirable recruits, it is no surprise that governments began to support ski programs in schools, while army officers gave instruction both to their own troops and also to civilian clubs. In 1906, for example, forty-five civilians from Briançon were enrolled in a course given by Lt. Laurens. Eighteen went home and became instructors in their villages. In 1913 the military set up ski schools for civilians at Laveissière (Cantal), Pontarlier (Doubs), and at Beuil (Alpes Maritimes). See Capitaine M. Rivas, Petit manuel du skieur (Briançon, FRA: Paul Vollaire, 1906), n.p.; La Montagne 9, no. 1 (January 1913): 41. “Satzungen des deutschen Skiverbands, 4 November 1905,” in 100 Jahre Deutscher Skiverband, ed. Gerd Falkner (Planegg, Germany: Deutscher Skiverband, 2005), 3:151; [Carl Luther], “Militärischer Skilauf und Herren-Skimeisterschaften,” Soldat der Berge, Truppenschrift (1 February 1961): 4; Wilhelm Paulcke, “Freiwillige Ski-Corps,” Der Winter 6 (December 1911): 86–88; Hans Koenig, “Die Anfänge des Militärskifahrens in der Schweiz,” Allgemeine Schweizerische Militärzeitung (1944): 14; Capitaine Hans Farmer, “Le développement du ski dans l’armée suisse,” Revue du Ski 1 (January 1931): 28; Oreste Zavattari, Gli skj nella guerra d’inverno sulle nostri Alpi (Rome: Enrico Voghera, 1900); Zavattari, “Alpinismo Militare,” Rivista Mensile 21, no. 2

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(February 1902): 40–48; Lieutenant Luciano Roiti, “Delle marce sulla neve,” Esercito Italiano 28 (12 March 1897), immediately translated and published in Le Moniteur Dauphinois 4, no. 119 (20 March 1897); E. John B. Allen, “Avanti!,” Skiing History 27, no. 5 (September– October 2015): 14–17. In 1904 Konstantin Komets remarked that many clubs and schools throughout St. Petersburg had acquired skis for students, including the Prince P. G. Oldenburg Orphanage, the Lesnoi Institute, the Imperial Petersburg Institute of Technology, the St. Petersburg Polytechnic Institute, and the Imperial Military Medicine Academy. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 10. A photo of a ski race at the St. Petersburg Polytechnic Institute appears in Ogonek 7, 13 (26) February 1910. 8. The quote is perhaps a condensed snippet from two poems by Aleksandr Pushkin, Napoleon na El’be (line 7) and Klevetnikam Rossii (line 38). See “A. S. Pushkin/ Sobr.soch.v10tt./T. 1” https://rvb.ru/pushkin/01text/01versus/03juv_misc/1815/0174.htm; “A. S. Pushkin/Sobr.soch.v10tt./T. 2” https://rvb.ru/pushkin/01text/01versus/0423_36/ 1831/0564.htm. Gostev may also have in mind the well-known translation of Alexander Pope’s Eloisa to Abelard by Vasilii A. Zhukovskii, lines 29–32. See “Poslanie Eloizy k Abeliarde” https://rupoem.ru/zhukovskij/v-six-mrachnyx.aspx. 9. The illustrations referred to here are eighty-one movie stills of Eimeleus himself skiing, each measuring 1 x 0.69 inches (25.4 x 17.5 millimeters). For this translation, the page and illustration numbers have been changed. See section XIII, figures 13.3, 13.4, 13.5, 13.6, 13.7, and 13.9; and section XIII, nn. 16, 18, 21, 22, 23, and 24. The free-standing appendix refers to a quadruple foldout sheet attached inside the back of the book containing all of these movie stills. I have reformulated all the images into moving pictures available on-line at “Skis in the Art of War by K. B. E. E. Eimeleus—ski motion pictures 1912,” www.youtube.com/watch?v=iTnDbGoppfk&t=10s. Preface

1. Eimeleus stresses that there was no manual on skiing for the Russian army to use, hence the effort to write his current book. This had already appeared curious to other European nations with organized ski troop units. They wondered—in German, French, and English—why, since skiing was so common in Russia, there were no rules, regulations, or even a common set of training exercises applied consistently across all military districts. Training, such as it was, relied on those officers and enlisted men who simply had some skiing experience. See “Emploi du Ski dans les Armées Étrangères,” Revue Militaire des Armées Étrangères 972 (November 1908): 455–68 (section on Russia, 467–68). This was translated by permission of the minister of war and published as “The Use of the Ski, or Skee, in Foreign Armies,” Royal United Services Institute Journal 53 (1909): 223–29, 370–75 (Russia section, 370–71); “Die Verwendung des Ski in verschiedenen Armeen,” Militärische Presse mit Vedette 42, 1207 (30 March 1910) and 1208 (2 April 1910). 2. Eimeleus is referring to the inevitable experience of real war here, but perhaps he also has in mind annual war games: an especially large military assembly took place near Krasnoe Selo in late July through early August 1913 with Marshal Joseph Joffre of France in attendance. See Ogonek 31 (4 [17] August 1913) and 32 (11 [24] August 1913). See also “Voennaia igra,” in Voennaia entsiklopediia, 6:471–75. 3. Although absent from Eimeleus’s list of Russian sources on skiing, a store brochure self-published in 1903 by I. N. Gal’, a St. Petersburg merchant of sporting goods, incorporated these same arguments and many other similar concepts about the value of skiing covered in Eimeleus’s subsequent chapters. Gal’ recommends that skiing be adopted

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into the military and (taking his cue from Fridtjof Nansen) that “skiing should be the national sport.” I. N. Gal’, Rukovodstvo dlia bega na lyzhakh (St. Petersburg: Izd. Gal’ i Ko., 1903), 4. See also 3–4, 5–11. 4. Aleksandr Pavlovich Mordovin (1873–1938) was head of the MGFS from 1909 to 1914. Mordovin represented Russia at the 1912 Olympics, fencing in all three disciplines. See The Olympic Games of Stockholm 1912 Official Report, 464, 474, 928. Along with Vladimir Sarnavskii (see n. 5 below), Mordovin often served as a judge for fencing competitions—for example, at the 1912 Russian Amateur Championships and competitions at the MGFS. See Novoe vremia, 17 February (1 March) 1912, p. 7, 15 (28) March 1912, p. 7; Gerkules (10 December 1913): 34. After the revolution, Mordovin served as a fencing instructor for the Red Army until his retirement. He was arrested in 1937 by the NKVD (predecessor to the KGB) in 1937 and executed in 1938. See the introduction “The Life and Times of ‘K. B. E. E. Eimeleus,’” n. 33, above; and “Advertisement, Main Gymnastics-Fencing School Press,” n. 2, below. Mordovin’s official portrait appears in Gerkules (25 May 1913): 1. 5. Vladimir Iosifovich Sarnavskii (1875–1938) was adjutant-in-waiting to the official Russian representative to the Olympic Games of 1912, V. N. Sreznevskii. See The Olympic Games of Stockholm 1912 Official Report, 970; Gerkules (10 September 1913): 1. Sarnavskii is featured in a photograph on the deck of the steamship Birma en route to Stockholm with the Russian Olympic team in Ogonek 25 (16 [29] June 1912). After the Olympics, he was named chairman of the National Association of Amateurs in Sport. See Gerkules (25 July 1913): 41. His official portrait appears in Gerkules (10 August [14 August on the cover] 1913): 1, followed by his extensive athletic curriculum vitae on pp. 31–32. See also Gerkules (10 May 1913): 26; Gerkules (25 November 1913): 27; and Gerkules (10 February 1914): 30. Sarnavskii survived the Russian Civil War but fell victim to Stalin’s purges of the 1930s. See “Forum kollektsionerov,” esp. entries #28 and #29, https://forum-antikvariat.ru/ index.php/topic/127984-znak-ob-okonchanii-glavnoj-gimnastichesko-fehto/page-2; “V. I. Sarnavskii,” in Mark Raketa and Valerii Shteinbakh, Fekhtovanie entsiklopediia (Moscow: Chelovek, 2011), 468. 6. See “From the Editor,” n. 1, above. 7. Perhaps Pavel Bezak (dates unknown), an artillery officer. See “Ofitsery RIA,” http://ria1914.info/index.php?title=Высочайшие_приказы,_артиллерия_тяжелая_и_ мортирная. Bezak shared the Second Emperor’s Prize in épée with Olympian G. Sakirich (both ahead of Eimeleus) at the MGFS competitions for 1912–1913. See Novoe vremia, 23 December 1912 (5 January 1913), p. 8, and 28 December 1912 (10 January 1913), p. 8. 8. The first modern book on skiing was Oscar Wergeland’s Skiløbningen, dens historie og krigsanvendelse; nogle bidrag dertil samt til belysning af vore tidligere værnepliktsforhold (Christiania: Schibsted, 1865). This was, in fact, a broadened analysis of his Skiløber-exercite efter nutidens stridsmaade, skytterlag og skoler tilegnet (Kristiansand, Norway: S. A. Steen, 1863). More than twenty years passed before another Norwegian military man, Fredrick K. Lassen, authored Skiløbning og skiløbafdelinger (Kristiania: Norges Forsvarforening-Kristiania, 1888). He was a leading promoter of skiing and sports for children, adults, and military personnel. Erik Collinder, one of the founding members of Ski Club Vidar in Sundsvall in 1893 and its president until 1917, circulated a questionnaire to document the how, why, and where of skiing in Sweden. Viktor Balck—whose moniker “Trumpet of the Fatherland” suggests the importance of skiing and sport in Sweden—published Collinder’s findings in the third of his three-volume set, Illustrerad idrottsbok in 1888. See Emil Collinder, “Skidlöpning,” in Viktor Balck, Illustrerad idrottsbok (Stockholm: C. E. Fritze, 1888), 3:1–34. The earliest source cited by Eimeleus is an 1891 book written by a Finnish forester,

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Hugo Richard Sandberg, Hiihtourheilu Suomessa (Helsinki: Gösta Sundmanin, 1891). In the next three years, at least ten German and Austrian books and pamphlets along with two Norwegian books preceded the 1896 publication of Fritz Huitfeldt’s influential Lærebog i skiløbning (Manual for ski-running), subsequently translated into German as Das Skilaufen in 1907, and reprinted in Norwegian (with pictures) as Skiløbning i text og billeder in 1908. See Fritz Huitfeldt, Lærebog i skiløbning (Kristiania: Haffner & Hille, 1896); Huitfeldt, Das Skilaufen (Berlin: F. Manning, 1907); Huitfeldt, Skiløbning i text og billeder (Kristiania: Jacob Dybwads, 1908). That same year, Anton Fendrich (a German politician who authored Der Alpinist in 1909, Der Skiläufer in 1910, and Schauinsland: Ein Wanderbuch in 1911) and Ernst Schottelius (a pioneering ski mountaineer who made the first ski ascent of the Finsteraarhorn in 1901), both listed as sources by Eimeleus, published their books. See Anton Fendrich, Der Skiläufer: Ein Lehr- und Wanderbuch (Stuttgart: Franck’sche Verlagshandlung, 1910). Ernst Schottelius, Der Schisport (Leipzig: Grethlein, 1908). The French came late to the analysis of skiing. Although Commandant Bernard had published “Étude sur le Ski” in La Montagne 2, no. 3 (20 March 1906): 105–28, he took four years to expand this article into his book, Guide du Skieur. The previous director of the 159th Régiment de la Neige at Briançon, Captain M. Rivas, published Petit manuel du skieur in 1906, which reached a wider audience when parts of it appeared in La Montagne 2, no. 1 (January 1907): 6–28. Sources

1. Nansen, Paa ski over Grønland. Eimeleus (or perhaps the MGFS Press) substitutes the Swedish “ö” for the Norwegian “ø” throughout the text. 2. Leonard Axel Jägerskiöld, Om skidor och skidlöpning (Stockholm: Bonnier, 1899). Books such as Jägerskiöld’s—published in Stockholm—were available for the Swedish-reading sports enthusiasts of Finland. See “Böcker om lekar och idrott,” Ungdomen: organ för ungdomsföreningar och deras sträfvanden 10 (82), 10 October 1903, p. 4; “I Minerva Bokhandel,” Tidskrift för jägare och fiskare 2 (1905): last two pages in “Annonser” after 82. 3. P. Möller, Om skidlöpning (Stockholm: Fritze, 1907). See “Bokvärlden,” Nya Pressen 344, 19 December 1907, p. 4. 4. Eimeleus lists a Swedish version of Sandberg’s book, Den finska skidan i arbetets och idrottens tjänst (Helsinki: Söderström, 1893). An 1893 book review praises Sandberg’s book: “it will certainly be welcomed by anyone who loves skiing.” See “Literatur,” Tidskrift för jägare och fiskare 5 (1893 [1894]), 237. A Helsinki newspaper advertisement just prior to Christmas 1894 promotes Sandberg’s book Den Finksa Skidan (along with Viktor Balck’s Illustrerad Idrottsbok). See “Idrottsliteratur,” Nya Pressen 344, 18 December 1894, p. 7. See also “Sandberg, Hugo Richard,” Suomen Metsänhoitoyhdistyksen Julkaisuja 23 (1 January 1906): 101; “Hugo Rich. Sandberg,” Metsätaloudellinen Aikakauskirja 6 (1 June 1929): 189–90, photo on 189. 5. The National Library of Finland lists the Finnish version: Suomen urheilut: 20:n vuosisadan alkuvosina (Helsinki: Yrjö Weilin, 1907). An extensive book review of volume one appeared in time for Christmas 1904. See “Literatur och konst,” Åbo Underrättelser 342A, 15 December 1904, pp. 3–4. See also “Ivar Wilskman: Idrotten i Finland III: Cykelsport, Hästsport, Vinteridrott,” Tidskrift för jägere och fiskare 4 (1906), 163. Ivar Wilskman (1854–1932) was the editor in chief of Suomen Urheilulehti (Finnish Sports Journal), a publication that emphasized—from its founding in 1898—the “racial degeneration” of

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Finns. See Anssi Halmesvirta, “The Sports of All Sports: Skiing as the National Panacea in Finland at the Turn of the Century,” in The Many Faces of Snow Sports: Ski Congress 2017, ed. Heikki Roiko-Jokela and Piia Pöyhönen (Jyväskylä, Finland: Jyväskylä University Press, 2017), 66. See also “Idrotten i Finland: början af tjugonde seklet. Af Ivar Wilskman,”Frisk Bris 49 (January 1907): 16–17. An encomium on Wilskman’s seventieth birthday stated: “[he’s] a picture of health with his wholesome color and strength as well as his white Bismarck moustache and whimsical stance.” See “Ivar Wilskman sjuttioårig,” Idrottsbladet 8 (25 February 1924): 66. See also “Ivar Wilskman,” Kisakenttä 3 (15 March 1914): 1–2; “Ivar Wilskman 60 år,” Finskt idrottsblad: officiellt organ för Helsingfors gymnastikklubb 6 (27 February 1914): 41–42. 6. Viktor Heikel, Gymnastikens teori enligt V. Heikels föreläsningar, ed. E. Cannelin (Helsinki: Utgifvaren, 1895). The National Library of Finland lists the second edition of his book in Finnish: Voimistelun teoria (Porvoo, Finland: Werner Söderström Osakeyhtiö, 1916), originally published in Swedish.Viktor Heikel (1842–1927) was a prolific writer on the subject of gymnastics. See “Viktor Heikel,” Suomen Urheilulehti 5–6 (1 June 1911): 174– 78 [with photo]; “Viktor Heikel 80-vuotias,” Suomen Urheilulehti 35 (22 August 1922): 561 [with photo]; “Manlighet eller veklighet?,” Nya Pressen 150, 6 June 1891, p. 2; “Ordnandet af gymnastiklärare- och lärarinneutbildningen äfvensom gymnastikundervisningen vid landets läroverk,” Finland 134, 13 June 1892, p. 2; “Hygianten eller hälsopumpen,” Finland 280, 1 December 1892, p. 3. For a lengthy book review of his 1905 volume on the history of gymnastics, see “Literatur och konst,” Helsingfors-Posten 317, 29 November 1905, p. 2. 7. It is interesting to note that in Kisakenttä (Finland’s sports magazine for women), Fendrich’s subsequent book, Der Sport, der Mensch und der Sportsmensch, is still advertised for sale during the war years at Helsinki’s Akateeminen Kirjakauppa. See Kisakenttä 3 (15 March 1915): 63; Kisakenttä 5 (15 May 1915): 119. 8. Voennyi sbornik was a monthly journal published by the Ministry of the Military of the Russian Empire from 1858 to 1917. In 1869 the editorship of Voennyi sbornik was merged with that of another military journal, Russkii invalid, also referenced in Eimeleus’s text. 9. Konstantin Egorovich Komets of St. Petersburg was an indefatigable promoter of skiing in Russia at the turn of the last century. Located at No. 17–19 Zhdanovskaia Street adjacent to Petrovskii Park (by 1904, the address had changed to No. 10; by 1907, to Ofitserskii Pereulok 4), Komets’s shop carried St. Petersburg’s largest inventory of ski accoutrements from the mid-1890s to around early 1914. One of his last advertisements ran in Ogonek 43 (27 October [9 November] 1913). He was a savvy businessman who managed to get press coverage for his skiing and ski-sailing trips in and around St. Petersburg and even for his frequent multi-day trips for the members of St. Petersburg’s “Bogatyr” ski club to Imaru, Finland. See the introduction “Skiing in Europe prior to World War I,” n. 34, above. The caption under a 1911 photograph in which he poses with a group of cyclists refers to him as “the famous skier K. E. Komets.” See “Vokrug sveta na velosiped,” Ogonek 51 (17 [30] December 1911). His first writing on the subject of skiing appeared in Niva, a St. Petersburg journal, in 1896. See “Beg na lyzhakh,” Niva 6 (1896): 134–35. He was the author of Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport (St. Petersburg: [self-published], 1904) and Lyzhnyi, lyzhno-parusnyi i lyzhno-sanochnyi sport (St. Petersburg: Iu. Mansfel’d, 1910). The latter was available in his shop as a special incentive for ski purchasers during the Christmas season of 1910. See “Otchego muzhchiny ne zheniatsia!” Ogonek 49 (1910). Several chapters from these books were reprinted verbatim in Gerkules, a St. Petersburg sports

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journal (see section IV, n. 1; section VII, n. 1; section XIII, n. 11). For the significance of Gerkules from a contemporary perspective, see E. E. Teviashov’s comments in Novoe vremia, 13 (26) January 1913, p. 7. At the National Library of Russia, there is no record of Komets’s book O lyzhakh i lyzhnom sporte, as listed by Eimeleus here; nor is this title included in M. A. Agranovskii’s exhaustive compendium of ski literature published in 1957 (although Agranovskii does list both the 1904 and the 1910 titles mentioned above). See Agranovskii, Bibliograficheskii, 5. Of all the sources listed in this section, it is apparent that Komets’s work had the most profound influence on Eimeleus’s writing. Upheaval all across Europe after the start of World War I may have forced him to abandon his passion for the ski business and change careers. See “Anmälda resande,” Åbo Underrättelser 226, 20 August 1915, p. 5; “Anmälda resande,” Underrättelser 229, 23 August 1915, p. 4. For more on Komets, see Frank, Everyone to Skis!, 28–30, 33–34. 10. Sergei Vladimirovich Borodin, Lyzhnyi sport (St. Petersburg: V. Berezovskii, 1911). 11. This book is not listed in the catalog of the National Library of Russia, nor is it included in Agranovskii’s collection. See Agranovskii, Bibliograficheskii, 5. The author was probably Fedor Evlampievich Ogorodnikov (1867–1939), an 1893 graduate of St. Petersburg’s Academy of the General Staff. He wrote several books on military history, tactics, and training, the most relevant of which is Prakticheskie ukazaniia dlia podgotovki odinochnogo strelka zvena i otdeleniia po polozheniiu o podgotovke pekhoty [Practical guidelines for the training of a detached rifle squad and section according to regulations for preparation of the infantry] (1912). He also served during World War I and, after the revolution, taught at Red Army military academies. 12. Petr Nikolaevich Bokin, Podvizhnyia igry: rukovodtsvo dlia roditelei, vospitatelei, i samikh uchashchikhsia (St. Petersburg: A. F. Marks, 19[?]). See “Advertisement, Main Gymnastics-Fencing School Press,” n. 9, below. Bokin’s Outdoor Games: a handbook for children, teachers and the students themselves was an extremely popular volume, going through at least five editions prior to the 1917 revolution. The copy held by the New York Public Library and referenced in my endnotes is a third edition printed without a publication date. However, an advertisement for back issues of the journal Niva on the last page indicates that this edition must have been published in 1909. More recently, a new version with artwork by Sergei Liubaev won the best illustrations for a nonfiction book award at the seventh All-Russia “Picture Book” contest in 2014. SECTION 1

1. Eimeleus uses the terms “ski-running,” “ski-sport,” and “walking on skis” interchangeably throughout his writing in reference to skiing. This may reflect his upbringing in a Swedish-speaking environment: before the 1930s, Swedish used active forms to describe skiing combined with running (löpning) and walking (gå), hence skidlöpning (ski-running) and gå på skidor (walking on skis). Fabian Rimfors, e-mail correspondence, 25 April 2018. 2. Special hygienic rules were not needed because they were so obvious. From our twenty-first-century perspective, skiing is not considered “hygienic” at all, since the word has acquired a relationship to sanitary conditions. The word first appeared in the late sixteenth century referring to the maintenance of health and it retained that meaning into Eimeleus’s time. However, by then, it had other connotations bound up with the Romantic movement that emulated the natural man uncluttered by civilization, conflated with the

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notion idealized in ancient Greece of a healthy mind in a healthy body or, in the Scandinavian sense, an attachment to the idræt ideal as espoused by Fridtjof Nansen. In addition, by the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, “hygiene” was closely associated—in a pejorative sense—with the analysis of racial deterioration. 3. Heinrich Lahmann (1806–1905) was a German naturopathic physician from Dresden, where he operated the Weißer Hirsch sanatorium. He was the author of Die Reform der Kleidung in which he proposed cotton material rather than wool for his patients. See Lahmann, Die Reform der Kleidung (Stuttgart, Germany: Zimmer, 1903). V. Zeiberlich of Riga regularly placed advertisements for Lahmann’s health food products in Ogonek. See, for example, “Zdorov’e est’ bogatstvo!” Ogonek 18 (1 [14] May 1910); and Ogonek 9 (2 [15] March 1914). Dr. Gustav Jäger (1832–1917) was a scientific polymath, an entomologist specializing in beetles, a practicing medical doctor in Stuttgart, a hygienist, and the founder and promoter of the “Sanitary Wool System” for healthy clothing. When someone of Fridtjof Nansen’s stature (George Bernard Shaw and Oscar Wilde too) enthused about Jäger outfits for winter exploration, the brand grew in popularity. The Sanitary Wool System was included in Jäger’s many books promoting a healthy lifestyle such as Standardized Clothing for Healthy Well-Being (1880) and Dr. Jäger’s Health-Culture (1887). Wool was the secret—not linen. Jäger was introduced to England in 1884 at the London International Health Exhibition, where the undergarments received a gold medal. Jäger advertised heavily in the years prior to World War I, and his various woolen clothes were available from six London shops in 1912. His success spawned branches in Australia in 1890 and Canada in 1904. See Rebecca Houze, Textiles, Fashion, and Design Reform in Austria-Hungary before the First World War (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2015), 193, 194–95, 202; Gustav Jäger, Selections from Essays on Health-Culture and the Sanitary Woolen System (New York, NY: Dr. Jäger’s Sanitary Woolen System Co., 1891). 4. Dominique Larrey, widely regarded as the most respected military doctor in Napoleon’s employment, was the first to analyze frostbite and advocated rubbing snow on affected parts—a remedy he proposed after observing Russians thaw fish. Medical opinions in this regard had not changed since Napoleon: thus, Eimeleus advises Larrey’s exact course of action for frostbite. 5. See advertisement for G. F. Stockmann, Suomen Urheilulehti 4 (May 1908): inside front cover; Ludwig Bloomberg (Liudvig Bliumberg) and V. Rompe, Ogonek 49 (4 [17] December 1910). The Thermos, invented by Sir James Dewar and patented in 1904, was an immediate hit with the public. Sir Ernest Shackleton had used several of them on his Antarctic ventures, proving their potential usefulness for armies operating in cold weather. See Westminster Gazette (16 September 1909). The “Thermifor” hot water bottle was patented in 1903, one of eighty patents secured in Great Britain by a naturalized Croat, Slavoljub Eduard Penkala: it quickly gained worldwide distribution. The Grelka (or kataliticheskaia grelka) described in the footnote and advertised at the back of the book is similar to chemical pocket hand warmers still in use in the twenty-first century. At the turn of the last century, the Russian term “grelka” was associated with a variety of warming devices such as hot water bottles and heating system radiators on ocean-going steamships. See “Kataliticheskaia grelka,” https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Каталитическая_грелка; “Otoplenie voennykh sudov,” in Voennaia entsiklopediia, ed. K. I. Velichko (Petrograd: I. D. Sytin, 1914), 17:225–26. For the grelka’s etymological cognate, gorelki, see section XXVIII, n. 5. Eimeleus’s recommendation of the Thermos and the Grelka indicate that he kept up with

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what was new and useful, eschewing the conservative mind-set of so many European military leaders prior to World War I. 6. See Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 41–43. 7. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 8–10. SECTION 2

1. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 12–13; “Suksien ja hiihtotaidon alkuvaiheita,” Suomen Urheilulehti 23–24 (December 1909): 755–761. 2. “The village leader [kōmarkhēs] wraps sacks around the feet of the horses and beasts of burden.” Xenophon, Anabasis, IV.v.36 The Anabasis of Xenophon, ed. John J. Owen, 11th edition (New York: Leavitt, 1851), 97. This method of wrapping horses’ hooves was used occasionally in the United States during the early days of the California gold rush for mail delivery in addition to service by men on skis. See photo of mailman on skis and mule with sacks around feet in California, undated, but prior to 1900. Courtesy of the California State Library, printed in E. John B. Allen, “Skiing Mailmen of Mountain America: U.S. Winter Postal Service in the Nineteenth Century,” Postal History Journal 90 (February 1992): 14. Describing the inhabitants of the Caucasus mountains, Strabo writes that although the mountains are impassable in the winter, people ascend over ice and snow in summer with “wide, untanned ox hides on their feet, like drums, with spikes underneath.” Strabo, Geographica, bk. 11, ch. 5, in The Geography of Strabo with an English Translation in Eight Volumes, ed. Horace Leonard Jones (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1961), 5:240. Another interesting reference to snow travel in the Caucasus appears in the writing of the Greek historian Arrian (95–175 CE). One of his lost works, the Parthika, dealt with the Roman emperor Trajan’s campaigns on the eastern borders of the empire in Armenia. Lexicographers of the Byzantine Empire preserved excerpts from this history in the Soudas, a dictionary of unusual Greek grammatical forms, words, and proverbs compiled ca 1000 CE. The word lugos (willow reed) in Parthika was of particular interest to these medieval Greek philologists: “Because the crossing seemed impassable, Brutius drew together the natives and ordered them to lead the way, as they were accustomed to go back and forth to each other’s house in wintertime. They fit circles of willow reeds [kuklous ek lugōn] all around their feet and traversed over the packed-down snow without harm, providing the Romans easy passage.” See excerpt from Arrian’s Parthika in Soudas 85, collated by F. A. Lepper in Trajan’s Parthian War (Chicago: Ares Publishers, 1993), 248. 3. Nenets. 4. Evenki. 5. Before Fridtjof Nansen’s groundbreaking book, Paa ski over Grønland, Ultima Thule—the “northernmost north”—was considered the birthplace of skiing, inhabited by “Lapps,” a catch-all phrase used by most western Europeans for the various tribes of northern Scandinavia (currently, Lapp is considered a derogatory term for the Sami). But Nansen, relying on the philological knowledge of his librarian friend Andreas Hansen, traced the start of skiing to the Altai Mountains and followed the etymological trail of the word “ski” and its variations to show that it spread north and northwest, eventually to Scandinavia, and east across Siberia to the Bering Straits. Nansen included a map of this theory in the first edition of his Greenland book: currently, this same map helps illustrate this notion in the display at the Japanese ski museum in Nozawa Onsen. One of the first great Swedish ski historian-anthropologists, Karl Wiklund, professor of Finno-Ugric languages

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at Uppsala University, critiqued Nansen’s views. See Karl Wiklund, “Några tankar om snöskors och skidors upprinnelse,” På Skidor (1926): 2. As a result of Nansen’s profound influence on modern skiing in the twentieth century, Norway has been considered—and promoted—as the “cradle of skiing.” However, in the 1960s, researchers in China discovered some rock art and pronounced—many years later, on 15 December 2006—that Altai was the birthplace of skiing for “ten to twenty thousand years,“ and that 16 January would be celebrated as “the original day of world skiing.” See Zhaojian and Bo, The Original Place of Skiing, 173, 190. Work has continued and a conference took place in 2015, during which there was a concerted effort to get the conferees to sign an agreement that Altai was the birthplace of skiing. The closest that the conferees would come to this was to accept that the “Altay . . . is the world’s most important ancient skiing region.” Zhaojian and Jiashan, Altay, China International Ancient Skiing Cultural Forum Report, 3. The process of dating rock art is extremely difficult and expensive but does provide a scientific framework; and so far, the Chinese have refused to acknowledge the latest research in this field. A recent report on the controversial Chinese rock art by Australian and Chinese experts suggests an age range of between 4,000 and 5,250 years. See Taçon et al., “Naturalistic Animals and Hand Stencils,” 1–13. 6. At the time of Eimeleus’s writing, lyzhi was the only term in common Russian for any device attached to the foot for travel on the surface of snow: thus, the author uses the term to describe skis as well as snowshoes. A precise word for snowshoe (snegostup) did not appear until around the mid-twentieth century. 7. When Westerners ventured into the northern quarters of Lapland, from the seventeenth century on, they returned with remarkably similar tales of Lapp (Sami) expertise on skis. Eimeleus is simply restating conventional wisdom. See Regnard de la Martinière, “The Travels of Monsieur Maupertius and his Associates of the Royal Academy of Sciences made by the Order of the French King to Determine the Figure of the Earth at the Polar Circle,” in A Curious Collection of Travels Selected from the Writers of all Nations (London: Newberry, 1761), 10:136. 8. Eimeleus’s “skrithifinai” (printed in Roman letters sic) refers to “oi Skrithiphinoi” whose feral customs are detailed in The Gothic War of Procopius of Caesarea (500–554). See Procopius, de Bellis, bk. 6, ch. 15, sections 16–22, ed. H. B. (Henry Bronson) Dewing, http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0670%3Abook%3D6%3Achapter%3D15%3Asection%3D16. His “Screrofennae” (printed in Roman letters sic) refers to “Screrefennae” found in The Getica of Jordanes (ca. 550). See “Jordanis de Origine Actibusque Getarum,” http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/iordanes1.html#III. Jordanes is occasionally referred to as Jornandes, thus Eimeleus’s alternative spelling, “Jornand.” 9. Eimeleus has misconstrued the names Paulus Diaconus and Warnefrid the Lombard: both refer to Paul the Deacon (ca. 720–799), the eighth-century author of History of the Lombards. 10. Greek and Latin writers had neither verb nor noun for “ski.” The Norwegian word skrida, variously spelled, meant a piece of wood with a bend in it but also described the noise that wood made on snow while sliding. And that is exactly why the classical writers used terms such as the two Eimeleus includes here: the skrithi and the screr are onomatopoeic terms that mimic the sh-sh-sh of sliding along the snow. So skrithifinai can be literally translated as “sliding Finns”—hence we know they were on skis. Another theory suggests that the linguistic imprecision of Latin-speaking travelers to high latitudes may

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have transmuted the unique and rapid movement of a skier over snow into the image of monopods, employing familiar metaphors from the Greco-Roman tradition to describe what they had seen. Tales of the Sciapodes (monopods who used their enormous feet for shade) had such currency in the ancient world that the Athenian playwright Aristophanes made comic allusions to them without need for explanation in Birds, first performed in Athens in 414 BCE. See Aristophanes, Aves, 1553. As more modern Mediterranean explorers ventured further into terra incognita, the legend of Sciapodes and Himantapodes (literally, “tentacle-feet”) merged with descriptions of other exotic peoples, especially those who lived at high elevation or in northern climates and used apparatus on their feet for snow travel. It is conceivable that these stories grew from Roman travelers’ observations of northern tribes clad in fur and traveling on skis. See Tacitus, Germania 46.6 (where the author designates one of the tribes as “Fenni,” the earliest written identification of the Finns as such), “P. Corneli Taciti De Origine et Situ Germanorum,” http://www.thelatinlibrary. com/tacitus/tac.ger.shtml#46; Pliny the Elder, Natural History, VII.ii.23 (Sciapodas), and V.viii.46 (Himantopodes). This association continued to grow by late antiquity and into the early Middle Ages. See Saint Augustine, De Civitate Dei, XVI.viii.1; Martianus Capella, De Nuptis Philogiae et Mercurii, bk. 6, De Geometria, 674; “Mappa di Hereford” (The Mappa Mundi of Richard of Haldingham at Hereford 1283); Adam of Bremen, History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen, bk. IV, ch. xxv. Obviously, creatures such as Sciapodes or Himantopodes would use a different ambulatory process than a walking biped, hopping or sliding motions being the most logical alternatives. Although there was a common-enough term, salire (meaning “to hop” or “to bound”), as well as serpere (“to crawl”), no precise linguistic equivalents existed with which Latin speakers could describe the motion of skiing, an action unfamiliar to the civilized inhabitants of a Mediterranean empire and their descendants. See Paul the Deacon, History of the Lombards, bk. I.5, Pauli Historia Langobardorum (Hannover: Impensis Bibliopolii Hahniani, 1878; repr., Hannover: Hahnsche Buchhandlung, 1978), 54–55; Johannes Schefferus, [Lapponia] The History of Lapland: Wherein are shewed the Original, Manners, Habits, Marriages, Conjurations, &c. of that People Written by John Sheffer Professor of Law & Rhetorick at Upsal in Sweden at the Theater in Oxon, 1674, 4; Johann Weichard Valvasor, Die Ehre des Herzogthums Crain I. Theil (Laybach-Nürnberg, 1689; repr., Ljubljana, Yugoslavia: ZGP Mladinska Knjiga, 1970), 584. It is not difficult to imagine how ancient and medieval observers might have thought that hirsute barbarians, fur-clad and skating with one leg attached to a large plank (see commentary on the andor in section III, n. 4) had the appearance of monopod phantasmagoria. Perhaps the ancient nomenclature “Sciapodes” is linked linguistically to the modern term “ski.” See William D. Frank, Vse na lyzhi! The Culture of Skiing in Russia and the Development of Soviet Biathlon—1888 to 1991 (dissertation, University of Washington, 2011), 292n87. 11. Skis made by master-fabricator Lyykki, designated lyly (the single long gliding ski), kalhu or sivakka (the shorter pushing ski), and suksi (for either one or the pair) appear throughout Rune Thirteen of the Kalevala, “Finnish Kalevala, Kolmastoista runo,” http:// www.sacred-texts.com/neu/kvfin/13.htm; “Suksien ja hiihtotaidon alkuvaiheita,” Suomen Urheilulehti 23–24 (December 1909): 759–761. On lyly, sivakka, and kalhu, see Eimeleus’s footnote in section III; figure 3.3; section IV: he consistently uses Finnish for these terms within his Russian text. The “Kalevala” is Finland’s national folk tale, collected and edited in 1835 (with subsequent major revisions) by Elias Lönnrot. It has maintained a crucial role in Finnish heritage from the nineteenth century right up to the present. The hero of the saga—the ski-running, elk-chasing Lemminkäinen—was based on a certain Herr Lüdecke,

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a German commercial agent from the Hansa port of Visby on the island of Gotland. See J. M. Crawford, The Kalevala: The Epic Poem of Finland (New York: Columbian, 1891), 1:177; E. P. Magoun, The Kalevala or Poems of the Kaleval District (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963), poem 13; Krohn, “Der Hansakaufmann,” 103–45; Kaarle Krohn, “Kalevalastudien: Lemminkäinen,” in Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia 2 (Helsinki, 1926): 1–99; William A. Wilson, “The Kalevala and Finnish Politics,” in Folklore Nationalism & Politics, ed. Felix J. Oinas (Columbus: Slavica Publishers, 1978), 51–75. 12. That is, Norwegians and Swedes. 13. Eimeleus has evidently confused the illustrations in Olaus Magnus’s Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus with the 1645 edition of Saxo Grammaticus’s thirteenth-century Gesta Danorum produced by Stephanus Johannis Stephanius. Other than the frontispiece, the latter volume has no illustrations at all. See Olaus Magnus, Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus (Rome, 1555), 13, 14, 130, 134, 146, 151, 392, 605, http://runeberg.org/ olmagnus/; Stephanus Johannis, Notae uberiores in historiam danicum Saxonis Grammatici (Sorae: Moltkenius, 1645), https://archive.org/details/notaeuberioresin00step. There were occasional depictions of a skier prior even to those in Magnus, the most notable of which comes from Russia depicting the martyrdom of Saint Gleb in 1015, chronicled in a fifteenth-century manuscript and published in 1907. See N. P. Likhachev, Litsevoe zhitie sviatykh blagoviernykh kniazei russkikh Borisa i Gleba, po rukopisi kontsa XV stolietiia (St. Petersburg: Obshchestvo drevnei pis’mennosti, 1907), https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/ pt?id=njp.32101076187770;view=1up;seq=89. 14. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 13. Although the Norwegian missionary Hans Poulsen Egde had used skis in Greenland in 1722, he doesn’t appear to have used them often and the locals did not follow suit. See Nansen, Paa ski over Grønland, 89–90; Karen Larsen, A History of Norway (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press for the American-Scandinavian Foundation, 1948), 336–37. Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld had sent two of his Sami companions on skis to scout the interior of the island during his 1883 Greenland expedition. They reported that they went some 230 kilometers to see how far the ice extended inland: thus, 460 kilometers for the round-trip in 57 hours with no sleep. Their claim raised skepticism after Nordenskiöld returned home, which forced the organization of a race in the Sami section of Sweden over a 110-kilometer out-and-back course. One of the Sami scouts on Nordenskiöld’s Greenland team, Tuorda placed first by 5 seconds in 21 hours, 22 minutes. This result lent credence to the two Samis’ claim about their foray in Greenland, as well as to the notion that skis were good both for exploration and for racing. See section XXIII, n. 19; H. Grundström, “Den stora skidtävlingen Purkijaur-Kvikkjokk och åter 1884,” På Skidor (1934): 32–52; New York Times, 4 June 1884; David Hedqvist, “Hier begann Schwedens Skigeschichte,” typed manuscript, Jokkmokk, Sweden Museum of Art and Design, 1968; Huntford, Two Planks, 128–30; E. John B. Allen, “The Longest Race 3–4 April 1884,” Journal of the New England Ski Museum 77 (Spring 2010): 32. In Iceland, the centuries-long Norwegian influence on skiing was documented by a priest in the seventeenth century. Although a number of men were singled out as good skiers in the eighteenth century, skiing did not become popular until an Icelander who returned in 1878 from a Norwegian carpentry-study trip piqued the interest of his compatriots at home. About twenty years later, the Norwegian manager of a fishing station presented eighteen pairs of skis to the local school, providing a boon to the development of skiing. The first downhill race in Iceland took place in 1905. See Thorstein Einarsson, “Winter Sport in Iceland,” in Winter Games Warm Traditions, ed. Matti Goksøyr et al.

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(Oslo: ISHPES, 1994), 54–62; Gudmundur frá Mosdal, “Skidor och skidlöpning på Island,” På Skidor (1937): 114–21. Although ancient nomadic tribes from Siberia most likely traversed the Bering Straits carrying snowshoes to North America, skis as we know them today were introduced to the continental United States by Norwegians in 1841. From a midwestern base, they dominated American skiing with their idræt culture until well into the 1920s. American ski clubs had Norwegian names; Norwegian language newspapers included race recaps and results; and five of the six original directors of the North American Ski Association were Norwegian immigrants. As interest increased, ski jumping became the sport’s most popular genre. Communities in the Midwest vied to bring over jumpers who had performed well back home in Norway. As prize money increased, a professional class of jumpers emerged. Cross-country runs—always a staple in Norway—proved to be only a social activity in America and an absolute failure as a form of competition: the first US national cross-country championship drew a field of seven in 1907. Ten years later, there were no entrants at all. See Svein Nilsson, “De skandinaviske Settlementer i Amerika,” Billed-Magasin (1 May 1896): 172; E. John B. Allen, From Skisport to Skiing: One Hundred Years of an American Sport, 1840–1940 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993), 47–74; Allen, “Immigrant Values and New World Mores: On Skis in America 1880 to 1920,” in The Many Faces of Snow Sports: Ski Congress 2017, ed. Heikki Roiko-Jokela and Piia Pöyhönen (Jyväskylä, Finland: University of Jyväskylä Press, 2017), 173–87. 15. An advertisement in Verdens Gang on 2 December 1889 called for fifteen strong men who could ski, aged between twenty and thirty years old, to build a high altitude tunnel for the Transandine Railway. One answering the call was K. J. Johansen who ended up carrying mail over the Andes chain to Portillo in Chile. Other Norwegians came intermittently, but there was no significant development until the founding of the Chilean Ski Club in 1922. See Verdens Gang, 2 December 1889; K. J. Johansen, “Norske skiløbere i Sydamerika” (Vaage Papers, Holmenkollen Skimuseet), 9, 10, 49, 73, 98. In Australia, the gold rush at Kiandra attracted get-rich-quick schemers from around the world. As early as 1861, newspaper reports were documenting the Norwegian use and manufacture of skis. Most commentators agree that Australian skiing began to flourish with the arrival of Borre Winthur from Kristiansand, Norway, in 1901. See Tidning för Idrott (1895), 460; W. Hughes, “Old Kiandra,” Australian Ski Year Book (1931): 53; Monaro Mercury reprinted in Sydney Morning Herald (6 August 1861); Yass Courier (10 August 1861); Braidwood Observer reprinted in Sydney Morning Herald (12 August 1861); letter from W. P. Bourke, Kiandra, 10 March 1894, in Norsk Idrætsblad 13, no. 46 (20 November 1895): 383; Jakob Vaage, Norske ski erobrer verden (Oslo: Gylendal, 1952), 216–17. 16. That is, Freiherr Sigismund von Herberstein, representative of the Habsburg Empire at the Russian imperial court in the first half of the sixteenth century. Von Herberstein’s 1549 account of his two stints as a diplomat in Russia, Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii, was an instant success and published many times. The first English translation was in 1555, then it was republished in 1577, and again in 1600. For two hundred years, the Rerum Moscoviticarum was western Europe’s primary source for information on Russia. 17. Two unexpected results emerged almost instantly from Nansen’s Greenland and North Pole expeditions. The first pushed him onto the international political stage; the second accelerated the development of skiing. His expeditions took place far from public view, but upon his return Nansen was lionized as a hero. When his version of events was published in Paa Ski over Grønland and Farthest North and subsequently, as he

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traveled the world delivering lectures, his hero status was conferred time and again. His readers and lecture attendees were not about to set out on expeditions to Greenland and the North Pole, but Nansen’s exploits inspired them to engage in local weekend jaunts. It is no exaggeration to state that modern skiing began with Nansen. The attractions were many and varied: skiing combined the philosophical excitement of Nietzsche’s Gefahr und Spiel (danger and play) to make a man heroic at the same time as it provided the body politic with a strong youth to perpetuate the nation-state. Men could read into skiing what they wished for in the years prior to 1914, thanks to the intoxication provided by Nansen’s adventures. SECTION 3

1. Eimeleus uses latin letters for “truga” here, then (in all subsequent passages) a Cyrillic transliteration of the term. The word truga (modern Norwegian truge) along with Eimeleus’s description of the device’s use in Armenia and in antiquity by horses must refer to the comparatively rare snowshoe of parallel wooden planks of perhaps fourteen inches length, supported with cross pieces, found in Norway and also, very locally, in northern Spain at Riaño about forty miles northeast of Léon. These barahones are also used by the pasiegos (transhumance herders) in the province of Santander. A second type of truga was made with two parallel two-inch-wide wood ribs, between twelve and fifteen inches long, that were bent and interlaced under two or three slats. These are found throughout Scandinavia, in the Baltic and Balkan countries, near the Pyrenees, in the Alps and the Caucasus Mountains, Japan, Siberia, and North America. The seminal work in English on snowshoes is Otis T. Mason, Primitive Travel and Transportation (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, Government Printing Office, 1896). See also Hans Gadow, In Northern Spain (London: Adam and Black, 1897), 120–21; Daniel Sutherland Davidson, Snowshoes; Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society 6 (1937) (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1937), 48–49; Elling Alsvik, “Trugen,” in På Trønderski, ed. Alf Eggset and Jørn Sandnes (Trondheim, Norway: Tapir, 1988), 25–33. 2. See section II, n. 6. 3. Olaus Magnus (1490–1557) was a member of the clergy (and, as of 1544, Sweden’s archbishop) who wrote during the sixteenth (not the fifteenth) century. Snowshoes used by both horse and human are illustrated in his 1555 edition of An Account Concerning the Northern Peoples. See Olaus Magnus, Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus, 147. 4. Around three hundred ancient ski specimens recovered from bogs are the basis for a whole host of typologies variously dated to the period between 5000 BCE and 1000 CE. The earliest remains were dug up in 1897, and a random piece appears now and again, most recently in Sweden in 2016. Certainly one of the most interesting finds has come from the melting glaciers near Oppland, Norway: the nearly complete remnants of a ski with leather binding, with a probable yet unconfirmed age of around thirteen hundred years. See Lars Pilø et al., “The Chronology of Reindeer Hunting on Norway’s Highest Ice Patches,” Royal Society Open Science (24 January 2018); Ancient Origins (20 October 2014). Today, carbon dating gives a fairly accurate age of the wood of the ski. Finnish and Swedish scholars were at the forefront of early ski research. Karl Wiklund, a professor at Uppsala University, categorized the preserved remains of skis through analysis of design, foot placement, and attachment. Wiklund proposed eastern, western, and southern varieties of skis. The distinguishing characteristic of the eastern ski (also known as Arctic) was the hide

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covering the underside of the ski, a style quite common in Siberia and, as Eimeleus states in this section, still in use during his lifetime (as well as today, in the twenty-first century). The southern ski design was short and broad with the front tip rounded off and curved upward (other skis had both tip and tail bent up). This ski had a concave place for the foot and holes on the raised sides of the ski through which some sort of strap—probably reindeer hide—was threaded to hold the foot in place. The Mänttä sample, dated to ca. 500 CE, has the remains of a binding. This ski enjoyed wide distribution throughout Sweden, Finland, western Norway, the Baltic States, and Russia. There were classification systems other than Wiklund’s: one Finnish scholar put forth a theory based on the decoration of the ski, others on the number of holes required for the foot strap, still others on whether the tail of the ski was cut straight off or rounded, and so on. However, the most intense debates occurred over the origin of the ski reflecting the ardent nationalism of the long nineteenth century: Finland chafed at being a duchy of imperial Russia; Norway was unhappy in its union with Sweden; and the Samis did not seem to conform with any political nationhood. Thus, the classification of skis had a role in creating national traditions just when these states were trying to gain political independence. This played out a century later, during a stop of the torch run for the Lillehammer Olympic Games in 1994. In the Sami village of Mortensnes, locals staged a play showing quite clearly that the ski was a Sami invention that had been stolen by the Norwegians. See Wiklund, “Några tankar,” 1–18; and other articles in På Skidor in 1929, 1931, and 1932. See also Wiklund’s obituary by Carl Nordenson in På Skidor (1935): 404–7; Toivo I. Itkonen, “Finlands fornskidor,” in På Skidor (1937): 71–89; Nülo Valonen, “Varhaisia lappalais-suomalaisia kosketuksia,” Ethnologia Fennica (1980): 21–96; Nils Lid, Skifundet frå Furnes (Oslo: Norges Boklag i Umbod, 1938); Lid, Skifundet frå Øvrebø (Oslo: Brogger, 1932). For an overview in English, see Artur Zettersten, “The Origins of Skiing,” in Skiing: The International Sport, ed. Roland Palmedo (New York: Derrydale Press, 1937), 3–19; and letter from Zettersten to Gründer, Stockholm, 5 November 1939, in Zettersten archive, Svenska Skidmuseet, Umeå, Sweden, where he points to half a dozen name errors; Arne Martin Klausen, “The Torch Relay,” in Olympic Games as Performance and Public Event: The Case of the XVII Winter Olympic Games in Norway, ed. Arne Martin Klausen (New York: Berghahn Books, 1999), 77, 79, 83. 5. See Eimeleus’s descriptions of lyly, kalhu, and sivakka in this section. Pairs of skis of unequal length have a long history; a well-known drawing in the Lapponia of Schefferus clearly shows the difference in the two skis in the seventeenth century. The colored illustrations for a 1765 military manual by an author named Grüner shows two skis of very dissimilar length. See Hjelm, “En hærordning-forendring,” 1–37. In eastern Hedmark, Engerdal, and Trysil as well as in Østerdalen, Norway, skis of unequal length were manufactured up to the late 1930s; and in America, at least one Swedish immigrant community in the state of Maine produced unequal-length skis (although the difference was only a few centimeters) as late as 1926. See Karin Berg, Ski i Norge (Oslo: Aventura, 1993), 117; “When Skis Were a Dollar a Foot,” an interview with Henry Anderson, in Silver Birches published by students from Stockholm and New Sweden, Maine (no date), 15; interviews with Ralph Ostlund and Harold Bondeson, New Sweden, Maine, 29 August 1990, in E. John B. Allen, “‘Skeeing’ in Maine: The Early Years, 1870s to 1920s,” Maine Historical Society Quarterly 30, no. 3–4 (Winter–Spring 1991): 148 (photo), 152. 6. That is, up to 1899. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 35–36: illustration 31 on page 34 shows a skier ascending straight up a slope of around 40 degrees using

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fur-covered skis (“Samoyed skis”) and Norwegian bindings with heel straps. Note that this is a drawing, not a photograph of an actual skier. 7. Eimeleus includes an insert with corrections (zamechaniia) for six pages at the back of his book. The first correction occurs in the following note. See this section, n. 8, below. 8. Correction: lyly and kalhu (or koipi-potku) are Finnish, not Swedish words. Koipi is “foot,” potkia is “to kick.” 9. One arshin is equal to 71.12 centimeters or 28 inches. SECTION 4

1. Eimeleus bases much of his material about types of skis and their construction on Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 13–18. A combination of Komets’s chapters on types of skis (Tipy lyzh) and choosing skis (Vybor lyzh) appears in Gerkules (10 January 1914): 14–16. Gal’ also provides much of this information (with illustrations) in his store brochure. See Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 15–20. There is an extensive section on skis with many illustrations in U. T. Sirelius, Suomen kansanomaista kulttuuria: esineellisen kansatieteen tuloksia (Helsinki: Otava, 1919), 1:366–78. 2. This line was probably meant to be included at the end of the previous section. 3. Thus, the twentieth-century term for “snowshoe” in Russian, snegostup: sneg (snow), stupen’ka (step). 4. Running skis used on flat terrain would have a much different configuration from those used in rugged mountain topography. Scandinavians described and depicted skis in three ways: those related to a geographical area, most notably the Telemark skis from Norway; those produced by a well-known maker, such as the Sahlin skis Eimeleus mentions; and those related to their specific use (one for going into the woods, for example, would be called skogski in Norwegian or skogsskida in Swedish). Other than the parts of skis that have been found in the peat bogs, most skis on view in museums around the world are crafted with care, often patterned on top. In Norway at least, and perhaps elsewhere, people might leave an old pair of skis for the next person who would then leave them at the end of the track. See Berg, Ski i Norge, 12. 5. Salomon Sahlin is the forgotten man (unknown to English speakers) of early Swedish ski production. Although he was a bank accountant (often called a director), he came from a woodworking artisan background and in the 1890s started making skis of various designs: one for the flats; another for use in the woods; and a third, somewhat shorter, version for hilly terrain. Sahlin never applied for a patent nor did he sell his skis himself: his patterns were manufactured by a number of ski makers, most notably the L. A. Jonsson factory of Östersund. In the years before World War I, exhibitions of skis, poles, bindings, boots, rucksacks, and so on were common. For photographs from one of these exhibits, see “Otkrytie Rossiisko-shvedskoi vystavki fizicheskago razvitiia i sporta v Mikhailovskom manezhe, v SPB. 16-go avgusta,” Ogonek 34 (22 August [4 September] 1909). In Sweden one such event was held annually from 1895, and by 1902, Sahlin had attained such acclaim that he was one of two judges (Captain Klingenberg of Norway was the other) for the exhibition in Stockholm. Besides the judging of skis, Sahlin also gave a long and thoughtful address to the exhibitors. In addition, Sahlin had some ideas about skis for the military that he outlined in 1902–1903. Such skis should have three basic characteristics: they should be (1) good in the backcountry under any snow conditions, (2) quick and easy to maneuver, and (3) extremely durable. His proposals appeared just as the Swedish army was considering

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the possibility of defending—or attacking—its western frontier, a mere two years before the crisis of Norway’s independence came to a head. See S. Sahlin, “Militärskidan,” På Skidor (1902–1903): 285–92. Sahlin was important enough to be the official representative of the Central Association for the Propagation of Skiing in Sweden at Club Alpin Français (CAF)’s international meet in February 1909 at Morez in the Jura. He was interviewed, and with “charming courtesy” he praised the general organization and then criticized much of the administrative details of the jump. But it was all understandable since the French were so new to the sport. CAF’s president, Baron Berge, discussed his idea of an international organization (exactly what was also being initiated by the Norwegians) and Sahlin spoke positively of it in his official capacity. See Le Patriote Morézien (6 February 1909): 1. 6. Both the Leksvik and Selbu skis were similar to some Finnish models. Nils Svendaas made his skis in the village of Selbu, about thirty miles west of Trondheim, so he had a ready market for his prize-winning skis. He not only made skis for daily use but changed length and width so they would be good for competition. He was one of the first to realize that this might lead to more sales. See Kristen Mo, “Trekk av skienes historie,” in På Trønderski, 21. 7. Gal’ reports that the Finnish Rifle Battalions used either the Finnish Kajana (see this section, n. 13, below) or Lapland-style “Öfvertorneå” skis exclusively. See Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 17, 18 (illustrations between 18 and 19). The Finnish Life-Guards Rifle Battalion was a military unit of the Imperial Russian Army from 1818 to 1905, based in Helsingfors (Helsinki). As part of Nicholas II’s russification program, an edict of 12 July 1901 abolished the national Finnish military system resulting in the subsequent demobilization of the battalion. See “Finskii l.-gv. 3-i strelkov. b-n,” in General-Leitenant [Genrikh Antonovich] Leer, ed., Entsiklopediia voennykh i morskikh nauk (St. Petersburg: V. Bezobrazov, 1897), 8:113; J. Scott Keltie and I. P. A. Renwick, eds., The Statesman’s Yearbook: Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World for the Year 1905 (London: Macmillan, 1905), 1053; Lundin, “Part Five Finland,” 438–40. A detailed report about the 1891 ski championships held for the Viipuri 8th Finnish Ski Battalion notes that prize money was awarded to the top eleven finishers (20 Finnish markkaa for first down to 5 for seventh, with two ties for fourth and fifth and sixth and seventh). See “Hiihtokilpailu 8:ssa Viipurin pataljoonassa talvella 1891,” Lukemisia Suomen Sotamiehille 2 (1892): 16–24. Another report detailing ski exercises undertaken by the Oulu 4th Battalion in 1897 documents results for a 10 and 20 kilometer race. The top ski times of 35 minutes, 57 seconds and 1 hour, 37 minutes, and 33 seconds (along with the previous year’s winning time of 1 hour, 32 minutes, 12 seconds) compare favorably with the norms proposed by Eimeleus for those distances in section XXX. See “4:nen Oulun pataljoonan suksiharjoituksista ja kilpailuista talvella 1897,” Lukemisia Suomen sotamiehille 2–3 (1897): 78–88. See also “4:nen Oulun pataljoonan viime talvisista urheilukilpailuista,” Lukemisia Suomen sotamiehille 6–7 (1896): 192–97; “Hiihtokilpailu 1:ssä Uudenmaan pataljoonassa Maaliskuun 17 päivä 1897,” Lukemisia Suomen sotamiehille 2–3 (1897): 69–73. 8. By “throughout Russia”, Eimeleus means west of the Ural Mountains, especially in the vicinity of St. Petersburg and Moscow. 9. For an illustration and description of the Norwegian running ski, see Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 14–15. A late-nineteenth century article provides a Finnish perspective on rival Norwegian skis (as well as bindings), see “Norjalaisia mielipiteitä suksista,” Suomen Urheilulehti 1 (February 1899): 52–58. 10. See section III.

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11. The center of gravity is the balance point located in the middle of the ski. 12. Lieutenant Gostev inserts an editor’s footnote to explain the word vygib, but Komets had already used it to describe camber in his 1904 book. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 16–17. 13. Both Wilskman’s Idrotten i Finland and Komets’s Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport are Eimeleus’s sources for comments about Finnish skis in this section. See “Sources,” nn. 5, 9, above. Komets provides an illustration of a “Kajana running ski” and descriptions of two styles. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 13–14. Gal’ also describes the Kajana ski and includes an illustration. See Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 17 (illustrations between 18 and 19). The term Kajana skis refers more accurately to skis made in Puolanko village (today’s Puolanka) about sixty miles east of Oulu. One of the villages in the province of Oulu is Pudasjärvi, about fifty miles northeast of Oulu and forty miles from Puolanka. Muhos is another village nearer Oulu. The skis from these villages remained popular because of their proven quality, even though they were “less suitable for deep snow and dense forest” according to Wilskman (his wording appropriated verbatim by Eimeleus). See Wilskman, Idrotten i Finland, 106–7. Oulu (a large port city at the northeast tip of the Gulf of Bothnia) was a major center for early skiing with a racing tradition going back to 1889 and continuing today with the Tervahiito, a ski marathon held in conjunction with similar Nordic events in Finland, Norway, and Iceland. See H. W. Claudelin, Oulun Hiihto 1889–1938 sekä piirteitä pohjalaisen kansan vaiheista ja kilpaurheilun alkukehityksestä sen keskuudessa (Oulu, Finland: Kustantanut Oulun Hiihtoseura, 1939), 241. 14. Haavapesi, sixty miles south of Oulu, was the home of two of Finland’s bestknown skiers. Aappo Luomajoki at forty-four years old placed first in the initial Oulu marathon of 1889 in 2 hours, 59 minutes, 50 seconds, and Juho Ritola, seventeen, came in second, about three minutes behind him. På Skidor subsequently published a caricature of Ritola, a sure sign of recognition. Men from Haavapesi won the Oulu 30-kilometer race in 1891, 1893, 1894, 1895, and 1897, and Ritola won the 60-kilometer event in 1895 and 1897. See På Skidor (1901–1902): 133; Claudelin, “Liitteitä,” in Oulun hiihto, 5–14. Curiously, Gal’ refers to the Haapavesi ski as “Norwegian.” See Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 18 (illustration between 18 and 19). 15. Kalle Jussila (1869–1949) from Ii (Ijo) not far from Haavapesi was associated with Haavapesi skis with which he competed in the Oulu 30-kilometer race from 1890 to 1908. See På Skidor (1901–1902): 142; Harri Eljanko and Jussi Kirjavainen, Suomen hiihdon historia (Porvoo, Finland: Söderström, 1969), 61. 16. “The normal” could also be translated: “the general purpose”; “the standard”; or “the regular.” However, this is a direct translation of Wilskman’s term normaalisuksi as it appeared in his original 1906 article in Suomen Urheilulehti. See “Normaalisuksi,” Suomen Urheilulehti 2 (March 1906): 127–28. 17. Eimeleus takes this section on the “normal” ski directly from Wilskman, Idrotten i Finland, pp. 108 and 109 in explaining the rationale for continuing to produce what might be called a ski for all snows. He goes on to quote Otto Brandt, proprietor of one of Helsinki’s main ski emporia and competitor to the famous Stockmann store. Both Brandt and Stockmann showed off many skis at the various exhibitions documented by photos in Wilskman. See Wilskman, Idrotten i Finland, 124–25; “Suksinäyttely,”Suomen Urheilulehti 3 (April 1908): 184. The section on the “normal” ski first appeared in an article by Wilskman in Suomen Urheilulehti, who also wrote a prefatory short piece about Otto Brandt himself. See “Otto Brandt,” Suomen Urheilulehti 2 (March 1906): 126–27. Komets writes

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that the manufacture of a “universal type of ski” suitable for all types of weather and terrain is “absolutely impossible,” a notion repeated in the Gerkules reprint of 1914. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 18; Gerkules (10 January 1914): 14. 18. See a similar paragraph in Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 16; and Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 16. 19. For all its fame in the late nineteenth century, Norway’s Telemark ski, often made from local pine, was criticized for its poor tracking. Skis all over the world were made from local woods such as pine and spruce. The wood comprised two parts: the softer “sapwood” and the harder “heartwood” (i.e., closer to the center of the tree). As the ski was used, the soft sapwood strands wore down, exposing the harder and more rigid grains thus enabling the skier to track the ski in a straight line. For skis of hard wood (e.g., oak or maple), some sort of groove was necessary to keep the ski running straight. Eimeleus includes some cross-cut diagrams of popular ski grooves in section VI (see figure 6.2). The New England Ski Museum holds one man’s experimental ski from the 1880s: a thin, round steel rod is attached to the center of the underside of the ski, providing a sort of guiding rail. Once hickory became the wood of choice (first exported from the United States to Norway in 1882), the grooved ski became the norm. Grooves came in all sorts of shapes and sizes; diagrams of skis often pictured perhaps four possible grooves that might be used in the manufacture. California gold-rush miners (who required the straightest running ski possible for their down-mountain speed contests), claimed they had invented a grooving plane, although the Norwegians already had such a tool. See the hand-made ski from the Adirondack Mountains, New York, ca. 1880s, in the New England Ski Museum, Franconia, New Hampshire; plane for grooving skis on display in the Plumas County Museum, Quincy, California; Gotaas, Skimakerne, 61; Berg, Ski i Norge, 47. SECTION 5

1. Eimeleus uses the Russian word for burl (naplyv) in conjunction with the Finnish lylymänty, an aberration in a pine tree (perhaps from a snow load that lasts all winter causing the crown of the tree to bend into a curve). 2. Eimeleus may be referring to degrees of frost, that is, degrees below the freezing point of water. In the Réaumur scale, that point is virtually identical to the Celsius scale: thus, 20 to 25 Ré below freezing is approximately minus 25 to minus 31.25 degrees Celsius. 3. Salix caprea. 4. Fanden kjører på almeski; or: fanden aker på almeski. Norwegian folklorist Thor Gotaas suggests that in the late-nineteenth century, skis made from elm were considered too dangerous because of the speed, their use suicidal on a downhill run. See Knut Nedkvitne and Johannes Gjerdåker, Alm i norsktradisjon og natur (Elverum: Norsk skobrukmuseum, 1995), 128, 129, 132, cited in Gotaas, Skimakerne, 22. In a recent magazine interview, an expert on old Norwegian methods of ski manufacturing stated: “Se på disse skiene i alm . . . I gamle dager sa de at du fikk djevelen bak på skiene når du kjørte med disse . . .” (Look at these skis made of elm . . . In the old days, they used to say that you had the devil behind you when you skied on them). See Arvid A. Gundersen, [interview with Trevor Dowe] Varden, 5 February 2011. 5. See Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 21–24. 6. For Nansen’s Greenland crossing, someone suggested attaching 0.75–inch strips of galvanized steel to both sides of the skis. Cited, without source, in Roland Huntford, Nansen: The Explorer as Hero (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1998), 66. But H. M. Christianson

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covered the underside of Nansen’s skis with a thin sheet of metal, leaving the center section free to layer with skin. Christianson was also involved in laminating skis as early as 1891. See Gotaas, Skimakerne, 34, 37. 7. On the ski industry in Finland, see “Suksiteollisuuden syntymäseuduilta,” Suomen Urheilulehti 6 (November 1904): 517–24. This article includes a photograph of woodworking tools used in the process of manufacturing skis on p. 522; “Lampis-veljesten suksitehdas Porvoossa,” Suomen Urheilulehti 5 (June 1905): 333–36; “Elias Linjan suksipajaan,” Käsiteollisuus 2 (March 1907): 23–24; “Kirje Oulusta,” Suomen Urheilulehti 1 (February 1907): 46–47. SECTION 6

1. Dry steam is superheated steam (peregretyi par) with no saturated vapor as dryness approaches 100 percent. See “Par,” in Arsen’ev and Petruschevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 22A:901. See also “Derevo,” in Arsen’ev and Petruschevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 10:429–54. 2. As the wood gets planed away, the underlying grains are exposed: they curve to the side making the ski tip more fragile. If a woodworker planed these timbers from the top side, the wood grains of the left cut would curve more dramatically to the right just as the wood grains of the right cut would curve more to the left, making each timber more susceptible to breakage at the tip: leaving the grains parallel along the longitudinal plane of the timber makes the ski stronger. 3. That is, you cannot dig the tail of the ski into the snow for extra purchase while ascending. See section XVII. 4. The balance point of the ski. 5. See section IV. 6. In other words, without a groove, the snow underneath the ski is compacted by a vertical plane as the base moves forward. See Eimeleus’s figure 6.2: the cross-cut section of a ski without a groove (б) is a solid plane from base to top: the other examples with grooves (а, в, г, д, е, ж, з, и) or a ridge (к) are not. With a rounded groove milled into the base, there is a 180-degree arc that diffuses the resistance of the snow. 7. Compare the ten ski cross-sections in figure 6.2 with diagrams in “Fermy,” in Arsen’ev and Petruschevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 35A:591–92, figs. 1–10; and “Most,” in Arsen’ev and Petruschevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 20:36, figs. 20–22. See also “Balka,” in Arsen’ev, Novyi entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 4:852–56. 8. One pud is equal to 16.38 kilograms or 36.11 pounds. Therefore, Eimeleus’s medium weight range for a skier is from 145 to 180 pounds (from 66 to 82 kilograms). An imperial Russian foot (fut) is the same as an English foot (30.48 centimeters). One pood is the equivalent of 40 funty: one funt is 0.903 pounds (409.517 grams). Thus, for every 18 pounds below or above the average range (half a pud), add or subtract half a foot of ski length. 9. Eimeleus does not describe a half-run ski. Perhaps this is an all-purpose combination ski for both racing and walking, as in the Norwegian turlangrenn. SECTION 7

1. Eimeleus takes much of the information for this section (including figure 7.2.Б) from Komets’s chapter on ski maintenance (“Ukhod za lyzhami”) in Lyzhnyi i

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lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 26–29, and perhaps from Gal’ as well. See Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 25–26. Komets’s entire chapter is reprinted in Gerkules (25 January 1914): 8–9. Prior to Komets, Gal’ printed figure 7.2.Б in his 1903 book on page 24. See also “Suksien hoitamisesta,” Suomen Urheilulehti 5 (December 1898): 312–16. SECTION 8

1. See section V, n. 1. 2. In a 1904 advertisement for his St. Petersburg shop, Komets presented a wide variety of skis with prices—excluding bindings and other accoutrements—ranging from 2 rubles 40 kopeks (for a women’s Kajana ski-running model) to 6 rubles 40 kopeks (for a men’s Norwegian racing ski). A pair of “Samoyed” skis with reindeer fur on the bases tops the price list at 6 rubles 40 kopeks for the women’s model and 6 rubles 80 kopeks for the men’s. Children’s skis, available in the Kajana ski-running and Norwegian racing styles, range from 1 ruble 60 kopeks to 4 rubles 50 kopeks. See Novoe vremia, 7 (20) November 1904, p. 2. In his store in Helsinki, Oskar Räsänen offered a pair of skis for the low price of 2 Finnish markkaa. See Helsingin Sanomat 296A, 22 December 1908, p. 8. In Pori, O. Seppi promoted a pair of the “much sought after Haapavesi model” for 2 markkaa, 50 penniä. Kansalainen 10, 27 January 1902, p. 4. As a comparison, Aksel Holter of Ashland, Wisconsin priced his “celebrated Ashland ski, none better” in a range from fifty cents to seven US dollars per pair in 1900. See Allen, From Skisport to Skiing, 71. 3. See section VI. SECTION 9

1. For an overview of the state of Russian snow science at the turn of the last century, see “Sneg,” in Arsen’ev and Petruschevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 30A:622–27. 2. From 80 to 100 versts is from 85.35 to 106.68 kilometers. 3. People who live in regions with substantial snowfall by necessity have a variety of nouns for snow in their languages whereas English speakers use descriptive modifiers (for example, falling or fallen snow). One of the most famous examples of this is the debate (ongoing since 1911) over the number of words that Eskimos have for snow. In America in 1905, Theo. [sic] Johnsen wrote in an instructional book that doubled as his catalog that snow could be “downy, fluffy, powdery, sandy, dusty, flowery [sic], crystalline, brittle, gelatinous, salt-like, slithery, and watery.” Theo. A. Johnsen, The Winter Sport of Skeeing (Portland, ME: Theo. Johnsen, 1905), 6–7. See also Laura Martin, “‘Eskimo Words for Snow’: A Case Study in the Genesis and Decay of an Anthropological Example,” American Anthropologist 88, no. 2 (1986): 418–23; Geoffrey Pullum, The Great Eskimo Vocabulary Hoax and Other Irreverent Essays on the Study of Language (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 159–73. 4. Pukhlyi. 5. Rykhlyi. 6. Zernistyi. Granulated snow can refer to hoarfrost, rime, corn snow, or firn. 7. Plotnyi (nast). 8. Tonkii nast (kora). 9. Muchnoi. 10. Vesennii.

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11. Mokryi. For example, sleet (räntä in Finnish), or a rain-snow mix (lumisohjo or loska in Finnish). 12. Fresh snow that falls in the open and can form into snow drifts (kinos in Finnish). 13. Fresh snow that stays unconsolidated (viti in Finnish). 14. Either hoarfrost or rime (huurre in Finnish); or corn snow or firn (ylivuotinen lumi in Finnish). 15. A thin layer of snow over ice (iljanne in Finnish). 16. Also known as breakable crust. 17. A January 2008 post from a Russian meteorological message board defined muchnoi snow as svezhevypavshii pushistyi sneg: freshly fallen, powdery snow with water content of around 1 millimeter at a depth of 1 centimeters. This 1:10 ratio conforms to the average water content of snow in North America. The author of this post provided an alternative descriptive adjective, metel’nyi: typical of snow associated with blizzard conditions—that is, wind-driven snow. He or she suggested further that it falls from a combination of altostratus and nimbostratus clouds. So muchnoi snow would be a very dry, very fine-grained powder with water content evaporated and ground to the consistency of flour by the velocity of the blizzard. See “Arkhiv: kak izmerit’ sneg?,” https://web.archive.org/web/20180304041047/ http://meteoclub.ru/index.php?action=vthread&forum=9&topic=31; L. L. Trube, “The Various Russian Words for Snowstorm,” in Soviet Geography 19, no. 8 (1978): 572–75. 18. The alternation of thawing and freezing is the melt-freeze cycle that produces corn snow. 19. A frost of 5 degrees Ré refers to five degrees below the point of freezing on the Réaumur scale. Put another way: -5 degrees Ré, or approximately -6.25 degrees Celsius or 20.75 degrees F. As moist snow fluctuates between this lower temperature range and the freezing point, ski bases can ice up. 20. That is, a stiff-cambered, lightweight racing ski. 21. The term Khario here is probably Karhu (bear in Finnish), although the current Karhu brand was founded in 1916, four years after the publication of Eimeleus’s book. In the seventeenth century, Tornæus and Schefferus described the necessity of waxing skis under certain conditions and a Norwegian oberstløtnant wrote a pamphlet on waxing that was published in 1761. See Johannis Tornæus, “Berättelse om Lapmarckerna och Deras Tillstånde,” Svenska Landsmålen 17, no. 3 (1900): 1–64; Schefferus, Lapponia; Hals, Om skismøring. Thus, ski wax was not unknown, usually in a mixture of pine pitch and resin. Another type of application—tallowing, or dripping wax from candles—was common as were experiments with disparate substances such as herring and pickled pork, rubber from old bicycle tires, bacon rind, calf ’s blood, tar, salt, and green soap. See Olav Bø, Skiing throughout History, trans. W. Edson Richmond (Oslo: Den Norske Samlaget, 1993), 87–88; Laurentius Urdahl, Haandbog i skiløbning (Kristiania: Hjalmar Bigler, 1893; repr. Oslo: Aschehoug, 1993), 76. The experimental nature of individual wax concoctions gave way to more sophisticated waxes, such as Blixten, a mixture in various quantities of beeswax, spermaceti, graphite, bergamot oil (from the pear family), talcum, and vaselin. It proved to be an excellent agent to prevent the adherence of sticky snow. See Jakob Vaage, “Skismøring gjennom tidene,” Snø og Ski (1963): 25. Skiolin was also available: it was made by Otto Klingele of Freiburg and distributed in France by Manufrance of St. Étienne. See advertisement in Ski-Chronik 5 (1913): 47; M. Achard, Histoire du ski et des sports d’hiver dans le massif du Pilat (Loire-Forez) de 1892 à nos jours (Le Bessat, France: Achard, 1989), 114. Eimeleus’s Berolin must be Bercolin, also known as Berco, sold in tubes and probably

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manufactured in Switzerland by Och Frères of Geneva, already a major player in providing ski equipment and clothing for the Swiss market. The journal Alpiner Wintersport advised that just a little could be rubbed on the bottoms of skis even if they were wet. See advertisement in L’Echo des Alpes 41, no. 1 (January 1905): inside front cover; Alpiner Wintersport 2, no. 10 (20 January 1905): 136. 22. That is, from 53.34 to 106.68 kilometers. 23. That is, from 2.13 to 3.2 kilometers. 24. That is, 5.33 kilometers. SECTION 10

1. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 22–23; Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 12–13. 2. See section XIX. 3. Komets recommends two poles because using them increases the skier’s speed and provides both arms with an equal amount of exercise. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 23. 4. Tawed leather is pigskin or goatskin treated with alum and salt producing a pliable white leather. 5. See section XIII. SECTION 11

1. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 19–22; Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 29–36. 2. Bollnäs is a town about three hundred kilometers north of Stockholm; a ski club was established there in 1895. According to Möller: “the Bollnäs and Military bindings are worth mentioning because they can both be put on and taken off quickly.” See Möller, Om skidlöpning, 7. 3. “[The Skoglund binding] requires a metal stud above the heel, however it is very popular among racers.” See Möller, Om skidlöpning, 7, fig. 3. Pictures of the Skoglund binding show a leather strap that may have had some metal reinforcements. 4. In 1914 one ruble (containing one hundred kopeks) was worth fifty US cents. 5. Fritz Huitfeldt (1851–1938) was one of the most important early Norwegian authors on the subject of skiing. His Lærebog i skiløbning was published in Kristiania by Haffner and Hille in 1896 and translated eleven years later into German as Das Skilaufen, published in Berlin by F. Manning in 1907. His Skiløbning i text og billeder was published in Kristiania by Jakob Dybward in 1908. He was one of the first to use photos to enhance his descriptions. 6. The Balata binding was patented in 1903 by Josef Jakober of Glarus, Switzerland. The binding featured a semi-shoe with sole fixed on the ski at the toe leaving the heel placement free. See “Ski Manufacturers,” www.swissskimuseum.com. 7. The Ellefsen binding was a serious competitor to the popular Huitfeldt binding. The toe was firmly held in place with heel placement that minimized lateral movement. As Eimeleus points out, it was widely used. See Lorillard Tillotson, “Skiing for Everybody,” Outing 61 (October 1912–March 1913): 492. 8. The “Sigurd” system refers to the tension device used for tightening the strap around the heel on the Ellefsen binding. Perhaps Eimeleus found this (with the diagram showing Bernard’s improvement) in Commandant Bernard’s Guide du Skieur, 115–16. Originally, Sigurd Høyer Ellefsen, who had already patented a binding in 1890, found

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inspiration from his wife: as she opened a glass bottle with a top held tight by a lever system, she asked, “Can’t such a thing be used as a tightener?” This idea was translated into a ski-binding tension clamp for the strap going around the heel. Jakob Vaage, “Skibindingene gjennom 4000 år (II),” Snø og Ski (1968): 44. Roald Amundsen chose the Huitfeldt binding with modifications adapted from the Sigurd system for his ski expedition to the South Pole in 1911–1912. See Huntford, The Last Place on Earth, 246–47. 9. Konstantin Komets. 10. In an advertisement from 1904, Komets offers his “patented ski blades” for sale at his store in St. Petersburg, two rubles for the set, in addition to his “patented ski sail” and “patented ski boots.” At the close of 1911, Komets still promotes his blades: “The best Christmas gift! Don’t ski without [them] . . .” Ogonek 50 (10 [23] December 1911). See also Novoe vremia, 7 (20) November 1904, p. 2. For Eimeleus’s quotation, see Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 22. 11. Probably Oskar Räsänen from Helsingfors (Helsinki). See “Neljännesvuosisataa hiihtäjänä,” Suomen Urheilulehti 8 (24 February 1921): 91–92; “Hiihtäjäveteraani Oskari Räsästä haastattelemassa,” Suomen Urheilulehti 5 (30 January 1922): 67. There is a photo of him as a member of the Finnish team for the Nordic Games of 1901 in På Skidor. See På Skidor (1901–1902): 143, 291; Eljanko and Kirjavainen, Suomen hiihdon historia, 59. In the 30 kilometer race at the Nordic Games, he came in third by fifteen minutes behind the winner, Kalle Jussila. See “Kansainvälinen hiihtokilpailu Tukholmassa,” Wuoksi 21, 19 February 1901, p. 3; “Hiihtokilpailut,” Oulun Limoituslehti 21, 20 Feberuary 1901, p. 3. At the Helsinki championships of 1902, he came in second to Emil Toumpo in a 30-kilometer race. See “Hiihtokilpailu,” Työmies 57, 10 March 1902, p. 1. Räsänen was a purveyor of skis and accoutrements from his store in Helsinki at various locations over the years along Annankatu and Kasarminkatu, offering ski wax, repairs, and “bargain prices on skis and poles.” See Uusi Suometar 57, 9 March 1904, p. 7; also Uusi Suometar 298, 21 December 1901, p. 8; Uusi Suometar 23, 29 January 1902, p. 8; Uusi Suometar 24, 30 January 1902, p. 8; Uusi Suometar 33, 10 February 1904, p. 7; Uusi Suometar 35, 12 February 1904, p. 7; Uusi Suometar 293, 18 December 1909, p. 7; Helsingin Sanomat 296A, 22 December 1908, p. 8. However, in a 1910 advertisement placed in Helsinki’s Russian language newspaper, Räsänen’s name is spelled “Riasianen” rather than Eimeleus’s “Resenen.” See Finliandskaia gazeta 192, 2 January 1910, p. 4. 12. In July 1916, Eimeleus received a patent for his invention in Finland, listed as “footwear in the form of the tip of a ski boot.” See Registertidning för firmor, patent och varumärken i Finland, no. 640 (1917): 2-3; Registertidning för firmor, patent och varumärken i Finland, no. 638 (1917): 40; and Registertidning för firmor, patent och varumärken i Finland, no. 639 (1917): 40. Golovka is a shoemaker’s term for the front part of a boot from ankle to toe (the vamp). See “Sapozhnoe masterstvo.I.,1” in Arsen’ev and Petruschevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 28A:380–81. 13. A vershok is an old imperial measurement equivalent to 1.75 inches. 14. Komets advertised his “patented rubber soles” in Ogonek 49 (3 [16] December 1911). 15. See “Lyzhnyi sport” Gerkules (8 March 1915): 6. The article includes four illustrations that show how the simple binding attaches to the ski. 16. An interesting article in På Skidor details the results of a military ski competition held on 7 March 1913. Within are listed the names and split times of all competitors, what type of headgear and gloves each wore, and what type of skis, boots, and bindings were used. Out of a total of ninety competitors, twenty-one were using Sahlin skis, twelve were on “Johnsson” skis (L. A. Jonsson manufactured a variation of Sahlin’s model), eleven on

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Boströms, and ten on Haapavesi (see section IV). Skoglund bindings were the choice for thirty-one of the competitors, Huitfeldt bindings accounted for thirteen, and the simple Lapp (Sami) binding was used by seventeen competitors (in addition to many other types of boot-binding combinations). See På Skidor (1912–1913): 204–7. SECTION 12

1. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 24–26. 2. Potrianka (footwrap) is a square-cut piece of fabric used to wrap up the foot inside a boot. 3. That is, for insulation. 4. “Short trousers to the knee”: that is, knee-length riding breeches or plus-four knickers. See advertisements by tailors Bialystok Export, A. Kivman, and M. Bernstein for “briuki reituzy” in Ogonek 38 (17 [30] September 1911); Gazeta-Kopeika, 18 (31) May 1912: 4. 5. Eimeleus uses two words that today often signify the same item of clothing: briuki and shtany—the former generally associated with trousers, the latter with more casual athletic pants. At the turn of the last century, shtany signified riding pants cut much narrower than briuki, especially those that were part of a military uniform. See “Sharovary,” in Arsen’ev and Petruschevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 39:184; “Forma obmundirovaniia voisk,” in Arsen’ev and Petruschevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 36:275–81; “Kostium,” in Arsen’ev and Petrushevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 16:416, and plate “Kostiumy. I,” figs. 18 and 20, between pp. 416 and 417; Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 25; Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 28; Nikolai M. Vasil’ev, “Porazhenie, ravnoe pobede,” in Rasskazy starykh sportsmenov, 69, 67 (photo). Tricot is a woolen material made from thin carded yarn. The fabric sometimes had silk fibers incorporated into the weave. It was the material of choice for dark-colored men’s wear, such as dress trousers and military frock coats. See “Triko,” in Arsen’ev and Petrushevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 33A:826–27; “Sherstianyia tkani,” 39A:527–28. During the time period around Eimeleus’s stint at the MGFS, the tailors of Lodz were promoting wool tricot frequently in the advertising sections of Ogonek. See this section, n. 7, below. 6. See section I, n. 3. 7. Fabric associated with Faudel, Phillips & Sons, later known as Faudel’s Ltd. of London, wholesale merchants of woolens and textiles at the turn of the last century: “A capital wool for a sports’ coat is Faudel’s peacock double-knitting wool.” Flora Klickmann, The Home Art Book of Fancy Stitchery (London: The Girl’s Own Paper and Woman’s Magazine, 1913), 80. See also The Shopkeeper’s Guide (London: Houlston and Stoneman, 1853), 211; W. G. Paulson Townsend and Louisa Frances Pesel, Embroidery: Or, The Craft of the Needle (London: Truslove and Hanson, 1907), advertising section page 5 after 308. Many of the tailors of Lodz—such as Mark Bernstein, A. Kivman, M. A. Babushkin, Lodz Export, and Malkin and Sons, as well as Bialystok Export—specifically advertised “English wool tricot.” For examples, see advertising sections in Ogonek 6 (6 [19] February 1910); Ogonek 8 (20 February [5 March] 1910); Ogonek 9 (27 February [12 March] 1910); and Ogonek 39 (24 September [7 October] 1911). 8. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 24. 9. Komets promoted the Irish “Lucky” [sic] jacket: “a double-breasted camel’s-hair velour or cloth jacket with a woolen, quilted, or fur lining, and a turn-down collar.” See

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Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 24, 48, and illustrations on 26, 48; also Novoe vremia, 7 (20) November 1904, p. 2. In a 1913 photograph, Komets stands on skis with one of his ski sails wearing a double-breasted “Lucky” jacket and a “Dr. Nansen” hat (see this section, n. 12, below). See Tam’iana Andreeva and Marina Guseva, Sport nashikh dedov: Stranitsy istorii rossiiskogo sporta v fotografiiakh kontsa XIX—nachala XX veka (St. Petersburg: Liki Rossii, 2002), 176. 10. See “Odezhda i odezhnyia tkani,” in Arsen’ev and Petrushevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 21A:715–24. 11. Eimeleus writes “sweater” verbatim (with Latin letters) here. 12. The Nansen hat—named after the era’s most renowned skier—was devised by Konstantin Komets in the aftermath of Fridtjof Nansen’s famous return from his North Pole expedition in 1896. Komets promoted it continuously in his St. Petersburg advertisements for ski paraphernalia. See Niva 42 (1896): 1057; Niva 45 (1896): 1128; Niva 50 (1896): 1250z; Novoe vremia, 9 (21) November 1896, p. 1; Novoe vremia, 30 November (12 December) 1896, p. 1; Novoe vremia, 25 November (7 December) 1897, p. 1; Novoe vremia, 27 November (9 December) 1897, p. 1; Novoe vremia, 7 (20) November 1904, p. 2. The hat—available in a variety of styles (with kangaroo skin trim for 6, 7, or 8 rubles)— is described in detail with five illustrations in Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 25–26, 48–49. 13. Eimeleus is making a distinction between goggles (“gogles” in Latin letters here) with lenses used for driving an automobile and Inuit-style snow goggles: solid eyeshields with narrow slits that restrict the amount of sunlight reaching the eyes. See Mogens Norn, “Eskimo Snow-Goggles in Danish and Greenlandic Museums, Their Protective and Optical Properties,” Meddelelser om Grønland, Man and Society 20 (1996): 3–29. His description of Inuit-style goggles is different from the “smoke-colored glasses” of the Norwegian army listed at the end of this section. 14. By 1862 Russian imperial troops had adopted the woolen bashlyk hood worn by mountain dwellers in the Caucasus and other Turkic peoples, a direct result of the Russo-Circassian wars from 1763 to 1864. See “Bashlyk,” in Andreevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 3:240; “Mundirnyia veshchi,” in Arsen’ev and Petrushevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 20:180. Komets remarks that the fold-down flaps on his Dr. Nansen hat replace “the fur collar, scarf, and bashlyk.” See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 25, 48. Eimeleus uses two words for the military jacket: kitel’ and shinel’. The kitel’ was a tunic, lighter in weight than the shinel’, a winter overcoat, or greatcoat. See “Kitel’,” in Voennaia entsiklopediia, ed. K. I. Velichko (St. Petersburg: I. D. Sytin, 1913), 20:568–69; “Forma obmundirovaniia voisk,” in Arsen’ev and Petrushevskii, 278–79. 15. Possibly Fedor Ogorodnikov. See “Sources,” n. 11, above. SECTION 13

1. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 30–31. 2. In this context, the term “skis” refers to snowshoes. 3. Paul the Deacon, Pauli Historia Langobardorum, bk. 1, sec. 5: “[Scritobini] saltibus enim utentes, arte quadam ligno incurvo ad arcus similitudinem feras adsecuntur.” See section II, nn. 8, 9, and 10. 4. It is unclear what events Eimeleus had in mind here although it is possible he is referring to the Oulu long-distance races dominated by Aappo Luomajoki and Juho Ritola

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(both from the north-central town of Haapavesi, Finland) between 1889 and 1895. See section IV, n. 14; section XXIII, nn. 21, 23, 27. The concept of bounding on skis is explained further in section XIII where Eimeleus writes: “the push with the foot is made gently, smoothly, and without jerking—a slight kind of bounding” in conjunction with a body-weight transfer that augments an extended glide on the opposite ski. A contemporary account of Luomajoki’s race in 1890 indicates that he “put on a display for the spectators of how to ski, gliding on slick, well-waxed skis the entire way.” See “Kilpahiihto,” Kaiku 30, 15 March 1890, p. 3. In 1891, a local newspaper reported that the ski technique of both Lumajoki and Ritola in the race that year was “calm . . . graceful and uniform,” a description in accord with that of Eimeleus. “Yleinen Suomen suksimiesten kilpailu,” Louhi 29, 11 March 1891, p. 2. 5. For the history of skis, see section II. 6. That is, in comparison to ski techniques that use only one foot for striding (see “asymmetrical walking” in subsection 2, “asymmetrical running” in subsection 4, and “basic two cadence on the same foot” in subsection 8, below). 7. One verst is the equivalent of 0.66 miles or 1.07 kilometers. 8. Eimeleus uses the Latin term “volens-nolens” here, literally “willing-unwilling” (more commonly in English texts written nolens-volens). 9. See section XVII. 10. For Finnish boots, see section XI, figures 11.1, 11.11, and 11.12. 11. Huitfeldt, Skiløbning i text og billeder, 19. 12. See Komets, “Lyzhi,” Gerkules, 5 November 1914, pp. 15–16, an excerpt from Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 30–31. 13. See Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 12. Gal’ suggests that “the feet should never move out to the side as in ice skating.” It is worth noting that an American, Bill Koch, revolutionized Nordic ski racing by employing just such skating techniques beginning in the early 1980s. Koch had seen Finnish marathon skier Pauli Siitonen using a single-ski skate technique on long, flat ultra-distance races (Siitonen kept one ski gliding in the parallel tracks with the other set at an angle to push off from the side). The American improved upon this method by using both skis to skate the flats and uphills, winning the overall Nordic World Cup title in 1982. Ski-skating is now the predominant free-style method favored by cross-country racers worldwide. 14. Currently, many of the world’s best cross-country ski racers use this “double-pole” technique exclusively (just as Lieutenant Gostev suggests in his footnote), especially in long-distance “classic-style” marathon competitions. See “Double Poling into the Future,” https://www.visma.com/blog/double-poling-future/. 15. That is, just forward of the line made by the hands and feet aligned along a plane perpendicular to the direction of travel. See illustrations 2 and 3 in “Finnskii beg,” Gerkules (24 December 1914): 9–10. 16. Literally, “three-bound,” or “three-hop” (troeskok). I have chosen “cadence” to replace the bound or hop in this subtitle as well as in each of the subsequent subtitles in subsections 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12. 17. “Basic three-cadence (two strides without poles).” This is a series of fifteen sequential movie stills at the back of the original book. Using these stills, I have recreated the moving picture as a video “Skis in the Art of War by K. B. E. E. Eimeleus—ski motion pictures 1912,” 0:14–1:48, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iTnDbGoppfk&t=10s. I discovered that Eimeleus himself had rearranged the sequence of stills in figure 13.3 using the same pen with which he inscribed a note to his cousin in the copy located at the California Ski Library: I have therefore followed this amended sequence in the video (original sequence numbers in brackets).

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18. See “Running using both arms” in subsection 6 above. 19. “Basic two-cadence on the same foot.” This is a series of ten sequential movie stills at the back of the original book. Using these stills, I have recreated the moving picture as a video “Skis in the Art of War by K. B. E. E. Eimeleus—ski motion pictures 1912,” 1:49–2:56, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iTnDbGoppfk&t=10s. 20. See section III. 21. See G. H. von Langsdorff, Bemerkungen auf einer Reise um die Welt in den Jahren 1803 bis 1807 (Frankfurt am Main: Friedrich Wilmans, 1812), 2:292: “I have been assured that some who have a particular knack at walking [on skis], will clear as much ground at one step as with their ordinary shoes at five, that is to say, they will step fifteen meters.” See also “Xin Tang Shue,” compiled by Ouyang Xiu and others in the Song dynasty (960–1279), cited in Liu Qilu and Liu Yueye, “Sports on Ice and Snow in Ancient China,” in Winter Games Warm Traditions, 71: “The Tujue . . . with boards bound under feet, were supported by curved sticks and reached nearly 100 meters quickly in one step.” 22. “Basic two-cadence with alternating feet.” This is a series of eleven sequential movie stills at the back of the original book. Using these stills, I have recreated the moving picture as a video “Skis in the Art of War by K. B. E. E. Eimeleus—ski motion pictures 1912,” 2:57–4:08, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iTnDbGoppfk&t=10s. 23. “Compound three-cadence (three steps aided by poles).” This is a series of thirteen sequential movie stills at the back of the original book. Using these stills, I have recreated the moving picture as a video “Skis in the Art of War by K. B. E. E. Eimeleus—ski motion pictures 1912,” 4:09–5:29, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iTnDbGoppfk&t=10s. 24. “Two-cadence with a crossover of right (or left) hand.” This is a series of twenty sequential movie stills at the back of the original book. Using these stills, I have recreated the moving picture as a video “Skis in the Art of War by K. B. E. E. Eimeleus—ski motion pictures 1912,” 5:30–7:26, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iTnDbGoppfk&t=10s. 25. “Four-cadence (left or right).” This is a series of seventeen sequential movie stills at the back of the original book. Using these stills, I have recreated the moving picture as a video “Skis in the Art of War by K. B. E. E. Eimeleus—ski motion pictures 1912,” 7:27–9:06, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iTnDbGoppfk&t=10s. 26. See Gerkules (30 March 1915): 1–2; and Gerkules (22 September 1915): 1–2. SECTION 14

1. Often referred to as skijoring, probably from the Norwegian skikjøring or snørekøyring. 2. See photographs “Poro talutetaan lähtöpaikalle,” and “Porot kokoontuvat jäälle,” Suomen Urheilulehti 3 (April 1908): 183; “Suksilla ajoa,” Suomen Urheilulehti 6 (April 1910): 161; “Kuva 7. Suksilla ajo,” Helsingin Kaiku 49–50 (10 December 1904): 349. 3. The breast collar is a wide strap placed around the horse’s chest (used instead of a full shoulder collar for pulling light loads); the breech band is a large strap that goes around the hindquarters of the horse and along its sides; a back pad is a small saddle that acts as a central anchor for the entire harness assembly; traces are straps connected directly to the yoke transmitting the horse’s push against the yoke into the pull that propels the skier. See “Sbruia dlia loshadei,” Sait o loshadiakh, http://kohuku.ru/ verhovaya-ezda/amuniciya-i-ekipirovka/4670-sbruya.html; “Glossary of harness parts and related terms,” Equine Heritage Museum, http://www.equineheritagemuseum.com/ additional-information/a-glossary-of-harness-parts-related-terms.

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horse.

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4. The crupper secures the saddle (or in this case, the back pad) from the rear of the

5. See also Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 46; “Lyzhnyi sport,” Gerkules (8 March 1915): 7. Both include illustrations showing the arrangement of yoke, reins, and traces. 6. From 6 to 7 arshiny equals from 14–16 feet or 4–5 meters. 7. See sections XX and XIX for ski plow and pole brake respectively. 8. Eimeleus was a veteran of the Boer War; at the time of the Russo-Japanese War, he was residing in the United States. See the introduction “The Life and Times of ‘K. B. E. E. Eimeleus.’” 9. From 8 to 10 versts per hour equals from 8.5 to 10.7 kilometers per hour. 10. An infantry regiment was made up of four battalions; a cavalry regiment was made up of from four to six squadrons. Each squadron had 140–150 horses. Thus, onesixth of a cavalry regiment could transfer one-fourth of an infantry regiment. See “Polk,” in Arsen’ev and Petrushevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 24:345; “Kavaleriia,” in Arsen’ev, Novyi entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 20:261. 11. The term “forage cord” refers to the rope used to tie a horse’s forage bags (containing rations of oats and hay) to the saddle. 12. In each battalion of an infantry regiment there were four companies. Thus, according to Eimeleus, there were only enough skis for about one-sixteenth of the regiment. 13. See Gal’, Rukovodstvo, photograph between pp. 32 and 33; “Suksilla ajoa,” Suomen Urheilulehti 4 (January 1909):148. SECTION 15

1. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 55–66. 2. An illustration in Komets’s book (“Ski-sailors’ overnight accomodations at forest edge”) suggests that a ski sail can be transformed into a useful bivouac shelter. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 62. 3. Borodin, Lyzhnyi sport. See “Sources,” n. 10, above. Komets, however, was the expert: he wrote the book, sold the accoutrements, and led ski sailing excursions across the Gulf of Finland and other suitable areas around St. Petersburg. See “Snezhno-buernyi sport,” Sanktpeterburgskiia vedomosti 12 (25) December 1907, pp. 3–4; Frank, Everyone to Skis!, 29–30. 4. Bamboo poles 14–17 feet, or 4–5 meters. Ten funty is about 9 pounds, or 4.1 kilograms. 5. Five pudy is about 180 pounds, or 82 kilograms. 6. See “Assembly and Tightening of the Sail,” in Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 60–61. 7. “A turn in place”—that is, a kick-turn. See section XVI. 8. Others included especially Konstantin Komets. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 57–58; and section XI. 9. Ski sailing (with two illustrations of sail construction) is featured in “Lyzhnyi sport,” Gerkules (29 January 1915): 19. SECTION 16

1. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 31–32. 2. This method (with illustrations) is also described in Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 31–32; “Lyzhi,” Gerkules (10 December 1913): 20–22; “Lyzhnyi sport,”

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Gerkules (24 December 1914): 10; and Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 14. Otherwise known as a kickturn, or lappkast in Swedish, lappalaiskäännös in Finnish (lapp referring to the Sami, kast for turn or throw). SECTION 17

1. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 34–36. 2. See section XIII, subsection 8. 3. See section XVI. 4. Eimeleus also uses the term “plow” for the “scissors” climb in section XXIV (individual training [4]); and section XXVI (9th session). This method is more commonly known as the herringbone. 5. See section III, n. 5. 6. Descriptions (with illustration) of both the “scissors” and “staircase” climbs appear in “Lyzhnyi sport,” Gerkules (8 December 1914): 14–15. See also Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 13. SECTION 18

1. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 33–36; “Lyzhnyi sport,” Gerkules (8 December 1914): 15; and Gerkules (24 December 1914): 10–12. SECTION 19

1. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 35–36 and illustrations on 23 and 33. 2. In the 1890s there were a great variety of poles, many home-made. Gunnerus Schou, a Norwegian gunsmith who became a well-known ski manufacturer, made poles that could fit together. In 1906 the Swiss recommended using double poles “that can be put together to form a single pole.” The French, both civilian and military, found the double pole of great use. In the United States, Theo. Johnsen advertised “special lock-up push sticks”: a locking device enabled the poles to be used together or taken apart and used as a pair. See photo illustrations in Karin Berg, Fra første stavtak (Oslo: Kagge Forlag, 2015), 26–27; Les Sports d’hiver en Suisse: annuaire de la Suisse hivernal I (1906–1907) (Neuchâtel: Attinger, 1907): 86; Bernard, Guide du Skieur, 27; Durban Hansen, “Quelques notes,” La Montagne 4, no. 10 (20 October 1908): 401; Johnsen, The Winter Sport of Skeeing, 48. 3. See section XVI. 4. That is, the modern side-slip technique. SECTION 21

1. Known today as the step-turn. 2. See section XX. 3. The Telemark and Christiania turns with several illustrations and diagrams are detailed in “Lyzhnyi sport,” Gerkules (24 December 1914): 10–12. SECTION 22

1. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 37–42. 2. That is, by starting higher or lower on the in-run.

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3. Ski jumping in Germany’s Feldberg region took place at Fahler Loch until 1992. Only remnants of the structure remain. See “Sprungschanzen Ski Archiv,” http://www. skisprungschanzen.com/. Livbakken was a jumping hill in the commune of Hønefoss (about 65 kilometers northwest of Oslo). Built in 1901, it was well-known enough before World War I for Eimeleus to reference it in his example of height from a jump. The hill was renovated in the 1930s, used as a shooting range by the German occupying forces, and then renovated again after World War II. The community struggled to keep up the jump but finally sold the site in 1983. See Harry Solli, Johan Langerud, Odd Hølen, and Odd Palerud, eds., IFLiv/Fossekallen—100 år 1895–1995 (Oslo: Foreningen, 1995), 27–29, 171. 4. See the conclusion, n. 8, below. 5. Compare relative foot positions at successive stages of the jump in figure 22.5 А, Б, and В. 6. Eimeleus is referring to the Optræk style of jumping. This was a natural pulling up of the knees when going off a hillock—the sort of skiing we do today when “taking air.” Once jumps became formally constructed, some men continued to use the knees-bent style: the Norwegian skier Sveinung Svalastoga from Telemark was particularly well-known for this. Other jumpers, striving for more length, preferred a more erect style, the rakstil, which extended the flight of the entire jump. Mikkel Hemmestveit, an expert jumper, wrote in Norsk Idrætsblad in 1896 that he favored this upright style but quite happily allowed that the Optræk method also had an appeal. As jumping became a major part of every ski competition, the longer jumps achievable in the rakstil became standard even though in 1908, for example, one competitor took his first jump in one style and the second in the other. By 1913, according to the yearbook of the Norwegian Ski Association, the Optræk method had become old-fashioned and was rarely used. By 1920 the erect style had become standard (rakstandarstil). Urdahl, Haandbog i skiløbning, 92; Huitfeldt, Skiløbning, 42–43. See also Bø, Skiing throughout History, 76–80; Premierløitnant Sverre Hermansen, “Om instruction i skiløpning,” Foreningen til Ski-Idrættens Fremme Årbok (1912): 141–42, for the discussion of “tuppa op eller tuppa ned”—knees up or knees down. 7. For details on jumping, especially how to execute a proper Telemark turn after the landing (with photographs and diagrams), see “Mäenlaskun suorituksesta,” Suomen Urheilulehti 1 (January 1911): 12–19. SECTION 23

1. Eimeleus predates Allen Guttmann’s analysis of the requirements for modern sport by sixty years. Guttmann lists secularism, equality of opportunity to compete and equality in the conditions of competition, specialization of roles, rationalization, bureaucratic organization, quantification, and the quest for records as the crucial factors that lift folk fun and games to a level of modern sport. Eimeleus is an author who has given much thought to his passion for skiing and especially among his brother officers and men of the tsarist army. See Allen Guttmann, From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978). 2. By “Indian skis” he means snowshoes. 3. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 57. Free Island was an uninhabited island at the mouth of the Niva—“free” because there were no restrictions on hunting there. Through changes in the Niva delta, the island no longer exists. Petrovskaia Kosa is a boulevard on the water close to moorage on Petrovskii Island. According to Komets and Eimeleus, the distance covered by the Pfeffer brothers was between 37 and 43 kilometers.

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4. Possibly Vladimir Konstantinovich Danich (1886–1970), a 1908 graduate of the St. Petersburg Nicholas Cavalry School. See “Ofitsery RIA,” http://ria1914.info/index. php?title=Данич_Владимир_Константинович. 5. This would be 26.7 kilometers per hour. A hand-held sail for use while ice skating was popular at the turn of the century. Sailing on ice skates was also an event at the Nordic Games in Sweden. However, such activities were generally confined to lakes and prepared rinks: sailing on skis, especially on the vast Gulf of Finland, was an entirely different matter. See Frank, Everyone to Skis!, 29n71. 6. Eimeleus writes “trapper” verbatim (with Latin letters) here. 7. This is 6.4 to 8.5 kilometers per hour. At the turn of the century, when skis were reintroduced in central Europe, some were skeptical that they would be easier to use and faster than snowshoes. To lay the argument to rest, in January 1902 the French tabulated by sections the times taken to complete a loop near Briançon: 6 hours 5 minutes by ski, 9 hours 8 minutes by snowshoe. The skiers had taken 20 minutes on one descent leg that took the snowshoers over 2 hours. A comparison on a different route was made between skis and snowshoes, and walking during the summer: on skis it took 6 hours 15 minutes, on snowshoes 9 hours 5 minutes, and during the summer, hiking required 7 hours 40 minutes. In the Glarus region of Switzerland on 28–29 January 1893, a similar test took place between Dr. Eduard Naef on snowshoes and three men on skis. Naef took 1 hour 15 minutes to descend from the Hengsthorn, the skiers 20 minutes. The conclusions were inescapable: skis were by far the more efficient instruments for men moving across the snow. See Clerc, Rapport des expériences de skis, 69–70; Dr. Eduard Naef in Winterthurer Tagblatt, reprinted in Joachim Mercier, Aus der Urgeschichte des Schweiz. Skilaufes (Glarus, Switzerland: Ski Club Glarus, 1928), 9–13. A 1902 article in Suomen Urheilulehti lists times for snowshoe competitions in America (although no locations are provided). See “Lumikengistä,” Suomen Urheilulehti 1 (February 1902): 74. 8. That is, about 8.5–10.7 kilometers per hour. Eimeleus is out on his own here about skijoring. Being pulled on skis behind a horse was taken up by the Norwegian and Swedish military commands as a useful way for carrying dispatches and putting on a show in the public sphere during events like the Nordic Games. See “Prazdnik ‘severnykh igr’-‘sport sportov’ v Stokgolme,” Ogonek 4 (27 January [9 February] 1913). One such display in 1908 featured a Swedish lieutenant named Berg who covered 75 kilometers in 2 hours, 57 minutes and 13 seconds. See “Pohjoismaiset Kisat,” Suomen Urheilulehti 4 (January 1909): 147–49. But military skijoring gave way before World War I to social skijoring, first in St. Moritz, Switzerland, thanks to the brothers Harald and Trygve Smith, two Norwegian promoters of the event (see section XXIII, n. 12). Skijoring appealed to members of the aristocracy for whom the horse was becoming more of a status symbol as horse-based transportation was on the wane. 9. See “Zimnii sport v Shveitsarii,” Novoe vremia, 19 January (1 February) 1908, pp. 9–11. 10. Perhaps Chappel Jacobsen (also spelled Chappel Jacobson, Chappel Jakobsen, Jacob Schappel-Jacobson, Jakob Schachyel-Jakobsen) who spent two ski seasons in Kitzbühel, Austria (1909–1910 and 1910–1911). Competing outside of the scheduled competition in a 1910 meet, Jacobsen jumped 27 meters. See Kitzbüheler Bote, 6 March 1910. 11. Perhaps Paul Braaten (1876–1963), a skilled cross-country skier and jumper who placed first at the Holmenkollen Hill in 1899, and second each year from 1900 to 1902. See Jakob Vaage, Holmenkollen (Oslo: Sekkelsten, 1971), 202. Braaten placed second in the 30

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kilometer race at the Nordic Games of 1901, coming in 8 minutes behind Kalle Jussila and ahead of third place finisher Oskar Räsänen. See “Pohjoismaiden urheilukilpailut Tukholmassa,” Työmies 41, 18 February 1901, p. 2; “De nordiska spelen,” Hufvudstadsbladet 70, 13 March 1901, p. 5. 12. Eimeleus’s assessment of ski jumping evokes the turn-of-the-century adulation for this increasingly popular event. Although the actual feat of ski jumping appeared to have little intrinsic military value, he acknowledges its role in the psychological and physical improvement of the individual soldier. The details he cites certainly show how much he appreciated contemporary efforts: Gistran of Norway must be Nils Gjestvang who jumped 40.5 meters at Modum (now home to the Vikersund Ski Flying Hill). Stan, the young girl of twelve, is Hilda Stang (1890–1971) from Gjørvik, just south of Lillehammer. Eimeleus’s information about the German jump record of 15 meters was off by 5 meters: Alfred Walter managed 20 meters in 1904. In the winter of 1905–1906, the Norwegian brothers Harald and Trygve Smith gave instruction to about eighty officers and enlisted men of the Swiss army at Andermatt. Harald gave courses in St. Moritz, Samaden, Pontresina, Sils, and in Italy too, at Sauze d’Oulx in February 1906. Headquartered in St. Moritz, Harald Smith became a fixture in the European Alps, giving advice, showing off jumping, and inspiring the well-heeled to ski. The brothers started skijoring on the lake at St. Moritz, and from then on it became a social sport with Trygve Smith winning both the Bernina Prize and the St. Moritz Grand Prix in 1912. Harald was the better jumper: when he broke the world record at Bardonecchia in Italy in 1909 with a jump of 43 meters, Trygve only managed 40 meters. That same year, at Davos off the Bogenschanze, Harald raised the record to 45 meters. Harald remained in St. Moritz as an instructor, ski manufacturer, and shop owner. See R. Gélinet, “Sur l’usage du ski: Observations faites en Norvège,” La Montagne 5, no. 5 (May 1909): 275; William W. Barton, comp., Engadine Year Book 1913 (Samaden, Switzerland: Engadine Press, 1913), 186; Karin Berg, Hopp, Jenter—Hopp (Oslo: Shibsted, 1998), 18; Jens Jahn and Egon Theiner, Enzyklopädie des Skispringens (Kassel, Germany: Agon Sportverlag, 2004), 15; C. Iselin, “Unsere Freunde, die Norweger, in der Schweiz, 1892– 1906,” Schweizerischer Skiverband Jubiläums Jahrbuch (1929), 43–52; Rivista Mensile del Club Alpino Italiano, quoted by Francesco Vida in La storia dello sci in Italia (1896–1975) (Milan: Milano Sole Editrice, 1976), 21. 13. For an overview of ski mountaineering before World War I, see E. John B. Allen, “Les origines exclusivement masculines du ski alpinisme,” in Femmes et hommes dans les sports de montagne: Au-delà des différences, ed. Cécile Ottogalli-Mazzacavallo and Jean Saint-Martin (Grenoble: Publications de la MSH-ALPES, 2009), 253–72. 14. Raymond Pilet, doctor of law, began his career in the consular service of France in 1879. He was posted to England, Spain, Denmark, Germany, Liberia, and Guatemala (where he narrowly escaped assassination). He also composed music for piano and symphony, wrote songs, and documented folk music as he traveled the world (Guatemalan marimba was one of his topics). His facility with languages prompted him to translate Russian proverbs; and he was especially fascinated by the people of Scandinavia, Lapland, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands. In February 1891, Pilet was serving as consul general in Colmar, equidistant between the Vosges in the west and the Black Forest to the east. On the Feldberg—Germany’s highest mountain outside of the Alps—he encountered Wilhelm Paulcke, Fritz Breuer, and others from Freiburg and Todtnau who had all just taken up skiing. The following winter, he and a Russian friend, Graf von Tiesenhausen, skied around the Feldberg. Based out of a local mountain inn, the Feldbergerhof, Pilet began to give ski

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lessons to local enthusiasts, which resulted in the founding of the Todtnau Ski Club. Pilet and Tiesenhausen were two of its earliest members. See Der Schneeschuh 1, no. 9 (1 March 1894): 36; International Who’s Who in the World 1912 (New York: International Who’s Who Publishing Company, 1912), 857; Letters from Graf A. Tiesenhausen to Fritz Breuer, 17 January 1893, and from R. Pilet to Fritz Breuer, 22 January 1893, both in Ski Club Todtnau archive, File: Pilet-Tiesenhausen, held privately; Wilhelm Krebs-Gygax, “Erinnerungen eines alten Skiläufers,” Ski (Switzerland) 9, no. 13 (1913): 47–54. 15. Wilhelm Paulcke along with four companions crossed the Berner Oberland on Telemark-type skis in five days, from 18 to 23 January 1897. This feat proved that winter mountain ski touring was possible and opened up a whole realm of possibilities in the Alps (Ski Club Todtnau members had already crossed the Gotthard and Furka passes in the spring of 1883). Paulcke was an early authority on skiing (he had started as a ten-year-old in Davos, Switzerland) and advocated for the Norwegian style. By the turn of the century, skiers were divided into followers of the Norwegian technique and disciples of the auto-didact Austrian, Mathias Zdarsky. Zdarsky experimented with making his own skis for a few years before embarking on their production, marketing them as better than Norwegian models. He also manufactured a metal binding that was better than those from Norway. Most significantly, he insisted that his students learn his method of skiing, the Lilienfeld method (named after Zdarsky’s hometown). He promoted skiing down any mountain, no matter the slope, in a controlled way and was the first to teach the stem-turn. His attitude (authoritarian and combative) plus his superb control on skis brought disciples to his door in droves: perhaps twenty thousand students over his time as an instructor. Zdarsky’s followers could join his International Ski Association, read his journal, Der Schnee, and marvel at his inventions such as a special tent, a quick-boiling stove, and a solar heater for a swimming pool. Zdarsky was the Austrian High Command’s favorite instructor, with the result that for a number of years all the ski troops of the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s army only had one pole. When Paulcke formed his volunteer ski troop from the Freiburg area, the men under his command used two poles. Paulcke also influenced many alpinists to become ski mountaineers in the years prior to World War I. This sport became important during the war because, once Italy joined its allies in the Triple Alliance in 1915, hostilities moved from the foothills of the Vosges and Carpathians to the mountainous heights of the Dolomites. See Otmar Schöner, Der Mann, der die Skiwelt teilte: Mathias Zdarsky und die Bahnbrecher im alpinen Schnee (Reichnau an der Rax, Austria: Schöner, 2015); E. John B. Allen, “Mathias Zdarsky: The Father of Alpine Skiing,” Skiing History 20, no. 1 (March 2008): 8–14; Wilhelm Paulcke, “Eine Winterfahrt auf Schneeschuhen quer durch das Berner Oberland (18. bis 23. Jänner 1897),” Oesterreichische Alpen-Zeitung 19 (13 May 1897): 117–23, 19 (27 May 1897): 129–35, 19 (10 June 1897): 141–46; Paulcke, “Auf Schiern im Hochgebirge,” Zeitschrift des Deutschen und Österreichischen Alpenvereins 33 (1902): 170–86; Wilhelm Lehner, “Der Triumph des Ski im Hochgebirge zur 30. Wiederkehr der 1. Durchquerung des Berner Oberlands auf Skiern im Jahre 1897,” Der Winter 20 (1926/1927): 132–36; Swantje Scharenberg, Kurt Möser, and Klaus Nippert, “Physical Fitness, the Military and the University: The Case of Wilhelm Paulcke, 1880s–1930s,” International Journal of the History of Sport 33, no. 4 (2016): 1626–39; Constanze M. Pomp, Brettelhupfer. Die Frühphase des Skilaufens im Hochschwarzwald (1890–1930) (Münster, Germany: Waxmann, 2016). 16. Hugo Mylius was the “conqueror” of Mont Blanc, the highest mountain in the Alps, on 25 February 1904. A well-known alpinist and experienced skier, Mylius left

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Chamonix with two guides and reached the cabin at Grand Mulets at 4:30 p.m. in extreme cold. On the next day, the three mountaineers took four hours to reach the Grand Plateau and continued to the Cabane Vallot where they left their skis, reached the summit on foot at 5 p.m. and were back at the Cabane by 6:30 p.m. They then skied down in the dark to Grand Mulets in two hours and, because the snow was excellent, continued down to Chamonix taking two hours to descend a route that had taken over nine hours to climb. See Henry Hoek, “Zehn Winter mit Schiern in den Bergen,” Zeitschrift des Deutschen und Österreichischen Alpenvereins 40 (1909): 51–96. 17. Leif Berg of Norway made an instant name for himself in the Alps as a jumper. As an unofficial competitor at the First Swiss National Championships on 21–22 Janaury 1905, he jumped 27 meters in front of ten thousand spectators, a new Swiss record. Again running outside the official competitors list, his time over the 20-kilometer Pragellauf was 16 minutes better than the Swiss winner. See The Times (London) 4 March 1909: 9; Joseph Müller, “Vor zwanzig Jahren,” Zwanzig Jahre Österreichischer Ski-Verein (Vienna: Österreichischer Ski-Verein, 1912), 9; Letter, Otto Lutter to Theodor Hüttenegger, Graz, 1930, file “Fach-Beiträge,” section L, Mürzzuschlag Archives Winter Sport Museum. Berg made his 1,475-meter descent from the Tiflis to the Trübsee in 29 minutes. See Hoek, “Zehn Winter mit Schiern,” 83. 18. Eimeleus is referring to Pava Lars Nilsson (“Pava-Lasse”) Tuorda and Anders Pavasson Rassa. 19. See section II, n. 14. The Jokkmokk-Kvikkjokk race actually started from Purkijaur, Sweden. It was no mere competition. Nordenskiöld wanted to prove that Tuorda and Rassa’s claim of skiing the 460 kilometers in 57 hours into the Greenland interior was true, and that exploration of the ends of the earth was better done with skis rather than with man- or dog-hauling sledge parties. Tuorda did win in 21 hours 22 minutes (noted by Gal’ in his store brochure: see Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 12) and gained the first prize of 250 kronor (about five months’ wages for a fisherman). The second man in was only 5 seconds behind him (150 kronor prize), and the third arrived another 11 minutes later (100 kronor). The third runner, Apmut Andersson Arrman, did in fact come to the race the day before and leave right afterward. In addition, when Arrman got home, he had to ski another 50 kilometers to kill a marauding bear, for which he collected an additional reward. See Grundström, “Purkijaur-Kvikkjokk,” 32–52; Allen, “The Longest Race,” 30. 20. Alfred Eriksson, a Swedish county commissioner who skied (on a pair of Kajanas) from Bollnäs to Luleå in March 1886. See E. S-n. [E. Sundvallson], “78 mils skidfärd på 7 dagar,” Tidning för Idrott (1886): 54. Concerning Hemmesved: Norwegian names well into the nineteenth century changed according to place of residence. That is why, for example, ski pioneer Sondre Norheim is sometimes Nordheim but also Sondre Auverson. When Norwegians traveled abroad, their names were often mispronounced and misspelled. The name “Hemmesved” in Eimeleus’s text is sometimes spelled Hemmestvedt or Hemmetsveit (usually Hemmestveit) and, in one American newspaper, Hemmingsford. In addition, there were three brothers sharing the Hemmesved family name: Mikkel, Torjus (also Torger), and Sæmund. The first two were elite skiers, and it is Torjus to whom Eimeleus refers here. For his 1888 effort over 50 kilometers, Torjus Hemmesved won 400 gold crowns, the equivalent of eight months’ wages for a fisherman. See Jakob Vaage, “Milepeler og merkedager gjennom 4000 år,” Norske Skiløpere: Østlandet Nord (Oslo: Erling Ranheim, 1955), 31.

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21. Juho Ritola (1871–1955) from Haapavesi, Finland. See Claudelin, Oulun hiihto, 152, 154–60, 164–67, 169–70, 172–74, 176, 189, 192–93, 199–201; “Ensimmäisiä hiihtomestareitamme,” Suomen Urheilulehti 48–50 (4 December 1919): 787–90; “Hiihdosta ja hiihtäjistä,” Uusi Aura 28, 30 January 1927, p. 6. This 1927 article has photographs of many of the skiers documented in this section including Ritola, Aappo Luomajoki, Assari [sic] Autio, and Kalle Jussila as well as stars of the 1913 Nordic Games, the brothers Jussi and Eero Niska and Santeri Tasa. In addition, it includes a photo of Süri Lievonen, “a perennial champion of women’s skiing.” 22. Helsingfors was Helsinki, Finland. Aappo Luomajoki (1845–1919) was from Haapavesi, Finland. See Claudelin, Oulun hiihto, 55–58, 111, 152, 154–58, 164–66, 193; “Ensimmäisiä hiihtomestareitamme,” 787–90; “Muutamia pikapiirtoja entispolven hiihtäjistä,” Sisä-Suomi 22, 29 January 1927, pp. 1, 4. 23. Otto Hepoaho (or Hepo-aho) (1874–1928) from Kärsämäki, Finland. See Claudelin, Oulun hiihto, 168–72, 189, 200. In 1899 at the Oulu ski championships, Heopaho edged Kalle Jussila by 1 minute 30 seconds in the 30 kilometer race, finishing in 2 hours, 20 seconds. See “Oulun hiihtokilpailu ja suksinäyttely,” Suomen Urheilulehti 2 (1899): 109–12. In 1901, he placed first in the 60 kilometer race at the Nordic Games in Stockholm in 4 hours, 43 minutes and 13 seconds. See “Suomalaiset hiihtäjät saivat,” Mikkeli 20, 18 February 1901, p. 3; “Hiihtokilpailut,” Keski-Suomi 21, 19 February 1901, p. 3; “Ensimmäisiä hiihtomestareitamme,” 789, 790 [photo]. Scarcely a week later in Helsinki, he placed second in a 30 kilometer race against Kalle Jussila, Asari Autio, and Juho Ritola. See “Helsingin hiihtokilpailu,” Louhi 25, 28 February 1901, p. 3. 24. Kalle Jussila (1869–1949) from Io, Finland. See “Hiihtokilpailut Tukholmassa,” Uudenkaupungin Sanomat 21, 19 February 1901, p. 3; “Nordiska spelen,” Wiborgsbladet 47, 24 February 1901, pp. 3–4; “Ensimmäisiä hiihtomestareitamme,” 790; Claudelin, Oulun hiihto, 162, 166–69, 172, 189–93. Eimeleus uses “Northern Games” here for the Nordic Games. See the introduction “The Life and Times of ‘K. B. E. E. Eimeleus,’” n. 40, above. A line-drawing of the top skiers representing Finland at the Nordic Games features Otto Hepoaho, Asari Autio, and Kalle Jussila. See Suomen Kansa 30, 23 February 1901, p. 4. 25. In other words, Jussila had previously skied the same distance faster in Finland. At the Oulu ski championships of 1896, Jussila won the 30 kilometer race in 1 hour, 58 minutes and 12 seconds. See “Hiihtokilpailua,” Uusi Suometar 61, 13 March 1896, p. 3. 26. Karl Hovelsen (known as Carl Howelsen in the United States) from Kristiania [Oslo] (1877–1955). 27. Eimeleus’s list of racers and times over various distances from 8 to 60 kilometers are mostly taken from Wilskman’s book. It is no surprise that all the recordholders listed are Finns since Wilskman is writing about Finnish skiing but, for Eimeleus, it also supports the notion that the best men for any Russian Imperial Army ski unit would come from the empire’s Grand Duchy of Finland. These men hailed from the skiing centers: Aappo Luomajoki and Juho Ritola were from Haapavesi, Juho Aitamurto from Utajärvi near Muhos, Kalle Jussila from Io—all places where skis were made (see section IV). It is sometimes difficult to know exactly who these men were since a number of brothers (or athletes with the same last names) ran in the races, such as Kalle and Heikki Jussila, Asarias and H. Autio, Juho and Matti Ritola, Juho and Aappo Aitamurto, and Seth, K., and H. Wesa. The times given were from different venues: Helsinki, Stockholm, and Oulu. There was always an interest in the age of the runners, in particular Aappo Luomajoki. His remarkable ski racing career in Oulu began at the age of 44 with a win over 17 year-old Juho Ritola in

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1889 and continued until 1896 when “old Aappo Luomajoki” placed ninth—less than five minutes out of first over 30 kilometers—against a field of 45 finishers ranging in age from 19 to 29 when he was 52 (Claudelin, Oulun hiihto, 164–66; “Liitteitä,” 5–12). The interest in age was related to the belief that skiing was part of the body-and-soul well-being, expressed by Fridtjof Nansen’s ideal ski-idræt. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 7, 10; Gerkules (10 December 1913): 10–11. Asarias Autio from Keuruu holds a special interest for readers from the United States: at Ashland, Wisconsin, in 1907 he became the first US national cross-country champion, immediately assumed the title “Champion of the World,” and put up one hundred dollars against all comers. See Ely (Minnesota) Miner (4 January and 22 February 1907). 28. Kaarlo Hjalmar Dahlström, who later changed his name to Kaarlo (Kalle) Merikoski. See “Hiihdosta ja hiihtäjistä,” p. 6. In 1919, K. Merikoski was listed as the recordholder over 8 kilometers in 21 minutes, 39 seconds. See “Suomalaisten saavutuksista fyysillisen kulttuurin alalla,” Suomen Urheilulehti 45 (13 November 1919): 735. On Merikoski’s name change, see the introduction “The Life and Times of ‘K. B. E. E. Eimeleus,’” n. 38, above. 29. Kaarlo (Kalle) Merikoski. See n. 28 above. K. Merikoski is listed as the recordholder over 10 kilometers in 27 minutes, 12 seconds in “Suomalaisten saavutuksista fyysillisen kultuurin alalla,” 735. In 1927, Uusi Aura recorded his time as 27 minutes, 15 seconds, a feat accomplished at an unspecified date while still a schoolboy. See “Hiihdosta ja hiihtäjistä,” p. 6. In 1910, Merikoski finished a 10 kilometer race near Orimattila in a more pedestrian 40 minutes, 43 seconds. See “Orimattila,” Lahti 35, 5 March 1910, p. 3. 30. Seth Vesa (or Wesa) (1890–1957) from Teisko, Finland. His time in the 1909 Finnish championships over 20 kilometers was reported by the Finnish press as 1 hour, 5 minutes, 6 seconds. See “Suomen hiihtomestaruuskilpailut,” Kokkola 26 (6 March 1909): 3; “Rekordipakinaa,” Suomen Urheilulehti 23–24 (1 December 1909): 796. Vesa’s photograph is featured in “Hiihtokilpailut,” Suomen Urheilulehti 4 (January 1909): 150. 31. Asarias (Asari or Assari) Autio (1874–1920) from Keuruu, Finland. See Claudelin, Oulun hiihto, 172–73, 189, 199. Autio led the field in the 30 kilometer race at the Oulu ski competitions of 1901 with a time of 1 hour, 46 minutes and 15 seconds. The top seventeen skiers all finished the race in under two hours. See “Hiihtokilpailut Oulussa,” Oulun limoituslehti 33, 20 March 1901, p. 3. 32. Juho Aitamurto (1864–1935) from Utajärvi, Finland. See “Wiides yleinen hiihtokilpailu Oulussa,” Louhi 32, 18 March 1894, p. 2; “Ensimmäisiä hiihtomestareitamme,” 789; Claudelin, Oulun hiihto, 155–56, 158–59, 162–65, 167–68. 33. Matti Sieppi (1872–1951) from Rovaniemi, Finland. See “Allmänna skidtäflingen i Weåborg,” Wasa Tidning 63, 15 March 1896, p. 3; “Ensimmäisiä hiihtomestareitamme,” 790; Claudelin, Oulun hiihto, 166–67, 173. Note the time discrepancy between this 60-kilometer record and Aitamurto’s 50-kilometer result. 34. Jaakko Peltola from Säräisniemi, Finland. Peltola was 22 years old in 1901 when he won this 80 kilometer race between Oulu and Raahe. See “Hiihtokilpailut ja mäenlaskut,” Uusi Kuvalehti 6 (15 March 1901): 81; “Hiihtokilpailut Oulussa,” 3; “Ensimmäisiä hiihtomestareitamme,” 789; Oulun hiihto, 169–70. In an article from 1912, his time was listed as 6 hours, 42 minutes and 43 seconds (achieved in the year 1910). See “Talviurheilukauden alkaessa,” Suomen Urheilulehti 1 (11 January 1912): 7. The “Z” here is certainly a misprint: in Finnish, this letter is quite rare. Rarer still would be “Z” as the first letter of a man’s given name (unless imported from another language). 35. That is, Dahlström’s (or Merikoski’s) record over 8 kilometers.

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36. Back home, the Finnish press was overjoyed that Eimeleus included so many famous Finns in his book. See “Suomalainen julkaissut hiihtokirjan Venäjällä,” Aamulehti 300, 28 December 1912, p. 6; “Skidorna i militärens tjänst,” Hufvudstadsbladet 354, 28 December 1912, p. 6. 37. Nansen completed his crossing of Greenland in 1888. This was, of course, a multiday ski trek, not a ski competition. So, it is curious that Eimeleus makes no mention here of a more recent ski trek undertaken by his compatriots from Moscow, Mikhail Gostev, Ivan Zakharov, Aleksandr Nemukhin, and Aleksandr Elizarov, over the course of twelve days from Moscow to St. Petersburg in late December 1911. See “Pervyi probeg na lyzhakh ‘Moskva—S.-Peterburg,’” Ogonek 2 (7 [20] January 1912); Frank, Everyone to Skis!, 32, 71–72, 76; Frank, Vse na lyzhi!, 58. 38. Helsingfors (Helsinki); Uleåborg (Oulu); Åbo (Turku). For the Finnish Rifle Battalion, see section IV, n. 7. For illustrations and information on ahkio and veturi sleds, see “Suomalainen reki,” Otava 1 (1915), 12–17; Sirelius, Suomen kansanomaista, 382–390; figure 27.1 above. SECTION 24

1. On breathing and muscle development, see Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 8–10; Gerkules (25 October 1913): 1–4. 2. For muscle anatomy, see “Myshtsy,” in Arsen’ev and Petrushevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 20:276–77, figs. 1 and 2; Gerkules (10 October 1913): 1–3; and Gerkules (20 February 1915): 1–4. 3. The kettlebell (giria) is a round weight with an attached handle. Kettlebell exercises often include using the handles to swing the weight. See Arthur Saxon, Textbook of Weightlifting (London: Health and Strength, 1910), 64–79; Gerkules (31 July 1914) 17–18; Gerkules (12 September 1914): 6–8; and Gerkules (25 June 1915): 15–16. 4. The deep chest muscles are the musculi intercostales. 5. For lessons for training the troops, see individual training and group exercises below. 6. See also Eimeleus, “Avtobiografiia,” 193; introduction “The Life and Times of ‘K. B. E. E. Eimeleus,’” n. 20, above. 7. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 9–10. 8. Flying mail. See section XXIX. 9. That is, snowshoes. 10. Perhaps Iakov Grigor’evich Bek-Marmarchev (1854–1915). As of 1909 Iakov Grigor’evich was a lieutenant-colonel with the 5th Hussars’ Alexandria Regiment. E. E. Teviashov [E. E. T.], sports journalist for Novoe vremia, was quite enthusiastic about the prospects of folding skis: he gives the name of the inventor as Bek-Markovich. See Novoe vremia, 11 (24) February 1912, p. 16, and 17 February (1 March) 1912, p. 7. 11. Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich Romanov (1856–1929). Nikolai Nikolaevich was the grandson of Tsar Nicholas I and first cousin once removed to Tsar Nicholas II. 12. That is around 100 kilometers or 66 miles. 13. To walk with skis on shoulders for two hours before reaching snow (as you did around 1900 in the Grenoble, France, region) was one factor preventing people—especially women—from taking up skiing. It would be better if the skis could be carried in a rucksack, even if the weight became burdensome. In the years just prior to World War I, there were attempts to make lightweight collapsible skis. Much of the experimentation took place in the military. Commandant Bernard of the French Chasseurs Alpins expressed

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his interest in such a ski, and Captain Rivas actually invented a three-piece model. Their military workshop turned out five different lengths of skis from 2.36 meters down to 1.90 meters. In Austria, Lieutenant Georg Bilgeri promoted summer skiing with an extremely short ski, starting at 70 or 80 centimeters but soon found that different lengths were better in different conditions. In the Adamello, for example, he used skis of 1.20 meters for June skiing over three consecutive years. Bilgeri’s summer skis were on exhibit in Frankfurt. See Willi Romberg, “Der Wintersport auf der internationalen Ausstellung für Sport und Spiel zu Frankfurt a. M.,” Ski-Chronik 2 (1909–1910): 145. The collapsible skis of the French firm Gnôme were on view at the show accompanying the French International Week in 1907. D [Duhamel], “Les skis en Dauphiné,” Annuaire de la Société des Touristes du Dauphiné 29 (1903): 149–50; Günther Freiherr von Saar, “Auf Schneeschuhen quer durch die Hohen Tauern,” Ősterreichische Alpen-Zeitung 21 (2 March 1899): 60; Bernard, Guide du Skieur, 22–23; La Montagne 3, no. 2 (20 March 1907): 137. For Bilgeri, see “Sommerski und seine Verwendung,” Ski-Chronik 2 (1909–1910): 158–60. 14. Eimeleus corrected the original text (Temarken) to read Telemarken here, obviously referring to the Telemark ski (Telemarkenskaia lyzha) previously described in section IV. At the turn of the century, “Telemarken” was the common spelling in Russian for the region of Telemark. See “Telemarken,” in Arsen’ev and Petrushevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 32A: 799–800. 15. Using skis to traverse bogs and marshes has a long history and wide geographical presence. Early accounts from Korea indicate that the sides of the skis were high enough so the boot fit inside the ski (sometimes known as “Kanuski”), but other types tended to be wide and flat. The sixteenth-century Jesuit Ferdinand Orban described bog skis. Some Native American tribes in California used snowshoes to cross marshes. See Anton Obholzer, Geschichte des Skis und des Skistockes. Ihre Entstehung und Entwicklung (Schorndorf bei Stuttgart, [West] Germany: Karl Hofmann, 1974), 23. In the twentieth century, research carried out by U. T. Sirelius of Finland, K. B. Wiklund of Sweden, and Carl J. Luther of Germany found evidence of their use in northern Sweden, Estonia, and Russia. See Sirelius, Suomen kansanomaista, 299, 366–67; Wiklund, “Några tankar,” 7; Carl J. Luther, “Geschichte des Schnee-und Eissports,” in Geschichte des Sports aller Völker und Zeiten, ed. G. A. E. Bogenz (Leipzig: E. A. Seemann, 1926), 2:498; Stalin and the Soviet-Finnish War 1939–1940, ed. (in Russian) E. N. Kulikov and O. A. Rzheshevsky (in English) H. Shukman, trans. Tatyana Sokokina (London: Frank Cass, 2002), 95; Erwin Mehl, “Sumpfschi im zweiten Weltkrieg,” in Mehl, Grundriss der Weltgeschichte des Schifahrens: der Weg eines steinzeitlichen Jagdgerätes zum modernen Sportgerät (Schorndorf bei Stuttgart, [West] Germany: Verlag Karl Hofmann, 1964), 41–42. 16. That is, snowshoes. SECTION 25

1. This section is based entirely on infantry drill regulations established by the General Staff of the Imperial Russian Army as of 8 April 1908 and published that year. The improved version of the regulations printed in 1916 is a much better source for understanding the military drills that Eimeleus refers to in this section and in the one following, thanks to more detailed descriptions and the addition of diagrams. See “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav.” This particular volume includes both the 1908 and 1916 versions. For useful comparison, see “Infantry Drill Regulations, United States Army, 1911: Text corrected

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to include Changes 23, September 10, 1918, and Appendix D, U.S. Rifle Model 1917 (Enfield),” (New York: Army and Navy Journal [1918]). It is also quite helpful to watch the numerous parades and troop reviews documented in “Romanovs. Tsar Nicholas II & the Russian Army,” 1:34–1:48; 3:32–5:06; 8:32–9:25; 11:48–12:14; 18:42–20:49; 26:29–26:35; and 30:48–31:28. 2. See “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 39–67; “Boevoi poriadok,” in Leer, Entsiklopediia, 1:448–49. 3. Razvernutyi stroi is a formation in which a military unit is arranged along one line with a depth of either one or two files (that is, either one person or two). Put another way, the line or rank (sherenga) stretches along the horizontal plane [1, 1, 1, 1]; the files (riad) are on the perpendicular plane [1, 2]: 1

1

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↑

See “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 1–2, 39–40; “Razvernutyi stroi,” in Leer, Entsiklopediia, 6:243; “Stroevoi ustav Vooryzhennykh Sil Rossiiskoi Federatsii (1993)” (Moscow: Voenizdat, 1993): glava 1, 1, militera.lib.ru/regulations/russr/su1993/01.html. 4. Each platoon (vzvod) is divided into sections (otdelenie): a platoon comprised of sixteen or more files of two soldiers is divided into four sections; from twelve to fifteen files, three sections; from eight to eleven files, two sections; and seven or less, one section. In parade formation, these sections march side by side: 1

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See “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 39–40. Each section is divided into two or three squads (zveno). “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 26. 5. In other words, if the parade line is turning to the right, at the command to turn, the first file on the right side starts the movement, followed by the second file, and so on down the line. 6. The files of each rank count off by twos so that the soldier in front of the file takes the number one, the soldier directly behind him takes the number two, and so on by twos. In other words, all of the soldiers in the front line of each rank are “number ones,” and those in the second line of each rank, “number twos.” See “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 26. 7. After the about-face, the number ones and commanders move ahead of the number twos, just as they were before the maneuver: 2

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↓

8. That is, in columns rather than in a parade line. See “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 47–48. 9. That is, four ranks in parade formation with the ranks aligned one in front of the other. See figure 27.1. 10. See section XXVII, n. 3; figure 27.3; “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 42–45. Forming into fours by files (vzdvaivanie riadov) occurs as the second rank joins the first, the fourth

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joins the third, the sixth joins the fifth, and so on. See “Romanovs. Tsar Nicholas II & the Russian Army,” 59:46–1:00:32. 11. See “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 30–33, 47. 12. See “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 47–52. 13. See “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 68–102. 14. There are four platoons in a company. See “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 68. 15. “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 73–74, 77–79. 16. “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 74–75. 17. To accommodate skis. 18. See section XXVI, n. 22; “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 89–102; “Boevoi poriadok,” in Voennaia entsiklopediia, ed. K. I. Velichko (St. Petersburg: I. D. Sytin, 1911) 4:594–98;“My Beloved Country (Russian Imperial Army in WW1)” www.youtube.com/ watch?v=fQZ10G1fh5g, 1:19–1:35. 19. That is, the section on battle array within the chapter on company instruction. 20. See “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 60–65, 96–102. 21. See “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 89–98. A patrol (dozor) was made up of no more than fifteen individuals. See “Dozory,” in Arsen’ev, Novyi entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 16:498; “Dozory,” in Leer, Entsiklopediia, 3:83–84. SECTION 26

1. The exact directions that follow for each session of this month-long course are unique in the historiography of skiing. In the rest of Europe, by 1912, at least five how-to books and a number of articles written by military officers or instructors of military courses had been published, yet none with as much detail as Eimeleus provides here. These authors included (from Austria) the self-taught civilian Mathias Zdarsky (1896), Lieutenant Raimond Udy (1894), Major Oskar Schadek von Dagenburg (1897), Lieutenant Hermann Czant (1907), Hauptmann Rudolf Wahl (1908), and Lieutenant Georg Bilgeri (1910); (from France) Capitaine Rivas (1905) and Commandant Bernard (1910); (from Germany) civilians Max Schneider (1905) and Wilhelm Paulcke (1899 and 1909); and (from Norway) the doyen of all military writers, Captain Oscar Wergeland (1865). Norwegians hardly needed any instruction on how to ski, and perhaps curiously, neither did citizens of the alpine countries because it appeared that those who joined in the military ski activities either knew how to ski or were rather disposed to enjoy it (most officers came from the comparatively wealthy sector of society). Indeed, Wilhelm Paulcke created from experienced skiers the Freiwillige Skikorps—a volunteer ski detachment. In Hungary, hardly a place where skiing was popular, there were enough skiers in 1913 to form a volunteer unit. See Jenö Sereny, “Ungarn,” Jahrbuch des Wintersports (1913/1914): 68. What Europeans generally took as ski training were repetitive long-distance excursions: for example, in France, 80 kilometers with a 1,800-meter elevation difference, in 20 hours; in Austria, during the last four days of a five-week officers-only course, Zdarsky’s first day covered 30 kilometers with a 1,500-meter rise, in 16 hours (the weather was so stormy the next day, that it became a rest day), after which all members ascended the Hoher Sonnblick at 3,106 meters, and for the last day, walked out over 30 kilometers. These long-distance hikes, usually in full military gear, proved to leadership the fitness of the nation’s youth, a very important consideration in Europe’s nationalistic frenzy prior

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to the outbreak of World War I. See Jean Pourroy, “Le ski dans l’armée,” La Vie au Grand Air (10 March 1904): 191; Rudolf Wahl, “Tagebuch” in the Wahl file, Zdarsky Archives, Lilienfeld, Austria; “Der Offiziers-Skikurs in den Hohen Tauern im Jahre 1908,” Streffleurs Militärische Zeitschrift 1, no. 3 (March 1909): 441–48. 2. See section XVI. 3. See section XIII, subsection 5. 4. See section XIII. 5. See section XVII. 6. See section XX. 7. See section XIX. 8. See section XIII, subsection 8. 9. See section XIII, subsection 9. 10. See section XIII, subsection 7. 11. See section XIII, subsection 10. 12. See section XIV. 13. See section XIII, subsections 8, 9, 11. 14. See section XIII, subsection 12. 15. See section XXI. 16. See section XV. 17. See section XXV, subsections a and b; “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 6–33, 39–45. 18. See section XXV, subsections a, b, c, and d; “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 47–52. 19. See section XXV, subsections c, d, e, and f; “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 49–50; “Infantry Drill Regulations, United States Army, 1911,” 36–37. 20. See section XXV, subsection c, d, e, and f. 21. See “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 70–87. 22. Loose formation (razsypnoi stroi) refers to battlefield deployment as opposed to close formation (somknutyi stroi) in parade lines and drills. See “Stroevoi pekhotnyi ustav,” 39–53, 54–67; “Razsypnoi stroi,” in Leer, Entsiklopediia, 6:248–49; “Boevoi poriadok,” in Voennaia entsiklopediia, 4:594–95, 597. 23. That is, 27–53 kilometers. 24. Apparently, Eimeleus was not aware of the arguments over the years between the Germans, the Lilienfelders, and those who followed Bilgeri. The German methodology was largely one of following what Paulcke (a supporter of the Norwegian way of doing things) did and wrote, much of which was antagonistic—in a technical as well as a personal way—to Zdarsky and to his ideas and equipment. “Norweger gegen Lilienfeld” was a regular topic of disputation and almost brought on a diplomatic incident. Zdarsky and Paulcke continued to criticize each other down through the years, and Zdarsky also had technical and personal disagreements with Georg Bilgeri that almost led to a duel. See E. John B. Allen and Egon Theiner, FIS 100 Years of International Skiing 1910–2010 (Oberhofen, Switzerland: FIS, 2010), 33–43. See also the conclusion, nn. 15 and 16, below. 25. See “Lyzhnyia sostiazaniia ofitserov 26-go fevralia pod Peterburgom,” Ogonek 10 (5 [18] March 1911). Note that Eimeleus only lists officers here. The tsarist regime limited athletic opportunities to the aristocracy, a point of contention that the Bolsheviks were keen to exploit after the revolution of 1917. See Frank, “Mud in the Tracks,” 430–31. 26. Anatolii Faddeevich Ezerskii (1885–1976). See “Ofitsery RIA,” http://ria1914. info/index.php?title=Езерский_Анатолий_Фаддеевич.

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27. Possibly Sergei Vladimirovich Boldyrev (1890–1957), a 1911 graduate of the Nicholas Cavalry School in St. Petersburg. See ”Ofitsery RIA,” ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Болдырев,_Сергей_Владимирович. The title Sotnik signifies the rank of lieutenant in the Cossack army. See “Sotnik,” in Arsen’ev and Petrushevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 30A:941. 28. Vladimir Valeriаnovich Shmakov (dates unknown). See “Ofitsery RIA,” http:// ria1914.info/index.php?title=Шмаков_Владимир_Валерианович. 29. Possibly Pavel Filatov, an artillery officer. See “Ofitsery RIA,” http://ria1914.info/ index.php?title=Высочайшие_приказы,_артиллерия,_бригады_21-40. 30. Arno Almqvist (1881–1940) was an MGFS graduate and worked in Kronstadt teaching gymnastics at the Nicholas I Men’s Classical Gymnasium from 1912 to 1917. He was an all-around athlete, excelling in decathlon, swimming, fencing, shooting, wrestling, track and field, and skiing. Almqvist was Eimeleus’s teammate on the Russian Olympic Modern Pentathlon team, competing in the 1912 Stockholm Games: he placed twentieth out of twenty-three finishers. He served as fortress commander of Kronstadt during World War I, was arrested during the Bolshevik Revolution, and spent five months in prison at the fortress. He fled to Finland and participated in the Finnish Civil War on the side of the Whites. In May 1918, he was put in charge of building fortifications at Suomenlinna (formerly Sveaborg) and subsequently became commander of the Finnish Coast Guard in September 1923. However, antagonism that developed in the 1920s toward those Finns who had served in the Imperial Russian Army drove Almqvist out of his post only a few months later. He volunteered during the Winter War of 1939–1940 and died during the bombings of Mikkeli on 5 March 1940, eight days before the end of hostilities. Along with Eimeleus, Almqvist was active in the early years of the Helsinki Fencers. See “Modern Pentathlon,” in The Olympic Games of Stockholm 1912 Official Report, 647, 651, 652, 654, 656, 657; “Kronshtadtskii vestnik,” kronvestnik.ru/history/6156; “Arno Almqvist,” fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Arno_Almqvist; Miekkailu Suomessa: En garde! Prêts? Allez!, 214–16; Helsingfors Fäktare 1923–1973, 13, 20. 31. A 10-verst race was a 10.7-kilometer race. 32. Fedor Vonifat’evitch Khokhlachev (dates unknown), an artillery officer. See “Ofitsery RIA,” ria1914.info/index.php?title=Хохлачев_Федор_Вонифатьевич. The title Khorunzhii signifies the rank of second lieutenant or cornet in the Cossack army. See “Khorunzhii,” in Arsen’ev and Petrushevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 37A:581. 33. Possibly Aleksei Ivanovich Davydov (dates unknown). See “Ofitsery RIA,” http:// ria1914.info/index.php?title=Давыдов_Алексей_Иванович. 34. Possibly Nikolai Borzentsov, an officer with the 26th Artillery Brigade. See “Ofitsery RIA,” ria1914.info/index.php?title=Высочайшие_приказы,_артиллерия,_ бригады_21-40. SECTION 27

1. That is, platoon and company formations detailed in section XXV. 2. See “Kolonna,” in Leer, Entsiklopediia, 4:307. 3. One at a time in single file (po-odnomu): ←

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See section XXV, “Parade formations.” 4. See section XIV. 5. Literally, “renewed less.” In mountainous terrain, Eimeleus’s suggestion to stay in valley bottoms, to avoid travel in the trees, and to cross slopes with a northern rather than a southern exposure is often not the safest protocol for avoiding avalanches. From 1897 onward, the major ski journals began reporting on accidental death by avalanche (excluding those caused during World War I). Between 1897 and 1919, avalanches took the lives of 121 skiers. Perhaps Eimeleus was aware that, since 1910, four skiers had died in the Tirol, and the following year eight perished in Switzerland. In 1885 Emil Zsigmondy published a mountaineer’s handbook, Die Gefahren der Alpen, Praktische Winke für Bergsteiger (Leipzig: P. Frohberg, 1885). He died in a fall six months after its publication. In 1908 and again in 1911, Wilhelm Paulcke brought Zsigmondy’s book up to date and edited in various ski-related dangers. With increasing numbers of people taking to skiing in the Alps, it’s no wonder that interest in understanding the dangers of avalanches increased as well. See Emil Zsigmondy and Wilhelm Paulcke, Die Gefahren der Alpen (Munich: Rudolf Rother, 1911); “Editorial Notes concerning Avalanche Deaths,” Year-Book of the Ski Club of Great Britain 2, no. 7 (1911): 5, 71; Ski-Chronik 4 (1912): 112–14; Arnold Lunn, A History of Ski-ing (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1927), 118. SECTION 28

1. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 42–45. Many of these “games” may appear more suitable for schoolchildren than soldiers, although leap-frog, gunny-sack races, and crack the whip were all part of the Imperial Russian Army’s training. See “Romanovs. Tsar Nicholas II & the Russian Army,” 13:54–16:56. In the rest of Europe, among the wealthy who took to skiing as sport, particularly among the British in Switzerland, their ski frolics were often called “Gymkhanas”—an Anglo-Indian word. These games usually included competitions in which two women might pull a man (all on skis), a short race on one ski, and two on skates pulling one on skis. This sort of fun and games was frivolous, a subject depicted by the best social image maker of the wealthy at play, Carlo Pellegrini. See Giorgio Taroni, Carlo Pellegrini (Como, Italy: Giorgio Taroni, 2005), 199; E. John B. Allen, “The Skier’s Illustrator,” Skiing History 25, no. 4 (July–August 2013): 14–17. 2. I have translated dzhigitovka as “stunt” although it is a term (assimilated from the Turkish değnek or jereed) that is associated specifically with tricks and displays of

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skill performed on horseback, as Eimeleus implies here. See Littauer, Russkie gusary, 33; “Dzhigit,” in Arsen’ev and Petrushevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 10A:540. Eimeleus was an accomplished equestrian, well-known by contemporaries as a daredevil while performing mounted acrobatics. See the introduction “The Life and Times of ‘K. B. E. E. Eimeleus,’” above. 3. See section XXII. 4. Eimeleus relies on Petr Bokin’s Podvizhnyia igry for the bulk of this section on games. Bokin was an instructor at the MGFS while Eimeleus was composing his book and it is possible that Bokin himself wrote portions of this section (see this section, nn. 13, 15, and 16, below). It is also worth noting that this is the only section of the book with a footnote designated by a superscript 1 rather than an asterisk, an otherwise glaring editorial blunder. In addition, the opening portion on Stunts and the final one on Spider and Flies differ in tone, form, and style from the rest of the game descriptions. Another probable source is G. Vagner [Hermann Wagner] and K. Freier, Detskie igry i razvlecheniia (St. Petersburg: Elektropechatnia, 1902). Hermann Wagner (1840–1894) was a German pedagogue who specialized in children’s books. In addition to this collaboration with Carl Freyer, Wagner authored several works on natural science for youths, which were popular in Russia and translated and reprinted in St. Petersburg prior to the Bolshevik Revolution. See Razvlecheniia iz mira nauki: Rukovodstvo k opytam iz fiziki i khimi k sost. kollektsii rastenii, mineralov, rakovin, babochik, ptits, marok i t. p., ravno kak po ukhodu za domash. zhivotnymi i rasteniiami (St. Petersburg: M.M. Lederle, 1896), a translation of the fifth German edition of Wagner and Freyer’s Beschäftigungs-Buch für die reifere Jugend (Leipzig: Otto Spamer, 1894). 5. Gorelki (literally, the burners) is a game with roots in pre-Christian Slavic traditions. It was associated with springtime rituals and played by eligible youths (ostensibly “burning” with love) as a pretext for matchmaking. See “Russkie narodnye igry—Gorelki,” http://bsh1.ru/st/public/41-game/317-gorelki.html; Bokin, Podvizhnyia igri, 35–36. Perhaps the most famous game of gorelki is the one played by Katiusha Matslova in Leo Tolstoy’s last novel, Resurrection (1899). See L. N. Tolstoi, Voskresenie, pt. 1, ch. 1. “Internet biblioteka,” http://www.ilibrary.ru/text/1462/p.12/index.html. For burner devices, see “Gorelki,” in K. K. Arsen’ev, ed., Novyi entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, (St. Petersburg: Brokgauz-Efron, 1913), 14:363–68. 6. See Bokin, Podvizhnyia igry, 58–59. 7. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 44–45; Bokin, Podvizhnyia igry, 40–43. 8. See Vagner and Freier, Detskie igry, 10; Bokin, Podvizhnyia igry, 40. 9. See Bokin, Podvizhnyia igry, 41. 10. See Vagner and Freier, Detskie igry, 12; Bokin, Podvizhnyia igry, 40–41. 11. See Vagner and Freier, Detskie igry, 17; Bokin, Podvizhnyia igry, 64–66. 12. See Bokin, Podvizhnyia igry, 81–84. 13. Perhaps Eimeleus is referring to the origins of the day and night game in ancient Greece (ostrakinda, played with a potshard or seashell (ostrakon), black on one side, white on the other, tossed into the air to determine which team flees and pursues) and its subsequent reformulation in Germany as proposed by Bokin. On ostrakinda, see Julius Pollux of Naucratis, Onomasticon, book Θ, sections 111–12, Julii Pollucis Onomasticon, ed. Immanuel Bekker (Berlin: Fredrick Nicolaus, 1846), 388. There was also a Baltic version of the game. See “Europa bewegt sich - Europe in Motion,” accessed 20 April 2018; defunct as of

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3 April 2019, http://www.europe-in-motion.com/Sayfa/Tag-und-Nacht-Spiele-aus-RigaLettland_126.aspx. 14. See Bokin, Podvizhnyia igry, 84–85. 15. Eimeleus has perhaps inadvertently transposed this sentence word for word from page 84 in Bokin. Certainly, he is mistaken using the word “hall” (zal) here: it is inconceivable that a game on skis would take place indoors. Many of the games described in this section were designed for schoolchildren: Wagner and Freyer often state that the field of play can be either a classroom (komnata) or a yard (dvor). See Vagner and Freier, Detskie igry, 9, 15, 16, 17, 27. As a gymnast and equestrian, Eimeleus may have had in mind the large open fieldhouses at the MGFS as he wrote. Nonetheless, contemporary dictionaries define zal as a room or chamber, indicating a roofed structure. 16. In contrast to the previous sentence, Eimeleus has edited this one from Bokin: the original reads “a leader, a teacher, or some other adult stands here with a small flag over his head or lacking that, a kerchief.” 17. See Bokin, Podvizhnyia igry, 316–19. 18. See Bokin, Podvizhnyia igry, 336–43. 19. See Bokin, Podvizhnyia igry, 185–89. Bokin provides rules for field hockey accompanied by photographs of school-aged cadets in action (see pp. 187, 188). 20. See Bokin, Podvizhnyia igry, 306–9. Bokin describes the rules for a version of modern lacrosse, indicating that the game was imported from Canada to Brittany’s SaintMalo and had subsequently become one of the favorite sports played by the youth of France at the turn of the last century. 21. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 45; Vagner and Freier, Detskie igry, 18–19, 20; Bokin, Podvizhnyia igry, 101–2. 22. One sazhen’ is 2.13 meters or 7 feet. Thus, the head start varies between 280 feet and just under one-quarter mile. This footnote is the only one designated by a numeral instead of an asterisk. See this section, n. 4, above. 23. Variations to the fox hunt game described in Bokin, Podvizhnyia igry, 101–2, are similar to this one. See also “Igra ‘Pauk i mukhi’ v detskom sadu,” http://deti1.ru/ payk-myhi/. SECTION 29

1. That is, a mass start. 2. That is, interval start, or time trial. 3. One verst = 1.1 kilometer; two versts = 2.1 kilometers; three versts = 3.2 kilometers; four versts = 4.3 kilometers; five versts = 5.3 kilometers. 4. Compare this description to the current rules for staggered starts based on finish results from a previous race in biathlon pursuit competitions. See “IBU Rules, 6.1.3 Pursuit Competitions,” IBU Rules Adopted by the 2014 11th Regular IBU Congress, http://www. ffs.fr/pdf/reglements/REGBIATH/FFSreg-biat6a.pdf. Similarly, Nordic combined events determine start positions for the cross-country portion of the competition based on the Gundersen system for scoring jumping. “FIS International Ski Competition Rules: Book VII Nordic Combined,” https://my.ussa.org/sites/default/files/documents/athletics/nordic/2011-12/documents/icr_nc_2008.pdf 5. The term “flying mail” refers to the temporary organization of mail delivery in the field for rapid transmission of orders and reports. See “Letuchaia pochta,” in Voennaia

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entsiklopediia, ed. K. I. Velichko (St. Petersburg: I. D. Sytin, 1914), 14:591; Vladimir Aleksandrovich Arushkin, Russko-Iaponskaia voina 1904–1905 gg. Tom IV: zimnii period kampanii i srazhenie u Sandepu (St. Petersburg: A. S. Suvopin, 1910), 476. Ski relays gained significance in the Soviet Union as a representation of the socialist collective, reaching a peak after World War II and the nation’s return to the Olympic Games. See Frank, Everyone to Skis!, 58–59, 123–24, 224–25. 6. This racecourse is a series of zigzags with five exchange points for two competing teams arranged as mirror-images of each other: the lead-off skiers start at opposite ends of the field; at the point of each angle, team members make their exchange in sequence; the single finish point is equidistant between the two starting points for the two teams; the relay teams race across their identical zigzag courses toward the middle of the field so that the last relay member crosses at the single finish point. On a much smaller scale, this configuration is similar to the long-distance multiday “converging race” (zvezdnyi probeg)—with relay teams starting from different locations and skiing to a common finish line—that gained popularity around 1913 and continued after the Russian Civil War. See Frank, Everyone to Skis!, 40, 70–72. 7. A 10-verst run equals an 11-kilometer run. 8. That is, a binding without lashing straps. See section XI. 9. Isidor (Izrail’) Veniaminovich Zabludovskii (1850–1905), served as a military physician in the Imperial Russian Army from 1876 to 1882. He was a professor of medicine in Germany from 1882 until the end of his life. Zabludovskii specialized in developing methods of massage and their practical application to clinical medicine. See “Rossiiskaia Evraiskaia Entsiklopediia,” http://www.rujen.ru/index.php/ЗАБЛУДОВСКИЙ_Израиль. SECTION 30

1. See the conclusion, n. 8, below. 2. In this section, Eimeleus often uses katanie or spusk s gory (a downhill run) and pryzhok (the act of jumping) interchangeably. This may stem from ski jumping’s origin in hoplaam (see the conclusion, n. 4, below). Eimeleus uses the same phrases in section XXII as does Komets in Lyhznyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 33–42. This may be confusing to the modern reader due to the association with “downhill skiing,” but downhill ski competition as we know it today did not exist in 1912. 3. Judging the run consists of providing separate scores for the competitor’s form during the in-run, the jump itself, the landing, and the finishing turn at the bottom of the hill, all combined into one overall grade. It is not surprising that putting a mathematical grade to the aesthetics and technique of the jump provided much argument. Various point systems were tried, but by 1910 it was the Norwegian 20-point system that was acknowledged worldwide where ski jumping had taken hold. See the report of the Norwegian International Ski Congress held in Kristiania and Holmenkollen in 1910 in E. C. Richardson, “Report of the International Ski Congress,” Year-Book of the Ski Club of Great Britain 1, no. 6 (1910): 91–93. Note that Eimeleus stresses that the length of flight only becomes important if two competitors have the same score. The stretch for length was increasingly valued and the Norwegian ideal began to weaken. In the same way, in pre-twentieth-century cross-country races, if two competitors had equal times, the fitter of the two, measured by heart rate, breathing rate, and face color, would be declared the winner. Allen, Culture and Sport, 50. 4. Until the advent of the Gundersen system at the Calgary Olympics in 1988, Nordic combined used byzantine methods of calculating points for the jump and the

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cross-country run similar to the one Eimeleus outlines in the following section. For example, at the Oslo Games of 1952, one point in jumping was the equivalent of 17 seconds in the 18-kilometer cross-country race. See Rolf Petersen, VI Olympiske Vinterleker/Winter Olympic Games Oslo 1952 (Oslo: Kirstes Boktrykkeri, 1952), 203. Gunder Gundersen’s innovation has had a profound influence on Nordic cross-country events: in particular, the pursuit competition (which is based on the Gundersen staggered start) has propelled the popularity of biathlon in the twenty-first century. See Dennis Passa, “The Gundersen Method: Nordic Combined’s Savior,” https://www.apnews.com/ cdfa0e193d664ee1826a194a6b0bae44. 5. Eimeleus’s example here is rather confusing: to clarify, there are four competitors, whom I designate skier A, skier B, skier C, and skier D. Skier A receives the best score in the jumping portion of the competition (17). Skier B, the second-best jumper, receives a 9. The next day, skier B wins the 30-kilometer run. Skier B therefore gets a score of 17—the highest average grade achieved by skier A, the winner of the jumping competition—for the win in the cross-country run. The sum of skier B’s jumping (9) and his ski-running (17) is 26. 6. That is, the winner of the jumping competition, skier A. 7. That is, skier C skis the course in 2 hours, 28 minutes; and skier D posts 2 hours, 32 minutes. 8. For every five minutes over the winning time in the 30-kilometer run, each competitor loses one grade. Therefore, skier A (who posted 2 hours, 20 minutes, 30 seconds) was two and a half minutes slower than skier B (with the fastest time of 2 hours, 18 minutes): skier A therefore loses 0.5 grade for a score of 16.5 (the winning grade of 17 minus 0.5). Skier C posted 2 hours, 28 minutes, ten minutes behind the fastest time: he therefore loses 2 grades for a final grade of 15. Skier D ran the course in 2 hours, 32 minutes, fourteen minutes behind the winning time. If each minute is worth 0.2 of a grade, skier D therefore loses 2.8 for a final grade of 14.2 (not 14.8 as Eimeleus calculates here). 9. The difference between 3 hours, 43 minutes and the winning time of 2 hours, 18 minutes is 85 minutes. Dividing these 85 minutes by the five-minute time protocol results in a grade reduction of 17. The winning time grade of 17 less the resulting penalty of 17 is 0. 10. Since these times and distances are averages from competitions throughout Scandinavia, the categories are listed in kilometers, not versts. SECTION 31

1. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 50–54. 2. Eimeleus doesn’t discuss railway brigades in this section although these units had recently been quite effective in Siberia. See David Wolff, “Between War and Revolution: Railway Brigades in Siberia, 1905–1907,” Russian History 23, no. 1/4 (1996): 96–111. Sanitary service refers to the duties of the medical corps of the armed forces, responsible for hygiene, health care, emergency medicine, first aid, and evacuation of the sick and wounded. See “Evakuatsiia bol’nykh i ranenikh,” in Arsen’ev and Petruschevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 40:118–20; “Povozki (sanitarnyi oboz),” in Leer, Entsiklopediia, 6: 46–49; “Sanitariia,” in Arsen’ev and Petruschevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 28A:261–63; “Sanitarnyi oboz,” 28A: 263; “Sanitarnyia stantsii,” 28A: 263; “Voennaia igra,” in Voennaia entsiklopediia, ed. K. I. Velichko (St.Petersburg: I. D. Sytin, 1912) 6:474–75. 3. Russkii invalid (which implies “Russian Veteran”) was a St. Petersburg newspaper established by the armed forces as a charity to collect funds for veterans after Napoleon’s invasion of Russia, also known as the Patriotic War of 1812.

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4. Referring to “Finni” who inhabit the far north with expertise in throwing the spear and engaging in battle with large broad arrows, Saxo writes: “Pandis trabibus uecti, conferta niuibus iuga precurrunt.” (Riding on curved boards, they run over the snowchoked hills). See Saxo Grammaticus, Saxoni Grammatici Gesta Danorum, ed. Alfred Holder (Strassburg: Trüber, 1886), 5:165. http://www.rmoa.unina.it/4467/2/Saxo%20 grammaticus%20Gesta%20Danorum.pdf. 5. Pål Belte. See Nansen, Paa Ski over Grønland, 91. The Sverre referred to here was in fact a Norwegian king, Sverre Sigurdsson (ca. 1145–1202): he was not named Sverker. Eimeleus uses a medieval Russian word voivoda to convey that Belte was a commander of an army at the end of the twelfth century. 6. Eimeleus uses a specific term, polevaia voina to distinguish troops maneuvering on the battlefield from those fighting in fixed positions. 7. Jakob Pontusson de la Gardie (1583–1652). 8. This conflict was a small part of the very complex Polish-Russian War of 1605– 1618, which happened to coincide with the Russian dynastic crisis known as the Time of Troubles. 9. The Great Northern War, 1700–1721. For Wilskman’s take on the performance of Finnish skiers in service to Sweden during this period, see “Suksimiehet Suomen sotaväessä Ruotsinvallan aikana,” Suomen Urheilulehti 10 (December 1908): 675–80. 10. See “Lyzhnaia rat’,” in Leer, Entsiklopediia, 4:624. Although Lieutenant-General Genrikh Antonovich Leer was the main editor of the Encyclopedia of Military and Marine Science series, the author of this particular entry was actually Colonel Mikhail Aleksandrovich Gazenkampf, a professor at the Nikolai Academy of the General Staff in St. Petersburg. In this article, written in 1888, Gazenkampf also documents the training of Norwegian and Swedish ski troops as well as that of the Finnish Rifle Brigades, a significant antecedent bolstering Eimeleus’s argument about the importance of ski training for the Russian army. On the Emperor Nikolai Military Academy (or the General Staff Academy), see “Imperatorskaia Nikolaevskaia voennaia akademiia,” in Voennaia entsiklopediia, ed. K. I. Velichko (St.Petersburg: I. D. Sytin, 1914), 16:598–602. 11. Ivan the Great (1440–1505). 12. Prince Semen Fedorovich Kurbskii ([?]–1527). 13. The Yugra region refers to present-day Khanty-Mansiysk, about 1,200 miles (2,000 kilometers) east of Moscow. 14. The fifth Muscovite-Lithuanian War, 1534–1537. 15. Perhaps Vladimir Davydovich Grendal’ (1884–1940), who remarked about skiing: “as a sport which is healthy and enlivening both physically and spiritually, running on skis and skates deserves attention and it is heartily recommended to all who care about the cheerful, joyful spirit of the soldiers as well as their health and morals.” See I. M. Butin, Lyzhnyi sport (Moscow: Akademiia, 2000), 9–18. 16. The Finnish War, 1808–1809. 17. Iakov Petrovich Kul’nev (1736–1812). Four years later he became a celebrated hero of the Patriotic War of 1812. 18. Carl Johan Adlercreutz (1757–1815). See Ivan Gavrilovich Golovin, History of Alexander the First, Emperor of Russia (London: Thomas Cautley Newby, 1858), 103. 19. Mikhail Lenot’evich Bulatov (1760–1825). Kitee is a small village in Finland’s North Karelia region.

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20. Carl Olof Cronstedt (1756–1820), commander of the fortress at Sveaborg on the Gulf of Finland. 21. On the march, a patrol chain (patrul’naia tsep’) is dispatched from a military unit to advance over a distance of two thousand paces toward the enemy. At that point, the forward “chain” is strengthened before engaging in battle. See “Patrul’naia tsep’,” in Arsen’ev and Petrushevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 23:45; Leer, Entsiklopediia, 5:579. 22. Johann Frederick Aminov (1756–1842). Jäger battalions were light infantry. 23. The Captain [Kapitan] Aminov leading the ski unit must be another person with the same family name, distinct from the lieutenant-colonel [Podpolkovnik] in charge of the entire column mentioned previously. 24. The okhotniki were specially trained “hunter-scouts” of the Russian imperial army. See Frank, Everyone to Skis!, 17, 19, 32. Sharing the same name and thus easily confused with the okhotniki volunteers who lacked the necessary educational prerequisites of the imperial army’s regular volunteers (vol’nootpushchenniki), the okhotniki Eimeleus refers to throughout his book were elite members of special forces established in 1886, the okhotnich’i komandy. These groups—numbering four per infantry regiment, artillery battery, or cavalry squadron—carried out independent assignments that required personal resourcefulness in the most demanding and dangerous situations. An okhotnik was trained in scouting, skiing, swimming, rowing, sailing, fast long-distance travel both day and night, short-range reconnaissance, laying and clearing mines, constructing temporary bridges, managing military dogs for guard duty, foraging and hunting, and (in the cavalry) riding to the hunt with hounds. The Jäger divisions of the Imperial German Army had similar tasks. See Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 10–11; “Okhotnich’i komandy,” in Voennaia entsiklopediia, ed. K. I. Velichko (Petrograd: I. D. Sytin, 1914), 17:237; “Razvedka,” in Leer, Entsiklopediia, 6:243–45; “Okhotnik,” in Leer, Entsiklopediia, 5:527; “Vol’noopredeliaiushchiesia,” in Leer, Entsiklopediia, 2:292–94; “Vol’nootpushchennik,” in Arsen’ev and Petrushevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 7:140–42; “Okhotnik,” in Arsen’ev and Petruschevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 22A:501–2; “Okhotnich’i komandy,” in Arsen’ev and Petruschevskii, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’, 22A:502. For an interesting perspective from France on the okhotniki during World War I, see “Akhotniki,” Supplément illustré du Petit Journal, Sunday, 23 January 1916, pp. 374, 380. 25. See “Rod oryzhiia,” in Leer, Entsiklopediia, 6:335. 26. Gal’ and Komets both make the same argument. See Gal’, Rukovodstvo, 9–11, and caption under photograph between pp. 4 and 5; Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 51. This section by Eimeleus is similar in syntax and wording to articles and books that appeared in the Soviet press after the opening phase of the Winter War 1939–1940. See Krasnaia zvezda, 20 January 1940, p. 1, 18 January 1940, p. 2, 6 February 1940, p. 3, 4 February 1940, p. 2, 28 February 1940, p. 2; Instruktsiia dlia deistvii lyzhnykh otriadov: upravlenie boevoi podgotovki Krasnoi Armii (Moscow: n.p., 1940); P. Makarov, “Sviazisty-lyzhniki,” in Boi v Finliandii: vospominaniia uchastnikov (Moscow: Voenizdat, 1941), 2:381; I. Ul’ianov, “Razvedchik” in Boi v Finliandii, 1:150. 27. The Savelaks Infantry Regiment led by Johann August Sandels (1764–1831). 28. Other Russian texts discussing this time period refer to Colonel—not General— Obukhov. See A. M. Alekseev, Shvedskaia voina 1808–1809 gg. (St. Petersburg: Berezhlivost’, 1907), 66, 210–22; Aleksandr I. Mikhailovskii-Danilevskii, Opisanie finliandskoi voiny v 1808 i 1809 godakh (St. Petersburg: Tipografiia Shtaba Otdel’nago Korpusa Vnutrennei

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Strani, 1841), 93–95. It is interesting to note that Eimeleus uses the term okhotniki (the Russian army’s term for four-man teams of “hunter-scouts”) to describe the Swedish ski detachments known as Tiraljörer (skirmishers) in contemporary Swedish. See this section, n. 24, above. 29. The Ehrhardt 7.5-centimeter model 1901 field artillery cannon was designed and built for the Norwegian-Swedish army by the German firm Rheinische Metallwaren- und Maschinenfabrik. After the dissolution of the Swedish-Norwegian union in 1905, most of the artillery pieces remained in the possession of the Norwegian army. See “The New Method of Training the Norwegian Army for Winter Service,” Harper’s Weekly 49 (14 January 1905): 51; “Ehrhardt 7.5 cm Model 1901 Field Gun,” World War II Database, https:// ww2db.com/weapon.php?q=A232; “Ehrhardt 7,5 cm modell 1901,” https://no.wikipedia. org/wiki/Ehrhardt_7,5_cm_modell_1901. 30. Two excellent 1904 illustrations from popular French weeklies depict Russian medics on skis in the Russo-Japanese War. These pictures show the importance of the makeshift toboggans upon which the sanitary workers put the wounded, as well as the expertise of the medical personnel. This made a profound impression on the nation’s Chasseurs Alpins. See Le Petit Parisien, 10 April 1904; Supplément Illustré du Petit Journal, 10 April 1904. See also “Venäläiset kulettavat haavoitettuja suksilla sotaseuduilla,” Helsingin Kaiku 17–18 (30 April 1904): 122. 31. A speed of 10 versts per hour equals 10.7 kilometers per hour. See “Zimnii sport,” Novoe vremia, 27 November (9 December) 1893, p. 8; “F. E. Shaliapin v gostiakh u I. E. Repina,” Ogonek 8 (23 February [8 March] 1914). These sleds were popular in Sweden and, for a brief period prior to World War I, also in Germany where they were called either Tretschlitten or Rennwolf. See Max Schneider, Schneeschuh und Schlitten für Sport, Jagd und Verkehr (Berlin: F. Fontane, 1905), 106–9. CONCLUSION

1. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 50–51; V. A. Firsoff, Ski Tracks on the Battlefield (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1943), 15. It is interesting to note that the first recorded biathlon competition occurred on the Norwegian-Swedish border in 1767. See Frank, Everyone to Skis!, 18. 2. Joseph Frantz Oscar Wergeland (1815–1895). 3. This probably refers to the Foreningen til Ski-Idrettens Fremme (Association for the Promotion of Ski-Sport), founded in 1883; or Norsk Idrætsforbund (Norwegian Sports Federation), founded in 1896. Today, the latter organization is known as Norges Friidrettsforbund (NFIF; the Norwegian Athletics Association). 4. From 1879 the major ski jumping competition was held outside Kristiania on Husebybakken. Poor snow conditions forced relocation first to Ullbakken and finally, higher up, to Holmenkollen. A road was already available and a sanatorium hotel was built in 1894. The rail line from downtown Kristiania to Besserud with an extention to Frogneseter (today’s terminal) was finished in 1916. Hoplaam was a down-the-hill run that included leaping off small jumps. Spectators enjoyed the daring leaps, and soon slides were being constructed only for jumping. At Holmenkollen, each year’s course was slightly different as there was no established takeoff platform until a stone construction was built in 1910. An increase in the in-run made for greater distances jumped and (despite protests) the first superstructure was erected resulting in ever

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longer jumps: subsequently, Holmenkollen has been rebuilt nineteen times. From fifteen to twenty thousand spectators came to that first jumping meet in 1892. (The stands today hold seventy thousand, and Holmenkollen draws about one million tourists every year.) Almost immediately, Holmenkollen became established as the centerpiece of Norwegian winter culture. And it was distinctly Norwegian: the Illustrated London News informed its readers on 10 March 1894 that “Norway’s national sport” took place at Holmenkollen. Thomas Cook, the English pioneer in world travel arrangements, referred to the event as the “blue ribbon of the ski world” as early as 1904 and “verily the Norwegian Derby Day” in 1911. Cook’s Travellers’ Gazette 54, no. 2 (February 1904): 18; and Cook’s Travellers’ Gazette 61, no. 12 (December 1911): 6. Such publicity was the result of a deliberate campaign by Norway’s ski authorities at a world ski conference in Kristiania in 1910 to promote one way to ski, one way to organize skiing, and one way to enjoy skiing. The world’s representatives had come as pilgrims to the homeland of the ski-sport and came away as Norse disciples. One mark of an organized sport’s modernization is the establishment of a particular venue as its mecca: Wimbledon and Henley in Britain for tennis and rowing, for example. For skiing, it became Holmenkollen. See Jakob Vaage, Holmenkollen, 18–31. Year-Book of the Ski Club of Great Britain (1910): 91–93. Officially, Norway’s capital was Christiania (1624–1877), Kristiania (1877–1925), Oslo (1 January 1925–present). See Ronald G. Popperwell, Norway (New York: Praeger, 1972), 20n2. 5. In the Heimskringla and other sagas and eddas, Olav Trygvesson “was a better skier than other men” (995). Harald Hardrade boasted that skiing was one of his eight talents (1030), and folkish kings Eynstein and Sigurd argued over who was the better skier (1120). See Jakob Vaage, Skienes Verden (Oslo: Hjemmenes, 1979), 250–51. At the turn of the last century, the Norwegian parliament (after the split from Sweden) voted Prince Carl of Denmark and his wife, Princess Maud of Wales whom he had married in 1896, to become king and queen. Carl took a Norwegian name to become Haakon VII. He and his wife, both lowlanders who had never skied, took up the sport, endearing themselves to their Norwegian subjects. Subsequently, their son, Olav, competed at Holmenkollen. Thus, through skiing, the royal family of Norway established their commitment to Norwegian nationalism. 6. Prior to the Bolshevik Revolution, Russia followed the Julian, rather than the Gregorian, calendar, thus Eimeleus lists two dates following the publishing protocol of the Russian Empire. Although at the time of Eimeleus’s writing there were thirteen days’ difference between the two calendars, he is referring to a date from the previous century, during which period the difference was calculated at twelve. 7. The French general staff took great interest in what was happening in the development of other nations’ ski troops and, in 1901, found fault with Sweden’s summer training of only 150 days. “[There were] winter training sessions [but] nothing serious has been attempted” in the volunteer schools of the 6th Division at Gäfle [Gävle], Östersund, and Härnösand or those of the Boden district, Sweden’s largest garrison town just across the northern part of the Gulf of Bothnia facing Oulu, Finland, along with troops stationed in the capital of Stockholm: “But if the truth must be known, it is only a period of ideas and trials.” In 1901, for example, the Swedish government provided Norrland’s regimental commander with 750 kronor to buy skis. In 1907, the amount was 1,200 kronor to stimulate skiing and organize military competitions, orienteering over 25–40 kilometers, and long cross-country races of up to 40 kilometers. See Svenska Dagbladet (1 November

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1902); “Emploi du Ski dans les Armées Étrangères,” Revue Militaire des Armées Étrangères 97 (November 1908): 455–68. This was translated by permission of the minister of war and published as “The Use of the Ski,” 223–29 (the section on Sweden is 227–28). 8. Only from about 1880 on was skiing considered of importance to both the military and middle-class society in Sweden. The military felt threatened by Russia to the east and by problems developing with Norway to the west. Individuals from the Swedish middle class—like those in Norway—became aware that Skididrott was natural, virtuous, and manly. The Svenska Turistforeningen (Swedish Tourist Association) was founded in 1885 and the Föreningen för skidlöpningens främjande i Sverige (Association for the Promotion of Skiing in Sweden) in 1892. It was nicknamed the Skidfrämjandet (Ski Promotion) until 1938. An umbrella organization, Sveriges allmänna idrottsförbund (Sweden’s Public Sports Federation) surfaced in 1897 but changed its name to Sveriges Centralförening för Idrottens främjande (Central Association for the Promotion of Sports in Sweden), of which 24 percent of the membership were military officers: Captain Adolf Heijkenskjiöld led the association from its founding until 1901. It was from this organization that skiers broke away in 1908 to form the Svenska skidlöpningsförbundet (Swedish Ski-Runners Association), which changed its name in 1911 to Svenska skidförbundet (Swedish Ski Association). Two developments promulgated this flurry of activity: the contention that two members of Nordenskiöld’s Greenland expedition had traveled some 460 kilometers in 57 hours (see section II, n. 14); and the Swedish government’s growing concern of a possible war with Norway in which there would be a need for ski troops. The government gave the Skidfrämjandet 800 kronor to promote ski touring, and the following year 30,000 kronor to teach young men how to ski before and after leaving school. Eimeleus had all of this information available to him through a variety of Swedish sources such as P. Möller’s Om skidlöpning (see “Sources,” n. 3, above) in which he mentions (on page 22) the Föreningen för skidlöpnings främjandet i Sverige and its rules and publications as well as På Skidor 1902–1903. Jägerskiöld’s Om skidor och skidlöpning bibliography includes Collinder, Huitfeldt, and Viktor Balck’s Tidning för Idrott. Eimeleus also mentions the Jokkmokk-Kvikkjokk 1884 race. See Jan Lindroth, Idrottens väg till folkrörelse. Uppsats i Sveriges centralförening för idrottens främjandes årsbok 1974, in Leif Yttergren, Från skidsport till skogsmulle: Friluftsfrämjandet 1892–1992 (Stockholm: Friluftsfrämjandet, 1992), 42, 91; Swedish Ski Association, “The History of SSF,” Swedish Ski Association (Stockholm: SSF, April 1983): 2. 9. That is, snowshoes. 10. See section XXXI, n. 31, and figures 31.7 and 31.8. 11. The Conscription Law of 1901 incorporated the Finnish Army into the Imperial Russian Army. See section IV, n. 7. 12. It is hard to believe that the Austro-Hungarian army had one thousand men on skis in 1891, let alone in one battalion. Early reports from Austria in November 1888 suggest that very small numbers of men were involved. See Letter, Max Kleinoscheg to Felix Schmal, n.d., reprinted in Felix Schmal, Skisport in Österreich (Vienna: Friedrich Beck, 1911), 9. In the winter 1890–1891, officers of the Eisenbahn-Regiment in Korneuburg (about 12 kilometers north of Vienna) tried skiing; one of them was evidently proficient enough to be assigned to teach in the Wiener-Neustadt Fecht- und Turn Akademie the following season. See the Neue Wiener Tagblatt, 27 November 1892, reprinted in Schmal, Skisport in Österreich, 5. Hauptmann Vorwerg inspired skiing in the Riesengebirge in the winter of 1890–1891, and five Hohenelbe skiers made a mountain tour in 1892–1893. But

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these examples amount to only a small number of skiers. In military circles in Vienna there were “quite primitive attempts” made on flat meadows and on the parade square of the old Franz Josef barracks, and later, some artillery men “staggered around” on skis as ordered (snow or no snow) from two to four in the afternoon. See Schmal, Skisport in Österreich, 7. When the 31st Infantry Regiment took to skiing, the first excursion of two days was made by one officer and five men. Two officers, one corporal, and two enlisted men made a second try over a four-day stretch. See Zavattari, Gli Scj, translated into French as Rapport sur les expériences faites sur la neige en Italie dans ces dernières années (Paris: CharlesLavauzelle, 1901), 33. A well-documented January 1893 Wiener-Neustadt to Graz training exercise took place in January 1893 involving thirteen officers and four noncommissioned officers, each carrying a 15-kilo pack. Starting from each end, they traveled 112 kilometers in 34 hours. See Schmal, Skisport in Österreich, 21; Heinz Polednik, Das Glück im Schnee (Munich: Amalthea, 1991), 44. Etbin Heinrich Schollmayer published Auf Schneeschuhen in Klagenfurt in 1892. In his book, he remarks that those officers who enjoyed hunting already knew how to ski. In nearly every case, individuals started to experiment: Max Kleinoscheg (1862–1940) who, with Toni Schruf (1863–1932), started skiing in the Graz and Mürzzuschlag region of Austria; Josef Rossler-Orovsky (1869– 1933), a pioneering skier in the Czech lands, particularly in the Krkonoš Mountains (he was also a member of the Czech Olympic Committee and was commemorated on a postage stamp); Hauptmann D. O. Vorwerg (1841–1920?), having learned to ski in Norway, brought his knowledge back to the Riesengebirge. He wrote articles on skiing in Der Wanderer im Riesengebirge as well as one of the very early how-to booklets, Der Schneeschuhlauf (1893); also Franz Riesch (1863–1920), having read about Nansen’s Greenland crossing, started skiing and climbed up the Kitzbühler Horn, initiating the future Kitzbühel ski station. See E. H. Schollmayer, Auf Schneeschuhen (Klagenfurt: Joh. Leon, 1892), 84–85; Felix Schmal, Skisport in Österreich, 1, 2, 5, 9, 13, 16. The little we know about the Austro-Hungarian military does not support Eimeleus’s account of war games in the Krakow region. After all, it was only in 1894 that Oskar Schadek wrote out by hand Instruction (und Belehrung) über die Verwendung der Schneeschuhe. The printed version, with almost the same title, came out in 1897, the season after Karl Roll, the Norwegian army officer who was influential—with Samson and Wedel Jarlsberg—in getting Vienna society to ski in 1896. He was seconded to Schadek’s Wiener-Neustadt Gymnastics and Fencing Academy that year, too. Later, he convened the first International Ski Congress in 1910, precursor to the present-day Fédération Internationale de Ski (FIS). See Oskar Schadek, Anleitung für den Gebrauch der Schneeschuhe und Schneereifen (1893), a handwritten manuscript in Zdarsky archive, Lilienfeld, Austria. 13. Rosmann is the forgotten man of early Austrian military ski instruction, yet Eimeleus linked him with Zdarsky and Bilgeri. In fact, he and Bilgeri, in military service together, began high mountain touring with the 14th Corps in Tyrol, in Vorarlberg, around Salzburg, and in Oberösterreich—Upper Austria, home of the emperor’s Bad Ischl residence. See review of Oberleutnant Oskar Rosmann, Der alpine Winterkurs des k. u. k. 14. Korps in den Ötztälern, Stubaiern und Hohen Tauern (Innsbruck: A. Edlinger’s Verlag, 1908) cited in Alpina 16, no. 22 (15 November 1908): 214. Rosmann also wrote 30 Tage auf Skier (Innsbruck: A. Edlinger Verlag, [19?]); Hauptmann Georg Bilgeri, “Die Verwendung der Skier im Kriegsfalle,” Ski-Chronik 3 (1910–1911): 116. 14. Carl Joseph Luther (1882–1968) was the influential editor of the German Ski Association’s magazine Der Winter. He was also a jumper (competing at Holmenkollen

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in 1913) and an instructor and was widely recognized as the world’s leading authority on skiing history about which he wrote extensively. His archive, now held by the Deutsche Sporthochschule in Cologne, is a must-visit trove for anyone working in ski history. 15. From 1903 to 1911, Mathias Zdarsky (1856–1940)—self-taught, dogmatic, and quite certain that his skis, bindings, and technique were better than anything found in Norway—appealed to the army command. He wrote a step-by-step instructional book that was first published in 1896. There had been half a dozen booklets before his quasi-military training manual, Lilienfelder Skilauf Technik, appeared. In 1903 the title changed to Alpine Lilienfelder Skifahr-Technik, reflecting the importance of mountains in possible military actions. It is no surprise that the High Command hired him to instruct from 1903 to 1911, and again during World War I. All of this engendered two major arguments, seemingly never-ending: Paulcke taunted him as “a crazy cockerel”; and he all but fought a duel with Bilgeri. The first confrontation was between Zdarsky and the Norwegians. It became so heated that the Norwegians sent an officer to Austria to see what Zdarsky was doing to “their” sport. The other confrontation was between others who objected to any number of things that Zdarsky said, wrote, and did. Zdarsky insisted on a single pole, Bilgeri on two; Zdarsky used a bamboo pole, Paulcke said bamboo was weak; Zdarsky replied that Paulcke broke his bamboo pole because he couldn’t ski well enough; and on it went. Zdarsky refused to join the Austrian Ski Association since his own International Ski Association was flourishing and contained many military members. In an evaluation of Zdarsky for the Austrian War Department in 1907, the military’s 3rd Command stated that he was a “private scholar in all areas of current human knowledge, [with] exemplary unselfishness, rare openness and integrity, and cool and brave in danger.” See Letter from K. u. K. Korpskommando to K. u. K. Reichskriegsministerium in Gurk, 21 September 1907. Typewritten manuscript in Zdarsky Archive, Lilienfeld, Austria. The Lilienfeld ski he developed was shorter than those from Scandinavia (he brashly listed nine faults that he found with Norwegian skis—none of which, of course, plagued his version); his metal binding was more stable than Norwegian models and became standard issue for the army in 1907. He gained a following through his insistence that safety in the mountains was much more important than mere speed (and racing). Zdarsky’s 1896 ski handbook Lilienfelder Skilauf-Technik went through seventeen editions (with some title changes), the last in 1925. Among his nearly twenty thousand students were a few influential army officers who followed his teachings: Hermann Czant, military observer to the Russo-Japanese War and author of Militär-Gebirgsdienst im Winter (Vienna and Leipzig: C. W. Stern, 1907). Czant’s book was evidently important enough to be instantly translated by Swiss army Captain H. A. Tanner into Alpinisme et service militaire d’hiver (Paris and Lusanne, 1908); Theodor von Lerch, who influenced skiing in Japan; and Rudolf Wahl with whom Zdarsky coauthored a military manual. See Schöner, Der Mann, der die Skiwelt teilte; Allen and Theiner, FIS 100 Years, 33–43. For an account of one of Zdarsky’s courses, see Hauptmann Rudolf Wahl, “Der Offizier-Skikurs in den Hohen Tauern im Jahre 1908,” Streffleurs Militärische Zeitschrift 1, no. 3 (March 1909): 441–48. 16. Georg Bilgeri (1873–1934) received permission to take a unit of ten men out on skis from the barracks at Steyr in 1894. From that modest beginning, he went on to instruct military and civilian skiers. His first military ski tour was with sixteen men into the Tux and Zillertal Alps (south and east of Innsbruck), home to the 14th Corps. He became known in military and civilian circles as the “creator of military touring,” according to Carl Luther, as he led his men over the mountains of the Tyrol, in the Salzburg area, and

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the Vorarlberg. See Polednik, Das Glück im Schnee, 38. He became increasingly critical of Zdarsky’s reliance on one pole: Bilgeri took a more balanced approach with two poles. He manufactured what he called “the army’s ski” (with his own version of Zdarsky’s metal binding) and published a manual for alpine skiing in 1910. The military command threw its weight behind Zdarsky, and Bilgeri was transferred to Komorn in Hungary, far from Zdarsky’s orbit. As alpine skiing grew in popularity, more skiers took to Bilgeri’s two-pole method while Zdarsky—right up to his death in 1940—became a prisoner of his own system. Bilgeri became instructor for Austria’s military units and, after the war, for civilian devotees of fast downhill skiing. See Gudrun Kirnbauer, Georg Bilgeri (1873–1934) Persönlichkeit—Berufsoffizier—Skipionier (PhD dissertation, Institut für Sportwissenschaften, Universität Wien, 1997). 17. “Three and a half hours per week are devoted to skating and the use of snowshoes [skis] in winter.” W. Mitchell, “Military Education in Austria,” Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, Whitehall Yard 43, no. 2 (1899): 773–74. Captain Roll arrived in Vienna in 1896. He had competed well in Norway since 1892 and was influential enough to become the first editor of the Norwegian Ski Association’s yearbook in 1895. It was Roll who convened the first International Ski Congress in 1910 to which, however, Russia did not send any representative. Jakob Vaage, Holmenkollen, 201; Vaage, “Milepeler,” 36. 18. Commandant G. Bernard, Guide du Skieur; fabrication et théorie du ski, le ski dans la montagne (Paris: R. Chapelot, 1910). Eimeleus has some facts wrong about the introduction of skiing in the French military, and it is surprising that he does not use the term Chasseurs Alpins, as the 159th (Quinze Neuf) were known. The military did open the École de Ski at Briançon, but it was under the direction of Captain Henri Clerc who wrote out by hand his lengthy “Rapport des expériences de skis.” Commandant Bernard took over in 1904 but his Guide du Skieur was available only in 1910. Meanwhile, his protégé Captain Rivas published his Petit manuel du skieur in 1906, the year Rivas took over direction of the military ski school, built up the production of skis (100 pairs in 1906, 237 pairs in 1907), and encouraged veterans of his program to return to their villages, make skis, and show children how to ski (with future military recruitment in mind). See Clerc’s handwritten report, in the Musée Dauphinois, Grenoble; Bernard, Guide du Skieur; Rivas, Petit manuel, 1–2; Rivas, “Petit manuel du skieur,” La Montagne 2, no. 1 (January 1907): 10. 19. Les écoles normales de ski. 20. The annual meets of the French CAF (Club Alpin Français) never included military ski teams from Spain, Belgium, Luxembourg, or Holland. Norwegian teams were usually present. 21. Subsequent to two Norwegians who skied in the Guadarramas around 1900— either Birger Sørensen and K. Christensen, or B. Lorensen and K. Christiensen—Manuel G. de Amazua and a group of friends founded the Twenty Club in about 1905. See Vaage, Skienes Verden, 262; Manuel Gómez Aróstegui and José Luis Gilabert, El gran circo blanco: Historia del esquí alpino (Valladolid: Miñón, 1980), 38. De Amazua had brought three pairs of skis to Madrid from Davos and inspired an exclusive membership of twenty individuals including eleven dons, one marqués, and one condé. Other members of Spanish high society ridiculed skiing as a foreign fad, but by 1910 club membership rose to four hundred, and the club was renamed the Club Alpino Español. In 1908, the Deportes de Montaña took to skiing in the Catalunian Pyrenees. This was a section that branched off from the Centre Excursionista de Catalunya. Another club located at Tolosa was founded in 1908 and lasted until 1956. See Aróstegui and Gilabert, El gran circo blanco, 39–41; La Montagne

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5, no. 5 (May 1909): 302; Katherine Cowan, “Skiing in the Guadarramas,” Home Progress 5 (December 1915): 160–62; Marcellin Bérot, L’Épopée du ski aux Pyrénées (Tarbes, France: Randonnées Pyrénnées, 1991), 27; Francisco Tuduri, “Cuando el esqui comienza.” Crónica del Ski Club Tolosano (Tolosa, Spain: F. Tuduri Esnal, 1993). 22. Eimeleus writes "Skiatori" verbatim (with Latin letters) here. The Norwegian Harald Smith (1879–1977) is certainly not the founder of Italian military skiing. Before he arrived, Tenente (later General) Oreste Zavattari had authored a number of articles in different military journals as well as in the Club Alpino Italiano’s Rivista Mensile from 1899 to 1904. He published Gli skj nella guerra d’inverno sulle nostri Alpi, which brought up-to-date knowledge about Italian military skiing—mentioning, for example, Luciano Roiti’s articles in L’Esercito and L’Italia militare e marina, both in 1897. Gli Scj was evidently important enough to be immediately translated into French (see this section, n. 13, above). Zavattari wrote on other matters concerning the defense of Italy, especially in winter: Marce in montagna sulla neve (Torino: Francesco Casanova, 1899) is just one title from his total of ten books. Luciano Roiti, who had climbed on skis with Zavattari, wrote a number of articles about the possibilities of military skiing before 1897. By 1902 Zavattari had persuaded the Italian War Department to allow ski training for some of the mountain troops, known as the Alpini. Only then, in 1906, did they invite Harald Smith to demonstrate skiing and train some Alpini officers who were dispatched to attend his course at Oulx. This was considered a great success by the Italian High Command, as well as by the Ministry of Public Instruction: members worried as much as other European government officials about the physical and moral health of the youth, universally viewed as the foundation of a strong state. See Zavattari, Gli skj, 58. Smith returned three seasons later and electrified the crowd at Bardonecchia with a world record jump of 45 meters (148 feet). See Allen, “Avanti!,” 14–17. 23. The training of British troops was amateurish. In Scotland, Colonel Henry Huntley Leith Malcolm (1860–1938) commanded a brigade of the Cameron and Seaforth Territorials north of the Grampian mountains. In 1906–1907, two of the drill halls at Kingussie and Grantown stored a few pairs of Norwegian skis. Training, such as it was, took place at Badenoch and Strathspey on Wednesday and Saturday afternoons. Experienced ski-runners coming up for holidays were invited to instruct wherever the deepest snow could be found: in this case between Dalwhinnie and Aviemore and also above Carrbridge and Tomatin. These out-of- the-way places are now in the Cairngorms National Park, south of Inverness. In a vague way, first suggested in 1903 and again informally at a Ski Club dinner in 1904, these men were in preparation for possible service in the India-Afghanistan mountainous border region of the Hindu Kush. The Himalayas were not unknown to skiers; even at 6,000 meters, three Swiss skiers had been in the Goodwin-Austen region in 1902. The crossing of passes of 3,505 meters (11,500 feet) and 3,962 meters (13,000 feet) were noted in the 1905 Ski Club of Great Britain annual, along with snow conditions, the report giving information such as: “avalanches at mid-day and in the afternoons”; “the hills were frozen hard til 10 a.m. or even 11 a.m. and from 5 p.m. to 7 p.m.; and above 10,000 feet”; “the slopes are often splendid for miles.” Just the sort of information good skiers would appreciate. Lieutenant C. Fitzpatrick recommended Chitral as potential ski terrain, based on his previous experience in the mountains of Switzerland. He had been posted to this small station at the barrier between northern India and the Pamirs, which turned out to be an excellent location for skiing, so much so that a club formed there in 1930. See E. H. W. Cobb, “Ski-ing on the North-West Frontier,” Ski Notes & Queries 49 (December 1932): 58. Lieutenant Mason of the Survey of India team was stationed in Kashmir in 1911 where

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the British authorities tried unsuccessfully to use posts on skis for the delivery of mail. See Harry W. Chubb, “Military Ski-Running,” Year-Book of the Ski Club of Great Britain 1, no. 1 (1905): 36–38; “Ski-Running in the Highlands,” Year-Book of the Ski Club of Great Britain 1, no. 4 (1908): 14–15; C. R. Wingfield, “Ski-Running in North Wales, 1907–09,” Year-Book of the Ski Club of Great Britain 1, no. 4 (1908): 13; W. R. Rickmers, “The Alpine Skee and Mountaineering,” Alpine Journal 31 (August 1903): 445; Jacot J. Guillarmod, “Un record dans l’Himalaya,” Jahrbuch des Schweizer Alpenclubs 37 (1902): 226; “Editorial Comment on [C. Kirkpatrick] Letter,” in Year-Book of the Ski Club of Great Britain 1, no. 1 (1905): 39; “Editorial Notes on News from India,” in Year-Book of the Ski Club of Great Britain 1, no. 3 (1907): 5; Kenneth Mason, “Two Himalayan Passes,” Year-Book of the Ski Club of Great Britain 2, no. 9 (1913): 314; Lt. Col. Dyce, “The Story of Ski-ing in India,” Year-Book of the Ski Club of Great Britain 9, no. 25 (1944): 217; Cyril Daukes, “Skiing in the Himalaya,” Alpine Ski Club Journal 6 (1913): 1–13; Dermot Norris, Kashmir: The Switzerland of India (Calcutta: W. Norman, London: Forster Groom [1932]), 124–25. For a contemporaneous British perspective on fears that Russia was about to deploy ski troops in the Himalaya, see “Snowshoes in Warfare,” 248. 24. By “Canadian skis” he means snowshoes. 25. Although there were occasional western Europeans on skis in Japan before and after the Russo-Japanese War, it was not until the arrival of two Austrians—Egon Edler von Kratzer who taught skiing to the foreign community in the 1910–1911 season and, more importantly, Oberleutnant Theodor von Lerch (1869–1945), a Zdarsky protégé of eight years standing—that skiing was permanently established. With two pairs of skis in hand, von Lerch proposed the study of skiing to a group of Japanese officers at Takata in 1911. In short order, local artisans made ten pairs of skis. Officers who had been von Lerch’s pupils returned to their regiments to pass on their expertise. Other officers taught skiing to physical education instructors who then made skiing part of the winter school curriculum, providing the Japanese army with potential recruits who knew how to ski. The Japanese understood and appreciated von Lerch’s influence to such an extent that his picture appeared on chocolate boxes. Lerch-ame was a popular brand, still for sale twenty years later. Today there are two statues of von Lerch, one on Mount Kanaya, Niigata Province, the other in the town of Kucchan near Sapporo. There is also a flourishing von Lerch society. See “Skidsport i Japan,” Ny Tidning för Idrott 12 (19 March 1903): 101–2; Morning Post (Tokyo) in Allgemeines Korrespondenzblatt 12 (24 February 1905): 119. 26. In 1904 Komets had offered just the opposite observation. See Komets, Lyzhnyi i lyzhno-parusnyi sport, 53. 27. The German Union of Skiers was the Deutscher Skiverband, founded in 1905. 28. Wilhelm Paulcke, 1873–1949. 29. It is difficult to fathom why Eimeleus minimizes the acceptance of military skiing in Germany. To the contrary, it fared quite well: the Prussian War Ministry ordered ten thousand pairs of skis in 1912; ski troops were lionized by civil society; and, as Eimeleus himself points out, section 1 of the Deutscher Skiverband (German Ski Association) charter contained the clause for “training ski-runners for the army.” And he is correct in singling out Wilhelm Paulcke as being a major force in German military promotion, heading up a Freiwillige Ski-Korps (Volunteer Ski Corps) in the Black Forest region. See Max Schneider, “Die Einführung des Schneeschuhlaufs in Deutschland,” Der Winter 17 (August 1924): 244. For a photo of an order for skis dated 8 March 1898, see Der Winter 2 (October 1935): 18; Schneider, Praktische Winke für Wintersportler (Berlin: Wintersportsverlag, n.d.

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[c. 1895]), 22; Simplicissimus (10 January 1910): cover; “Satzungen des Deutschen Ski Verbands, 4 November 1905),” 3:151; Paulcke, “Freiwillige Ski-Korps,” 86–88. 30. Eimeleus related this same story to a Finnish journalist during an interview in 1909. See “Suomalainen sotilasvoimistelun uudistajana Venäjällä,” Helsingin Sanomat 258, 7 November 1909, p. 10–11. In 1900 two men on skis were so mistrusted that they were refused a room in Noiraigue (Swiss Jura): had they come from a circus or broken out of some menagerie? In the French Jura, some skiers went out and about only after it became dark in order “not to be abused.” See Theodor Herzog, Aus der Frühzeit des Skilaufs in Deutschland (Munich: ASC, 1961): 1; Yves Moralès, “La naissance du ski dans le Jura français,” Travaux (Jura) (1992): 267. It is interesting to note the similarities between Eimeleus’s story and the exotic accounts of northern fur-clad barbarians found in Roman authors such as Tacitus and Pliny the Elder. Frank, Vse na lyzhi!, 292n87. 31. For “boys’ brigades” Eimeleus uses the term poteshnyi—a reference to Peter the Great’s “Toy Army” (boy-soldier regiments that subsequently morphed into the Preobrazhenskii and Semenovskii companies)—for children training under the tutelage of the military in marching and gymnastics. See “Pervyi narodnyi klass voennago stroia i gimnastiki . . . ,” Ogonek 22 (29 May [11 June] 1910); “Smotr ‘poteshnym semenovtsam,’” Ogonek 31 (31 June [13 August] 1910); “Pervaia v Rossii druzhina ‘poteshnykh’ pozharnykh,” Ogonek 32 (7 [20 August] 1910); “Deti-soldaty i sestry miloserdiia,” Ogonek 48 (27 November [10 December] 1910); “K sboru poteshnykh v Peterburge,” Novoe vremia, 30 July (12 August) 1911, pp. 1, 6; “Vysochaishii smotr poteshnykh,” Novoe vremia, 6 (19) August 1911, p. 1; and 13 (26) August 1911, p. 10; “Vysochaishii smotr ‘poteshnym’ na Marskom pole v SPB, 28-go iiulia,” Ogonek 32 (6 [19] August 1911); “Vysochaishii smotr ‘poteshnym’ na Marskom pole v Peterburge,” Novoe vremia, 12 (25) August 1912; “K smotru poteshnikh v Peterburge,” Novoe vremia, 4 (17) August 1912, p. 1, 8; “V vysochaishemu smotru v Peterburge 1-go avgusta,” Novoe vremia, 11 (24) August 1912, p. 1, 6; “Ego imperatorskoe vysochestvo naslednik tsesarevich v Krymu,” Novoe vremia, 18 (26) October 1912, p. 1; Gazeta-Kopeika 24 July (6 August) 1911, p. 1; and 26 July (8 August) 1911, p. 2. Poteshnyi was also associated with the Boy Scouts. See “‘Poteshnye’ v Finliandii,” Novoe vremia, 23 April (6 May) 1911, pp. 7–9; “Romanovs. Tsar Nicholas II & the Russian Army,” 31:10–31:28. 32. In his corrections (zamechaniia), Eimeleus adds: “The Emperor’s Prize in skiing was awarded to the following Guard companies: in 1909, to the Combined Cossack [1st Guards Cavalry Division of St. Petersburg] and Pavlovskii [Life-Guards Pavlovskii Regiment of St. Petersburg] Regiments; in 1910, to His Majesty’s Third Rifles [Life-Guards 3rd His Majesty’s Rifle Regiment of St. Petersburg]; in 1911, to the Moscow Regiment [Life Guards Moscow Regiment of St. Petersburg].” Advertisement: Main Gymnastics-Fencing School Press, St. Petersburg

1. As of 1914, one ruble (containing 100 kopeks) was worth fifty cents US or two British shillings (12 pence per shilling). For the sake of comparison, around 1897 in London, St. Petersburg, and Helsinki there were nearly identical sets of slim paperbacks for sale comprising a serialized translation of Fridtjof Nansen’s Farthest North, an account of his 1893–1896 attempt to reach the North Pole on skis. In London, each section of the twenty-volume Farthest North cost 6 pence, or 10 shillings total. In Helsinki, the thirty booklet set of Pohjan pimeillä perillä was available for 60 penniä per volume, or 18 markkaa total (6 rubles, 30 kopeks, or around 12 shillings, 6 pence). It was also offered in a two-volume

NOTES to ADVERTISEMENT: MAIN GYMNASTICS

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bound version at 11 markkaa per book. In St. Petersburg, V strane l’da i nochi was available in fifteen volumes by subscription from the publishing house of O. N. Popova for 3 rubles (6 shillings); with shipping, the series totaled 4 rubles, 50 kopeks. See “Nansen’s ‘Farthest North,’” Part One (London: George Newnes, 1898), front cover; “Otavan Uusi Joulukirjallisuus 1897,” Työmies 50A, 11 December 1897, p. 4; “Novoe izdanie O. N. Popovoi,” Novoe vremia, 9 (21) March 1897, p. 6. 2. See Eimeleus’s acknowledgments in his preface, n. 4. Mordovin was also the editor of a treatise on the French technique of fencing with foil and épée entitled Vladenie rapiroi i shpagoi po frantsuzkomu ustavu, utverzhdennomu 6 marta 1908 goda (St. Petersburg: Tip. Red. period. izdanii M-va fin., 1914). Staff-Captain Gostev (see n. 18 below) was the translator of this book. 3. Frants Iosifovich Erben was the author of works on gymnastics entitled Vybor nekotorykh gimnasticheskikh urokov (St. Petersburg: Izd. Glavnoi Gimnastichesko-Fekhtoval’noi Shkoly, 1912) and Uchebnye osnovy dlia obucheniia gimnastikii v srednykh uchebnykh zavedeniiakh v Rossii (St. Petersburg: V. F. Kirshbaum, 1913). 4. Miroslav Tyrš (1832–1884), a Czech nationalist and founder of the Sokol Movement. He was born in the Bohemian region of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and received his doctorate in philosophy from Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague in 1860. His dissertation on the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer influenced the subsequent formulation of his Sokol theories. The book listed here is probably a Russian translation of Tyrš’s Základové tělocviku (Basics of Gymnastics) printed in 1872. See Michal Bábela and Josef Oboroný, “Dr. Miroslav Tyrš—Father of the Sokol and Philosophy of the Sokol,” Science of Gymnastics Journal 10, no. 2 (January 2018): 313–323, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326393812_ Dr_Miroslav_TyrS_-_Father_of_the_Sokol_and_philosophy_of_the_Sokol. 5. A possible picture of Baikov (an instructor of bayonet fencing, spelled Balkov) appears as a cropped portrait from a group photograph of MGFS staff posted on “Forum kollektsionerov” (see entry no. 38), https://forum-antikvariat.ru/index.php/ topic/127984-znak-ob-okonchanii-glavnoj-gimnastichesko-fehto/page-2. 6. Possibly N. Kiavari, a contributor to Fekhtovanie na rapirakh (St. Petersburg: Gostip, 1913), a book on fencing with foil. 7. Luigi Barbasetti (1859–1948) was one of the last century’s most influential masters of fencing. He opened the Austro-Hungarian Central Fencing School in Vienna in 1894, where he developed his Hungarian-style of saber technique, which dominated competition in that discipline through the first half of the twentieth century. The book listed here— Luidzhi Barbazetti, Fekhtovanie na sabliakh (St. Petersburg: Svet, 1909)—is a Russian translation of Barbasetti’s manual on saber technique, originally written in Italian but translated into German for use at his Vienna fencing school as Das Säbelfechten (Vienna: Allgemeine Sport-Zeitung, 1899). See William G. Gaugler, The History of Fencing: Foundations of Modern European Swordplay (Bangor, ME: Laureate Press, 1998), 276, 279, 392, 413, 428. 8. George Emil Joseph Demenÿ (1850–1917), Hungarian physiologist and instructor of gymnastics. Lieutenant Gostev (see “From the Editor” above) was the translator and editor of this book. 9. Petr Nikolaevich Bokin. See “Sources,” n. 12, above. The two books listed here were published by the MGFS in 1910 as Kratkii istoricheskii obzor fizicheskago vospitaniia (St. Petersburg: Izd. Glavnoi Gimnastichesko-Fekhtoval’noi Shkoly, 1910) and Khodba, beg, prizhki i drugiia estestvennyia dvizheniia cheloveka: mekhanizm i znachenie ikh v fizicheskom vospitanii (St. Petersburg: Izd. Glavnoi Gimnastichesko-Fekhtoval’noi Shkoly, 1910) Lieutenant Gostev was the editor of both of Bokin’s books.

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10. Vasilii Pavlovich Vsevolozhskii (1871–?) was the son of a wealthy landowner who served in various St. Petersburg medical clinics up to the outbreak of World War I. His aristocratic association led to his arrest and prosecution under the Bolsheviks. The end of his life is the subject of various stories, myths, and speculation. See ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Всеволожский_Василий_Павлович. The two circulars of the General Staff listed here were combined into one book published by the School: Kurs gigieny i priemov podachi pervoi pomoshchi (St. Petersburg: Izd. Glavnoi Gimnastichesko-Fekhtoval’noi Shkoly, 1911). 11. That is, hand-to-hand combat using a rifle as a stave or staff without bayonet attached. It is possible that the author is the same A. Nechaev who won competition at the All-Union Spartakiada of 1928 in rifle fencing with flexible bayonets and, as A. B. Nechaev, published a treatise on that sport, Boi na venotavkakh s elastichnym shtykom (Moscow: Gosvoenizdat: 1940). See Aleksandr Paimuramov “Epokha shtyka,” www.proza. ru/2018/10/27/1400; “Razvitie fekhtovaniia v SSSR,” http://sport-history.ru/books/item/ f00/s00/z0000010/st010.shtml. 12. Boris Bronislavovich de-Pollini, author of Metanie bumeranga: dostup. interes. i polez. sport dlia muzhchin i zhenshchin vsiakogo vozrasta (St. Petersburg: Ekon tipo-lit., 1913), a book on throwing the boomerang. 13. Eimeleus’s paperback book is 148 pages of text plus a table of contents, advertisements, and appendices. In 1904, Komets’s sixty-six-page book on skiing cost 40 kopeks (see “Sources,” n. 9, above); Gal’s 1903 ski brochure of forty-six pages was 20 kopeks (see the preface, n. 3). 14. N. V. Manokhin was a member of the Prague Sokol Gymnastics Union who translated this book (Sokol Gymnastics Course: a handbook for instructors) from Czech into Russian for the Sokol Gymnastics Union of St. Petersburg. Bound with a handsome embossed hardcover for the 1911 edition advertised here, this is the most expensive book on the list. 15. The terms “slash” and “riposte” refer to fencing techniques for saber. The National Library of Russia lists the author as A. K. Grekov, possibly Aleksandr Petrovich Grekov (1875–1959), an instructor of military science at various schools in St. Petersburg from 1908 to 1914. 16. Aleksei Dmitrievich Butovskii (1838–1917) was an authority on gymnastics instruction, and (as a result of meeting Baron Pierre de Coubertin on a trip to Paris in 1892) one of the founders of the Olympic movement. See Allen Guttmann, The Olympics: A History of the Modern Games, 2nd ed. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002), 15, 16. 17. This refers to Ivan Ivanovich Burtsev’s Anatomiia cheloveka (Human Anatomy), an illustrated handbook intended for use in surgical schools first published in 1877. At the time of this listing, Burtsev’s book was available in its sixteenth edition of 1911. See “General’nyi alfavitnyi katalog knig na russkom iazike (1725–1998) Razdelitel’ Burtsev Ivan Ivanovich 1842 Patologoanatom kartochka 1-5,” Russian National Library. http://nlr. ru/e-case3/sc2.php/web_gak/lc/12321/1. 18. It is more than likely that Lieutenant Gostev, editor of Eimeleus's book, and this Staff-Captain Gostev are one and the same person (Fedor Pavlovich of the 29th Artillery Brigade), perhaps as a result of a promotion by the time of publication at the end of 1912. Advertisement: The “Sportsmen” Company, St. Petersburg

1. Compare with advertisement for Lorer and Drommeter in Novoe vremia 7, no. 20 (December 1912): 8.

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Index Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations. Aabel, Andreas, xvi Adlercreutz, Carl Johan, 125, 202n18 Aejmelaeus, Karl Edvin Johannes, xxiii, 144n6 Aitamurto, Aappo, 189–90n27 Aitamurto, Juho, 86, 189–90n27, 190n32 Alexander III, Emperor of Russia, xxxiii Allen, John, xxxvi Almqvist, Arno, 101, 102, 196n30 Altai Mountains: skiing in, xiv, xv, 13, 162–63n5 Aminov, Johann Frederick, 125, 203nn22–23 Amundsen, Roald, xxix, 177n8 Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, xxxiv Antarctica, exploration of, xxix Arrman, Apmut Andersson, 188n19 Austro-Hungarian Empire: foreign policy of, xxxiii, xxxiv, xxxv; military skiing in, 133, 206–7n12, 207n13, 209n17; ski associations, 208n15; ski competitions in, 133–34 Autio, Assario, 86, 189–90, 190n27, 190n31 Autio, H., 189–90n27 balaclava, 45 “Balata” binding, 40, 40, 176n6 Balck, Viktor, 157n8 Balkan Wars, xxviii, xxxii, xxxiv, xxxv, xxxvi–xxxvii, 153n61 Barbasetti, Luigi, 213n7 bashlyk (woolen hood), 46, 179n14 Bek-Marmarchev, Iakov, 92, 191n10

Belte, Pål, 124, 202n5 Berg, Leif, 85, 188n17 Bergson, Henri, 142n22 Berlin, Treaty of (1909), xxxiv Berlin Conference (1878), xxxiii Bernard, G., xviii, 134, 158n8, 176n8, 191– 92n13, 194n1, 209n18 Bezak, Pavel, 8, 157n7 biathlon, xxxii, 199n4, 201n4, 204n1 Bilgeri, Georg, 101, 134, 191–92n13, 194n1, 195n24, 207n13, 208nn15–16 binding methods, 17, 18, 38–43, 176n3 (sec. 11), 176nn6–7, 177n8 binding straps: damage of, 31, 31 Boer War, xxiv, 58, 145–46n11 “Bogatyr” ski club, 144n34, 159n9 Bokin, Petr, 160n12, 198n4, 199n13, 199n15, 199nn19–20, 213n9 Boldyrev, Sergei, 101, 196n27 Bollnas, town of, 176n2 (sec. 11) “Bollnas’ binding,” 38, 39 Bolshevik Revolution, xxx boots, 39, 39–40, 40, 41, 41, 42, 42, 44, 49, 177–78n16 Borodin, Sergei, 128 Borzentsov, Nikolai, 102, 196n34 Boxer Rebellion, xxxiii, 145n11 Braaten, Paul, 185–86n11 braking: body position during, 68, 68, 70; changing direction and, 71; with one ski, 70–71, 72; with a pole, 68–69, 69; with two skis, 70, 70 Brandt, Otto, 22, 171n17

236

Index

breathing exercises, 89–90 Bulatov, Mikhail, 125, 202n19 Bulgarian Crisis, xxxiii Burov, Grigoriy, xv Burtsev, Ivan, 214n17 Butovskii, Aleksei, 214n16 camber. See ski camber Canadian ski: benefits of, 48; evolution of, 15; main function of, 17; military use of, 135; position of the sole of the foot on, 47; racquet, 48, 48; walking technique on, 47–48. See also snowshoes cane (wire) binding, 39 cavalry in warfare, xxx, xxxvi, 58 center grooves: form of, 18, 20–21, 22–23; function of, 27, 93, 172n19, 173n6 (sec. 6); types of, 23 Central Union of Devotees of Sport, 132 Chilean Ski Club, 166n15 chills: protection against, 11, 161n4; symptoms of, 12 Christensen, K., 209n21 Christiania turn, 73, 74, 74, 92, 99 Christianson, H. M., 172–73n6 Chuchki people, 15 cinematography, xxxi, 48 Clerc, Henri, xviii, 209n18 clothing for skiing: for female skiers, 143n34; goggles, 45, 179n13; hats, 45, 179n9; jackets, 45, 179n9; material for, 161n3, 178n5, 178n7; for the military, 46; mittens, 46; pants, 178n4, 178n5; requirements for, 44–45 Club Alpin Français (CAF), xxi, 5, 134, 170n5, 209n18, 209n20 Club Alpino Español, 209n21 Club Alpino Italiano, 210n22 collapsible ski, 92–93 Collinder, Erik, 157–58n9

Cook, Thomas, 205n4 Coubertin, Pierre de, xxvii, xxx, 214n16 Creative Evolution (Bergson), 142n22 Crimean War, xxxii, xxxiii, 45 Cronstedt, Carl Olof, 125, 203n20 cross-country skiing: achievements in, 87; competitions, 85–86, 116–17, 118; “double-pole” technique of, 50–51, 180n14; manuals, xxxii; ski-skating style of, 180n13 Czant, Hermann, 194n1, 208n15 Dagenburg, Oskar Schadek von, 194n1 Dahlström, Kaarlo Hjalmar, 86, 190n28 Danich, Vladimir, 84, 185n4 Davidov, Staff-Captain, 102 De Amazua, Manuel G., 209n21 De la Gardie, Jakob, 124 Demenÿ, Emil Joseph, 213n8 Dewar, James, 161n5 diagonal ski technique, 50, 98 double poles, 36, 37 double pole ski technique, 50–51, 180n14 dry steam, 173n1 Eastern European geopolitics, xxxii–xxxv Egde, Hans Poulsen, 165n14 Ehrhardt field artillery cannon, 204n29 Ehrhardt sleds, 128, 129 Eimeleus, K. B. E. E. (Karl Edvinovich): advocacy for ski training in the army, xxviii–xxix, xxxvi; athletic activities of, xxv, xxv– xxvii, xxviii, xxviii, xxx, 90–91, 147nn20–21, 149n32; awards of, xxvi–xxvii, xxx, 5, 147–48n25, 151n46; on cinematography, xxxi; contributions to sports journals, xxiii, xxix, xxxi; death of, xxiii; diplomatic career of, xxx; education of, xxiv, xxv, xxx, 146–47n15; Finnish background of, xix, xxi,

Index

150n38; as founder of sports clubs, 147n22; height of, 144n6; incident in Vasil’kov with, 136; as instructor for military training, xxiii–xxiv, xxv, xxvi, xxx, xxxvii, 7; inventions and patents of, xxiii, 41–42, 177n12; language proficiency of, xxxi, 152n48; marriage of, xxx; military experience of, xvii, xxiv–xxv, 182n8; movie stills of, 156n9; name of, xxix, 144n3, 150n38; at the Nicholas Cavalry School, xxv; personality of, xxiii; photographs of, xxii, xxviii; publications of, xiv, xxi, xxiii, xxxi, xxxvii, 5; relocation to Germany, xxx–xxxi; as sea captain, xxv, xxvii, 146n15; service in the Finnish Army, xxx, 151n43; service in the Imperial Russian army, xxv, xxvi, xxx, 147n17; on ski expansion in Austria, xxxv; on ski jumping activities, xix; travels and adventures of, xxiv, xxiv–xxv, 145n11, 146n13, 146n15; youth of, xxiii Elizarov, Aleksandr, 191n37 Ellefsen, Sigurd Høyer, 177n8 Ellefsen binding, 40, 176n7, 177n8 Encyclopedia of Military and Marine Science, 202n10 Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’ (BrokgauzEfron), xxxix, 145n10 Erben, Frants, 213n3 Erik, Adolf, 85 Eriksson, Alfred, 86, 188n20 Erman, Adolf, xv Ezerskii, Anatolii, 101, 102, 196n26 Fanck, Arnold, xxxi Farthest North (Nansen), 167, 212n1

237

Faudel’s tricot, 44 Feldberg-Hügel hill in Schwarzwald, 78 fencing, 148n26, 149n32, 154n2, 155n3, 213n7, 214n15. See also rifle fencing Fendrich, Anton, 158n8, 159n7 Filatov, Pavel, 101, 196n29 Finland: Civil War, 151n43; Court on the Crimes Against the State, 151n43; family names in, 150n38; independence of, xxx; Jäger Movement in, xxx–xxxi; nationalist movement in, xxix; russification of, xxiv, 145n9, 170n7; skiing in, xix, 13, 86 Finnish Army: mobile ski troops of, xxxii, 124 Finnish boot, 41, 41, 42, 43, 49 Finnish Rifle Battalions (Brigades), 87, 103, 104, 133, 137, 145n9, 170n7, 202n10 Finnish ski, xix–xx, 18, 20, 143n32 Finnish War (1808-1809), 125, 127 Fitzpatrick, C., 210n23 flying mail relay, 116, 117 footwear: boots with a thick sole, 42; leather toe-gaiter for, 44; requirements for, 44; types of, 41–42 forest ski, 21–22, 22 Frabritius, L. L., 143n32 France: foreign policy, xxxiii; military skiing in, 134, 209n18; ski production in, xix Franco-Prussian War, xxxvi Frank, William: Everyone to Skis!, xiv, xxi Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, xxxv Freiwillige Skikorps (volunteer ski detachment), 194n1, 211n29 Freyer, Carl, 198n4, 199n15 Gal’, I. N., 156n3, 170n7 Gamel, Augustin, xv, xvi games on skis: cut tag, 111; day and night,

238

Index

111–13; fox hunt, 114, 199n23; gorelki (burners), 110, 198n5; hit the bear, 111; importance and value of, 109; for the prize, 113; sheep pen, 113–14; spider and flies, 114–15; standard tag, 110– 11; stunts, 109–10, 198n2, 198n4; turkish tag, 111; types of, 197n1 Gazenkampf, Mikhail, 202n10 Gerkules (Russian sport journal), 160n9 German Empire: foreign policy, xxxiv; military skiing in, 135, 203n24, 211n29; ski clubs and organizations in, 135–36 Gjestvang, Nils, 186n12 gloves, 46 Gmelin, Johan, xv goggles, 179n13 golovka, 41, 41–42, 177n12 Gostev, Fedor, 8, 154n1, 156n8, 180n14, 214n18 Gotaas, Thor, 172n4 Great Britain: foreign policy, xxxiii, xxxiv; military skiing in, 135, 210n23 Great Patriotic War, xxxii Greenland: exploration of, xv, xvi, 87, 165n14, 166n17, 172n6, 188n19, 191n37, 206n8 Grelka (pocket hand warmer), 11, 161– 62n5 Grendal’, Vladimir, 125, 202n15 grooved ski, 172n19 group training, 92–93 Guchkov, Aleksandr, 145n11 La Guerra de los Mil Días (The Thousand Days’ War), xxv, 146n15 Gulf of Finland: ski-sailing across, 84 Gundersen, Gunder, 201n4 Guttmann, Allen, 184n1 (sec. 23) gymnastics, 148n26, 154–55n2, 155n6 Haapavesi ski, 20–21, 21, 22 Haapavesi, town of, 171nn14–15

Hagström, Astrid, xxx Hansen, Andreas, 162n5 Hassell, John, xxiv hats, 45–46 Heijkenskjiöld, Adolf, 206n8 Heikel, Viktor, xiv, 159n6 Helsinki Fencers (Helsingin Miekkailijat), xxx, 151n46, 196n30 Hemmesved family, 86, 184n6, 188n20 Hepoaho, Otto, 86, 189nn23–24 Herberstein, Sigismund von, 14, 166n16 hill climbing: prevention from slipping backward during, 64; “scissors” method of, 63, 63–64; ski modifications for, 65–66; special “brakes” for, 66, 66; “staircase” method of, 64, 64–65; study of, 98; zigzag method of, 63 Himalayas: skiing in, 210n23 hockey, 199n19 Holmenkollen Games, 132 hoplaam, xix, 200n2, 204n4 Hovelsen, Karl, 86, 189n26 Huitfeldt, Fritz, xiv, 49, 158n8, 176n5 (sec. 11) Huitfeldt binding, 39, 39 Huntford, Roland, 141n4, 172n6 Hussar Regiment of Kiev, xxv, xxvi hygiene (hygienic), 160-61n2 Iceland: skiing in, 165–66n14 idræt, xvi, xix, 161n2, 166n14, 190n27 Ii ski, 21, 21 Imperial Military Medicine Academy, 156n7 Imperial Petersburg Institute of Technology, 156n7 Imperial Russian Army: cavalry saber drill in, 155n3; formations of, 193nn5–7; hunter-scouts in, 203n24; infantry drill regulations in, 96, 193n1; medical corps of, 201n2,

Index

204n30; organization of, xxxvii, 182n10, 182n12, 193n4; platoon files of, 197n3; railway brigades of, 201n2; reforms of, xxxiv, xxxv–xxxvi; ski troops of, xviii, 136–37; war games of, 156n2 Indian ski, 84, 92, 133. See also Canadian ski; snowshoes Indigenous peoples: practical skiing of, xv, xix individual training, 91–92 International Ski Association, 187n15, 208n15 International Ski Congress, 200n3, 207n12, 209n17 Italo-Turkish War, 153n60 Italy: foreign policy, xxxiv, xxxv; military skiing in, 134, 187n15, 210n22 Ivan III, Grand Prince of Russia, 124

239

200n3; mistakes of, 82–83, 83; Optræk style of, 184n6; out-run, 77, 77, 79, 80; popularity of, 186n12; records of, 85, 186n12; schematic representation of, 80; slope of ski hill for, 78, 79, 80; snow condition for, 79; starting position before, 81, 81; technique of, 80–82; training for, 100 jumping platform: profiles of, 77–78, 80; relationship between the in-run and, 77, 77; requirements for, 78–80 Jussila, Heikki, 189–90n27 Jussila, Kalle, 21, 86, 171n15, 177n11, 189n23–25, 189–90n27

Kajana ski, 20, 20, 171n13, 174n2 (sec. 8) Kalevala epic, 13, 164–65n11 “kalhu” ski, 16, 16, 164n11, 168n5 Jacobsen, Chappel, 185n10 Khokhlachev, Fedor, 102, 196n32 Jäger, Gustav, 44, 161n3 Kisakentta (Finland’s sports magazine for Jägerskiöld, L. A., xiv women), 159n7 Jakober, Josef, 176n6 Kiviat, Abel, 155n5 Japan: military skiing in, 135, 211n25. See also Russo-Japanese War (1904- Kleinoscheg, Max, 207n12 Klingele, Otto, 175n21 1905) Knud, Trysil, xvi, xvii Japanese ski museum, 163n5 Koch, Bill, 180n13 Jarlsberg, Samson, 207n12 Komets, Konstantin: advertisements of, Jarlsberg, Wedel, 207n12 174n2, 177n10, 177n14; on Johnsen, Theo. A., 174n3 (sec. 9) manufacture of “universal Jokkmokk-Kvikkjokk race, 86, 188n19 type of ski,” 172n17; patents Jonsson, L. A., 169n5 of, 177n10; promotion of ski jumping: birthplace of, 85; competitions in, clothing by, 179n9, 179n12; 85, 118, 184n3 (sec. 22), 188n17, promotion of skiing by, 159– 200n3, 204n4; educational value 60n9; publications of, 159–60n9; of, 77; erect style of, 184n6; shop of, 159n9; ski blade of, flight through the air after, 81, 40, 40; on ski competition, 84; 81–82, 82, 83; hill profile for, on ski schools, 156n7; sport 77, 78, 78–79; in-run, 77, 77, activities of, 182n3; vocabulary, 78, 81; landing after, 79, 80, 171n12, 200n2, 203n26; on 82; length and trajectory of, women’s skiing, 143n34 77, 78; length of flight during,

240

Index

Kratzer, Egon Edler von, 211n25 Kul’nev, Iakov, 125, 202n17 Kurbskii, Semen, 125 lacrosse, 199n20 Lahmann, Heinrich, 44, 161n3 Laplanders. See Sami Lapland ski, 18, 18 Larrey, Dominique, 161n4 Lassen, Fredrick K., 157n8 Leer, Genrikh A., xxxix, 124, 202n10 Leksvik ski, 170n6 Lemminkäinen, xiv, 164–65n11 Lerch, Theodor von, 208n15, 211n25 Lesnoi Institute, xxix, 156n7 Lilienfelder Schule, 101 Lilienfelder Skilauf-Technik (Zdarsky), 208n15 Lilienfeld ski, 208n15 Livbakken hill, 78, 78 Lodz tailors, 178n5, 178n7 London International Health Exhibition (1884), 161n3 Lönnrot, Elias, 164n11 Lorensen, B., 209n21 “Lucky” jacket, 179n9 Luomajoki, Aappo, xix, 86, 171n14, 180n4, 189n22, 189–90n27 Luther, Carl Joseph, 142n20, 192n15, 207n14, 208n16 “lyly” ski, 16, 164n11 Main Gymnastics-Fencing School: Eimeleus’s enrollment in, xxvi, 5, 7; establishment of, 148n26; lectures at, xxviii, 149–50n35; publications of, 138; ski competition at, 101–2; skiing instructions at, 136 Maksimov, Evgenii, 146n11 Malcolm, Henry Huntley Leith, 210n23 Manchuria, xxxiii–xxxiv Mannerheim, Gustav, 151n43

Mannström, Bror Karl Anton, xxviii, 149n32 Merikoski, Kaarlo, 86, 190n28–29 Michelsen, Christian, xvii military binding, 39 military ski, 19 military touring, 208n16 mittens, 46 Möller, P., xiv Mont Blanc, 85, 188n16 Mordovin, Aleksandr, xxvii, 8, 138, 149n33, 157n4 mountain climb and descent, 66–67, 85, 98, 99 mountain ski, 17, 18, 28, 38, 39, 63 Muhos ski, 20 Mylius, Hugo, 85, 188n16 Naef, Eduard, 185n7 Nansen, Fridtjof: diplomatic career of, xvii; expeditions of, xv–xvi, xviii, 87, 162–63n5, 166n17, 172–73n6, 191n37; influence on modern skiing, 167n17; international reputation of, 166–67n17; promotion of Jäger’s outfits by, 161n3; in Russia, 142n18; on skiing sport, xvi; On skis over Greenland, xv, 14, 166–67n17; on use of skis for travel, xvi Nansen hat, 45, 179n9, 179n12, 179n14 Nemukhin, Aleksandr, 191n37 New England Ski Museum, xxi, 172n19 Nicholas Cavalry School, xxii, xxiv, xxv, xxvi–xxvii, 146–47n15, 150n40 Nicholas II, Emperor of Russia, xxiv, xxxiii, xxxiv Nordenskiöld, Adolf Erik, 85–86, 165n14, 188n19, 206n8 Nordic combined, 199n4, 200n4 Nordic Games (Nordiska Spelen), xvii, xxix, 150n40, 180n13, 185n5, 189n21, 189n24

Index

“normal” ski, 22–23, 23, 171n16 North American Ski Association, 166n14 Norway: as birthplace of skiing, 163n5; cross-country ski competition in, 86; independence of, xvii; popularity of skiing in, xvi, xvii, xix, 132, 136, 204n3, 205n4; ski competitions in, 204–5n4; skiing history in, 13–14; ski manufacturing in, 166n15, 169n4, 170n6, 172n4, 172n19; winter culture, 205n4 Norwegian Army: artillery of, 204n29; clothing kit of, 46; ski troops, 132, 202n10 Norwegian Dragoons Regiment, 132 Norwegian names, 188–89n20 Norwegian running ski, 18 Novoe vremia (Russian newspaper), xxvii, xxviii, xxxix, 146n11, 148n29, 191n10

241

Oscar II, king of Sweden, xvii Østbye, Peter, xx Ostiak (Khanty), xiv, xv ostrakinda, 198n13 Ottoman Empire, xxxiii, xxxv, 150n41, 153n60 Oulu/Haapavesi skiing, xix Oulu ski championships, 171n14, 171n15, 180n4, 189n23, 189n25, 189n27

Pallas, Peter, xv Paulcke, Wilhelm, 85, 135, 187n15, 194n1, 195n24, 197n5, 208n15, 211nn28–29 Paul the Deacon (Paulus Diaconus), 13, 47, 163n9, 164n10, 179n3 Pellegrini, Carlo, 197n1 Peltola, Jaakko, 86, 191n34 Penkala, Slavoljub Eduard, 161n5 pentathlon, modern, xxvii, xxviii, xxviii, 149n32, 196n30 Peter the Great’s “Toy Army,” 212n31 Pfeffer brothers, 84 Obukhov, General, 128, 203n28 physical exercises, 90–91 Ogonek (Russian magazine), xxiv–xxv, pieksu, xix. See also boots xxvii, xxxix, 143n34, 146n15, Pilet, Raymond, 85, 186–87n14 153nn60–61 Ogorodnikov, Fedor, 46, 160n11 poles: basket on, 36–37; braking with, okhotniki (hunter scouts), xiv, 50, 125, 127, 68, 68–69, 69; construction of, 203n24, 204n28; (volunteers) 36–37, 37; fitted with iron disc, xxxvii, 203n24 68; materials for, 36; primary Olaus Magnus, xvi, 13–14, 165n13, 167n3 function of, 36; turning in place Olympic Games in Antwerp (1920), xxx with use of, 61–62; types of, Olympic Games in Calgary (1988), 200n4 183n2 (sec. 19); with wooden Olympic Games in Lillehammer (1994), disc, 36. See also double poles 168n4 Port Arthur, siege of, xxxv–xxxvi. See also Olympic Games in Oslo (1952), 201n4 Russo-Japanese War (1904Olympic Games in Paris (1900), 148n26, 1905) 149n32 Puolanko ski, 20, 20 Olympic Games in Stockholm (1912), 149n32, 157nn4–5 Quinze-Neuf, 159th Alpine Infantry On Skis over Greenland (Nansen), xv, 14, Regiment (Chasseurs Alpins, 162n5, 166–67n17 Régiment de la Neige), xviii, Orban, Ferdinand, 192n15 134, 158n8, 204n30, 209n18

242

Index

Räsänen, Oskar, 41, 41, 174n2, 177n11, 186n11 Rassa, Anders (Sami scout), 85, 188n18 Réaumur, Rene Antoine Ferchaulte de, xxxviii Red Army ski battalions, xxxii Reid, Thomas Mayne, xxiv, 145n10 relay race, 102, 116–17, 200nn5–6 Relender, Lauri Kristian, xxx riding behind a horse: challenges of, 56, 57; competitions of, 84–85, 85, 118; equipment for, 55–56, 57; illustration of, 56; methods for braking during, 57; military application of, 57–58; of multiple skiers, 56–57, 57; photograph of, 58; purely sporting, 55–57; slowing down during, 57; training lessons, 99, 100; two categories of, 55; using a yoke during, 55–56. See also skijoring Riesch, Franz, 207n12 rifle (bayonet) fencing, 151n46, 214n11 Riordan, Jim: Sport in Soviet Society, xx Ritola, Juho, 86, 171n14, 180n4, 189n21, 189–90n27 Ritola, Matti, 86, 189–90n27 Rivas, Capitaine M., 158–59n8, 192n13, 194n1, 209n18 Roiti, Luciano, 210n22 Roll, Karl, 134, 207n12, 209n17 Romanov, Nikolai Nikolaevich, 192n11 Rosmann, Oskar, 134, 207n13 Rossler-Orovsky, Josef, 207n12 running ski, 17, 18, 28, 38, 169n4 Russian Amateur Championships, xxvii Russian Black Sea Fleet, xxxv Russian Empire: climate and territory of, 136; colonial expansion of, xxxiii; European affairs, xxxii– xxxiii, xxxiv, xxxv; Far Eastern policy, xxxiii–xxxiv; Julian calendar in, xxxviii, 205n6;

newspapers and magazines, xxxix; pan-Slavic sentiments in, xxxiii, xxxiv, 150n41; Poliarnaia zvezda (Polar Star) club, xviii; reference literature in, xxxix; Revolution of 1905 in, xxxiv; skiing in, xv, xviii– xix, xxi, 14, 136–37, 156n1, 212n32; weights and measures used in, xxxviii, 173n8, 199n22. See also Imperial Russian Army Russian Olympiad (1913), xxvii Russkii invalid (military journal), 124, 159n8, 201n3 Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), xxxii, xxxiii–xxxiv, xxxv, 130, 204n30 Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878), xxxvii Rustad, Simen, xix Sahlin, Salomon, 169–70n5, 169n4 Sahlin ski, 18, 169nn4–5, 177n16 sails, types of, 59, 59 Sami, xv, 13, 55, 55, 68, 162n5, 163n7, 165n14, 168n4, 178n16, 183n2 (sec. 19) Samoyeds (Nenets), xv, 13, 46 Samoyed ski, 169n6, 174n2 (sec. 8) Sandberg, Hugo Richard, xiv, 26, 158n4 Sandels, Johann August, 127, 128 sanitary service, 129–30, 201n2, 204n30 Sanitary Wool System, 161n3 Sarnavskii, Vladimir, xxvii, 8, 149n33, 157n5 Saxo Grammaticus, xvi, 14, 124, 165n13, 202n4 Scandinavian ski troops, xvii, xviii Schefferus, Johannes, 168n5, 175n21 Schneider, Hannes: The Wonders of Skiing, xxxi Schneider, Max, 194n1 Schollmayer, Etbin Heinrich, 207n12 Schottelius, Ernst, 158n8 Schou, Gunnerus, 183n2 (sec. 19)

Index

Schruf, Toni, 207n12 Scott, Robert Falcon, xxix Selbu ski, 18, 170n6 Shackleton, Ernest, 161n5 Shmakov, Vladimir, 101 Siberia: explorations of, xv; indigenous tribes of, xv; practical skiing in, xix, 15–16, 136, 168n4 Sieppi, Matti, 86, 190n33 “Sigurd” binding system, 40, 40 Siitonen, Pauli, 180n13 Sila i zdorov’e (Russian sport journal), xxiii, xxvi single-ski skating style, 180n13 Sirelius, U. T., 192n15 ski: archaeological findings of, xv, 163n5, 167–68n4; in Armenia, use of, 15; binding methods, xx, 38, 38, 43; camber, 18, 26, 26, 27, 27, 28, 29, 29, 30, 30, 34, 171n12; classification of, 168n4; collapsible, 191n10, 192n13; cost of new, 31; cross-section of, 26; design of, 164–65n11, 168n5, 169n6, 172n19; for different categories of snow, 34; early depictions of, 14, 165n13; efficiency of, xviii; etymology of word, 162n5, 163–64n10; evolution of, 15–16; first illustrations of, 14; foot platform, 27; form of, 18, 26; materials for, 24–25; origin of, 13, 168n4; preservation of, 29–30; prices of, 174n2 (sec. 8); primitive forms of, 15; qualities of good, 23; repair of damaged, 29, 30, 30, 31–32, 32; Russian term for, 163n6; sag of weak, 27; selection of, 27–28, 31, 31; size of, 18; vs. snowshoes, xviii, 185n7; top surface configurations of, 27; in travel and exploration, use of, xv–xvi;

243

types of, 15–16, 17–23, 167– 68n4, 167n4, 168n5; “universal” type of, 172n17; wood for, 24–25 ski blades, 40, 40, 177n10 Ski Club of Great Britain, 210n23 ski competitions: history of, 84–87; impact of weather conditions on, 87; in jumping, 184n3 (sec. 22); military, 87, 177–78n16; norms over variety of distances in, 122–23; Oulu race, 171nn14–15; point systems, 201n4, 201n5; prize winners in, 85–86; proper execution of, 116; records, 86, 155n4; relay run, 116–17; rules to skiers in, 118–19; scoring of, 120–23, 201nn5–10; in the Soviet Union, 200n5; in St. Petersburg, xxix; team run, 117; types of, 116–18, 120 ski detachments: in battle, 128–29; as border and coastal guards, 131; communication service of, 127; guard duty of, 126; guerrilla action of, 127–28; reconnaissance duty of, 127; sanitary service of, 129–30, 201n2, 204n30; strength of, 128; training of, 125–26; in war time, history of, 124–25 skiers: Norwegian term for, 163–64n10; public perception of, 136, 212n30 skiers on the march: accidents of, 106; commands for, 104, 106; communication between, 104–5; on difficult terrain, 107; distance between, 105–6; division into sections and groups, 106; in doubled-up platoon files, 105, 106; in halt formation, 103, 103; maintaining discipline of, 104; patrol chain of, 203n21; pauses and rests of, 107; route

244

Index

of, 106–7; rules for, 104, 105–7; speed management of, 105, 107; weather conditions and, 107–8 skiing: accidents in, 12, 197n5; advertisements, 159n9; ancient sources about, xiv, 13; in Australia, 166n15; benefits of, 12, 137; birthplace of, 162–63n5; books on, 157–58n9, 194n1, 208n15, 212n1, 214n13; bounding concept of, 180n4; health effect of, 7, 11–12; history of, xiv, xiv–xv, 13–14, 162n2, 163–64n10, 165n13, 205n5; hygienic rules of, 11, 160–61n2; instruction, xxxi–xxxii; Lilienfeld method of, 187n15; military view of, 7; Norwegian influence on, 165–66n14, 187n15; over bogs and marshes, 192n15; over water, 93; spread of, 13–14; in summer time, 93; in Switzerland, 135; techniques of, xv, 208–9n16; in the United States, introduction of, 166n14; value of, 156–57n4; weather effect on, 33 skiing in the military: in battle, 96–97; changing direction in a parade line, 95; company instruction, 95–96, 100, 101; double files movement, 95; on the firing line, 96–97; history of, xiv, xvii; instruction for, 88–93, 90, 155n7; introduction of, xviii; lesson schedule for, 98–102; parade formations, 94–96; platoon instruction, 94–95, 100; potential for, xxxvi; with rifle, 46, 96; and shooting, 96–97, 97; training exercises for, xviii, xxviii–xxix, 88, 97, 195n24; turning in place, 94; turning

on the move, 94–95. See also ski detachments; skiing on the march skiing sport, xvi, xix skijoring, 56, 151n43, 181–82n3, 182n4, 185n8. See also riding behind a horse ski jumping. See jumping ski maintenance: storage, 29, 29, 29–30; tar application, 26, 29; waxing, 34, 35, 143n33, 175–76n21 ski manufacturing: considering wood grains for, 173n2; dry steam process in, 26; in Finland, 171n13; in Norway, 170n6, 172n4, 172n19; in Sweden, 169n5; wood for, 24, 24–25, 172n1, 172n4, 172n19 ski ride from the mountain, 200n2 ski-running: asymmetrical methods of, 49– 50; basic three-cadence technique of, 51; basic two-cadence on the same foot technique of, 51–52; basic two-step cadence on alternating feet technique of, 52; breathing during, 54; compound three-cadence technique of, 52; diagonal methods of, 50; fourcadence technique of, 53–54, 99; gliding technique of, 47; over variable terrain, 98, 99, 100, 101; semi-circular movement in, 53, 53; symmetrical methods of, 49; techniques, 180n16–17; three-cadence technique of, 99, 180n17; two-cadence technique of, 52–53, 99; using both arms, 50–51 ski sailing: competitions, 185n5; drawbacks of, 59; favorable terrain for, 60; history of, 84; methods of, 59– 60; skis suitable for, 60; speed of, 185n5; training lessons, 100 ski schools, 155n7, 156n7

Index

Skis in the Art of War (Eimeleus): analysis of cross-country skiing, xxxi; challenges of translation of, xxxviii–xxxix, 144n1; main goal of, 7–8; presentation of, xxviii, xxix; price of, 214n13; review of, xxxi; sources cited in, 5, 8, 9, 158–160nn1–12; vocabulary of, xxxvii–xxxviii, 160n1 skis recommended for the troops, 92–93, 169–70n5 ski training, 194–95n1 Ski Union of Norway, 132 ski-walking, 47, 48–49 Skoglund binding, 176n3 (sec. 11) sleds: akhio, 87, 103; for artillery, 128–29; construction of, 128, 130; with long runners set edgewise, 130, 131; for machine guns, 128, 128, 129; for mountain cannons, 129; with a portable chair, 130; for transporting the wounded, 130, 130, 131 Smith, Harald, 85, 134, 185n8, 186n12, 210n22 Smith, Trygve, 185n8, 186n12 snow: categories of, 33, 174–75nn4–19; descriptive modifiers for, 174n3 (sec. 9); effect on skis, 33, 34 snow goggles, 45 snowshoes, 163n6, 167n1, 192n15. See also Canadian ski; Indian ski; truga skis snow skis, 15 Society of Advocates for Winter Troops, xxviii, xxix Sokol movement, 147n22, 154–55n2, 213n4 Sørensen, Birger, 209n21 Spain: military skiing in, 134; ski clubs in, 209n21 sparkstottings sled, 130, 131, 133 “Sportsmen” Company advertisement, 139 Ståhlberg, Kaarlo Juho, xxx

245

Stang, Hilda, 85, 186n12 Stephanius, Stephanus Johannis, 165n13 St. Petersburg Institute of Archaeology, xxx, 150n41 St. Petersburg Polytechnic Institute, 156n7 straps, 40, 41 Styrian Ski Association, 143n32 summer skiing, 192n13 Svalastoga, Sveinung, 184n6 Svendaas, Nils, 170n6 Sverre Sigurdsson, king of Norway, 124, 202n5 Sweden: ski associations in, 170n5, 206n8; skiing in, 86, 206n8; ski manufacturing in, 169n5 Sweden’s Public Sports Federation, 206n8 Swedish ski, 17–18 Swedish ski troops, 132, 202n10, 205n7 Swedish Tourist Association, 206n8 Swiss Ski Union, 135 Switzerland, 5, 56, 85, 85, 134, 135, 185nn7–8, 210n23 Sytin, Ivan D., xxxix Tanner, H. A., 208n15 Tanutrov, Georgii, xxiii, xxiv, xxv, xxvi, 144n5, 147n17 Telemark (Norway’s center of skiing), xix Telemark method of mountain descent, 66 Telemark ski, 18, 19, 31–32, 32, 93, 172n19, 192n14 Telemark turn, 74, 75, 75, 76, 92, 99 Teviashov, Evgenii, xxvii, xxviii–xxix, 148n29, 191n10 “Thermifor” hot water bottle, 161n5 Thermos, 11, 161n5 Tillo, A. A., 149n35 Todtnau Ski Club, 187n14, 187n15 Tornæus, Johannis, 175n21 Toumpo, Emil, 177n11 training for skiing in the military: breathing exercises, 89–90; climbing exercises, 91; group

246

Index

exercises, 92–93; interruptions during, 92; jumping practice, 92; muscle training, 88–89; pole transferring exercises, 91; preparatory exercises, 88–91; process of learning balance during, 91; theoretical background, 88. See also individual training tricot, 44, 178n5, 178n7 Triple Alliance, xxxiv, xxxv truga, 15, 15, 167n1 Tungus (Evenki), xv, 13 Tuorda, Pava Lars Nilsson (Sami scout), 85, 165n14, 188n18 turning in place, 61, 61–62 turning on the move, 73–76. See also Christiania turn; Telemark turn Twenty Club, 209n21 Tyrš, Miroslav, 213n4 Udy, Raimond, 194n1 Vasil’ev, Nikolai, xxix Vishniakov, T. E., 149n35 Voennyi sbornik (Russian military journal), 159n8 Vologod skis, 17, 17 Vorwerg, D. O., 206–7n12 Vsevolozhskii, Vasilii, 213–14n10 Wagner, Hermann, 198n4, 199n15 Wahl, Rudolf, 194n1, 208n15 Walter, Alfred, 186n12 wax and waxing, xx, 29–30, 34–35, 93, 175n21

Wergeland, Joseph Frantz Oscar, 132, 157n8, 194n1 Wesa, H., 189–90n27 Wesa, K., 189–90n27 Wesa (Vesa), Seth, 86, 189–90n27, 190n30 Wiener Neustadt Officer’s Gymnastic and Fencing Society, 134 Wiklund, Karl, 162–63n5, 167–68n4, 192n15 Wilskman, Ivar, xiv, 23, 158–59n5, 171n13, 171nn16–17, 189n27, 209n9 Winter War (1939–1940), xvii, xxxii Winthur, Borre, 166n15 women’s skiing, 143–44n34 The Wonders of Skiing (Fanck and Schneider), xxxi wood and woodworking. See ski manufacturing World War I, xviii, 150n42 Yenesei Ostiak (Kets), xv Ylitorneo skis, 21, 21, 22 Yugra region, 202n13 Zabludovskii, Isidor, 200n9 Zakharov, Ivan, 191n37 Zakovorot, Petr, xxvi, 148n26, 149n32 Zaria (sports club), xxvi Zavattari, Oreste, 210n22 Zdarsky, Mathias, 134, 187n15, 194n1, 195n24, 207n13, 208n15, 208–9n16 Zsigmondy, Emil, 197n5